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 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
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 A 
 
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 ayar, 
 
 OK. THE 
 
 EFEN1NGS OF SOUTHILL. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 BY NICHOLAS SALMON, 
 
 AUTHOR OF STEMMATA LATINITATIS, AND OTHER. 
 PHILOLOGICAL WORKS. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRICED FOR THE AUTHOR, 
 
 AND SOLD BY J. MAWMAN, NO. 22, POULTRY. 
 
 1806.
 
 » \ 
 
 B. Wilks, Printer, Chancery Lane.
 
 t 
 
 3ll 
 
 TO 
 
 LADY ELIZABETH WHITBREAD, 
 
 THE AUTHOR MOST HUMBLY DEDICATES 
 THIS FIRST BOOK OP 
 
 THE EFENINGS OF S0UTH1LL, 
 
 THE RESULT OF RESEARCHES HE HAS MADE, 
 
 IN CONSEQUENCE OF 
 
 HER LADYSHIP'S ANXIOUS WISH 
 
 THAT HER CHILDREN 
 
 SHOULD BE WELL GROUNDED IN THE 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGES J 
 
 INTREATING HER 
 
 TO CONSIDER THE LIBERTY 
 
 HE TAKES 
 
 AS A PROOF OF 
 
 HIS GRATITUDE, AND RESPECTFUL 
 
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 PREFACE. 
 
 JL he first book of " The Evenings of Southill" 
 which the Author now offers to the Public, will, 
 he hopes, be perused with attention, as well as 
 indulgence ; and should it be found to contain 
 precepts capable of removing some of the difficul- 
 ties which attend the study of language, he will 
 experience no small degree of pleasure in having 
 been so far useful. 
 
 " Language (says Mr. Home Tooke) is an 
 art, and a glorious one, — whose influence extends 
 over all the others ; and in which, finally, all 
 sciences must centre.'* — If it be true, then, that 
 language influences all other arts, so as to be- 
 come the very centre whence they flow, it is to 
 language we ought to apply our first care ; nor 
 can we begin too soon to teach our children to 
 reason on the value of words, and on the various 
 wa^s of employing them to advantage. 
 
 But it, may be said : Children are incapable of 
 reasoning. - It is true they do not often reason on 
 the same subjects, nor in the same manner, as 
 
 men ;
 
 X PREFACE, 
 
 men; because their occupations are different, and they 
 have not the same stock of acquired ideas. — They, 
 however, have the same faculty : we daily see that 
 a child, of the most tender age, will attempt to 
 discover the cause of an effect which he perceives j 
 and thai if he cannot succeed of himself, he will 
 apply to some one for assistance. -^-It is not to be 
 inferred from this, that the Author approves of 
 presenting children with dry investigations on 
 language ; he has nothing more in view than that 
 they should be properly instructed in the princi- 
 ples of language in general ; which cannot be 
 effected without a clear understanding of what 
 those principles are, 
 
 The learned Author of " The Diversions of 
 Purley" has done much towards explaining the 
 nature of those parts of speech which, before, 
 were but little known or attended to : but truth 
 requires the Author of " The Evenings of SouthiH'* 
 to confess, that, in his opinion, much still remained 
 undone in this department of Grammar.^ — He has 
 ventured, on some occasions, to question the vali- 
 dity of Mr. Tooke's Etymologies : how justly he 
 has done this, it remains with the public to de-. 
 tcrmine. 
 
 Whatever may be the opinion of those who 
 shall give this work an attentive perusal, the 
 Author trusts they will "receive his labours with 
 candour. — He is at a time of life, when infir- 
 mities have overtaken him, and he has been able 
 
 to
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 fo devote to etymological researches, that portion 
 of time only which his health required should be 
 allowed for relaxation, and freedom from severe 
 study. 
 
 The subject appears to him so very important, 
 that he cannot but express a desire to sje such 
 errors as he may have fallen into, fully detected : 
 any communication, therefore, which may tend to 
 improve the plan he Jias pursued, will be thanks 
 fully received.
 
 OR, 
 
 *H£ EVENINGS OF SOUTHILL. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 The Dialogue is between the Author and a Mr. By.* 
 Several points of great importance to all nations are 
 discussed \ if done with success, the completion of the 
 Author's undertaking may become of universal utility. 
 
 I. S. What! Is it you, my dear By /'—Welcome to 
 Southtll, dearest of my friends ! I take it exceedingly 
 kind of you to afford me an opportunity to thank you 
 again, personally, for having introduced me to your nu- 
 merous relatives: they have indeed been, ever since, emu- 
 lous in serving me. What can I d» in return for all 
 your favours ? 
 
 1 . jB. Do me justice, and rescue .my name from the 
 
 * The monosyllable By may appear, to people who dislike any 
 name which so soon dies away in one's mouth, a very insignificant 
 appellation ; but the Author is so much indebted to that mono- 
 syllabical friend, that he chose to converse with him in prefer- 
 ence to any other individual. 
 
 Jt disgrace
 
 ct 
 
 disgrace it has undergone ; I came here on purpose t& 
 request it of you. 
 
 II. S. It is my duty to do ail in my power to show my- 
 self worthy of the friendship with which you honour me* 
 Any attempt to disgrace von, is an attempt to disgrace 
 myself. Let me know what you expect from me, 
 
 2. jB. Having heard that you intended to publish a 
 work on certain relatives of mine settled in France, and 
 different parts of the world, i supposed that you would 
 have occasion to apeak of me and my English kindred. 
 Many have been the writers who strove to ascertain how 
 we came to be what \\a are \ but, if one of them suc- 
 ceeded in two or three instances, he failed in all the rest, 
 and presented to his readers mere conjectures which proved 
 of little or no service. I am particularly anxious that 
 the subject should be so handled tbrat literature might de- 
 rive substantial benefit from it; and fearing that you might 
 suffer yourself to be led away by the silly genealogies 
 which,- every where, have been imposed upon men con- 
 cerning us, I determined to come and inquire how far 
 ybu bad made yourself acquainted with the high digni- 
 ties and functions to which we are entitled, in the \vorld } 
 either by our- noble origin, or by the great things we have 
 performed, and stili are daily performing. 
 
 III. S. In this, my dear little B)', I see an additional 
 favour conferred on me : yon wish to guide me in the 
 work I have undertaken. 
 
 3. B. I do not precisely know which predominates,- 
 in the step I have taken, my friendship to you, or mr 
 desire of making you open the eyes of a great man in 
 your line. He has wronged me very much. His learn- 
 ing indeed is so very extensive, that people have been- 
 afraid to attempt doing me justice: but, with the assist- 
 ance I can. alfoi«i vol., if ■: be necessary to give you any, 
 
 I hope
 
 t hope that the world will be undeceived, and behold me, 
 in your Apx» l t very differently from what I have been 
 described to be in the Ewea TrlepozvTx,*. 
 
 IV. S. My dear little By, I dare say that no man is 
 more open to conviction than the one you allude to: I 
 am even sure that he will feel great satisfaction in seeing 
 that he has roused in me the desire of seconding hi* 
 views. I am now fighting under his banner. If, in my 
 efforts to distinguish myself; I do any thing that may 
 deserve praise, the glory ought, from the custom esta- 
 blished in the navy and in the army, to be his, as much 
 as; if not more than, mine; nor is there any necessity 
 for me to quote precedents on this point. The ground 
 he has chosen to fight upon could not be better : having; 
 however, perceived that he has not always been able to 
 procure the best arms for fighting with that advantage. 
 
 *The author of the present work had, in his prospectus, given the 
 Stives of S out hill for d. second title; but some persons having ob- 
 jected to the word Silve, not yet used in English (as Sylva in 
 Spanish, Selva in Italian, 'ifc» in Greek, Stive in French), to ex- 
 press occasional thoughts and reflections thro-cn upon paper as they 
 tccur, to he afterwards revised and distributed into the places -which 
 "may suit them best in some xvork or other ; he has deemed it pro- 
 per to change the intended second title into The Evenings of 
 Houthill, retaining for first title Kp%aS (Archai, Which means Ori- 
 gins), because of the Greek title chosen by Mr. Home Tooke to 
 express winged words. By Archai or the Evenings of Southil; the 
 reader is therefore to understand something equal to " Origins 
 are the Evening Amusements of Soul hill.'' 
 
 The Author has been advised to separate the English part from 
 the French, and to begin with a review of some of the English Pre- 
 positions, in order that the English reader may be the better pre- 
 pared for entering into the discussions of (he French Prepositions; 
 and discovering the affinity which must exist between .the two 
 languages; though the w rds appear very different. 
 
 » B 2 which
 
 4 
 
 which would have rendered his victories decisive, I have 
 sought for, and am now ready to supply him with, such 
 arms; nor do I doubt but he will cheerfully contribute 
 to my success in that battle wherein I am soon fo act as 
 commander in chief. Even then he will share in my 
 triumph, if I deserve a triumph. 
 
 4. B. After all,- the field of battle he has chosen, 
 and that which you seem to choose yourself, has been 
 pointed out by Aristotle, and many other ancients, and, 
 among the moderns, by Schultens, Walkenaer, Lennepy 
 Hemsterhus, &c. &c. who have not been victorious. 
 
 V. S. True; but the hints they have given may be 
 usefully applied. They have failed, it must be confessed; 
 but their failure has been only because they had not dis- 
 covered the weapons which would have insured them 
 complete success. They all aimed at being useful, and we 
 aim at being useful : Mr. H. Tooke, by his Diversions of 
 Pur ley, and Ij by rriy Evenings of Southill. 
 
 5. B. Let us come to the point. I say that the learn- 
 rd Author whom you have just mentioned, having 
 wronged me, I claim to be restored to those functions of 
 which I have been unjustly deprived, by him more par- 
 ticularly than by any other : and, fearing you should, 
 out of veneration for the man, repeat his assertions, I 
 demand of you to state what your researches have enabled 
 vou to know of my Ancestors, and of the dignities with 
 which, from fathers to sons, I, and my relatives, settled 
 in different countries, have been invested. 
 
 VI. S. The Author of the Enta, tsl^oina has allotted 
 to you a subordinate rank, I confess. He was not ac- 
 quainted with the power you possess. Perhaps it was 
 your fault. Had you hinted to him the different branches 
 ©f your family, his acute mind would not have suffered 
 
 him
 
 him to fall into any error concerning you. He supposed 
 you to be the offspring of the insignificant Bith ; insig- 
 nificant, I say, since one may, in the cases he has men- 
 tioned, do very well without it: is that the subject of 
 your complaint? 
 
 6. B. Yes ', and what do you intend to say on my 
 account ? 
 
 VII. S. I mean, contrary to his assertions, to prove 
 that, in very many circumstances, you derive your name 
 from words which do not merely denote existence, but 
 which actually signify operating, creating, making, form- 
 ing, influencing, or the like : that you appear as a fore- 
 runner, to whoever or whatever is causing, has been caus- 
 ing, or will be causing any thing to happen ; that, con- 
 sequently, on many occasions, you act as a forerunner to 
 God himself, the Creator of all things *: I mean to prove 
 that you, and your relatives, whether here or abroad, 
 have always been, and will ever be, the forerunners of 
 those that have performed, or shall perform, such actions 
 as are reputed the most glorious f : but, at the same time, 
 from my wish to be strictly just, I must add that you, 
 and your relatives, may be found to be the forerunners of 
 those that perform the basest actions^;. 
 
 * The universe was created by God. — i. e. The universe 
 was created: (the) opeiiator (in this wonderful creation, 
 was) — God — Both constructions are equal to " God created 
 the universe." 
 
 f Darius was vanquished by Alexander — i. e. Darius 
 was vanquished : (the) operator (of this state of Darius* 
 was) Alexander— Both constructions are equal to Alexander 
 vanquished Darius. 
 
 \ Abel was murdered BY Cain, his brother— i. e. Abel 
 was murdered: (the) Operator (of this vile murder, was) 
 Cain his brother — Both constructions are equal to Cain mur- 
 PEred hia brother Abel. 
 
 B3 7.5
 
 
 
 ?. B. You seem- indeed to know us thoroughly, by 
 giving it to be understood that each of our names is equal 
 to these indefinite expressions who, or what, does (did, 
 Or will do), who, or what, causes (did, or will cause) 
 to happen or to be dene. Much more meaning, then, is 
 attached to mine, and to each of my relations' names 
 than Mr. H. Tooke has asserted. 
 
 VIII. i§. I have tried, beyond any man perhaps, to 
 know you thoroughly, my dear little By, having reason 
 <io think that this knowledge would lead me to the object 
 I had in view; and indeed, I found that each name of 
 your relatives may also announce a being equal to either 
 •who operates any thing, or, who cooperates to any thing« 
 In short, you, as well as your relatives, have always an 
 active influence. By each of your names, one should 
 understand as much as Operator or Co-operator, since 
 you are the very soul, spirit, and director, in many of the 
 events which take place, may take place, or have taken, 
 place. T hope that this definition of your worth, my 
 dear little By, is agreeable to you ; and that your relatives 
 will not have reason to complain of me, if I often make; 
 them appear as possessing the very power? which I as- 
 cribe to you. 
 
 8 B. No, certainly. But I do not always appear as 
 the Operator of, or the Co- operator to } , what is represented 
 as a situation or condition. 
 
 IX. S. I know that you do not. Your ancestors 
 were useful to mankind in many ways. When they 
 shared their powers among their issue, the portions were 
 not precisely equal: hence, this offspring has been put in 
 possession of certain right which another offspring was 
 not to enjoy, and so forth : the point is to ascertain 
 the several powers devolved to each descendant. This
 
 js a subject into which I do not chusc now to enter 
 fully. I shall confine myself to suggest, that in " I 
 may be, by you, raised to a degree of importance in. 
 the Republic of Letters", f and every body else, will 
 consider you as the individual who may cause me to 
 obtain, in the Republic of Letters, a degree of import- 
 ance; consequently, yoxj will probably be the opera- 
 tor of that situation of mine: that in " I am now sit- 
 ting by you," nobody can see, in you, the operator of 
 my situation, as to sitting: that in " J saw him in- 
 sulted in a by- street", no hearer, or speaker, will 
 suppose that the street caused niy seeing him insulted : 
 that in " He is younger than, you by four years", 
 four years indeed cause him to be younger than you, but 
 denote, at the same time, a sort of difference between 
 two individuals considered each in his present state; one 
 of them is younger, the other is older ; and you, my dear 
 little By, are the forerunner announcing the criterion 
 whereby the difference (between their age) is declared to 
 be four years. Such, and different other, powers, be- 
 longing to you, shall be fully accounted for hereafter. 
 
 9. B. You have been told, I suppose, and you have 
 yourself observed, that, in my travels, my name has un- 
 dergone many changes ? 
 
 X. S Yes, yes; my dear little By, alias Be, alias Bi, 
 alias Big, alias Bii, 8cc. I am well acquainted with your 
 metamorphoses. The old Saxons mentioned you in all 
 those names; the Goths in those, of Bi and Be ; the 
 Dutch call you By, and sometimes Bij, using you how- 
 ever merely to denote proximity', the Germans call you 
 Bey, using you sometimes as the English do before or in 
 the presence of (whence a sort of proximity), sometimes 
 as the English do by, in forms of adjuring or obtest- 
 ing, fee. 
 
 B 4 ID. B>
 
 8 
 
 lo. B. Many names have been so altered, that it is 
 almost impossible to trace them to their real origin. 
 
 Xr. S. Numberless are the instances in all languages.. 
 
 u. B. The nature of your work requires that you, 
 should adduce a few of those instances. 
 
 XII. <S. My very name, Salmon, was originally Sa-. 
 lomon; and, by the latter name, many of my relations 
 go at present, in France : but the following anecdote will 
 better prove how a name may be so clipped as to retain 
 a small part only of what it was originally, and then so 
 writhed in pronunciation as to appear quite another 
 word than that which writing presents to the eye. 
 
 The late Sir John Cullura had invited me to dine with 
 him at his mother-in-law's on the ist of January 1780 : 
 the tempestuous night preceding that day will long be 
 remembered. The invitation had been verbal, and Sir 
 John had forgotten to remind me of the place where his 
 mother-in-law resided ; nor had he mentioned her name. 
 After he had left me, I was forced to look, amorg the 
 letters I had received from him while I lived at Lille, for 
 some one dated from the house of his mother, whose 
 name I had never heard pronounced. In one of those 
 letters was this direction, " Mrs. Bisson at Mile-end." I 
 had no reason to think otherwise than that the name Bisson 
 was English, and that son, the last half of the word, 
 should therefore be pronounced obscurely, as in lesson. 
 Arrived at Mile-end, I inquired for Mrs. Bisson : all the 
 inhabitants of the spot said they never heard of such a 
 person : the last to whom I applied, as an ultimate effort, 
 told me, however, that there was, nearly a mile offa Mrs. 
 Biz-zazun He pointed out the house to me; there I 
 went, and Sir John Cullum's footman opened the door* 
 While at dinner, I spoke of the trouble I had been at to 
 
 find
 
 9 
 
 find Mrs. Bisson's place of abode, from the difference 
 of pronunciation. My late husband's genuine name vva$ 
 X)u l iiisson, said she to me. As the people he had to 
 deal with could not utter that name right, the initial du 
 was taken off. But still the French manner of pronoun- 
 cing buis (like bui) could not be attained by them, and 
 buis (or but) soon degenerated into biz j finally, the na r 
 sal son was distorted into %awn ! 
 
 12. B. The strong corruption which that name, 
 T>ubuisson, experienced in England, will warn your 
 readers, that words, which were not proper names of 
 persons, may have been gradually curtailed, or differently- 
 written as to their vowels and the consonants. Mr. Home 
 Tooke said, in order to justify his derivation of the Latin 
 words ad and at, that a little consideration of the organs 
 and practice of speech will convince any one that varia T 
 tions and contractions could not but have taken place. 
 At his derivation of the Latin ut and quod, he has pre- 
 sented seven couple of simple consonants ; f* B and P, 
 « G and K, D and T, Z and S, D and 0, V and F, 
 if J and Sh (one single character ought, he suggests, to 
 f* be contrived for Sh) ; and he has informed us that, the 
 f* first of each couple being uttered with the compres- 
 (i sion, and the second of each couple being uttered 
 " without the compression, those consonants differ, each 
 " from its partner, by no variation whatever of articula- 
 * f tion ', but singly by a certain unnoticed and almost 
 ff imperceptible motion or compression of, or near, the 
 i( larynx; which causes what Wilkins calls ( Some hind 
 *' of murymtre.'' This compression, Mr. Tooke adds, the 
 " Welch never use ; so that when a Welchman, instead 
 " of 
 
 " I vow, by Goody, Dat Jenkins is a Wizzard," 
 
 " pronounces
 
 10 
 
 ft pronounces, 
 
 " I fovv, py Cooty, ©at Shenkin iss a Wissart, 
 "he articulates it, in every respect, exactly as we do j 
 " but omits the compression nine times in the sentence ; 
 " and, for failing in this one point only, changes seven 
 <c of our consonants : for, we owe seven additional let- 
 " ters (i. e. seven additional sounds in our language), 
 *f solely to the addition of this one compression to seven 
 c< different articulations. 1 * 
 
 XIII. S. After what you have quoted from the diver- 
 sions of Purlev, there is hardly any need for me to add, 
 that it is not merely the Welch who omit the compres- 
 sion ; the Swiss, the Germans, and other people do it 
 too : that W is frequently omitted, sometimes changed 
 into V. Sec.: that we frequently find the aspiration used 
 in one dialect, while it is omitted in another, or converted 
 intoy, b, v, s, or into one partner of each of these : that 
 aa was formerly written, in French, instead of a or as; 
 thus, for aage we find now age, for asne, we find now 
 dne; and so with the other vowels. Wasp, is in Latin 
 and Italian Vespa ; in French, it was written Gucspf^ 
 now it is Guepe; in Spanish, it is abispa ; in German, it is 
 Wespc, in Dutch, it is Wesp; in Greek, it is rp*£i the 
 English wordfatber is in Dutch voder, in German vater, 
 in Latin pater, in Greek tsar^, in Spanish and Italian pa- 
 dre, in French pere : the English word mother is in Dutch 
 mceder, m German mutter, in Latin mater, in Greek 
 u.y)Tr,p or aarnp, in Spanish and Italian madre, in French 
 mere. The frequent change which we sec in regard to 
 the vowels, arises perhaps from the very cause which 
 Mr. Tookc mentions : with certain people, it may have 
 happened that this vowel, not combining so freely its ut- 
 terance, when joined with this or that consonant, has 
 been replaced by another vo we] which suited their organs 
 
 better.
 
 ft 
 
 better. This, at least, appears to me the only, rational way 
 to account for that, continual interchange which we per- 
 ceive in comparing different dialects together. 
 
 13. B. Every one who shall take the trouble of exa- 
 mining any of the old Saxon Dictionaries, which contain 
 the words of the several dialects used among the Saxons, 
 will finely that a word, in the different manners in which 
 it has been written, often suffered its primitive vowel tp 
 be changed into every other : the examination will force 
 him to acknowledge that you are right in your conjec- 
 ture; nay, he will have occasion to remark that a vowel 
 has been changed into two or three, and that, on the 
 contrary, two or three vowels have been changed into 
 Qne. All those things, which we observe in the ancient 
 languages, have extended more or less their influence on 
 the modern languages : and, besides, we must allow that 
 a particular pronunciation, or spelling, either in a beau- 
 tiful woman, or in some great personage, whether the 
 pronunciation or spelling arose from some innate defect, 
 whether from silly affectation, whether from any other 
 cause, has extended its influence, through base flattery 
 or foolish imitation, so far that the tutelar genius of a 
 language has not been able to check the progress. 
 
 XIV. S. I shall, by way of proof to what you have 
 just said, relate a very singular fact, the effect of which 
 \s now past remedy in regard to the French language. 
 
 Until the arrival of Catherine of Mcdicis in France, 
 never had the Fieneh diphthong ci been pronounced 
 Otherwise than it is yet in Roi, in Exploit (that is, oi was 
 pronounced as ivab would be in English)*. But, as the 
 
 • Ab hac diptbongo (vi) sic abborret Itaiica lingua, Ut mot, toi, 
 ft sir.iilia, per dialysii!, prpducto eliam 0, pmmintiant wo-i ei to-i, 
 diss\l!aba. (Theodore tie Bc;:c, de /vc/a Frantic* iingu* pro^ 
 ntmciati&ic, p. 48). 
 
 Italians
 
 12 
 
 Italians with whom the Court became inundated, had 
 not that sound in their language, • they chose to substi- 
 tute in its stead the s6und of the open e (equal to the 
 first e in the English word were) ; and soon their pro- 
 nunciation, affected by the courtiers in order to please 
 the Queen, was adopted by the citizens. No one pre,, 
 sumed, without running the risk of being called a pe- 
 dant, to pronounce the national adjective Francois. Fran- 
 goise, otherwise than. Frances, Francese. (Henri Estienne, 
 du nouveau langage Francois italianise, p. 22*.) 
 
 14. B. Pray, what principles did you lay down to 
 serve you as guides in your researches concerning me and 
 my relatives ? 
 
 XV. S. After having examined attentively a few ex- 
 amples, wherein the verb was introduced passively, and 
 my little By was prefixed to the Agent, I said within 
 myself: By must have in his name the real force of 
 Agent, Operator, or some word conveying the like signi- 
 fication ; if not, By must be equal to such a noun as 
 soul, tool, instrument, cause, channel, criterion, any man- 
 ner or means employed to cause any evc7it to take place^ 
 
 * In some provinces of France, instead of pronouncing moi, 
 toi, soi, &c. as if written in English mtoah, tiva/i, sxuaJi, ike. the 
 people pronounce nearly moe, toe, soe, Sec. or, as if written in 
 English mwatf, ttsay, sway, &c. One BSr/iin (avocat au l'arle- 
 ment de Paris) printed in lG? r >, at Rouen, remarks on the French 
 language : in the first of these, lie maintains that the imperfect 
 terminations ois. .-»/, okut, as well as the same terminations in the 
 conditional tense rait, roi', rqitnt (and in other circumstances 
 which cause the Normans to be recognised), the oi ought to he 
 written and pronounced ai. Voltaire found in this an useful hint, 
 wiote ai instead of oi, when the sound was not to be equal to what 
 ra/( would be in English j and now the custom seems to prevail. 
 
 all
 
 13 
 
 all which, not unlike the French dine, instrument, artisan, 
 cause, vote, moyen or maniere, are used figuratively in- 
 stead of Agent, Operator, Co-operator, and thus are made 
 to appear as causing or having caused some event to hap- 
 pen; and indeed those words imply an active power, ail 
 active person, a certain injiuence, ascendant power, or the 
 like. Now, said I also to myself, it is impossible for 
 any word to have the force of Operator, without being 
 the offspring of some word implying such an action as 
 may effect a situation in regard to some individual con- 
 sidered as the patient (because of receiving the force of' 
 the action) ; and being fully persuaded cf this impossi- 
 bility, I began my researches : they have proved success- 
 ful, and I shall be partly repaid for my trouble, if their 
 utility become acknowledged. 
 
 15. B. I am particularly glad that you have not been 
 disappointed in your researches. What a light they will 
 throw upon language! Man will no longer be uttering, 
 like a parrot, words the meaning of which he did nut 
 know. Do tell me how far you mean to extend the no- 
 tions of Operator and Co-operator P 
 
 XVI. S. Whoever, or whatever does any thing men- 
 tioned, or causes that thing to be as it is mentioned, is 
 the Operator or Agent, in regard to the same. Hence, 
 when any person states an action, an event, a situation 
 or condition, as having happened, or to happen; who- 
 ever, or whatever, has had, or will have, the power of 
 effecting the same, has been, or will be, the Operator or 
 Agent. Nor is it possible for any position whatever to 
 prevent the name, or the representative of the name, from 
 its being still the Operator or Agent *. 
 
 16. B. 
 
 * A general rule for discovering the Opera' or is this: If after 
 the statement of an action, of an event, of a condition or situa- 
 tion.
 
 14 
 
 lo. B. But there may be several individuals mention- 
 ed as having effected the action, the event, the situation; 
 or condition, which is expressed in a sentence. 
 
 XVII. S. All those individuals, whether animate or 
 inanimate, are then Co operators ; each, taken singly, is a 
 .Co-operator. Now* the word Co-operator \& applicable to 
 any associate, any as'sta?it, any director , guide, criterion; 
 any instrument, any means, anv cause, any motive, any 
 tuny or channel^ any manner, any measure pursued, irt 
 short,- to any inanimate thing that can have some influ- 
 ence : all those are Co-operators, in spite of any position 
 whatever given them in the sentence, provided they ap- 
 pear to have concurred in producing the effect described, 
 as happening now, to have happened, or to happen in 
 some future time. 
 
 17. B. You have linked inanimate things with animate 
 ones j do you consider then the inanimate as possessing 
 powers ? 
 
 XVIII. S. Inanimate things are personified much more 
 frequently than one is aware, of: they are always so, when 
 presented as producing, or capable of producing, such or 
 such effect : they may be introduced as Agents', they may 
 be introduced as Patients : if found presented as acting: 
 they are Agents ; if found to be presented as acted upon; 
 they are Patients. 
 
 18. B. Adduce some examples, not to prove your as- 
 sertions, the force of which I feel j but to elucidate a 
 point which other people may think such as to require 
 elucidation : and contrast so those examples, that the 
 notions of Agent and Patient may be fully established. 
 
 tion, you ask such questions as who did that ? what did that ? hot' 
 Wa« that done ? why was that done? whatever may come in answer 
 y >ith 5-Tise must be the Operator. 
 
 ■ XIX. Si
 
 15 
 
 XlX. S. In " virtue makes man happy" (wherein 
 the verb to make is said to be used actively), and in 
 '•' Man is made happy by, or th hough, Virtue'" 
 (wherein the verb to make is said to be used passively) -, 
 the word Virtue is the Agent, since it produces 
 •what is asserted as an action upon man or as a state ope- 
 rated in regard to man ; and the word man is the Patient, 
 ?ince it is not presented as acting, but as acted upon. 
 
 Bat in " Man ought to love Virtue" (wherein to 
 love is said to be used actively), and in "Virtue ought 
 to be loved by man 1 ' (wherein the verb to love is said to 
 be used passively) ; the word man is the .Agent, tor 
 man is the individual who ought to do that which is 
 expressed by to love, restraining this action to virtue : 
 hence virtue (the object acted upon) must be the Patient* 
 To the preceding examples I think proper to subjoin 
 these: 
 
 In " The tree killed four men" and in "Four men, 
 were killed by the tree," it is evident that the 
 Tree is the Agent, andybwr men are each a Patient. 
 
 But in " One of the four men had planted th+ 
 tree," as w r ell as in ?' The tree had been planted by one 
 of the four men," it is one of the four men who is 
 the Agent, and the tree is the Patient. 
 
 19. B. An action may be stated as done, or to be 
 done, by a single individual of by several : that action 
 mav be done, or have been done, spontaneously, at leas! 
 hi appearance ; and it ought to be considered as such, if 
 nothing in the sentence declares the individual, or any of 
 the individuals, presented as the Agent or Agents, to have 
 been influenced to the said action, by being persuaded,' 
 excited, or compelled. Would it not. then, be proper to' 
 intimate that the agent is free ; and, if there be more 
 than oncy to intimate that they are free co-operators ? 
 
 XX.
 
 16 
 
 XX. 5. There is hardly any necessity, in speel"h> td 
 be so nice : but the distinction you suggest would not 
 be improper. 
 
 20. B. What has induced me to suggest the distinc- 
 tion is this : An action may be done in consequence of 
 persuasion or force, in consequence of some circum- 
 stance whereby the individual is moved to the said ac- 
 tion. Now; if any word, in the sentence, intimates per- 
 suasion, or force, or an influencing circumstance ; who- 
 ever, or whatever, has done the action (yielding to per- 
 suasion, or force, oiynfluence of circumstances) is an in- 
 fluenced operator 5 and, if several individuals (so influ- 
 enced) have jointly done the said action, each is an in- 
 fluenced operator. For presenting such actions, as I have 
 just described, people generally use two verbs, one to ex- 
 press what the influencing operator does, and the other to 
 express what the influenced operator does himself. If yen 
 understand my meanings you will readily mention an 
 example in point. 
 
 XXI. S. In " My Uncle made your Brother 
 admire (or, caused your Brother to admire) those ex- 
 ploits," as well as in " Your Brother was made (or 
 caused) by my Uncle to admire those exploits;" I dis- 
 cover an influencing Agent (my Uncle), and an influ- 
 enced Agent (your Brother) ; I discover also that 
 your brother is introduced so as to exercise two different 
 functions, since he not only is an object acted upon by 
 my uncle, but, through my uncle, becomes a sort of 
 principal Agent (though, in fact, a subservient one), as 
 to the admiring of the exploits. 
 
 31. B. Permit me to extend a little farther the sen- . 
 teiice wherein you have just now accounted for the 
 Agents, and to give a hint that those exploits were the 
 
 exploits
 
 17 
 
 exploits of your General. If I say then, c< My Uncle 
 made your Brother admire (or, caused your Brother to 
 admire the exploits of your General" what alteration 
 will that make as to the Agents you have asserted to be 
 in the other sentence ? 
 
 XXII. S. None; but there will be an additional 
 Agent. My Uncle will still be an influencing Agent, 
 in regard to my Brother's admiring the exploits ; my 
 Brother will still be an influenced Agent, in regard to 
 his admiring the exploits ; but the General will be an 
 Agent in regard to the exploits. For, the sentence, as 
 presented by you, is equal to " My Uncle contrived 
 this, namely (contrived) four Brother should ad- 
 mire certain exploits ; your General did those ex- 
 ploits:*' therefore, of your General is here equal to done 
 by your General, or (the) Operator (of those 
 exploits, was) your General. 
 
 12. B. The manner in which, you have accounted 
 for through in erne of the foregoing examples (inter- 
 locution XIX), and in which you have just ac- 
 counted for of in the last example, makes me per- 
 ceive what a drag-net you are going to contrive, a> 
 I recollect that Oferator and Co-operator are considered 
 by you to be applicable to whoever, or whatever, is act- 
 ing as associate, assistant, director, guide, criterion, insiru- 
 tnent, means, cause, motive f channel, way, manner, mea» 
 sure pursued, in shorty to any thing made use of as posses- 
 sing influence. Farewell then to most of the pretended 
 prepositions in all languages ; for, I dare say that, when 
 you cannot bring them to mean Operator or Co-operator 
 you will find means to prove that they have some set- 
 tled meaning conveyed by a noun, or some other regular 
 part of speech, I mean either a verb, or an adjective. 
 
 c xxin.
 
 28 
 
 XXIII. 8. But for you, my dear little By, who taught 
 me to bring the meshes into the several necessary links, 
 instead of contriving my drag-net, I should perhaps have 
 again laboured m vain this time, and become ano- 
 ther scare-crow set to frighten away all those who might 
 be desirous to become etymologists. 
 
 23. B. Instead of that, you will perhaps become their 
 guide, or at least point out to them what paths they 
 should tread in to become useful. 
 
 XXIV. S. Prejudices are so deeply rooted! Habit is 
 so strong ! 
 
 34. B. From what I have already heard you say con- 
 cerning me, I have reason to think that you will conquer 
 those foes ; and, for my own sake, I hope that the con- 
 test will not be long. But, let us resume the subject we 
 were upon. Your explanations have made it evident 
 that the construction which suits an active verb, be- 
 comes reversed when that verb is to be changed so as to 
 demand the construction allotted to a passive verb. I 
 do not want an example of agents enumerated, because 
 I conceive that " You and I (with a list of other indi- 
 viduals) have done so' and so" is equal to \f We have 
 done so and so" : but I wish you to adduce an example 
 in which it may be seen that the Agents or Operators, as 
 to one event, are so far separated, that one, or some of 
 them, might be considered in a different light, as being in 
 an oblique case, for instance, instead of being in the no- 
 minative case. By an oblique case, I understand that 
 construction by which a noun, or its representative, is 
 preceded by what has been thought to be a preposition. 
 You have yourself given as much to be understood, in 
 saying that " a noun or pronoun governed by a prepo- 
 sition is said to be ia the oblique case." I, beg of you 
 
 * now
 
 19 
 
 hew to present to me an example wherein a Co-operator 
 shall be so separated from the principal Operator, that 
 people would be apt to consider the former merely as an 
 individual introduced in that form which is called the 
 oblique case, from the noun or pronoun seeming to be 
 governed by a pretended preposition. 
 
 XXV. S. I wish to be understood, that the present 
 work, being the fruit of investigations subsequent to my 
 former publications, I am anxious that the merit of it 
 should, by those who are proper judges, be ascertained 
 without any reference to any other work of mine. 
 What I said at the time you allude to, concerning the 
 oblique case, was the best I could then say for the 
 sake of distinction : even now, I think that this very 
 distinction may be serviceable to make it understood 
 that the word which comes with the pretended pre- 
 position, is governed, not in a direct manner by the prin- 
 cipal verb in the sentence, but explanatorily by a word 
 denoting Operator or some particular circumstance. If 
 my former works have all been commended, it was per- 
 haps merely because it appeared that I was endeavouring- 
 to clear the rubbish which obstructed the learning of 
 languages : however, I am now convinced that, for want 
 of the. clue I now possess, I erred in many points ; nor 
 am I ashamed to own it. My errors then arose from 
 suffering myself to be carried away by the torrent, and 
 to proceed, not quite like a man who gropes in the dark, 
 but like one who is assisted by so feeble a light that he 
 cannot but stumble in spite of himself. Wherever a pre- 
 tended preposition comes with a sort of Agent or Ope* 
 fator after it, I now behold in it a forerunner, equal to 
 Operator or Co-operator, used elliptically or interroga- 
 tively; and I behold, in the word following it, the indi* 
 c 2 vidual,
 
 20 
 
 vidua!, explaining or determining the elliptical represent 
 tative of what is meant by Operator, Co-operator, or 
 coming in answer to the question put. 
 
 In "The Genkral pursued, with his light 
 troops, the retreating allies" the verb pursued, say 
 Grammarians, has the General for its Agent or 
 Nominative ; and has the retreating allies for its accusa- 
 tive, as they form a collective object acted upon: but how 
 is the circumstance which we find in with his light 
 troops to be explained, as to the effect it produces )" 
 A little reflection will point out the answer. The 
 light troops are to be considered as Co-opera- 
 tors to what the General had in view; for, we might 
 say "The General, (and) his light troops, 
 pursued (together) the retreating allies. 
 
 In w The General caused the retreating allies to be 
 pursued by; his light troops," the General 
 is the Agent as to causing here used actively ; and his 
 light troops are Subordinate Agents or Sub- 
 ordinate Operators, introduced after the passive 
 verb to be pursued, with the fore-runner By made him- 
 self equal to what might be expressed by Subordinate 
 agents or Subordinate operators, which fore- 
 runner By would disappear, if the same thought were to 
 be presented with to pursue used actively, thus: "The 
 General ordered his light troops to pursue, (or, 
 that his light troops should pursue) the retreating 
 allies ;" and you know that every active construction 
 may be changed into a passive one, as every passive con- 
 struction may be changed into an active one. 
 
 25. B. Now, I should be glad 'to know how a sen- 
 tence, stating an event which, by a neuter verb, is pre- 
 sented like a situation or condition of an individual, or of 
 individuals, can be so changed as to become a sort of 
 
 active
 
 21 
 
 active construction, containing both the Agent or acting 
 individual and the object acted upon. 
 
 XXVI. S. If the neutral sentence contains any thing 
 which operated, or will operate, the event, situation, or 
 condition, that very thing, being the Operator, may be 
 made the Agent of an active verb equal to what to cause 
 means ; and the individual, whose situation, or condi- 
 tion, is presented, being actualjy the Valient, in the neu- 
 tral construction, will continue so to be in the active 
 construction, since the name, or the representative of the 
 name, will become the object acted upon, by the Agent 
 and the active verb introduced. If the neutral sentence 
 contains nothing which operated the event, situation, or 
 condition, the run of the sentence cannot be changed 
 from the neutral to an active one, except by introducing, 
 for Agent of a verb active, some noun not expressed in 
 the neutral sentence, which noun is known to have ope- 
 rated the event. 
 
 In " He died yesterday," nothing is ment ioned as 
 having operated the state he is now in ; and He is ac- 
 tually a Patient, because died is neuter. 
 
 In " He perished Ev the sword," He is still the 
 Patient, because perished is neuter: but T HE sword is 
 the Operator of the state which the words he perished 
 express. On hearing you say (< He perished," I might 
 ask this question, "The operator, of this his state, 
 was?" or elliptically " Operator?" (instead of How ?) , 
 and your answer would be the sword. Now, if you 
 should wish to cause the sword to appear without By or 
 any equivalent, and yet as operating the man's perishing, 
 you might introduce a verb active, making the fcvent 
 condition or situation, become the accusative of the same, 
 or the object acted upon, and say, for instance, " The 
 
 c 3 SWORD
 
 22 
 
 sword made him perish," in which latter construction 
 the sword would confessedly, among all Grammari- 
 ans, be the Agent of the active verb made, and him, 
 as well as perish, would point out the accusative ox object 
 acted upon; since in '.' the sword caused his death" 
 the words his death would be the accusative of caused, 
 and the sword the nominative case or Agent of the 
 same caused. It is to be observed, however, that, when 
 a neutral construction has been so altered that it seems 
 to have become an active one, the neuter verb remains 
 neuter, and merely becomes dependent on the active verb 
 equal to such as to cause, &c. 
 
 36. B. But, sometimes, a verb in the active form is. 
 vsed in the Infinitive as governed by another verb, and 
 the Operator or Agent, in regard to the governed verb, is 
 left unexpressed : sometimes, that governed verb may be 
 presented in the Infinitive passive. 
 
