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THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
w\
A
\
ayar,
OK. THE
EFEN1NGS OF SOUTHILL.
BOOK I.
BY NICHOLAS SALMON,
AUTHOR OF STEMMATA LATINITATIS, AND OTHER.
PHILOLOGICAL WORKS.
LONDON:
PRICED FOR THE AUTHOR,
AND SOLD BY J. MAWMAN, NO. 22, POULTRY.
1806.
» \
B. Wilks, Printer, Chancery Lane.
t
3ll
TO
LADY ELIZABETH WHITBREAD,
THE AUTHOR MOST HUMBLY DEDICATES
THIS FIRST BOOK OP
THE EFENINGS OF S0UTH1LL,
THE RESULT OF RESEARCHES HE HAS MADE,
IN CONSEQUENCE OF
HER LADYSHIP'S ANXIOUS WISH
THAT HER CHILDREN
SHOULD BE WELL GROUNDED IN THE
PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGES J
INTREATING HER
TO CONSIDER THE LIBERTY
HE TAKES
AS A PROOF OF
HIS GRATITUDE, AND RESPECTFUL
ATTACHMENT.
Southlll-House, June 1806.
1316ia5
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PREFACE.
JL he first book of " The Evenings of Southill"
which the Author now offers to the Public, will,
he hopes, be perused with attention, as well as
indulgence ; and should it be found to contain
precepts capable of removing some of the difficul-
ties which attend the study of language, he will
experience no small degree of pleasure in having
been so far useful.
" Language (says Mr. Home Tooke) is an
art, and a glorious one, — whose influence extends
over all the others ; and in which, finally, all
sciences must centre.'* — If it be true, then, that
language influences all other arts, so as to be-
come the very centre whence they flow, it is to
language we ought to apply our first care ; nor
can we begin too soon to teach our children to
reason on the value of words, and on the various
wa^s of employing them to advantage.
But it, may be said : Children are incapable of
reasoning. - It is true they do not often reason on
the same subjects, nor in the same manner, as
men ;
X PREFACE,
men; because their occupations are different, and they
have not the same stock of acquired ideas. — They,
however, have the same faculty : we daily see that
a child, of the most tender age, will attempt to
discover the cause of an effect which he perceives j
and thai if he cannot succeed of himself, he will
apply to some one for assistance. -^-It is not to be
inferred from this, that the Author approves of
presenting children with dry investigations on
language ; he has nothing more in view than that
they should be properly instructed in the princi-
ples of language in general ; which cannot be
effected without a clear understanding of what
those principles are,
The learned Author of " The Diversions of
Purley" has done much towards explaining the
nature of those parts of speech which, before,
were but little known or attended to : but truth
requires the Author of " The Evenings of SouthiH'*
to confess, that, in his opinion, much still remained
undone in this department of Grammar.^ — He has
ventured, on some occasions, to question the vali-
dity of Mr. Tooke's Etymologies : how justly he
has done this, it remains with the public to de-.
tcrmine.
Whatever may be the opinion of those who
shall give this work an attentive perusal, the
Author trusts they will "receive his labours with
candour. — He is at a time of life, when infir-
mities have overtaken him, and he has been able
to
PREFACE. XI
fo devote to etymological researches, that portion
of time only which his health required should be
allowed for relaxation, and freedom from severe
study.
The subject appears to him so very important,
that he cannot but express a desire to sje such
errors as he may have fallen into, fully detected :
any communication, therefore, which may tend to
improve the plan he Jias pursued, will be thanks
fully received.
OR,
*H£ EVENINGS OF SOUTHILL.
BOOK I.
The Dialogue is between the Author and a Mr. By.*
Several points of great importance to all nations are
discussed \ if done with success, the completion of the
Author's undertaking may become of universal utility.
I. S. What! Is it you, my dear By /'—Welcome to
Southtll, dearest of my friends ! I take it exceedingly
kind of you to afford me an opportunity to thank you
again, personally, for having introduced me to your nu-
merous relatives: they have indeed been, ever since, emu-
lous in serving me. What can I d» in return for all
your favours ?
1 . jB. Do me justice, and rescue .my name from the
* The monosyllable By may appear, to people who dislike any
name which so soon dies away in one's mouth, a very insignificant
appellation ; but the Author is so much indebted to that mono-
syllabical friend, that he chose to converse with him in prefer-
ence to any other individual.
Jt disgrace
ct
disgrace it has undergone ; I came here on purpose t&
request it of you.
II. S. It is my duty to do ail in my power to show my-
self worthy of the friendship with which you honour me*
Any attempt to disgrace von, is an attempt to disgrace
myself. Let me know what you expect from me,
2. jB. Having heard that you intended to publish a
work on certain relatives of mine settled in France, and
different parts of the world, i supposed that you would
have occasion to apeak of me and my English kindred.
Many have been the writers who strove to ascertain how
we came to be what \\a are \ but, if one of them suc-
ceeded in two or three instances, he failed in all the rest,
and presented to his readers mere conjectures which proved
of little or no service. I am particularly anxious that
the subject should be so handled tbrat literature might de-
rive substantial benefit from it; and fearing that you might
suffer yourself to be led away by the silly genealogies
which,- every where, have been imposed upon men con-
cerning us, I determined to come and inquire how far
ybu bad made yourself acquainted with the high digni-
ties and functions to which we are entitled, in the \vorld }
either by our- noble origin, or by the great things we have
performed, and stili are daily performing.
III. S. In this, my dear little B)', I see an additional
favour conferred on me : yon wish to guide me in the
work I have undertaken.
3. B. I do not precisely know which predominates,-
in the step I have taken, my friendship to you, or mr
desire of making you open the eyes of a great man in
your line. He has wronged me very much. His learn-
ing indeed is so very extensive, that people have been-
afraid to attempt doing me justice: but, with the assist-
ance I can. alfoi«i vol., if ■: be necessary to give you any,
I hope
t hope that the world will be undeceived, and behold me,
in your Apx» l t very differently from what I have been
described to be in the Ewea TrlepozvTx,*.
IV. S. My dear little By, I dare say that no man is
more open to conviction than the one you allude to: I
am even sure that he will feel great satisfaction in seeing
that he has roused in me the desire of seconding hi*
views. I am now fighting under his banner. If, in my
efforts to distinguish myself; I do any thing that may
deserve praise, the glory ought, from the custom esta-
blished in the navy and in the army, to be his, as much
as; if not more than, mine; nor is there any necessity
for me to quote precedents on this point. The ground
he has chosen to fight upon could not be better : having;
however, perceived that he has not always been able to
procure the best arms for fighting with that advantage.
*The author of the present work had, in his prospectus, given the
Stives of S out hill for d. second title; but some persons having ob-
jected to the word Silve, not yet used in English (as Sylva in
Spanish, Selva in Italian, 'ifc» in Greek, Stive in French), to ex-
press occasional thoughts and reflections thro-cn upon paper as they
tccur, to he afterwards revised and distributed into the places -which
"may suit them best in some xvork or other ; he has deemed it pro-
per to change the intended second title into The Evenings of
Houthill, retaining for first title Kp%aS (Archai, Which means Ori-
gins), because of the Greek title chosen by Mr. Home Tooke to
express winged words. By Archai or the Evenings of Southil; the
reader is therefore to understand something equal to " Origins
are the Evening Amusements of Soul hill.''
The Author has been advised to separate the English part from
the French, and to begin with a review of some of the English Pre-
positions, in order that the English reader may be the better pre-
pared for entering into the discussions of (he French Prepositions;
and discovering the affinity which must exist between .the two
languages; though the w rds appear very different.
» B 2 which
4
which would have rendered his victories decisive, I have
sought for, and am now ready to supply him with, such
arms; nor do I doubt but he will cheerfully contribute
to my success in that battle wherein I am soon fo act as
commander in chief. Even then he will share in my
triumph, if I deserve a triumph.
4. B. After all,- the field of battle he has chosen,
and that which you seem to choose yourself, has been
pointed out by Aristotle, and many other ancients, and,
among the moderns, by Schultens, Walkenaer, Lennepy
Hemsterhus, &c. &c. who have not been victorious.
V. S. True; but the hints they have given may be
usefully applied. They have failed, it must be confessed;
but their failure has been only because they had not dis-
covered the weapons which would have insured them
complete success. They all aimed at being useful, and we
aim at being useful : Mr. H. Tooke, by his Diversions of
Pur ley, and Ij by rriy Evenings of Southill.
5. B. Let us come to the point. I say that the learn-
rd Author whom you have just mentioned, having
wronged me, I claim to be restored to those functions of
which I have been unjustly deprived, by him more par-
ticularly than by any other : and, fearing you should,
out of veneration for the man, repeat his assertions, I
demand of you to state what your researches have enabled
vou to know of my Ancestors, and of the dignities with
which, from fathers to sons, I, and my relatives, settled
in different countries, have been invested.
VI. S. The Author of the Enta, tsl^oina has allotted
to you a subordinate rank, I confess. He was not ac-
quainted with the power you possess. Perhaps it was
your fault. Had you hinted to him the different branches
©f your family, his acute mind would not have suffered
him
him to fall into any error concerning you. He supposed
you to be the offspring of the insignificant Bith ; insig-
nificant, I say, since one may, in the cases he has men-
tioned, do very well without it: is that the subject of
your complaint?
6. B. Yes ', and what do you intend to say on my
account ?
VII. S. I mean, contrary to his assertions, to prove
that, in very many circumstances, you derive your name
from words which do not merely denote existence, but
which actually signify operating, creating, making, form-
ing, influencing, or the like : that you appear as a fore-
runner, to whoever or whatever is causing, has been caus-
ing, or will be causing any thing to happen ; that, con-
sequently, on many occasions, you act as a forerunner to
God himself, the Creator of all things *: I mean to prove
that you, and your relatives, whether here or abroad,
have always been, and will ever be, the forerunners of
those that have performed, or shall perform, such actions
as are reputed the most glorious f : but, at the same time,
from my wish to be strictly just, I must add that you,
and your relatives, may be found to be the forerunners of
those that perform the basest actions^;.
* The universe was created by God. — i. e. The universe
was created: (the) opeiiator (in this wonderful creation,
was) — God — Both constructions are equal to " God created
the universe."
f Darius was vanquished by Alexander — i. e. Darius
was vanquished : (the) operator (of this state of Darius*
was) Alexander— Both constructions are equal to Alexander
vanquished Darius.
\ Abel was murdered BY Cain, his brother— i. e. Abel
was murdered: (the) Operator (of this vile murder, was)
Cain his brother — Both constructions are equal to Cain mur-
PEred hia brother Abel.
B3 7.5
?. B. You seem- indeed to know us thoroughly, by
giving it to be understood that each of our names is equal
to these indefinite expressions who, or what, does (did,
Or will do), who, or what, causes (did, or will cause)
to happen or to be dene. Much more meaning, then, is
attached to mine, and to each of my relations' names
than Mr. H. Tooke has asserted.
VIII. i§. I have tried, beyond any man perhaps, to
know you thoroughly, my dear little By, having reason
<io think that this knowledge would lead me to the object
I had in view; and indeed, I found that each name of
your relatives may also announce a being equal to either
•who operates any thing, or, who cooperates to any thing«
In short, you, as well as your relatives, have always an
active influence. By each of your names, one should
understand as much as Operator or Co-operator, since
you are the very soul, spirit, and director, in many of the
events which take place, may take place, or have taken,
place. T hope that this definition of your worth, my
dear little By, is agreeable to you ; and that your relatives
will not have reason to complain of me, if I often make;
them appear as possessing the very power? which I as-
cribe to you.
8 B. No, certainly. But I do not always appear as
the Operator of, or the Co- operator to } , what is represented
as a situation or condition.
IX. S. I know that you do not. Your ancestors
were useful to mankind in many ways. When they
shared their powers among their issue, the portions were
not precisely equal: hence, this offspring has been put in
possession of certain right which another offspring was
not to enjoy, and so forth : the point is to ascertain
the several powers devolved to each descendant. This
js a subject into which I do not chusc now to enter
fully. I shall confine myself to suggest, that in " I
may be, by you, raised to a degree of importance in.
the Republic of Letters", f and every body else, will
consider you as the individual who may cause me to
obtain, in the Republic of Letters, a degree of import-
ance; consequently, yoxj will probably be the opera-
tor of that situation of mine: that in " I am now sit-
ting by you," nobody can see, in you, the operator of
my situation, as to sitting: that in " J saw him in-
sulted in a by- street", no hearer, or speaker, will
suppose that the street caused niy seeing him insulted :
that in " He is younger than, you by four years",
four years indeed cause him to be younger than you, but
denote, at the same time, a sort of difference between
two individuals considered each in his present state; one
of them is younger, the other is older ; and you, my dear
little By, are the forerunner announcing the criterion
whereby the difference (between their age) is declared to
be four years. Such, and different other, powers, be-
longing to you, shall be fully accounted for hereafter.
9. B. You have been told, I suppose, and you have
yourself observed, that, in my travels, my name has un-
dergone many changes ?
X. S Yes, yes; my dear little By, alias Be, alias Bi,
alias Big, alias Bii, 8cc. I am well acquainted with your
metamorphoses. The old Saxons mentioned you in all
those names; the Goths in those, of Bi and Be ; the
Dutch call you By, and sometimes Bij, using you how-
ever merely to denote proximity', the Germans call you
Bey, using you sometimes as the English do before or in
the presence of (whence a sort of proximity), sometimes
as the English do by, in forms of adjuring or obtest-
ing, fee.
B 4 ID. B>
8
lo. B. Many names have been so altered, that it is
almost impossible to trace them to their real origin.
Xr. S. Numberless are the instances in all languages..
u. B. The nature of your work requires that you,
should adduce a few of those instances.
XII. <S. My very name, Salmon, was originally Sa-.
lomon; and, by the latter name, many of my relations
go at present, in France : but the following anecdote will
better prove how a name may be so clipped as to retain
a small part only of what it was originally, and then so
writhed in pronunciation as to appear quite another
word than that which writing presents to the eye.
The late Sir John Cullura had invited me to dine with
him at his mother-in-law's on the ist of January 1780 :
the tempestuous night preceding that day will long be
remembered. The invitation had been verbal, and Sir
John had forgotten to remind me of the place where his
mother-in-law resided ; nor had he mentioned her name.
After he had left me, I was forced to look, amorg the
letters I had received from him while I lived at Lille, for
some one dated from the house of his mother, whose
name I had never heard pronounced. In one of those
letters was this direction, " Mrs. Bisson at Mile-end." I
had no reason to think otherwise than that the name Bisson
was English, and that son, the last half of the word,
should therefore be pronounced obscurely, as in lesson.
Arrived at Mile-end, I inquired for Mrs. Bisson : all the
inhabitants of the spot said they never heard of such a
person : the last to whom I applied, as an ultimate effort,
told me, however, that there was, nearly a mile offa Mrs.
Biz-zazun He pointed out the house to me; there I
went, and Sir John Cullum's footman opened the door*
While at dinner, I spoke of the trouble I had been at to
find
9
find Mrs. Bisson's place of abode, from the difference
of pronunciation. My late husband's genuine name vva$
X)u l iiisson, said she to me. As the people he had to
deal with could not utter that name right, the initial du
was taken off. But still the French manner of pronoun-
cing buis (like bui) could not be attained by them, and
buis (or but) soon degenerated into biz j finally, the na r
sal son was distorted into %awn !
12. B. The strong corruption which that name,
T>ubuisson, experienced in England, will warn your
readers, that words, which were not proper names of
persons, may have been gradually curtailed, or differently-
written as to their vowels and the consonants. Mr. Home
Tooke said, in order to justify his derivation of the Latin
words ad and at, that a little consideration of the organs
and practice of speech will convince any one that varia T
tions and contractions could not but have taken place.
At his derivation of the Latin ut and quod, he has pre-
sented seven couple of simple consonants ; f* B and P,
« G and K, D and T, Z and S, D and 0, V and F,
if J and Sh (one single character ought, he suggests, to
f* be contrived for Sh) ; and he has informed us that, the
f* first of each couple being uttered with the compres-
(i sion, and the second of each couple being uttered
" without the compression, those consonants differ, each
" from its partner, by no variation whatever of articula-
* f tion ', but singly by a certain unnoticed and almost
ff imperceptible motion or compression of, or near, the
i( larynx; which causes what Wilkins calls ( Some hind
*' of murymtre.'' This compression, Mr. Tooke adds, the
" Welch never use ; so that when a Welchman, instead
" of
" I vow, by Goody, Dat Jenkins is a Wizzard,"
" pronounces
10
ft pronounces,
" I fovv, py Cooty, ©at Shenkin iss a Wissart,
"he articulates it, in every respect, exactly as we do j
" but omits the compression nine times in the sentence ;
" and, for failing in this one point only, changes seven
<c of our consonants : for, we owe seven additional let-
" ters (i. e. seven additional sounds in our language),
*f solely to the addition of this one compression to seven
c< different articulations. 1 *
XIII. S. After what you have quoted from the diver-
sions of Purlev, there is hardly any need for me to add,
that it is not merely the Welch who omit the compres-
sion ; the Swiss, the Germans, and other people do it
too : that W is frequently omitted, sometimes changed
into V. Sec.: that we frequently find the aspiration used
in one dialect, while it is omitted in another, or converted
intoy, b, v, s, or into one partner of each of these : that
aa was formerly written, in French, instead of a or as;
thus, for aage we find now age, for asne, we find now
dne; and so with the other vowels. Wasp, is in Latin
and Italian Vespa ; in French, it was written Gucspf^
now it is Guepe; in Spanish, it is abispa ; in German, it is
Wespc, in Dutch, it is Wesp; in Greek, it is rp*£i the
English wordfatber is in Dutch voder, in German vater,
in Latin pater, in Greek tsar^, in Spanish and Italian pa-
dre, in French pere : the English word mother is in Dutch
mceder, m German mutter, in Latin mater, in Greek
u.y)Tr,p or aarnp, in Spanish and Italian madre, in French
mere. The frequent change which we sec in regard to
the vowels, arises perhaps from the very cause which
Mr. Tookc mentions : with certain people, it may have
happened that this vowel, not combining so freely its ut-
terance, when joined with this or that consonant, has
been replaced by another vo we] which suited their organs
better.
ft
better. This, at least, appears to me the only, rational way
to account for that, continual interchange which we per-
ceive in comparing different dialects together.
13. B. Every one who shall take the trouble of exa-
mining any of the old Saxon Dictionaries, which contain
the words of the several dialects used among the Saxons,
will finely that a word, in the different manners in which
it has been written, often suffered its primitive vowel tp
be changed into every other : the examination will force
him to acknowledge that you are right in your conjec-
ture; nay, he will have occasion to remark that a vowel
has been changed into two or three, and that, on the
contrary, two or three vowels have been changed into
Qne. All those things, which we observe in the ancient
languages, have extended more or less their influence on
the modern languages : and, besides, we must allow that
a particular pronunciation, or spelling, either in a beau-
tiful woman, or in some great personage, whether the
pronunciation or spelling arose from some innate defect,
whether from silly affectation, whether from any other
cause, has extended its influence, through base flattery
or foolish imitation, so far that the tutelar genius of a
language has not been able to check the progress.
XIV. S. I shall, by way of proof to what you have
just said, relate a very singular fact, the effect of which
\s now past remedy in regard to the French language.
Until the arrival of Catherine of Mcdicis in France,
never had the Fieneh diphthong ci been pronounced
Otherwise than it is yet in Roi, in Exploit (that is, oi was
pronounced as ivab would be in English)*. But, as the
• Ab hac diptbongo (vi) sic abborret Itaiica lingua, Ut mot, toi,
ft sir.iilia, per dialysii!, prpducto eliam 0, pmmintiant wo-i ei to-i,
diss\l!aba. (Theodore tie Bc;:c, de /vc/a Frantic* iingu* pro^
ntmciati&ic, p. 48).
Italians
12
Italians with whom the Court became inundated, had
not that sound in their language, • they chose to substi-
tute in its stead the s6und of the open e (equal to the
first e in the English word were) ; and soon their pro-
nunciation, affected by the courtiers in order to please
the Queen, was adopted by the citizens. No one pre,,
sumed, without running the risk of being called a pe-
dant, to pronounce the national adjective Francois. Fran-
goise, otherwise than. Frances, Francese. (Henri Estienne,
du nouveau langage Francois italianise, p. 22*.)
14. B. Pray, what principles did you lay down to
serve you as guides in your researches concerning me and
my relatives ?
XV. S. After having examined attentively a few ex-
amples, wherein the verb was introduced passively, and
my little By was prefixed to the Agent, I said within
myself: By must have in his name the real force of
Agent, Operator, or some word conveying the like signi-
fication ; if not, By must be equal to such a noun as
soul, tool, instrument, cause, channel, criterion, any man-
ner or means employed to cause any evc7it to take place^
* In some provinces of France, instead of pronouncing moi,
toi, soi, &c. as if written in English mtoah, tiva/i, sxuaJi, ike. the
people pronounce nearly moe, toe, soe, Sec. or, as if written in
English mwatf, ttsay, sway, &c. One BSr/iin (avocat au l'arle-
ment de Paris) printed in lG? r >, at Rouen, remarks on the French
language : in the first of these, lie maintains that the imperfect
terminations ois. .-»/, okut, as well as the same terminations in the
conditional tense rait, roi', rqitnt (and in other circumstances
which cause the Normans to be recognised), the oi ought to he
written and pronounced ai. Voltaire found in this an useful hint,
wiote ai instead of oi, when the sound was not to be equal to what
ra/( would be in English j and now the custom seems to prevail.
all
13
all which, not unlike the French dine, instrument, artisan,
cause, vote, moyen or maniere, are used figuratively in-
stead of Agent, Operator, Co-operator, and thus are made
to appear as causing or having caused some event to hap-
pen; and indeed those words imply an active power, ail
active person, a certain injiuence, ascendant power, or the
like. Now, said I also to myself, it is impossible for
any word to have the force of Operator, without being
the offspring of some word implying such an action as
may effect a situation in regard to some individual con-
sidered as the patient (because of receiving the force of'
the action) ; and being fully persuaded cf this impossi-
bility, I began my researches : they have proved success-
ful, and I shall be partly repaid for my trouble, if their
utility become acknowledged.
15. B. I am particularly glad that you have not been
disappointed in your researches. What a light they will
throw upon language! Man will no longer be uttering,
like a parrot, words the meaning of which he did nut
know. Do tell me how far you mean to extend the no-
tions of Operator and Co-operator P
XVI. S. Whoever, or whatever does any thing men-
tioned, or causes that thing to be as it is mentioned, is
the Operator or Agent, in regard to the same. Hence,
when any person states an action, an event, a situation
or condition, as having happened, or to happen; who-
ever, or whatever, has had, or will have, the power of
effecting the same, has been, or will be, the Operator or
Agent. Nor is it possible for any position whatever to
prevent the name, or the representative of the name, from
its being still the Operator or Agent *.
16. B.
* A general rule for discovering the Opera' or is this: If after
the statement of an action, of an event, of a condition or situa-
tion.
14
lo. B. But there may be several individuals mention-
ed as having effected the action, the event, the situation;
or condition, which is expressed in a sentence.
XVII. S. All those individuals, whether animate or
inanimate, are then Co operators ; each, taken singly, is a
.Co-operator. Now* the word Co-operator \& applicable to
any associate, any as'sta?it, any director , guide, criterion;
any instrument, any means, anv cause, any motive, any
tuny or channel^ any manner, any measure pursued, irt
short,- to any inanimate thing that can have some influ-
ence : all those are Co-operators, in spite of any position
whatever given them in the sentence, provided they ap-
pear to have concurred in producing the effect described,
as happening now, to have happened, or to happen in
some future time.
17. B. You have linked inanimate things with animate
ones j do you consider then the inanimate as possessing
powers ?
XVIII. S. Inanimate things are personified much more
frequently than one is aware, of: they are always so, when
presented as producing, or capable of producing, such or
such effect : they may be introduced as Agents', they may
be introduced as Patients : if found presented as acting:
they are Agents ; if found to be presented as acted upon;
they are Patients.
18. B. Adduce some examples, not to prove your as-
sertions, the force of which I feel j but to elucidate a
point which other people may think such as to require
elucidation : and contrast so those examples, that the
notions of Agent and Patient may be fully established.
tion, you ask such questions as who did that ? what did that ? hot'
Wa« that done ? why was that done? whatever may come in answer
y >ith 5-Tise must be the Operator.
■ XIX. Si
15
XlX. S. In " virtue makes man happy" (wherein
the verb to make is said to be used actively), and in
'•' Man is made happy by, or th hough, Virtue'"
(wherein the verb to make is said to be used passively) -,
the word Virtue is the Agent, since it produces
•what is asserted as an action upon man or as a state ope-
rated in regard to man ; and the word man is the Patient,
?ince it is not presented as acting, but as acted upon.
Bat in " Man ought to love Virtue" (wherein to
love is said to be used actively), and in "Virtue ought
to be loved by man 1 ' (wherein the verb to love is said to
be used passively) ; the word man is the .Agent, tor
man is the individual who ought to do that which is
expressed by to love, restraining this action to virtue :
hence virtue (the object acted upon) must be the Patient*
To the preceding examples I think proper to subjoin
these:
In " The tree killed four men" and in "Four men,
were killed by the tree," it is evident that the
Tree is the Agent, andybwr men are each a Patient.
But in " One of the four men had planted th+
tree," as w r ell as in ?' The tree had been planted by one
of the four men," it is one of the four men who is
the Agent, and the tree is the Patient.
19. B. An action may be stated as done, or to be
done, by a single individual of by several : that action
mav be done, or have been done, spontaneously, at leas!
hi appearance ; and it ought to be considered as such, if
nothing in the sentence declares the individual, or any of
the individuals, presented as the Agent or Agents, to have
been influenced to the said action, by being persuaded,'
excited, or compelled. Would it not. then, be proper to'
intimate that the agent is free ; and, if there be more
than oncy to intimate that they are free co-operators ?
XX.
16
XX. 5. There is hardly any necessity, in speel"h> td
be so nice : but the distinction you suggest would not
be improper.
20. B. What has induced me to suggest the distinc-
tion is this : An action may be done in consequence of
persuasion or force, in consequence of some circum-
stance whereby the individual is moved to the said ac-
tion. Now; if any word, in the sentence, intimates per-
suasion, or force, or an influencing circumstance ; who-
ever, or whatever, has done the action (yielding to per-
suasion, or force, oiynfluence of circumstances) is an in-
fluenced operator 5 and, if several individuals (so influ-
enced) have jointly done the said action, each is an in-
fluenced operator. For presenting such actions, as I have
just described, people generally use two verbs, one to ex-
press what the influencing operator does, and the other to
express what the influenced operator does himself. If yen
understand my meanings you will readily mention an
example in point.
XXI. S. In " My Uncle made your Brother
admire (or, caused your Brother to admire) those ex-
ploits," as well as in " Your Brother was made (or
caused) by my Uncle to admire those exploits;" I dis-
cover an influencing Agent (my Uncle), and an influ-
enced Agent (your Brother) ; I discover also that
your brother is introduced so as to exercise two different
functions, since he not only is an object acted upon by
my uncle, but, through my uncle, becomes a sort of
principal Agent (though, in fact, a subservient one), as
to the admiring of the exploits.
31. B. Permit me to extend a little farther the sen- .
teiice wherein you have just now accounted for the
Agents, and to give a hint that those exploits were the
exploits
17
exploits of your General. If I say then, c< My Uncle
made your Brother admire (or, caused your Brother to
admire the exploits of your General" what alteration
will that make as to the Agents you have asserted to be
in the other sentence ?
XXII. S. None; but there will be an additional
Agent. My Uncle will still be an influencing Agent,
in regard to my Brother's admiring the exploits ; my
Brother will still be an influenced Agent, in regard to
his admiring the exploits ; but the General will be an
Agent in regard to the exploits. For, the sentence, as
presented by you, is equal to " My Uncle contrived
this, namely (contrived) four Brother should ad-
mire certain exploits ; your General did those ex-
ploits:*' therefore, of your General is here equal to done
by your General, or (the) Operator (of those
exploits, was) your General.
12. B. The manner in which, you have accounted
for through in erne of the foregoing examples (inter-
locution XIX), and in which you have just ac-
counted for of in the last example, makes me per-
ceive what a drag-net you are going to contrive, a>
I recollect that Oferator and Co-operator are considered
by you to be applicable to whoever, or whatever, is act-
ing as associate, assistant, director, guide, criterion, insiru-
tnent, means, cause, motive f channel, way, manner, mea»
sure pursued, in shorty to any thing made use of as posses-
sing influence. Farewell then to most of the pretended
prepositions in all languages ; for, I dare say that, when
you cannot bring them to mean Operator or Co-operator
you will find means to prove that they have some set-
tled meaning conveyed by a noun, or some other regular
part of speech, I mean either a verb, or an adjective.
c xxin.
28
XXIII. 8. But for you, my dear little By, who taught
me to bring the meshes into the several necessary links,
instead of contriving my drag-net, I should perhaps have
again laboured m vain this time, and become ano-
ther scare-crow set to frighten away all those who might
be desirous to become etymologists.
23. B. Instead of that, you will perhaps become their
guide, or at least point out to them what paths they
should tread in to become useful.
XXIV. S. Prejudices are so deeply rooted! Habit is
so strong !
34. B. From what I have already heard you say con-
cerning me, I have reason to think that you will conquer
those foes ; and, for my own sake, I hope that the con-
test will not be long. But, let us resume the subject we
were upon. Your explanations have made it evident
that the construction which suits an active verb, be-
comes reversed when that verb is to be changed so as to
demand the construction allotted to a passive verb. I
do not want an example of agents enumerated, because
I conceive that " You and I (with a list of other indi-
viduals) have done so' and so" is equal to \f We have
done so and so" : but I wish you to adduce an example
in which it may be seen that the Agents or Operators, as
to one event, are so far separated, that one, or some of
them, might be considered in a different light, as being in
an oblique case, for instance, instead of being in the no-
minative case. By an oblique case, I understand that
construction by which a noun, or its representative, is
preceded by what has been thought to be a preposition.
You have yourself given as much to be understood, in
saying that " a noun or pronoun governed by a prepo-
sition is said to be ia the oblique case." I, beg of you
* now
19
hew to present to me an example wherein a Co-operator
shall be so separated from the principal Operator, that
people would be apt to consider the former merely as an
individual introduced in that form which is called the
oblique case, from the noun or pronoun seeming to be
governed by a pretended preposition.
XXV. S. I wish to be understood, that the present
work, being the fruit of investigations subsequent to my
former publications, I am anxious that the merit of it
should, by those who are proper judges, be ascertained
without any reference to any other work of mine.
What I said at the time you allude to, concerning the
oblique case, was the best I could then say for the
sake of distinction : even now, I think that this very
distinction may be serviceable to make it understood
that the word which comes with the pretended pre-
position, is governed, not in a direct manner by the prin-
cipal verb in the sentence, but explanatorily by a word
denoting Operator or some particular circumstance. If
my former works have all been commended, it was per-
haps merely because it appeared that I was endeavouring-
to clear the rubbish which obstructed the learning of
languages : however, I am now convinced that, for want
of the. clue I now possess, I erred in many points ; nor
am I ashamed to own it. My errors then arose from
suffering myself to be carried away by the torrent, and
to proceed, not quite like a man who gropes in the dark,
but like one who is assisted by so feeble a light that he
cannot but stumble in spite of himself. Wherever a pre-
tended preposition comes with a sort of Agent or Ope*
fator after it, I now behold in it a forerunner, equal to
Operator or Co-operator, used elliptically or interroga-
tively; and I behold, in the word following it, the indi*
c 2 vidual,
20
vidua!, explaining or determining the elliptical represent
tative of what is meant by Operator, Co-operator, or
coming in answer to the question put.
In "The Genkral pursued, with his light
troops, the retreating allies" the verb pursued, say
Grammarians, has the General for its Agent or
Nominative ; and has the retreating allies for its accusa-
tive, as they form a collective object acted upon: but how
is the circumstance which we find in with his light
troops to be explained, as to the effect it produces )"
A little reflection will point out the answer. The
light troops are to be considered as Co-opera-
tors to what the General had in view; for, we might
say "The General, (and) his light troops,
pursued (together) the retreating allies.
In w The General caused the retreating allies to be
pursued by; his light troops," the General
is the Agent as to causing here used actively ; and his
light troops are Subordinate Agents or Sub-
ordinate Operators, introduced after the passive
verb to be pursued, with the fore-runner By made him-
self equal to what might be expressed by Subordinate
agents or Subordinate operators, which fore-
runner By would disappear, if the same thought were to
be presented with to pursue used actively, thus: "The
General ordered his light troops to pursue, (or,
that his light troops should pursue) the retreating
allies ;" and you know that every active construction
may be changed into a passive one, as every passive con-
struction may be changed into an active one.
25. B. Now, I should be glad 'to know how a sen-
tence, stating an event which, by a neuter verb, is pre-
sented like a situation or condition of an individual, or of
individuals, can be so changed as to become a sort of
active
21
active construction, containing both the Agent or acting
individual and the object acted upon.
XXVI. S. If the neutral sentence contains any thing
which operated, or will operate, the event, situation, or
condition, that very thing, being the Operator, may be
made the Agent of an active verb equal to what to cause
means ; and the individual, whose situation, or condi-
tion, is presented, being actualjy the Valient, in the neu-
tral construction, will continue so to be in the active
construction, since the name, or the representative of the
name, will become the object acted upon, by the Agent
and the active verb introduced. If the neutral sentence
contains nothing which operated the event, situation, or
condition, the run of the sentence cannot be changed
from the neutral to an active one, except by introducing,
for Agent of a verb active, some noun not expressed in
the neutral sentence, which noun is known to have ope-
rated the event.
In " He died yesterday," nothing is ment ioned as
having operated the state he is now in ; and He is ac-
tually a Patient, because died is neuter.
In " He perished Ev the sword," He is still the
Patient, because perished is neuter: but T HE sword is
the Operator of the state which the words he perished
express. On hearing you say (< He perished," I might
ask this question, "The operator, of this his state,
was?" or elliptically " Operator?" (instead of How ?) ,
and your answer would be the sword. Now, if you
should wish to cause the sword to appear without By or
any equivalent, and yet as operating the man's perishing,
you might introduce a verb active, making the fcvent
condition or situation, become the accusative of the same,
or the object acted upon, and say, for instance, " The
c 3 SWORD
22
sword made him perish," in which latter construction
the sword would confessedly, among all Grammari-
ans, be the Agent of the active verb made, and him,
as well as perish, would point out the accusative ox object
acted upon; since in '.' the sword caused his death"
the words his death would be the accusative of caused,
and the sword the nominative case or Agent of the
same caused. It is to be observed, however, that, when
a neutral construction has been so altered that it seems
to have become an active one, the neuter verb remains
neuter, and merely becomes dependent on the active verb
equal to such as to cause, &c.
36. B. But, sometimes, a verb in the active form is.
vsed in the Infinitive as governed by another verb, and
the Operator or Agent, in regard to the governed verb, is
left unexpressed : sometimes, that governed verb may be
presented in the Infinitive passive.
XXVII. S. That is true, for instance:
In " The General ordered his troops to scale
the wall," his troops are to be the Operators as to
scaling the wall, to scale is the object acted upon by or-
dered', and the wall is the object acted upon by to scale ;
the sentence here given is then equal to " The gene-
ral ordered the wall to be scaled Br his troops.
But in '-The General ordered to scale the wall,"
nothing in the sentence expresses, who is, or who are, to,
scale the wall; and, instead of " The General ordered,
to scale the wall," the speaker might have said "The
General ordered the wall to be scaled."
27. B. Is it my namesake which, abroad, rs allotted
to the privilege of standing for the elliptical Operator or
Co-operator uttered as a question, instead of, Name the.
Opera tor j or Co-operator, or Mover, Sec. ?
XXVIII,
23
XXVIII. S. Not every where : but you have relatives
abroad ; and, in most countries which have a peculiar
dialect, those relatives bear each a different name, at
least I have frequently found them called differently j
and indeed each of your relatives, in this very country,
has a name different from yours; recollect that I have
already mentioned three, namely of, through, and ivith.
All of you however convey, in general, each the same
idea, either properly or figuratively. All of you enjoy
an extraordinary longevity : you, my dear little fellow,
called By in England, the States of America, &c. went
in old Greece by different appellations, such as aero, &a,
•na^ot, &c. in the old Empire of Rome, your name was,
a, ah, abs, per, &c. in Italy, it is di, da, per ; in Spain,
de, por. para, &c. in France, de, par, a, he. in Holland,
deur or door, &c. in Germany, durch, &c.
28. B. Your intention, perhaps, is to say that the
deur or door of the Dutch, and the durch of the Ger-
mans, have taken their names from the same source
whence came that of my English relative, thorough or
through, contracted sometimes into thro' ; the primitive
signification of which thorough, or through, is like that
existing in the English word door.
XXIX. S. The English word door, used fi gura-tively,
might be made to express not only f&s'sagf s but way,
course, means, Sec. ; consequently, if thorough, or through,
mean anv thing like 'aperture, passage, it may often be
equal to operator or co-operator; and indeed, in Greek,
the noun Su'^a is not only for the \ jHa.fi jamut\ ostium, but
for facultas rei effic'undes et via. However, on the origin
of thorough (through, thro'), I intend to make, hereafter,
some observations ; and therefore I shall, for the present,
mention only that, although the Dutch deur or door, and the
German durch, do replace you in the passive construction
C4 of
of their respective country, yet your English relative
through cannot replace you, my dear By, in the English
passive construction, when the influence of the agent, to-
wards removing obstacles, coming at, and procuring,
something, is not the principal sense to be conveyed.
29, B. What will you do, in regard to such circum-
stances as cannot be brought to indicate Operators or
Co operators ; I mean, in regard to those circumstances
which are merely explanatory, as to quality, time, place,
&c. ? For, there are such circumstances, besides those
contributing to the action or event being effected.
XXX. S. As long as I can recognize, in any circum-
stance, the power of effecting, or of contributing to ef-
fect, the action or event presented in a sentence, 1 shall
view that circumstance as an Operator or a Co-operator j
thus will the pretended preposition be accounted tor, and
made to disappear in that sentence : when I cannot re-
cognize that pretended preposition to be a fore-runner
equal to Operator or Co-operator, \ shall point out the
fresh particular class of nouns or adjectives or verbs, to
which it ought to be referred ; and, in order to prove how
it came to be so used, I shall establish the real, derivation
which entitles it to be placed in that fresh particular
class.
30. B. Suffer me to ask you which are the classes you
intend to form ?
XXXI. S. I beg of you not to press me, at present*
to enter upon an explanation of all the circumstantial
phrases which, in language, may be introduced. Such
a detail might create some confusion, and cause that ob-
ject to be lost sight of, which it is important should be
particularly kept in view. I am willing however to tell
you now that I think the principal circumstancial
phrases,
25
phrases, after those which are used to declare the opera-?
tor with or without any co-operator, to be the following:
1st, To express concomitance;
adly, To point out the possessor or the possession;
3dly, To describe the place or situation, as a spot reached
or to be reached, near or distant, superior or inferior i in-
ward or outivcrd, &c. ;
4thly, To mention the time, as a date present, past or /a
come, near ox distant, &c. or, as a space, the extension of
which it is necessary to state.
31. B. The interlocution XIII warns your readers
that alterations frequently take place in regard to the con-
sonants and the vowels : but, though you have, here and
there, proved that words may, besides, be contracted, you
have not yet mentioned how far people may have found
it expedient to extend contractions in words, without go-
ing beyond the limits assigned by nature. I think you
should declare your opinion upon this subject.
XXXII. S. I shall do it very willingly. Those parU
which, in a word, are merely suffixes, that is, certain ter-
minations added to words, by our ancestors, according to
the genius of the language of their respective country*
whether to serve as a kind of article, whether to distin-
guish that word and prevent its being confounded with
others, alike, or nearly alike, in form ; whether to add to,
or to take from, the original signification of a word, in a
trifling degree however ; those parts, I say, were often
glided over in the hurry of conversation, and it became
afterwards convenient to poets, and lastly to all writers,
to dispense with them, upon this ground, that the very
primitive word, stripped of all such terminations, and
even of some of its elements, did retain its chief signifi-
pation, when connected with other words. Hence, the
care
2(5
care of removing the excess, or of supplying the defi-
ciency, which might arise from the curtailing of a word,
has gradually been left to the other words introduced in-
to the sentence, and to the judgment of the reader or
hearer. Whatever word is presented to me with further
curtailings I look upon as a word corrupted ; nay, I suspect
that the etymology given of it is false.
32. B. Do elucidate, by some example, what you
mean by a termination considered as a sort of article, and
a termination used to add, to a primitive word, some par-
ticular idea.
XXXIII. S. In the Latin word Deus, the syllable us
is only a suffix or termination used as a sort of article.
From this you may infer that, in the Greek word SIojj
the syllable os is merely a termination, or a sort of article.
Now, the terminating syllable being taken off, there
remains de out of deus ; and de, expressing, in the Celtic
Dialects, the- same as Deus in Latin, I have reason to
think that, in the Greek word Seoc, the final os being a
sort of article, the initial the is for the Celtic de, and conse-
quently must be a Greek primitive for the Deity*. In some
of the Dialects of Greece, the terminating s was often
changed into r; the circumstance does not astonish me,
who have seen, in the Islandic dialect, the termination
ur, which should be considered as equal to the Latin one
in us, or to the Greek one in os: the word framur, in
Islandic, means what in Latin is expressed by efficax,
andax, strenuus; the \\ox<\sfram and from, in old Saxon,
mean the same. Whatever termination is added to a
* Observe however that dhc f as well as de, ia Ibemo Celtic,
means chiefs and that dhe may easily have been changed into thg,
whence the Greek word &i»s may have arisen, just as dt us may
have <i isen from de,
word.,
27
word, I consider the same as an article more or less
powerful. That there are several kinds of such articles
is obvious, either to add to, or to take from, the primi-
tive signification of a word. In the Latin word Dius,
and the Greek word h:; (for 3iioy), I perceive the primi-
tive di which, in Celtic, as well as dia, is equal to either
God or some Divinity (that is, means exactly the same
as the primitive de) ; and, in the last syllable us or os (for
w$) I perceive a contraction or corruption of the Celtic
u is, descendant of, or belonging to, whence the Greek
word uiog. Now then, Dius, in Latin, means properly
a descendant of the divinity, or belonging to the divinity ,
pr like the divinity by qualities : and as Jioj, in Greek,
conveys the same meaning, I conclude that, in regard to
divinity, di is either a primitive equal to de, or a corrup-
tion of the same de.