 XXVII. S. That is true, for instance: 
 
 In " The General ordered his troops to scale 
 the wall," his troops are to be the Operators as to 
 scaling the wall, to scale is the object acted upon by or- 
 dered', and the wall is the object acted upon by to scale ; 
 the sentence here given is then equal to " The gene- 
 ral ordered the wall to be scaled Br his troops. 
 
 But in '-The General ordered to scale the wall," 
 nothing in the sentence expresses, who is, or who are, to, 
 scale the wall; and, instead of " The General ordered, 
 to scale the wall," the speaker might have said "The 
 General ordered the wall to be scaled." 
 
 27. B. Is it my namesake which, abroad, rs allotted 
 to the privilege of standing for the elliptical Operator or 
 Co-operator uttered as a question, instead of, Name the. 
 Opera tor j or Co-operator, or Mover, Sec. ? 
 
 XXVIII,
 
 23 
 
 XXVIII. S. Not every where : but you have relatives 
 abroad ; and, in most countries which have a peculiar 
 dialect, those relatives bear each a different name, at 
 least I have frequently found them called differently j 
 and indeed each of your relatives, in this very country, 
 has a name different from yours; recollect that I have 
 already mentioned three, namely of, through, and ivith. 
 All of you however convey, in general, each the same 
 idea, either properly or figuratively. All of you enjoy 
 an extraordinary longevity : you, my dear little fellow, 
 called By in England, the States of America, &c. went 
 in old Greece by different appellations, such as aero, &a, 
 •na^ot, &c. in the old Empire of Rome, your name was, 
 a, ah, abs, per, &c. in Italy, it is di, da, per ; in Spain, 
 de, por. para, &c. in France, de, par, a, he. in Holland, 
 deur or door, &c. in Germany, durch, &c. 
 
 28. B. Your intention, perhaps, is to say that the 
 deur or door of the Dutch, and the durch of the Ger- 
 mans, have taken their names from the same source 
 whence came that of my English relative, thorough or 
 through, contracted sometimes into thro' ; the primitive 
 signification of which thorough, or through, is like that 
 existing in the English word door. 
 
 XXIX. S. The English word door, used fi gura-tively, 
 might be made to express not only f&s'sagf s but way, 
 course, means, Sec. ; consequently, if thorough, or through, 
 mean anv thing like 'aperture, passage, it may often be 
 equal to operator or co-operator; and indeed, in Greek, 
 the noun Su'^a is not only for the \ jHa.fi jamut\ ostium, but 
 for facultas rei effic'undes et via. However, on the origin 
 of thorough (through, thro'), I intend to make, hereafter, 
 some observations ; and therefore I shall, for the present, 
 mention only that, although the Dutch deur or door, and the 
 German durch, do replace you in the passive construction 
 
 C4 of
 
 of their respective country, yet your English relative 
 through cannot replace you, my dear By, in the English 
 passive construction, when the influence of the agent, to- 
 wards removing obstacles, coming at, and procuring, 
 something, is not the principal sense to be conveyed. 
 
 29, B. What will you do, in regard to such circum- 
 stances as cannot be brought to indicate Operators or 
 Co operators ; I mean, in regard to those circumstances 
 which are merely explanatory, as to quality, time, place, 
 &c. ? For, there are such circumstances, besides those 
 contributing to the action or event being effected. 
 
 XXX. S. As long as I can recognize, in any circum- 
 stance, the power of effecting, or of contributing to ef- 
 fect, the action or event presented in a sentence, 1 shall 
 view that circumstance as an Operator or a Co-operator j 
 thus will the pretended preposition be accounted tor, and 
 made to disappear in that sentence : when I cannot re- 
 cognize that pretended preposition to be a fore-runner 
 equal to Operator or Co-operator, \ shall point out the 
 fresh particular class of nouns or adjectives or verbs, to 
 which it ought to be referred ; and, in order to prove how 
 it came to be so used, I shall establish the real, derivation 
 which entitles it to be placed in that fresh particular 
 class. 
 
 30. B. Suffer me to ask you which are the classes you 
 intend to form ? 
 
 XXXI. S. I beg of you not to press me, at present* 
 to enter upon an explanation of all the circumstantial 
 phrases which, in language, may be introduced. Such 
 a detail might create some confusion, and cause that ob- 
 ject to be lost sight of, which it is important should be 
 particularly kept in view. I am willing however to tell 
 you now that I think the principal circumstancial 
 
 phrases,
 
 25 
 
 phrases, after those which are used to declare the opera-? 
 tor with or without any co-operator, to be the following: 
 
 1st, To express concomitance; 
 
 adly, To point out the possessor or the possession; 
 
 3dly, To describe the place or situation, as a spot reached 
 or to be reached, near or distant, superior or inferior i in- 
 ward or outivcrd, &c. ; 
 
 4thly, To mention the time, as a date present, past or /a 
 come, near ox distant, &c. or, as a space, the extension of 
 which it is necessary to state. 
 
 31. B. The interlocution XIII warns your readers 
 that alterations frequently take place in regard to the con- 
 sonants and the vowels : but, though you have, here and 
 there, proved that words may, besides, be contracted, you 
 have not yet mentioned how far people may have found 
 it expedient to extend contractions in words, without go- 
 ing beyond the limits assigned by nature. I think you 
 should declare your opinion upon this subject. 
 
 XXXII. S. I shall do it very willingly. Those parU 
 which, in a word, are merely suffixes, that is, certain ter- 
 minations added to words, by our ancestors, according to 
 the genius of the language of their respective country* 
 whether to serve as a kind of article, whether to distin- 
 guish that word and prevent its being confounded with 
 others, alike, or nearly alike, in form ; whether to add to, 
 or to take from, the original signification of a word, in a 
 trifling degree however ; those parts, I say, were often 
 glided over in the hurry of conversation, and it became 
 afterwards convenient to poets, and lastly to all writers, 
 to dispense with them, upon this ground, that the very 
 primitive word, stripped of all such terminations, and 
 even of some of its elements, did retain its chief signifi- 
 pation, when connected with other words. Hence, the 
 
 care
 
 2(5 
 
 care of removing the excess, or of supplying the defi- 
 ciency, which might arise from the curtailing of a word, 
 has gradually been left to the other words introduced in- 
 to the sentence, and to the judgment of the reader or 
 hearer. Whatever word is presented to me with further 
 curtailings I look upon as a word corrupted ; nay, I suspect 
 that the etymology given of it is false. 
 
 32. B. Do elucidate, by some example, what you 
 mean by a termination considered as a sort of article, and 
 a termination used to add, to a primitive word, some par- 
 ticular idea. 
 
 XXXIII. S. In the Latin word Deus, the syllable us 
 is only a suffix or termination used as a sort of article. 
 From this you may infer that, in the Greek word SIojj 
 the syllable os is merely a termination, or a sort of article. 
 Now, the terminating syllable being taken off, there 
 remains de out of deus ; and de, expressing, in the Celtic 
 Dialects, the- same as Deus in Latin, I have reason to 
 think that, in the Greek word Seoc, the final os being a 
 sort of article, the initial the is for the Celtic de, and conse- 
 quently must be a Greek primitive for the Deity*. In some 
 of the Dialects of Greece, the terminating s was often 
 changed into r; the circumstance does not astonish me, 
 who have seen, in the Islandic dialect, the termination 
 ur, which should be considered as equal to the Latin one 
 in us, or to the Greek one in os: the word framur, in 
 Islandic, means what in Latin is expressed by efficax, 
 andax, strenuus; the \\ox<\sfram and from, in old Saxon, 
 mean the same. Whatever termination is added to a 
 
 * Observe however that dhc f as well as de, ia Ibemo Celtic, 
 means chiefs and that dhe may easily have been changed into thg, 
 whence the Greek word &i»s may have arisen, just as dt us may 
 have <i isen from de, 
 
 word.,
 
 27 
 
 word, I consider the same as an article more or less 
 powerful. That there are several kinds of such articles 
 is obvious, either to add to, or to take from, the primi- 
 tive signification of a word. In the Latin word Dius, 
 and the Greek word h:; (for 3iioy), I perceive the primi- 
 tive di which, in Celtic, as well as dia, is equal to either 
 God or some Divinity (that is, means exactly the same 
 as the primitive de) ; and, in the last syllable us or os (for 
 w$) I perceive a contraction or corruption of the Celtic 
 u is, descendant of, or belonging to, whence the Greek 
 word uiog. Now then, Dius, in Latin, means properly 
 a descendant of the divinity, or belonging to the divinity , 
 pr like the divinity by qualities : and as Jioj, in Greek, 
 conveys the same meaning, I conclude that, in regard to 
 divinity, di is either a primitive equal to de, or a corrup- 
 tion of the same de. 
 
 3?. B. It is not only with the different terminations 
 added to words, for inflections in cases and number, or 
 for inflections in verbs as to tenses, number, person, &c. 
 that a student of etymology ought to make himself well 
 acquainted ; he ought, besides, to make himself so fami- 
 liar with the different methods which have been pursued, 
 in compounding words, as to be able to discover in- 
 stantly whether such or such word be compounded or 
 not ; and, if compounded, whether it be consisting of 
 two or three, &c; that is, he ought to know how to 
 dissect any compound word, and get at each radical one 
 employed in the composition. 
 
 XXXIV. S. You arc very right : and that knowledge 
 is acquired only by dint of practice accompanied with 
 judgment; for, if judgment is not made to preside in all 
 researches, the results of these will be, not only doubt- 
 ful in many circumstances, but erroneous very fre- 
 quently.
 
 28 
 
 ^uently. The eye of an etymologist ought to be quick, 
 and capable of reaching at once a variety of surrounding, 
 and even distant objects : his judgment ought to. be as 
 quick and as comprehensive. A derivation which, at first, 
 may appear a most happy one, will often prove a very 
 silly one, when the effect produced by the primitive he 
 thinks he has discovered, is compared with the effect 
 produced by other words belonging to the same class. A 
 just classification of words is yet a desideratum ; and had 
 such a classification been attempted with success, yet 
 the judgment of an etymologist ought not to suffer itself 
 to be too much biassed by it, 
 
 34. B. That the real meaning of each pretended pre- 
 position has been lost sight of, is a fact; the consequence 
 of which is, that the real power of each cannot now, 
 without difficulty, be ascertained: besides, though a 
 ■word, used as a preposition, may be traced to its origin 
 in one instance, it does not follow that, in other in- 
 stances, that word must have had the same origin : other 
 words may have been formed or contracted into this one . 
 hence, differences in origin, as well as in meaning, exist- 
 ing in a word, though always written and pronounced 
 in, an uniform manner, or very nearly. Can you account 
 for that circumstance ? I mean, can you say how the 
 real meaning of each pretended preposition came to be 
 Jpst sight of? 
 
 XXXV. S. By the negligence of Grammarians and 
 Compilers of Dictionaries. Instead of producing exam- 
 ples which formed complete Sentences (as in Dr. 
 Johnson's Dictionary), wherein one might have disco- 
 vered (though Dr. Johnson did not) the real force, and 
 consequently the meaning of the pretended preposition, 
 they perhaps at first, for the sake of saving a little ex- 
 pense in paper, contented themselves with adducing parts 
 
 of
 
 29 
 
 of a sentence, the resolution of every one of which may 
 have been clear to them • but, frequently, a part of a 
 sentence can be understood only by means of another 
 part, or some other parts, of the same; and, I am afraid 
 a great deal of time will elapse before the mischief they 
 have thus done can be repaired. I repeat it : they ought 
 to have compared together several whole sentences, so 
 framed as to point out the variations of meaning in each 
 pretended preposition, and to enable one to reduce all 
 such words to distinct classes. 
 
 When I read in such works, angry at or for a thing, 
 angry ivith a person, to complain of a thing, to complain 
 ofdi person, to be surprised of or at a thing, to be sur- 
 prised by a person ; a man of noble birth, a man descended 
 from noble parents, &c. I cannot but think that the au* 
 thors have been led to attach to the pretended preposi- 
 tion the meaning which some particular preceding word 
 conveys, or to believe that some particular preceding 
 word requires of itself such preposition. Now, finding 
 that this particular preceding word would now and then 
 suffer another sort of preposition to follow, they have 
 looked upon this as an exception to their rule : by de- 
 grees, their exceptions have been as numerous as the in- 
 stances which agreed with their rule, and a sort of laby- 
 rinth has been formed at last from which even such a 
 ball of thread, as Ariadne gave, of old, to Theseus, could 
 hardly extricate any one who entered it. I must repeat 
 it once more; there is no possibility to perceive the ns« 
 and force of those words which have been called prepo- 
 sitions, but by forming a series of such complete sen- 
 tences as may contain the necessary circumstances, and 
 taking care that every possible combination of those 
 words with others be introduced as an example. 
 
 35- B.
 
 so 
 
 3$. B. In your etymologies, take care you do not fall 
 into some similar to those Mr. Home Tooke has so mer- 
 rily ridiculed. 
 
 XXXVI. S. Had I not read that author with the 
 attention he deserves, one etymology aimed atj not long 
 ago> at a place where I happened to bej concerning the 
 word Guillotine, would have been sufficient to rouse me 
 to watchfulness^ in regard to times and circumstances. 
 
 36. B. Whyj it is well known that one Guillot either 
 invented, or pretended to have invented^ this short way 
 of cutting heads off", and that, in consequence, the ma- 
 chine was described by this inventor's name changed 
 into a sort of adjective in the feminine by the termination 
 ine being added ; thus, with machine or invention under- 
 stood, la Guillotine became the machine or invention of 
 Guillot. 
 
 XXXVII. S. You are right : but the person whom 
 I allude to, as having aimed at the etymology of la Guil- 
 lotine, was not quite so conversant with what has passed 
 in his life-time, within these few years, as he pretend- 
 ed to be with what had happened in the times of the old 
 Greeks and Romans : he had never heard of that French- 
 man called Guillot', butj wishing to appear a scholar, 
 on hearing somebody read in the daily papers " Citizen 
 M. was sent to the Guillotine," he said : " When an old 
 ** friend of mine first met with the word Guillotine, he 
 " came and asked me what the meaning of it was. 
 * Why, said I : Guillotine P— Guillotine P — I never 
 tf found any thing like that word in Homer, Virgil, or 
 **■ any ancient author "But," replied my friend, "perhaps 
 '* the word is not a very old one." On this,* I mused a 
 little 5 and, soon after, T told him: " I have got the de-* 
 " rivation. Don't you remember that, in our youthful 
 
 " days,-
 
 '31 
 
 i l days, when we were little boyt, we used to play at 
 " push-pin together ? Don't you remember that, when 
 i( I had driven my pin over yours, and so that mine 
 il approached the head of yours (the head, you know, 
 l( is very near the neck), I called out immediately Gull ! 
 " to^k your pin and made it my property ? — Now, to 
 ft gull one is to lake silly something from him : ergo, 
 " that word Guillotine is a word compounded of gull, 
 i( take off, otj (a Greek word equal to) that, and ne (an 
 " abbreviation of) neck : so that Guillotine means pro- 
 " perly either take oj}' that neck or taking off that neck." 
 
 37. B. In some centuries, that ridiculous etymology 
 will perhaps appear a most learned one, and be gravely 
 maintained to be the truest that could be given. 
 
 XXXVIIL S. There is no ground so slippery as that 
 which Etymologists tread, in search of primitives. That 
 those men have been useful is acknowledged j that they 
 are apt to mistake one thing for another, is too often the 
 case : but the more arduous the pursuit is, the more 
 honour will be attached to him who, stumbling less than 
 his companions, will be able to reach further, and bring 
 back rarities of intrinsic value. The generality of ety- 
 mologists, in seeking after the origin of a word, have 
 indeed rather neglected to consider the property vested 
 in all of the same class for certain occasions, they have 
 attended too much to the present way of writing, or of 
 pronouncing, a word: they seem, in short, to have calU 
 ed in aid their eyes and their ears, for measuring a word 
 by its length or by its sound, and to have forgotten that 
 their judgment ought to have been appointed president 
 over the others, with full power to check or approve, as 
 well as to discriminate the boundaries assigned to this 
 
 property^
 
 M 
 
 property, then to that, &c. in common with or separate 
 from other individuals of the same denomination; 
 
 38. B. With the inhabitants of a country wherein 
 every thing was roughj climate, avocations, and, above 
 all wherein a spirit for rapine and war prevailed ; with 
 those, I say, the manners and the language musf have 
 been rough like the people themselves ; the very words 
 which their wants forced them to borrow from other 
 people were distorted, when attempted to be uttered or 
 written ; and, if they abridged wordsj the more speedily 
 to communicate their thoughts, they retained whatever 
 Was rough, arid even changed the soft elements into harsh 
 ones : so that many a combination of letters came from 
 their mouths like a terrific clap of thunder. On the 
 other hand, with the inhabitants of a country wherein 
 every thing was mild > where every object breathed peace and 
 benevolence, the language must have been rendered soft, 
 soothing} every word they borrowed from other people 
 lias been mellowed ; and, in an abbreviated word, even 
 come from some primitive whereof the harsh elements 
 had been suppressed, the soft ones were often changed 
 into others softer still : hence* many a combination of 
 letters came, from the mouths of these inhabitants, like 
 those musical sounds which lull the soul to tender pas- 
 sions 
 
 XXXTX. S The two extremes which you have just 
 described, men have found means to blend together 5 and 
 where the mixture has been made in due proportion, 
 there the language has proved to be possessed of every 
 desirable quality. But language has undergone many a 
 revolution, as well as every state, and the manners of its 
 inhabitants. 
 
 In the first ages of the world, mankind, knowing but 
 
 few
 
 33 
 
 few wants, could vise but few words : in proportion as 
 new wants were felt by man, in the same proportion did 
 man create new words. But, as a pure Hebrew never 
 did, nor could exist for a long time, in a considerable re- 
 gion, without dialects, any more than pure elements ; so 
 the Celtic, sprung from the Hebraic tongue, could not 
 exist long, in any considerable region, without subdivi- 
 ding itself into several other dialects. 
 
 39. B. Pezron, in his Antiquities of Rations, says 
 that the Celtic were anciently seated in both the extremi- 
 ties of Europe towards the East and West ; and Peloutier 
 asserts that all the European nations were originally of 
 the Celtic extract. 
 
 Xt.. S. Now, Boulet, in his Memoirs on the Celtic, 
 says that this second language (the Celtic) must have 
 been the mother of all the dialects which have, by suc- 
 cession of time, been spoken in the countries that either 
 the Celtic or the Celto-Scythx have occupied. According 
 to that .Author, the Gothic, the Latin, the Anglo-Saxon, 
 the Teutonic, the Islandic, the Runic, the Swedish, the 
 Danish, the German, the English, the Italian, the Spa- 
 hiih, tlie French, are languages formed immediately, or 
 mediately, wholly or partly, from the Celtic. 
 
 40. B. The Gothic itSelf consisted of several dialects, 
 and so it was with Latin, Anglo-Saxon, occ. That the 
 Greek language was originally a dTalect of the Celtic or 
 Celto-Scythian, has been strongly asserted* ; and, that 
 it was afterwards subdivided into several dialects, is well 
 Iviiowri. 
 
 •Graecis Uteris usi sunt Galli, paritcr e.t Germani; at non acceptis 
 a Gra;cis, sed Sct/t/iis, a quibws et suas Grasci, Scytharum soboles, 
 accepere. Earura Gia?cis similium litetarum vestigia adhuc hedie 
 supersunt in litcratura Anglo-Saxonum, quos ortu Germane^ 
 Gssexonstat. Bor/tornmi, origin. Gallicarum, p. 105. 
 
 D XLI. g.
 
 34 
 
 XLI. S. The particular dialects, spoken by the people 
 who inhabited a particular country, must necessarily 
 have become considerably altered by the dialect of such 
 an invading foe as, taking possession of that country, 
 retained it for a considerable length of time. Frequent 
 have been such revolutions in every part of the world ; 
 consequently hardly one dialect can have retained 
 its purity. The Celtic language which, at one time, 
 spread itself all over Europe, most part of Africa, and 
 great part of Asia, is now confined to very inconsiderable 
 portions of those divisions of the world. 
 
 41. B. You ought, in my opinion, to mention some 
 instances of such invasions, in order to enable your read- 
 ers to judge how far the etymologies you intend to give 
 of certain words may be depended upon, 
 
 XLII. S. In the Gaulish, or Gallic, spoken by the 
 inhabitants of Gaul, a dialect or several dialects existed, 
 which had sprung from the Celtic (itself originalfy form- 
 ed from the Hebraic). For a long time, the Gauls were 
 the most formidable enemies the Romans had. Csesar suc- 
 ceeded in conquering those people. That part, now called 
 France, by degrees adopted the laws, customs and lan- 
 guage of the Romans, who kept possession of the coun- 
 try for a space of 537 years. Already had the Goths 
 established themselves on. the South of the Loire; the 
 Burgundians, about the Rhone ; and the Western Pro- 
 vinces were governing themselves under their form er 
 name Armor'ic. The Franks, who had, in the year 418, 
 made the conquest of Belgium, pushed forward, occupied 
 the parts of Gaul which the Romans were quitting, and 
 fresh alterations ensued in the language of the conquered 
 country. If Abderahm, who was leading 400,000 Ara- 
 bians, Africans, &c. to settle them in Gaul, and replace 
 
 the
 
 35 
 
 the inhabitants they intended to exterminate, had not 
 been kilied, and his army destroyed by Charles Martel, 
 on the 20th of July 732, France would have fallen, and 
 perhaps half the world, under the yoke and religion of 
 the Sarrazins : so were called those Arabians, &c. who 
 were Mahometans ; some hords of whom had, a few 
 years before, conquered Spain.; possessed at the time by 
 the Goths, and were driven away only 806 years after.* 
 
 42. B. Now, some instances of the sort in regard to 
 England, if you please. 
 
 XLIII. S. In Britain, a dialect of the old Celtic was 
 also spoken, at that period when Julius Csesar (just or 
 Very near 52 years before Christ) invaded the country ^ 
 the most fertile parts of which were conquered, and 
 remained in the possession of the Romans till about the 
 year 448 after Christ. The Roman empire being attack- 
 ed by Alaric, the Emperor ordered the Roman legions to 
 be withdrawn from both Gaul and Britain. The Bri- 
 tons, being thus left exposed to the ravages of the Scots 
 and Picts (originally Celtic, like the Britons) had re- 
 course to some Savon chiefs. These came, gave assist- 
 ance : but, procuring fresh supplies of their countrymen, 
 soon became formidable to the Britons, whoj after a 
 violent struggle of near l5oyears,were subdued and driven 
 into Wales. The Saxons, alluded to, had come from 
 the modern Frisia (the dialect of which has not been 
 sufficiently investigated by any philologist, says Ade- 
 lung), and remained possessors of Britain for 3rd years. 
 TheDanesbegan their incursions about the year 780; and, 
 
 * The leader of these hords bein^ named Tarik, caused that 
 fatuous hill, now possessed by England, to be called Gtb-d-T<irik % 
 which means Mountain (of; Tarik : by corruption, that compound 
 name has become Gibraltar. 
 
 r> 3 having
 
 S6 
 
 having settled in England, their dominion continued for 
 nearly three centuries. The Danish, however, being 
 closely related with the old Saxon, the alterations in the 
 dialect spoken in England about the time of their inva- 
 sion, were not very striking : hence, the language, which 
 had originated in a mixture of both, necessarily preserved 
 some similarity and uniformity of structure. The Nor- 
 man Saxon dialect, which was extremely barbarous, irre- 
 gular, and intractable, was introduced in the year 1066, 
 by the invasion of the Normans under William the 
 Conqueror. The language imported by that Prince, and 
 his people, was a confused jargon of Teutonic, Gaulish, 
 and vitiated Latin : and as, before the latter conquest, 
 the Saxon had already begun to fall into contempt, the 
 French or Frankish, substituted in its stead, predomi- 
 nated to a great degree. In the 13th century, the Danish 
 Saxon language which, in England, had precedently been 
 corrupted by the Normanic, began to unite with the 
 more modern French, to adopt, likewise, in consequence 
 of this precedent, many words from Latin, and to form, 
 by the' assistance of both, the present English language. 
 The groundwork of the language retained its Saxon ori- 
 gin ; but its progress, its cultivation, its augmentation, 
 and subsequent refinement, 'were carried on upon the prin- 
 ciple of the French. 
 
 Adelung, from whom I have borrowed some part of 
 these accounts of England, makes the followin<r obser- 
 vations. " In Germany, the old unpolished language 
 (l of the country was improved through its own re- 
 " sources; hence, the progress towards its refinement 
 " was necessarily slow. In France, the language of the 
 " natives was formed by a mixture with that of the 
 cc Romans,, yet in such a manner as made the latter 
 
 w prevail
 
 37 
 
 f< prevail in that mixture ; hence, its improvement was 
 " uncommonly rapid, because the Roman was already 
 ii a polished language. In England, the native lan- 
 ?' guage (Adelung means the Danish Anglo-Saxon) 
 f( received improvements by a mixture with the French* ; 
 <( yet, the former still remained the prevailing language : 
 <e thus, it made more rapid progress towards its refine- 
 <{ ment than that of the German, but slower than that 
 " of the French." 
 
 43. B. Well ! Through this continual mixture of dia- 
 lects which has taken place every where, what course do 
 you mean to steer ? Will you make it a point to trace 
 precisely the origins of such words as you shall find ne- 
 cessary to declare and prove to belong to the classes of 
 words that have a determined signification, as a Noun, 
 an Adjective, a Verb ? 
 
 XLIV S. Not I indeed— I am not quite like a crazy 
 old woman whom I saw once gleaning : before she 
 would take up an ear of corn she met with, she leisurely 
 drew out of a pocket which hung down to the calf of her 
 
 * Adelung is a German lexicographer, from whose philological 
 essays I have copied that passage the preceding page exhibits in Ita- 
 lics. Whoever has read those essays cannot but have felt that the 
 Author is endowed with sound judgment, and has studied, with 
 particular care, the history of the languages he touches upon. 
 His observations prove that Mr. H. Tooke has, for most of his 
 derivations, judiciously turned to the old Saxon and Gothic dia» 
 lects, and that it was there chiefly 1 could look for mine} they also 
 give reason to expect that inquiries made by me into my native 
 language (the French), and into the English (which has long been 
 familiar to me), will throw some fresh lights on the structure of 
 both, if not of otheis: in short, France and England, at least, 
 a/e interested in the success of my undertaking. 
 
 D 3 Tight
 
 38 
 
 right leg, a pair of spectacles ; rubbed them a while with a 
 piece of linen, that they might become more transparent; 
 then, with the utmost gravity, saddled her long pose 
 with them, and sought to discover from which of the 
 standing stalks that ear of corn had been cut off. Very 
 little advantage could accrue from her manner of glean- 
 ing, either to herself or to others. Now, 1, whose nose 
 is almost constantly saddled, who never start abroad 
 without having considered what I am in search of, no 
 sooner perceive any thing that will answer my purpose, 
 than I take it up, and use it, without injuring it how- 
 ever, than leave it in its place ; nor should I trouble my- 
 self, about ascertaining the spot I found the same in, if 
 it were not to inform other people that they may, if they 
 chuse, find, themselves, the very thing, and use it as I 
 did. 
 
 44. B. I understand you. If you wish to know the 
 real value of a word which Grammarians have ranged 
 „ among the nan-de;cripts } you search for that word, or 
 Fotj! j^.word nearly similar, in some dialect or other; and, 
 the rr|oirient you have found it clearly presented as a de- 
 scrzpt,you are satisfied, because you have then an authority 
 for placing that word among the classes acknowledged 
 to consist of words which have each a clear and precise, 
 meaning. 
 
 XLV. S. You have exactly expressed what I meant 
 to convey by the comparison ; and I have only to add, 
 that, in general, my researches take place upon a large 
 scale, formed from an inward convictiop that such, or 
 such, a set of words must necessarily be found to have 
 each the same, or nearly the same, signification. 
 
 45. jB. The details into which you have entered 
 hitherto, supported by a few exemplifications, promise, 
 
 fai*.
 
 39 
 
 nnr, I must confess; namely, that, whenever the wcui, 
 seemingly governed by a pretended preposition, can be 
 brought to convey the notions of Operator or Co-ope- 
 rator, in regard to an action, an event, a situation or 
 condition, that pretended preposition must actually be 
 a Noun, of equal value with Operator or Co-ope- 
 rat.or, used in the singular or in the plural, as circum- 
 stances may require. I recollect very well that, after an 
 event or a state has been presented with a passive or neu- 
 tral construction, if you find something added to express 
 what or who occasioned that event, or state, you can 
 cause the pretended preposition to disappear, by merely 
 changing the passive verb into an active one, giving it 
 for agent whatever or whoever occasioned the event, or 
 state ; or, if the verb be neuter, by merely making what- 
 ever or whoever occasioned the event, or state, the agent 
 of an active verb equal to what to cause means. It appears 
 desirable that you would produce, at one view, a certain 
 number of such sentences, each with some or other prepo- 
 sition before the agent, which preposition you say can only 
 have the same significations as belong to Operator or Co- 
 operator, or some equivalent. By so doing, you would en- 
 able your readers to perceive how far this new doctrine 
 of yours is likely to extend. 
 
 XLVI. S. I thank you for the hint, my dear little 
 By, and here are some short examples, the examining 
 of which will be sufficient to give some notion of mv 
 doctrine, applied to the English language. You, and 
 my readers, must however excuse me from stating, at 
 the same time, all the gradual and nice transitions 
 which, taking place, determine that one of the pretended 
 prepositions would, here or there, be preferable to ano- 
 
 V 4 the/ ]
 
 40 
 
 ther; as policy enjoins me to dwell, at present, chiefly 
 upon you, my dear little By, and to make this book st 
 sort of specimen of what I can do. If, hereafter, I 
 should take up your relatives, my plan would be to dwell 
 upon each of them sufficiently to do justice to the indi- 
 vidual : but, however great be my desire to accomplish 
 that, I shall not gratify it, and indeed I cannot, unless 
 the public testifies a wish to see The Evenings of Southill 
 resumed, by subscriptions adequate to defray the whole 
 expense of every book in rotation- 
 
 Event, or state, described Explanation, whereby 
 by one, without his men- one mentions who, or 
 tioning immediately what, operates (has 
 who, or what, ope- operated, or will ope- 
 rates (has operated, or rate) the event, or 
 will operate) the same, state, described by 
 
 what precedes. 
 
 I . He was respected hy every man. 
 
 %. Yet, he died on the ] ,, , A 7 7- ,.. 
 2 , , 1 through foul machinations. 
 
 scaffold 
 
 a. This favour he ob- } ., r 
 
 3 tained J through your interest. 
 
 4. Yet, he was once like 1 ,, , 
 
 to be ruined j ^oughyou, 
 
 5. He that loveth me 7 , r A , 
 shalfbe loved \ b * *##fl 
 
 6. I shall complain of your behaviour. 
 
 i 7. You
 
 41 
 
 *j. You do these things from (through, by) hahif. 
 
 g. He was slain with (by) a sword. 
 
 9. She is very glad of what has happened. 
 
 io. She is sorry for (at) this disappointment. 
 
 RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 1. Every good man respected him — Therefore — 
 He was respected: Operator (of that his state?) — 
 every good man. 
 
 2. Yet, foul machinations caused him to die on 
 the scaffold — Therefore — Yet, he died on the scaffold : 
 Operators (of this event ?) — -foul machinations. 
 
 3. Tour interest caused he obtained this favour- 
 Therefore — This favour he obtained : Operator (of that 
 event?) — -your intetest. 
 
 4. Yet, you wereonce like to ruin him — Therefore — 
 Yet, he was once like to be ruined : the Operator 
 (of his ruin would have been?)— -you. 
 
 5. My father will love him that loveth me — There- 
 fore — He that loveth me shall be loved : Operator 
 (of this state ?) — my father. 
 
 6. Your behaviour will occasion I shall complain — 
 Therefore— I shall complain : Operator (of this future 
 event?) — your behaviour. 
 
 7. Habit causes you do these things — Therefore 
 —You do these things: Co-operator (to those events?) 
 habit. 
 
 8. A Sword slew him : but somebody used the sword, 
 who operated as well as the sword — Therefore— He was 
 slain: Operators (of this event?)— a swor d, and some 
 person left unmentioned. 
 
 9. What has happened causes she is very glad — There- 
 
 fore—
 
 42 
 
 fore — She is very glad : Operator (of this her state?)— 
 ivhat has happened. 
 
 10. This disappointment causes she is sorry. — 
 Therefore — She is sorry : Operator (of this her state) — t 
 this disappointment. 
 
 II. We are angry at the style of that letter. 
 
 13. He will be surprised at this piece oj news. 
 
 13. My father is confined yfrom (through) the accident 
 to his bed, J which happened to him. 
 
 14. Here is a fine table | r n 
 (made) f °/ *"*''• 
 
 1 5 . I see what has been the I b .untenant*. 
 matter, J 
 
 f through (by) your reading 
 
 1 6. We lose the beauties of J indistinctly \ or, through 
 that poetry, the indistinct manner in 
 
 * which yon read. 
 
 YT , r .. . f £y drinking Madeira wine ; 
 
 ,7 He was cured of that I * b g Madeira wim 
 
 dlSOrder > I be drank. 
 
 38. I knew >vhat was ^ £™^ ^^ 
 matter > I which I perceived be held, 
 
 ,„ I know what ,o think f/^»; r f^:/,:: 
 
 concerning that. r »' _ 
 
 o * *» jusal to answer. 
 
 ffor making bis mind easy j 
 2o. I did write to him, < or, for (this object) the 
 
 v making of bis mind easy. 
 
 H fed^ 01 eXFeSS the j0> } **&**?* bere ' 
 
 RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 II. The style of that letter causes we are angry—- 
 Therefore— We are angry : Operator (of this our state ?) — 
 the style of that letter. 
 
 \i This
 
 43 
 
 i£. This piece of news will surprise him — Therefore-r 
 He will be surprised : Operator (of tins his future 
 State ?) — this piece of news. 
 
 13. The accident, ivbicb happened to my father, con- 
 fines him to his bed— Therefore — My father is confined 
 to his bed: Operator (of this his state?) — the accident 
 ivbicb happened to him. 
 
 14. Marble made (Marble vyas the chief ingredient 
 employed in making) the fine table which is here : but, 
 somebody wrought and fashioned the marble, ivbo, hav- 
 ing contributed to its present form, must be considered as 
 a Co-operator — -Therefore— Here is a fine table made : 
 Co-operators (to the present state of the fine table?) — 
 marble (as to the matter used), and some person left 
 unmentioned (as to the workmanship) . 
 
 15. Your countenance causes I see (or discover) what 
 has been the matter — Therefore — I see what has been 
 the matter; Operator (of this my discovery })—ycur 
 countenance. 
 
 16. Your reading indistinctly, or the indistinct manner 
 in which you read, causes we lose the beauties of that 
 poetry — Therefore — We lose the beauties of that poe- 
 try: Operator (of this our loss?)— -your reading indis- 
 tinctly, or, the indistinct manner in which you read. 
 
 17. Drinking Madeira wine, or, the Madeira wine 
 t>e drank, caused he was cured (or, cured him) of 
 that disorder — Therefore — He was cured of that dis- 
 order : Operator (of this his cure ? of this his state ? ) — 
 drinking Madeira wine, or, the Madeira wine be drank. 
 
 i& Perceiving (that, namely) he held my Jetter (the 
 perceiving of that, namely, he held my letter) ; or, my 
 fetter which I perceived he held, caused I knew what 
 was the matter — Therefore — I knew what was the 
 
 matter
 
 44 
 
 matter: Operator (of this my stater) — (the) perceifump 
 (of this, viz.) he held my letter; or, my letter which I 
 perceived he held. 
 
 19. Your declining, or jour refusal, to answer causes 
 I know what to think concerning; that — Therefore — I 
 know what to think concerning that : Operator (of 
 this my state })—your declining to answer, or, your refusal 
 to answer. 
 
 20. Making bis mind easy, (for, the making of his 
 mind $asy ; or, a desire of making his mind easy ; or, 
 this object, making his mind easy) caused I did write 
 to him — Therefore — I did write to him : Operator (of 
 this my determination?) — making his mind easy, or, this 
 desire, making his mind easy ; or, this, object, making his 
 mind easy. 
 
 31. Finding you here causes I feel joy; I cannot 
 express that joy^-Therefore — I cannot express the joy 
 I feel : Operator (of this my state?)— -finding you here. 
 
 46. B. You have, in the preceding resolutions of the 
 examples adduced, abstained, purposely I suppose, from 
 taking an advantage which could not fairly have been 
 objected to, by introducing words of significations simi- 
 lar to those acknowledged to exist in the words Operator 
 and Co-operator. 
 
 XLVII. S. I have done so, because it is obvious that 
 any word synonymous, or nearly so, as well as any word 
 used figuratively (to convey the same, or nearly the same, 
 significations with Operator or Co-operator) , would re- 
 move the tautology apparent in my resolutions, and fur- 
 nish that variety without which all things appear insipid 
 to mankind. My design was to bring several rays to 
 their point of convergence and concourse, and to make it 
 known that this point was Operator ox Co-operator* 
 When the pretended prepositions cannot be brought to 
 
 th^t
 
 45 
 
 that point, they originate from words of a different kind 
 or import j and, I have had occasion to experience, that 
 a word called a preposition, instead of retaining always 
 the same meaning or nearly, has been used in very dif- 
 ferent significations : but then, each distant different 
 meaning arose from a different word, which, written and 
 pronounced nearly in the same way, had at last been 
 forced to take the very outward appearance which an- 
 other had been made to bear. 
 
 47. B. Many people, well informed, at least they 
 think so, are of opinion that the researches of etymolo- 
 gists bring nothing forth but conjectures. 
 
 XLVIII. S. That trite opinion I have heard often 
 enough ; nor was the repetition irksome to me, till 
 coxcombs dressed it up in sneers. 
 
 48. B. I have heard certain persons say, that you are 
 not of a communicative disposition. 
 
 XLIX. S. I hope you have heard many others declare 
 the very reverse. 
 
 49. B. I certainly have. 
 
 L. S. I have often been silent, when it might have 
 been expected I should speak : but. with people who show 
 a predetermination not to yield to any argument or au- 
 thority whatever, I would advise you to imitate me, if 
 you cannot withdraw. 
 
 50. B. Where obstinacy prevails, the best way eer- 
 tainly is to be silent. 
 
 LI/ S. There are people also who are so very absent, 
 from either nature or affectation, that it would be needless 
 to enter,with them, upon any subject which requires atten- 
 tion. In others, you may plainly discover they think that 
 either you do not deserve to be listened to, or they might 
 commit their dignity by discussing any point with you. 
 
 Surely,
 
 #1 
 
 Surely, in all those situations., sifence is, for you, iht 
 most eligible refuge. 
 
 51. B. Most certainly % but, having observed those 
 obstructions to improvement, let us try to remove them, 
 partly at least. I have reason to believe that you would 
 considerably please the curious in languages, if you were 
 to exhibit, in French, your preceding set of examples, 
 and prove that, in the resolutions of them, your new 
 doctrine may also prevail \ that the words called Preposi- 
 tions, by the French Grammarians, though so very dif- 
 ferent (in form) from those to which the English Gram- 
 marians give that appellation, are in reality taken from a 
 similar stock, and consequently have, in general, the 
 same tendency with those so used in English, when ap- 
 pointed to announce ivbo f or what, causes (has caused, 
 or will cause) an event, a situation, or a condition, to 
 take place. 
 
 LI I. S. it was my intention to do so, in order that I 
 might rouse the attention of foreign philologists. I am 
 confident that, if the principles I how present, be applied 
 by them, each to his mother tongue, or to those lan- 
 guages he is familiar with, the same results will be ob- 
 tained. Though I profess to investigate here only the 
 English and French languages, yet I shall, if full scope 
 be given to me, prop up my principles by contrasting 
 the expressions used in those two idioms, with the ex- 
 pressions used in other idioms ; and, thereby, facilitate 
 fresh inquiries towards ascertaining how far I am right, 
 how much farther I might have gone. Here is the pre- 
 ceding set of English examples put into French garb. 
 
 Evenem^nt,
 
 47 
 
 Eviuement, ou elat, que Explication, par laquelle 
 Von decrit, sans expri- on indique qui, ou ce 
 ■mer d'alord qui, ou qui, oplre (a open, ou 
 cequi, Foperef/'aop*- ope /era) Tevenement 
 re, on Voperera). ou i'etatjdecritpar ce 
 
 qui precede. 
 
 is . L ■ ., f de tout honnete bomme 
 
 i . Ii ctou respecte | (dg mt bomme de bun) . 
 
 1. Cependant, il mourut \ par de noires caboles (ma- 
 sur I'echar'aud, j -fiaeuvres,mences, frames) . 
 
 3. Cette faveur il l'obtiat par votre credit. 
 
 4. Cependaat.il fut une fois ? / 
 
 1 1 -u y'», • - V par vous. 
 a la veille d etre nunc } 
 
 <. Celui qui m'aime sera r , 
 J • , n J a^ wow pere. 
 
 aime £ r 
 
 6. Je me plaindrai de votre conduit*. 
 
 - RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 1 . Tout bonnste bomme (tout bomme de bien) le res- 
 pectoit — Doric — 11 etoit respecte: Qui opc'roil (celal 
 C'est)— »tout bonnite bomme (tout bomme de lien* J . 
 
 * Corame Optmteur, en Francois, nc se dit gu£re que de celui 
 qui fait certaines operations de c/tirttrgie, d'un charlatan qui dibit*: 
 ses remedes, et qui vend ses drogues en place publique, j'ai £vite 
 d'employer lc mot d'Opemtcur, que j'ai rem place par qui opere, 
 qui ope"ra, qui oj?6rcrn, &x\ ou par qu'est-ce qui oplre (opera, ope- 
 rera, &c.) : mais, jespere que Ton donnera, en France, au mot 
 op&ratcur, toutc l'etendue necessaire, celle qu'il devroit naturelle- 
 nient avoir, pour exprimer en toute occasion qui oplre telle ou 
 telle chose, qui fait que telle ou telle chose a lieu, &c. 
 
 3. Cependanr,
 
 48 
 
 2. Cependant, de noires cabales (manoeuvres, menees, 
 tramesj jireni quA mourut sur l'echafaud* — Done — * 
 Cependant, il mourut sur l'echafaud : Qui opera (cet 
 everiement ? ce furcnt) — de noires cabalei, &c. 
 
 3. Votre credit Jit qii'i] obtint cette faveur — Done — 
 Cette faveur, il l'obtint. Qu'est-ce qui opera (cet evene- 
 ment ? ce fut) votre credit. 
 
 4. Cependant, vous futes une fois a la veille de le rui- 
 ner — Done — Cependant, il fut une fois a la veille d'etre 
 mine : Qui auroit opcre (fa ruine ? C'eut ete) — vous. 
 
 5. Mori pere aimera celui qui m'aime — Done — Celui 
 qui m'aime sera aime : Qui opcrera (cet etat en lai 
 d'etre aime? ce sera) — tnon pere* 
 
 6. Votre conduit e fera que je me plaindrai — Done — Je 
 me plaindrai : Qu'est-ce qui operera (cette demarche de 
 ma par.t ? ce sera) — votre conduite. 
 
 7. Vous faites ces choses-la par habitude. 
 
 8. U fut tue / av ' c , *** #» rd'^n coup 
 
 (. a epce, a coups a epee. 
 
 9. Elle est bien aise de ce qui est arrive. 
 
 10. ,Elle est fachee de ce contretemps. 
 
 . . xt • L ' \du (de lej style de cette 
 
 11. Nous sommes irrites i , ' ' ■> 
 
 12. II sera surpris de cette nouvelle. 
 
 _ tvt , j T r, r par (de) V accident qui hi 
 
 13. Mon pure garde le lit i? [ . y * 
 
 r b 1 arriva* 
 
 14. Voici une belle table *> , 7 
 
 . L - ■ . > de mar bra 
 
 (ratte) J 
 
 15. Je vois de quoi il a ete ), . , 
 
 1 J. a votre contenance. 
 
 question, J 
 
 16. Nousperdonslesbeautesl par votre maniere indis- 
 de cette poesie, J tincte de lire. 
 
 * Ce que, apres un Veibe, leqtiel on dit etre Conjonvtion on Con- 
 Jonctif, est egal il cela ou a ceci. Done, firent qiiil mourut, i. e. 
 Jin?it ccci, il mourut ; causirent ccci, il mourut ; &c. v 
 
 RESOLUTIONS
 
 49 
 
 RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 7. & habitude cause que yous faites ces choses-is— * 
 Done— Vous faites ces chos-es-la: Qu'est-ce qui cficre (ces 
 actions eri vous? e'est) — l l 'habitude, ou (fce appel£; habi- 
 tude. 
 
 8. tine efk causa qu'A fut tue; oil, une fyce le tua 
 fun coup aihi* le tua, ou, des coups d'epie le tuerent) : 
 mais quelqu'un employs l'ep6e et ce quelqu'un opera 
 aussi bien que I'epic— Don<£ — II fut tu6 : ^ui Optra (cet 
 cvenement ? ce furent) — une £pte (ou, un coup d'tp&e, ou 
 des coups d'epee, et quelqu'un tlont il h'e3t pas fait men- 
 tion. — cO*Ce n'est pas ici l'endroit ou je sois oblige^ d'eX- 
 pliquer la difference qui peut exister entfe avec une e'pie, 
 et d'un coup dope's, ou a ceups d'fyee, 
 
 9. Ce qui est arrive fait ^a'elle est bien aise — Done — 
 Elle est bien aise: Qu'est-ce qui opere (cet 6tat en elle ? 
 e'est) — ce qui est arrive". 
 
 io< Ce contretemps fait qu'zWt est fachee— Done — Elle 
 est fachee: Qu'est-ce qui opere (cet 6tat en elle? c'est)— 
 ce contretemps. 
 
 II. he style de cette leltrefait que nous sommes irrites 
 — Done — Nous sommes irrites : Qu'est-ce qui opere (cet 
 6tat en nous ? (C'est) — le style de cette lettre* 
 
 18* Cette nouv elle f era qu'A sera surpris — Done — II 
 sera surpris: Qu'est-ce qui opirera (cet etat en lui ? Ce 
 sera) — cette nouv elle. 
 
 13. L' 'accident qui arriva a mon p}re fait qu'W garde 
 le lit (lui fait garder le lit)— Done — Mon pere garde le 
 lit : Qu'est-ce qui opera (cet etat en lui? C'est)— /' accident 
 qui lui arriva. 
 
 14. Du marlre (ou, le marbre) fit (fut la matiere prin- 
 
 k cipale
 
 50 
 
 aipale pour faire) la belle table que voici (qui est ici) i 
 mais quelqu'un travailla ou faconna le marbre ; or ce 
 quelqu'un, ayant contribue a la forme presente du 
 marbre, doit se regarder comme un Co-operateur — Done 
 —Voici une belle table faite : Quels furent les co-opera- 
 teur s (a Pegard du present etat de la belle table? Ce fu- 
 rent)—/*? marbre (quant a la matiere employee), et quel- 
 qu'un que Ton ne nomme point (quant a l'execution de 
 l'ouvrage). 
 
 15. Votre contenance fait que je vois de quoi il a itc 
 question — Done — Je vois de quoi il a ete" question : 
 Qu'est-ce qui a opere (en moi cette decouverte ? c'a ete) 
 —votre contenance. 
 
 16. Votre manure indistincte de lire fait que nous per- 
 dons les beautes de cette poesie — Done — Nous perdons 
 les beautes de cette poesie: Qu'est-ce qui opere (cette 
 £erte en nous ? e'est) — votre manure indistincte de lire. 
 
 Kt T i r * , • , , i en buvant du vin dt Madei* 
 
 17. II rut p-ueri de cette / . ■, . M v , %, 
 
 \ Y r re; ou, par le vm de Ma- 
 
 * j deire qu'il but. 
 
 ' "•* 1 • . m > 1 en vovant au'il tenoit ma let- 
 
 18. Je sus de quoi il s a- t c ' t ^J u ' t 
 
 ^ > tre: ou a (far) ma tettre 
 
 cissoit, r .» . . Tr ,j . 
 
 b ' J queje vis qu il tenoit. 
 
 19. Je sais ce que je dohlpar (d'apr£s *) votre refus 
 penser de cela, - J de repondre. 
 
 ~% pour lui tranquilliser V esprit \ 
 
 20. Je> lui ai ecrit, i. ou, pour cet objet~ci } lui 
 
 J tranquilliser V esprit. 
 
 <i\ Je ne saurois exprimerj de VQUS trouver jfc 
 la joie que je ressens, J 
 
 * Observation etymologique sur Aprrs. Le mot Aprils ex* 
 prime l'etat d'avoir en approximation, e'est-a-dire, d'aroir proche. 
 Les Allerr.ands et les Hollandois se passcnt du verbe Avoir (il. en 
 
 est
 
 51 
 
 RESOLUTIONS. 
 
 17. Buvant du vin de Madeire Jit qu'W fut gueri de 
 cctte raaladie; ou bien,Lcr vin de Madeira qu J il but Jit qtiW 
 iatgueri.de cette maladie— Done — II fut gueri de cett? 
 maladie: Q.u'est-ce qui opera (en lui eet etat; cette cure ? 
 ce fut)— &? boire du vin de Madeire (l'acte de boire, 8cc), 
 ou bien, le vin de Madeire qu'il but. tc^» Buvant du 
 vin de Madeire fit, ne se diroit plus aujourd'hui; ni 
 Le boire du vin de Madeire. 
 
 18. Voyant ccci, il tenoit ma lettre, je sus (fit que je 
 sus) de quoi il s'agissoit; ou bien, ma lettre que je vis 
 quit tenoit fit que je sus de quoi il s'agissoit — Done, Je 
 sus de quoi il s'agissoit. Qu'est-ce qui opha (en mbi cet 
 etat ? ce fut) — le voir de ceci, il tenoit ma lettre, ou bien, 
 ma lettre que je vis qu'il tenoit. ^ Voyant cecis il tenoit ma 
 lettre paroitroit aujourd'hui un peu gauche; et le voir de 
 ceci, ne sauroit plus se dire ; on pouvoit le dire cependant 
 <3u teirips de Montaigne. 
 
 est dc m£me de ceux qui parknt d'autres langucs), et se conten- 
 tent d exprimer V approximation ou le mot proche; chacun suivant 
 sa langue. Apres se trouvera done toujours, ou tres-souvent„ 
 £§•1 a ayant pris pour ayant proche (notre jtris etant une con- 
 traction de l'adjectif Italien presso, proche) qui a pnt, pour qui 
 a proche, $rc. D' apres votre refus, est done egal a 2aest-ce qui a 
 operS (telle ou telle chose ? c est) — voire refits que faipris ou pro- 
 che (Tayant cntendu, ou dtpuit que je Vai enUndu). En effef, 
 Apres ceia pourroit se rendre en Allerr.and par hlcrnach (hier- 
 nach), litteralement ici (ou ccci) proche; en Hollandois, par naa 
 *lat, litteralement proch* oela pourct'/a proche. D'aillcurs, apres 
 ce/a peut se rendre en Anglois par next that ou next to that, litte- 
 ralement &- plus proche de cela ; et les Allemands, employant le 
 supcrlatif de leur nach, peuvent dire hiernachst, com me lei IIol- 
 ii peuvent dire naast dat. See Interlocution LIV, p. 57. 
 
 * 2 19. Voire
 
 52 
 
 }q. Votre refus de repondre fait que je sais ce que je 
 dois penser de cela — Done — Je sais ce que je dois penser 
 de cela: Qu'est-ee qui a op-re (en moi cet etat? 
 C'est)-- votre refus de repondre. 
 
 20. Lui tranquilliser l y esprit (cet ohjet-ci, lui tranquil- 
 liser Tesprit j ou bien, Le dhir ou fettis de lui tranquil- 
 liser l'esprit) a fait que je lui ai ecrit — Done — Jelui ai ecrit 
 Qu'est-ee quia opere (cctte resolution que j'ai prise ? C'est) 
 — cet ohjeUci, lui tranquilliser V esprit; oubien, Ledisir ou 
 
 fitois de lui tranquilliser I esprit. 
 
 21. JTqus treuver ici fait que je ne saurois exprimer la 
 joie que je ressens — Done — Je ne saurois exprimer la 
 joie que je ressens : Qu'est-ee qui opere (cet etat ou je 
 suis ? C'est) — Vous irouver ici, 
 
 5a. B. But that forerunner appears to be a redundant ex- 
 pression. Some languages, I suppose, reject the same, in 
 certain circumstances, and present the real Agent or Cause 
 or Motive, &c. in a naked manner, that is to say, with- 
 out expressing the preposition which other languages 
 must use, because custom has made it a law. 
 
 LIII. S. You have now started a most important 
 question in regard to the French language, and you force 
 me to give, at least, a hint how me, te, se, nous, vous, and 
 sometimes moi, tot, happen to be used instead of a moi f 
 a toi, soi, See. ; how lui, leur, happen to be used in- 
 stead of a lui, a. elle, a euv, a elles ; and more particu- 
 larly, because attended with more difficulty, how en hap- 
 pens to be used instead of whatever might be changed 
 into these English expressions, By the same, Of the same, 
 From the same, At the same, With the same, Through 
 the same, For the same, &c. But before I venture to ex- 
 plain your question by suitable examples, I think it pro- 
 per to present this 
 
 Etymolooicaz.
 
 53 
 
 Ettmolooical Observation on en, " This 
 particle en comes either from the Iberno-Celtic emh or 
 amh (even) or from the word whence the old Saxon 
 adjectives efen, emne, have been formed, which are 
 found changed into efne, cfn, emn, em, as in efen-u/egt, 
 even weight, equal weight, same weight; efn-eald, 
 equally old, same age (for, eeld, eald, eld, mean age, as 
 well as old)', in em-lang or emn-lang, equally long, same 
 length.* In English even is often contracted into e'en j 
 a further contraction perhaps made the French en) besides 
 em would easily become en. The English word to even sig* 
 nifies actively to male even, and neutrally (rather obsolete 
 now) to be equal. In old Saxon, the verb efnan was used 
 to express what is meant by the Latin perpetrare, prastare, 
 whence the French forerunner en (when used for Opera* 
 tor) is obviously equal to doer, maker, performer \, &c. 
 In the French phrase en am!, for comme ami (like a 
 friend), it is evident that en is then the same as egalant 
 (equaling, acting like). When en is considered by 
 Grammarians as a pronoun, because, with a reference to 
 some individual name which has been precedently men- 
 tioned, it is prefixed or suffixed to a verb, that word (en) 
 is then used, by way of abbreviation in construction, for 
 whatever might be changed (as I have already said) into 
 these English expressions, By the same, Of the same t 
 From the same, At the same, IVith the same, Through the 
 same, For the same, &c. And indeed, the old Saxon ad- 
 jective efen or efn, meaning equal, like or not unlike, the 
 
 Instead of efen, we find the old Saxon euen also. The Ger- 
 man primitive is eben ; the Dutch made it their even. 
 
 f Among the derivations which we shall see hereafter, in 
 regard to the English in, this on en will be confirmed ; and that 
 circumstance will be noticed, when en happens to be used as a 
 prefix, or forerunner, to a noun (or its representative) simply con_ 
 sidered as containing. See Interlpcution LX1X 
 
 i 3 French
 
 54 
 
 French particle en may consequently bft considered as 
 equal to same, or the same, with the subaudition of Ope- 
 rator as already mentioned.* I say then that en used as 
 a prefix or suffix to a verb is introduced as an abbrevia- 
 tion in construction, since the omission of the word 
 announcing something like Operator is allowed before 
 that en, an omission which could not take place with any- 
 other representative of the individual name, since we 
 must say de vioi, de lui, &c. 
 
 1 Rule. In the French language, the forerunner, de- 
 scribed as announcing Operator or Co-operator, 
 js always omitted when the individual that has occasion- 
 ed, or will occasion, an action, an event, or a condition, 
 having already been named, is to be represented, close to 
 a verb, merely by a sort of prefix or suffix, used as a re- 
 presentative of the individual name we do not chuse to 
 repeat. •> 
 
 1st. As to prefixes. In, li Je parlerai A votre pere", 
 it is your father who, luhen come at, WILL partly cause 
 I shall speak ;f and votre pere has his forerunner ex- 
 pressed — Instead of " Je parlerai A lui", wherein the 
 forerunner a is still expressed, I may say, " Je lui par- 
 lerai." — Hence, the forerunner a is omitted in the latter 
 
 * The pretended pronominal ne which the Italians use in the 
 circumstances which will allow in French the introduction of the 
 pretended pronominal, en, has also heen formed from the same 
 source, and consequently must mean the same : in the very ancient 
 Italian authors, ene may be found ; by degrees, from the primitive 
 cf/ie or emncy the initial r/or em have been quite suppressed, and 
 ne only remained. 
 
 f I said, will partly cause, (or, what chiefly will cause me to 
 speak must be what 1 am to sat/; while what I am to say can 
 cause me to speak, only when your father is co?ne at by me. 
 
 construction.
 
 55 
 
 construction, because of lui being used as a sort of prefix 
 recalling, before parlerai, the idea of your father ', who 
 still, when come at, will partly cause I shall speak. 
 
 adly. As to suffixes. The construction we have seen, 
 in regard to prefix representatives, cannot take place 
 when the French Verb is to be used, without a negation, 
 in those parts of the Imperative which are the ist person 
 plural and the ad persons either singular or plural ; these 
 three circumstances requiring the representatives (called 
 pronouns) to be used as suffixes. Instead of " Parlons 
 A lui," with the forerunner expressed, we may say 
 " Parlcns-LUi," omitting the forerunner a ; and then lui 
 is used as a suffix to the verb parlons, and linked to it by a 
 hyphen, although, instead of " Ne parlons pas a lui," we 
 may say "Ne lui parlons pas," wherein lui is introduced 
 as a prefix to parlons used negatively, and the hyphen is 
 not deemed necessary, because of the position given to 
 lui, which position, in front of the verb, sufficiently an- 
 nounces that lui is a part necessary to the following verb 
 parlons, as restraining its effect. Let us apply to en the 
 same divisions of the rule. 
 
 In " Parlez-vous de moi" (equal to " Est-ce moi qui 
 vous fais parler" ?) the forerunner is expressed by de ; 
 if the person addressed, instead of replying " Je parle 
 de Vous" (in which the forerunner is still expressed 
 by de), says " J'en parle", it is obvious that the de 
 is omitted only because en has become, by its position 
 and general consent, equalfto du mime (of the same), de 
 vous, for de vous-mhne (of you, of yourself, even of 
 you). 
 
 In " Parlez de lui," the forerunner is expressed : if, 
 instead of " Parlez de lui/' I say " Parlez-en", I omit 
 the forerunner ■ and so in " N'en parlez pas ", instead 
 of " Ne parlez pas de lui," 
 
 e 4 N, B.
 
 56 
 
 N. B. If one wishes to discover when the abbreviating 
 EN may, of itself, stand instead of whoever, or whatever , 
 operates (did operate, or will operate) what has been ex- 
 pressed precedently, he may turn to the set of French ex- 
 amples, p. 47, 48 and 50 ; and he will find the rule will 
 do, except lor the 7th, 15th, and 20th. Then will he have 
 an idea of the farther advantages that result from my 
 doctrine. For instance, 
 
 After having heard " II £toit respecte de tout hon- 
 nete homme," instead of repeating, by way of as- 
 sent, verbatim, " II 6toit respecte pe tout honnete 
 homme," you may say merely " II en etoit respecte," 
 and the latter will be equal to " II etoit respecte : OPE- 
 RATOR ? THE SAME J or Co-OPERATORS ? THE SAME; 
 
 for, the same people already mentioned, namely, " every 
 good man" (tout honnete homnje). 
 
 In the 2d example; cette faveur, il /'obtint par yo- 
 tre credit", there is a transposition, which, removed, 
 will make that example become " II obtint cette faveur 
 par votre credit" Now, if I wish not to repeat 
 par votre credit, but to supply the latter words by 
 en, I shall say "II en obtint cette faveur" equal to 
 "II obtint cette faveur: Operator? — the same 
 (thing already mentioned, namely, votke credit, 
 your interest. 
 
 Any body may pow tjo the same with the other ex^ 
 amples, except, as I said before, as to those three examples 
 (and the like) marked 7th, 15th, and 30th. It will be my 
 taflr to show, in some subsequent part, if the public re- 
 quire it, why en could not be used with propriety in the 
 three examples alluded to. 
 
 53. JB. Besides that circumstance which custom has 
 established, very rationally too, in regard to such pro- 
 noun*
 
 5? 
 
 ■nouns ai ate used like prefixes or suffixes to verbs, are 
 there not other circumstances wherein that forerunner 
 equal to Operator or Co-operator may be omit- 
 ted in French ? 
 
 L1V. S. Certainly— For instance, in this French com- 
 bination of words " Je courois aprcs lui"* equal to 
 * f Avoir lui pres me faisoit courir", the word 
 which, to announce my motive, could have acted as a 
 forerunner, would have been pour: and indeed, (t Je 
 courois xpres lui," which may appear to Grammarians to 
 be an abbreviation in construction, or an elliptical phrase, 
 is equal to " Je courois pour avoir lui pres" (I was 
 running for getting him near, for reaching him), 
 wherein the forerunner pour really performs its function, 
 and may be replaced by the word Operator, thus " Je 
 courois: operator (of this my state?). — Avoir lui 
 frh, for the desire of getting him near. — In 
 " Je courois Aprcs lui pour l'attraper," the reader may 
 see I had two objects in view, two motives, which put 
 me in action, which made me run; 1st, to have him 
 near; 2dly, to catch him or take hold of him: each of 
 my objects or motives became then a Co-operator; 
 but the forerunner is omitted, in regard to my first object 
 in view, viz. Avoir lui pres; and it is introduced by 
 meamof Pour, in regard to my 3d object in view, viz. 
 Vattraper. 
 
 54. B. In Latin, the word used in modern languages 
 as a forerunner to announce the Operator, or Ope- 
 rators, or one of the Operators, is much more 
 frequently dispensed with ; and, since Latin has had 
 so much influence on the French and English lan- 
 
 * S«e Ol'cnation Etymohgiqite sur Afrit, p. 50. 
 
 guages,
 
 58 
 
 guages, I think you ought to show, to a certain 
 degree, how far these modern languages agree with, or 
 deviate from, the Latin, as to the manner of present- 
 ing the Operator, or Operators, of events ex- 
 pressed either passively, neutrally, or actively, in order 
 to confirm your assertions in regard to English and 
 French. 
 
 LV. S. That I will do with all my heart. In Latin, 
 one difference has gradually obtained in the expressing 
 of a person or of persons to be presented as Opera- 
 tor or as Operators, and in the expressing of an 
 inanimate thing or of inanimate things to 
 be presented as an Operator or as Operators. That 
 such a difference was not always attended to we have 
 undeniable proofs. 
 
 ist. When the Operator or Operators must 
 be named or represented by some word denoting a. person 
 or persons, in a sentence used, or to be used passively, the 
 Operator appeared generally with a forerunner, such as 
 a, ab f abs, per, &c. seldom without such a forerunner,, 
 
 WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS EXPRESSED. 
 
 Laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis. Hor. 
 
 Nihil est virtute amabilius, quam qui adeptus erit, 
 ubicunque erit gentium, a nobis diligetur. Cic. 
 
 Meum factum probari abs te, triumpho et gaudeo. 
 Cic. 
 
 Non existimaram Metellum fratrem ob dictum ca- 
 pite ac fortunis per te oppugnatum iri. Cic. 
 
 Per me quondam, te socio, defensa est respublica. 
 Cic. 
 
 WHERE
 
 59 
 
 iVHERE THE FORERUNNER IS OMITTED. 
 
 Deseror conjuge (Ov.) pro, A conjuge. 
 
 Colitur linigera' turba (Ov.) pro, A linigerd turbd. 
 
 Tunc et contra Stertinium Maximum, quo promeba- 
 fur, dixit (Scnec.) pro, a quo. 
 
 adly. When the Operator or Operators must 
 be named or represented by some word denoting a 
 thing or things (instead ofa person or persons) 
 in a sentence used, or to be used, passively, the Ope- 
 rator, or Operators, generally appeared without 
 the forerunner j but Poets sometimes would intro- 
 duce it. 
 
 WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS OMITTED. 
 
 Animus defatigatus multitudine verborum. Auct. ad 
 Jlerenn. 
 
 Si Pergama dextra defendi possent, etiam bdc defensa 
 fuisscnt. Virg. 
 
 Cebsus est Virgis Athenagoras, qui, in fame, fru- 
 mentum exportare erat ausus. Cic 
 
 WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS EXPRESSED. 
 
 Absens flamma Meleagros ab ilia uritur. (Ov.) 
 Pectora trajectus Lyncaeo Castor ab ense. (Ov.) 
 Ssepe per has (lachrymas) flecti principis ira solet. 
 
 (Ov.) 
 
 3dly. With Verbs employed neutrally, or, with those 
 Verbs which Grammarians call Deponents, and with 
 Verbs employed actively which have already an Agent, 
 
 the
 
 60 
 
 the person, instrument, or any thing whatever thai 
 caused, wholly, or partly, the event or situation de- 
 scribed, or to be described, could be introduced with a 
 forerunner. However, the forerunner was often omit- 
 ted. 
 
 WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS EXPRESSED, 
 
 - Mare a Sole collucet. Cic. 
 
 Torqueor, infesto ne Vir ab hoste cadat. Ov;. 
 
 Phalaris non A paucis interiit. Cic. 
 
 Quis nolit ab isto ejise mori ? Lucan. 
 
 Rem atrocem Largius Macedo a servis suis passus 
 est. Plin. 
 
 Olet unguenta ? De meo. Ter. 
 
 Qui legibus non propter metum paret, sed quia id 
 salutare maxime judicat. Cic. 
 
 Id nisi gravi de causa non fuisset. Cic. 
 
 Cum e via languerem. Cic„~ 
 
 Demetrius Phalereus ex doctrina nobilis et clarus. 
 Cic. 
 
 Nee loqui pr^e mcerore potuit. Cic. 
 
 Et de triumpho picta Baibarico chlamys. Sencc. 
 
 Candelabrum factum e gemmis. Cic. 
 
 Templum de marmore. Virg. 
 
 Naves totae facta? e x robore. Caes. 
 
 Solito matrum de more locuta est. Virg. 
 
 Bene obsonavi, atque ex mca sententia. Plant. 
 
 Quod adeptus est per scelus, id per luiuriam efTim- 
 dit atque consumit. Cic. 
 
 IVUEN
 
 61 
 
 WHEN THE FORERUNNER IS OMITTED, 
 THE POINT BEING TO INTRODUCE THE 
 CAUSE, THE MANNER, THE INSTRUMENT 
 AND THE MATTER- USED : PRECEDENTS 
 OFTHE CONTRARY HAVE,HOWEJTER,BEEN 
 QUOTED. 
 
 Oderunt pcccare boni Virtutis amove. Hor. 
 
 Homini iliico lacrymas cadunt, quasi puero, gaudio. 
 Ter. 
 
 yirtute ambire oportet, nonfavitoribus. Plaut. 
 
 Nee facile est aqua commoda mente pati. Ov. 
 
 Nimiuni allercando Veritas araittitur. P. Syr. 
 
 Floruit cum acumine ingenii, turn admirabili quodant- 
 lepore dicendi. Cic. 
 
 Scipio omnes sale, facetiisque, superabat. Cic. 
 
 Famd nobilium, potentesque bello. Cass. 
 
 Naturam expellas furca ; t&men usque recurret. Hor. 
 
 Capitolium saxo quadrato substructum. Liv. 
 
 JErc cava clypeus. Virg. 
 
 Solidoque adamante columnae. Virg. 
 
 4thly. When the instrument, manner, matter, &c . 
 could be introduced as a sort of concomitant operator, the 
 word cum was generally used as a forerunner, as with in 
 English, and avec in French, which latter, being spelt 
 formerly avecque and meaning literally ayez ce (for ayez 
 cela), in English, have that, or have also, is equal to 
 
 the English Imperative, join, or add (this or that).* 
 
 Desinant 
 • ft is possible however, that the French preposition avecque 
 I'as anciently written) should originally have been the imperative 
 of the Anglo-Saxon verb aftccan (sumeie), which imperative 
 •*ould have been nfrcc, and, by changing/ into v would have be- 
 come
 
 62 
 
 Desinant obsidere, cum gladiis, curiam. Cic. 
 Ut Vettius in foro cum pugione, et item, servi ejus 
 comprehenderentur cum telis. Cic. 
 
 Utin Csecinam advenientem cum ferro invaderet. Cic. 
 Semper, magno cum metu, dicere incipid. Cic. 
 
 Etymological observation on the Latin Pre- 
 position cum, the Italian and Spanish Preposition con, 
 and the Latin Prefixes con, to, &c. which some of the 
 mqdern languages have adopted. 
 
 In Iberno-Celtic we find that com, gom, coim, &c. 
 were used to express kindred, same family, same specie or 
 kind; that coim-preadh [for gom -breath, orgom-bereith) 
 meant generation, tribe, that com-dhe or gom-de meant 
 chief (of a J tribe. In Iberno-Celtic co, con, go, were 
 used, to express with, as in con-gallaibh or go n'gallaibh 
 (in Latin cum Gallis, in English with the Gauls, in Ita- 
 lian, and Spanish con Gallij — All these came from the 
 Iberno-Celtic adjective coimh, comh (equal, similar, 
 &c.J, which adjective being employed adverbially, as 
 Grammarians soy, instead oj absolutely, was used for a 
 prefix to compound words, and in time became com, coin ; 
 from the latter arose the Greek words uoivos (communis), 
 X^wus (socius, socialus, conjunctus), xojvwj ( covimuniter , 
 vulgb, in commune, simul, una, public}, uno animo), and 
 
 come avecc, then avecque from the propensity of our French an- 
 cestors to change c (final especially) into que. Certain it is that 
 feccan, fceccan, and afeccan, are found in Anglo-Saxon to mean 
 sunwrc, &cc. (to take, to receive) — Rut, it will be objected per- 
 haps that in remote ages of the French language the word 
 was written aresatte; to this I shall answer that this may have 
 happened by a change of the first c into s 9 because of the change 
 of the final c into que. 
 
 tie
 
 63 
 
 the initial word in composition xowo, as in xotv6-ff av (con-cors, 
 similis animij — Now from either com or comh, which we 
 have seen before, came very easily, the Latin preposition 
 cum; and I need only observe that, considering cum as art 
 adjective become indeclinable, the meaning of which is 
 equal to the Greek adjective koivus (socius, sociatus, con- 
 junctusj, and seeing that the noun is always introduced in 
 the ablative after cum, 1 am sure they form both together 
 a sort of ' inter) ective phrase, such as Grammarians call an 
 absolute ablative case : and indeed cum Gallis is literally 
 associating the Gauls, for, the Gauls (being) associated. 
 // is evident that the Italian and Spanish con claim the 
 same origin ; it is evident also that the initial com, con, 
 co, col, cor, &c. in compound words, denote, every one, a 
 sort of association or concomitance*. 
 
 5$, B. Whence do you derive your friend By, when 
 he stands as a forerunner, to announce what is conveyed 
 by the words Operator, Co-operator P 
 
 LVI. S. I might have said -at once (but I reserve 
 presenting the derivation at large till we are come to the 
 latter part) that the primitive meaning of your name 
 was way, road, course, and the like; that you had been 
 serviceable to mankind to such a degree as to deserve 
 that your name should be raised to some dignity : in con- 
 sequence, it was agreed that the meaning of way should be 
 extended not only to that of which way, or the manner 
 how, things come to pass, but even to that of Operator, 
 the highest quality that can be conferred on any indivi- 
 dual. You do not scorn, for all that, to appear often in 
 your primitive state, for which compliance you are the 
 more to be respected : but still there are attached to your 
 
 * See, hereafter, article 4th of Interlocution LXXV. 
 
 name
 
 64 
 
 name other notions which require that I should examrM 
 some expressions in the Gothic and old Saxon languages, 
 in order to ascertain precisely every one of the functions 
 you have been allotted to perform. In this examination, 
 I shall point out how the high function of operator might 
 be said to be implied in those expressions of antiquity. 
 Began, in old Saxon, meant what the Latins expressed 
 by operari (to work*), exercere, colere, excolere, ineo- 
 lere, perambulare (to travel about), flectbre (to 
 bend, to bow), dejlectere, injlectere, curvare, retorquere, 
 declinare (to tend to a different way, to bend one's 
 course to, to avoid, to decline), d'vverterc,recedere,fugere, 
 submittere, servire, procumbere, obser-vare. Instead of this 
 Began, we find the old Saxons used also Beagian, Biegan, 
 Bigan, Bigean, Bugan, Bygan ; and the Goths Biugan, 
 Bugan (whence Ga-bugan, and the Anglo-Saxon Ge- 
 hugan y as well zsGe-bigan). Hence By for Byg may have 
 been formed from bygan, to express a sort of agent, equal 
 to Operator or Co-operator ; as Be may have been formed 
 from Beg in Began, as Bi or Big from Bigan, and even 
 Bii ; for g, in Anglo Saxon, used to be often pronoun- 
 ced as if it were i or r, and, in the modern languages, 
 was accordingly changed either into i,j, ory. 
 
 $6. B. But, some will say : As the final an (or suffix 
 an), in verbs, is only a termination which denotes action, 
 that is to say, which intimates that whatever the pre- 
 ceding part of the word signifies is put in action ; it i* 
 possible that those verbs should have bftn formed from 
 beg, beag, bieg, big, by merely adding the sign of action 
 ak ; it is possible also that those verbs may have been 
 compound verbs formed from gan (to go, to move) with 
 
 • Be*, in Kalmuck, means I vork ; and Bed, in Iberno-CcltiCf 
 means work. 
 
 u
 
 63 
 
 he or hi prefixed, the real signification of^which prefix 
 may be about, around, &c. as contractions from Bah, 
 Beag, Beab, Beg, Beh, Bieb, Big, nouns which pri- 
 marily meant form of a circle, a garland, any circle, any 
 circular tbing, ring, &c. — What would you reply ? 
 
 LVTI. S. Whether the latter nouns gave origin to the- 
 former Verbs, or the former Verbs gave origin to the lat- 
 ter nouns, is almost immaterial, as to what I have in 
 view — Both sorts of words have existed; one sort, -ai 
 Verbs; the other, as nouns; and 'certain it is that By 
 is very often found, as already we have fully proved, to 
 stand as ' -a forerunner (equal to Operator, Operators, or 
 Co-operator, Co-operators) to the name or to the represen- 
 tative of the name of somebody or of something which 
 has caused, or will cause, an event or. situation to take 
 place. But there were, in old Saxon, other Verbs 
 whence a word must obviously have existed to convey 
 the idea of maker, 'contriver, &c. and consequently of 
 Operator : the present fey may obviously too be a con- 
 traction of that very word, as formed from Bycnan, 
 wfiich, as well as Becnan, used to convey the meanings 
 of the Latin verbs formare, jingere, siviulare, signijicare, 
 &c. See hereafter the LXII. interlocution. 
 
 57. B. The Author of the Diversions of Purley has 
 given us nothing, or hardly any thing, to take hold of, 
 as to the several ways in which I am introduced : with 
 him, By is only equal to Be used imperatively 1 
 
 LVIII. S. True; but, let us turn to Dr. Johnson's 
 Dictionary ; and, throwing aside his 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 
 5th, and T4th divisions, in regard to By, because the 
 passages, he has quoted may all be clearly accounted for, 
 by means of Operator or Co-operator, substituted for By*, 
 
 let 
 
 * By, says Dr. Johnson, 1st denotes the Agent; 2d, it notes the 
 instrument ,common!y after a verb neuter; 3d, it notes the cause 
 of any effect; 4th, it notes the means by -union any thing hper- 
 
 V formed
 
 let us reduce his twenty-six other divisions to fewef 
 heads. 
 
 58. B. What ! had Dr. Johnson allotted thirty-two 
 divisions to his definitions of me ? 
 
 LTX. S. Yes, he had ; and yet five or six might have 
 been quite sufficient. For the sake of perspicuity, X 
 shall mention fifteen, which will lead my readers through 
 the labyrinth. 
 
 59. JB. I hope you will take care to exemplify pro- 
 perly each of your divisions. 
 
 LX. S. I intend to do so ; and, that I may be les9 
 exposed to censure on this point, I shall examine every 
 passage quoted by Dr. Johnson in those twenty-six di- 
 visions of his which we have not yet touched. Under 
 the number I shall prefix to each passage, the reader will 
 see the number of the division (in Dr. Johnson's Dic- 
 tionary) in which that passage may be found presented 
 as an example ; and the mark added to the latter number 
 will point out a reference wherein the substance of the 
 Doctor's definition will be found. 
 
 I. By, for ivay, considered as equal to Operator, 
 Co-operator, or the like. 
 
 1 " Bullion will sell by the ounce (delivered, or 
 7* to be delivered) for six shillings and five 
 pence unclipped money (paid, or to be paid)." 
 Locke. 
 In this passage, I discover two Operators in a state of rota- 
 tion anil reciprocity. 1st. Six SHILLINGS AND FIVE PENCE 
 unclipped money (paid, or to lie paid) causing one ounce to 
 
 formed or obtained ; 5th, it shows the manner of an action ; 14fh, 
 
 it notes Co-operation. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that By denotes then the qumtity had at 
 
 one time. 
 
 be
 
 67 
 
 be sold (and delivered), the whole bullion will in rotation be sold. 
 2dly. One Ounce (delivered, or to be delivered) causing Six 
 Shillings and five pence undipped money (to be paid), the whole, 
 bullion will in rotation be sold. 
 
 a " It is lawful, both by the laws of nature, 
 9* and by the law divine, which is the perfec- 
 tion of* the other two." Bacon's Holy War. 
 Here, 1 discover several Operators ; namely, both the laws 
 of nature, and tHe law divine, which is the perfection of 
 the other two (being made a sort of criterion), cause that it ia 
 lawful: hence, It is lawful, Opkrators (of this state? — they are) 
 both the laws of nature and the law divine, which, &c. 
 See the 5th and 8th examples. 
 
 3 " The present, or like, system of the world, can- 
 to j- not possibly have been eternal, by the first 
 
 proposition; and, without God, it could not 
 
 naturally, nor fortuitously, emerge out of chaos, bt 
 
 the third proposition." — Bentley. 
 
 It is evident that the first proposition (being made a sort 
 
 of criterion) causes that the present, or like, system of the 
 
 world, cannot possibly have been eternal : it is also evident that 
 
 the third PROPOSITION (being made a sort of criterion) 
 
 causes that, without God, it could not naturally, nor fortuitously, 
 
 emerge out of Chaos. See the 5th and 8th examples. 
 
 4 <c The faculty, or desire, being infinite, by the 
 io preceding preposition, may contain orreceive 
 
 both these." Cheyne. 
 i. e. I'he faculty, or desire, being infinite (the preceding 
 proposition, being made a sort of criterion, causes that 
 it is infinite), may contain or leceive both these. 
 