3?. B. It is not only with the different terminations
added to words, for inflections in cases and number, or
for inflections in verbs as to tenses, number, person, &c.
that a student of etymology ought to make himself well
acquainted ; he ought, besides, to make himself so fami-
liar with the different methods which have been pursued,
in compounding words, as to be able to discover in-
stantly whether such or such word be compounded or
not ; and, if compounded, whether it be consisting of
two or three, &c; that is, he ought to know how to
dissect any compound word, and get at each radical one
employed in the composition.
XXXIV. S. You arc very right : and that knowledge
is acquired only by dint of practice accompanied with
judgment; for, if judgment is not made to preside in all
researches, the results of these will be, not only doubt-
ful in many circumstances, but erroneous very fre-
quently.
28
^uently. The eye of an etymologist ought to be quick,
and capable of reaching at once a variety of surrounding,
and even distant objects : his judgment ought to. be as
quick and as comprehensive. A derivation which, at first,
may appear a most happy one, will often prove a very
silly one, when the effect produced by the primitive he
thinks he has discovered, is compared with the effect
produced by other words belonging to the same class. A
just classification of words is yet a desideratum ; and had
such a classification been attempted with success, yet
the judgment of an etymologist ought not to suffer itself
to be too much biassed by it,
34. B. That the real meaning of each pretended pre-
position has been lost sight of, is a fact; the consequence
of which is, that the real power of each cannot now,
without difficulty, be ascertained: besides, though a
■word, used as a preposition, may be traced to its origin
in one instance, it does not follow that, in other in-
stances, that word must have had the same origin : other
words may have been formed or contracted into this one .
hence, differences in origin, as well as in meaning, exist-
ing in a word, though always written and pronounced
in, an uniform manner, or very nearly. Can you account
for that circumstance ? I mean, can you say how the
real meaning of each pretended preposition came to be
Jpst sight of?
XXXV. S. By the negligence of Grammarians and
Compilers of Dictionaries. Instead of producing exam-
ples which formed complete Sentences (as in Dr.
Johnson's Dictionary), wherein one might have disco-
vered (though Dr. Johnson did not) the real force, and
consequently the meaning of the pretended preposition,
they perhaps at first, for the sake of saving a little ex-
pense in paper, contented themselves with adducing parts
of
29
of a sentence, the resolution of every one of which may
have been clear to them • but, frequently, a part of a
sentence can be understood only by means of another
part, or some other parts, of the same; and, I am afraid
a great deal of time will elapse before the mischief they
have thus done can be repaired. I repeat it : they ought
to have compared together several whole sentences, so
framed as to point out the variations of meaning in each
pretended preposition, and to enable one to reduce all
such words to distinct classes.
When I read in such works, angry at or for a thing,
angry ivith a person, to complain of a thing, to complain
ofdi person, to be surprised of or at a thing, to be sur-
prised by a person ; a man of noble birth, a man descended
from noble parents, &c. I cannot but think that the au*
thors have been led to attach to the pretended preposi-
tion the meaning which some particular preceding word
conveys, or to believe that some particular preceding
word requires of itself such preposition. Now, finding
that this particular preceding word would now and then
suffer another sort of preposition to follow, they have
looked upon this as an exception to their rule : by de-
grees, their exceptions have been as numerous as the in-
stances which agreed with their rule, and a sort of laby-
rinth has been formed at last from which even such a
ball of thread, as Ariadne gave, of old, to Theseus, could
hardly extricate any one who entered it. I must repeat
it once more; there is no possibility to perceive the ns«
and force of those words which have been called prepo-
sitions, but by forming a series of such complete sen-
tences as may contain the necessary circumstances, and
taking care that every possible combination of those
words with others be introduced as an example.
35- B.
so
3$. B. In your etymologies, take care you do not fall
into some similar to those Mr. Home Tooke has so mer-
rily ridiculed.
XXXVI. S. Had I not read that author with the
attention he deserves, one etymology aimed atj not long
ago> at a place where I happened to bej concerning the
word Guillotine, would have been sufficient to rouse me
to watchfulness^ in regard to times and circumstances.
36. B. Whyj it is well known that one Guillot either
invented, or pretended to have invented^ this short way
of cutting heads off", and that, in consequence, the ma-
chine was described by this inventor's name changed
into a sort of adjective in the feminine by the termination
ine being added ; thus, with machine or invention under-
stood, la Guillotine became the machine or invention of
Guillot.
XXXVII. S. You are right : but the person whom
I allude to, as having aimed at the etymology of la Guil-
lotine, was not quite so conversant with what has passed
in his life-time, within these few years, as he pretend-
ed to be with what had happened in the times of the old
Greeks and Romans : he had never heard of that French-
man called Guillot', butj wishing to appear a scholar,
on hearing somebody read in the daily papers " Citizen
M. was sent to the Guillotine," he said : " When an old
** friend of mine first met with the word Guillotine, he
" came and asked me what the meaning of it was.
* Why, said I : Guillotine P— Guillotine P — I never
tf found any thing like that word in Homer, Virgil, or
**■ any ancient author "But," replied my friend, "perhaps
'* the word is not a very old one." On this,* I mused a
little 5 and, soon after, T told him: " I have got the de-*
" rivation. Don't you remember that, in our youthful
" days,-
'31
i l days, when we were little boyt, we used to play at
" push-pin together ? Don't you remember that, when
i( I had driven my pin over yours, and so that mine
il approached the head of yours (the head, you know,
l( is very near the neck), I called out immediately Gull !
" to^k your pin and made it my property ? — Now, to
ft gull one is to lake silly something from him : ergo,
" that word Guillotine is a word compounded of gull,
i( take off, otj (a Greek word equal to) that, and ne (an
" abbreviation of) neck : so that Guillotine means pro-
" perly either take oj}' that neck or taking off that neck."
37. B. In some centuries, that ridiculous etymology
will perhaps appear a most learned one, and be gravely
maintained to be the truest that could be given.
XXXVIIL S. There is no ground so slippery as that
which Etymologists tread, in search of primitives. That
those men have been useful is acknowledged j that they
are apt to mistake one thing for another, is too often the
case : but the more arduous the pursuit is, the more
honour will be attached to him who, stumbling less than
his companions, will be able to reach further, and bring
back rarities of intrinsic value. The generality of ety-
mologists, in seeking after the origin of a word, have
indeed rather neglected to consider the property vested
in all of the same class for certain occasions, they have
attended too much to the present way of writing, or of
pronouncing, a word: they seem, in short, to have calU
ed in aid their eyes and their ears, for measuring a word
by its length or by its sound, and to have forgotten that
their judgment ought to have been appointed president
over the others, with full power to check or approve, as
well as to discriminate the boundaries assigned to this
property^
M
property, then to that, &c. in common with or separate
from other individuals of the same denomination;
38. B. With the inhabitants of a country wherein
every thing was roughj climate, avocations, and, above
all wherein a spirit for rapine and war prevailed ; with
those, I say, the manners and the language musf have
been rough like the people themselves ; the very words
which their wants forced them to borrow from other
people were distorted, when attempted to be uttered or
written ; and, if they abridged wordsj the more speedily
to communicate their thoughts, they retained whatever
Was rough, arid even changed the soft elements into harsh
ones : so that many a combination of letters came from
their mouths like a terrific clap of thunder. On the
other hand, with the inhabitants of a country wherein
every thing was mild > where every object breathed peace and
benevolence, the language must have been rendered soft,
soothing} every word they borrowed from other people
lias been mellowed ; and, in an abbreviated word, even
come from some primitive whereof the harsh elements
had been suppressed, the soft ones were often changed
into others softer still : hence* many a combination of
letters came, from the mouths of these inhabitants, like
those musical sounds which lull the soul to tender pas-
sions
XXXTX. S The two extremes which you have just
described, men have found means to blend together 5 and
where the mixture has been made in due proportion,
there the language has proved to be possessed of every
desirable quality. But language has undergone many a
revolution, as well as every state, and the manners of its
inhabitants.
In the first ages of the world, mankind, knowing but
few
33
few wants, could vise but few words : in proportion as
new wants were felt by man, in the same proportion did
man create new words. But, as a pure Hebrew never
did, nor could exist for a long time, in a considerable re-
gion, without dialects, any more than pure elements ; so
the Celtic, sprung from the Hebraic tongue, could not
exist long, in any considerable region, without subdivi-
ding itself into several other dialects.
39. B. Pezron, in his Antiquities of Rations, says
that the Celtic were anciently seated in both the extremi-
ties of Europe towards the East and West ; and Peloutier
asserts that all the European nations were originally of
the Celtic extract.
Xt.. S. Now, Boulet, in his Memoirs on the Celtic,
says that this second language (the Celtic) must have
been the mother of all the dialects which have, by suc-
cession of time, been spoken in the countries that either
the Celtic or the Celto-Scythx have occupied. According
to that .Author, the Gothic, the Latin, the Anglo-Saxon,
the Teutonic, the Islandic, the Runic, the Swedish, the
Danish, the German, the English, the Italian, the Spa-
hiih, tlie French, are languages formed immediately, or
mediately, wholly or partly, from the Celtic.
40. B. The Gothic itSelf consisted of several dialects,
and so it was with Latin, Anglo-Saxon, occ. That the
Greek language was originally a dTalect of the Celtic or
Celto-Scythian, has been strongly asserted* ; and, that
it was afterwards subdivided into several dialects, is well
Iviiowri.
•Graecis Uteris usi sunt Galli, paritcr e.t Germani; at non acceptis
a Gra;cis, sed Sct/t/iis, a quibws et suas Grasci, Scytharum soboles,
accepere. Earura Gia?cis similium litetarum vestigia adhuc hedie
supersunt in litcratura Anglo-Saxonum, quos ortu Germane^
Gssexonstat. Bor/tornmi, origin. Gallicarum, p. 105.
D XLI. g.
34
XLI. S. The particular dialects, spoken by the people
who inhabited a particular country, must necessarily
have become considerably altered by the dialect of such
an invading foe as, taking possession of that country,
retained it for a considerable length of time. Frequent
have been such revolutions in every part of the world ;
consequently hardly one dialect can have retained
its purity. The Celtic language which, at one time,
spread itself all over Europe, most part of Africa, and
great part of Asia, is now confined to very inconsiderable
portions of those divisions of the world.
41. B. You ought, in my opinion, to mention some
instances of such invasions, in order to enable your read-
ers to judge how far the etymologies you intend to give
of certain words may be depended upon,
XLII. S. In the Gaulish, or Gallic, spoken by the
inhabitants of Gaul, a dialect or several dialects existed,
which had sprung from the Celtic (itself originalfy form-
ed from the Hebraic). For a long time, the Gauls were
the most formidable enemies the Romans had. Csesar suc-
ceeded in conquering those people. That part, now called
France, by degrees adopted the laws, customs and lan-
guage of the Romans, who kept possession of the coun-
try for a space of 537 years. Already had the Goths
established themselves on. the South of the Loire; the
Burgundians, about the Rhone ; and the Western Pro-
vinces were governing themselves under their form er
name Armor'ic. The Franks, who had, in the year 418,
made the conquest of Belgium, pushed forward, occupied
the parts of Gaul which the Romans were quitting, and
fresh alterations ensued in the language of the conquered
country. If Abderahm, who was leading 400,000 Ara-
bians, Africans, &c. to settle them in Gaul, and replace
the
35
the inhabitants they intended to exterminate, had not
been kilied, and his army destroyed by Charles Martel,
on the 20th of July 732, France would have fallen, and
perhaps half the world, under the yoke and religion of
the Sarrazins : so were called those Arabians, &c. who
were Mahometans ; some hords of whom had, a few
years before, conquered Spain.; possessed at the time by
the Goths, and were driven away only 806 years after.*
42. B. Now, some instances of the sort in regard to
England, if you please.
XLIII. S. In Britain, a dialect of the old Celtic was
also spoken, at that period when Julius Csesar (just or
Very near 52 years before Christ) invaded the country ^
the most fertile parts of which were conquered, and
remained in the possession of the Romans till about the
year 448 after Christ. The Roman empire being attack-
ed by Alaric, the Emperor ordered the Roman legions to
be withdrawn from both Gaul and Britain. The Bri-
tons, being thus left exposed to the ravages of the Scots
and Picts (originally Celtic, like the Britons) had re-
course to some Savon chiefs. These came, gave assist-
ance : but, procuring fresh supplies of their countrymen,
soon became formidable to the Britons, whoj after a
violent struggle of near l5oyears,were subdued and driven
into Wales. The Saxons, alluded to, had come from
the modern Frisia (the dialect of which has not been
sufficiently investigated by any philologist, says Ade-
lung), and remained possessors of Britain for 3rd years.
TheDanesbegan their incursions about the year 780; and,
* The leader of these hords bein^ named Tarik, caused that
fatuous hill, now possessed by England, to be called Gtb-d-T<irik %
which means Mountain (of; Tarik : by corruption, that compound
name has become Gibraltar.
r> 3 having
S6
having settled in England, their dominion continued for
nearly three centuries. The Danish, however, being
closely related with the old Saxon, the alterations in the
dialect spoken in England about the time of their inva-
sion, were not very striking : hence, the language, which
had originated in a mixture of both, necessarily preserved
some similarity and uniformity of structure. The Nor-
man Saxon dialect, which was extremely barbarous, irre-
gular, and intractable, was introduced in the year 1066,
by the invasion of the Normans under William the
Conqueror. The language imported by that Prince, and
his people, was a confused jargon of Teutonic, Gaulish,
and vitiated Latin : and as, before the latter conquest,
the Saxon had already begun to fall into contempt, the
French or Frankish, substituted in its stead, predomi-
nated to a great degree. In the 13th century, the Danish
Saxon language which, in England, had precedently been
corrupted by the Normanic, began to unite with the
more modern French, to adopt, likewise, in consequence
of this precedent, many words from Latin, and to form,
by the' assistance of both, the present English language.
The groundwork of the language retained its Saxon ori-
gin ; but its progress, its cultivation, its augmentation,
and subsequent refinement, 'were carried on upon the prin-
ciple of the French.
Adelung, from whom I have borrowed some part of
these accounts of England, makes the followin<r obser-
vations. " In Germany, the old unpolished language
(l of the country was improved through its own re-
" sources; hence, the progress towards its refinement
" was necessarily slow. In France, the language of the
" natives was formed by a mixture with that of the
cc Romans,, yet in such a manner as made the latter
w prevail
37
f< prevail in that mixture ; hence, its improvement was
" uncommonly rapid, because the Roman was already
ii a polished language. In England, the native lan-
?' guage (Adelung means the Danish Anglo-Saxon)
f( received improvements by a mixture with the French* ;
<( yet, the former still remained the prevailing language :
<e thus, it made more rapid progress towards its refine-
<{ ment than that of the German, but slower than that
" of the French."
43. B. Well ! Through this continual mixture of dia-
lects which has taken place every where, what course do
you mean to steer ? Will you make it a point to trace
precisely the origins of such words as you shall find ne-
cessary to declare and prove to belong to the classes of
words that have a determined signification, as a Noun,
an Adjective, a Verb ?
XLIV S. Not I indeed— I am not quite like a crazy
old woman whom I saw once gleaning : before she
would take up an ear of corn she met with, she leisurely
drew out of a pocket which hung down to the calf of her
* Adelung is a German lexicographer, from whose philological
essays I have copied that passage the preceding page exhibits in Ita-
lics. Whoever has read those essays cannot but have felt that the
Author is endowed with sound judgment, and has studied, with
particular care, the history of the languages he touches upon.
His observations prove that Mr. H. Tooke has, for most of his
derivations, judiciously turned to the old Saxon and Gothic dia»
lects, and that it was there chiefly 1 could look for mine} they also
give reason to expect that inquiries made by me into my native
language (the French), and into the English (which has long been
familiar to me), will throw some fresh lights on the structure of
both, if not of otheis: in short, France and England, at least,
a/e interested in the success of my undertaking.
D 3 Tight
38
right leg, a pair of spectacles ; rubbed them a while with a
piece of linen, that they might become more transparent;
then, with the utmost gravity, saddled her long pose
with them, and sought to discover from which of the
standing stalks that ear of corn had been cut off. Very
little advantage could accrue from her manner of glean-
ing, either to herself or to others. Now, 1, whose nose
is almost constantly saddled, who never start abroad
without having considered what I am in search of, no
sooner perceive any thing that will answer my purpose,
than I take it up, and use it, without injuring it how-
ever, than leave it in its place ; nor should I trouble my-
self, about ascertaining the spot I found the same in, if
it were not to inform other people that they may, if they
chuse, find, themselves, the very thing, and use it as I
did.
44. B. I understand you. If you wish to know the
real value of a word which Grammarians have ranged
„ among the nan-de;cripts } you search for that word, or
Fotj! j^.word nearly similar, in some dialect or other; and,
the rr|oirient you have found it clearly presented as a de-
scrzpt,you are satisfied, because you have then an authority
for placing that word among the classes acknowledged
to consist of words which have each a clear and precise,
meaning.
XLV. S. You have exactly expressed what I meant
to convey by the comparison ; and I have only to add,
that, in general, my researches take place upon a large
scale, formed from an inward convictiop that such, or
such, a set of words must necessarily be found to have
each the same, or nearly the same, signification.
45. jB. The details into which you have entered
hitherto, supported by a few exemplifications, promise,
fai*.
39
nnr, I must confess; namely, that, whenever the wcui,
seemingly governed by a pretended preposition, can be
brought to convey the notions of Operator or Co-ope-
rator, in regard to an action, an event, a situation or
condition, that pretended preposition must actually be
a Noun, of equal value with Operator or Co-ope-
rat.or, used in the singular or in the plural, as circum-
stances may require. I recollect very well that, after an
event or a state has been presented with a passive or neu-
tral construction, if you find something added to express
what or who occasioned that event, or state, you can
cause the pretended preposition to disappear, by merely
changing the passive verb into an active one, giving it
for agent whatever or whoever occasioned the event, or
state ; or, if the verb be neuter, by merely making what-
ever or whoever occasioned the event, or state, the agent
of an active verb equal to what to cause means. It appears
desirable that you would produce, at one view, a certain
number of such sentences, each with some or other prepo-
sition before the agent, which preposition you say can only
have the same significations as belong to Operator or Co-
operator, or some equivalent. By so doing, you would en-
able your readers to perceive how far this new doctrine
of yours is likely to extend.
XLVI. S. I thank you for the hint, my dear little
By, and here are some short examples, the examining
of which will be sufficient to give some notion of mv
doctrine, applied to the English language. You, and
my readers, must however excuse me from stating, at
the same time, all the gradual and nice transitions
which, taking place, determine that one of the pretended
prepositions would, here or there, be preferable to ano-
V 4 the/ ]
40
ther; as policy enjoins me to dwell, at present, chiefly
upon you, my dear little By, and to make this book st
sort of specimen of what I can do. If, hereafter, I
should take up your relatives, my plan would be to dwell
upon each of them sufficiently to do justice to the indi-
vidual : but, however great be my desire to accomplish
that, I shall not gratify it, and indeed I cannot, unless
the public testifies a wish to see The Evenings of Southill
resumed, by subscriptions adequate to defray the whole
expense of every book in rotation-
Event, or state, described Explanation, whereby
by one, without his men- one mentions who, or
tioning immediately what, operates (has
who, or what, ope- operated, or will ope-
rates (has operated, or rate) the event, or
will operate) the same, state, described by
what precedes.
I . He was respected hy every man.
%. Yet, he died on the ] ,, , A 7 7- ,..
2 , , 1 through foul machinations.
scaffold
a. This favour he ob- } ., r
3 tained J through your interest.
4. Yet, he was once like 1 ,, ,
to be ruined j ^oughyou,
5. He that loveth me 7 , r A ,
shalfbe loved \ b * *##fl
6. I shall complain of your behaviour.
i 7. You
41
*j. You do these things from (through, by) hahif.
g. He was slain with (by) a sword.
9. She is very glad of what has happened.
io. She is sorry for (at) this disappointment.
RESOLUTIONS.
1. Every good man respected him — Therefore —
He was respected: Operator (of that his state?) —
every good man.
2. Yet, foul machinations caused him to die on
the scaffold — Therefore — Yet, he died on the scaffold :
Operators (of this event ?) — -foul machinations.
3. Tour interest caused he obtained this favour-
Therefore — This favour he obtained : Operator (of that
event?) — -your intetest.
4. Yet, you wereonce like to ruin him — Therefore —
Yet, he was once like to be ruined : the Operator
(of his ruin would have been?)— -you.
5. My father will love him that loveth me — There-
fore — He that loveth me shall be loved : Operator
(of this state ?) — my father.
6. Your behaviour will occasion I shall complain —
Therefore— I shall complain : Operator (of this future
event?) — your behaviour.
7. Habit causes you do these things — Therefore
—You do these things: Co-operator (to those events?)
habit.
8. A Sword slew him : but somebody used the sword,
who operated as well as the sword — Therefore— He was
slain: Operators (of this event?)— a swor d, and some
person left unmentioned.
9. What has happened causes she is very glad — There-
fore—
42
fore — She is very glad : Operator (of this her state?)—
ivhat has happened.
10. This disappointment causes she is sorry. —
Therefore — She is sorry : Operator (of this her state) — t
this disappointment.
II. We are angry at the style of that letter.
13. He will be surprised at this piece oj news.
13. My father is confined yfrom (through) the accident
to his bed, J which happened to him.
14. Here is a fine table | r n
(made) f °/ *"*''•
1 5 . I see what has been the I b .untenant*.
matter, J
f through (by) your reading
1 6. We lose the beauties of J indistinctly \ or, through
that poetry, the indistinct manner in
* which yon read.
YT , r .. . f £y drinking Madeira wine ;
,7 He was cured of that I * b g Madeira wim
dlSOrder > I be drank.
38. I knew >vhat was ^ £™^ ^^
matter > I which I perceived be held,
,„ I know what ,o think f/^»; r f^:/,::
concerning that. r »' _
o * *» jusal to answer.
ffor making bis mind easy j
2o. I did write to him, < or, for (this object) the
v making of bis mind easy.
H fed^ 01 eXFeSS the j0> } **&**?* bere '
RESOLUTIONS.
II. The style of that letter causes we are angry—-
Therefore— We are angry : Operator (of this our state ?) —
the style of that letter.
\i This
43
i£. This piece of news will surprise him — Therefore-r
He will be surprised : Operator (of tins his future
State ?) — this piece of news.
13. The accident, ivbicb happened to my father, con-
fines him to his bed— Therefore — My father is confined
to his bed: Operator (of this his state?) — the accident
ivbicb happened to him.
14. Marble made (Marble vyas the chief ingredient
employed in making) the fine table which is here : but,
somebody wrought and fashioned the marble, ivbo, hav-
ing contributed to its present form, must be considered as
a Co-operator — -Therefore— Here is a fine table made :
Co-operators (to the present state of the fine table?) —
marble (as to the matter used), and some person left
unmentioned (as to the workmanship) .
15. Your countenance causes I see (or discover) what
has been the matter — Therefore — I see what has been
the matter; Operator (of this my discovery })—ycur
countenance.
16. Your reading indistinctly, or the indistinct manner
in which you read, causes we lose the beauties of that
poetry — Therefore — We lose the beauties of that poe-
try: Operator (of this our loss?)— -your reading indis-
tinctly, or, the indistinct manner in which you read.
17. Drinking Madeira wine, or, the Madeira wine
t>e drank, caused he was cured (or, cured him) of
that disorder — Therefore — He was cured of that dis-
order : Operator (of this his cure ? of this his state ? ) —
drinking Madeira wine, or, the Madeira wine be drank.
i& Perceiving (that, namely) he held my Jetter (the
perceiving of that, namely, he held my letter) ; or, my
fetter which I perceived he held, caused I knew what
was the matter — Therefore — I knew what was the
matter
44
matter: Operator (of this my stater) — (the) perceifump
(of this, viz.) he held my letter; or, my letter which I
perceived he held.
19. Your declining, or jour refusal, to answer causes
I know what to think concerning; that — Therefore — I
know what to think concerning that : Operator (of
this my state })—your declining to answer, or, your refusal
to answer.
20. Making bis mind easy, (for, the making of his
mind $asy ; or, a desire of making his mind easy ; or,
this object, making his mind easy) caused I did write
to him — Therefore — I did write to him : Operator (of
this my determination?) — making his mind easy, or, this
desire, making his mind easy ; or, this, object, making his
mind easy.
31. Finding you here causes I feel joy; I cannot
express that joy^-Therefore — I cannot express the joy
I feel : Operator (of this my state?)— -finding you here.
46. B. You have, in the preceding resolutions of the
examples adduced, abstained, purposely I suppose, from
taking an advantage which could not fairly have been
objected to, by introducing words of significations simi-
lar to those acknowledged to exist in the words Operator
and Co-operator.
XLVII. S. I have done so, because it is obvious that
any word synonymous, or nearly so, as well as any word
used figuratively (to convey the same, or nearly the same,
significations with Operator or Co-operator) , would re-
move the tautology apparent in my resolutions, and fur-
nish that variety without which all things appear insipid
to mankind. My design was to bring several rays to
their point of convergence and concourse, and to make it
known that this point was Operator ox Co-operator*
When the pretended prepositions cannot be brought to
th^t
45
that point, they originate from words of a different kind
or import j and, I have had occasion to experience, that
a word called a preposition, instead of retaining always
the same meaning or nearly, has been used in very dif-
ferent significations : but then, each distant different
meaning arose from a different word, which, written and
pronounced nearly in the same way, had at last been
forced to take the very outward appearance which an-
other had been made to bear.
47. B. Many people, well informed, at least they
think so, are of opinion that the researches of etymolo-
gists bring nothing forth but conjectures.
XLVIII. S. That trite opinion I have heard often
enough ; nor was the repetition irksome to me, till
coxcombs dressed it up in sneers.
48. B. I have heard certain persons say, that you are
not of a communicative disposition.
XLIX. S. I hope you have heard many others declare
the very reverse.
49. B. I certainly have.
L. S. I have often been silent, when it might have
been expected I should speak : but. with people who show
a predetermination not to yield to any argument or au-
thority whatever, I would advise you to imitate me, if
you cannot withdraw.
50. B. Where obstinacy prevails, the best way eer-
tainly is to be silent.
LI/ S. There are people also who are so very absent,
from either nature or affectation, that it would be needless
to enter,with them, upon any subject which requires atten-
tion. In others, you may plainly discover they think that
either you do not deserve to be listened to, or they might
commit their dignity by discussing any point with you.
Surely,
#1
Surely, in all those situations., sifence is, for you, iht
most eligible refuge.
51. B. Most certainly % but, having observed those
obstructions to improvement, let us try to remove them,
partly at least. I have reason to believe that you would
considerably please the curious in languages, if you were
to exhibit, in French, your preceding set of examples,
and prove that, in the resolutions of them, your new
doctrine may also prevail \ that the words called Preposi-
tions, by the French Grammarians, though so very dif-
ferent (in form) from those to which the English Gram-
marians give that appellation, are in reality taken from a
similar stock, and consequently have, in general, the
same tendency with those so used in English, when ap-
pointed to announce ivbo f or what, causes (has caused,
or will cause) an event, a situation, or a condition, to
take place.
LI I. S. it was my intention to do so, in order that I
might rouse the attention of foreign philologists. I am
confident that, if the principles I how present, be applied
by them, each to his mother tongue, or to those lan-
guages he is familiar with, the same results will be ob-
tained. Though I profess to investigate here only the
English and French languages, yet I shall, if full scope
be given to me, prop up my principles by contrasting
the expressions used in those two idioms, with the ex-
pressions used in other idioms ; and, thereby, facilitate
fresh inquiries towards ascertaining how far I am right,
how much farther I might have gone. Here is the pre-
ceding set of English examples put into French garb.
Evenem^nt,
47
Eviuement, ou elat, que Explication, par laquelle
Von decrit, sans expri- on indique qui, ou ce
■mer d'alord qui, ou qui, oplre (a open, ou
cequi, Foperef/'aop*- ope /era) Tevenement
re, on Voperera). ou i'etatjdecritpar ce
qui precede.
is . L ■ ., f de tout honnete bomme
i . Ii ctou respecte | (dg mt bomme de bun) .
1. Cependant, il mourut \ par de noires caboles (ma-
sur I'echar'aud, j -fiaeuvres,mences, frames) .
3. Cette faveur il l'obtiat par votre credit.
4. Cependaat.il fut une fois ? /
1 1 -u y'», • - V par vous.
a la veille d etre nunc }
<. Celui qui m'aime sera r ,
J • , n J a^ wow pere.
aime £ r
6. Je me plaindrai de votre conduit*.
- RESOLUTIONS.
1 . Tout bonnste bomme (tout bomme de bien) le res-
pectoit — Doric — 11 etoit respecte: Qui opc'roil (celal
C'est)— »tout bonnite bomme (tout bomme de lien* J .
* Corame Optmteur, en Francois, nc se dit gu£re que de celui
qui fait certaines operations de c/tirttrgie, d'un charlatan qui dibit*:
ses remedes, et qui vend ses drogues en place publique, j'ai £vite
d'employer lc mot d'Opemtcur, que j'ai rem place par qui opere,
qui ope"ra, qui oj?6rcrn, &x\ ou par qu'est-ce qui oplre (opera, ope-
rera, &c.) : mais, jespere que Ton donnera, en France, au mot
op&ratcur, toutc l'etendue necessaire, celle qu'il devroit naturelle-
nient avoir, pour exprimer en toute occasion qui oplre telle ou
telle chose, qui fait que telle ou telle chose a lieu, &c.
3. Cependanr,
48
2. Cependant, de noires cabales (manoeuvres, menees,
tramesj jireni quA mourut sur l'echafaud* — Done — *
Cependant, il mourut sur l'echafaud : Qui opera (cet
everiement ? ce furcnt) — de noires cabalei, &c.
3. Votre credit Jit qii'i] obtint cette faveur — Done —
Cette faveur, il l'obtint. Qu'est-ce qui opera (cet evene-
ment ? ce fut) votre credit.
4. Cependant, vous futes une fois a la veille de le rui-
ner — Done — Cependant, il fut une fois a la veille d'etre
mine : Qui auroit opcre (fa ruine ? C'eut ete) — vous.
5. Mori pere aimera celui qui m'aime — Done — Celui
qui m'aime sera aime : Qui opcrera (cet etat en lai
d'etre aime? ce sera) — tnon pere*
6. Votre conduit e fera que je me plaindrai — Done — Je
me plaindrai : Qu'est-ce qui operera (cette demarche de
ma par.t ? ce sera) — votre conduite.
7. Vous faites ces choses-la par habitude.
8. U fut tue / av ' c , *** #» rd'^n coup
(. a epce, a coups a epee.
9. Elle est bien aise de ce qui est arrive.
10. ,Elle est fachee de ce contretemps.
. . xt • L ' \du (de lej style de cette
11. Nous sommes irrites i , ' ' ■>
12. II sera surpris de cette nouvelle.
_ tvt , j T r, r par (de) V accident qui hi
13. Mon pure garde le lit i? [ . y *
r b 1 arriva*
14. Voici une belle table *> , 7
. L - ■ . > de mar bra
(ratte) J
15. Je vois de quoi il a ete ), . ,
1 J. a votre contenance.
question, J
16. Nousperdonslesbeautesl par votre maniere indis-
de cette poesie, J tincte de lire.
* Ce que, apres un Veibe, leqtiel on dit etre Conjonvtion on Con-
Jonctif, est egal il cela ou a ceci. Done, firent qiiil mourut, i. e.
Jin?it ccci, il mourut ; causirent ccci, il mourut ; &c. v
RESOLUTIONS
49
RESOLUTIONS.
7. & habitude cause que yous faites ces choses-is— *
Done— Vous faites ces chos-es-la: Qu'est-ce qui cficre (ces
actions eri vous? e'est) — l l 'habitude, ou (fce appel£; habi-
tude.
8. tine efk causa qu'A fut tue; oil, une fyce le tua
fun coup aihi* le tua, ou, des coups d'epie le tuerent) :
mais quelqu'un employs l'ep6e et ce quelqu'un opera
aussi bien que I'epic— Don<£ — II fut tu6 : ^ui Optra (cet
cvenement ? ce furent) — une £pte (ou, un coup d'tp&e, ou
des coups d'epee, et quelqu'un tlont il h'e3t pas fait men-
tion. — cO*Ce n'est pas ici l'endroit ou je sois oblige^ d'eX-
pliquer la difference qui peut exister entfe avec une e'pie,
et d'un coup dope's, ou a ceups d'fyee,
9. Ce qui est arrive fait ^a'elle est bien aise — Done —
Elle est bien aise: Qu'est-ce qui opere (cet 6tat en elle ?
e'est) — ce qui est arrive".
io< Ce contretemps fait qu'zWt est fachee— Done — Elle
est fachee: Qu'est-ce qui opere (cet 6tat en elle? c'est)—
ce contretemps.
II. he style de cette leltrefait que nous sommes irrites
— Done — Nous sommes irrites : Qu'est-ce qui opere (cet
6tat en nous ? (C'est) — le style de cette lettre*
18* Cette nouv elle f era qu'A sera surpris — Done — II
sera surpris: Qu'est-ce qui opirera (cet etat en lui ? Ce
sera) — cette nouv elle.
13. L' 'accident qui arriva a mon p}re fait qu'W garde
le lit (lui fait garder le lit)— Done — Mon pere garde le
lit : Qu'est-ce qui opera (cet etat en lui? C'est)— /' accident
qui lui arriva.
14. Du marlre (ou, le marbre) fit (fut la matiere prin-
k cipale
50
aipale pour faire) la belle table que voici (qui est ici) i
mais quelqu'un travailla ou faconna le marbre ; or ce
quelqu'un, ayant contribue a la forme presente du
marbre, doit se regarder comme un Co-operateur — Done
—Voici une belle table faite : Quels furent les co-opera-
teur s (a Pegard du present etat de la belle table? Ce fu-
rent)—/*? marbre (quant a la matiere employee), et quel-
qu'un que Ton ne nomme point (quant a l'execution de
l'ouvrage).
15. Votre contenance fait que je vois de quoi il a itc
question — Done — Je vois de quoi il a ete" question :
Qu'est-ce qui a opere (en moi cette decouverte ? c'a ete)
—votre contenance.
16. Votre manure indistincte de lire fait que nous per-
dons les beautes de cette poesie — Done — Nous perdons
les beautes de cette poesie: Qu'est-ce qui opere (cette
£erte en nous ? e'est) — votre manure indistincte de lire.
Kt T i r * , • , , i en buvant du vin dt Madei*
17. II rut p-ueri de cette / . ■, . M v , %,
\ Y r re; ou, par le vm de Ma-
* j deire qu'il but.
' "•* 1 • . m > 1 en vovant au'il tenoit ma let-
18. Je sus de quoi il s a- t c ' t ^J u ' t
^ > tre: ou a (far) ma tettre
cissoit, r .» . . Tr ,j .
b ' J queje vis qu il tenoit.
19. Je sais ce que je dohlpar (d'apr£s *) votre refus
penser de cela, - J de repondre.
~% pour lui tranquilliser V esprit \
20. Je> lui ai ecrit, i. ou, pour cet objet~ci } lui
J tranquilliser V esprit.
<i\ Je ne saurois exprimerj de VQUS trouver jfc
la joie que je ressens, J
* Observation etymologique sur Aprrs. Le mot Aprils ex*
prime l'etat d'avoir en approximation, e'est-a-dire, d'aroir proche.
Les Allerr.ands et les Hollandois se passcnt du verbe Avoir (il. en
est
51
RESOLUTIONS.
17. Buvant du vin de Madeire Jit qu'W fut gueri de
cctte raaladie; ou bien,Lcr vin de Madeira qu J il but Jit qtiW
iatgueri.de cette maladie— Done — II fut gueri de cett?
maladie: Q.u'est-ce qui opera (en lui eet etat; cette cure ?
ce fut)— &? boire du vin de Madeire (l'acte de boire, 8cc),
ou bien, le vin de Madeire qu'il but. tc^» Buvant du
vin de Madeire fit, ne se diroit plus aujourd'hui; ni
Le boire du vin de Madeire.
18. Voyant ccci, il tenoit ma lettre, je sus (fit que je
sus) de quoi il s'agissoit; ou bien, ma lettre que je vis
quit tenoit fit que je sus de quoi il s'agissoit — Done, Je
sus de quoi il s'agissoit. Qu'est-ce qui opha (en mbi cet
etat ? ce fut) — le voir de ceci, il tenoit ma lettre, ou bien,
ma lettre que je vis qu'il tenoit. ^ Voyant cecis il tenoit ma
lettre paroitroit aujourd'hui un peu gauche; et le voir de
ceci, ne sauroit plus se dire ; on pouvoit le dire cependant
<3u teirips de Montaigne.
est dc m£me de ceux qui parknt d'autres langucs), et se conten-
tent d exprimer V approximation ou le mot proche; chacun suivant
sa langue. Apres se trouvera done toujours, ou tres-souvent„
£§•1 a ayant pris pour ayant proche (notre jtris etant une con-
traction de l'adjectif Italien presso, proche) qui a pnt, pour qui
a proche, $rc. D' apres votre refus, est done egal a 2aest-ce qui a
operS (telle ou telle chose ? c est) — voire refits que faipris ou pro-
che (Tayant cntendu, ou dtpuit que je Vai enUndu). En effef,
Apres ceia pourroit se rendre en Allerr.and par hlcrnach (hier-
nach), litteralement ici (ou ccci) proche; en Hollandois, par naa
*lat, litteralement proch* oela pourct'/a proche. D'aillcurs, apres
ce/a peut se rendre en Anglois par next that ou next to that, litte-
ralement &- plus proche de cela ; et les Allemands, employant le
supcrlatif de leur nach, peuvent dire hiernachst, com me lei IIol-
ii peuvent dire naast dat. See Interlocution LIV, p. 57.
* 2 19. Voire
52
}q. Votre refus de repondre fait que je sais ce que je
dois penser de cela — Done — Je sais ce que je dois penser
de cela: Qu'est-ee qui a op-re (en moi cet etat?
C'est)-- votre refus de repondre.
20. Lui tranquilliser l y esprit (cet ohjet-ci, lui tranquil-
liser Tesprit j ou bien, Le dhir ou fettis de lui tranquil-
liser l'esprit) a fait que je lui ai ecrit — Done — Jelui ai ecrit
Qu'est-ee quia opere (cctte resolution que j'ai prise ? C'est)
— cet ohjeUci, lui tranquilliser V esprit; oubien, Ledisir ou
fitois de lui tranquilliser I esprit.
21. JTqus treuver ici fait que je ne saurois exprimer la
joie que je ressens — Done — Je ne saurois exprimer la
joie que je ressens : Qu'est-ee qui opere (cet etat ou je
suis ? C'est) — Vous irouver ici,
5a. B. But that forerunner appears to be a redundant ex-
pression. Some languages, I suppose, reject the same, in
certain circumstances, and present the real Agent or Cause
or Motive, &c. in a naked manner, that is to say, with-
out expressing the preposition which other languages
must use, because custom has made it a law.
LIII. S. You have now started a most important
question in regard to the French language, and you force
me to give, at least, a hint how me, te, se, nous, vous, and
sometimes moi, tot, happen to be used instead of a moi f
a toi, soi, See. ; how lui, leur, happen to be used in-
stead of a lui, a. elle, a euv, a elles ; and more particu-
larly, because attended with more difficulty, how en hap-
pens to be used instead of whatever might be changed
into these English expressions, By the same, Of the same,
From the same, At the same, With the same, Through
the same, For the same, &c. But before I venture to ex-
plain your question by suitable examples, I think it pro-
per to present this
Etymolooicaz.
53
Ettmolooical Observation on en, " This
particle en comes either from the Iberno-Celtic emh or
amh (even) or from the word whence the old Saxon
adjectives efen, emne, have been formed, which are
found changed into efne, cfn, emn, em, as in efen-u/egt,
even weight, equal weight, same weight; efn-eald,
equally old, same age (for, eeld, eald, eld, mean age, as
well as old)', in em-lang or emn-lang, equally long, same
length.* In English even is often contracted into e'en j
a further contraction perhaps made the French en) besides
em would easily become en. The English word to even sig*
nifies actively to male even, and neutrally (rather obsolete
now) to be equal. In old Saxon, the verb efnan was used
to express what is meant by the Latin perpetrare, prastare,
whence the French forerunner en (when used for Opera*
tor) is obviously equal to doer, maker, performer \, &c.
In the French phrase en am!, for comme ami (like a
friend), it is evident that en is then the same as egalant
(equaling, acting like). When en is considered by
Grammarians as a pronoun, because, with a reference to
some individual name which has been precedently men-
tioned, it is prefixed or suffixed to a verb, that word (en)
is then used, by way of abbreviation in construction, for
whatever might be changed (as I have already said) into
these English expressions, By the same, Of the same t
From the same, At the same, IVith the same, Through the
same, For the same, &c. And indeed, the old Saxon ad-
jective efen or efn, meaning equal, like or not unlike, the
Instead of efen, we find the old Saxon euen also. The Ger-
man primitive is eben ; the Dutch made it their even.
f Among the derivations which we shall see hereafter, in
regard to the English in, this on en will be confirmed ; and that
circumstance will be noticed, when en happens to be used as a
prefix, or forerunner, to a noun (or its representative) simply con_
sidered as containing. See Interlpcution LX1X
i 3 French
54
French particle en may consequently bft considered as
equal to same, or the same, with the subaudition of Ope-
rator as already mentioned.* I say then that en used as
a prefix or suffix to a verb is introduced as an abbrevia-
tion in construction, since the omission of the word
announcing something like Operator is allowed before
that en, an omission which could not take place with any-
other representative of the individual name, since we
must say de vioi, de lui, &c.
1 Rule. In the French language, the forerunner, de-
scribed as announcing Operator or Co-operator,
js always omitted when the individual that has occasion-
ed, or will occasion, an action, an event, or a condition,
having already been named, is to be represented, close to
a verb, merely by a sort of prefix or suffix, used as a re-
presentative of the individual name we do not chuse to
repeat. •>
1st. As to prefixes. In, li Je parlerai A votre pere",
it is your father who, luhen come at, WILL partly cause
I shall speak ;f and votre pere has his forerunner ex-
pressed — Instead of " Je parlerai A lui", wherein the
forerunner a is still expressed, I may say, " Je lui par-
lerai." — Hence, the forerunner a is omitted in the latter
* The pretended pronominal ne which the Italians use in the
circumstances which will allow in French the introduction of the
pretended pronominal, en, has also heen formed from the same
source, and consequently must mean the same : in the very ancient
Italian authors, ene may be found ; by degrees, from the primitive
cf/ie or emncy the initial r/or em have been quite suppressed, and
ne only remained.
f I said, will partly cause, (or, what chiefly will cause me to
speak must be what 1 am to sat/; while what I am to say can
cause me to speak, only when your father is co?ne at by me.
construction.