 • Dr. Johnson says that By is then for according to, and notes 
 permission. 
 
 ■f Dr. Johnson says that By is then for according to, and notes 
 
 proof. 
 
 f a " Th«
 
 68 
 
 5 " The Gospel gives us such laws as every man 
 11* that understands himself, would chuse to live by." 
 Tillotson. 
 There is, in this passage, a peculiarity of construction which ir 
 is necessary to remove, so as to bring the pretended preposition 
 by to the place it should naturally occupy. To do this, let us 
 say : " The Gospel gives us those lifts* (certain laws), by Which 
 every man that understands himself would chuse to live; and 
 then, "The Gospel gives us those laws (certain laws) which 
 cause that every man who understands himself would chuse to 
 lite (i. e. to regulate his manner of living J accordingly ; or, The 
 Gospel gives us certain laws; every man that understands himself; 
 would chuse to live by those laws, i. e. would chuse t« cause 
 those laws to diuect his life or manner of living. — In this 
 passage, then, By appears as a forerunner announcing the ope- 
 rator, and then causing a thing to become; a kind of direc- 
 tor, criterion, ?mle, guide, &c. Now, By, will contain both 
 those powers whenever it shall be introduced so that according to 
 may take its place. 
 
 6 ?* In the divisions I have made, I have endeavour- 
 ii ed, the best I could, to govern myself by the di- 
 versity of matter/' Locke. 
 
 i. e. Making the diversity of matter (become) a dl- 
 rector. 
 
 7. " The ship, by good luck, fell into their hand? 
 11 at last, and served as a model to build others by." 
 Arbuthnot. 
 
 In this passage, I perceive two sorts of by : the first is simply 
 for Operator; the second, besides announcing Operat-op, 
 makes the thing mentioned become a directing power, a rule, 
 a guide, or the like. And indeed, G00D luck caused that, tie 
 ship fell into their hands at last, ahd served as a model to build 
 others, the said ship operating upon the builders as a direct- 
 ing power or Guide ; otherwise, the builders making the said 
 ship or model their guide. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that By is then for according to, in con., 
 f (trinity with, in imitation of. 
 
 « Thus
 
 69 
 
 8 « Thu#^ by the music, we may know wasu 
 *3* noble wits a hunting go, through groves, that on 
 
 Parnassus grow." Waller, 
 i. e. '* Thus, the music (being made the criterion) 
 causes that we may know when" &c. 
 
 9 " Bv what has been DONE, before the war 
 13 in which he was engaged, we may expect what he 
 
 will do after a peace." Dryden. 
 i. e. What he has done, before the war in which he was 
 
 engaged (being made the criterion), causes that we may ex- 
 pect what he will do after a peace. 
 
 io "Who's that stranger ?-r- By his warlike 
 
 12 PORT, HIS FIERCE DEMEANOUR, and EREC- 
 TED look, he's of no vulgar note." Dryden. 
 i. e. His warlike part, his fierce demeanour, and 
 ekected look (being made the criterion) cause (altoge- 
 ther) that he's of no vulgar note. 
 
 11 "Judge of the event by what has past." 
 i 2 Dryden. 
 
 i. e. What has past (being made the criterion) will 
 or may make you judge of the event. 
 
 i% " The punishment is not to be measured by the 
 
 12 GREATNESS OR SMALLNESS OF THE MATTER, 
 
 but by the opposition it carries and stands in, 
 
 to that respect and submission that is due to the 
 
 father," Locke. 
 i. e. The greatness or small^ess of the matter, 
 (being considered as the criterion) is not to measure the pu- 
 nishment: but the opposition that matter carries and stands in 
 (being considered as the criterion) »s to measure the pu- 
 nishment. 
 
 15 <{ By your description of the town, I 
 1 i imagine it to lie under some great enchantment." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that Bj,'is then for from, and notes grounl 
 if jtuffctrietft or evrripaViioTi. 
 
 f 3 i.e. Your
 
 70 
 
 i e. Your description of the town (being made the cri- 
 terion) causes that I imagine it to lie under some great en" 
 chantment. 
 
 14 ?? By what 1 have always heard and 
 
 12 read, I take the strength of a nation." Swift. 
 
 j. e. What i have always heard and read, (being my 
 criterion) causes that I take the strength of a nation (to be 
 so or so). 
 
 25 i( Mean time she stands provided of a Laius, 
 13* more young and vigorous too by twenty 
 •springs." Dryden. 
 i. e. Mean time she stands provided of a Laius, twenty 
 springs make this Laius (be) more young and vigorous than the 
 other individual unnamed, but compared with this Laius. Hence, 
 it appears that twenty springs, being the difference between 
 the ages of the two persons alluded to, are, for me, the criterion 
 which makes me judge that this Laius is more young and vigo- 
 rous. 
 
 16 " Her brother River, ere this, lies shorter by 
 
 13 the head at Pomfret." Rowe. 
 
 i. e. Her brother River, ere this, lies at Pomfret ; the head 
 (cut off) ma KE9 (him lie) shorter. Hence, the head, or the di- 
 mension of the head, is a criterion which makes me judge that 
 he lies shorter at Pomfret; since I know that his head has been 
 cut off. But, that the head, or any other part, may, in any cir- 
 cumstance, be introduced as a criterion to establish the diffe- 
 rence between two persons compared as to size, will appear if, 
 comparing you with another person, 1 6ay : He is shorter than you 
 by the head. See Interlocution LXX. 
 
 17 " By giving the denomination to less 
 13 quantities of Silver by one twentieth, you 
 
 take from them their dues." Locke. 
 Here, the 1st By, before giving, stands for Operator, in re- 
 gard to the way, maniaer, or method used (as By usually does 
 before a present participle), and the 2d By stands for Opera- 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that By makes then the difference between 
 two sums, % 
 
 TOR,
 
 71 
 
 tor, in regard to what makes quantities of Silver left in value or 
 bulk: hence, giving the denomination to quantities of 
 Silver which one twentieth makes less in value or bulk, 
 causes that you take from them their due. 
 
 j8 "Which, O! avert, by yon etherial 
 £3* light, which I have lost for this eternal night; or 
 if, by dearer ties, you may be won, by 
 your dead sire, and by your living son." 
 Dryden. 
 Here, each By borders much on the meaning conveyed by 
 Operator, Cooperator ; for, 1st, " O! may yon etherial 
 tiGHT cause you to avert" is nearly equal to "O! avert by 
 Yon etheria-l light ;" 2dly, In regard to " or, if by dearer 
 ties you may be won," we see evidently that it is equal to " Or 
 if, dearer ties may win you," and consequently to " Or if you 
 may be won, operators (of this event ?) — dearer ties ;" and, 
 Sdly, " By your dead sire and by your living son" are, ac- 
 cording to the first resolution above, equal to " May your 
 dead sire and may your living son make you avert." — But 
 see also hereafter examples 55, 56. 
 
 19 " Now, BY your joys on earth, your hopes 
 %1 in heaven, O spare this great, this good, this aged 
 king !" Dryden. 
 i. e. Now, O may your joys on earth, your hopes in heaven, 
 make you spare this great, this good, this aged king! But see 
 also hereafter examples 55, 56. 
 
 Co " O cruel youth ! By all the pain that 
 ^% wrings my tortured soul ! by all the dear 
 deceitful hopes you gave me, O cease! at 
 least, once more delude my sorrow." Smith, 
 i. e. O cruel youth! May all the pain, that wrings my tor- 
 tured soul, make you cease ! May all the dear deceitful 
 hopes you gave me, make you cease at least once more delude 
 my sorrow ! But see also hereafter examples 55, 56. 
 
 f Dr. Johnson says, that By is then used in forms of adjuring 
 or obtesting. 
 
 f 4 II. By
 
 72 
 
 II. By, for way considered as equal to Performer 
 of the act, associate, associating (all which 
 words are nearly synonymous with Opiirator\ 
 when, before any of the reflective representatives 
 (myself, thyself, himself, herself, one's self, itself, 
 ourselves, yourself, yourselves, themselves), it 
 seems to exclude every other individual that is 
 not included in the reflective representatives in- 
 troduced into the sentence. 
 
 ti " We shall, you and T, dine much more comforU 
 ably by Ourselves." 
 i. e. We shall, you and I, dine much more comfortably ; per- 
 formers (of this act ? J — Ourselves. 
 
 32 " I found you once, in that place, walking by 
 
 YOURSELF." 
 
 The By here is equal to Performer of the act, or to asso- 
 ciate (used interrogatively or not) ; and, on yourself ap- 
 pearing, it is sufficiently understood that all other individuals aie 
 excluded : yet, somcindividuals may be found to be added to 
 yourself, as we shall see in the next example. As to the present 
 example, it is equal to " I found you once, in that places walk- 
 ing : Performer (of this act of walking?) — yourself; and, 
 there being nobody else with you, at the moment I found you, 
 all other individuals are evidently declared to be excluded. 
 
 23 " I did it BY myself . , . You mean, by myself 
 and the person who helped me." 
 i. e. I did it: Performer (of this act?) — myself.. .You 
 mean (to say) : Performers (of the act you allude to) myself 
 and the person who helped me — In this circumstance, two 
 performers of the act are made to appear; and ail other indivi- 
 duals are excluded. 
 
 ". Sitting
 
 73 
 
 24 "Sitting in some place, by himself, let 
 j 9* him translate into English his former lesson." 
 
 Asehani. 
 i.e. Sitting in some place, Performer (of this act ?)r- 
 iiimself, let him translate into English his former lesson. 
 
 25 " Soliman rcsolyed to assault the breach, after he 
 J 9 had, jjy himself, in a melancholy mood, walked 
 
 up and down in his tent." KuolleS's History ok 
 the Turks, 
 i. e. After lie bad, in a melancholy mood, walked up and down 
 in his tent, Performer (of this art of walking?) — himself. 
 
 26 " I know not whether he will annex his discourse 
 59 to the appendix, or publish it by itself, or at 
 
 all." Boyle, 
 i.e. Or publish it associating (what ?)— itself, or publish 
 it at all. 
 
 37 " He will imagine, that the king and his minis- 
 19 ters sat down and made them by themselves, 
 and then sent them to their allies to sign." Swift, 
 i. e. Made them, associates (1o the king and his ministers 
 making them — themselves. Otherwise, made them, WSSr 
 formers (of this act?) — themselves, that is to say, the king 
 and his ministers. 
 
 a8 " More pleased to keep it, till their friends could 
 19 come, than eat the sweetest by themselves at 
 home." Pope, 
 i. e. Than they would be pleased to eat the sweetest, Per- 
 
 Foumers (jn eating?) — themselves at home. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson savs that By placed before /i/mself, herself or 
 themselves, denotes the alienee or cxcIuuju of all otheis.- \\ hy 
 he did not notice the other reflective representatives, witsi-i<] 
 thyself, itself, one's self, ourselves, yetitse'f, yourselves, 1 cannot 
 conceive. 
 
 III.
 
 T4 
 
 Iff. By, for course, range, way, attaching to the 
 same the idea of revolved, gone through, 
 
 COMPLETED, ATTENDED TO FROM END TO END, 
 
 so as to make by still equal to Operator, in 
 general. 
 
 39 te Ferdinand and Isabella recovered the kingdom of 
 J5* Granada from the Moors ; having been in possession 
 
 thereof by the space of seven hundred 
 
 years." Bacon. 
 
 By, thus introduced in speaking of the duration of time, is 
 pot in use now — The passage may be changed into " Ferdinand 
 and Isabella recovered the kingdom of Granada from the Moors, 
 •who had been in possesion thereof the space (for the space) 
 
 OF SEVEN HUNDRED YEARs" — Now, THE SPACE OF SEVEN 
 
 hundred years revolved (gone through) made (constituted) 
 the period (the length of time) that the possession lasted — Again, 
 who, the space of seven hundred years being REVOLVED 
 or attained, had thus long been in t,ossession thereof. 
 
 30 f They are also striated and furrowed bv the 
 2$\ length, and the sides curiously punched or 
 pricked." Grew. 
 What is here described proceeds in continuance throughout 
 the length : this gives me an opportunity to observe that if by 
 is grown obsolete in regard to continuance of time, it is still pro- 
 per as to continuance of dimensions which do not concern time- 
 Now, the resolution of this passage may be made thus ; " They 
 ar« also striated and furrowed, the length gone through 
 (attended to from one end to the other), and the sides, are curiously 
 punched or pricked. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that " Ry is then in the sense of for, 
 noting continuance." — The French may then use durant or pendant, 
 equal to the English during. 
 
 f Dr. Johnson says that By is then for in the same direction, 
 with. 
 
 "By
 
 75 
 
 3i "Br this (time, period), the sons of Con- 
 J 6* stantine which fled, Ambrise and Uther, did rips 
 years attain." Fairy Queen. 
 i.e. This (time, period) caused (had caused) that the sons 
 of Constantine which fled, Ambrise and Uther, did attain ripe 
 years. Otherwise, This (time, period) b^ing revolved (had, 
 attained), the sons of Constantine, &c. 
 
 3« f f Hector, by the 5TH hour of the sun, will, 
 l6 with a trumpet, 'twixt our tents and Troy, to-mor- 
 row morning, call some knight to arms/' Shake- 
 speare. 
 i.e. The 5th hour of the sun, will cause this: Hector 
 will, with a trumpet, 'twixt our tents and Troy, to-morrow morn- 
 ing, call some knight to arms: otherwise, the 5th hour of 
 the sun (being) revolved (had, attained), Hector, &c. 
 
 33 "He erred not ; for, by this (time, period), 
 }6 the heavenly bands down from a sky of jasper 
 
 lighted now in Paradise." Milton, 
 i.e. He erred not j for, this (time, period) operated so 
 as to bring this to pass: the heavenly bands down from a sky of 
 jasper lighted now (then) in Paradise. Otherwise, for, thu 
 (time, period) being revolved (had, attained), the heavenly 
 bands, &c. 
 
 34 " These have their course to finish round the 
 l6* earth by morrow morning." Milton. 
 
 i. e.. These have their course to finish round the earth v 
 morrow morning is to cause the course to finish. Other- 
 wise, morrow morning being revolved (had, attained). 
 
 35 " The angelick guards ascended, mute and sad 
 \6 for man: for, of his state Br this (time, period), 
 
 they knew." Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that Bv is. then used fox as soon as > not 
 latep than, and notes time. 
 
 i. e. The
 
 76 
 
 i. e. The Angelick guards ascended, mute and sad for man : for, 
 this (time, period) caused (had caused) that : they knew of 
 his state. Otherwise, for, this (time, period) being rkvoived 
 (had, attained), they knew of his state. 
 
 36 il By that time a siege is carried on two or 
 16 three days, I am altogether lost and bewildered in 
 
 it." Addison. 
 i.e. A siege is carried on two or three days: that time 
 causes (this:) I am altogether lost and bewildered in that siege. 
 Uiherwise, a siege is carried on two or three days, that time 
 (.being) revglved (had, obtained), I am altogether lost and be- 
 wildered in that siege. 
 
 37 " By this time, the very foundation was se- 
 ll? moved." Swift. 
 
 i. e. This time caused (that ;) the very foundation was re- 
 moved. Otherwise, this time (being) revolved (had, at- 
 tained), the very foundation was removed. 
 
 38 " B>Y THE BEGINNING OF THE 4TH «EN- 
 
 16 tury, from the building of Rome, the Tribunes 
 proceeded so far, as to accuse and fine the consuls." 
 Swift, 
 i. e. The beginning of the 4th century, from the 
 building of Rome caused (this:) the Tribunes proceeded s'p 
 far, as to accuse and fine the consuls. Otherwise, The begin- 
 ning of the 4th century, from the building of Rome (being) 
 revolved (had, attained), the Tribunes, &c. 
 
 IV. By, for ivay, considered as equal to Repre- 
 sentative, with a notion of Operator, in 
 general. ,. 
 
 39 " The Gods were said to feast with ./Ethiopians, 
 24* that is, they were present with them by their 
 
 statues." Broome. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that By is then for By proxy of, and 
 
 ^otes substitution* ,, 
 
 Here,
 
 77 
 
 Here, 1st. The Statues represented the Gods, were imita- 
 tions of the Cods ; therefore, the Gods were said to feast witU 
 Ethiopians, that is, they were present with them, the Statues 
 (being) representatives (of the Gods). Qdly. The Gods were 
 ?j|id to feast with .Ethiopians, that is, they were preseut with 
 them, their Statues causing them to he present: hence 
 their statues were operators of that state expressed by 
 " they were present with them (the /Ethiopians)." 
 
 V. By> for may, course, range, considered, when 
 necessary, as equal to steering (ranging, walk- 
 ing, riding, standing, &c.) along, sideways, 
 or sidlwise, meanings which may the more 
 truly be attached to those nouns as they come 
 from hygan (flectere, perambulare) — Thus are 
 presented, at the same time, the points of view 
 with a notion of at some distance from or not 
 contiguous to, each other ; and this may easily 
 be conceived by whoever reflects that the word 
 road is often applied to those parts of a coast 
 where ships may pass and repass, or ride at an- 
 chor — These and the land or coast are not 
 contiguous, yet both are reciprocally in view. 
 
 40 "Many beautiful places, standing ALOK& 
 
 17* the sea-shore, make the town appear longer than k 
 is, to those that sail by." Addison, 
 i.e. Many beautiful place^TANDiNG along the sea-shore, 
 make the town appear longer than it is to those that sail steer- 
 ing ALONG it. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that by is then for beside, and notes 
 
 PASSAGE* 
 
 I 
 
 3ETYM0-
 
 U 
 
 &TYMOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Ott ALONG, 
 STEERING ALONG, STANDING AL0NG, and OTt 
 BY for ALONG. 
 
 The least reflection will make it obvious, thht, in 
 the preceding quotation. By might supply the place of 
 standing ALONG, and consequently does not denote 
 passage (unless it be in regard to the eye), since the quo- 
 tation might have been presented thus : " Many beautiful 
 places BY the sea-shore make the town appear longer 
 than it is to those that sail by the SAID TOWN." A 
 little reflection will likewise make it obvious that the 
 words standing and STEERING might be left out. 
 The chief point then is to ascertain the real meaning of 
 along — This non-descript among Grammarians, who call 
 it sometimes an adverb, sometimes a preposition, is for 
 at long, in/lead of at length, and therefore, equal to the 
 length had (attained, followed, purfued, or the like) ; for 
 till the length be had (from end to end) , till the point be 
 attained where the length shall have been gone through 
 (See hereafter the Etymological Observation on AT, under 
 the 7 1st passage quoted). Perhaps, however, along is 
 Jor afhe-long, as z/~even length for even to length, even 
 to the length ; for, afne was used in Old Saxon instead of 
 efne — {See the Etymological Observation on en, Interlocu~ 
 lion LIII, page 53.) — Perhaps too along is for and long; 
 and, on this, see Interlocution LXVIII. As to By, in the 
 sense of along cf sideways, it may come from byge, a noun 
 formed from bygan, the chief Significations of which byge 
 is said to be conveyed by the Latin nouns flexus, angulus : 
 but this By may be a contraction of some other part of 
 bygan in the sense of perambulare which is among the 
 significations of began, as we shall see hereafter', now 
 perambulare is equal to these English expressions to walk 
 
 (pass,
 
 fpass y spread, extend) over or along ; and I cannot 
 hut think that byge itself has been equal to course, or 
 act OF, extending along, &c. — Returning to along, / 
 must o 1 serve that to pass along is, in French } passer le 
 long de, depasser, and longer, instead of which last sea- 
 expression, English mariners use to coast along, to steer 
 along ; nor is longer confined, in French, to seamen, since 
 it is used for to walk along, to ride along, to travel along, 
 in speaking of rivers, mountains, or some place which ex- 
 tends far. Cicero said, " Flectere promontorium," to 
 express which French seamen would say doubler le cap, 
 arrondir le cap, parer le cap, depasser le cap, passer au- 
 dela du cap, and Fnglish seamen "would say to weather 
 the head land, to double the Cape, &c. — The Old Saxcn 
 bygan e\ pressed the same with the Latin flectere: hence 
 the above By certainly comes from bygan, and so does it 
 whenever it stands for ALONG, PASSING along, 6ft. 
 If instead of along we were to use beside, as suggested 
 by Dr. Johnson, this beside would be equal to sideway, 
 or sidewise, occupying the side, possessing the side, as 
 we shall see hereafter. If we were to use sideway, or 
 sidewise, it would be equal to the way that the side pre- 
 sents. 
 
 41 " Ten sail passed by that port." 
 i. e. Ten sail passed steering along that port. 
 
 ,42 " I did hear the galloping of a horse — Who 
 
 a* was'tcameiy?" Shakespeare. 
 There is, after BY, a subaudition of the spot, the place, thit 
 
 spot, this place, or the like. Hence, I did hear the galloping of 
 
 a horse—-Who was't came riding along this spot? 
 
 • Dr. Johnson's first division as to the adverbial use of By- 
 
 VI. By
 
 so 
 
 VJ. By. for way or maimer, attaching td the same 
 the notion of reciprocally contiguous) 
 reciprocally NEAS,or the like, as neighbour, 
 companion, &c. See hereafter the note belong- 
 ing to Etymological ^Observation on By for 
 
 43 " So thou may's* say, the king lies by a beg- 
 l8* gar, if a beggar dwell near him; or the church 
 
 stands by thy tabour, if thy tabour stanC 
 
 by tills church." Shakespeare. 
 
 I^Ti'MOLOGICA L OBSERVATIONS OH By for BE- 
 SIDE, NEAR TO, IN PRESENCE OF, &C, 
 
 TBs Dutch use by for next to, close by, hard by, they used 
 to write Bij instead of By : the Germans use TSeyfor the 
 Englhh near, before, in the presence of, and By: the French 
 have given to their an tour de (properly aroundj a signifi- 
 cation equal to about, near : in old Saxon big was used for 
 the Lathi, juxta, as h'\ for juxta, prope, and bii for juxta 
 euhi : now bio; came from bigan equal to the Latin flec- 
 tere. — It appears therefore perfectly rational to derive the 
 .English _bv from the Old Saxo?i verb bygan, which had 
 the sa?ne significations with b'gan. See hereafter Inter- 
 focutiou LXI. On the other hand, the Old Sa'xOii verbs 
 bya, byan, were equal to the Latin Verbs habitare, pos- 
 sidere, occupare, colere, ineolcre, &c. and bugend or 
 buyend was equal to the Latin nouns habitator, accola \ 
 the English bv may then be considered as a contraction of 
 bvend, (from byaj and as equal lo neighbour, living con- 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that Bi/ is then for Inside, near to, in pre- 
 sence of, anil note* proximity of place. 
 
 liguous
 
 81 
 
 tiguously, dwelling contiguously : hence it is also per- 
 fectly rational to look upon by as meaning properly reci- 
 procally contiguous, and to say that the quoted passage is 
 equal to " So thou may'st say, the king lies, A BEGGAR 
 {being) contiguous {or, his neighbour), if a beggar 
 dwell near him {so as to have him near or contiguous); 
 or the church stands, thy tabour (being) contigu- 
 ous, if thy tabour stand, thk church (being) con- 
 tiguous: finally, the king and the beggar are reci- 
 procally contiguous, as the tabour and the church are 
 reciprocally contiguous. 
 
 44 " Here he comes himself; if he be worth any 
 1 8 man's good voice, that man sit down by him." 
 
 Ben Johnson. 
 i. e. Here he comes himself; if he be worth ariy man's good 
 voice, that man sit down (as) his neighbour, or so as thai man 
 and he (may) be recilMvOCALLY contiguous. 
 
 45 " A spacious plain, whereon were tents of va- 
 18 rioushue: bv some were herds of cattle grazing." 
 
 Milton. 
 i. e. A spacious plain, whereon were tents of various hue : 
 some (of these tent?, and) herds of cattle were reciprocally 
 
 CONTIGUOUS. i 
 
 46 "Stay by me; thou art resolute and faithful ; 
 18 I have employment worthy of thy arm." Dryden. 
 
 i. e. Stay (and be) companion to me; thou art, &c. 
 
 47 " He kept then some of the spirit by him, to 
 20* verify what he believes." Boyle. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that " By is then equal to at Aetna""— Now, at 
 hand is nearly synonymous with within one's reach, in a state of 
 proximity, near, not distant, and, therefore, with contiguous. 
 
 g i.e. He
 
 82 
 
 i. e. He then, to verify what he believes, kept some of the 
 spirit, him contiguous (not distant, him considered as one of 
 the reciprocal points, to reckon the distance between him and 
 the spirit. 
 
 N. B. Me, thee, him, her, them, us, now used only in 
 those cases called Accusative and Oblique, were anciently 
 used even in those cases called Nominative and Interjective 
 (the latter often answering the Latin Ablative absolute 
 case) ; consequently the resolution I have just presented is 
 strictly what it would have heen anciently ; though the 
 present custom forces us to say interjectively, he con- 
 tiguous or he being contiguous. 
 
 48 " The merchant is not forced to keep so much 
 Ho money by him, as in other places, where they 
 
 have not such a supply." Locke, 
 i. e. The merchant is not, as in other places, where they have 
 not such a supply, forced to keep so much money, him con- 
 tiguous (him not distant, him considered as one of the reciprocal 
 points to reckon the distance between him and the money). 
 
 49 " And in it lies, the god of sleep ; and, snorting 
 1* by, we may descry the monsters of the deep." 
 
 Dryden. 
 In this passage, there is, after by, a subaudition of him, since 
 by is there equal to what by him would be — Hence, and in it lies, 
 the god of sleep; and we may descry the monsters of the deep 
 snorting, him contiguous (and see him contiguous in regard to 
 the monsters of the deep). 
 
 50 w The same words in my Lady Philoclea's mouth, 
 3f as from one woman to another, so as there was no 
 
 * Dr. Johnson, considering this sort of By as an adverb, 
 placed the passage as an example to his first division in regard 
 to By used adverbially. 
 
 + Dr. Johnson says, in his third division in regard to By used 
 
 adverbially, that this By is then for in presence. 
 
 other
 
 83 
 
 •other body by, might have had a better grace." 
 Sidney. 
 In this passage, there is, after by-, a subaudition of us, since 
 iy is there equal to what by us would be — Hence, the same words 
 in my Lady Philoclea's mouth, as from one woman to another, 
 so as there was no otlier bod)-, ts contiguous* or contiguous 
 in regard to vs, might have had a better grace. 
 
 £1 " I'll not be by, the while; my liege, fare- 
 
 3* well : what will become whereof, there's none can 
 
 tell." Shakespeare. 
 
 In this passage, theie is, after By, a subaudition of you or the 
 
 persons present. Hence, I'll not be, the while, contiguous (t<> 
 
 you or the persons present) ; -otherwise, I'll not be, the while, in that 
 
 position that you or the persons present, and I, may be said to be 
 
 reciprocally continuous ; my liege, farewell: what will become 
 
 whereof, there's none can tell. 
 
 52 " There will I sing, if gentle youth be by, that 
 3* tunes my lute, and winds the strings so high." 
 
 Waller. 
 In this passage there is, after By, a subaudition of mc, or of 
 the spot. Hence, there will I sing, if gentle youth be contigu- 
 ous me (or contiguous to the spot) ; that is, if we be (namely, the 
 gentle youth and J or the spot J reciprocally contiguous. 
 
 53 (( Pris'ners and witnesses were waiting BY ; 
 3* these had been taught to swear, and those to die." 
 
 Roseom. 
 i. e. Prisoners and witnesses, reciprocally contiguous 
 fin regard to themselves or to the judges not mentioned), were 
 waiting ; these had been taught to swear, and those to die. 
 
 54 " You have put a principle into him, which will 
 3* influence his actions, when you are not by." 
 
 Locke. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says, in his 3d division in regard to By USed 
 adverbially, that by, in the examples quoted, is then for in pre- 
 sence.
 
 84 
 
 In this passage there is, after By, a subaudition of him. Hence, 
 You have put a principle into him, -which will influence his 
 actions, when ye are not (he and yon) rxciprocally con- 
 tiguous. 
 
 VII. By, for way or manner, attaching to the 
 same the notion of turning to and naming 
 (mentioning, pronouncing, uttering). 
 
 55 <c His godhead I invoke, by him I swear." 
 2,1* Dryden. 
 
 i. e. His godhead I invoke, naming him I swear — See. also 
 examples 19, 20, 21. 
 
 Etymological Observation. Look for De- 
 cline R, v. a. in the Dictionary of the French Academy, 
 you will read "Decliner, en terme de Grammaire, 
 e'est faire passer un mot par tons ses cas dans les langues 
 qui ont des cas, telles que la Grecque et la Latine." And 
 then, On dit fgurcment et proverbialement d'un hovime 
 tres-ignorant qu' " II ne sait pas deoliner son norn." 
 And again, Decliner son nom signifie encore familibre- 
 ment dire son nom dans un lieu ou Von n' 'est pas connu ; 
 comme dans s( 11 fut oblige de decliner son nom." 
 Now, decliner son nom is for to mention one's 
 name, to make one's name known. Observe that, 
 in Old Saxon, the verb began, among other significations, 
 has that of the Latin declinare, whence the French 
 decliner; observe besides that, in Old Saxon, gebige 
 means a grammatical case or inflection, which gebige is 
 a wordformedfrom ge (about, around ; circum, in LatinJ, 
 and from bigc (a bent, an inflection', flexus, in LatinJ. 
 
 ins. 
 
 Dr. Johnson says that By is then the solemn form of sxeear- 
 I " Upbraiding
 
 85 
 
 56 {i Upbraiding heav'n, from whence his lineage 
 33* came, and cruel calls the gods, and cruel thee, by 
 
 name." Dryden. 
 i. e. Upbraiding heav'n, from whence his lineage came, and 
 cruel calls the gods, and cruel thee, mentioning (uttering; thjj 
 name. See also examples 19, 20, 21. 
 
 VIII. By, for way used figuratively instead of 
 manner, method, attaching to the same an 
 idea of rotation or succession, each rotation, 
 each succession, each gradation, each turn, each 
 time, or the like. 
 
 57 " What we take daily by pounds is at least of 
 7f as much importance as what we take seldom and 
 
 only by grains and spoonfuls." Arbuth- 
 fiot. 
 i. e. What we take daily, the way or manner or each ro- 
 tation (being) one pound (perhaps two or more pounds), is at 
 least of as much importance as what we take seldom, and thb 
 hay or each rotation (being) only one grain or one spoo^ 
 FL'L (perhaps two grains or more, perhaps two spoonfuls ot 
 more). 
 
 N. B. In speaking so as to express rotations, the noun 
 may be either in the singular or in the plural : instead of 
 by the with the noun in the singular, one may use by 
 each, or simply a or an, every, each, per. However, 
 when several individuals are to come forth at each rota- 
 tion, the noun ought to he in the plural. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that By signifies then specification and 
 particularity. 
 
 f Dr. Johnson says that By denotes then the quantity had at 
 one time. 
 
 G 3 " The
 
 86 
 
 58 " The North, by myriads, pours her mighty 
 7 sons, great nurse of Goths, of Alans, and of Huns/* 
 
 Pope, 
 i. c. The North, great nurse of Goths, of Alans and of Huns', 
 pours her mighty sons, the way or manner or each rota- 
 tion (exhibiting) a Myriad, or several Myriads. 
 
 59 " We are not to stay all together, but to come by 
 6* him where he stands, by ones, by twos, and 
 
 by threes." Shakespeare, 
 i. e. We are not to stay all together, but to come (so as to have) 
 him contiguous (according to division VI.) where he stands ; 
 the 1st. way or manner or rotation (being) one (at a time); 
 the next way or manner, or rotation or succession (being) 
 two (at a time), and another way or manner, or rotation 
 or succession (being) three (at a time). 
 
 60 " The Captains were obliged to break that piece 
 6 of ordnance, and so by pieces to carry it away, 
 
 that the enemy should not get so great a spoil." 
 
 Knolles. 
 i. e The captains were obliged to break that piece of ordnance, 
 and so to carry it away, the way or manner (was) a piece 
 or piuces (being taken at) each rotation or succession, 
 that the enemy should not get so great a spoil. And, indeed, 
 by pieces, in that passage, may be changed into Piece after 
 
 PIECE or PIECES AFTER PIECES. 
 
 6 1 l( Let the blows be by pauses laid on." 
 6 Locke. 
 
 This is equal to, Let each blow be BY a pause laid on, the 
 way or manner? — (let it be) a pause following (every 
 blow) j so that, in rotation, a blow was to be given, then a pause 
 was to take place. 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says "By has then a signification, noting the 
 method in ■which any successive action is per firmed, with regard to 
 
 time or cuanlii>i. 
 
 Note
 
 87 
 
 Note I. Rotation expressed by repeating the 
 number with By before each number. 
 
 6% " He calleth forth by one, and by one, by 
 6 the name, as he pleaseth, though seldom the 
 order be inverted." Bacon, 
 i. e. He calleth forth, first way or manner, or rotation — 
 one; and next way or manner, or rotation — one; utter- 
 ing the name (see Division VII.), as he pleaseth, though 
 seldom the name be inverted. 
 
 Note II. Rotation expressed by repeating the 
 noun or number, in the singular, with By only 
 before the noun or number introduced by re- 
 petition. 
 
 63 " Common prudence would direct me to take 
 6 them all out, and examine them one by one." 
 Boyle, 
 i. e. Common prudence would direct me to take them all out, 
 and examine them, the way or manner (being this), one suc- 
 ceeding (the first) one. 
 
 1ST. JB. In such a construction, the terms introduced 
 with B v are to he inverted for the resolution ; the first 
 number is to take the place of the second. It is the same 
 when a noun is repeated without an expression of number, 
 as in: " The best for you is to re-examine the cause, and 
 to try it even point by point, argument by ar- 
 gument, with all the exactness you can," i. e. try it 
 even, the way or manner ? — (let it be) one point 
 
 SUCCEEDING (the first) POINT, ONE ARGUMENT 
 SUCCEEDING (the first) ARGUMENT, &C, 
 
 g 4 " Others
 
 88 
 
 64 " Others will soon take pattern and encourage- 
 6 ment by your building ; and so house by 
 
 house, street by stiieet, there will at last 
 be finished a magnificent city." Spratt. 
 Here are two sorts of By, one equal to Operator (for, others 
 will soon take pattern and encouragement By your building, 
 conveys the same with your building (becoming) the cri- 
 terion will soon make other people take pattern and encou- 
 ,ragement, see Interlocution LXI1I) ; the other sort of by is equal 
 to way or manner attaching to it an idea of rotation or 
 succeeding (the first) — Hence, Others will soon take pattern and 
 encouragement.OPERATOR (of this future event ?) — your build- 
 ing (become) the criterion ; and so, the way or manner, 
 (being this) a house succeeding (the first) house ; then the 
 way or manner (being this) a street succeeding (the first) 
 street, there will at last be finished a magnificent city. 
 
 65 "Explored her, limb by limb, and fear'd to 
 6 find so rude a gripe had left a livid mark behind." 
 
 Dryden. 
 i. e. Explored her, the way or manner (being this), a limb 
 succeeding (the first) limb, and feared to find so rude a gripe 
 had left a livid mark behind. 
 
 66 "Thus, year by year, they pass, and day 
 6 BY day, till once 'twas on the morn of chearful 
 
 May, the young JEmilia," 8cc. Dryden. 
 Thus, the way or manner (being this), a year succeeding 
 (the first) year, they pass; and, the way or manner (being this), 
 a day succeeding (the first) day, till once 'twas on the morn 
 of chearful May, the young /Emilia, &c. 
 
 67 " I'll gaze for ever on thy godlike father, trans- 
 6 planting, one by one, into my life, his bright 
 
 perfections, till I shine like him." Addison, 
 i, e. ill gaze for ever on thy god-like father, transplanting, into 
 my life, his bright perfections, the way or manner? — (this) — 
 one succeeding (the first) one, till 1 shine like him. 
 
 IX. By,
 
 89 
 
 IX. By, for way or rather other way, next 
 way, attaching to it the idea of turn'ng to 
 
 AND NOTICING, ATTENDING TO, OESERVING ; 
 
 when two dimensions are to be expressed, such 
 as length and breadth, as height and depth. 
 Dr. Johnson overlooked this division. 
 
 68 " There is in that house a gallery 5o feet long by 
 20 wide." 
 
 Instead of by, before mentioning how much of the 2d dimen- 
 sion, it is usual to say and; the French use sur where the 
 English use, or may use, by ; hence, it appears that this sort of 
 by is equal either to way, part or kind, or else to other way, other 
 part, &c. which seems to be likewise equal to add or also : how- 
 ever, this sort of by is still for way ; or it conies from the Old 
 Saxon verb bygan in the sense of to attend to, to observe, to turn to 
 and notice.— Therefore, " There is in that house a gallery, which 
 has in length 50 feet; attending to (turning to and noti- 
 cing) the other dimension, the gallery has 90 feet in width. — 
 Remark that the Anglo-Saxon byre or bige meant the same with 
 the Latin veibal noun Jlcxus ; and that by may be considered as 
 equal to Jtexu, Jtcxu novo, to the English on the other part or hand, 
 
 or to the French d' autre part, d'un autre cole. 
 
 ■ \ - 
 
 Etymological Observation on and used as a 
 
 Conjunction. 
 
 Mr. Tooke says that and is a contraction of the past 
 •participle of the Old Saxon verb anan, in Latin dare, 
 concedere, &c. which verb certainly existed — But ende, 
 eonde, are found in Old Saxon for what the Latins ex- 
 pressed by species, pars, angulus ; as endemes is for the 
 Latin pariter : again, ende and end are found for the 
 Engli/h end and the Latin finis ; instead of which ende 
 
 and
 
 90 
 
 and end, we find in the Gothic andei, andi ; and in the 
 Old Saxon ande, and. Now, " I knew and the father, 
 AND the mother, AND the children" is equal to if I knew 
 the father (one) part or kind, the mother (one, or ano- 
 ther) part or KIND, the children (one, or another) part 
 or KIND. See however the Interlocution on and and 
 ond. 
 
 X. By, for way or road pursued, attaching to 
 it the idea of occupying (possessing) the 
 same j or, for ranging. - 
 
 69 " We see the great effects of battles by sea j 
 8* the battle of Actium decided the empire of the 
 world." Bacon. 
 There is in that passage, before by sea, a subaudition of thct 
 powers fight, or the like ; and the passage may thus be resolved, 
 or explained, so as to make by disappear: "We see the great 
 effects of battles that powers fight ranging, or occupying, 
 the sea j the battle of Actium decided the empire of the 
 ■world." 
 
 Etymological Observations on by for occu- 
 pying or ranging, &c. 
 
 This sort o/"By may be said to be still for WAY" or ROAD 
 used figuratively, or it may be said to come from the Old 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that By is then for at or in, and notes 
 place The Doctor adds, ** It is now perhaps only used before 
 the words sea or water, and land. This is a remnant of a mean- 
 ing now little known" (he has not attempted to make it now 
 better known 5 I shall, in the etymological observation on by for 
 occupying, &c.) — The Doctor adds also, By once expressed 
 situation, as " by -west " westward: this sort of by will like- 
 wise be accounted for in the same etymological observation. 
 
 Saxon
 
 91 
 
 Saxon verbs bya, byan (to inhabit, to possess, to occupy) , as 
 it clearly means occupy i ng or possessing(Z« Islandic 
 bua means habitare, atidby means habito ;from the Gothic 
 bauan) : this sort of by seems to have expressed situation, 
 because an habitation is a situation occupied, a spot 
 occupied ; and bye, in Old Saxon, means habitation ; 
 and so does the Islandic bygd, the beith of the Irish, and 
 beit in Arabic. — Hence, by-west may be for way or 
 side, or situation (the) west, instead of situated 
 on the west, or of occupying the west. But in by 
 west, the word by may also be said to come from the Old 
 Saxon verb bygan, and to be for TURN to or turning 
 to, or ranging ; and as west- ward is equal to look 
 to the west, so BY-west may be considered as equal to 
 turn to the west, or turning to the west. — What 
 I have said on By-west may be applied to by-north, by- 
 east, by-south — / must remark after all, that as French 
 mariners say " Nord quart D'Est" for what the 
 English mariners express thus, " North by East ;" and 
 as quart de is for quartier de : so I feel less 
 inclined to derive this by from bygan, than from bye, 
 a noun equal to spot or situation occupied, or from the 
 very Gothic word I shall mention hereafter. 
 
 70 " Arms, and the man, I sing, who, forced by 
 8 fate, expelled, and exiled, left the Trojan shore; 
 
 long labours both by sea and land he bore." 
 
 Dry den. 
 In this passage, there are two sorts of By : the 1st is equal to 
 Operator, since fate forced the man; the 2d is equal to 
 ranging, or occupying, or possessing. Hence, " Arms, 
 and the man, I sing, who (being) forced, Operator (of this 
 his state) fate, (who being) expelled, and (who being) exiled, 
 left the Trojan shore ; long labours he bore both ranging, or 
 occupying, the sea, and ranging or occupying (the) land ; 
 
 equal
 
 92 
 
 equal to while he was on (he sea and uhit.k be was on the 
 
 LAND. 
 
 71 " I would have fought by LA'np, wherfc T was 
 
 8 stronger; you hindered me; yet, when I fought 
 at sea, forsook me fighting." Dryaetl. 
 i.e. I would have fought, ranging, or occupying (or pos- 
 sessing) the land (white I could range, or occupied, or pos-e>?cd r 
 the land), where I was stronger : you hindered ine; Jet, when I 
 fought, the sea ranged, or occupied, or possessed (i>y UlCj 
 while I ranged, occupied, or possessed, the sea), you forsook me 
 fighting. 
 
 Etymological Observation on the Gothic and 
 English at. 
 
 In many circumstances, when at is not introduced to 
 represent the forerunner operator, it is a contraction 
 of a past participle of the Old Saxon verbs agan, habban, 
 haebban, hafan, or rather of the Gothic aigan, haban, (to 
 have, to possess, to follow, to obtainj ; ahte is found for 
 had ; the preterimperfect and preterperfect of the Gothic 
 end Anglo-Saxon aigan was, for the 3d person singular, 
 aihta (hahehat, habuit, in English he had) — Besides, 
 jeht, sehte, zehta, &c. meant in Old Saxon what possessio 
 means in Latin — Again, airo; (astos) in Greek is for 
 house, place to be in, &c. whence probably the Saxon 
 preposition set for the Latin apud, ad, &c. but probably 
 also the Greek atrog, was formed from the Old Saxon 
 ;eht by the addition of the article os. The pretended pre- 
 position at, we shall have occasion to inquire further into, 
 See f hereafter, Interlocution LXVI. 
 
 72 "By land, by water, they renew the 
 
 8 charge." Pope. 
 
 i. e. They, ranging (or occupying) the land, ranging 
 (or occupying) the water, renew the charge. 
 
 XL
 
 93 
 
 XI. By the by, upon the by, by the way, 
 serve as interjective phrases. 
 
 73 " In this instance, there is, upon the by, to 
 * be noted, the percolation of the Verjuice through 
 
 the wood." Bacon. 
 Since by in such inteijective phrases is allowed to be a noun 
 equal, or nearly equal, to way, it is no longer a non-descript, and 
 consequently there would have been no occasion for me to meddle 
 with it, had it not been for the first by in by the by, and for 
 the initial by in by THE way : however, 
 
 Etymological Observation upon the interjective 
 -phrases BY the BY, upon the by, and by the 
 
 WAY. 
 
 The second By is most assuredly for way, in by the 
 by ; and so is the by, in upon the by — The first by conies 
 from the A7iglo-Saxon verb byean, giving this verb the 
 signification of perambulare, which began has. By the 
 by is, therefore, equal to what in Latin is expressed by 
 procedens viam, as in, " Cum tridui viam processissent"— 
 Cces. — Nor, is it to be wondered at that by the way, and 
 by the by, should be expressed in French by en passant, 
 chemin faisant — As to upon the by, it is equal to upon 
 the way, being upon the way, in French en chemin, sur 
 ]e chemin. — Thefolloiving passages quoted by Dr. Jo'hn- 
 son will now be easily accounted for. 
 
 74 " This wolf was forced to make bold, ever and 
 anon, with a sheep in private, by the by." 
 Lestrange. 
 
 * By, says Dr. Johnson, in regard to the passage I take from 
 his dictionary, is a noun substantive which means something not 
 the direct and immediate object of regard — Look into his dictionary 
 for By, n. s. 
 
 u Hence
 
 94 
 
 75 tc Hence we may understand, to add that upon 
 the Br, that it is not necessary. Boyle. 
 
 76 " So when my lov'd revenge is full and high, 
 I'll give you back your kingdom by the by." 
 Dryden. 
 
 XII. By and by, for near, or contiguous, not 
 distant, as to time. 
 
 77 " He overtook Amphialus, who had staid here, 
 ^ and, by and by, called him to fight with him." 
 
 Sidney, 
 i. e. He overtook Amphialus, who had staid here, and the in- 
 stant (he overtook him was) near or not distant (when he) 
 called him (Amphialus) to fight with him ; equal to, and soon after 
 (in a short time) called him to fight with him. 
 
 Etymological observation on by and BY,when 
 that expression is applied to time. 
 
 I see in it two terms which both mean equally near, 
 contiguous, &c. and these being united together by and 
 (see the etymological observation under No. 68 of the 
 quoted passages) , the whole has the force of not distant 
 equal to soon after, perfectly corresponding to Dr. John- 
 son's in a short time f (see the etymological observation on 
 by for beside, near to, &c. under No. 43 of the quoted 
 
 * Dr. Johnson, in his dictionary, at by and by, tells us the 
 expression means in a short time. 
 
 t That By and by was formerly used to convey the notion 
 of reciprocal contiguity, as to place, we have this example in 
 proof — " They founde two younge knyghtes, lyeing by and by. 
 both in armes same, wrought full rychely." — Knyghtes tale, fol. I, 
 p. S, col. 8. 
 
 passages)
 
 95 
 
 passages) — The following other passages adduced also ly 
 Dr. Johnson, to prove his definition, will not, I dare say, 
 require a?iy further explanation from me. 
 
 78 " The noble knight alighted bt and by, from 
 lofty steed, and bad the Lady stay, to see what end 
 of fight should befall him that day." Spencer. 
 
 79 " In the temple, by and by, with us, these 
 couples shall eternally be knit." Shakespeare. 
 
 80 " O how this spring of love resembleth the un- 
 certain glory of an April dav, which now shows all 
 the beauty of the sun, and by and by, a cloud 
 takes all away." — Shakespeare. 
 
 81 " Now a sensible man, by and by a fool, and 
 presently a beast." Shakespeare's Othello. 
 
 XIII. By, in composition or as a prefix ; as in, 
 1st, by-road, by-end, &c. 2dly, bystander f 3dly, 
 by-gone, &c. 
 
 82*. 1st. In By-road, by-path, by-way, by-walk, 
 by -street, by-end, by -concernment, by-law, by -coffee- 
 house, by- depend ance, by-design, by-interest, by-matter, 
 by-respect, by-room, by-name, the initial word in compo- 
 sition is a contraction of the past participle of the Old 
 Saxon verb bygan, which past participle is taken in the 
 sense of the French past participle detourne equal to these 
 English expressions placed or used out of the common 
 
 * Dr. Johnson says that By, in composition, implies, 1st, some- 
 thing out of the direct vmy t and consequently some obscurity ; 
 2<lly, something irregular; Sdly, something collateral; 4thly, 
 something private : adding, This composition is used at pleasure, 
 1 •vili be understood by the examples .which he causes to follow;. 
 
 • ■ tract,
 
 96 
 
 tract, placed in a nook or corner, unfrequented, and there- 
 fore private, particular, or the like : besides, the Anglo- 
 Saxon byge, among other significations, has those of nook, 
 corner. 
 
 adly. In such a composition as is seen in by-slander, 
 wherein the 2d word denotes the doer of what a verb 
 means, by is used with a subaudition of the place, the 
 spot, or the like ; and, indeed, a by-stander is one who 
 stands by the place, one who stands near the place— 'See. 
 the etymological observation, page 80. 
 
 3dly. In such a composition as by-gone, by-past, 
 where in the 2d word is the past participle of a verb 
 (which composition Dr. Johnson says is Scotch), by 
 is used with a subaudition of this place, this spot, or the 
 like, and the whole is equal to gone or past, with the 
 addition of having walked, or rode along, this place, he. 
 — If those expressions were used in speaking of time, 
 they would be equal to gone or past, with the addition 
 of having lasted this time. See the etymological obser- 
 vation, page 78. 
 
 XIV. By, with a subaudition, used after a verb, as 
 in, 1st, to put by, to set by; 2dly, to run by, 
 &c. 
 
 83. 1st. In " to put a thing by," or " to lay a 
 thing by," or " to set a thing by," or the like, by denotes 
 a state of separation from other objects, the object spoken 
 of is made distinct from others ; and a particular place 
 being allotted to this object, it is considered as if in a 
 nook, corner, or the like : hence by may be said to be a 
 contraction of the past participle of bygan, used as equal 
 to separate, distinct. This particular by, therefore, bears 
 
 a strong
 
 97 
 
 a strong affinity to the By, in composition, we have no- 
 ticed in the ist case of No. 8*, page 95. 
 
 2dly. In " to run by, to go by, to pass by, to sail by," 
 or the like, there is, after By, a subaudition in regard to 
 this pi ac*, that place, or the like, and by is equal to what 
 is expressed by steering along this or that place, or the 
 like : hence, by may be said to be a contraction of the 
 present participle of bygan, in the sense of to steer along, 
 to weather, to pass along, &c. See the etymological 
 observation, page 78. 
 
 XV, Be, in composition, as in, 1st, behind, before, 
 &c. 2dly, to befool, &c. 3dly, to begird, &c. 
 4thly, because* 
 
 84. 1st. Be, prefixed to hind, fore, neath, low, fide, 
 tween, twixt, or any such adjective, is not, as Mr. Home 
 Tooke imagined, the simple imperative be for be it, let 
 it be : but it is either a corruption of by in the sense of 
 way, or a corruption of the present participle of the Old 
 Saxon verb by a or by an, which means to occupy, to pos- 
 sess, to inhabit. — Consequently, before is for way 
 which is anterior, or for occ up vtng the fore part; 
 and so with the other compositions of the same na- 
 ture. 
 
 idly. Be, prefixed to certain adjectives or nouns used 
 as verbs, is often a particle from the Old Saxon verb 
 began (operari, to work, to make), which gives those 
 adjectives or nouns the force of verbs, and enables them 
 to erpress each a state operated upon the individual 
 spoken of, as in '* You cannot befool him," i. e. You 
 cannot make him a foolj and in, " The frost has 
 benumbed my fingers," or "My fingers are br- 
 
 H NUMBKD
 
 98 
 
 -Numbed by the frost," i. e. The frost has made my 
 lingers numb. 
 
 3clly. Be, prefixed to certain verbs, as to gird, or to 
 certain nouns used each as a verb (for instance, siege), is 
 often equal to the Latin circum (about, around), and 
 then that particle he is either a contraction of some part 
 of the Old Saxon verb began (to bend, to make go round, 
 to surround, ccc.) or a contraction of beb or beg, for 
 beah or beag (any circular form, circle, ring, &c. just as 
 the Celtic an or en, whence the Greek »vo; or evos, any 
 round form *, a year, &c, which served to form the 
 Greek verb awu, perficio, efficio, conficio, perago, im- 
 pleo, &c.) — Hence, to begird one, is, to gird one 
 around; as to beset a place, is, to set or attack 
 a place around or about: hence, to besiege a 
 town, is to FORM the siege of a town by placing 
 troops around or ABOUT. 
 
 4thly. Be, prefixed to cause, may indeed be the im- 
 perative be used elliptically : but it may also be a con- 
 traction of the present participle of began (to work out, 
 to make, used in the sense of to actuate) or of becnian 
 (to indicate, to show), since been is equal to indication ; 
 and, indeed, " I cannot write to him to day, because 
 I am not prepared" seems to be better resolved thus, 
 " T cannot write to him to day, cause actuating, 
 I am not prepared;" or thus, " I cannot write to him 
 to day, indicating the cause, I am not prepared:" 
 than thus, fC I cannot write to him to-day, be (the) 
 cause, I am not prepared." Again, since we say by 
 
 reason of, by reason that ; the expression because may be 
 /■ 
 
 * The French word bague comes from the Old Sa\on beag : 
 dnd anneau, written anciently annc'l, comes from the Latin annel- 
 (ut, the offspring of annus, itself from the Greek «*»<>?. 
 
 considered
 
 99 
 
 ' wnsidered as by cause ; hence because of for by cause of 
 and because that for by cause that, or by this cause that, 
 
 60. B. Many of your readers will be anxious to know 
 how it came to pass that Bv should be used to denote 
 proximity or contiguity of place or time; therefore, give 
 me leave to put the question to you. 
 
 LXt. S. Pick up a stick, which is not bent, but 
 straight; you will perceive that the two extreme parts 
 are more distant from one another, than they will prove 
 to be at every exertion you make to bring them to repre- 
 sent a bow— *Now, while the forming of a bow neces- 
 sarily brings the two extremes nearer to one another, 
 the other parts which diverge from the extremes, I mean, 
 those which, in regard to the central point, are in such 
 distances from one another, that some are on this side, 
 and others on that side, you, on examining attentively 
 the process, will discover that the parts both on the left, 
 and on the right, of the central point, will come nearer 
 to one another. Hence the Old Saxon verbs began, 
 biguity bygan, (whether or not from the German beugen, or 
 biegen ; whether or not from the Dutch buygeri), mean- 
 ing to curb, to bend, may be considered as the parents of 
 by and be, when these are used to denote any proximity, 
 or contiguity, whatever. A proximity or contiguity may 
 be established by different methods : a number of things 
 placed one behind another, or one before another, and the 
 rest distributed in the same order, may form a straight 
 line in which, though some are actually distant from 
 the center, yet all may be considered as in a state of 
 proximity or contiguity ; and here I must observe that 
 began being also found used, in Old Saxon, in the sense 
 of perambulate, the reason is obvious why by is found, 
 in English, used for along ; and even for during tb* 
 length of in speaking of time : when a number of things 
 
 n Z are
 
 100 
 
 are so distributed that some appear placed on the right, 
 and some on the left, of the central point, they may also 
 form a straight line : lastly, the disposition of the things 
 may be such as to form a curve line, though these things 
 should be placed one before, another behind, or one on 
 the right, another on the left ; and yet, all those things 
 are in a state of proximity or contiguity. 
 
 6l. B. Yes, certainly — But you have described your 
 little By as used with significations equal to around, 
 about, revolved, gone through, &c. and it even appears 
 that I may be considered as meaning something like 
 within the premises, within the boundaries, which notions, 
 to be sure, are not very contrary to what is conveyed by 
 the expressions near, at hand, at no great distance, but 
 give an idea of a circle or of a circumscribed place. How 
 did it happen that by should denote a sort of circle or a 
 sort of circumscribed space P 
 
 LXII. S. A curve line may be so continued, that, on the 
 two extremes meeting, a sort of circle will be the result. — 
 If, after having brought a stick to the form of a bow, you 
 continue your exertions so as, at last, to unite both ex- 
 tremes, you will obtain the form of a circle, of a ring, of 
 a garland', and then, every divergent part will have been 
 brought nearer to its opposite — Now, such a circle, 
 binding the objects within it, will give an idea that those 
 objects are at hand, or cannot be absolutely distant, since 
 they are within the limits prescribed. Thus it is that 
 by can be used to indicate, not only near, at no great 
 distance, but also around, about, 8cc. 
 
 But I recollect that I have to account for By so used 
 as to denote way, course, range, road, or the like. — I sus- 
 pect that By^ employed as a word equal to way, is in the 
 very predicament wherein the ancient French noun parage 
 has been a*long time— This word parage originally was 
 
 used
 
 101 
 
 used to express range, course, place of resort, way, road, 
 passage, and was applied figurately so as to become equal 
 to lineage, extraction, family, birth, issue. In time, it 
 became confined to denote road or tract for ships (as a 
 station, place to ride in or come to). Yet, I take the 
 French noun parage to come from the Spanish parage or 
 paraje, which is still used to express place of resort, range > 
 course, way, road, part, place. In German, Bay ex- 
 presses the same with the French Bate and the English 
 Bay, when said of a road or tract for Jhipping, or of a 
 certain portion of land in which the sea has cut its way, 
 and formed a sort of nooi, or cove : in Dutch, Baai 
 means hay — In German, hahn means way, road', and so 
 does the Dutch baan : the German verb hahnen means 
 to cut a way j and, in Dutch, the verb haanen means to 
 prepare a way, to make level. From whatever verb these 
 words Bay, Baai, Bate, did come, is immaterial, since 
 their signification is settled ; nor can it be denied but 
 that they may easily have become By. Again, the Old 
 Saxon noun byge (translated angulus, sinus, ancon), as 
 well as the noun hyht (translated anguhis, vel sinus, in 
 quo concurrunt limites regionum), come from the Old 
 Saxon hygan, which verb served to form, or was formed 
 from, the German beugen or biegen, the Dutch cor- 
 respondent of which is buy gen : in German, from beugen, 
 arose the nouns hug and beuge (a bent or bend, a bend- 
 ing), bogen (a bow), bucht and bugt (bay,creek), and busen 
 (bay, gulf) : in Dutch, from buygen, arose not only buys 
 (a noun equal to channel, conduit, pipe, or the like), but 
 boog (a bow, just as the German bogen from beugen), 
 and hogt (a bent or bend, a turning, a winding). The 
 latter hogt gives reason to infer that the German bugt 
 or hucht must have also meant a bent or bend, a turning, 
 a winding, and secondarily a way or path, a passage, a 
 
 H 3 road,
 
 102 
 
 road, &c. j to infer also that the Anglo-Saxon bybi 
 (formed from the verb bygari) must have meant originally 
 nearly the same with the Dutch bogt, and the German 
 bught or bucbt (that is, not only a bent or bend, a turn- 
 ing, a winding, but a way ox path, ^.passage, a road,&cc.) — ■ 
 But, the word weg, having been subsequently formed 
 (to express way, road, passage, in short, the Latin via, 
 as to Old Saxon, German and Dutch), the other words 
 have been confined to express road for shipping, incroach- 
 ment (of the sea) forming a sort of way in the form of a 
 nook, cove, creek, &c. * 
 
 62. B. When By appears in the particular circum- 
 stances wherein you attribute to it a double power, as in 
 examples 2, 3, 4, 5? 6, 7, 8, &c. and more especially in 
 example 39, what derivation can account for the same ? 
 
 LXI1 L S. The limits prescribed to a man are to be the 
 directors of his actions : those limits are to serve as pat- 
 terns to his conduct : but, I have other authorities — The 
 Anglo-Saxon dialects had the nouns bysn, by sen, byssene, 
 bisene, bisn, bisnung, bysenung, to express what is signi- 
 fied in Latin by exemplum, exemplar, norma, similitudo, 
 pr&ceptum, mandatum, ordo : those An,q;lo-Saxon nouns 
 would therefore justify my saying that by serves to ex- 
 press conformable, and to be a representative with a notion 
 of Operator : however, I have to observe that the Anglo- 
 Saxons had also the verbs beacnian, becnian, bicnian, 
 bycniaji, equal to the Latin annuere, tnnuere, indicare, 
 ostendere, demonstrare, portendere ; that they had becnan 
 and bycnan, equal to for mare, simulare, fingere, signifi- 
 care, innuere ; that they had the nouns beacen, beacn, 
 becen, been, becun t biecn, to express what is signified in 
 
 * See also the 1st, 2d, and third Articles of Interlocution LXVI. 
 as well as the 10th article of Interlocution LXX1X. 
 
 Latin
 
 103 
 
 Latin by signum, prodiginm, idolum : that they had the 
 nouns beaming, beacnung, bicnung, byenung, to express 
 what is signified in Latin by signum, signatio, nutus, tropo- 
 logia,Jigur:; : that they had beacniend-lic,becniend-lic,byc- 
 niend-lic, to express what in Latin is signified by alhgo- 
 ricus : that they had bycn'\end-lic gemet, to express what in 
 Latin is signified by Indicativus modus. — Who, on read- 
 ing this, and knowing that c is often changed into s, as 
 s into c, and bringing together bisnung, or bysnung, with 
 bicnung or byenung, will not confess that it signifies little 
 from what primitive word, in the most ancient languages, 
 all those expressions have been formed, since it is evi- 
 dent that by, when used for conformable or according to, 
 and when used as a. representative with a notion of 
 operator, may, with propriety, be declared to be of the 
 same family. 
 
 63. jB. I shall not trouble you any further, on my 
 account, being fully satisfied with the dignities and func- 
 tions with which you have proved your little By ha$ 
 ever been invested — You have now wound up mv curio- 
 sity, as to what you may say concerning my relatives, 
 at least such of my relatives as may be used each like a 
 forerunner, to announce the Operator, Operators, Co- 
 operator, or Co-oper.tlors : but, being afraid of fatiguino- 
 you, I will not press you to gratify, at present, that 
 curiosity ; and I shall wait patiently till we meet again, 
 if, not being quite exhausted, you favour me with a few 
 hints, to the end that I may prepare myself to enter, the 
 more readily, on a second interview, my assent, or my 
 objections, to your manner of tracing those relatives to 
 some word of such force as may make them appear each 
 equal to a proper fore-runner, announcing that the Ope- 
 rator or Co-operator is coming forth. 
 
 LXIV. S. The gratitude I feel,for the services you have. 
 h 4 done
 
 104 
 
 done me, would, at any time, recruit my strength j but 
 I am not fatigued, and you will find me ready to answer 
 any question you may wish to put to me. I must observe, 
 however, that, since you intend to give the subject a 
 serious consideration, my answers will run upon such 
 a broad scale as, bringing at once several points to your 
 view, will enable you the better to recollect those which, 
 may have escaped me. — What I am now saying to you 
 is applicable to my readers, in regard to whom my object 
 is to furnish ready materials, being sensible that the 
 surest recommendation I can have to their favour is by 
 the shortness of the trouble I give them. — I wish you, 
 and them, to consider that the extent and difficulty of 
 my undertaking are of that nature which cannot but 
 furnish numerous grounds for difference of opinion. — 
 These are, perhaps, inseparable from etymological re- 
 searches : but if it appear that, in general, I have had 
 cause for differing from preceding philological writers, 
 I hope that I shall meet with the more indulgence, 
 where, in common with them, I may be found to err, 
 as, by the notion of Operator or Co-operator, I am open- 
 ing a new tract, whence the others will be reached with 
 less obstruction ; and as I aim at rousing in people not 
 only a taste for investigations of the kind, but a desire 
 of contributing their share in rendering themselves use- 
 ful, by suggesting something better than what I am 
 going to offer. Were every one, who is impressed with 
 the importance of the subject, to come forward with the 
 result of his observations, in comparing different dialects 
 together (the only method which, in my opinion, can 
 be attended with any advantage), all those difficulties 
 would soon be removed which Occasion the loss of so 
 much time in the study of languages, both ancient and 
 modern. You called upon me to prove that I was ac- 
 quainted
 
 105 
 
 quainted with your real origin, and to enumerate trrt 
 several functions which you are allotted to perform — 
 I have done both. As for your relatives, it is not now 
 I can present a specimen of the gradual ways in which 
 they are employed, like that which I have exhibited with 
 respect to yourself; and yet, it is only such a specimen 
 that can enable my readers to decide how far I am right 
 or wrong. I have, however, proved, incontrovertibly I 
 believe, that not only you, my dear little By, butTbrougb, 
 Of, From, For, At, With, in short any preposition what- 
 ever, found introduced (in the modern and ancient lan- 
 guages), along with the Agent, the Cause, the Motive, 
 the Instrument, the Manner, the Means wed, or the 
 Measure pursued, for causing something to be, &c. are 
 each merely a fore-runner, equal indeed to Operator or 
 Co-operator, in meaning, but simply announcing that 
 the real Operator or real Co-operator is coming forth ; 
 and, as it was natural to infer that such a fore-runner 
 must be a redundant expression, I have proved this also, 
 by showing that some languages actually reject, in many 
 circumstances, the fore-runner, considering it as super- 
 fluous, and present the real Agent or Cause or Motive # 
 &c. in that naked manner which makes it appear that 
 the preposition is left out, while in other languages it 
 must be used because custom has made it a law. 
 
 I may err in some of the derivations I am going to 
 hint in answering your questions ; but I am confident 
 that my grand principle of Operator and Co operator must 
 remain true. If it be found actually to remain true, I 
 have not laboured in vain, and the classification I have 
 formed will the better enable the learned to determine 
 where my primitives are adequate to the object in view ; 
 and, where I am wrong, to point out other primitives 
 whence the notion of Operator would arise more con- 
 spicuously.
 
 106 
 
 spicuously. After that classification shall be properJv 
 settled,the attention of the learned will be directed to ascer- 
 tain how far I am warranted to deliver it as my opinion, 
 that, when the preposition cannot be changed into 
 Operator or Co-operator, according to the resolutions 
 they have seen, this preposition either must arise from 
 some different signification allowed to exist in the primi- 
 tive, whence came that word equal to Operator, or else 
 must have been taken from some other primitive : in my 
 hints, therefore, concerning the origin and value of each 
 preposition you may require, that I should discuss, 1 
 shall probably be forced to touch upon some of the other 
 classifications, because, like you, my dear little By, 
 several of your relatives serve each for different purposes, 
 and to some, certain functions have been allotted with 
 which you are not invested — J wish I could avoid doing 
 so, but I shall regulate my answers by the nature of your 
 questions : let me hear the first. ■ 
 
 64. B. Whence can be derived the pretended Greek 
 preposition a-aro, av, d^ ; the Latin abs, ab, a ; the 
 Gothic abu, and af; the Old Saxon of which, by a 
 change in the vowel, became of', the English of', the 
 Greek ec or ex (ex or e|) j and the Latin ex, which be- 
 came, contractedly, e ? 
 
 LXV. S. 1st. We find, in Greek, the word ihmt 
 but Lennep says on it u Vox rarissima, et dubiae aucto- 
 ritatis ;" which does not prevent him from telling us, in 
 regard to the preposition dnzb, u Proprie est genitivus 
 antiquus, quasi a nomine utso; j" and E. Scheidius sug- 
 gests, in regard to amo, that it may be a dative or abla- 
 tive, as a.'axi occurs in Homer — From the latter sugges- 
 tion, I might infer that auoj may have been a participial 
 adjective (from the obsolete verb «ot), whence, by con- 
 traction cty, dm>, «V. Etymologists tell us that the 
 
 verb
 
 107 
 
 verb azsa, quite obsolete, served to form a.Tt\a ; and that 
 the Latin apio, apisco, then apiscor, (aptus sum) came 
 from the same obsolete oLttu : the latter Ktstiv must then 
 have meant to connect, to Jit, to arrange, to manage, to 
 contrive, to acquire, to obtain. — Now, a-zcro? from the ob- 
 solete utsq), must have signified, as a participial adjective, 
 that connects, that jits, that arranges, that manages, 8cc. ; 
 for, the final syllable os, in a-arof, is the Greek article 
 of, which is equal to the English that or who : conse- 
 quently, the pretended Greek preposition dtso may serve 
 to announce that the Operator is coming forth : and, 
 indeed, Hachenberg says on olzso, " Proprie significat 
 principium, unde quid oritur vel initium capit. — If dtso 
 should be found serving also to announce possession or 
 the possessor, it may be because the obsolete verb o.tsuv 9 
 among its significations, had those of to obtain, to ac- 
 quire, 8cc. and even those of to have, significations which 
 the obsolete cL&w certainly had. 
 
 2dly. But, perhaps, some may think that the real 
 origin of the obsolete uzsu, cLtsqs, is to be traced to the 
 Gothic ahu; for nothing is more common than the 
 change of b into p, as that of p into b — Certain it is, that 
 the obsolete d@a existed in Greek, as a verb which "E^a 
 has replaced. The Latin habere has been formed, it is 
 said, from the Greek <x@siv : but these may have been 
 formed from the German haben ; they may have been 
 formed from the Gothic haban, the participle present of 
 which, being habands, equal to the Latin habens, may 
 have become, by contraction, habs, hah, ha ; abs, ab, a. 
 Again, I said that f%ejv has replaced the obsolete d$eiv — - 
 I find that l^u is a verb equal to the Latin habeo, pos- 
 sideo, sustineo, resisto, obsisto, cohibeo, reprimo, circumdo, 
 &c. and, what is particularly to be observed, e%*> is also 
 equal to preebeo mdteriam, causam alicujus rei affero.— 
 
 Now,
 
 108 
 
 Now, transferring all these meanings to the obsoktc 
 i|g«, cwrca, I conceit how the Greek preposition avc, 
 the Gothic preposition abu, the Latin abs, ab, a, came 
 all to announce, sometimes operator, sometimes possessor, 
 &c— We shall see herafter that a is not always a con- 
 traction of ab, abs, he. 
 
 3dly. Agreeing with Hacbenberg's position '* aiso 
 propria significat Principium, unde quid oritur vel milium 
 capit," I say that a word equal to father naturally starts 
 to the mind two qualities which act reciprocally in re- 
 gard to the producer and to the product! n — The child 
 causes him who gave life to be distinguished by the qua- 
 lity of father, and the latter causes the former to receive 
 the quality of son or daughter. This state of reciprocity 
 has, in my opinion, led etymologists to apply to ab, ap, 
 hjc. a signification which the primitive ab had not. They 
 have considered ap, prefixed to a family name, as equal 
 to descendant of; whereas they ought to have viewed ap 
 as a corruption of the element ab (whence the Hebraic 
 word aba was formed), and as used, by transposition, 
 to announce that the father or ancestor's name is coming 
 forth— For instance, the family name Vowel, said to be 
 a contraction of ap-boruel, should be considered as 
 Howel — the father or ancestor, elliptically for Howel is 
 (was) the father or ancestor {of the individual I mean or 
 mentioned} : for instance again, the family name Boweti, 
 said to be a contraction of ap-owen, should be considered 
 as a contraction of ab owen, and as Ow en- the father or 
 ancestor, elliptically for Owen is (was) the father or an- 
 cestor [of the individual I mean or mentioned). Thus it 
 was that af, by a mere change of b or p into f, came to 
 express the same; and, by a change of the vowel a into 
 o, that very «/ became of, still retaining the same sig- 
 nification. — Now, among the ideas, which a word equal 
 
 to
 
 109 
 
 to father naturally suggests, are those of source, origin • 
 hence, we must expect that of will often bring forth 
 whoever or whatever causes (did cause, or will cause) 
 any particular event, distinction, quality, &c. as well as 
 something from which another proceeded or is to pro- 
 ceed : even from a word equal to father, the idea of 
 possession might be conceived to arise ; but, in regard 
 to a/ (whence of) we have this resource, that the Old 
 Saxon verb hafin (whence the Islandic hafa), formed 
 from the Gothic baban, or the German baben, means to 
 possess, to have, &c. whence bafen (habens, possessio), 
 and contractedly baf of. — This latter investigation makes 
 it very probable that the Celtic prefix ap or ab, the Greek 
 otvso, the Latin ab, the Gothic ahi and af 9 the Old 
 Saxon af, of, and even ob (whether Anglo-Saxon or 
 Latin), as well as the EngHsh of may all have arisen 
 from the elements which served to form the Hebraic aba 
 (father). — How naturally must the notions of source, 
 origin, ancestry, &c. come to the mind of my readers, 
 when I inform them that the elements, whence the He- 
 braic noun aba (father), the Gothic noun aba (husband), 
 are found in the Hebraic noun ab, which means trunk, 
 stem, stock ! As the oriental ab means fruit, production, 
 race, offspring, issue, stock ; I easily conceive how it hap- 
 pened that the value of son or descendant should have 
 been attached to ap ; nor am I at a loss to see how af, 
 of, &c. came to be made a fore-runner to announce 
 possession, &c. 
 
 The Sclavonic and Russian patronymic was of, say? 
 Mr. Tooke; this is a mistake: hof, which, indeed may 
 have dwindled to of, means properly court, mansion, scat, 
 and figuratively^/a^z/v ; in French, famille, sonche, race, 
 ligne : and Pettr-bof, at first equal to Peter's seat or 
 mansion, may have been used for of Peter's family, &c. 
 
 wherebv
 
 110 
 
 whereby it is evident that Peter was the father or an* 
 cestor. — In Petro-wzVz, indeed, and Peterso/z, the suffixes 
 ivitz and son are equal to the Latin flius, the French 
 fits, the Greek uioj, and the Latin suffix «*, as well as 
 to the prefixes ftz and mac in Fit%james, ISlacdonald, 
 &c. * 
 
 In regard to Mr. Tooke's derivation of the preposition 
 o/'from the Gothic afara, or the Anglo-Saxon afora, this 
 consideration militates against it, namely, afara comes 
 from a-faran : consequently afara is literally equal to the 
 Latin ex-ilus, because a-faran means ex-ire, emigrare\ 
 and it would be very strange that, out of the primitive 
 faran (or rather far, removing the final an denoting 
 action), only the initial f should have been preserved, 
 which initial f is found to be used for many ideas very 
 different. That the Anglo-Saxon a-fora stands in the 
 same predicament, nobody will deny, — Besides, we find 
 eafora used for liber i, proles, flius, successor, in Caedm. 
 47, 22, and even, contractedly, eafr, also in Caedm. 
 10, 11; which eafora seems to be a compound of ea& 
 (possession, blessing, contracted into ea, or of ea cor- 
 rupted from the Celtic ua, child, son), and of 
 fora, which, as well as fore, served to denote ante- 
 riority. The word afole is found, in Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 * The O now prefixed to names, to signify the descendants in 
 any degree from a certain ancestor or stock, was formerly written 
 ua, as Ua-Brren, Ua-Neil ; now written O'Brien, O'Neil. — Ua sig- 
 nifies a Son, and is of the same root with the Greek uicus, gen. 
 ttious, ace. uiea, Lat. flius, so ua, in the ahlative plural, makes 
 ibh, whence ibh signifies a tribe, as Il/eragh, Ib'e»iai/c, &c. VaN 
 lancey, p. 61, Grammar of the lri>h language. Are wc to be 
 surprised that ua, in Iberno-Celtic, should be presented at a sign 
 of the ablative case, and considered as meaning something like 
 from ? 
 
 to
 
 Ill 
 
 to mean what is expressed by the Latin anima, mens^ 
 very proper wefrds as to moving to or causing to do 
 such or such thing : but, having reason to believe that 
 this word afole is itself a compound word, the dissection 
 of which would hardly produce any thing beyond the 
 idea of operator, I shall dismiss it. — Upon the whole then 
 the Hebraic element ab (whence aba, father), and the 
 oriental ab (production, offspring, &x.), afford the true 
 origin of the pretended preposition of or of, as well as 
 of the obsolete Greek verbs a$ziv and atsm, of the Gothic 
 preposition abu, &c. * 
 
 ■ 4thly. From e%oj (echo), which the obsolete verb ex« 
 (eco or eko) served to form, came Via (exo), as well as 
 «|wv (ex6n), equal to the Latin adjectives externus, pere- 
 grinus, and to the Latin Jbras, Jbris, extra, prater, 
 absque, sine (which is not to be wondered at, since the 
 adjectives, being used elliptically, would convey the 
 same significations) : from the adjective Ifa came Ifwrepo; 
 (exterior), t^uraro; (extimus). — The Greek preposition I* 
 (pronounced ec or ek) used before a consonant, became 
 \\ before a vowel, and meant the same, or nearly, as the 
 Latin ex, contractedly e. Now, these pretended prepo- 
 sitions are fully accounted for, thus : 1st, when they are 
 used by way of announcing Operator, they come from 
 the verb i%u, in the sense of causam alicujus rei affero or 
 prtebeo materiam ; they signify as much as in Latin 
 operator or causam ajferens, &c. 2dly, when they are 
 used to express the same as the English out of or not in* 
 they may be equal to the Latin externus, peregrinus : 
 3dly, they may be equal to the Latin participial adjee- 
 
 * Count de Gobelin felt this, at least in regard to the Greek 
 f word nfiawe?, which he derives from the Oriental, thus : " De pri, 
 fruit, et ab, pere ; mot-a-niot, Le ptre de \a.f<jcondite. 
 
 tires
 
 112 
 
 tives habens, possidetis, Sec. used by transposition, when 
 the noun they precede may be considered as the indi- 
 vidual or thing that has or that possesses the matter whence 
 an extraction is made j or they may be equal to the La- 
 tin nouns possessor, possessio. 
 
 65. B. Those who have had occasion to observe that 
 the Latin preposition ad (formerly at), the Old Saxon 
 <et, the Gothic at, and the English at, were often used 
 in the sense of the Latin apud, may think that they are 
 contractions or corruptions of apud. 
 
 LXVI. The Greek preposition avso has, in my opinion, 
 very little to do with the Latin apud : but, as the Latin 
 preposition ad is often employed instead of apud, many 
 people would be apt to consider ad like a contraction of 
 apud, which may have become apd, and lastly ad. I 
 cannot now but be surprised at seeing etymologists 
 derive apud thus : iS From the Greek a'w, changing 
 into u, and adding d, as med and ted are found for me 
 and te :*' I cannot now but be surprised, I say, because 
 I find not in avso the meanings attached to apud. The^ 
 real origin and significations of apud may be stated as 
 follows : 
 
 1st, In Anglo-Saxon, abutan, abuton (equal to the 
 Latin circa, circum, to the English about), by changing 
 b into p, and suppressing an or on (unnecessary, because 
 an or on is, there, only a termination), will give aput : 
 whereupon it is to be observed that, in ancient inscrip- 
 tions, aput is seen instead of apud. Now, I look upon 
 abutan, abuton, to have been formed from abugian (and 
 indeed, bybt was formed from bygan), which abugian, 
 though not found now, came from bugian (incolerc, 
 habitare), just as abugan, found to mean inclinare, in- 
 curvare, came from bugan (flectere, inflectere) — From 
 
 the
 
 113 
 
 the noun byhi, which bygan served to form, or from 
 such source as bugan, came the English word but in 
 the sense of bmndary^ he. ; the French but (aim or end 
 proposed), the French bout (end, extremity) ; the Eng- 
 lish bout (turn, revolution or rotation, what is done at 
 one time, or as a pastime) ; and the English about equal 
 to on or at the confines or boundaries^ in or within the 
 confines or boundaries, Sec. The French butte for bute 
 (whence the verbs butter and buter) ; the Latin bodo or 
 boto, and botontitus (found in those authors who wrote 
 de linut'ibus agroru.Tt) to express or denote extremity or 
 boundary , clearly conic from such a verb as the Gothic 
 beidau ; or from such a noun as the German bode for 
 boden, which we are going to notice. See in the mean 
 time Interlocution LXII. p. ioo, ior, 102. 
 
 adly. We find, in Dutch, the noun bodem for the 
 English bottom, andj in German, the noun bode or boden^ 
 for ground, lowest pi ice or p. irt, bottom, and consequently 
 place where a rest must necessarily be had, inmost part, 
 exlrem-ty as to the interior, Sec. These cannot but have 
 come from such a verb as the Gothic beidan (exspectare) 
 which served to form the Anglo-Saxon abidan (transla- 
 ted into Latin by manere,, exspectare, Sec), whence the 
 English verb t» abidf. The past tense of the Anglo* 
 Saxon abidan was abaci or abod, and the past tense of 
 the English / abide is I abode, from which [abode came 
 the English noun abode, equal to habitation, dwelling- 
 place, residence, spot inhabited, lodging, blace of st y, 
 continuance in place) &cc. And, as the Anglo-Saxon 
 verb buan had bude for its 3d person singular of the past 
 tense (which verb buan means, like bugian, habitare, 
 incolere) ; so, abuan (not found now) would have had 
 a bude for its 3d person lingular of the past tense. It ap- 
 pears then evident that;, from the first of these sources, 
 
 1 by
 
 114 
 
 by a change of b into p, would come apod, easily to fj« 
 converted into apud : from the second, would, by the 
 same process, arise apude, apud. That abad, abbd, could 
 have been changed into abot, abut, abud, we have this 
 proof: the Latin abbas^ the German and Dutch abt, 
 the French abbe, and the English abbot, are found to be 
 in Anglo-Saxon abbad, abbod, abbot, abbud, abut. Now, 
 on recollecting how often b and p are interchanged, one 
 conceives how easily abut, abud, may have become aput, 
 apud. 
 