55
construction, because of lui being used as a sort of prefix
recalling, before parlerai, the idea of your father ', who
still, when come at, will partly cause I shall speak.
adly. As to suffixes. The construction we have seen,
in regard to prefix representatives, cannot take place
when the French Verb is to be used, without a negation,
in those parts of the Imperative which are the ist person
plural and the ad persons either singular or plural ; these
three circumstances requiring the representatives (called
pronouns) to be used as suffixes. Instead of " Parlons
A lui," with the forerunner expressed, we may say
" Parlcns-LUi," omitting the forerunner a ; and then lui
is used as a suffix to the verb parlons, and linked to it by a
hyphen, although, instead of " Ne parlons pas a lui," we
may say "Ne lui parlons pas," wherein lui is introduced
as a prefix to parlons used negatively, and the hyphen is
not deemed necessary, because of the position given to
lui, which position, in front of the verb, sufficiently an-
nounces that lui is a part necessary to the following verb
parlons, as restraining its effect. Let us apply to en the
same divisions of the rule.
In " Parlez-vous de moi" (equal to " Est-ce moi qui
vous fais parler" ?) the forerunner is expressed by de ;
if the person addressed, instead of replying " Je parle
de Vous" (in which the forerunner is still expressed
by de), says " J'en parle", it is obvious that the de
is omitted only because en has become, by its position
and general consent, equalfto du mime (of the same), de
vous, for de vous-mhne (of you, of yourself, even of
you).
In " Parlez de lui," the forerunner is expressed : if,
instead of " Parlez de lui/' I say " Parlez-en", I omit
the forerunner ■ and so in " N'en parlez pas ", instead
of " Ne parlez pas de lui,"
e 4 N, B.
56
N. B. If one wishes to discover when the abbreviating
EN may, of itself, stand instead of whoever, or whatever ,
operates (did operate, or will operate) what has been ex-
pressed precedently, he may turn to the set of French ex-
amples, p. 47, 48 and 50 ; and he will find the rule will
do, except lor the 7th, 15th, and 20th. Then will he have
an idea of the farther advantages that result from my
doctrine. For instance,
After having heard " II £toit respecte de tout hon-
nete homme," instead of repeating, by way of as-
sent, verbatim, " II 6toit respecte pe tout honnete
homme," you may say merely " II en etoit respecte,"
and the latter will be equal to " II etoit respecte : OPE-
RATOR ? THE SAME J or Co-OPERATORS ? THE SAME;
for, the same people already mentioned, namely, " every
good man" (tout honnete homnje).
In the 2d example; cette faveur, il /'obtint par yo-
tre credit", there is a transposition, which, removed,
will make that example become " II obtint cette faveur
par votre credit" Now, if I wish not to repeat
par votre credit, but to supply the latter words by
en, I shall say "II en obtint cette faveur" equal to
"II obtint cette faveur: Operator? — the same
(thing already mentioned, namely, votke credit,
your interest.
Any body may pow tjo the same with the other ex^
amples, except, as I said before, as to those three examples
(and the like) marked 7th, 15th, and 30th. It will be my
taflr to show, in some subsequent part, if the public re-
quire it, why en could not be used with propriety in the
three examples alluded to.
53. JB. Besides that circumstance which custom has
established, very rationally too, in regard to such pro-
noun*
5?
■nouns ai ate used like prefixes or suffixes to verbs, are
there not other circumstances wherein that forerunner
equal to Operator or Co-operator may be omit-
ted in French ?
L1V. S. Certainly— For instance, in this French com-
bination of words " Je courois aprcs lui"* equal to
* f Avoir lui pres me faisoit courir", the word
which, to announce my motive, could have acted as a
forerunner, would have been pour: and indeed, (t Je
courois xpres lui," which may appear to Grammarians to
be an abbreviation in construction, or an elliptical phrase,
is equal to " Je courois pour avoir lui pres" (I was
running for getting him near, for reaching him),
wherein the forerunner pour really performs its function,
and may be replaced by the word Operator, thus " Je
courois: operator (of this my state?). — Avoir lui
frh, for the desire of getting him near. — In
" Je courois Aprcs lui pour l'attraper," the reader may
see I had two objects in view, two motives, which put
me in action, which made me run; 1st, to have him
near; 2dly, to catch him or take hold of him: each of
my objects or motives became then a Co-operator;
but the forerunner is omitted, in regard to my first object
in view, viz. Avoir lui pres; and it is introduced by
meamof Pour, in regard to my 3d object in view, viz.
Vattraper.
54. B. In Latin, the word used in modern languages
as a forerunner to announce the Operator, or Ope-
rators, or one of the Operators, is much more
frequently dispensed with ; and, since Latin has had
so much influence on the French and English lan-
* S«e Ol'cnation Etymohgiqite sur Afrit, p. 50.
guages,
58
guages, I think you ought to show, to a certain
degree, how far these modern languages agree with, or
deviate from, the Latin, as to the manner of present-
ing the Operator, or Operators, of events ex-
pressed either passively, neutrally, or actively, in order
to confirm your assertions in regard to English and
French.
LV. S. That I will do with all my heart. In Latin,
one difference has gradually obtained in the expressing
of a person or of persons to be presented as Opera-
tor or as Operators, and in the expressing of an
inanimate thing or of inanimate things to
be presented as an Operator or as Operators. That
such a difference was not always attended to we have
undeniable proofs.
ist. When the Operator or Operators must
be named or represented by some word denoting a. person
or persons, in a sentence used, or to be used passively, the
Operator appeared generally with a forerunner, such as
a, ab f abs, per, &c. seldom without such a forerunner,,
WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS EXPRESSED.
Laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis. Hor.
Nihil est virtute amabilius, quam qui adeptus erit,
ubicunque erit gentium, a nobis diligetur. Cic.
Meum factum probari abs te, triumpho et gaudeo.
Cic.
Non existimaram Metellum fratrem ob dictum ca-
pite ac fortunis per te oppugnatum iri. Cic.
Per me quondam, te socio, defensa est respublica.
Cic.
WHERE
59
iVHERE THE FORERUNNER IS OMITTED.
Deseror conjuge (Ov.) pro, A conjuge.
Colitur linigera' turba (Ov.) pro, A linigerd turbd.
Tunc et contra Stertinium Maximum, quo promeba-
fur, dixit (Scnec.) pro, a quo.
adly. When the Operator or Operators must
be named or represented by some word denoting a
thing or things (instead ofa person or persons)
in a sentence used, or to be used, passively, the Ope-
rator, or Operators, generally appeared without
the forerunner j but Poets sometimes would intro-
duce it.
WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS OMITTED.
Animus defatigatus multitudine verborum. Auct. ad
Jlerenn.
Si Pergama dextra defendi possent, etiam bdc defensa
fuisscnt. Virg.
Cebsus est Virgis Athenagoras, qui, in fame, fru-
mentum exportare erat ausus. Cic
WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS EXPRESSED.
Absens flamma Meleagros ab ilia uritur. (Ov.)
Pectora trajectus Lyncaeo Castor ab ense. (Ov.)
Ssepe per has (lachrymas) flecti principis ira solet.
(Ov.)
3dly. With Verbs employed neutrally, or, with those
Verbs which Grammarians call Deponents, and with
Verbs employed actively which have already an Agent,
the
60
the person, instrument, or any thing whatever thai
caused, wholly, or partly, the event or situation de-
scribed, or to be described, could be introduced with a
forerunner. However, the forerunner was often omit-
ted.
WHERE THE FORERUNNER IS EXPRESSED,
- Mare a Sole collucet. Cic.
Torqueor, infesto ne Vir ab hoste cadat. Ov;.
Phalaris non A paucis interiit. Cic.
Quis nolit ab isto ejise mori ? Lucan.
Rem atrocem Largius Macedo a servis suis passus
est. Plin.
Olet unguenta ? De meo. Ter.
Qui legibus non propter metum paret, sed quia id
salutare maxime judicat. Cic.
Id nisi gravi de causa non fuisset. Cic.
Cum e via languerem. Cic„~
Demetrius Phalereus ex doctrina nobilis et clarus.
Cic.
Nee loqui pr^e mcerore potuit. Cic.
Et de triumpho picta Baibarico chlamys. Sencc.
Candelabrum factum e gemmis. Cic.
Templum de marmore. Virg.
Naves totae facta? e x robore. Caes.
Solito matrum de more locuta est. Virg.
Bene obsonavi, atque ex mca sententia. Plant.
Quod adeptus est per scelus, id per luiuriam efTim-
dit atque consumit. Cic.
IVUEN
61
WHEN THE FORERUNNER IS OMITTED,
THE POINT BEING TO INTRODUCE THE
CAUSE, THE MANNER, THE INSTRUMENT
AND THE MATTER- USED : PRECEDENTS
OFTHE CONTRARY HAVE,HOWEJTER,BEEN
QUOTED.
Oderunt pcccare boni Virtutis amove. Hor.
Homini iliico lacrymas cadunt, quasi puero, gaudio.
Ter.
yirtute ambire oportet, nonfavitoribus. Plaut.
Nee facile est aqua commoda mente pati. Ov.
Nimiuni allercando Veritas araittitur. P. Syr.
Floruit cum acumine ingenii, turn admirabili quodant-
lepore dicendi. Cic.
Scipio omnes sale, facetiisque, superabat. Cic.
Famd nobilium, potentesque bello. Cass.
Naturam expellas furca ; t&men usque recurret. Hor.
Capitolium saxo quadrato substructum. Liv.
JErc cava clypeus. Virg.
Solidoque adamante columnae. Virg.
4thly. When the instrument, manner, matter, &c .
could be introduced as a sort of concomitant operator, the
word cum was generally used as a forerunner, as with in
English, and avec in French, which latter, being spelt
formerly avecque and meaning literally ayez ce (for ayez
cela), in English, have that, or have also, is equal to
the English Imperative, join, or add (this or that).*
Desinant
• ft is possible however, that the French preposition avecque
I'as anciently written) should originally have been the imperative
of the Anglo-Saxon verb aftccan (sumeie), which imperative
•*ould have been nfrcc, and, by changing/ into v would have be-
come
62
Desinant obsidere, cum gladiis, curiam. Cic.
Ut Vettius in foro cum pugione, et item, servi ejus
comprehenderentur cum telis. Cic.
Utin Csecinam advenientem cum ferro invaderet. Cic.
Semper, magno cum metu, dicere incipid. Cic.
Etymological observation on the Latin Pre-
position cum, the Italian and Spanish Preposition con,
and the Latin Prefixes con, to, &c. which some of the
mqdern languages have adopted.
In Iberno-Celtic we find that com, gom, coim, &c.
were used to express kindred, same family, same specie or
kind; that coim-preadh [for gom -breath, orgom-bereith)
meant generation, tribe, that com-dhe or gom-de meant
chief (of a J tribe. In Iberno-Celtic co, con, go, were
used, to express with, as in con-gallaibh or go n'gallaibh
(in Latin cum Gallis, in English with the Gauls, in Ita-
lian, and Spanish con Gallij — All these came from the
Iberno-Celtic adjective coimh, comh (equal, similar,
&c.J, which adjective being employed adverbially, as
Grammarians soy, instead oj absolutely, was used for a
prefix to compound words, and in time became com, coin ;
from the latter arose the Greek words uoivos (communis),
X^wus (socius, socialus, conjunctus), xojvwj ( covimuniter ,
vulgb, in commune, simul, una, public}, uno animo), and
come avecc, then avecque from the propensity of our French an-
cestors to change c (final especially) into que. Certain it is that
feccan, fceccan, and afeccan, are found in Anglo-Saxon to mean
sunwrc, &cc. (to take, to receive) — Rut, it will be objected per-
haps that in remote ages of the French language the word
was written aresatte; to this I shall answer that this may have
happened by a change of the first c into s 9 because of the change
of the final c into que.
tie
63
the initial word in composition xowo, as in xotv6-ff av (con-cors,
similis animij — Now from either com or comh, which we
have seen before, came very easily, the Latin preposition
cum; and I need only observe that, considering cum as art
adjective become indeclinable, the meaning of which is
equal to the Greek adjective koivus (socius, sociatus, con-
junctusj, and seeing that the noun is always introduced in
the ablative after cum, 1 am sure they form both together
a sort of ' inter) ective phrase, such as Grammarians call an
absolute ablative case : and indeed cum Gallis is literally
associating the Gauls, for, the Gauls (being) associated.
// is evident that the Italian and Spanish con claim the
same origin ; it is evident also that the initial com, con,
co, col, cor, &c. in compound words, denote, every one, a
sort of association or concomitance*.
5$, B. Whence do you derive your friend By, when
he stands as a forerunner, to announce what is conveyed
by the words Operator, Co-operator P
LVI. S. I might have said -at once (but I reserve
presenting the derivation at large till we are come to the
latter part) that the primitive meaning of your name
was way, road, course, and the like; that you had been
serviceable to mankind to such a degree as to deserve
that your name should be raised to some dignity : in con-
sequence, it was agreed that the meaning of way should be
extended not only to that of which way, or the manner
how, things come to pass, but even to that of Operator,
the highest quality that can be conferred on any indivi-
dual. You do not scorn, for all that, to appear often in
your primitive state, for which compliance you are the
more to be respected : but still there are attached to your
* See, hereafter, article 4th of Interlocution LXXV.
name
64
name other notions which require that I should examrM
some expressions in the Gothic and old Saxon languages,
in order to ascertain precisely every one of the functions
you have been allotted to perform. In this examination,
I shall point out how the high function of operator might
be said to be implied in those expressions of antiquity.
Began, in old Saxon, meant what the Latins expressed
by operari (to work*), exercere, colere, excolere, ineo-
lere, perambulare (to travel about), flectbre (to
bend, to bow), dejlectere, injlectere, curvare, retorquere,
declinare (to tend to a different way, to bend one's
course to, to avoid, to decline), d'vverterc,recedere,fugere,
submittere, servire, procumbere, obser-vare. Instead of this
Began, we find the old Saxons used also Beagian, Biegan,
Bigan, Bigean, Bugan, Bygan ; and the Goths Biugan,
Bugan (whence Ga-bugan, and the Anglo-Saxon Ge-
hugan y as well zsGe-bigan). Hence By for Byg may have
been formed from bygan, to express a sort of agent, equal
to Operator or Co-operator ; as Be may have been formed
from Beg in Began, as Bi or Big from Bigan, and even
Bii ; for g, in Anglo Saxon, used to be often pronoun-
ced as if it were i or r, and, in the modern languages,
was accordingly changed either into i,j, ory.
$6. B. But, some will say : As the final an (or suffix
an), in verbs, is only a termination which denotes action,
that is to say, which intimates that whatever the pre-
ceding part of the word signifies is put in action ; it i*
possible that those verbs should have bftn formed from
beg, beag, bieg, big, by merely adding the sign of action
ak ; it is possible also that those verbs may have been
compound verbs formed from gan (to go, to move) with
• Be*, in Kalmuck, means I vork ; and Bed, in Iberno-CcltiCf
means work.
u
63
he or hi prefixed, the real signification of^which prefix
may be about, around, &c. as contractions from Bah,
Beag, Beab, Beg, Beh, Bieb, Big, nouns which pri-
marily meant form of a circle, a garland, any circle, any
circular tbing, ring, &c. — What would you reply ?
LVTI. S. Whether the latter nouns gave origin to the-
former Verbs, or the former Verbs gave origin to the lat-
ter nouns, is almost immaterial, as to what I have in
view — Both sorts of words have existed; one sort, -ai
Verbs; the other, as nouns; and 'certain it is that By
is very often found, as already we have fully proved, to
stand as ' -a forerunner (equal to Operator, Operators, or
Co-operator, Co-operators) to the name or to the represen-
tative of the name of somebody or of something which
has caused, or will cause, an event or. situation to take
place. But there were, in old Saxon, other Verbs
whence a word must obviously have existed to convey
the idea of maker, 'contriver, &c. and consequently of
Operator : the present fey may obviously too be a con-
traction of that very word, as formed from Bycnan,
wfiich, as well as Becnan, used to convey the meanings
of the Latin verbs formare, jingere, siviulare, signijicare,
&c. See hereafter the LXII. interlocution.
57. B. The Author of the Diversions of Purley has
given us nothing, or hardly any thing, to take hold of,
as to the several ways in which I am introduced : with
him, By is only equal to Be used imperatively 1
LVIII. S. True; but, let us turn to Dr. Johnson's
Dictionary ; and, throwing aside his 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th,
5th, and T4th divisions, in regard to By, because the
passages, he has quoted may all be clearly accounted for,
by means of Operator or Co-operator, substituted for By*,
let
* By, says Dr. Johnson, 1st denotes the Agent; 2d, it notes the
instrument ,common!y after a verb neuter; 3d, it notes the cause
of any effect; 4th, it notes the means by -union any thing hper-
V formed
let us reduce his twenty-six other divisions to fewef
heads.
58. B. What ! had Dr. Johnson allotted thirty-two
divisions to his definitions of me ?
LTX. S. Yes, he had ; and yet five or six might have
been quite sufficient. For the sake of perspicuity, X
shall mention fifteen, which will lead my readers through
the labyrinth.
59. JB. I hope you will take care to exemplify pro-
perly each of your divisions.
LX. S. I intend to do so ; and, that I may be les9
exposed to censure on this point, I shall examine every
passage quoted by Dr. Johnson in those twenty-six di-
visions of his which we have not yet touched. Under
the number I shall prefix to each passage, the reader will
see the number of the division (in Dr. Johnson's Dic-
tionary) in which that passage may be found presented
as an example ; and the mark added to the latter number
will point out a reference wherein the substance of the
Doctor's definition will be found.
I. By, for ivay, considered as equal to Operator,
Co-operator, or the like.
1 " Bullion will sell by the ounce (delivered, or
7* to be delivered) for six shillings and five
pence unclipped money (paid, or to be paid)."
Locke.
In this passage, I discover two Operators in a state of rota-
tion anil reciprocity. 1st. Six SHILLINGS AND FIVE PENCE
unclipped money (paid, or to lie paid) causing one ounce to
formed or obtained ; 5th, it shows the manner of an action ; 14fh,
it notes Co-operation.
* Dr. Johnson says that By denotes then the qumtity had at
one time.
be
67
be sold (and delivered), the whole bullion will in rotation be sold.
2dly. One Ounce (delivered, or to be delivered) causing Six
Shillings and five pence undipped money (to be paid), the whole,
bullion will in rotation be sold.
a " It is lawful, both by the laws of nature,
9* and by the law divine, which is the perfec-
tion of* the other two." Bacon's Holy War.
Here, 1 discover several Operators ; namely, both the laws
of nature, and tHe law divine, which is the perfection of
the other two (being made a sort of criterion), cause that it ia
lawful: hence, It is lawful, Opkrators (of this state? — they are)
both the laws of nature and the law divine, which, &c.
See the 5th and 8th examples.
3 " The present, or like, system of the world, can-
to j- not possibly have been eternal, by the first
proposition; and, without God, it could not
naturally, nor fortuitously, emerge out of chaos, bt
the third proposition." — Bentley.
It is evident that the first proposition (being made a sort
of criterion) causes that the present, or like, system of the
world, cannot possibly have been eternal : it is also evident that
the third PROPOSITION (being made a sort of criterion)
causes that, without God, it could not naturally, nor fortuitously,
emerge out of Chaos. See the 5th and 8th examples.
4 <c The faculty, or desire, being infinite, by the
io preceding preposition, may contain orreceive
both these." Cheyne.
i. e. I'he faculty, or desire, being infinite (the preceding
proposition, being made a sort of criterion, causes that
it is infinite), may contain or leceive both these.
• Dr. Johnson says that By is then for according to, and notes
permission.
■f Dr. Johnson says that By is then for according to, and notes
proof.
f a " Th«
68
5 " The Gospel gives us such laws as every man
11* that understands himself, would chuse to live by."
Tillotson.
There is, in this passage, a peculiarity of construction which ir
is necessary to remove, so as to bring the pretended preposition
by to the place it should naturally occupy. To do this, let us
say : " The Gospel gives us those lifts* (certain laws), by Which
every man that understands himself would chuse to live; and
then, "The Gospel gives us those laws (certain laws) which
cause that every man who understands himself would chuse to
lite (i. e. to regulate his manner of living J accordingly ; or, The
Gospel gives us certain laws; every man that understands himself;
would chuse to live by those laws, i. e. would chuse t« cause
those laws to diuect his life or manner of living. — In this
passage, then, By appears as a forerunner announcing the ope-
rator, and then causing a thing to become; a kind of direc-
tor, criterion, ?mle, guide, &c. Now, By, will contain both
those powers whenever it shall be introduced so that according to
may take its place.
6 ?* In the divisions I have made, I have endeavour-
ii ed, the best I could, to govern myself by the di-
versity of matter/' Locke.
i. e. Making the diversity of matter (become) a dl-
rector.
7. " The ship, by good luck, fell into their hand?
11 at last, and served as a model to build others by."
Arbuthnot.
In this passage, I perceive two sorts of by : the first is simply
for Operator; the second, besides announcing Operat-op,
makes the thing mentioned become a directing power, a rule,
a guide, or the like. And indeed, G00D luck caused that, tie
ship fell into their hands at last, ahd served as a model to build
others, the said ship operating upon the builders as a direct-
ing power or Guide ; otherwise, the builders making the said
ship or model their guide.
* Dr. Johnson says that By is then for according to, in con.,
f (trinity with, in imitation of.
« Thus
69
8 « Thu#^ by the music, we may know wasu
*3* noble wits a hunting go, through groves, that on
Parnassus grow." Waller,
i. e. '* Thus, the music (being made the criterion)
causes that we may know when" &c.
9 " Bv what has been DONE, before the war
13 in which he was engaged, we may expect what he
will do after a peace." Dryden.
i. e. What he has done, before the war in which he was
engaged (being made the criterion), causes that we may ex-
pect what he will do after a peace.
io "Who's that stranger ?-r- By his warlike
12 PORT, HIS FIERCE DEMEANOUR, and EREC-
TED look, he's of no vulgar note." Dryden.
i. e. His warlike part, his fierce demeanour, and
ekected look (being made the criterion) cause (altoge-
ther) that he's of no vulgar note.
11 "Judge of the event by what has past."
i 2 Dryden.
i. e. What has past (being made the criterion) will
or may make you judge of the event.
i% " The punishment is not to be measured by the
12 GREATNESS OR SMALLNESS OF THE MATTER,
but by the opposition it carries and stands in,
to that respect and submission that is due to the
father," Locke.
i. e. The greatness or small^ess of the matter,
(being considered as the criterion) is not to measure the pu-
nishment: but the opposition that matter carries and stands in
(being considered as the criterion) »s to measure the pu-
nishment.
15 <{ By your description of the town, I
1 i imagine it to lie under some great enchantment."
Pope.
* Dr. Johnson says that Bj,'is then for from, and notes grounl
if jtuffctrietft or evrripaViioTi.
f 3 i.e. Your
70
i e. Your description of the town (being made the cri-
terion) causes that I imagine it to lie under some great en"
chantment.
14 ?? By what 1 have always heard and
12 read, I take the strength of a nation." Swift.
j. e. What i have always heard and read, (being my
criterion) causes that I take the strength of a nation (to be
so or so).
25 i( Mean time she stands provided of a Laius,
13* more young and vigorous too by twenty
•springs." Dryden.
i. e. Mean time she stands provided of a Laius, twenty
springs make this Laius (be) more young and vigorous than the
other individual unnamed, but compared with this Laius. Hence,
it appears that twenty springs, being the difference between
the ages of the two persons alluded to, are, for me, the criterion
which makes me judge that this Laius is more young and vigo-
rous.
16 " Her brother River, ere this, lies shorter by
13 the head at Pomfret." Rowe.
i. e. Her brother River, ere this, lies at Pomfret ; the head
(cut off) ma KE9 (him lie) shorter. Hence, the head, or the di-
mension of the head, is a criterion which makes me judge that
he lies shorter at Pomfret; since I know that his head has been
cut off. But, that the head, or any other part, may, in any cir-
cumstance, be introduced as a criterion to establish the diffe-
rence between two persons compared as to size, will appear if,
comparing you with another person, 1 6ay : He is shorter than you
by the head. See Interlocution LXX.
17 " By giving the denomination to less
13 quantities of Silver by one twentieth, you
take from them their dues." Locke.
Here, the 1st By, before giving, stands for Operator, in re-
gard to the way, maniaer, or method used (as By usually does
before a present participle), and the 2d By stands for Opera-
* Dr. Johnson says that By makes then the difference between
two sums, %
TOR,
71
tor, in regard to what makes quantities of Silver left in value or
bulk: hence, giving the denomination to quantities of
Silver which one twentieth makes less in value or bulk,
causes that you take from them their due.
j8 "Which, O! avert, by yon etherial
£3* light, which I have lost for this eternal night; or
if, by dearer ties, you may be won, by
your dead sire, and by your living son."
Dryden.
Here, each By borders much on the meaning conveyed by
Operator, Cooperator ; for, 1st, " O! may yon etherial
tiGHT cause you to avert" is nearly equal to "O! avert by
Yon etheria-l light ;" 2dly, In regard to " or, if by dearer
ties you may be won," we see evidently that it is equal to " Or
if, dearer ties may win you," and consequently to " Or if you
may be won, operators (of this event ?) — dearer ties ;" and,
Sdly, " By your dead sire and by your living son" are, ac-
cording to the first resolution above, equal to " May your
dead sire and may your living son make you avert." — But
see also hereafter examples 55, 56.
19 " Now, BY your joys on earth, your hopes
%1 in heaven, O spare this great, this good, this aged
king !" Dryden.
i. e. Now, O may your joys on earth, your hopes in heaven,
make you spare this great, this good, this aged king! But see
also hereafter examples 55, 56.
Co " O cruel youth ! By all the pain that
^% wrings my tortured soul ! by all the dear
deceitful hopes you gave me, O cease! at
least, once more delude my sorrow." Smith,
i. e. O cruel youth! May all the pain, that wrings my tor-
tured soul, make you cease ! May all the dear deceitful
hopes you gave me, make you cease at least once more delude
my sorrow ! But see also hereafter examples 55, 56.
f Dr. Johnson says, that By is then used in forms of adjuring
or obtesting.
f 4 II. By
72
II. By, for way considered as equal to Performer
of the act, associate, associating (all which
words are nearly synonymous with Opiirator\
when, before any of the reflective representatives
(myself, thyself, himself, herself, one's self, itself,
ourselves, yourself, yourselves, themselves), it
seems to exclude every other individual that is
not included in the reflective representatives in-
troduced into the sentence.
ti " We shall, you and T, dine much more comforU
ably by Ourselves."
i. e. We shall, you and I, dine much more comfortably ; per-
formers (of this act ? J — Ourselves.
32 " I found you once, in that place, walking by
YOURSELF."
The By here is equal to Performer of the act, or to asso-
ciate (used interrogatively or not) ; and, on yourself ap-
pearing, it is sufficiently understood that all other individuals aie
excluded : yet, somcindividuals may be found to be added to
yourself, as we shall see in the next example. As to the present
example, it is equal to " I found you once, in that places walk-
ing : Performer (of this act of walking?) — yourself; and,
there being nobody else with you, at the moment I found you,
all other individuals are evidently declared to be excluded.
23 " I did it BY myself . , . You mean, by myself
and the person who helped me."
i. e. I did it: Performer (of this act?) — myself.. .You
mean (to say) : Performers (of the act you allude to) myself
and the person who helped me — In this circumstance, two
performers of the act are made to appear; and ail other indivi-
duals are excluded.
". Sitting
73
24 "Sitting in some place, by himself, let
j 9* him translate into English his former lesson."
Asehani.
i.e. Sitting in some place, Performer (of this act ?)r-
iiimself, let him translate into English his former lesson.
25 " Soliman rcsolyed to assault the breach, after he
J 9 had, jjy himself, in a melancholy mood, walked
up and down in his tent." KuolleS's History ok
the Turks,
i. e. After lie bad, in a melancholy mood, walked up and down
in his tent, Performer (of this art of walking?) — himself.
26 " I know not whether he will annex his discourse
59 to the appendix, or publish it by itself, or at
all." Boyle,
i.e. Or publish it associating (what ?)— itself, or publish
it at all.
37 " He will imagine, that the king and his minis-
19 ters sat down and made them by themselves,
and then sent them to their allies to sign." Swift,
i. e. Made them, associates (1o the king and his ministers
making them — themselves. Otherwise, made them, WSSr
formers (of this act?) — themselves, that is to say, the king
and his ministers.
a8 " More pleased to keep it, till their friends could
19 come, than eat the sweetest by themselves at
home." Pope,
i. e. Than they would be pleased to eat the sweetest, Per-
Foumers (jn eating?) — themselves at home.
* Dr. Johnson savs that By placed before /i/mself, herself or
themselves, denotes the alienee or cxcIuuju of all otheis.- \\ hy
he did not notice the other reflective representatives, witsi-i<]
thyself, itself, one's self, ourselves, yetitse'f, yourselves, 1 cannot
conceive.
III.
T4
Iff. By, for course, range, way, attaching to the
same the idea of revolved, gone through,
COMPLETED, ATTENDED TO FROM END TO END,
so as to make by still equal to Operator, in
general.
39 te Ferdinand and Isabella recovered the kingdom of
J5* Granada from the Moors ; having been in possession
thereof by the space of seven hundred
years." Bacon.
By, thus introduced in speaking of the duration of time, is
pot in use now — The passage may be changed into " Ferdinand
and Isabella recovered the kingdom of Granada from the Moors,
•who had been in possesion thereof the space (for the space)
OF SEVEN HUNDRED YEARs" — Now, THE SPACE OF SEVEN
hundred years revolved (gone through) made (constituted)
the period (the length of time) that the possession lasted — Again,
who, the space of seven hundred years being REVOLVED
or attained, had thus long been in t,ossession thereof.
30 f They are also striated and furrowed bv the
2$\ length, and the sides curiously punched or
pricked." Grew.
What is here described proceeds in continuance throughout
the length : this gives me an opportunity to observe that if by
is grown obsolete in regard to continuance of time, it is still pro-
per as to continuance of dimensions which do not concern time-
Now, the resolution of this passage may be made thus ; " They
ar« also striated and furrowed, the length gone through
(attended to from one end to the other), and the sides, are curiously
punched or pricked.
* Dr. Johnson says that " Ry is then in the sense of for,
noting continuance." — The French may then use durant or pendant,
equal to the English during.
f Dr. Johnson says that By is then for in the same direction,
with.
"By
75
3i "Br this (time, period), the sons of Con-
J 6* stantine which fled, Ambrise and Uther, did rips
years attain." Fairy Queen.
i.e. This (time, period) caused (had caused) that the sons
of Constantine which fled, Ambrise and Uther, did attain ripe
years. Otherwise, This (time, period) b^ing revolved (had,
attained), the sons of Constantine, &c.
3« f f Hector, by the 5TH hour of the sun, will,
l6 with a trumpet, 'twixt our tents and Troy, to-mor-
row morning, call some knight to arms/' Shake-
speare.
i.e. The 5th hour of the sun, will cause this: Hector
will, with a trumpet, 'twixt our tents and Troy, to-morrow morn-
ing, call some knight to arms: otherwise, the 5th hour of
the sun (being) revolved (had, attained), Hector, &c.
33 "He erred not ; for, by this (time, period),
}6 the heavenly bands down from a sky of jasper
lighted now in Paradise." Milton,
i.e. He erred not j for, this (time, period) operated so
as to bring this to pass: the heavenly bands down from a sky of
jasper lighted now (then) in Paradise. Otherwise, for, thu
(time, period) being revolved (had, attained), the heavenly
bands, &c.
34 " These have their course to finish round the
l6* earth by morrow morning." Milton.
i. e.. These have their course to finish round the earth v
morrow morning is to cause the course to finish. Other-
wise, morrow morning being revolved (had, attained).
35 " The angelick guards ascended, mute and sad
\6 for man: for, of his state Br this (time, period),
they knew." Milton's Paradise Lost.
* Dr. Johnson says that Bv is. then used fox as soon as > not
latep than, and notes time.
i. e. The
76
i. e. The Angelick guards ascended, mute and sad for man : for,
this (time, period) caused (had caused) that : they knew of
his state. Otherwise, for, this (time, period) being rkvoived
(had, attained), they knew of his state.
36 il By that time a siege is carried on two or
16 three days, I am altogether lost and bewildered in
it." Addison.
i.e. A siege is carried on two or three days: that time
causes (this:) I am altogether lost and bewildered in that siege.
Uiherwise, a siege is carried on two or three days, that time
(.being) revglved (had, obtained), I am altogether lost and be-
wildered in that siege.
37 " By this time, the very foundation was se-
ll? moved." Swift.
i. e. This time caused (that ;) the very foundation was re-
moved. Otherwise, this time (being) revolved (had, at-
tained), the very foundation was removed.
38 " B>Y THE BEGINNING OF THE 4TH «EN-
16 tury, from the building of Rome, the Tribunes
proceeded so far, as to accuse and fine the consuls."
Swift,
i. e. The beginning of the 4th century, from the
building of Rome caused (this:) the Tribunes proceeded s'p
far, as to accuse and fine the consuls. Otherwise, The begin-
ning of the 4th century, from the building of Rome (being)
revolved (had, attained), the Tribunes, &c.
IV. By, for ivay, considered as equal to Repre-
sentative, with a notion of Operator, in
general. ,.
39 " The Gods were said to feast with ./Ethiopians,
24* that is, they were present with them by their
statues." Broome.
* Dr. Johnson says that By is then for By proxy of, and
^otes substitution* ,,
Here,
77
Here, 1st. The Statues represented the Gods, were imita-
tions of the Cods ; therefore, the Gods were said to feast witU
Ethiopians, that is, they were present with them, the Statues
(being) representatives (of the Gods). Qdly. The Gods were
?j|id to feast with .Ethiopians, that is, they were preseut with
them, their Statues causing them to he present: hence
their statues were operators of that state expressed by
" they were present with them (the /Ethiopians)."
V. By> for may, course, range, considered, when
necessary, as equal to steering (ranging, walk-
ing, riding, standing, &c.) along, sideways,
or sidlwise, meanings which may the more
truly be attached to those nouns as they come
from hygan (flectere, perambulare) — Thus are
presented, at the same time, the points of view
with a notion of at some distance from or not
contiguous to, each other ; and this may easily
be conceived by whoever reflects that the word
road is often applied to those parts of a coast
where ships may pass and repass, or ride at an-
chor — These and the land or coast are not
contiguous, yet both are reciprocally in view.
40 "Many beautiful places, standing ALOK&
17* the sea-shore, make the town appear longer than k
is, to those that sail by." Addison,
i.e. Many beautiful place^TANDiNG along the sea-shore,
make the town appear longer than it is to those that sail steer-
ing ALONG it.
* Dr. Johnson says that by is then for beside, and notes
PASSAGE*
I
3ETYM0-
U
&TYMOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Ott ALONG,
STEERING ALONG, STANDING AL0NG, and OTt
BY for ALONG.
The least reflection will make it obvious, thht, in
the preceding quotation. By might supply the place of
standing ALONG, and consequently does not denote
passage (unless it be in regard to the eye), since the quo-
tation might have been presented thus : " Many beautiful
places BY the sea-shore make the town appear longer
than it is to those that sail by the SAID TOWN." A
little reflection will likewise make it obvious that the
words standing and STEERING might be left out.
The chief point then is to ascertain the real meaning of
along — This non-descript among Grammarians, who call
it sometimes an adverb, sometimes a preposition, is for
at long, in/lead of at length, and therefore, equal to the
length had (attained, followed, purfued, or the like) ; for
till the length be had (from end to end) , till the point be
attained where the length shall have been gone through
(See hereafter the Etymological Observation on AT, under
the 7 1st passage quoted). Perhaps, however, along is
Jor afhe-long, as z/~even length for even to length, even
to the length ; for, afne was used in Old Saxon instead of
efne — {See the Etymological Observation on en, Interlocu~
lion LIII, page 53.) — Perhaps too along is for and long;
and, on this, see Interlocution LXVIII. As to By, in the
sense of along cf sideways, it may come from byge, a noun
formed from bygan, the chief Significations of which byge
is said to be conveyed by the Latin nouns flexus, angulus :
but this By may be a contraction of some other part of
bygan in the sense of perambulare which is among the
significations of began, as we shall see hereafter', now
perambulare is equal to these English expressions to walk
(pass,
fpass y spread, extend) over or along ; and I cannot
hut think that byge itself has been equal to course, or
act OF, extending along, &c. — Returning to along, /
must o 1 serve that to pass along is, in French } passer le
long de, depasser, and longer, instead of which last sea-
expression, English mariners use to coast along, to steer
along ; nor is longer confined, in French, to seamen, since
it is used for to walk along, to ride along, to travel along,
in speaking of rivers, mountains, or some place which ex-
tends far. Cicero said, " Flectere promontorium," to
express which French seamen would say doubler le cap,
arrondir le cap, parer le cap, depasser le cap, passer au-
dela du cap, and Fnglish seamen "would say to weather
the head land, to double the Cape, &c. — The Old Saxcn
bygan e\ pressed the same with the Latin flectere: hence
the above By certainly comes from bygan, and so does it
whenever it stands for ALONG, PASSING along, 6ft.
If instead of along we were to use beside, as suggested
by Dr. Johnson, this beside would be equal to sideway,
or sidewise, occupying the side, possessing the side, as
we shall see hereafter. If we were to use sideway, or
sidewise, it would be equal to the way that the side pre-
sents.
41 " Ten sail passed by that port."
i. e. Ten sail passed steering along that port.
,42 " I did hear the galloping of a horse — Who
a* was'tcameiy?" Shakespeare.
There is, after BY, a subaudition of the spot, the place, thit
spot, this place, or the like. Hence, I did hear the galloping of
a horse—-Who was't came riding along this spot?
• Dr. Johnson's first division as to the adverbial use of By-
VI. By
so
VJ. By. for way or maimer, attaching td the same
the notion of reciprocally contiguous)
reciprocally NEAS,or the like, as neighbour,
companion, &c. See hereafter the note belong-
ing to Etymological ^Observation on By for
43 " So thou may's* say, the king lies by a beg-
l8* gar, if a beggar dwell near him; or the church
stands by thy tabour, if thy tabour stanC
by tills church." Shakespeare.
I^Ti'MOLOGICA L OBSERVATIONS OH By for BE-
SIDE, NEAR TO, IN PRESENCE OF, &C,
TBs Dutch use by for next to, close by, hard by, they used
to write Bij instead of By : the Germans use TSeyfor the
Englhh near, before, in the presence of, and By: the French
have given to their an tour de (properly aroundj a signifi-
cation equal to about, near : in old Saxon big was used for
the Lathi, juxta, as h'\ for juxta, prope, and bii for juxta
euhi : now bio; came from bigan equal to the Latin flec-
tere. — It appears therefore perfectly rational to derive the
.English _bv from the Old Saxo?i verb bygan, which had
the sa?ne significations with b'gan. See hereafter Inter-
focutiou LXI. On the other hand, the Old Sa'xOii verbs
bya, byan, were equal to the Latin Verbs habitare, pos-
sidere, occupare, colere, ineolcre, &c. and bugend or
buyend was equal to the Latin nouns habitator, accola \
the English bv may then be considered as a contraction of
bvend, (from byaj and as equal lo neighbour, living con-
* Dr. Johnson says that Bi/ is then for Inside, near to, in pre-
sence of, anil note* proximity of place.
liguous
81
tiguously, dwelling contiguously : hence it is also per-
fectly rational to look upon by as meaning properly reci-
procally contiguous, and to say that the quoted passage is
equal to " So thou may'st say, the king lies, A BEGGAR
{being) contiguous {or, his neighbour), if a beggar
dwell near him {so as to have him near or contiguous);
or the church stands, thy tabour (being) contigu-
ous, if thy tabour stand, thk church (being) con-
tiguous: finally, the king and the beggar are reci-
procally contiguous, as the tabour and the church are
reciprocally contiguous.
44 " Here he comes himself; if he be worth any
1 8 man's good voice, that man sit down by him."
Ben Johnson.
i. e. Here he comes himself; if he be worth ariy man's good
voice, that man sit down (as) his neighbour, or so as thai man
and he (may) be recilMvOCALLY contiguous.
45 " A spacious plain, whereon were tents of va-
18 rioushue: bv some were herds of cattle grazing."
Milton.
i. e. A spacious plain, whereon were tents of various hue :
some (of these tent?, and) herds of cattle were reciprocally
CONTIGUOUS. i
46 "Stay by me; thou art resolute and faithful ;
18 I have employment worthy of thy arm." Dryden.
i. e. Stay (and be) companion to me; thou art, &c.
47 " He kept then some of the spirit by him, to
20* verify what he believes." Boyle.
* Dr. Johnson says that " By is then equal to at Aetna""— Now, at
hand is nearly synonymous with within one's reach, in a state of
proximity, near, not distant, and, therefore, with contiguous.
g i.e. He
82
i. e. He then, to verify what he believes, kept some of the
spirit, him contiguous (not distant, him considered as one of
the reciprocal points, to reckon the distance between him and
the spirit.
N. B. Me, thee, him, her, them, us, now used only in
those cases called Accusative and Oblique, were anciently
used even in those cases called Nominative and Interjective
(the latter often answering the Latin Ablative absolute
case) ; consequently the resolution I have just presented is
strictly what it would have heen anciently ; though the
present custom forces us to say interjectively, he con-
tiguous or he being contiguous.
48 " The merchant is not forced to keep so much
Ho money by him, as in other places, where they
have not such a supply." Locke,
i. e. The merchant is not, as in other places, where they have
not such a supply, forced to keep so much money, him con-
tiguous (him not distant, him considered as one of the reciprocal
points to reckon the distance between him and the money).
49 " And in it lies, the god of sleep ; and, snorting
1* by, we may descry the monsters of the deep."
Dryden.