 3dly. It is rational, therefore, to consider apud as 
 equal to habitation, dwelling-place) residence, place of 
 abode, spot inhabited or occupied, lodging, apartment : ,- or 
 the like, with or without attaching to the same the no- 
 tion of continuance. Now, as apud has been extended 
 to announce place where is such a person or thing, and 
 to present the idea of about, near, before, or in the pre- 
 sence of, among, addressing one's self to, attending to, it is 
 rational also to consider apud as containing, in many 
 particular circumstances, something of the force acknow- 
 ledged to be in the verb hugan (or the Latin fcctere) i 
 whereby apud will appear to be a particle equal not only 
 to habitation, dwelling-place, Sec. or to the French chez, 
 or to the English at used for at the house of or in the 
 country of and consequently among, but sometimes to the 
 English by which we have seen used as announcing thai 
 sort of contiguity expressed in French by en presence de^ 
 auprcs de; or as intimating as much as addressing one's 
 self to, attending to, and even about, around, rendered 
 into French by aux environs de or environ, autour de. 
 
 4th.lv. Let us now see what we can do with the- Latin 
 ad or at, the Gothic at, and the old Saxon tst. Mr. 
 Tooke derives the Latin ad or til from the Latin agere, 
 thus : 
 
 Agitum,
 
 115 
 
 Agitum,agtum, agdum, actum, acdurri, agd, act, ad, at. 
 
 Following the same process, when ad or at is a fore- 
 runner announcing possessor or possession (a circumstance 
 which Mr. Tooke does not notice), I might say that ad 
 or at cOmt'S from the Latin habere, thus : 
 
 Habitumj habtum, habdum, hatum, hadum, hat, had, 
 at, ad. 
 
 But there is, in Anglo-Saxon, the noun teht, and the 
 noun aht or able, which mean possession, and come from 
 the Gothic verb aigan (to have, to possess), whence the 
 Anglo-Saxon verbs agan, agan. I must observe, [ist, 
 That such a noun as aeht, aht, or ahte, is actually a past 
 participle obtained by contraction, and meaning had (for 
 thing had or thing being had, 8cc). 2dly, That if there 
 had not been such a noun to be found; aht, the preterit 
 of agan, would have done. 3dly, That, in German, the 
 preteritof haben i3 hatte± arid the past participle \sge-habt. 
 4thly, That, in Dutch, the preterit of hebhen is had, and 
 the past participle ge-had. 
 
 5thly. Again, at is frequently used as a fore-runner 
 announcing place where, for resting-place or habitation^ , 
 or, at least, •vicinity of place (another circumstance not 
 noticed by Mr. Tooke, who, indeed^ touched only upon 
 the Latin ad or at) ; and then it may be said to be a 
 slight alteration of some word like the Greek noun atrog 
 (aetos) which means resting-place or place of rest, place 
 of shelter j place to be in, house, inn, &c. ; or from some 
 word whence the Latin adis (house) has been formed. 
 As a further confirmation that the old Saxon &t, the 
 Gothic at, and the English at, when they announce 
 place where or place near which, come from such a noun 
 as the Greek aiTo,-or the Latin W«, I shall add that the 
 derivation perfectly agrees with that of the French chez, 
 undoubtedly from the Celtic noun cas, whence the 
 
 t 2, Spanish,
 
 116 
 
 Spanish or Italian casa (house). — The Italians joften 
 contract casa into ca. It' the Celtic noun cas had not 
 existed, I might have said that the French having con- 
 tracted the Italian cas i (or their own noun case) into cas, 
 changed the ca into cbe ; as, from the Italian or Spanish 
 caro, they made cher, so, from cas (for case or casa), 
 they made cbes, and then cbez. 
 
 6thly. Though Mr. Tooke's derivation would easily 
 suggest that '.he Latin ad or at, used as a fore-runner an^ 
 nouncing the Operator, might stand for actor equal to 
 agent, I think it proper to observe that, in Greek, dnla 
 (rctia) means as much as causa, ratio, occasio, in Latin ; 
 that we find amov to mean causa t ratio ; and ra ai^ia for 
 origines ; that we find dirto; to mean auctor j and lastly 
 dirichi to mean causa <vim babens, causam indicans. — 
 Now, as we find that the old Saxons used at and the 
 Goths at (where the English use at), as prepositions, I 
 gay that whether the Greek words mentioned came from 
 the obsolete Greek verb airco or ara ; whether the old 
 Saxon preposition at, and the Gothic at, come from an 
 obsolete Gothic or old Saxon verb such as aitan or a tan 
 or atari, or from the Gothic baitan (nominare, &c), it is 
 evident that the Latin at, ad, the old Saxon at, the Go- 
 thic at, and the English at, come every one from the 
 same stock, when used as fore-runners equal each to ope- 
 rator, agent, actor, See. — But what proves'that at and at 
 would, in the old languages, be words used with pro- 
 priety to announce Operator) agent, actor, maker, autbor, 
 See. is that the Celtic words alia and ala are acknow- 
 ledged to have been in many dialects of the Cdtae for 
 fatbtr, and atta in Gothic mcamfatber. 
 
 66.
 
 117 
 
 66. B. In the Gothic language, in the Greek, and 
 in old Saxon, we find that ana was used as a preposition. 
 
 LXVII. S. The word ana must have come from a 
 Gothic verb in anan, lost perhaps in the sense which 
 could, with propriety, produce a noun equal to operator : 
 but the Greek verb am (ano) must have existed, since 
 we find that a'w«, formed from it, is equal to the Latin 
 verbs perficio, conjicio, ejficio, perago, Sec. impleo, Sec. j 
 since we find that aw is equal to the Latin nouns perfec- 
 tio, absolutio, factum ipsum ; since wc find that d\a% 
 (the vocative of which was £va anciently, as if av*$ had 
 then been used) was an appellation common to deities, 
 given to any ruler, such as king, hrd-\ insomuch that, 
 in the holy Scriptures, those men are frequently called 
 Gods who were possessed of authority. — Can it be now 
 wondered at that ana should have served to announce 
 the Operator ? If I add that u was used in Greek 
 to express the Latin superior, tuferius, &c. who will not 
 see immediately (and indeed «*«£ suggested it) that ava, 
 the adjective dvu>(oi'dvet,i) } contracted by a\and sometimes 
 a, may serve to denote superiority, by going beyond 
 others, and that, from this, excess may result ?— As the 
 verb iwti is found to mean also impleo, and ava is found 
 used to denote that something is yet wanting, see In- 
 terlocution LXX. 
 
 67. B. I hive observed also that, in old Saxon, and 
 was used as a preposition, as well as ond\ and, on seeing 
 and-lang and ond-long were said for along (Latine, in 
 longum), one might imagine that anJ 9 ;r,d t a, must, in 
 this case at least, have had the same origin. 
 
 LXVIII. S. 1st. Nor would that person be irrational : 
 qnd may be a past participle of such a verb as I men- 
 
 1 3 lioned
 
 118 
 
 tioned in the preceding interlocution, equal to what we 
 express by to manage ; hence, and, and by a change of 
 the vowel, ond, could serve to denote operator or agent. 
 
 2dly. But we have seen in the etymological observa- 
 tion, after example 68, p. 89, that in old Saxon ende was 
 equal to species, angulus, pars ; and, as evnde was also, 
 used in old Saxon (ovspecies, pars, he. it is easy to becon- 
 ceived that eonde may have been contracted into ond, and 
 that this word ond may have been used to announce what 
 the French express by parti operant, the English by party 
 concerned, and that either of them is equal to operator. 
 This being granted, it is easy to be conceived also that 
 ora^may afterwards have become and. Nor is it ridicu- 
 lous to consider ond-long and and-lang as being equal to 
 such an elliptical phrase as the port — (is) the length, for, 
 the part to attend to is the length ; see the etymological ob- 
 servation on en, as em-lang and emn-lang are there men- 
 tioned, and those are equal to and-lang, &c. p. 119, Sec. 
 
 3dly. It is not improper to remark here that ond, among 
 the Cimbrians, meant anima, spiritus, animal : it came 
 from a verb corresponding to the Greek &vu, which, by a 
 change of the vowel, became om ; or from such a verb as 
 the Greek da, which, by a change of the vowel, became 
 cu : now aw means to breathe, to bhiv, and, in French j 
 Celui qui souffle la discorde, means the same as He ivho t 
 causes or who occasions discord ; hence, He is a sort of 
 agent or operator. 
 
 68. B. I have observed that the old Saxons used an and 
 on where the English now use in : I have also observed 
 that the English in and on are often used where the 
 French employ en : whence can those four prepositions 
 come ? 
 
 LXIX,
 
 119 
 
 LXIX, S, 1st. That the Anglo-Saxon an may be a 
 contraction of the Gothic ana is very possible ; and that 
 it may be a contraction of the Greek am (superior, supe- 
 rius) is also very possible.— r From the latter derivation, 
 an may be considered as equal to that causes or has in- 
 fluence to cause, and consequently to Operator or Agent, 
 But as on was, more frequently than an, used in Anglo- 
 Saxon, for the present English in ; as the French en so 
 often replaces the English in and on, and even by : I 
 shall enter into such details as may throw some light 
 upon their origin and value. 
 
 2dlv. We have seen, in page 53, that the French en 
 often comes from the primitive word which served to form 
 the German adjective eben or the Anglo-rSaxon adjectives 
 emn, efn, whence the verb efnan (used for the Latin per- 
 fetrare, pr&stare, he.) —Upon the same principle, I say, 
 that the primitive word which served to form the Gothic 
 adjective 'ibn or 'ibns (par, cequalis, planus, &c.) ought 
 to be considered as the origin of in, when this in serves 
 as a fore-runner to announce that the operator is coming 
 forth; and indeed, from ibn, came the Gothic verb 
 'ibngan (a3quare,&c.)~ By contraction, '/£?/ becamei>z used 
 in Gothic as a preposition, to announce that the ope- 
 rator is coining forth ; and 'ibns became is, used by the 
 Goths, as a pronoun equal to ihe Latin is, Me, or, in 
 English, (the) same. From the Gothic Is may have 
 been formed the Greek adjective foot which means alike, 
 equal, same ; hence, those who would not allow the La- 
 tin is to come from the Gothic 'is, would hardly reject 
 its being derived from the Greek element ig whence Itrcc. 
 Again, in Hebrew, is means man or male being, and issa 
 
 I 4 means
 
 120 
 
 means woman or female being. Now, from this Hebraio 
 is may have come the Latin demonstrative adjective is 
 to denote male, and perhaps the Gothic ts ; as from the 
 Hebraic issa may have come the Spanish and Italian essa, 
 to denote female, whence afterwards in Italian esso to 
 denote male, in Spanish esse to denote male, and esso to 
 denote neuter : custom afterwards may have allotted to 
 those words the function of recalling to mind some indi- 
 vidual already mentioned. -r-Let us return to the French 
 en, — In Syriac enu, ena, enh, being found to stand for 
 the Latin hie, ille; and hen, hena > for the Latin hie, iste, 
 ille, it is possible that those words came from the Hebraic 
 htn (mark, behold) : that word hen was very proper for 
 drawing the attention of the hearer to the object pointed 
 to ; and may be the origin of the Syriac hen, hena, and 
 by corruption enu, ena, enh, which custom may have in- 
 vested with the power of recalling to the mind some in- 
 dividual mentioned before or already known. When 
 we present an object to one's view, with some expression 
 equal to mark, behold, we force the individual, to whom 
 we speak, to fix his mind upon, that object, in order to 
 observe its peculiarities, and compare it with those of 
 some other object similar or dissimilar : now the repeti- 
 tion of mark or behold, applied to the same object, 
 naturally recalls to the mind, each time, the very object 
 •with the peculiarities which have already been observed 
 tn it or about it ; and this circumstance alone may have 
 ponduced men to view hen, hena, enu, ena, enh, as, 
 equal to what we find expressed by the Gothic 'ibn or 'ibns, 
 the Anglo-Saxon emn, efn, 6cc. that is to say, the same, 
 the like, &c. words which forcibly recall to the mind the 
 
 idea,
 
 121 
 
 idea of some individual mentioned before*. He wha 
 wishes to conceive all the gradual significations of such 
 particles of similarity, equality, Sec. may consult any 
 good German dictionary at the word eben both as an 
 adjective and as an adverb: lie will find that eben is used 
 for like, similar to, precise, exact, conformable to, of the 
 nature of , actually , precisely, &c Let such gradual sig- 
 nifications be applied to the Gothic 'ibn or i'bns, to the 
 Anglo-Saxon emn } efn, &c. to the English even or 
 e'en, to the French and Spanish en; their value will 
 be ascertained on very many occasions ; among those, 
 it will appear that en, constantly used in French (for 
 the English into) when the point is to express transmuta- 
 tion, alteration, change, metamorphosis, is constantly 
 equal to same as, like, or like unto, similar to, so as to 
 resemble, Sec. hence Habiller un homme en femme, i. e. 
 Habiller un homme comme une femme or d* manure 
 qu'il ressemble a une femme, in English, to dress a man 
 like a woman : it will appear that, when en is found in 
 French before a present participle (which present partici- 
 ple, with its complement, stands not for the operator of 
 
 * Samati, in Persian, means a boundary, a limit, a place where 
 any tigH or mark is placed to distinguish one territory from 
 another. — From the material feme of this Persian Srmttn, (a 
 boundary), may have come the abstract meaning of the Gothic 
 S<ima (ihat which defining, marking, ftgnifyiag, or expressing 
 a thing to be what it is, makes it eviaito or like what it is defined, 
 marked, signified or expressed) ; whence, the Anglo-Saxon and 
 English adjective *a»w (like, alike) — It was thus also, perhaps, that 
 from the material 'ense of term (a boundary), came the abstract 
 meaning ftf term, applied to a word (that whiihdefir.es, maiks, 
 .signifies or expresses). — This hint is merely an extension of that 
 yhich we fipd in p. 66. of Winter's Etymol. magnum. 
 
 am
 
 122 
 
 an event or a state mentioned either before or after), it 
 means same with the subaudition of time, that is to say, 
 en stands then elliptically for at the same lime, or and at 
 the same time', ai in; "Tout est connu, tout est pardonne, 
 dit-il a Coraly en Vembrassant." All is known, all is 
 forgiven, said he to Coraly, embracing her at the same 
 time, or and. at the same time he embraced her. It will 
 even appear that the English suffix en, which gives a 
 noun the force of an adjective, is a contraction of e'en 
 for even (equal to the German eb.en), and actually means 
 like, similar to, precise, exact, conformable to, of the na- 
 ture of, &c. thus golden is for like gold, of the nature of 
 gold, actually gold, precisely gold. 
 
 3dly. As {.he English preposition in, the French and 
 Spanish en, are so used that, in a great many in- 
 stances, they seem to announce the place containing, the. 
 place capable of receiving and containing ; as the same 
 may be said in regard to the preposition in used in Latin, 
 Italian, German, Dutch, &c. this point of view suggests 
 the necessity for fresh investigations. — The Gothic noun, 
 haima, haims, is translated ager, vicus ; but it was ap- 
 plicable to such portions of ground as were inclosed. — 
 Ham, htem, in Anglo-Saxon, mean home : this word 
 home suggests the notion of incloswe, fold, &cc. hence 
 from h<zm came the Anglo-Saxon verb b<?man, literally 
 to inclose, to fold in, but used figuratively only and so 
 as to express to marry, because one of the couple is sup- 
 posed to go to the habitation of the other and to remain 
 there, or because both arc bound by their mutual agreer 
 ment, which agreement was considered as a sort of in- 
 cisure. — The Spaniards, who call a house casa, have, 
 by imitation perhaps, made their verb casar (to marry) 
 
 an.4
 
 123 
 
 and casarse (to get married).— r-Hem, in Anglo-Saxon, 
 means border', hence the English noun hem, arid the 
 verb to hem, which presents an idea of inclosurc. — In 
 German heim is used for home, place of abode, to be 
 considered as an inclosurc : lexicographers, indeed, pre- 
 sent heim as an adverb meaning at home, in or to (one's) 
 home, and then as a word used initially in composition 
 to denote home, place of abode \ but, helm could never 
 have denoted, in composition or adverbially, place of 
 abode, if it had not primarily meant place of abode. — The 
 Puteh lexicographers are precisely in the same predica- 
 ment ; the word heyme (as answering the German heim) 
 is found in heyme-lyk (literally, homely, home like) to 
 express figuratively secret, as the German heim- lich does, 
 because what passes under one's roof or in one's apart- 
 ment (at home, or within a certain hem) is not likely to 
 be so well known as what passes in public view. Reise, in 
 German, means journey, travel, voyage, excursion, pas- 
 sage across or over f turn, going up or down ; and heim- reise, 
 said to mean return, is literallyj'owrw^y (to) home* . The 
 perman noun iveg means way, road; it became iveh 
 \\\ heim-iueh, to express that disorder which is occasioned, 
 by a longing to return to one's native home, for. instead 
 of heim reise, we also find heim-iveg, to express return 
 (loj home. It seems then that the German heim wasorigi- 
 
 * The Latin prefix re comes from such elements as served to 
 form the German noun «/«, and the Dutch /vy.v, rey:.t, which, 
 besides journty, voj/aqe, travel, &c. is found to mean time or bvut 
 yery proper to denote repetition, revolution, retrogradation, bark, 
 back again, &c. Observe also that the Gennan rcilie, which must 
 have arisen from the like elements, is found to mean turn, round, 
 scries, chain, order, rank, row. 
 
 nally
 
 • 124 
 
 rally equal to the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon bus,* to the 
 German baus ; as the Dutch hey me was equal to the Dutch 
 buys ; but, because heim and heyme became obsolete, it 
 does not follow that the signification of each was not 
 equal to home. From the German heim (home), or the 
 Anglo-Saxon h'me or biua (place inhabited or habitation, 
 since hina-ealdor or bine-ealdor means elder tj the habita- 
 tion^ father of a family > and bine-man means husband- 
 man, one tuba cultivates a portion of land for his family or 
 for some family, and since we find bine-weard for within 
 equal to towards the inside or the inclosed place) : from 
 those nouns heim, bine, bina, I say, came the German 
 bin, or from the German bin (arisen from heim) came the 
 Anglo-Saxon bine, hina. The German bin used adveiv 
 bially (according to lexicographers) to express here or 
 this place (side, way, part), was primarily equal to 
 bouse, place of abode, habitation, Sec. — The same bin 
 is used as an initial word in German composition, so as 
 to denote place of rejug e, place of safety , inclosure, house, 
 Sec. as in £i//-fliehen, to fly to a place, to retire to a place, 
 etc. — The German expressions bin-gang, bin-fabren, 
 said to mean death, are literally equal to going (to or 
 from) home, the act of setting off; nay, the verb hin-fah- 
 ren is given as synonymous to weg-jabren, and ex- 
 plained by to set-off, logo away, to go upon a journey. The 
 Anglo-Saxons had bin- gong, to express departure ; and 
 as sitb was, among them, wgy, road, &x. so bin-silh or 
 hinn-siib was, with them, equal to death, as a departure 
 from home, or a departure for borne ; and even now the 
 
 * VLencc-hitslcnd, in English, from hushond or Inishonda ; for 
 bond (the participle of bindan) means t/gutus in Latin, i.nd ionda 
 means maritus, spuu.se or man bound, father of tin -j'miuh/ y conse- 
 quently husband, is literal^ 'man hound to the house ox fuvdly. 
 
 vulvar
 
 125 
 
 vulgar will say of a man who is dead, that he is gone 
 home, or that he is gone to his long home. From the same 
 obsolete German uoun hin, or the obsolete Anglo-Saxon 
 noun hinn (seen in junction with sith), came, by re- 
 moving the aspiration, the Anglo-Saxon nouns imic or 
 inn (diversorium, hospitium, tabemaculum, domus, 
 caverna, cella, cubiculum, &c), and the English noun 
 inn : from that very Anglo-Saxon noun inn, the verb 
 innan (ingrcdi, intro se reeipere) arose; nor is it to be 
 doubted but the preposition in, used in so many lan- 
 guages to point -out. what may receive and contain, has 
 been formed either from the German noun hin, or from 
 the Anglo-Saxon noun inn ; which kin and inn come 
 themselves from the Gothic haima or the German heim. 
 In regard to the Gothic inna and 'inn, used as prefixes or 
 adverbs denoting inside situation obtained or aimed at, 
 they surely were primarily a noun equal to the Anglo- 
 Saxon inne or inn ; and the Gothic preposition or prefix 
 in is a contraction of inna or inn, when the point is to 
 bring forth a place containing or capable of containing ^ 
 instead of bringing forth the operator, as mentioned in 
 the 2d article of the present interlocution — With those 
 of my readers who have observed that in English in is 
 often found where at would not be wrong, the won- 
 der will now cease, since I have proved that both come 
 then from a word equal to hah it at ion, house, Sec. That 
 in was used to express inner part we find a remarkable 
 instance in a poetical composition given by Hickes in 
 his Gramm. Anglo-Saxon, p. jj?. There in in occur 
 together for in the interior part of. 
 
 Eardiath, aeth them eadige, There rent, with these saints, 
 In in them mynstre, In the interior part of t/w minster, 
 
 Vnarimeda rc-Lqua, Retiekt without number, 
 
 Timer monigc uundrum guuur- Which perfittm many miracles. 
 thath. 
 
 4 th1y.
 
 H6 
 
 ^tlily. The French and Spanish en, when so used a£ 
 to announce place containing or receiving, place capable 
 bf containing, 8tc. must arise from some noun that can 
 bf itself express such a notion. Heen, in Dutch, is pre- 
 sented^ by Lexicographers, as meaning way, tract, places 
 side, part, spot, as in, Hy is dat been gegaan, He is gone 
 that Way \ now observe that the way contains him, the 
 situation he occupies is in that tract. The same word 
 been is also presented, by Lexicographers, as used ad- 
 verbially for away ; it is then equal to the bin and weg 
 which we have seen in the preceding artiele, and its real 
 meaning is way with the subaudition of what a or on i$ 
 equal to. In beentrckken^ presented as meaning to go a 
 journey, I see literally to draw (a) way or lb draw 
 (along the) way, as well as to draw (from) home; which 
 latter agrees with the German verb binfabren. 
 
 Again; ebun, in Hebrew, means habitation; place of 
 abode, place occupied, situation occupied. Now, when- 
 ever the French preposition en is so used as to announce 
 place tuber e, place or situation occupied', or when the. 
 point is to introduce any subject as dwelledupon or taken 
 hold of, so as to appear a sort of figurative situation ; I 
 hesitate not to say that the same en is a contraction 
 either of the German heim^ or of the Dutch been, or of 
 the Hebraic noun ebun. When en is to announce any 
 commensurate power, the acting like or appearing like, 
 8cc. it comes most assuredly from such a word as the 
 German eben, or the Anglo-Saxon enin or efrij mentioned 
 in the 2d article of this interlocution, and more particu- 
 larlv in page 53. Yet, it would not be improper to con- 
 sider en as standing for way in the sense of manner, with 
 the subaudition of used, because way used, or manner 
 used, presents as much as way equal to that, way pro- 
 ducing
 
 127 
 
 uucing that, Sec. and consequently is an expression which 
 operator may replace with propriety. — Viewing e/? in this 
 light, it must come from some such word as the Dutch 
 /teen, which means wayi 
 
 5thly. It is possible that the preposition in should 
 sometimes come from such an adjective as the Iberno- 
 Celtic in, inn, ionn, which means Jit, proper, suitable^ 
 meet, right', these significations, though seemingly dis- 
 tant from equal, like, imply some notion similar to capa- 
 ble; and this might be extended to capable of receiving 
 and containing. Nor should I think him ridiculous 
 who would derive the preposition on from the above Cel- 
 tic ionn. It is onlv by investigating all the different man- 
 ners in which in, en, and on, have been introduced,"each 
 of them well exemplified, that it is possible to determine 
 whether such Celtic adjectives, as I allude to, have been, 
 at any time, recurred to or not. 
 
 6thly. Let us now return to the English on. — Setting 
 aside the latter derivation, which might at once decide 
 how on could in Anglo-Saxon be used instead of in, I 
 shall view the subject from a fresh stand. I have suggest- 
 ed that in often is for a noun equal to habitation, place of 
 abode, place containing or capable of containing ; and that 
 the French and Spanish en often are for such a noun* 
 My opinion is that the Hebraic noun cbun has been 
 changed by the Germans into ivohn, and by the Anglo- 
 Saxons into ivnn. The Germans made ivohn (habitation) 
 become their verb ivohncn, which means to inhabit, to 
 dwell, to occupy ; and indeed ivohn-zi\ (which is possessed 
 of a habitation or of a house) proves that the noun ivohn 
 (now replaced by wohnung) has existed : the Anglo* 
 Saxons made ivun (not to be found now) become their 
 verb ivunian, explained by the Latin habitare, degere, 
 
 morarif
 
 128 
 
 vtorari, continuare, manere, durare, esse, extare, consisted) 
 &c. : and probably the Islandic noun onn, explained by 
 the Latin one cccupatio, conies from the same soured 
 From the German wobn, the An^lo-Saxons, by a sup-* 
 pression of w, as well as b, got their on, and very possi- 
 bly this on was afterwards changed into mi: the Anglo- 
 Saxon on announced then properly, as well as in, some- 
 thing like habitation, place of abode, place containing, of 
 capable of containing, place occupied, situation occupied, 
 See; and so does the English on, which, besides, serves 
 to announce the subject taken bold of and to be dwelled 
 upon. But, at present, the function of the English on is 
 restrained to denote that what follows it should be con- 
 sidered as a b.:se to support such or such thing, or as a 
 ground-work which points out the original reason for 
 doing such or such thing. It must be confessed that the 
 ground we occupy is under us ; that the subject we take 
 up, bring forth to view, and treat or speak of, becomes 
 a subject under our consideration, the base of our act'ons 5 
 thai, at the same time, we are occupied or taken up by the 
 same : hence, a view arises wherein the objects seem to 
 present themselves as reciprocal in regard to contiguity, 
 and yet as different in regard to a situation which it is 
 necessary for us to declare to be either inferior or supe- 
 rior. What follows on is described to be lower, since it 
 is to serve as a base, while what precedes (or ought na- 
 turally to precede) on, is described as being upper, and 
 resting upon that base which en brings forth. After many 
 researches concerning on applicable to base, I say : either 
 up, having been prefixed to on, as denoting place (an*» 
 ciently, upon was much more frequently used than it 19 
 now, and where the simple on is now considered as suf- 
 ficient), a suppression has, at times, taken place in re- 
 gard
 
 129 
 
 gartl to up, and custom at last attributed to the simple 
 on the meaning conveyed by the compound upon, which 
 is actually superior place or upper place', or else, the 
 English must, in regard to their on applicable to base, 
 have considered it to be a contraction and corruption of 
 the Greek adjective cem (superior). As to the English 
 on employed, without anv complement, to denote con- 
 tinuance, process, or upper situation, J. am of opinion that 
 there is then a subaudition in regard to the noun, which, 
 if expressed, would point out the base. 
 
 69. B. Whence come the van of the Dutch, and the 
 von of the Germans, which are so frequently used by 
 them for the English of and from, for the French de, 8cc. ? 
 
 LXX. S. The German preposition von, as well as the 
 'Dutch preposition van } may prove to come from such 
 elements as iuon, wobn, wun, ivahn, &c. whence the 
 English verb to won (to dwell), the German verb wolmen, 
 the Dutch verb vjoonen; which verbs, like the Anglo- 
 Saxon verb ivunian or wunigean, are equal to the Latin 
 ha'itare, &c. (as in the last article of the preceding in- 
 terlocution). — In this German phrase " Ich komme von 
 meinem vater," I look upon von as used elliptically for 
 Jzvelling, place of ab.de, house, apartment, and con- 
 sidered as equal to from the house or apartment of, by 
 which elliptical von an abbreviation in construction is ob- 
 tained — To the having of an habitation is attached the 
 idea of a source of possession, as well as the idea of a pos- 
 sessor ; hence von and van may serve each as a fore- 
 runner to announce that the possessor is coming forth, or 
 that the source of possession is going to be mentioned. I 
 beg leave to remind you that the notion oi 'source is often 
 expressed by the w r ord house in English, maison in French, 
 Itc. that house is then used figuratively, and thus 
 
 k made
 
 130 
 
 made equal to extraction, family, ancestry, race, stock, &C. 
 —To this circumstance I attribute the German von and 
 Dutch van, prefixed, as the Spanish Don, to proper 
 names ; the same circumstance may have led to the 
 making of von and van fore-runners capable of announ- 
 cing the source whence an event sprang, as well as 
 whence a possession did arise ; and von or van, being ex- 
 tended afterwards to a space of ground occupied, was 
 finally used to denote a space of time. 
 
 Again, the Gothic noun fan is equal to the Latin 
 Dominus (lord, master, &(*.) ; hence the Latin noun 
 fanum (house of the Lord, &c.) — Many people, there- 
 fore, would say that, by changing the f into v, the 
 Dutch van would arise from the Goih\c fan, and that, 
 as the Germans are apt to change the a into o, the pre- 
 position von might also come from the Gothic fan. — 
 Though the preceding derivation of vow and v^n appears to 
 me the true one, yet I must confess that, if they be deri- 
 ved from the Gothic fan, the notions of source, source of 
 possession, as well as- that of possessor, must naturally 
 arise. 
 
 70. B. The question which I am just now prompted 
 to start may be ill-timed, as it may break the chain of 
 those ideas you intended to communicate : but, rely- 
 ing upon that affection which you bear to me, I shall 
 venture to ask you, how you account for so many of the 
 pretended prepositions to be used as prefixes in com- 
 pound words, and so that the former should have the 
 power of reversing wholly, or partly, the meaning 
 which the word annexed to them would naturally con- 
 vey. 
 
 LXXT. S. 1st. Among the participial adjectives, some" 
 
 are
 
 131 
 
 are Used, in the aucieut language, to express what is 
 done, some to express what is doing, some to express 
 what is yet to he done. The latter sort has, no doubt, been 
 liable to contractions as much as the others : hence, pre- 
 fixes arose which were at times for done or doing, at other 
 times for to be done ; now, to he done, far from conveying 
 the notion of done, necessarily intimates that the thing is 
 
 undone For instance, many of the prepositions which 
 
 may be derived from verbs implying toadd, to join, to associ- 
 ate, to Jill, to complete, or the like, are susceptible of being 
 used, so that the contrary will appear to result j because, 
 if considered in the light of what remains to be added 
 (joined, associated,completed), that very thing to be added, 
 &c. is actually wanting', and indeed, if you say, i( There 
 is a sum of i£.t?o, add ^.10 to complete <£.$o", it is as 
 if you should say, " There is a sum of £.10, a sum? 
 wanting £.\o, to make up ^.30." — This may serve to 
 explain, in a manner, how the French de, or the English 
 by 9 may be introduced to announce the difference be- 
 tween the state of an individual and the state of another, 
 or between a present state and a former one. " You will 
 find him shorter by the head," i. e. you will find him 
 the head to be added or wanting the head, in regard to 
 his former state, or in regard to another individual com- 
 pared to him as to size.— The French de, in this case 
 (for we say, " vous le trouverez de la teUe plus court), 
 may come from the Greek verb Uu (ligo, vincio) ; nor is 
 it to be wondered at that this very verb ?& should also be 
 used to express dejcio, opus babeo ; for, what you are 
 going to tie or join to another thing, may be considered 
 as something wanting to the bulk intended by you. — 
 You join an associate, merely because the associate ap- 
 
 K 2 pears
 
 • 
 
 132 
 
 pears necessary to you, or because you appear necessary to 
 the associate. Again, if, having 1, you say add i, an 
 idea is suggested that there should be 2 ; and, if, 
 having 1, you say wanting 1, a similar idea is suggested, 
 that there should ^be 2. — Upon the whole, my opinion is 
 that a word which appears to express an idea in certain, 
 circumstances, and the reverse of that idea in other cir- 
 cumstances, must have either a double origin or belong 
 to the class of words which intimating added, may take 
 that inflection whereby to be added is to take the place of 
 added, 
 
 3dly. Ain, in the oriental language, is equal to the 
 Latin negative ne, non, and the English not. — This ain 
 must have come from such an oriental noun as meant 
 negative, denial, or from such an oriental verb as cor- 
 responded with the Greek caria (equal to the English / 
 refuse, I reject). — But still the radix of «;v£M must have 
 been, either actually, or approximately, aw ; and the 
 radix of the oriental verb must have been, something 
 which, by a particular inflection of the verb, could pro- 
 duce ain. — From such a negative noun as ain, the nega- 
 tive particles ana, an, on, un and in, may have come, and 
 been used so as to reverse the meaning commonly attached 
 to the word which is not thus compounded. — Let us see" 
 whether any other origin may be assigned to those nega-. 
 " tive prefixes. 
 
 3dly. Ohne is given, by German Lexicographer?, as 
 a preposition which meaus the same with the English 
 without. — This ohne, which, in composition, beeoimi 
 ohn, must, like the French preposition sans, be equal to 
 some word meaning absence y and indeed it it a corrup- 
 tion of the old Saxon wona, won y which means the same 
 with the Latin nouns deficientia, inopia, indigentia } ab*- 
 
 sent'ia?
 
 133 
 
 smlia, d-efcctus, or with the Latin adjectives deficiens, 
 imperfectus, absens, expers, and (in composition), fra- 
 i'us, vitiosus. — To confirm my assertion, I need only 
 mention that the French preposition sans, and the ob- 
 solete Italian sanza, or the still in use senza, are cor- 
 rupted from the Italian assenza (absence). — From the 
 German obne, ohn, one may easily comprehend how the 
 negative particle on, for composition, was obtained and 
 used in Anglo-Saxon, as well as in Dutch, to denote 
 that what the second word means (when uncompounded) 
 is to be considered as thrown out, or dismissed, or of 
 little avail, in regard to the individual mentioned, which 
 individual is thus represented as destitute, or having but 
 little, of whatever the word after on can possibly imply. 
 To those who may still doubt my being right, I shall ob- 
 serve that hwon, hwonn, hwan, huon, are found in Anglo- 
 Saxon, to express the Latin faululum or pusillum, and 
 the German ivenig (but little) ; I shall observe also that 
 in old Saxon, the verb ivonian means the same with the 
 Latin dejicere, &c. — Now, the author of Dictionarwm 
 Islundicum, on the word aan (defectus), from the Gothic 
 wan, says " Nota hie Islandos a multis abjicere w ut 
 in ord (verbum) word, in orm (vermis) worm ; Gothic^ 
 waurd, waurm" — What the Islanders did, other peo- 
 ple did also. —The Dutch use likewise ont as a negative 
 prefix ; this ont is a sort of corrupted past participle, 
 arisen from such a verb as the Anglo-Saxon verb wo- 
 man. 
 
 4thly. Van is used, in Islandic and in Dutch, as a 
 negative prefix. — This came from the Gothic noun wan 
 (deficientia, inopia, &c), whence the Anglo-Saxon 
 prefix wan, the Anglo-Saxon wan or wana (meaning 
 precisely the same with the won or wona mentioned 
 
 K 3 «»
 
 134 
 
 in the preceding article). — From the Gothic noua 
 zvan, the Anglo-Saxon verbs w anion and wansian 
 were formed to express the Latin minuere, defcere, 
 auferre, demere, amputate, decrescere, &c. nor is it 
 impossible but that the Greek negative particle avx 
 should have corne from the Gothic wan or the Anglo- 
 Saxon warm. 
 
 5thly. The negative prefix un uteed by the Goths, the 
 Germans, the English, and the negative prefix in used 
 by the Latins, the Spaniards, &c. come from the Gothic 
 verb winnan, the preterit of which would be tuann or 
 ivunn (as rinnan becomes rann or runn). — This Gothic 
 verb formed the Anglo-Saxon winnan, interpreted by the 
 Latin laborare, conari, niti, pugnare, praliari, contendere, 
 rebellare, certare. The nouns win, winn, wyn, formed 
 from the latter winnan, mean labor, molestia, infortunium, 
 calamitas, bellum , and winna means bellator, hostis : 
 consequently, the negative prefix un (if not had by chan- 
 ging on into un), as well as the negative prefix in (if not 
 had by changing on into in), may rationally be said to 
 come from win or winna, and to denote that the follow- 
 ing word is to be taken in the opposite or contrary mean- 
 ing of that which it would signify if it were uncom- 
 pounded*. 
 
 Again, the Anglo-Saxon verb by nan is equal to the 
 Latin opprimere, vastare, impedire ; the Anglo-Saxon 
 henan means spernere, buimliare, impedire, contravenire ', 
 the nouns bynth, byntbe, mean damnum,- detrimentum, 
 
 noc urn en turn, 
 
 * It may not be improper to fay that the Anglo-Saxon itin was 
 used to express ideas very different from those mentioned above 
 as indicating reverse, jarring, misfortune; for the liquor called 
 ■sine, and afriendor beloved, were often designated by the Anglo~ 
 
 Saxou
 
 135 
 
 mcumentum, lasio, clades, contumelia ', as well as penuria, 
 res angusta; since bentb, benlbe, hentho, benlbu, are 
 found to have these significations : any of these might 
 have, hy contraction and corruption, dwindled to the 
 negative prefix in. 
 
 6thly. For, used sometimes in English as a negative 
 prefix, comes from the Anglo-Saxon adjective^fer, equal 
 to the Latin adjectives cassus, vacuus, improvisus. — 
 Now cas%us (unprofitable, vain, useless, idle, improper, 
 or, not to\ the purpose), being considered as used ad- 
 verbially*(unprofitably, vainly, uselessly, idly, improper- 
 ly, or, not to the purpose), will become equal to for used 
 as a sort of negative particle : as in i( Target my les- 
 sons," i.e. I get my lessons unproftably or uselessly ; 
 and in u He will ^/jrswear himself," i. e. He will swear, 
 himself idly or improperly or not to tbe purpose he should, 
 &c. — Jn German and in Dutch, the negative Anglo- 
 Saxon^rr has been changed into ver ; thus wrgessen 
 in German, and i^rgeeten in Dutch, express the same 
 with the English to forget*. 
 
 Saxon win or teine. — The reason of this is that the Oriental ad- 
 jective oen or oiu (pleasant, agreeable) was changed by the Anglo- 
 Saxons into win or iiyn, corresponding with the German wonne 
 (joy, delight). — Hence, win in Anglo-Saxon, vein in German, 
 wynn in Dutch, wine in English, vin in French, vimtm in Latin, 
 flivoc in Greek, are all equaJ to pleasant, gladdening, with the sub-' 
 audition of such a noun as liquor ; hence the Latin adjective ve* 
 nustus (agreeable, pleasant), and the very name of Venus. 
 
 * When this prefix ver is not negative, it comes from the An- 
 glo-Saxon noun J'wr which is rendered by the Latin gressus, pro- 
 fectio, iter, via, woids denoting transition, passage, and proper to 
 make this farr,- by its position as a prefix, equal to far, trans, over, 
 and to enable it to denote a change of state : and indeed, the ne- 
 gative for or ver denotes a change or deviation from the course 
 •which is considered as the right one. 
 
 B 4 7tbly.
 
 136* 
 
 7tfily, The Greek prefix fog must hare been a noun 
 equal to reverse, primarily confined, perhaps, to denote 
 evil, wrong, misfortune, or an adjective equal to bad, 
 evil, wrong, unfortunate. — In short, &?$ is a Greek word 
 equal to the Gothic adjective mtssd, (wrong, &c.) 
 whence the Anglo-Saxon and English prefix mis, and 
 the French prefix nivs. — Now, when the point was to 
 announce an alteration, so to be conceived that the veiy 
 reverse of what the second word, in its oncompound- 
 ed state, would present to the mind, should be the re- 
 sult, this alteration could be frequently pointed out 
 in Greek by fog, in Gothic by missa, in Anglo-Saxon 
 by mis ; and can now be expressed in English by 
 dis or mis ; in French by des or contraetedly by de, 
 as also by mes or contraetedly by me, and some- 
 times by dis : hence, to misapply, to disown, disunion, 
 disadvantage, discredit, dishonour, disappear, &c. in 
 English : hence, mesallier, messcani, misuser, in French 
 (wherein formerly the prefix mes occurred very frequent- 
 ly, in the room of which the contracted »ze is more ge- 
 nerally used except before a vowel, as in mecontcnter, me- 
 flant, &.C formerly written mesconte?iter, mesfiant, &c.): 
 hence also disparoHre in French ; in which language 
 the Latin dis from the Greek fog has been changed into 
 des before a vowel or h mute, and contracted into de be- 
 Fore a word beginning with a consonant, as in disunion, 
 disavantage, dishomieur, desapprendre, See. and in decre- 
 dil, di'pourvu, ditromper, dlrider, &c. formerly written 
 des credit, despourveu, destromper, des rider, £cc, 
 
 I think that what I have said, concerning negative pre- 
 fixes, will be sufficient to prove that every one must have 
 arisen from either a noun or an adjective ; and, therefore, 
 after I have added a few words on dis, as denoting separa- 
 tion
 
 137 
 
 ficn or diffusion, I shall not mention here any other 
 word of that class. 
 
 The Greek prefix 3i? (as well as the Gothic prefix: 
 dis) is a contraction of such a Greek noun as 2i'<n$, formed 
 from 3Ya> (separo, divido), to express separation or division 
 of an object into two or several parts. — The Latin prefix 
 dis, and contractedly di, generally comes from the Greek 
 $i considered as equal to separately, differently, diversely 
 or several ways ; as in disparo, discurro, &c. divido (for 
 dis-Jldo), diverto (for dis-verto),8tc.— But, sometimes the 
 Latin prefix dis seems to be for the Greek live, when the 
 point is to make the second word in composition express 
 the very reverse of what it conveys uncompounded ; as 
 in dissimulo, dissolvo, disjungo, 8cc. : and even in this 
 sort of composition, dis may be considered as denoting 
 separation. — The notion of separation is also found to be 
 expressed, in certain words which the French and English 
 have adopted from Latin, by the prefix dis, or contract* 
 edly di, as in *focerner, to discern ; divevllr, to divert, 
 &c. 
 
 The Italian negative prefix s is a contraction of the 
 Italian or Spanish es, for the Latin ex, and equal to any 
 of the negative prefixes, such as dis, mis, un, See— hence, 
 idegnare for <fodegnare, to ^wdain (" I sdain'd sub- 
 jection," said Milton) ; hence, jcontentare, formerly 
 w&contenter in French, now Wcontenter, and to dis- 
 content in English ; hence, .sfoi tunare, to make ^wfortu- 
 nate or to cause wwfortune ; hence, sbastare, to wwsad- 
 dle, to take off the pannel, formerly Chaster, in French, 
 now dehk-ter; from basto, pack-saddle, pannel. 
 
 71. B. I am curious to know what origins you will 
 jgive to the French d } considered, by all Grammarians, 
 
 as
 
 138 
 
 as a preposition denoting sometimes agent, sometimes ten- 
 dency towards or attribution, sometimes possession, some- 
 times privation, &c. 
 
 LXXII. S. The notion of Operator or agent, that of 
 possessor, and that of possession, (whether obtained or 
 aimed at) are those chiefly which the French preposition 
 « is allotted to convey : the other notions I shall state in 
 some future publication, if it be reouired. — For the pre- 
 sent, then, I shall content myself with giving you the 
 following hints. 
 
 In " Je ferai faire cela A mon fr&re," in the sense of 
 " I shall cause that to be done by my brother," many 
 Grammarians say that a is for the apo of the Greeks, or 
 the ab, a of the Latins : but that very a may be said at 
 once to stand for agent, equal to operator, actor j and 
 indeed " Je ferai faire cela : agent or operateur (dans 
 cette occasion). — Mon frere, is as if I should say : u Je 
 ferai faire cela ; mon frere le fera." 
 
 If " Je ferai faire cela a mon frere" were for " I shall 
 cause that to be done or made for my brother," not 
 only my brother will cause that I shall get it to be 
 done or made, but he will become possessor of that 
 when done or made —Observe that in the Greek and La- 
 tain ago, and the French agir, the real primitiveis ag. — In 
 Greek ayoj means chief, leader, that manages, that con- 
 trives, &c. and in Latin agens means the same or nearly: 
 now, since these are virtually equal to operator, there is 
 no necessity to recur to the Greek d^c, and it is more 
 convenient to derive, in this instance, the French^ from 
 ago or ayo$ : however the French a for operator mav be 
 an abbreviation of the Hebraic and Oriental ab mention- 
 ed in the 3d article of Interlocution LXV; and in 
 
 many
 
 139 
 
 many other circumstances it may be a contraction of the 
 Latin ad or of the Gothic at, as mentioned in the 4th, 
 5th, and 6th articles of Interlocution LXVI. When the 
 French d appears before a noun which may, by any 
 me. ms, be considered as a possessor or as a possession, it 
 may indeed be said to be I contraction which represents 
 the value of ayant, or of avoir (taken substantively, as if 
 it were V avoir de). — This French verb avoir has been 
 formed from the Italianaiw*, this from the Greek a|?Eiv,or 
 ihe Latin habere: besides, the Goths had the verb haban, 
 whence the English have : the Anglo-Saxons had 
 bakbait, hcebban, hafan, &c. &c. — Observe, that you can 
 deprive an individual of that only which he possesses : 
 observe, also, that when you give or attribute any thing 
 to an individual, this individual is virtually made by 
 you the possessor of the same. 
 
 72. B. The Latin, the Spanish and French de, the 
 Italian di and da, and the Greek Sia, return so very often 
 each in its respective language, that I must beg of you 
 to state what your thoughts are about their origins. 
 
 LXXIII. S. Suppose I derive the preposition de from 
 the oriental dei (sufficient), it may be considered as bring- 
 ing forth who or what is, has been, or will be sufficient 
 for (or equal to) the producing of the thing already men- 
 tioned or to be mentioned afterwards, an idea which is 
 of a value similar to that of operator. — If I derive that 
 preposition from such a verb as the Greek o«a (invenio), 
 it may be considered as bringing forth the source when 
 springs, sprang, or will spring any event, condition, dis- 
 tinction, &c. — If I derive it from the Greek verb dsu as 
 meaning I tie, or bind, or join, or fasten, it may be con- 
 sidered as equal to the French liant, He* (tying, tie) : 
 
 from
 
 140 
 
 from that verb was formed fovpai, to be wanting, to be de- 
 prived, because what we add to form the complement 
 #f a thing is wanting to form the complement : from the 
 same verb was fonned Sew, what ought to be, what must 
 be, conveniency, decency , proper : the verbs J*», dec*, $f*, dow, 
 &xa>, Sex®, otxofioa, will, by an attentive examination, 
 serve to explain how the preposition de may have become 
 a fore-runner, to announce source whence something pro- 
 ceeds, proceeded, or will proceed ; every one of those 
 verbs having meant I give, I distribute, I dispense, J 
 communicate, I extract, 1 separate, 8cc. it is evident that 
 what follows de, may be considered as a sort oi possessor, 
 for in order to give, or distribute, vou must have, and 
 hence, it might be conceived how, in a vast number of 
 circumstances, the French de serves to supply the French 
 a, and vice versa, sometimes for the sake of variety. This 
 subject requires elucidations by means of examples ; not 
 wishing to throw the least confusion into the way of 
 operator, I shall content myself, for the present, to obi- 
 serve that, when the French de, in connecting two words, 
 brings forth the possessor, l'avoiji (the property) is sup- 
 pressed by ellipsis, and the noun which comes after de 
 points out the possessor : if that de brings forth the pos- 
 session, it may then be considered as equal to join, and 
 the noun which comes after de may point out what, 
 being joined, will explain or determine the source, man- 
 ner, nature, &c. as to some preceding word. Again, if 
 the preposition de be derived from the Celtic de or dhe 
 in the sense of chief, it might be considered as bringing 
 forth the principal operator or agent, or at least the first 
 point, first object, matter first had, &c. and thus made to 
 correspond with the English preposition from. From 
 
 the
 
 141 
 
 the idea of chief, the word de or dhe may easily have been' 
 extended to those of extraction, family, ancestry, race, 
 stock, &c. Many French proper names have the prefix 
 de, perhaps from the latter circumstance, as often as 
 from the place which occasioned those proper names. 
 
 But, it will be found that most of the prepositions, 
 which are used to announce the operator, are words equal 
 to the nouns way, ccurse, means, manner, or the like, 
 because what is introduced by such prepositions comes in 
 answer to the question hoiv P Therefore, I am inclined 
 to think that the preposition de comes from such a word 
 as, in the primitive languages, actually expressed some- 
 thing like way, course, means, manner, or \source Now 
 
 I find that in Jberno -Celtic da or ta (which, in certain 
 circumstances, became dha or thd) was used to denote 
 manner or nature similar, to what the preceding noun 
 expressed by itself, as in fear-dha or fcar-tba, man-like, 
 manly, speaking of a virago or one who has the nature 
 or manner suitable to a man ; as in bean-ta, or bean-da, 
 woman-like, womanly, speaking of one who is effeminate, 
 or who has the nature or manner suitable to a woman. 
 In this point of view da, ta, producing the very effect 
 which we sometimes see in German, by means of weis 
 or iveise (in Dutch, by means of zuys, wyze, in English, 
 by means of wise or way), it would not be irrational to 
 say that §uch a noun as da or ta has existed and been 
 used to express actually, and by itself, manner, way, 
 mode, &c. : that the Italian preposition da may be that very 
 noun, used elliptically : that the Latin, Spanish, and 
 French de is a slight alteration of the same, and may be 
 looked upon as equal to manner used elliptically, and as a 
 fore-runner bringing forth that which is necessary to ex- 
 plain
 
 .142 
 
 plain how a thing comes, came, or will coiile to piss j 
 or how certain distinction is, was, of will be established, 
 
 &c Even, if the Iberno-Celtic da, ta, be considered as 
 
 an adjective equal to like, similar, equal, exhibiting the 
 qualities of, such an adjective would be proper for bring- 
 ing forth the manner how, and consequently the operator j 
 as well as for establishing distinctions arising from what 
 da or de brings along. 
 
 Again, di, de, dia, in Celtic expressed the divinity j 
 and di, de, die, expressed light, day-light, day. — With 
 the Latins God was deus, and day or light was dies : with 
 the Greeks Ztu;, <J)j, 2loj, &cc. was Jupiter, and they used 
 £« and 3ia as prepositions. The French, in the days of 
 the week, Lundi, Mardi, Mercredi, Jeudi, Vendredi> 
 Samedi, Dimanche, have retained the Celtic di (day), and 
 God is with them Dieu : the Spaniards, with whom God 
 is dios, have dia for day ; the Italians with whom God is 
 dio, have di and dia for day ; and, it is to be observed 
 that they anciently used the preposition di instead of 
 da, which circumstance gives reason to suspect that da 
 (perhaps as a contraction of *&«) having been used, through 
 affectation, by some author or some, eminent person, be- 
 came a favourite word, in which subsequent commenta- 
 tors imagined they discovered some particular difference 
 as to signification. The Greek preposition &a, accord- 
 ing to Lennep, " proprie notat per et dicitur a permeando, 
 quae notio verbo llu, perinde at que $du, et &a adest :" 
 E. Scheidius says on Seoxw (video) ll a Jlndendo, sive acic 
 penctrandfly quae prima notio est verborum &zu, Jiw, di'<u :'* 
 at llu Lennep says " Quidquid vehementer mo vet, aut 
 movetur ex uno in alium locum penetrando, dicitur pro- 
 prie fiitv." — My opinion is that those verbs were formed 
 
 from
 
 143 
 
 from the notion of the dawning of light and of its power 
 of penetrating through the least crevice and dispelling 
 darkness, or at least removing it partly*. Dags in 
 Gothic is light ; in Anglo-Saxon light is d<?g, dcci, dag, 
 dah, dcg, and Aurora or dawn is dagung. — In Anglo- 
 Saxon, to dawn, is dagian, which in German is tagen 
 (because light is there tag) ; and in Dutch, it is dagen 
 (because light is there dag). — The notion of light, ap- 
 plied to that part of the twenty-four hours wherein light 
 remains, was considered as forming together the day, 
 and, afterwards the twenty-four hours were called day 
 though part of these were wrapped up in darkness. — Jour, 
 in French, is not only for light and the twenty-four 
 hours into which the day is divided, but it is used figu- 
 ratively for point of view in regard to judging of pictures, 
 of actions, &x. as well as for means, way, manner, op- 
 portunity. In English, too, light is figuratively for point 
 of view, and is said besides of any information, of what 
 clears up any doubt, of any thing capable of bringing 
 things to evidence : to dawn is said of the effect produced 
 3t the time between the first appearance of light, and the 
 sun's rise; and dawn expresses figuratively beginnings 
 first rise, promise of lustre or of future beneft. This 
 investigation warrants me to say that the prepositions da, 
 de, di, dia, are words which all claim the same origin 
 (from the Celtic), and may be each considered as a 
 noun which serves to bring forth who or what is, was > 
 or will be the principle of any event or condition (con- 
 
 * This primitive signification is actually equal to those con- 
 veyed by to scatter, to disperse ; and observe that the oriental 
 verb dht!c\s equal to what we t'xpfess in English by to drive, t</ 
 repel, topush. 
 
 sequently,
 
 144 
 
 sequent! y, the operator of the same), or else, who of 
 •what is, was, or will be, the principle or the source whence 
 any distinction springs, sprang, or will spring. 
 
 73. B. How will you account for the English from, so 
 often used where the Italians would use da; where 
 the French and Spaniards would use de, as denoting 
 extraction or separation', which from is sometimes con- 
 tracted into fro, and which, in old Saxon, was fram f 
 sometimes fra, sometimesyVoOT. 
 
 LXXIV. S. In Gothic, the words fruma, frumo and 
 frum, are found to mean principium, orlgo, auctor, pri- 
 mus : there also are found frumist for primm, and fru- 
 misti for milium. — You see that those significations are 
 closely connected with those alfotted to the English dawn. 
 I am inclined to believe that the verb fruman has existed 
 in Gothic, and that fruma, frumo, were participial adjec- 
 tives meaning creating, producing, &c. I believe also, 
 that the Gothic language had such a secondary verb, as 
 framan, which would have given from for the 3d person 
 singular of the preterit (as, from grab an came grab or 
 grof) ; and whence fram (said to be a preposition), as a 
 contraction of such a participial adjective zsframa or 
 framo. However, the old Saxons had the verbs fremman 
 or f reman, framan, framian, fremian, fromian, to ex- 
 press the value of the Latin verbs prodesse, expedire, va- 
 lere, facere, facessere : the English have the noun frame, 
 and the verb to frame (to form, to make, contrive, plan, 
 invent, &c.) — Now, on finding that fram and from were 
 used, among the old Saxons, to express these Latin ad- 
 jectives efficax, pra;stans, acris, strenuus ; on rinding that 
 the \ s\and\c framur (m which the finalaris amere article) 
 had the same meanings, I hesitate not to pronounce, 1st, 
 
 that
 
 u.3 
 
 that from may be usee! as a forerunner to announce ope- 
 rator; and sdly, that f rem may be used as a forerunner to 
 im\win\cejirsl,jirst point, jirst object, matter Jirst bad*, 
 &c. — Now, if such a person or such a thing must be had 
 before an event can take place, that very person or thing 
 becomes virtuallv an agent or art operator as to the event, 
 While he is, or it is, a sort of possessor, or possession. 
 
 74. B. Do Vou think that the English preposition- 
 with meansj at all times, be or join f 
 
 LXXV. S. No.— j st. When the point is to present 
 merely ah idea of association or concomitance, such as is 
 expressed in French by avec, in Latin by cum, it is cer- 
 tain that with is then either the imperative of the Gothic 
 verb withan, in Latin jnngere-, in English to join, or a 
 contraction of the old Saxon noun with the or withe, in 
 Latin loranientum, restis, 'vinculum, redimiculum, in 
 English band or whatever serves to join or fasten : we 
 even find thi* noun, in English, spelt wythe, ivithe and 
 'With (see Dr. Johnson's Dictionary, at the word ivithe'). 
 — All those nouns, however, come probably from the 
 Gothic verb with ait. 
 
 -idly. When the point is to present a sort of opposition 
 or contention:, as when it is used in the sense of against, 
 of the Latin contra or adversus, of the French contre t &c. 
 ilis some part of the old Saxon verb ivigan or wigian 
 (in Latin, pr&liari, contendere, contumaciler resistere), or 
 a contraction of some part of the old Saxon verb wilherian 
 (which, as well as withrian, is equal to the Latin adver- 
 sari, resistere, recalciirare), whence wither usedj in com- 
 position, by the old Saxons (as wiedtr, by the Germans), 
 
 * So likewise the French dt- is sometimes considered as form- 
 im the Celtic ee or dhc [chief). 
 
 l for
 
 146 
 
 foi the Latin contra, and the luith in the English verb tl 
 withstand. — The verbs witberian and wilbrian may how- 
 ever have been formed from the Gothic witbra, equal tu 
 the Latin juxtu, apud^ ad, contra^ in, oh : and this zuitbra 
 may have arisen from ivlthan. 
 
 3dly. But, when with is used as a fore-runner an- 
 nouncing that the operator is coming forth, it comes from 
 the Anglo-Saxon wit an or wissan. — The word bwita 
 (workman, maker of) is found in old Saxon, as in 
 u sweord-hwita'' a sword -cutler, a manufacturer of 
 swords : I look upon this bwita to be, by transposition, 
 for witha, whence with for operator, doer, ccc. — Again, 
 wyrcan, wyrcean, wircan, wirccan, in old Saxon, mean 
 to work, to fabricate, &x. whence wrytba (in English 
 wright) become so, by transposition, from wyrtbd 
 (workman, wright), which, by losing the r± may also 
 have become wytba, wytb, with. I cannot deny, how- 
 ever, that with, even used as the imperative of witbani 
 may bring forth the operator or a co-operator ; for, eon-* 
 s^defmg join as equal ioadd, after having stated an event 
 or a condition, it may be found necessary to add who 
 or what produced that event or condition) which notion 
 add is not indeed equal to the fore-runner operator or co- 
 operator, but which, after all, would have the effect of 
 presenting the sentence as complete. 
 
 4thly. Mitb, a Gothic preposition equal to the Latin 
 cum, una, s'lmid, and to the English with, comes from 
 the Gothic verb m'tan (to measure, to distribute, to 
 share) ; whence the Anglo-Saxon metan (in Latin, mc- 
 tiri, mensurare, invenire, impertire, adipisci, occurrerc, 
 disponere, occupare), the Dutch mcetcn (metiri, men- 
 surare, &:c.) the German messen (to measure, £cc). — If 
 
 I measure
 
 147 
 
 ? mcasure.out such or such a thing fur you, that thing 
 is to be an acquisition to you, and you arc to take it as 
 vour property : if, instead of measuring out a parcel of 
 thine:?, 1 allot to you an individual, my doing so is the 
 result of some comparison, made previously by me be- 
 tween vou. considered singly, and some object to be at- 
 tained : if vour powers appear to mc to be insufficient, I 
 measure oat additional powers ; and thus, whoever or 
 whatever is added by me to you, for the purpose of in- 
 fclS&sjng vour powers is, as well as you, in a state of conco- 
 mitance ; nor does it signify whether the individual added 
 be dependant on -you or merely a mate, a covipa?iion } 
 an associate. — Besides, the contents of a measure form 
 altogether one ivb-Je, every part of which cannot but be 
 in a state, of concomitance. — The Anglo-Saxon mith claims 
 the same origin, and so does mid when used for the 
 English with or the Latin cum. *— The Dutch expression 
 ■mits-geders (together, with, also), is literally for mate- 
 fflloics. — The German preposition mit claims likewise 
 t he same oviyin ; and so does the Dutch mede, met, and 
 even the Greek fjttrd.-^ln short, all those prepositions, 
 used as prefixes or otherwise, being equal to the Latin 
 
 * When tniditfoi tnifldie (or half}, it is considered as coming 
 from the Gg\\\\<; midga ; whence the Anglo-Saxon middy midday 
 inidde,i}iiJdau,mldu<l, mid; the Gt'im-&niHitte,?nitte/,mi(tler, and mit 
 in composition; the Dutch middd, midden, aud sometimes mid in 
 composition ; the French mi in inidi, w/nuit, ;///iieu, &c. the 
 Latin jnedias ; the Greek pert?. — All these perhaps had their origin 
 in the Celtic- dialects; for instance, meodhuin or meadkoin, in Iber- 
 no-Celtic, means middle ; and some such word ma}' have served 
 to form the Gothic verb mitaa, as well as the Gothic adjective 
 midga ; and indeed, the /W/'ofany thing is obtained by raeasuie- 
 inent,
 
 148 
 
 cum, con, co-, or the English concomitant ivith, should 
 be resolved in the same way, bv some word capable of 
 intimating association or concomitance, such as joint, 
 joint/)', &c, 
 
 75. B. What is, in your opinion, the origin of 
 thorough, through, thro' ? 
 
 LXXVI. S. Several origins may be assigned, all de- 
 pending upon the primitive significations of the words 
 whence the Caltic preposition iro arose, whence the Cel- 
 tic divinity thor, tlnir, received that appellation, and 
 whence the Gothic noun thairko or thanks was formed. 
 
 1st. The Iberno-Celtic tro is used as a word equainot 
 only to the English preposition through, bytt to by means 
 of. — I do not hesitate therefore to consider the same Cel- 
 tic tro as a noun or some contraction of a noun, the chief 
 part of which remains in the French noun trou (aperture, 
 hole, passage or break), whence the French verb trouer 
 (to make an aperture, a hole or passage, See). — Mr. 
 Tooke did not observe that, in the Gothic language, 
 uta-thro, fairra-thro, he are found —This suffix thro, 
 may be the very Celtic tro, the initial / of which became 
 aspirated (changed into th) on account of the r, and the 
 .same may be said in regard to the Chaldean and Persian 
 thro, if the Celtic tro did not arise from either.— The ut- 
 tering of thr at once may have proved difficult to many, 
 and these, in trying to give th its value before r, may* 
 after th, have made or u a sort of rest s such would 
 be, the process of a stammering person in his attempt to 
 pronounce throw and thrust, which words, in his mouth, 
 would be thorow and thurust : now the pronunciation of 
 wormy h precisely that given to thorough-,, hence thorough 
 , may
 
 149 
 
 may be said to arise from thro found used as a suffix 
 in Gothic. 
 
 adly. The Gothic noun thairho or thairks is found in- 
 terpreted by the Latin mi\m foramen (hole, aperture), and 
 it is rational to believe that, by a contraction of the said 
 noun, thairh may have arisen to denote transition ; and 
 indeed thairh, in Gothic, used as a preposition equal to the 
 Latin tram, per, was actually equal to passage, way, ideas 
 which aperture, hole, naturally suggest. — It is not to 
 be wondered at, then, that this very Gothic word thairh 
 should be found made equal to the notions expressed by 
 the very English thorough. In the Gothic language, the 
 custom prevailed of adding u or uh to certain words when 
 used in particular circumstances; hence it is \vc find that- 
 uh, thhuh, tharuh, framuh, tnuh, fee. for that, this, 
 thar, fram, in, &c. consequently thairh, with the ad- 
 dition of u op uh, would have become thairhu or thairhuh J 
 then ai, being suppressed, tbrbu or thrhuh, which a 
 little more corruption would bare made tbruh (used as a 
 preposition in Anglo-Saxon) and the Gothic thro used as 
 a suffix. — Now, thrhuh, by resting the th upon o or u 
 (before pronouncing the r, would have beeome (borhuh, 
 ihurhuh, whence the Anglo-Saxon thuruh, thurh, thor, 
 employed as prepositions, whence the English thorough 
 (and contractedly through, thro'). — From the same 
 source would flow the Teutonic thuruh, thurab, iburx 
 and, by changing the aspirated th into d, would arise 
 duruch, duruc, duruh, durh. — The Germans chose to use 
 durch to serve as a preposition among them, while they 
 employed thure,thur, thor, for a door. — As to the An- 
 glo-Saxon dora, duru, dure, the Dutch deur, door, dore, 
 m$ the English door, they maybe considered as coming 
 
 l> 3 from
 
 150 
 
 from the Gothic daur, or dauro; or from the Teutonic 
 durh. — All like the Greek Buoa, are equal to the Latin 
 janua, ostium, and may be used figuratively to express 
 also Jacultas re'i ejficiendce et via. 
 
 3cllv. The Gothic sub^antive daur or dauro, by 
 changing the d into th, may have become thaw, thauro, 
 and by suppressing^, niav thro, afterwards, have been 
 used. — It" to thaurc, you add that terminating syllable 
 uh so frequently found in Gothic, you will have thauroub, 
 whence, by changing a into o, will arise thourouh, then 
 ihourough, thorough, &fc.' 
 
 4thly. The appellation ojf tier, thur, may have been 
 given to the Divinity, as to express that pervades, or pene- 
 trates, and indeed thor is translated Dominus in Tbor- 
 rimmin, and thaur among the Armenians is king) ruler, 
 &c. : tar, in Persian, is equal to top, submit; and the 
 same tar serves in Iberno-Celtic to express beyond, out 
 of, by, over and above : the very God Thor or Thur was 
 also called, among the Celts Tarqn, Taranis, Tara?7iis, 
 Tharanis, Sec. probably from such a verb as the Gothic 
 tairan, whence the old Saxon verbs trcraji, teran, tiran, ty- 
 ran,tyrian, tyrigan, tyrwia?i, and the English verb to tear. 
 The Celts, the old Saxcns, and other people of the North, 
 worshipped Thor or Thur: the old Saxons h&dTlws-d&g, 
 Thurs-dag, and Thur-cs-djg (literally, the day of Thor, 
 the day that Thur has, the day appointed or consecrated 
 to Thur), which day is the very English Thursday, and 
 the Jovis dies of the Latins. — That very God went 
 among the old Saxons, by the formidable appellation of 
 Thunr, as if vibrating the thunder, which they called 
 thuner, ihunor, thunr, thunder: hence Thunr-es-day 
 (for Thursday, as if the day of the Thunderer) ; hence also 
 
 Thunr >
 
 151 
 
 1'bunr- es-modur , as if the mother of the Thunderer, in- 
 stead of the mother cfThur, corresponding with Latona, 
 the mother of Jupiter. — The German say themselves 
 Donnerstag (with them, Donner means Thunder, and 
 tag means day) : the Putch say Dondcrdag (and Dander 
 is with them Thunder). — Now, if .you look upon Thar or 
 Thur as coming from a verb meaning to pervade, by 
 adding uh, you will get Thoruh or Thuruh : this thuruh is 
 the very word used by the old Saxons for the English 
 thorough (the Latin per, trans ; all which may be con- 
 sidered sometim.es as pervading, sometimes as peryadedL 
 and sometimes as to he pervaded) 5 and it is evident how. 
 easily thoruh would have become thorough. 
 
 5thly. Again, Thor is found in Anglo-Sa^on, as an 
 initial word ; n composition, to denote utility ; and though 
 this circumstance agrees still with the character of such 
 a deity as Jupiter, yet I have reason to believe that tbo?- 
 is then a contraction of thorf (need, occasion, cause, use, 
 profit, &c.) or of some part of the verb tborfian, \\h\ch as 
 well as thearfan, thearfian, means to need or have occasion^ 
 to want, to be of service, from the Gothic verb ihaurban. 
 — Even here, I may observe that if an action or event 
 needed such or such thing to bring it to pass, this very 
 thing is virtually the agent or operator of the action or 
 event. — On the other hand, Tor is found used, among the 
 Cimbrians and Islanders, as an initial word in composU. 
 tion, to denote something hard to be done ; because tor 
 means properly steep place (as high mountains are), tower 
 (as difficult of access), 8cc. hence, tor-foera (a steep or 
 arduous road) ; tor-ncmur (hard to take, or rather hard 
 V) be taken) ; lor-wirki (arduous work) ; kc. 
 
 t, a. CON-
 
 T52 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Whatever may be the real origin of the word thorough 
 (through, thro'), certain it is, that being considered as 
 equal to door, passage, its signification has been extended 
 to these figurative ones, way or course pursued or to pur- 
 sue, means employed or to employ (in order to remove ob- 
 stacles and come at or procure, such or such a thing), as 
 well as passage along or across or from end to end (ob- 
 tained or to be obtained in regard to what is mentioned or 
 implied). 
 
 76. B. The French preposition Par being often used 
 as a correspondent with the English through, I, who 
 have observed that the Spanish Para is- connected with 
 that kind of Par, should be glad to know whence you, 
 draw your French Par and the Spanish Para. 
 
 LXXVII S. ist. We have seen that the pretended pre- 
 positions en and in, when used to announce that the 
 operator is coming forth, were formed from Celtic, Gothic 
 or Anglo-Saxon adjectives, the meanings of which were 
 the same with those conveyed by the Latin adjective 
 far. — The French have the adjective pair to express equal, 
 alike, similar, &c. which they use substantively: with 
 them sans pair serves to express, like sans-pareil, what 
 is meant by the English words peerless, matchless, that 
 has not his (her or it?) equal or like : they, say, (i le 
 change est au pair," for, " change is at par j" cet oiseau 
 a perdu son pair, that bird has lost its mate or companion : 
 they say, nous voila J)air a pair, for, now we are even : 
 they say, aller de pair avec quelqu'un, to express to be 
 (or prdsume to be) upon an equality with one j se mettre. 
 
 4 t
 
 153 
 
 tirer) bors du fair or bors de fair, for, to rise above the 
 level, or to rise above one's equals : thev sav, vivre avec 
 quelqu'un (trailer quelqu'un) de pair a compagnon, for 
 to live with (to behave to) one as an equal ivouldvjitb (to) 
 bis companion : they call nombre pair what the English 
 call even number : they say, pair ou non pair, for, even 
 or odd ; hence, Jnuer a pair ei non pair, or jouer a pair 
 ou non, for, to play at even or odd : they say, un pair du 
 royaume, for, .a peer of the realm j and formerly the 
 principal vassals who were entitled to sit with the Lord 
 of the Manor at certain trials were called pairs ; hence, 
 etre jugc par ses pairs, to be judged by one's peers, — That 
 the feminine French noun paire claims the same origin 
 is evident, since the French have the verb apparier (to 
 pair, to sort, to match, to couple), and the noun pariade, 
 confined, it is true, to partridges or the time when 
 partridges do pair. 
 
 adly. The French have also the adjective pareil, an- 
 swering the Spanish adjectives pareja, parejo, parecida, 
 parecido, and the Italian adjectives pareccbio and (in 
 Dante) pareglio ; they have the noun paritc, answeringthe 
 Spanish paridad, and the Italian parita. — However, they 
 seem to have taken their preposition par from the Spanish 
 Janguage : in it we find " sentir a par ^muerte,'' which 
 Morino translates by " to have much sensibility ;" but 
 which means literally " to feel fo equality of death," a» 
 hyperbolical way of expressing one's self, equal to what 
 would be " to feci almost to death j" and, in this construc- 
 tion (ipar de, we clearly discover the equivalent of a pa- 
 ridad de (to equality of). — We find also a par, in Spanish, 
 which a par Morino says is for the French aupres (near), 
 ii cote (by the side) : this par is then a contraction of 
 
 either
 
 154, 
 
 either parage or paraje or parte, which in Spanish men.-; 
 place, part, side, &c. — Hence, the Spanish d par is then 
 for a parage, or a paraje, or a parte ; consequently^ 
 when the Spaniards say de par en par, that combination 
 is to be considered as equal to de parage en parage, or to 
 de parte en parte ; that is to say, from one place (part, side) 
 to the other place (part, side) ; hence <f Abrir de par en 
 par la puerta," means literally" to open the door from 
 side to side*' 
 
 3clly. The Latin verb parare, itself, often translated by 
 to prepare, fit, shape, contrive, mulcej order, &c. is 
 literally equal to what to male equal (suitable, fit, &c.) 
 to, or else to cause to fit, or the like, would express. 
 We may say the same of the Spanish verb parar, of the 
 Italian verb parare, and of the French verb parer, in 
 their primitive acceptation?. — The French expression 
 " parvenir aune chose" means literally " to come even to 
 a thing, to come (so as to be) level or quite contiguous 
 to a thing, &c. 
 
 4thly. The para, of the Spaniard?, is the very Spanish 
 adjective par, the different meanings of which, being 
 equal to those conveyed by the Latin adjective par (that 
 is, equal, like, similar, correspondent, suitable, fit, proper, 
 mutual, reciprocal, able to encounter or bear, capable, of the 
 same force or power, See.) will serve to explain the real 
 value of the French preposition par, as well as of en and 
 in (when these are derived from an adjective which is 
 given as meaning equal) . — Another circumstance which 
 confirms mv assertion that the French preposition par is 
 often for equal, even, similar, See. is this : The Italians 
 have the noun paraggio to express comparison, equal, 
 match', and say, (< non v'eil paraggio a lei" (there rs., 
 
 not
 
 155 
 
 not any one equal to her) ; and, if the adjective far 
 hatf not been found to exist of itself, I should not 
 have scrupled to present the French par as a contraction 
 of the Italian paraggio, or rather to assert that the initial 
 par was an adjective, and aggio a noun. — Now, I say 
 {hat the Spanish preposition para is for far a, which 
 two words united for,m one that means as much as match 
 for, equal la, like unto , &c. — When the Spaniards say 
 " es hombre para poco" (which Movino translates by 
 *' e'est un hommc de peu de courage/' he is a man of 
 little courage), the literal meaning of their expression 
 is " He is a man equal to little." — The Spaniards use 
 para que for the French afin que (id order that), a quel 
 pfopos, a quelle Jin (to what purpose, to what end) ; it is 
 obvious that their para que is then lor equal, or suitable, 
 to this or that (purpose, end), and, if spoken interroga- 
 tively, equal (suitable) to what (purpose, end) ? 
 
 5thlv. In regard to the French preposition fat (when 
 coming from the Spanish adjective^ar), the pretended pre- 
 position Alias been dropped, just as in regard to touchant; 
 for, while the French say " touchant cette affaire," 
 the Spaniards may say " Tocantc a esta pendencia." — 
 When the French preposition does not come from the 
 Spanish adjective par, it may be considered as a contrac- 
 tion of the Spanish parage or paraje, whence the French 
 noun parage formerly applied, like lieu, to extraction or 
 birth or rank, and now confined to road (or ships along a 
 shore; or it mav be considered as a contraction of the Spa- 
 nish or Italian parte, whence the French part as applied 
 to place, Sec. From Italian I can quote a proof in point, 
 wherein par is found used by contraction for da parte di: 
 " Ecco io i^on so ora dir di no, far tai donna me n' hai 
 
 pregato
 
 156 
 
 pregatoj^Boc. g. 8, n. 7. Voila quejene saurois mainte* 
 nant dire'non, vous m'en avez prie de la part J'une telle 
 dame. Behold, I no longer can saf nay, you have 
 begged the thing of ma from so great a lady. 
 
 6thlv. But afterjall, I am inclined to believe that this se- 
 cond par, as well as the Spanish parage or paraje, and 
 the French parage, come from the Gothic verb faran, 
 whence the Anglo-Saxon faran, faran, Seethe nouns 
 fare, far, farr, which, among other significations, have 
 these road, way, haunt, range, and consequently, space 
 (applied to land, sea, and even to time):—*-l am also incli- 
 ned to think that the Latin pars, the French part, parti, 
 partic, the Spanish and Italian parte, having been made 
 to signify the same, because a space may be said of a di- 
 vision or portion, a sort of confusion was the consequence 
 in regard to par and part. — I shall soon have occasion to 
 resume the verbs faran, faran, &c. ; and I shall prove 
 then the possibility of par being a derivative of faran. 
 
 7thly. When the French par is to be considered as 
 equal to operator or co-operator, or rather, is to announce 
 that an operator or a co-operator is coming forth, I might 
 say that it is for parti operant (active party), or that it is 
 a contraction of parero, which, from the Spanish parar, 
 would express fitter, contriver, deviser, &c. : but since 
 the simple adjective par has, in Spanish, a signification 
 which may be expressed in English by who. (or what), 
 is equal to, who (or what) is a match for, and the word, 
 seemingly governed hy par, is actually the individual per- 
 son, or thing, that is to be viewed as causing (having 
 caused, or that will cause) the action or event to take 
 place, I see no occasion for it. 
 
 Sthly. But, some perhaps will object that the French 
 
 pat
 
 157 
 
 far is often found in Spanish, to bo por, and will ask : 
 Is the Spanish por a. corruption of the Spanish adjective 
 par? — The fact is, that anciently the French wrote 
 pour in circumstances wherein they now write por, as in 
 pourtraire, pourtraiet, pour traict urn, instead of portrairg, 
 portrait, portraiture, all rather obsolete, except portrait : 
 the French formerly used frequently pour, where they 
 now employ par, saying pource que instead of parce que : 
 the French use now very frequently pour, with the infi- 
 nitive, or pour que, with the subjunctive, where parce que, 
 with the indicative, might be introduced; as in " Vous 
 serez tance, pour etre {parce que vous tics) sorti sans per- 
 mission ;" and in " Jc vous fais cette question, pour ap~ 
 prendre (pour que j' apprenne, parce que je voudrois ap- 
 prendre) ce qui s'est passe." — The Spaniards themselves 
 use para que and por que ; but as they do not employ 
 these indifferently, some shade of difference must have 
 been established between xYmvpara and por, perhaps by 
 the mere fancy of some author, or of some person of emi- 
 nence, more than by the real primitive of either or of 
 both; and indeed per, in Italian, is for the Spanish pa ra 
 and por, consequently for the French par and pour. 
 
 78. B. You have now clearly settled the French Par 
 and the Spanish Para; but whence can you derive the 
 Spanish Por, the French pour, the English For, the Ger- 
 man For and (in, the Dutch Voor, the Latin and Italian 
 Per, the Greek" •aa.l and tsa^a-, when used as preposi- 
 tions ? 
 