In this passage, there is, after by, a subaudition of him, since
by is there equal to what by him would be — Hence, and in it lies,
the god of sleep; and we may descry the monsters of the deep
snorting, him contiguous (and see him contiguous in regard to
the monsters of the deep).
50 w The same words in my Lady Philoclea's mouth,
3f as from one woman to another, so as there was no
* Dr. Johnson, considering this sort of By as an adverb,
placed the passage as an example to his first division in regard
to By used adverbially.
+ Dr. Johnson says, in his third division in regard to By used
adverbially, that this By is then for in presence.
other
83
•other body by, might have had a better grace."
Sidney.
In this passage, there is, after by-, a subaudition of us, since
iy is there equal to what by us would be — Hence, the same words
in my Lady Philoclea's mouth, as from one woman to another,
so as there was no otlier bod)-, ts contiguous* or contiguous
in regard to vs, might have had a better grace.
£1 " I'll not be by, the while; my liege, fare-
3* well : what will become whereof, there's none can
tell." Shakespeare.
In this passage, theie is, after By, a subaudition of you or the
persons present. Hence, I'll not be, the while, contiguous (t<>
you or the persons present) ; -otherwise, I'll not be, the while, in that
position that you or the persons present, and I, may be said to be
reciprocally continuous ; my liege, farewell: what will become
whereof, there's none can tell.
52 " There will I sing, if gentle youth be by, that
3* tunes my lute, and winds the strings so high."
Waller.
In this passage there is, after By, a subaudition of mc, or of
the spot. Hence, there will I sing, if gentle youth be contigu-
ous me (or contiguous to the spot) ; that is, if we be (namely, the
gentle youth and J or the spot J reciprocally contiguous.
53 (( Pris'ners and witnesses were waiting BY ;
3* these had been taught to swear, and those to die."
Roseom.
i. e. Prisoners and witnesses, reciprocally contiguous
fin regard to themselves or to the judges not mentioned), were
waiting ; these had been taught to swear, and those to die.
54 " You have put a principle into him, which will
3* influence his actions, when you are not by."
Locke.
* Dr. Johnson says, in his 3d division in regard to By USed
adverbially, that by, in the examples quoted, is then for in pre-
sence.
84
In this passage there is, after By, a subaudition of him. Hence,
You have put a principle into him, -which will influence his
actions, when ye are not (he and yon) rxciprocally con-
tiguous.
VII. By, for way or manner, attaching to the
same the notion of turning to and naming
(mentioning, pronouncing, uttering).
55 <c His godhead I invoke, by him I swear."
2,1* Dryden.
i. e. His godhead I invoke, naming him I swear — See. also
examples 19, 20, 21.
Etymological Observation. Look for De-
cline R, v. a. in the Dictionary of the French Academy,
you will read "Decliner, en terme de Grammaire,
e'est faire passer un mot par tons ses cas dans les langues
qui ont des cas, telles que la Grecque et la Latine." And
then, On dit fgurcment et proverbialement d'un hovime
tres-ignorant qu' " II ne sait pas deoliner son norn."
And again, Decliner son nom signifie encore familibre-
ment dire son nom dans un lieu ou Von n' 'est pas connu ;
comme dans s( 11 fut oblige de decliner son nom."
Now, decliner son nom is for to mention one's
name, to make one's name known. Observe that,
in Old Saxon, the verb began, among other significations,
has that of the Latin declinare, whence the French
decliner; observe besides that, in Old Saxon, gebige
means a grammatical case or inflection, which gebige is
a wordformedfrom ge (about, around ; circum, in LatinJ,
and from bigc (a bent, an inflection', flexus, in LatinJ.
ins.
Dr. Johnson says that By is then the solemn form of sxeear-
I " Upbraiding
85
56 {i Upbraiding heav'n, from whence his lineage
33* came, and cruel calls the gods, and cruel thee, by
name." Dryden.
i. e. Upbraiding heav'n, from whence his lineage came, and
cruel calls the gods, and cruel thee, mentioning (uttering; thjj
name. See also examples 19, 20, 21.
VIII. By, for way used figuratively instead of
manner, method, attaching to the same an
idea of rotation or succession, each rotation,
each succession, each gradation, each turn, each
time, or the like.
57 " What we take daily by pounds is at least of
7f as much importance as what we take seldom and
only by grains and spoonfuls." Arbuth-
fiot.
i. e. What we take daily, the way or manner or each ro-
tation (being) one pound (perhaps two or more pounds), is at
least of as much importance as what we take seldom, and thb
hay or each rotation (being) only one grain or one spoo^
FL'L (perhaps two grains or more, perhaps two spoonfuls ot
more).
N. B. In speaking so as to express rotations, the noun
may be either in the singular or in the plural : instead of
by the with the noun in the singular, one may use by
each, or simply a or an, every, each, per. However,
when several individuals are to come forth at each rota-
tion, the noun ought to he in the plural.
* Dr. Johnson says that By signifies then specification and
particularity.
f Dr. Johnson says that By denotes then the quantity had at
one time.
G 3 " The
86
58 " The North, by myriads, pours her mighty
7 sons, great nurse of Goths, of Alans, and of Huns/*
Pope,
i. c. The North, great nurse of Goths, of Alans and of Huns',
pours her mighty sons, the way or manner or each rota-
tion (exhibiting) a Myriad, or several Myriads.
59 " We are not to stay all together, but to come by
6* him where he stands, by ones, by twos, and
by threes." Shakespeare,
i. e. We are not to stay all together, but to come (so as to have)
him contiguous (according to division VI.) where he stands ;
the 1st. way or manner or rotation (being) one (at a time);
the next way or manner, or rotation or succession (being)
two (at a time), and another way or manner, or rotation
or succession (being) three (at a time).
60 " The Captains were obliged to break that piece
6 of ordnance, and so by pieces to carry it away,
that the enemy should not get so great a spoil."
Knolles.
i. e The captains were obliged to break that piece of ordnance,
and so to carry it away, the way or manner (was) a piece
or piuces (being taken at) each rotation or succession,
that the enemy should not get so great a spoil. And, indeed,
by pieces, in that passage, may be changed into Piece after
PIECE or PIECES AFTER PIECES.
6 1 l( Let the blows be by pauses laid on."
6 Locke.
This is equal to, Let each blow be BY a pause laid on, the
way or manner? — (let it be) a pause following (every
blow) j so that, in rotation, a blow was to be given, then a pause
was to take place.
* Dr. Johnson says "By has then a signification, noting the
method in ■which any successive action is per firmed, with regard to
time or cuanlii>i.
Note
87
Note I. Rotation expressed by repeating the
number with By before each number.
6% " He calleth forth by one, and by one, by
6 the name, as he pleaseth, though seldom the
order be inverted." Bacon,
i. e. He calleth forth, first way or manner, or rotation —
one; and next way or manner, or rotation — one; utter-
ing the name (see Division VII.), as he pleaseth, though
seldom the name be inverted.
Note II. Rotation expressed by repeating the
noun or number, in the singular, with By only
before the noun or number introduced by re-
petition.
63 " Common prudence would direct me to take
6 them all out, and examine them one by one."
Boyle,
i. e. Common prudence would direct me to take them all out,
and examine them, the way or manner (being this), one suc-
ceeding (the first) one.
1ST. JB. In such a construction, the terms introduced
with B v are to he inverted for the resolution ; the first
number is to take the place of the second. It is the same
when a noun is repeated without an expression of number,
as in: " The best for you is to re-examine the cause, and
to try it even point by point, argument by ar-
gument, with all the exactness you can," i. e. try it
even, the way or manner ? — (let it be) one point
SUCCEEDING (the first) POINT, ONE ARGUMENT
SUCCEEDING (the first) ARGUMENT, &C,
g 4 " Others
88
64 " Others will soon take pattern and encourage-
6 ment by your building ; and so house by
house, street by stiieet, there will at last
be finished a magnificent city." Spratt.
Here are two sorts of By, one equal to Operator (for, others
will soon take pattern and encouragement By your building,
conveys the same with your building (becoming) the cri-
terion will soon make other people take pattern and encou-
,ragement, see Interlocution LXI1I) ; the other sort of by is equal
to way or manner attaching to it an idea of rotation or
succeeding (the first) — Hence, Others will soon take pattern and
encouragement.OPERATOR (of this future event ?) — your build-
ing (become) the criterion ; and so, the way or manner,
(being this) a house succeeding (the first) house ; then the
way or manner (being this) a street succeeding (the first)
street, there will at last be finished a magnificent city.
65 "Explored her, limb by limb, and fear'd to
6 find so rude a gripe had left a livid mark behind."
Dryden.
i. e. Explored her, the way or manner (being this), a limb
succeeding (the first) limb, and feared to find so rude a gripe
had left a livid mark behind.
66 "Thus, year by year, they pass, and day
6 BY day, till once 'twas on the morn of chearful
May, the young JEmilia," 8cc. Dryden.
Thus, the way or manner (being this), a year succeeding
(the first) year, they pass; and, the way or manner (being this),
a day succeeding (the first) day, till once 'twas on the morn
of chearful May, the young /Emilia, &c.
67 " I'll gaze for ever on thy godlike father, trans-
6 planting, one by one, into my life, his bright
perfections, till I shine like him." Addison,
i, e. ill gaze for ever on thy god-like father, transplanting, into
my life, his bright perfections, the way or manner? — (this) —
one succeeding (the first) one, till 1 shine like him.
IX. By,
89
IX. By, for way or rather other way, next
way, attaching to it the idea of turn'ng to
AND NOTICING, ATTENDING TO, OESERVING ;
when two dimensions are to be expressed, such
as length and breadth, as height and depth.
Dr. Johnson overlooked this division.
68 " There is in that house a gallery 5o feet long by
20 wide."
Instead of by, before mentioning how much of the 2d dimen-
sion, it is usual to say and; the French use sur where the
English use, or may use, by ; hence, it appears that this sort of
by is equal either to way, part or kind, or else to other way, other
part, &c. which seems to be likewise equal to add or also : how-
ever, this sort of by is still for way ; or it conies from the Old
Saxon verb bygan in the sense of to attend to, to observe, to turn to
and notice.— Therefore, " There is in that house a gallery, which
has in length 50 feet; attending to (turning to and noti-
cing) the other dimension, the gallery has 90 feet in width. —
Remark that the Anglo-Saxon byre or bige meant the same with
the Latin veibal noun Jlcxus ; and that by may be considered as
equal to Jtexu, Jtcxu novo, to the English on the other part or hand,
or to the French d' autre part, d'un autre cole.
■ \ -
Etymological Observation on and used as a
Conjunction.
Mr. Tooke says that and is a contraction of the past
•participle of the Old Saxon verb anan, in Latin dare,
concedere, &c. which verb certainly existed — But ende,
eonde, are found in Old Saxon for what the Latins ex-
pressed by species, pars, angulus ; as endemes is for the
Latin pariter : again, ende and end are found for the
Engli/h end and the Latin finis ; instead of which ende
and
90
and end, we find in the Gothic andei, andi ; and in the
Old Saxon ande, and. Now, " I knew and the father,
AND the mother, AND the children" is equal to if I knew
the father (one) part or kind, the mother (one, or ano-
ther) part or KIND, the children (one, or another) part
or KIND. See however the Interlocution on and and
ond.
X. By, for way or road pursued, attaching to
it the idea of occupying (possessing) the
same j or, for ranging. -
69 " We see the great effects of battles by sea j
8* the battle of Actium decided the empire of the
world." Bacon.
There is in that passage, before by sea, a subaudition of thct
powers fight, or the like ; and the passage may thus be resolved,
or explained, so as to make by disappear: "We see the great
effects of battles that powers fight ranging, or occupying,
the sea j the battle of Actium decided the empire of the
■world."
Etymological Observations on by for occu-
pying or ranging, &c.
This sort o/"By may be said to be still for WAY" or ROAD
used figuratively, or it may be said to come from the Old
* Dr. Johnson says that By is then for at or in, and notes
place The Doctor adds, ** It is now perhaps only used before
the words sea or water, and land. This is a remnant of a mean-
ing now little known" (he has not attempted to make it now
better known 5 I shall, in the etymological observation on by for
occupying, &c.) — The Doctor adds also, By once expressed
situation, as " by -west " westward: this sort of by will like-
wise be accounted for in the same etymological observation.
Saxon
91
Saxon verbs bya, byan (to inhabit, to possess, to occupy) , as
it clearly means occupy i ng or possessing(Z« Islandic
bua means habitare, atidby means habito ;from the Gothic
bauan) : this sort of by seems to have expressed situation,
because an habitation is a situation occupied, a spot
occupied ; and bye, in Old Saxon, means habitation ;
and so does the Islandic bygd, the beith of the Irish, and
beit in Arabic. — Hence, by-west may be for way or
side, or situation (the) west, instead of situated
on the west, or of occupying the west. But in by
west, the word by may also be said to come from the Old
Saxon verb bygan, and to be for TURN to or turning
to, or ranging ; and as west- ward is equal to look
to the west, so BY-west may be considered as equal to
turn to the west, or turning to the west. — What
I have said on By-west may be applied to by-north, by-
east, by-south — / must remark after all, that as French
mariners say " Nord quart D'Est" for what the
English mariners express thus, " North by East ;" and
as quart de is for quartier de : so I feel less
inclined to derive this by from bygan, than from bye,
a noun equal to spot or situation occupied, or from the
very Gothic word I shall mention hereafter.
70 " Arms, and the man, I sing, who, forced by
8 fate, expelled, and exiled, left the Trojan shore;
long labours both by sea and land he bore."
Dry den.
In this passage, there are two sorts of By : the 1st is equal to
Operator, since fate forced the man; the 2d is equal to
ranging, or occupying, or possessing. Hence, " Arms,
and the man, I sing, who (being) forced, Operator (of this
his state) fate, (who being) expelled, and (who being) exiled,
left the Trojan shore ; long labours he bore both ranging, or
occupying, the sea, and ranging or occupying (the) land ;
equal
92
equal to while he was on (he sea and uhit.k be was on the
LAND.
71 " I would have fought by LA'np, wherfc T was
8 stronger; you hindered me; yet, when I fought
at sea, forsook me fighting." Dryaetl.
i.e. I would have fought, ranging, or occupying (or pos-
sessing) the land (white I could range, or occupied, or pos-e>?cd r
the land), where I was stronger : you hindered ine; Jet, when I
fought, the sea ranged, or occupied, or possessed (i>y UlCj
while I ranged, occupied, or possessed, the sea), you forsook me
fighting.
Etymological Observation on the Gothic and
English at.
In many circumstances, when at is not introduced to
represent the forerunner operator, it is a contraction
of a past participle of the Old Saxon verbs agan, habban,
haebban, hafan, or rather of the Gothic aigan, haban, (to
have, to possess, to follow, to obtainj ; ahte is found for
had ; the preterimperfect and preterperfect of the Gothic
end Anglo-Saxon aigan was, for the 3d person singular,
aihta (hahehat, habuit, in English he had) — Besides,
jeht, sehte, zehta, &c. meant in Old Saxon what possessio
means in Latin — Again, airo; (astos) in Greek is for
house, place to be in, &c. whence probably the Saxon
preposition set for the Latin apud, ad, &c. but probably
also the Greek atrog, was formed from the Old Saxon
;eht by the addition of the article os. The pretended pre-
position at, we shall have occasion to inquire further into,
See f hereafter, Interlocution LXVI.
72 "By land, by water, they renew the
8 charge." Pope.
i. e. They, ranging (or occupying) the land, ranging
(or occupying) the water, renew the charge.
XL
93
XI. By the by, upon the by, by the way,
serve as interjective phrases.
73 " In this instance, there is, upon the by, to
* be noted, the percolation of the Verjuice through
the wood." Bacon.
Since by in such inteijective phrases is allowed to be a noun
equal, or nearly equal, to way, it is no longer a non-descript, and
consequently there would have been no occasion for me to meddle
with it, had it not been for the first by in by the by, and for
the initial by in by THE way : however,
Etymological Observation upon the interjective
-phrases BY the BY, upon the by, and by the
WAY.
The second By is most assuredly for way, in by the
by ; and so is the by, in upon the by — The first by conies
from the A7iglo-Saxon verb byean, giving this verb the
signification of perambulare, which began has. By the
by is, therefore, equal to what in Latin is expressed by
procedens viam, as in, " Cum tridui viam processissent"—
Cces. — Nor, is it to be wondered at that by the way, and
by the by, should be expressed in French by en passant,
chemin faisant — As to upon the by, it is equal to upon
the way, being upon the way, in French en chemin, sur
]e chemin. — Thefolloiving passages quoted by Dr. Jo'hn-
son will now be easily accounted for.
74 " This wolf was forced to make bold, ever and
anon, with a sheep in private, by the by."
Lestrange.
* By, says Dr. Johnson, in regard to the passage I take from
his dictionary, is a noun substantive which means something not
the direct and immediate object of regard — Look into his dictionary
for By, n. s.
u Hence
94
75 tc Hence we may understand, to add that upon
the Br, that it is not necessary. Boyle.
76 " So when my lov'd revenge is full and high,
I'll give you back your kingdom by the by."
Dryden.
XII. By and by, for near, or contiguous, not
distant, as to time.
77 " He overtook Amphialus, who had staid here,
^ and, by and by, called him to fight with him."
Sidney,
i. e. He overtook Amphialus, who had staid here, and the in-
stant (he overtook him was) near or not distant (when he)
called him (Amphialus) to fight with him ; equal to, and soon after
(in a short time) called him to fight with him.
Etymological observation on by and BY,when
that expression is applied to time.
I see in it two terms which both mean equally near,
contiguous, &c. and these being united together by and
(see the etymological observation under No. 68 of the
quoted passages) , the whole has the force of not distant
equal to soon after, perfectly corresponding to Dr. John-
son's in a short time f (see the etymological observation on
by for beside, near to, &c. under No. 43 of the quoted
* Dr. Johnson, in his dictionary, at by and by, tells us the
expression means in a short time.
t That By and by was formerly used to convey the notion
of reciprocal contiguity, as to place, we have this example in
proof — " They founde two younge knyghtes, lyeing by and by.
both in armes same, wrought full rychely." — Knyghtes tale, fol. I,
p. S, col. 8.
passages)
95
passages) — The following other passages adduced also ly
Dr. Johnson, to prove his definition, will not, I dare say,
require a?iy further explanation from me.
78 " The noble knight alighted bt and by, from
lofty steed, and bad the Lady stay, to see what end
of fight should befall him that day." Spencer.
79 " In the temple, by and by, with us, these
couples shall eternally be knit." Shakespeare.
80 " O how this spring of love resembleth the un-
certain glory of an April dav, which now shows all
the beauty of the sun, and by and by, a cloud
takes all away." — Shakespeare.
81 " Now a sensible man, by and by a fool, and
presently a beast." Shakespeare's Othello.
XIII. By, in composition or as a prefix ; as in,
1st, by-road, by-end, &c. 2dly, bystander f 3dly,
by-gone, &c.
82*. 1st. In By-road, by-path, by-way, by-walk,
by -street, by-end, by -concernment, by-law, by -coffee-
house, by- depend ance, by-design, by-interest, by-matter,
by-respect, by-room, by-name, the initial word in compo-
sition is a contraction of the past participle of the Old
Saxon verb bygan, which past participle is taken in the
sense of the French past participle detourne equal to these
English expressions placed or used out of the common
* Dr. Johnson says that By, in composition, implies, 1st, some-
thing out of the direct vmy t and consequently some obscurity ;
2<lly, something irregular; Sdly, something collateral; 4thly,
something private : adding, This composition is used at pleasure,
1 •vili be understood by the examples .which he causes to follow;.
• ■ tract,
96
tract, placed in a nook or corner, unfrequented, and there-
fore private, particular, or the like : besides, the Anglo-
Saxon byge, among other significations, has those of nook,
corner.
adly. In such a composition as is seen in by-slander,
wherein the 2d word denotes the doer of what a verb
means, by is used with a subaudition of the place, the
spot, or the like ; and, indeed, a by-stander is one who
stands by the place, one who stands near the place— 'See.
the etymological observation, page 80.
3dly. In such a composition as by-gone, by-past,
where in the 2d word is the past participle of a verb
(which composition Dr. Johnson says is Scotch), by
is used with a subaudition of this place, this spot, or the
like, and the whole is equal to gone or past, with the
addition of having walked, or rode along, this place, he.
— If those expressions were used in speaking of time,
they would be equal to gone or past, with the addition
of having lasted this time. See the etymological obser-
vation, page 78.
XIV. By, with a subaudition, used after a verb, as
in, 1st, to put by, to set by; 2dly, to run by,
&c.
83. 1st. In " to put a thing by," or " to lay a
thing by," or " to set a thing by," or the like, by denotes
a state of separation from other objects, the object spoken
of is made distinct from others ; and a particular place
being allotted to this object, it is considered as if in a
nook, corner, or the like : hence by may be said to be a
contraction of the past participle of bygan, used as equal
to separate, distinct. This particular by, therefore, bears
a strong
97
a strong affinity to the By, in composition, we have no-
ticed in the ist case of No. 8*, page 95.
2dly. In " to run by, to go by, to pass by, to sail by,"
or the like, there is, after By, a subaudition in regard to
this pi ac*, that place, or the like, and by is equal to what
is expressed by steering along this or that place, or the
like : hence, by may be said to be a contraction of the
present participle of bygan, in the sense of to steer along,
to weather, to pass along, &c. See the etymological
observation, page 78.