 LXXIX. S. The name preposition would, after all, 
 characterise that sort of words, nearly as well as the 
 name Fore-runner, if Grammarian* had been fully ac- 
 quainted with the several meanings and functions of each: 
 
 but
 
 153 
 
 but T think that the name which would be most p.pplica* 
 ble is determinative. Your latter question, Mv ('ear 
 By, is rather complicate, but I shall give you a few h.nts, 
 that you may, at your moments of leisure, consider the 
 subject. The particles or words you mentioned lifla 
 (every one the same origin, whence sprang ver i \ us 
 
 families in Anglo-Saxon, Greek, Latin, G 
 glish^ &c. 
 
 ist. Mr. Tooke savs that the English preposition for 
 comes from the Gothic fairina, which, according '.o inm, 
 means cause. — I find indeed that the Gothic noun fairina, 
 existed, and is translated causa, culpa, crimen: I find 
 ■also, in Anglo-Saxon, firen, translated causa, cm,. en, 
 feccaiuvi) with the verbs fireman, jirni an, ge-fir t nau (all 
 translated peccare, and nothing more) , and firenan (peccare, 
 mcechari). — This investigation gives reason to suspect that 
 the first interpretation causa was intended by the trans- 
 lator for mischievous deed (punished or to be punished), 
 and that it cannot be for the cause of any other event. 
 Yet, it cannot be denied but that in general the English 
 for may, with proprietv, be replaced by the word cavr:, 
 often equivalent to operator or co-operator : hence other in- 
 vestigations are necessity; the more so as ' the corres- 
 pondents, in other languages, to the English preposition 
 for, may thereby be traced each to its origin. 
 
 adly. I might have said that the Anglo-Saxons having, 
 to express life, spirit, -soul, the words J cor, feorh,jior ferb, 
 ferhth,ferth, these words have been corrupted into for, 
 which words, taken figuratively, may have become each 
 equal to mover, agent, operator • and indeed " He is the 
 soul of the Cabinet," is tantamount to " He is the chief 
 man (the head) looked up to by the members of the Ca- 
 binet ;
 
 159 
 
 bmet ) he is the npcral',r of the measures resolved upon* 
 8ccv" — But, though this be possible, yet, being aware 
 that those words were already used figuratively tor hit- 
 man career, sphere, course, race, j'Aivr.ey (as applied to 
 the time allotted to mankind until dcath\ I thought 
 proper to push my investigations further. — These will 
 better than all others perhaps, serve as a clew for tracing 
 words to their right origins, and confirm that etymology 
 is a science, which though ridiculed by the ignorant and 
 conceited, ought to be particularly attended to by those 
 who wish to know the close relations which exist between 
 the words used in language, though differently written. 
 
 3<Hy» the Gothic participial adjective Baura (natus), 
 comes from the Gothic verb Bairan : the Gothic parti- 
 cipial adjective Faura comes consequently from such a 
 Gothic verb as Fairan, not be found perhaps at present, 
 or iron* / ^-an which is yet found. — It has been remarked 
 that the Anglo-Saxon writers of the middle age had in* 
 iroduced tiie particle free for an initial word in com- 
 position, by an imitation of the Latin particle pree ; so 
 very apt were the Saxons to change p into f. 
 
 4thly. The Greek relative answering the English that, 
 is in the dative feminine w orf,, and tu or a, sometimes & 
 (to that). — I consider the Greek prepositions wapa as equal 
 to vse^-zi (often with the subaudition of a noun in the 
 feminine)) and indeed zsa^al is found repeatedly in Ho- 
 mer, and several compound words have vafxi for the 
 initial word.— The Greek verb <mdfta has existed, and 
 from it Lennep has derived the Latin verb p <rare, a 
 Well as parr?;: (to appear, 8cc). In the Interlocution 
 LXXVH* I have derived the Latin verb parare from par 
 {equal, alike, similar, &c.) ; I look upon it that parere 
 
 claims
 
 160 
 
 claims the same origin — The French verbal termination 
 t/trc (as it is considered in generajj was formerly oistre, 
 out of which istre, from the Italian isl^.re, for stare, was 
 equal to the ancient French verb eslre, now ctrc (to be) 2 it- 
 s !f from the Spanish es tar [lobv). Conn, in Iberno-Celtic, 
 means sense, reason, whence the English verb to eon (to 
 know, to examine attentively, and fix in one's mind), 
 and whence the verb kunnan in Gothic, cunnan in 
 ^Anglo-Saxon, both equal to the Latin noscere, scire (to 
 know) ; one of the participial adjectives arising from 
 the latter verbs was kunna, cunna, or kunno, cunno 
 (knowing) : add to cunno, the ancient verb istre, you 
 will form cunnoistre, whence, connoitrr, of equal value 
 with ie be knowing, i. e. to know *. Let us apply the 
 same process, in order to find the primitive signification 
 of the French verb paroiire, which may be said of an 
 object that has reached such a level, or is 9 ^situated, 
 that the eye may catch the said object ; as the case is in 
 regard to the sun, when he comes even with the horizon, 
 or when he becomes free of such clouds as obscured 
 him. — The French use the expression " Paroitre grand," 
 in regard not only to a man, but to any thing : the ex- 
 pression or phrase is then equal to Ctrc comme grand, to 
 be great like, Sec. 
 
 * But some will say that, anciently, the verb 'was cognoisfre, 
 •which circumstance indicates that the verb was formed from the 
 Latin caunoscc/e. I maintain that both verbs come from either 
 the Celtic clement coitn or from the Gothic verb kunnan ; that 
 the Latins, having subsequently changed in coniiosco, the con Into 
 cug, on account of the second 11 in nosco, the Gallic nation 
 imitated the conquerors, and wrote cognoistrc instead of con- 
 iwjstrv; and that when conmisfre was afterwards returned to, 
 the French, without being aware of it perhaps, pointed out the 
 real origin of the word. 
 
 Stilly,
 
 161 
 
 5thly. The Greek tsaqo;, long considered by Gram- 
 marians as an adverb, the force of which was expressed 
 by the Latin ante, antea, prius, was virtually an adjec- 
 tive, absolutely used indeed, but equal to anterior, 
 prior : just as the GoiWxc f aura, faur, which (as I have 
 already said) came from the Gothic verb faran, or the 
 obsolete fairan ; all the gradual significations of which 
 may most probablv, be found in the German verbs 
 Fabreu and Fcchren ; some in the Anglo-Saxon faran 
 fcran, the English to fare, &c. — I have said, in the 
 preeeding article 3, that the Gothic Baura (BaursJ is 
 given as meaning natus : its other gradual significations 
 we may not be able to trace ; but it is a participial ad- 
 jective, formed from the Gothic verb Bairan* (portare, 
 ferre, gestare, &c), whence the Anglo-Saxon verbs 
 baran, bear an, beoran, beran, by ran, the English verb 
 to bear, the Dutch baaren, &c. all which ought to be 
 examined, as to their gradual significations, for these 
 were most assuredly applicable to the participial Gothic 
 adjective Baura, — What I have just said in regard to 
 Baura, ought to be done also in regard to Eaura, 
 although the dictionaries tell us it means the same 
 with the Latin ante, antea, prius ; and indeed it must 
 be like the Anglo-Saxon participial adjective fora, 
 fore, and the participial adjective forth, which the dic- 
 tionaries present as being equal to the Latin provecttcs, 
 translatus, but which must have had other significations 
 besides, according to the gradual views in which the 
 verbs have, themselves, been taken. — We plainly dis- 
 
 • This Gothic verb lairan was probably formed from the 
 oriental bar or her, which as well as the Islandic rerfc her, means 
 to bear, to produce- 
 
 M «o?«r 
 
 to
 
 162 
 
 cover an equivalent to anterior in the adjectives ^/ora and 
 fore, when we read fora-saga (prasfatio), foran-bodig 
 (anterior pars corporis), foran-dteg (antelucana pars 
 diei), foran-htefde or fore-heafod (anterior pars capitis, 
 irons), foran-niht (primum noctis, crepusculum), on 
 foran-nibt (prima nocte.) 
 
 <5thly. I strongly believe that the primitive far, in the 
 sense of even, like, similar, level, equal (words so very 
 necessary for comparing objects together), is a word of 
 remote antiquity. Its origin may, perhaps, be traced 
 thus : It is by a sort of comparison that the French say, 
 <c Cela va bien/' and " eela va mal :** in " voyons 
 comment cet habit vous va," which would be trans- 
 lated, into English, by Let us see how that coat fits you 
 (suits you, &c), we clearly see that aller, in French, is 
 used for expressing to jit, to s?iit, &x. — Now as the 
 French verb aller hfaran in Gothic, we may rationally 
 consider the Latin adjective par (which among other 
 significations, suitable to comparisons, has those of fit, 
 proper, suitable^ correspondent) as derived from the Go- 
 thic element far in the Gothic verb far an. — Every one 
 conversant in Etymology knows how easily, and how 
 frequently f and p were used instead of one another. 
 In the Islandic dialect, we finder used as the Germans 
 and Dutch use paar (for the English pair, and the 
 French noun feminine paire), whence the German and 
 Dutch verb paarsn, in the sense of to pair, to match * 
 but, though the German and Dutch stop here, yet, it is 
 obvious that to match a thing, is to join to it its felloiv 
 or something of the same at least in some respect. — I 
 strongly believe that the verb miffr existed in Greek as 
 formed either from that par, or from the Gothic verb 
 
 f strati.
 
 163 
 
 fay an (by a change of theyinto/>) ; that, consequently 
 the participial adjective Wpoj was, sometimes for. par (in 
 the sense of even, level, equal, similar, See. and some- 
 times for the primitive far (in the Gothic verb far an) ± 
 to denote, among other ideas, that of anterior part ; be- 
 cause, who or what moves on, suggests a notion of pos~ 
 siblc anteriority : and, indeed, anteriority may be ob- 
 tained by the having gone beyond others ; from which 
 notions also it may be conceived how faura, fora, fore, 
 forth, came to imply motion along or around or 
 iff rough . 
 
 7thly. The Gothic fcra expresses, we are told, the 
 plural of the Greek noun mipctt, : that Gothic word Vera 
 comes from the Gothic verb feran, perhaps no longer to 
 be found, but which the Anglo-Saxon has preserved (as 
 well as feran, fer; an) — From that Gothic or Old Saxon 
 verb, came the Latin ' ferere anciently, and then, by con- 
 traction, ferre ; whence the English verb to fire, and 
 those infer (as to confer, to defer, to differ, to infer , &c.) 
 the French verbs, in ferer (as confer er, defer er, differ er y 
 inferer, 8cc), and even, by contraction and corruption, 
 the French verbs mfrir (as off'rir, sovffrir). 
 
 8thly. From the Gothic noun^ra, or the Old Saxon 
 verb feran (if the Gothic feran did not exist), by 
 changing they into/), arose the Greek verb tsi^, and it 
 js said, which is very probable, that from this arose wepas 
 (aperture, passage, transition, bound, limit, end, aim, 
 in short, the act of going along or around or through ; 
 from which ts'sqaq came is'i^a. (above, beyond), tstpav and 
 <Bepw used in the same sense with rzk^a, and the pretended 
 conjunction z:\p (through all that, nevertheless, how- 
 ever, and, wherever). — I do not know, however, whether 
 
 M 3 the
 
 164 
 
 the Gothic participial adjective fera may not have 
 existed in the Gothic, to express passing (travelling, &c.) 
 along or around or beyond-, certain it is that analogy 
 is in favour of the affirmative. From the obsolete Greek 
 verb is-f^w, likewise, came the obsolete noun -ste^j, it is 
 said, the meanings of which are supposed, and not with- 
 out foundation, to be those of wecaj. Now, considering 
 fera, 'srepag, ts'i^H, as equal to road, way, course, range, 
 space assigned, circumscribed place, passage along or 
 around, or beyond, and end, we may conceive that end 
 proposed, aim, means pursued, motive for acting, may 
 easily result from the same, and these be equal to either 
 operator or co-operator. 
 
 gthly. The Greek verb terep (whence vstpdu, >mpxha i 
 vrspocioca, vssipu) became obsolete perhaps merely because 
 f spa came in use (especially as the pronunciation of the 
 latter may have been something softer than isspw), which 
 fiott was obtained by aspirating gently the vs in «Jjw. — 
 The Old Saxon participial adjective bora (ferens, gerens) 
 shows that the Old Saxon verb boran must have existed, 
 whence the Bnglish verb to bore. — Again, the Anglo- 
 Saxon fora came from the verb Foran, whence the 
 Latin foro, the French verb forer (to bore), the French 
 noun foret (auger, piercer, gimblet), and the French 
 noun forure (hole made with an auger, &c.) — The Greek 
 word tsopof (transitus, meatus, adjumentum, ratio 
 alicujus rei EFFieiEND^E et via) proves that 
 the verbs vso$u, iho$eu, izcfiw, have existed, to answer to the 
 Anglo-Saxon verbs boran, foran, by changing the b and 
 /"into to. — The Anglo-Saxon words foerde (precessit) and 
 ferde or fcrd (arising i'romferan, or the Anglo-Saxon 
 word ford), gave the Latins an opportunity to form (by 
 
 changing
 
 165 % 
 
 changing/* into p, and d into /) their verb porto, whence 
 their partus, porta, 8cc. : from that very verb came the 
 French porter (whence port, parte, &c), the Italian 
 portare (whence a numerous family), the Spanish, 
 par tar (whence a small family, among which puerto and 
 puerta, for the Latin port us and porta). — From the 
 Anglo-Saxon boran ox far an (by changing b or f into 
 <p, just as in Qspu from beran or feran) came <p6pa, ob- 
 solete indeed, but whence the participial adjective <p6po$ t 
 the verb $opsx, and the word tpopro;, which perhaps gave 
 an opportunity to the Germans to say pforte for a door. 
 — Nay by changing b or f into <w t were obtained the 
 Anglo-Saxon verbs iveran, wexrian (from beran or 
 feran), the English to wear, the Dutch waaren, and 
 ivoeren. 
 
 lOthly. Since b andycould, in the ancient languages, 
 be changed into w, it would not be irrational to infer 
 that w and v could also, in those languages, be 
 changed into b ; and, as wc find that, in Celtic, viw, in 
 Gothic, wigs, wiga, trig, were used for the Latin via, 
 iter, in German weg, whence ivegen equal to for, on 
 account of, 8cc. iii Anglo-Saxon wig, weg, weg, weggc, 
 lueie, for the French voie, for the English way, wc 
 might look upon it as pretty evident that the English by 
 conies from those words, when it seems to stand either 
 for operator, or merely for ivay, side (as in Division V.), 
 and say that steering by it, for steering along it (or the 
 like expressions), may be for steering (the) way (of) it, 
 made equal ta steering (the) length (of) it : one might 
 also think it not improbable that the by noticed at Divi- 
 sion X, as standing for ocrrfpying, possessing, or to denote 
 situation, should come from the Old Saxon <wic or ivyc 
 
 (in
 
 166 
 
 (in Latin, mansio, vicus, platea, &c), a derivative of the 
 Old Saxon verb mcian or vtcegsan (in Latin, habitare, 
 manere, babitationem habere. See.) — But I freely confess 
 that the proper origin of by, in the sense of way or road % 
 is, in my opinion, such as I have mentioned at Interlo- 
 cution LXII. However it be, what I have here sug- 
 gested is not only possible, but cannot do any harm ; and 
 the better to establish the figurative significations which 
 may be allotted to the noun way, I shall add that from 
 the Celtic v'iw, or Gothic wigs, came also other nouns 
 to express not only ivay but mode, -manner, method, (or 
 the like) : namely, the Old Saxon and English wise, the 
 German iveis or wcise, the Dutch wys or wyze, and the 
 French guise. Again, iveis added to adjectives is equal 
 to the English suffix ly * j as in, bestandige weis, firmly, 
 in a firm manner : the same weis used as a suffix to 
 German nouns expresses the manner how things are 
 disposed, arranged, sold, &c. as in ellcnwcis, by the 
 ell ; havfenweis, in heaps, by heaps, in crowds, by crowds^ 
 &c. — Nay, I consider the German wie, called by some 
 an adverb, by others a conjunction, because it expresses 
 bow, in what manner, as being only a slight corruption 
 of the German noun weis, manner, mode, &c, 
 
 uthly. The derivation of the Greek prepositions 
 raapa.) and tsa^a, is suggested to be from wctpog, attrn 
 buting to this a double function, namely, of denoting 
 
 * Leika (in Gothic) means image, form, manne,r t representation x 
 pattern, resemblance ; and liea (in Anglo-Saxon) means the same; 
 hence maa-leica in Gothic, and man-lica or mon-lica in Anglo- 
 Saxon, for resemblance of man or ?nmis likeness, hnape of man, Sec. 
 — From those leika, lica, arose lie in Anglo-Saxon, like in English 
 and the contraction ly, to express wniivr, in a similar manner, &c, 
 
 anteriority,,
 
 167 
 
 anteriority, excess, (according to the 5th article), and oi 
 comparing objects together (according to article 6th) — 
 The Latin pro. is a contraction of -sra^a* (by suppressing 
 the first «), whence afterwards the Latin prater. 
 
 The Dative masculine of ztdqos is tsa.fjj, whence, by 
 contraction, <srpo, and the Latin pro. The same wa^of* 
 by suppressing a, formed the Greejc preposition ^oj. 
 
 As the Greeks had anciently zsd^i;, instead of wdgos, 
 that WZflf, by suppressing a, became •&&, whence the 
 Latin pri in pridie, prior, &c. : and from the accusative 
 'ssfiv, the Latin prin came, found used in .the initial of 
 princeps. 
 
 The derivation of the Greek preposition nsst^l, con- 
 tracted ly isrsf, whence the Latin and Italian per is sug- 
 gested in article 8th. 
 
 The derivation of the Spanish por is suggested in arti- 
 cles 9th, 5th, and 6th : — nor does it signify much whether 
 you consider it as coming from the Greek wofoj or the 
 old Saxon for a, or from any word of the like nature, as 
 the Cimbrian foera (iter, &c.) or the Celtic porh which 
 means passage, opening, door, &c. 
 
 The derivation of the Old Saxon and English for is sug- 
 gested in articles 5th and 6th. — A thing which cannot 
 be denied, is that it might also be considered as a corrup- 
 tion of the German fur (an abbreviation of fubvc (way, 
 road, conveyance, manner of conveying, 8cc.) or of 
 fi'itjrcr (leader, guides, Sec), and aa contraction of fore, 
 when the point is to specify anteriority. In regard to 
 for used 2R a negative prefix, the subject has been dis- 
 missed in art. 5th of Interlocution LXXI. 
 ^The German vor, <ooran, being chiefly used to denote 
 
 anteriority,
 
 168 
 
 anterior' ty, come from the Gothic four or faura, or 
 rather from the old Saxon fora, for an : hence, the Ger- 
 man preposition vor is distinct from fiw. 
 
 The Dutch preposition voor, performing the double 
 function of denoting anteriority, and passage or transi- 
 tion, &c. comes from the old Saxon for (whence, the 
 English/or chiefly). 
 
 The French preposition, pour comes from the same 
 source with the Spanish por, the old Saxon for, &c. — 
 Nor, from the investigations I have entered into, is it 
 surprising that the French should have formerly used 
 four, in regard to circumstances wherein they now used 
 far, since it is evident that the words came from the 
 same kind of adjectives or the same kind of verbs. 
 
 79. B. Let me tell you, that though you seemed at first 
 to wish merely to establish one grand principle, namely, 
 to point out how far the notion of operator or co-operator 
 may extend ; and to make your readers understand that 
 (this notion being applicable to whoever or whatever 
 causes, did cause, or will cause, such or such event to 
 come to pass, such or such condition to be), on a per- 
 son asking the questions how P why P (or the like), after 
 the statement of the bare event or condition, the answer 
 will generally make him discover the operator or co-opera- 
 tor : — Yet, you have insensibly suffered yourself to be 
 drawn into a string of etymologies, in the getting put 
 of which, you have given repeated proofs of what man 
 can do when he is not be daunted by difficulties.— You 
 have successfully explained by what mechanism many 
 necessary tools had been contrived by our ancestors, 
 taught the workman to know their value, and even 
 
 pointed
 
 169 
 
 pointed out where he may use them with ease as well 
 as skill. — On the subject of association or concomitance f 
 you have shewn by what sort of link individuals can be 
 introduced in many different languages ; nor have you 
 forgotten to touch on the contrary of concomitance : on 
 that of place, generally found by asking the question 
 where? You have thrown such a light as will not die 
 away ; and the value of the words, Introduced to an- 
 nounce place, will no longer be words of unsettled mean- 
 ing, whether continued to be called prepositions, whether 
 denominated henceforth fore-runners or determinatives : 
 on those prepositions which are introduced to announce 
 way, road, course^, &c. generally answering the question 
 which way ? you have said enough to prevent their being 
 hereafter placed among the words considered as fion-de 
 scripts. — 1 cannot recapitulate all the points you have 
 handled with success : but there is that of possessor and 
 possession, concerning which you have given several use- 
 ful hints* and I wish you would tell me if the notion of 
 possessors and possession extends very far in language. 
 
 LXXXi S. Next to the notion of operator or co-ope falor, 
 there is none that returns more frequently into speech 
 than that of possessor \ and that notion extends much 
 further than many people are aware of. Every moment 
 we are asking the question whose? — -Whatever a man 
 may dispose dfj as he pleases, is a possession quite real 
 in regard to him : whatever he thinks he may dispose of 
 he also views as a possession, however precarious this 
 may be. — A man goes even so far as to consider like a 
 -ession arfy person he commands or employs, all he 
 1 Niches, all he does* all he says, all he occupies himself 
 
 H with*
 
 170 
 
 with. — What I say is so true, that, in presenting* with, 
 a noun, those aetions, occupations, 8tc. he gives to that 
 noun, or at least he may give it, one of the possessive 
 adjectives in lieu of its article; hence it is that your 
 action is not only for the action of you, the action which 
 
 you are performing or whicbyoii have performed ; but also- 
 for the action which you mention or which you have men- 
 tioned: hence, likewise, my man is not only for the man 
 of me or belonging to me, the man I have, See. : but for 
 'the man of whom I sptak, or have spoken, &c. so likewise 
 his book, is not onlv for the book he has, the book of him 
 or belonging to him, &c. but for* the book he is making or 
 has made, &c. &c. — These examples will be sufficient 
 for any one to conceive that the idea of possession may 
 be extended to a vast number of circumstances ; especi- 
 ally if he reflects that inanimate, things arc very frequent- 
 ly personified, and consequently susceptible of appearing 
 each in the character of a possessor. But how impercep- 
 tibly the notion of operator changes into that of pos* 
 
 • sessor, may be conceived by this instance : u the action 
 which you have performed," or" the action which has 
 been performed by you" wherein the word you represents 
 the operator j while in c 'your action," the word your is 
 generally understood to be a possessive adjective equal 
 to belonging to you, and (i your action ' is considered as 
 " the action belonging toyou:" and yet u your action" 
 i? often sajd for " the action which you have performed." 
 80. B. Before I quit you, I cannot but declare what 
 I feer — if a teacher be desirous of exercising properly the 
 judgment of his pupils, and of preparing them so as to 
 insure a rapid progress in their study of the ancient, as 
 
 well
 
 171- 
 
 well as of the modem languages, he cannot put Into their 
 hands a book better calculated for both objects than the 
 one you have just contrived. —Wishing that your labours 
 may meet with the countenance which they deserve From 
 the Public, I shall now lake my leave of vou. — Fare- 
 well ! 
 
 THE END, 
 
 rPI*T*ri BY R. Wll.KS, 80, CliANCSHY-MNE.
 
 ERR ATA. 
 
 Page. 
 
 3 9, line 7, — For, I wish to be understood — read-^l wish it to be 
 understood. 
 
 33, the last line but one in the reference — -for, quos ortu Germano— read 
 — quos ortu Germanos 
 
 S3, line 7, — for, now, , whose nose — read— now, I, whose nose. 
 
 40, in Example \—for, by every man — read — by every good man. 
 
 in Example 5— for, by my father — read — of my father -The printer 
 changed of into by ; but the Author, by quoting that example with of, 
 intended to show that of was formerly used instead of by after a passive 
 verb. 
 
 52, line 25,— for, a toi, soi, — read — a toi, a soi. 
 
 53, the first reference ought to present itself with *, 
 09, line 15, — for, warlike part — read — warlike port 
 199, line 4,— for, bught — read — bugt. 
 
 Ill, line 1, of the reference— for, Count — read — Court. 
 113, iine 10, for, botontitus — read — botontinus. 
 1 1 i, line 7, for, abut — rend— abbut. 
 U", line lo,for, contracted bv h — read — eontractedly a- . 
 167, line 2-7, fur guides — read guide ; and for a a — read — as a. 
 , 1CS, line 12, — for, they now used — read — they now use. 
 
 line 28,— for, not be daunted — read — not tobedauntcd;
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 XI OW far the notion of operator, and co-operator, is applicable 
 p. r>,6, 7, 12, 13, H, 17- 
 
 A general rule for discovering the operator of an action, of an 
 event, of a condition or situation ; p. 13, in note. 
 
 An anecdote serving to prove how a name may he so clipped as to 
 retain part only of what it was originally, and then so writhed in 
 pronunciation as to appear, in the sounds, quite another word 
 than that which writing presents ; p. 8. 
 
 How consonants came to replace others ; p. 9, ]0. 
 
 W is frequently suppressed or changed into V, &c. p. 10. 
 
 The aspiration used in one dialect is omitted in another, or con- 
 verted into f, b, v,s, &c. p. 10. 
 
 J low vowels came to replace others ; p. 10, 1 1. 
 
 An anecdote concerning the French diphthong oi ; p. 11, 12. 
 
 Inanimate things are personified much moie frequently than one 
 is aware of. They may be introduced as Agents; they may also 
 be introduced as Patients ; p. 14. 
 
 l'.xamples to elucidate what grammarians mean by Agent and 
 Patient; p.. 15. 
 
 An action may be done in consequence of force or persuasion, in 
 iqi\!?quci}cco{somecirc't/nsta/iccs thereby the individual is mov- 
 ed to the said action; p 16,10. 
 
 ^n example in elucidation, with an injluencing Agent and an »«• 
 jtuenced Agent ; p. \6, 17. 
 
 The preceding extended so as to present an additional Agent; 
 
 p. 17. 
 Tue construction which suits an active peri becomes reversed, 
 
 p when
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 » hen that is to be changed so as to demand the construction 
 allotted to a passive verb ; p. 18, 15. 
 What is to be undei stood by an oblique case ; p. 18, 19. 
 Two examples in elucidation of the oblique case; p. 20. 
 When au event, a condition or situation, is stated by a neuter 
 verb, the sentence may be so changed, as to become a 'sort of 
 active construction ; p. 20, 2.1, 22. 
 The individual whose situation or condition is presented with a 
 neuter verb, is actually the patient in the neutral construction, 
 and w ill remain so to be in any active construction replacing 
 the neutral one, p. 21, 22. 
 Sometimes a verb, in the active form, is used in the infinitive at 
 governed by another verb, and the Operator or Agent, in regard 
 to the governed verb, is left understood ; p. 22. 
 (Suffixes or terminations may be considered as articles : they are 
 
 often dispensed with ; p. 25, 26. 
 Whatever termination is added to a word, should be considered as 
 
 an article more or less powerful ; p. 27. 
 The care of removing the excess, or of supplying the deficiency, 
 which may arise from the curtailing of a word, or the manner 
 of its being introduced, has been gradually left, either to the 
 other words used in the sentence, or to the judgment of the 
 reader ; p. 25, 26. 
 With what a student of etymology ought to make himself well ac- 
 quainted; p. 26, 27. 
 How the real meaning of the prep is it ions has been lost sight of; 
 
 p 28, 29. 
 A ridiculous etymology heard by the Author, in regard to the 
 
 ■word Guillotine; p. SO, 31. 
 There is no ground so slippery as that which Etymologists tread, 
 
 in search of primitives ; p. 31. 
 The language is rough in some countries, soft in others, -why ?-*. 
 
 p. 33. 
 A pure language never did, nor could exist for a long time, in a 
 
 considerable region, -without dialects ; p. 33. 
 Parts of the world in which the Celts were anciently seated 
 
 p. S3. 
 The Celtic said to have been the mother of all the dialects of Eu- 
 ropean nations ; p. S3. 
 The particular dialect, spoken by the people who inhabited a par- 
 ticular
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 tfenlar connfrv, must necessarily have become considrrablf 
 alfere bv the dialect of such an invading foe as, takin> v posses- 
 sion of that country, retained it for a considerable length of 
 time ; pL 54* 
 The Gaulish, or Gallic dialect was considerably altered, 1st by 
 Latin, 2dly by the Prankish, and other dialects: hence the pre- 
 sent Wench is a sort of mixture of all those, p. 34. 
 In Britain, a Celtic dialect was spoken, before the country hap- 
 pened to be invaded by the Romans ; this invasion altered the 
 dialect: fresh alterations were made by the Saxon-, who pos- 
 sessed themselves of the country : some more by the Danes, who 
 conquered it afterwards: the Normailic corrupted the dialect 
 prevailing in lotr>: but, in the 13th century, it began to unite 
 with the more modern French, and to form the present F.r.Jish 
 language, p. 35, 36, 37. 
 Through such a continual mixture of dialects, what course the 
 
 Author means to steer ; p. 37- 
 Whenever a word seemingly governed by a prcposit'on, can be 
 • brought to convey the notion of Operator or Cnoju-rafor, in re- 
 gard to an action, an event, a situation or condition, that pre- 
 tended preposition must be actually a. Noun, of equal value with 
 Operator or Cooperalor ; p. 8£J. 
 A set of 21 English sentences, with 'heir resolutions "so contrived 
 as to prove that the prepositions, used in those sen (cures, are 
 clearly standing each for some noun, equal to Operator or CD- 
 operator, introduce!} as afort-r/ciuer to announce that the O -c- 
 rjttor or Cooper.tt or h coining forth J p. 40, 41,4 2, 43, 44. 
 A set of 21 French sentences, with their resolutions so contrived 
 also as to prove that the prepositions, used in those sentences 
 may be made to disappear, by the same process as, applied to 
 the English sent.nces, evinced that each was equal to such a 
 noun as O em tor or Cooperate/ -; p. 47, 48, 50. ' 
 By, Through, Of, For, At, With or any preposition whatever, found 
 introduced (in the modem and anciwit languages) along with 
 the Agent, the Cause, the Motive, the Instrument, the Manne>, 
 the Means ?ced or the Measure punned for causing something 
 to be, &c. — are each a fart-runnfr, equal to Operator or (' 
 tor, m meaning, butsimply announcing that i\\c rra! Operator* 
 or real Cooperator, is coming forth. Hence it appears that the 
 
 2, foltr
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 fore-runner is a redundant expression ; and indeed, some lan- 
 guages reject the same in many circumstances, and present ther 
 real Agent, or Cause, or Motive, &c. in a naked manner, that \s 
 to say, without expressing the preposition which other languages 
 must use, because custom has made it a law ; p,52, 54, 55, 56, 
 57, 58,59, 01. 105. 
 
 "When the preposition cannot he changed into Operator or Co- 
 operator, according to the resolutions that have been exhibited, 
 this preposition either must arise from some different significa- 
 tion allowed to exist in the primitive whence came that word 
 equal to Operator, or else must have been taken from some 
 other primitive ; p. 44, 45, 10G. 
 
 Several Latin sentences quoted, in everyone of which the Opera- 
 tor it pointed out, either by a fore-runner equal to that notion, 
 or by the word which, itself, is to stand as the Operator, p. 5S, 
 50,60,61,62. 
 
 Some of the words traced io their Primitives, or presented 
 as Primitives. 
 
 A, French preposition; p. 23, 48, 
 
 50, 54, 55, 138, 139 
 a, ab, abs, Latin ; p. 23, 58, 59, 
 
 60, from 106 to 111 
 about, English; p. 112, 113, 114 
 ad, at, Latin; p. 112, US, 114, 
 
 115, 116 
 along, English ; p. 77, 78, 79, 117 
 an, on, Anglo-Saxon prepositions; 
 
 p. 119, 132 
 ana; p. 117, 132 
 and, Conjunction ; p. 89 
 and, Anglo-S".xon preposition ; p. 
 
 117, 118 
 .inncau, French ; p. 98 
 apo, ap, aps, Greek ; p. 23, from 
 
 .106 to Hi 
 
 aprcs, French ; p. £0, 51, 57 
 apud, aput, Latin; p. 112, 113, 
 
 114 
 at, Latin for ad; p. 112, 1 IS, 114, 
 
 315, 116 
 at, Gothic, English; p. 41, 42,92, 
 
 116 
 arec, avecque; p. 48, 61, 
 
 62 
 Baguc, French ; p. 98 
 be, English prefix ; p. 07, 98 
 beside ; p. 79 
 by, English ; its origin andfuno 
 
 tions ; p. 7, 23, 6S, 64, 65, 99 r 
 
 100, 101, 102, 103 
 — for Operator or Co-perator • 
 
 p. 5, 7, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 
 40,
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 40, 41, 42, and from 66 to 
 71 
 
 — for performer, associate ; p. 72, 
 73 
 
 — for cours<; range, way, with 
 the additional idea of revolved, 
 completed, &c. p. 74, 75, 76 
 
 — for way, considered as n/>re- 
 sentalive ; p. 74, 75, 70 
 
 — for voi/, course, range, as equal 
 to steering along, &rc. p. 77, 78, 
 79 
 
 — for way, manner, as equal to 
 reciprocally contiguous, &c. 
 p. 80, 81, 8-2, 83 
 
 "— for way, manner, with a no- 
 tion of turning to, and naming • 
 p. 84, 85 
 
 — for icay, manner, method, as to 
 rotation, or succession ; p. 85, 
 86, 87, 88 
 
 — for -way, with a notion of turn- 
 ing and observing ; p. 89 
 
 — for way or road pursued, with 
 a notion of ranging, occupying, 
 possessing • p. 90, 91, 92 
 
 by the by, by the way, upon the 
 by ; p- 93, 94 
 
 by and by ; p. 94, 95 
 
 by, as a prefix ; p. 95 
 
 by, cs Subjoined, and with a Sub- 
 audition ; p. 96, 97 
 
 Chez, Trench • p. ] 15 
 
 co, col, com, con, cor, &c. as pre- 
 fixes ; p. 62, (53 
 
 connoltrc, French ; p. 100 
 
 cum, Latin; p. 61, 62 
 
 Da, Italian; p. 23, 138,139, 1 4 f, 
 142, 144 
 
 d'apres, French ; p. 5Q. 
 de ; p. 23, 26, 47, 43, 50, 55, 66, 
 60, 62, 139, 140, 141, 142, 14S 
 dc, a negative prefix ; p. 136 
 des, a negative prefix; p. J 36 
 di; p. 23, 27, 139, 142, 143 
 di, a negative prefix ; p. i£7 
 dia; p. 23, 27, 139, 142, 14S 
 dis, a prefix ; p. 136, 137 
 durch, German ; p. 23, 149 
 dys (fry?), Greek prefix ; p. 130, 
 
 137 
 E for ex, Latin ; p. 60, 111, 112, 
 
 1S7 
 en, French Pronoun ; p. 55, 55, 56 
 en, Preposition ; p. 50, 53, 55, 
 
 56, 119, 121, 122, 126, 154 
 en, English Suffix to nouns ; p. 1 26 
 essa, esse, esso ; p. 120 
 ex, Greek, Latin ; p. 00, 111,1 12, 
 
 137 
 Far, Anglo-Saxon; p. 135 
 fanum, Latin ; p. 130 
 feran, fer, frrer, fero ; p. 163 
 fitz, prefix to proper names ; p. 110 
 for, English preposititn; p. 41, 
 
 42, 57, from 157 to 168 
 for, English negative prefix ; 
 
 p. 135 
 frir, French, as in ojfrir, sourfrir, 
 
 p. 1G3 
 fro, from ; p. 26, 41, 42, 144 
 fur, p. 157, 167, 168 
 Gibraltar ; p. S5 
 guise, French ; p. 166 
 llof, suffix to proper names, 
 
 p. 109,110 
 lb, ibh^ Irish prefix to proper 
 
 names ; p. 110 
 
 in
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 for, preposition ; f). 119, 1*2. 125* 
 
 154 
 in, negative prefix ; p* 134 
 inn; p. 125, 127 
 is; p. 119 
 isos, Greek; p. 119 
 Like, ly; p. 166 
 Mac, a prefix to proper names} 
 
 p. 110 
 tne, mes, negative prefixes ; p. 136 
 tnet, meta, prepositions ; p. 147 
 mid, preposition and for middle ; 
 
 p. 147 
 tnis, missa, negative prefixes ; 
 
 p. 1S6 
 "mit, German preposition i p. 146, 
 
 147 
 Ne, Italian Pronoun"; As the 
 
 French en ; p. 54 
 O, art Irish prefix to proper names; 
 
 p. 110 
 of, preposition ; p. 1 7, 40, 4 1 , 42, 
 
 from p. 106 to 1 1 1 
 ohn, ohne, German ; p. 132, iS3 
 on, preposition; p. 42, 119, 127, 
 
 128, 129, 
 on, a negative prefix ; p. 133* 134 
 ond, Anglo-Saxon preposition ; 
 
 p. 117, 118 
 ont, Dutch negative prefix; p. 133 
 Par, French preposition ; p. 23, 
 
 47, 48, 50, 06, and from p. 152 
 
 to 157, 162, 168 
 par, Italian, for da parte di ; 
 
 p. 155 
 para; p. 23, from 154 to 159 
 paroitre, French; p. t6o 
 
 parvenir, French, p. 154 
 
 per; p. 23, 58, 59, 60, 157, 163, 
 
 167 
 peri ; p. 157, 164, 167 
 por, Spanish ; p. 2S, 157, l67, l6S 
 pour, French ; p. 50, 57, 157, 16? 
 prse, praeter ; p. 60, 167 
 pres ; p. 5 1 
 pro; p. 167 
 propter ; p. Go 
 pros, Greek; p. 167 
 Re, for, repeatedly, retragra- 
 
 dately; p. 128 
 S, Italian negative prefix; p. 137 
 same, English; p. 121 
 sans, French; p. 132, 133 
 sideway, sidewise; p. 79 
 
 son, a suffix to proper name* 
 p. 110 
 
 Term (boundary), term (word) ; 
 p. 121 
 
 thor; p. 148, 150 
 thorough; p. 15, and from 148 
 to 152 
 
 thro, Gothic suffix; p. 149 
 thro,' through, English ; as tho- 
 rough 
 
 thur; p. MS, i50 
 
 thura (S*p«) ; p. 23, 150 
 
 tor, Cimbridn ; p. 151 
 
 Ua, [irefix to proper names \ p. 110 
 
 un, negative prefix ; p. 134 
 Van, Dutch preposition ; p. 129, ISO 
 
 van, negative prefix ; p. 133 
 
 Venus, venustus ; p. 135 
 
 ver, a. negative prefix; p. 155 
 
 von, German ; p, 129, 1&0 
 
 vcor.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 voor, Dutch; p. 157, 168 with, preposition; p. 20, 41, 145, 
 
 vor, German; p. 157, l67 146, 148 
 
 Wan, Gothic; p. 1S3, 134 with, wither, for German wieder, 
 
 way, ways, a suffix; p. 79, 141 p. 145, 146 
 
 wie, p. 166 witz, a suffix for proper' -names; 
 
 wieder, German; p. 146 p. 110 
 
 wise, as a suffix ; p. 79, 141, 165, won, wona, Anglo-Saxon ; p. W«V 
 
 166 1S3
 
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