XV, Be, in composition, as in, 1st, behind, before,
&c. 2dly, to befool, &c. 3dly, to begird, &c.
4thly, because*
84. 1st. Be, prefixed to hind, fore, neath, low, fide,
tween, twixt, or any such adjective, is not, as Mr. Home
Tooke imagined, the simple imperative be for be it, let
it be : but it is either a corruption of by in the sense of
way, or a corruption of the present participle of the Old
Saxon verb by a or by an, which means to occupy, to pos-
sess, to inhabit. — Consequently, before is for way
which is anterior, or for occ up vtng the fore part;
and so with the other compositions of the same na-
ture.
idly. Be, prefixed to certain adjectives or nouns used
as verbs, is often a particle from the Old Saxon verb
began (operari, to work, to make), which gives those
adjectives or nouns the force of verbs, and enables them
to erpress each a state operated upon the individual
spoken of, as in '* You cannot befool him," i. e. You
cannot make him a foolj and in, " The frost has
benumbed my fingers," or "My fingers are br-
H NUMBKD
98
-Numbed by the frost," i. e. The frost has made my
lingers numb.
3clly. Be, prefixed to certain verbs, as to gird, or to
certain nouns used each as a verb (for instance, siege), is
often equal to the Latin circum (about, around), and
then that particle he is either a contraction of some part
of the Old Saxon verb began (to bend, to make go round,
to surround, ccc.) or a contraction of beb or beg, for
beah or beag (any circular form, circle, ring, &c. just as
the Celtic an or en, whence the Greek »vo; or evos, any
round form *, a year, &c, which served to form the
Greek verb awu, perficio, efficio, conficio, perago, im-
pleo, &c.) — Hence, to begird one, is, to gird one
around; as to beset a place, is, to set or attack
a place around or about: hence, to besiege a
town, is to FORM the siege of a town by placing
troops around or ABOUT.
4thly. Be, prefixed to cause, may indeed be the im-
perative be used elliptically : but it may also be a con-
traction of the present participle of began (to work out,
to make, used in the sense of to actuate) or of becnian
(to indicate, to show), since been is equal to indication ;
and, indeed, " I cannot write to him to day, because
I am not prepared" seems to be better resolved thus,
" T cannot write to him to day, cause actuating,
I am not prepared;" or thus, " I cannot write to him
to day, indicating the cause, I am not prepared:"
than thus, fC I cannot write to him to-day, be (the)
cause, I am not prepared." Again, since we say by
reason of, by reason that ; the expression because may be
/■
* The French word bague comes from the Old Sa\on beag :
dnd anneau, written anciently annc'l, comes from the Latin annel-
(ut, the offspring of annus, itself from the Greek «*»<>?.
considered
99
' wnsidered as by cause ; hence because of for by cause of
and because that for by cause that, or by this cause that,
60. B. Many of your readers will be anxious to know
how it came to pass that Bv should be used to denote
proximity or contiguity of place or time; therefore, give
me leave to put the question to you.
LXt. S. Pick up a stick, which is not bent, but
straight; you will perceive that the two extreme parts
are more distant from one another, than they will prove
to be at every exertion you make to bring them to repre-
sent a bow— *Now, while the forming of a bow neces-
sarily brings the two extremes nearer to one another,
the other parts which diverge from the extremes, I mean,
those which, in regard to the central point, are in such
distances from one another, that some are on this side,
and others on that side, you, on examining attentively
the process, will discover that the parts both on the left,
and on the right, of the central point, will come nearer
to one another. Hence the Old Saxon verbs began,
biguity bygan, (whether or not from the German beugen, or
biegen ; whether or not from the Dutch buygeri), mean-
ing to curb, to bend, may be considered as the parents of
by and be, when these are used to denote any proximity,
or contiguity, whatever. A proximity or contiguity may
be established by different methods : a number of things
placed one behind another, or one before another, and the
rest distributed in the same order, may form a straight
line in which, though some are actually distant from
the center, yet all may be considered as in a state of
proximity or contiguity ; and here I must observe that
began being also found used, in Old Saxon, in the sense
of perambulate, the reason is obvious why by is found,
in English, used for along ; and even for during tb*
length of in speaking of time : when a number of things
n Z are
100
are so distributed that some appear placed on the right,
and some on the left, of the central point, they may also
form a straight line : lastly, the disposition of the things
may be such as to form a curve line, though these things
should be placed one before, another behind, or one on
the right, another on the left ; and yet, all those things
are in a state of proximity or contiguity.
6l. B. Yes, certainly — But you have described your
little By as used with significations equal to around,
about, revolved, gone through, &c. and it even appears
that I may be considered as meaning something like
within the premises, within the boundaries, which notions,
to be sure, are not very contrary to what is conveyed by
the expressions near, at hand, at no great distance, but
give an idea of a circle or of a circumscribed place. How
did it happen that by should denote a sort of circle or a
sort of circumscribed space P
LXII. S. A curve line may be so continued, that, on the
two extremes meeting, a sort of circle will be the result. —
If, after having brought a stick to the form of a bow, you
continue your exertions so as, at last, to unite both ex-
tremes, you will obtain the form of a circle, of a ring, of
a garland', and then, every divergent part will have been
brought nearer to its opposite — Now, such a circle,
binding the objects within it, will give an idea that those
objects are at hand, or cannot be absolutely distant, since
they are within the limits prescribed. Thus it is that
by can be used to indicate, not only near, at no great
distance, but also around, about, 8cc.
But I recollect that I have to account for By so used
as to denote way, course, range, road, or the like. — I sus-
pect that By^ employed as a word equal to way, is in the
very predicament wherein the ancient French noun parage
has been a*long time— This word parage originally was
used
101
used to express range, course, place of resort, way, road,
passage, and was applied figurately so as to become equal
to lineage, extraction, family, birth, issue. In time, it
became confined to denote road or tract for ships (as a
station, place to ride in or come to). Yet, I take the
French noun parage to come from the Spanish parage or
paraje, which is still used to express place of resort, range >
course, way, road, part, place. In German, Bay ex-
presses the same with the French Bate and the English
Bay, when said of a road or tract for Jhipping, or of a
certain portion of land in which the sea has cut its way,
and formed a sort of nooi, or cove : in Dutch, Baai
means hay — In German, hahn means way, road', and so
does the Dutch baan : the German verb hahnen means
to cut a way j and, in Dutch, the verb haanen means to
prepare a way, to make level. From whatever verb these
words Bay, Baai, Bate, did come, is immaterial, since
their signification is settled ; nor can it be denied but
that they may easily have become By. Again, the Old
Saxon noun byge (translated angulus, sinus, ancon), as
well as the noun hyht (translated anguhis, vel sinus, in
quo concurrunt limites regionum), come from the Old
Saxon hygan, which verb served to form, or was formed
from, the German beugen or biegen, the Dutch cor-
respondent of which is buy gen : in German, from beugen,
arose the nouns hug and beuge (a bent or bend, a bend-
ing), bogen (a bow), bucht and bugt (bay,creek), and busen
(bay, gulf) : in Dutch, from buygen, arose not only buys
(a noun equal to channel, conduit, pipe, or the like), but
boog (a bow, just as the German bogen from beugen),
and hogt (a bent or bend, a turning, a winding). The
latter hogt gives reason to infer that the German bugt
or hucht must have also meant a bent or bend, a turning,
a winding, and secondarily a way or path, a passage, a
H 3 road,
102
road, &c. j to infer also that the Anglo-Saxon bybi
(formed from the verb bygari) must have meant originally
nearly the same with the Dutch bogt, and the German
bught or bucbt (that is, not only a bent or bend, a turn-
ing, a winding, but a way ox path, ^.passage, a road,&cc.) — ■
But, the word weg, having been subsequently formed
(to express way, road, passage, in short, the Latin via,
as to Old Saxon, German and Dutch), the other words
have been confined to express road for shipping, incroach-
ment (of the sea) forming a sort of way in the form of a
nook, cove, creek, &c. *
62. B. When By appears in the particular circum-
stances wherein you attribute to it a double power, as in
examples 2, 3, 4, 5? 6, 7, 8, &c. and more especially in
example 39, what derivation can account for the same ?
LXI1 L S. The limits prescribed to a man are to be the
directors of his actions : those limits are to serve as pat-
terns to his conduct : but, I have other authorities — The
Anglo-Saxon dialects had the nouns bysn, by sen, byssene,
bisene, bisn, bisnung, bysenung, to express what is signi-
fied in Latin by exemplum, exemplar, norma, similitudo,
pr&ceptum, mandatum, ordo : those An,q;lo-Saxon nouns
would therefore justify my saying that by serves to ex-
press conformable, and to be a representative with a notion
of Operator : however, I have to observe that the Anglo-
Saxons had also the verbs beacnian, becnian, bicnian,
bycniaji, equal to the Latin annuere, tnnuere, indicare,
ostendere, demonstrare, portendere ; that they had becnan
and bycnan, equal to for mare, simulare, fingere, signifi-
care, innuere ; that they had the nouns beacen, beacn,
becen, been, becun t biecn, to express what is signified in
* See also the 1st, 2d, and third Articles of Interlocution LXVI.
as well as the 10th article of Interlocution LXX1X.
Latin
103
Latin by signum, prodiginm, idolum : that they had the
nouns beaming, beacnung, bicnung, byenung, to express
what is signified in Latin by signum, signatio, nutus, tropo-
logia,Jigur:; : that they had beacniend-lic,becniend-lic,byc-
niend-lic, to express what in Latin is signified by alhgo-
ricus : that they had bycn'\end-lic gemet, to express what in
Latin is signified by Indicativus modus. — Who, on read-
ing this, and knowing that c is often changed into s, as
s into c, and bringing together bisnung, or bysnung, with
bicnung or byenung, will not confess that it signifies little
from what primitive word, in the most ancient languages,
all those expressions have been formed, since it is evi-
dent that by, when used for conformable or according to,
and when used as a. representative with a notion of
operator, may, with propriety, be declared to be of the
same family.
63. jB. I shall not trouble you any further, on my
account, being fully satisfied with the dignities and func-
tions with which you have proved your little By ha$
ever been invested — You have now wound up mv curio-
sity, as to what you may say concerning my relatives,
at least such of my relatives as may be used each like a
forerunner, to announce the Operator, Operators, Co-
operator, or Co-oper.tlors : but, being afraid of fatiguino-
you, I will not press you to gratify, at present, that
curiosity ; and I shall wait patiently till we meet again,
if, not being quite exhausted, you favour me with a few
hints, to the end that I may prepare myself to enter, the
more readily, on a second interview, my assent, or my
objections, to your manner of tracing those relatives to
some word of such force as may make them appear each
equal to a proper fore-runner, announcing that the Ope-
rator or Co-operator is coming forth.
LXIV. S. The gratitude I feel,for the services you have.
h 4 done
104
done me, would, at any time, recruit my strength j but
I am not fatigued, and you will find me ready to answer
any question you may wish to put to me. I must observe,
however, that, since you intend to give the subject a
serious consideration, my answers will run upon such
a broad scale as, bringing at once several points to your
view, will enable you the better to recollect those which,
may have escaped me. — What I am now saying to you
is applicable to my readers, in regard to whom my object
is to furnish ready materials, being sensible that the
surest recommendation I can have to their favour is by
the shortness of the trouble I give them. — I wish you,
and them, to consider that the extent and difficulty of
my undertaking are of that nature which cannot but
furnish numerous grounds for difference of opinion. —
These are, perhaps, inseparable from etymological re-
searches : but if it appear that, in general, I have had
cause for differing from preceding philological writers,
I hope that I shall meet with the more indulgence,
where, in common with them, I may be found to err,
as, by the notion of Operator or Co-operator, I am open-
ing a new tract, whence the others will be reached with
less obstruction ; and as I aim at rousing in people not
only a taste for investigations of the kind, but a desire
of contributing their share in rendering themselves use-
ful, by suggesting something better than what I am
going to offer. Were every one, who is impressed with
the importance of the subject, to come forward with the
result of his observations, in comparing different dialects
together (the only method which, in my opinion, can
be attended with any advantage), all those difficulties
would soon be removed which Occasion the loss of so
much time in the study of languages, both ancient and
modern. You called upon me to prove that I was ac-
quainted
105
quainted with your real origin, and to enumerate trrt
several functions which you are allotted to perform —
I have done both. As for your relatives, it is not now
I can present a specimen of the gradual ways in which
they are employed, like that which I have exhibited with
respect to yourself; and yet, it is only such a specimen
that can enable my readers to decide how far I am right
or wrong. I have, however, proved, incontrovertibly I
believe, that not only you, my dear little By, butTbrougb,
Of, From, For, At, With, in short any preposition what-
ever, found introduced (in the modern and ancient lan-
guages), along with the Agent, the Cause, the Motive,
the Instrument, the Manner, the Means wed, or the
Measure pursued, for causing something to be, &c. are
each merely a fore-runner, equal indeed to Operator or
Co-operator, in meaning, but simply announcing that
the real Operator or real Co-operator is coming forth ;
and, as it was natural to infer that such a fore-runner
must be a redundant expression, I have proved this also,
by showing that some languages actually reject, in many
circumstances, the fore-runner, considering it as super-
fluous, and present the real Agent or Cause or Motive #
&c. in that naked manner which makes it appear that
the preposition is left out, while in other languages it
must be used because custom has made it a law.
I may err in some of the derivations I am going to
hint in answering your questions ; but I am confident
that my grand principle of Operator and Co operator must
remain true. If it be found actually to remain true, I
have not laboured in vain, and the classification I have
formed will the better enable the learned to determine
where my primitives are adequate to the object in view ;
and, where I am wrong, to point out other primitives
whence the notion of Operator would arise more con-
spicuously.
106
spicuously. After that classification shall be properJv
settled,the attention of the learned will be directed to ascer-
tain how far I am warranted to deliver it as my opinion,
that, when the preposition cannot be changed into
Operator or Co-operator, according to the resolutions
they have seen, this preposition either must arise from
some different signification allowed to exist in the primi-
tive, whence came that word equal to Operator, or else
must have been taken from some other primitive : in my
hints, therefore, concerning the origin and value of each
preposition you may require, that I should discuss, 1
shall probably be forced to touch upon some of the other
classifications, because, like you, my dear little By,
several of your relatives serve each for different purposes,
and to some, certain functions have been allotted with
which you are not invested — J wish I could avoid doing
so, but I shall regulate my answers by the nature of your
questions : let me hear the first. ■
64. B. Whence can be derived the pretended Greek
preposition a-aro, av, d^ ; the Latin abs, ab, a ; the
Gothic abu, and af; the Old Saxon of which, by a
change in the vowel, became of', the English of', the
Greek ec or ex (ex or e|) j and the Latin ex, which be-
came, contractedly, e ?
LXV. S. 1st. We find, in Greek, the word ihmt
but Lennep says on it u Vox rarissima, et dubiae aucto-
ritatis ;" which does not prevent him from telling us, in
regard to the preposition dnzb, u Proprie est genitivus
antiquus, quasi a nomine utso; j" and E. Scheidius sug-
gests, in regard to amo, that it may be a dative or abla-
tive, as a.'axi occurs in Homer — From the latter sugges-
tion, I might infer that auoj may have been a participial
adjective (from the obsolete verb «ot), whence, by con-
traction cty, dm>, «V. Etymologists tell us that the
verb
107
verb azsa, quite obsolete, served to form a.Tt\a ; and that
the Latin apio, apisco, then apiscor, (aptus sum) came
from the same obsolete oLttu : the latter Ktstiv must then
have meant to connect, to Jit, to arrange, to manage, to
contrive, to acquire, to obtain. — Now, a-zcro? from the ob-
solete utsq), must have signified, as a participial adjective,
that connects, that jits, that arranges, that manages, 8cc. ;
for, the final syllable os, in a-arof, is the Greek article
of, which is equal to the English that or who : conse-
quently, the pretended Greek preposition dtso may serve
to announce that the Operator is coming forth : and,
indeed, Hachenberg says on olzso, " Proprie significat
principium, unde quid oritur vel initium capit. — If dtso
should be found serving also to announce possession or
the possessor, it may be because the obsolete verb o.tsuv 9
among its significations, had those of to obtain, to ac-
quire, 8cc. and even those of to have, significations which
the obsolete cL&w certainly had.
2dly. But, perhaps, some may think that the real
origin of the obsolete uzsu, cLtsqs, is to be traced to the
Gothic ahu; for nothing is more common than the
change of b into p, as that of p into b — Certain it is, that
the obsolete d@a existed in Greek, as a verb which "E^a
has replaced. The Latin habere has been formed, it is
said, from the Greek <x@siv : but these may have been
formed from the German haben ; they may have been
formed from the Gothic haban, the participle present of
which, being habands, equal to the Latin habens, may
have become, by contraction, habs, hah, ha ; abs, ab, a.
Again, I said that f%ejv has replaced the obsolete d$eiv — -
I find that l^u is a verb equal to the Latin habeo, pos-
sideo, sustineo, resisto, obsisto, cohibeo, reprimo, circumdo,
&c. and, what is particularly to be observed, e%*> is also
equal to preebeo mdteriam, causam alicujus rei affero.—
Now,
108
Now, transferring all these meanings to the obsoktc
i|g«, cwrca, I conceit how the Greek preposition avc,
the Gothic preposition abu, the Latin abs, ab, a, came
all to announce, sometimes operator, sometimes possessor,
&c— We shall see herafter that a is not always a con-
traction of ab, abs, he.
3dly. Agreeing with Hacbenberg's position '* aiso
propria significat Principium, unde quid oritur vel milium
capit," I say that a word equal to father naturally starts
to the mind two qualities which act reciprocally in re-
gard to the producer and to the product! n — The child
causes him who gave life to be distinguished by the qua-
lity of father, and the latter causes the former to receive
the quality of son or daughter. This state of reciprocity
has, in my opinion, led etymologists to apply to ab, ap,
hjc. a signification which the primitive ab had not. They
have considered ap, prefixed to a family name, as equal
to descendant of; whereas they ought to have viewed ap
as a corruption of the element ab (whence the Hebraic
word aba was formed), and as used, by transposition,
to announce that the father or ancestor's name is coming
forth— For instance, the family name Vowel, said to be
a contraction of ap-boruel, should be considered as
Howel — the father or ancestor, elliptically for Howel is
(was) the father or ancestor {of the individual I mean or
mentioned} : for instance again, the family name Boweti,
said to be a contraction of ap-owen, should be considered
as a contraction of ab owen, and as Ow en- the father or
ancestor, elliptically for Owen is (was) the father or an-
cestor [of the individual I mean or mentioned). Thus it
was that af, by a mere change of b or p into f, came to
express the same; and, by a change of the vowel a into
o, that very «/ became of, still retaining the same sig-
nification. — Now, among the ideas, which a word equal
to
109
to father naturally suggests, are those of source, origin •
hence, we must expect that of will often bring forth
whoever or whatever causes (did cause, or will cause)
any particular event, distinction, quality, &c. as well as
something from which another proceeded or is to pro-
ceed : even from a word equal to father, the idea of
possession might be conceived to arise ; but, in regard
to a/ (whence of) we have this resource, that the Old
Saxon verb hafin (whence the Islandic hafa), formed
from the Gothic baban, or the German baben, means to
possess, to have, &c. whence bafen (habens, possessio),
and contractedly baf of. — This latter investigation makes
it very probable that the Celtic prefix ap or ab, the Greek
otvso, the Latin ab, the Gothic ahi and af 9 the Old
Saxon af, of, and even ob (whether Anglo-Saxon or
Latin), as well as the EngHsh of may all have arisen
from the elements which served to form the Hebraic aba
(father). — How naturally must the notions of source,
origin, ancestry, &c. come to the mind of my readers,
when I inform them that the elements, whence the He-
braic noun aba (father), the Gothic noun aba (husband),
are found in the Hebraic noun ab, which means trunk,
stem, stock ! As the oriental ab means fruit, production,
race, offspring, issue, stock ; I easily conceive how it hap-
pened that the value of son or descendant should have
been attached to ap ; nor am I at a loss to see how af,
of, &c. came to be made a fore-runner to announce
possession, &c.
The Sclavonic and Russian patronymic was of, say?
Mr. Tooke; this is a mistake: hof, which, indeed may
have dwindled to of, means properly court, mansion, scat,
and figuratively^/a^z/v ; in French, famille, sonche, race,
ligne : and Pettr-bof, at first equal to Peter's seat or
mansion, may have been used for of Peter's family, &c.
wherebv
110
whereby it is evident that Peter was the father or an*
cestor. — In Petro-wzVz, indeed, and Peterso/z, the suffixes
ivitz and son are equal to the Latin flius, the French
fits, the Greek uioj, and the Latin suffix «*, as well as
to the prefixes ftz and mac in Fit%james, ISlacdonald,
&c. *
In regard to Mr. Tooke's derivation of the preposition
o/'from the Gothic afara, or the Anglo-Saxon afora, this
consideration militates against it, namely, afara comes
from a-faran : consequently afara is literally equal to the
Latin ex-ilus, because a-faran means ex-ire, emigrare\
and it would be very strange that, out of the primitive
faran (or rather far, removing the final an denoting
action), only the initial f should have been preserved,
which initial f is found to be used for many ideas very
different. That the Anglo-Saxon a-fora stands in the
same predicament, nobody will deny, — Besides, we find
eafora used for liber i, proles, flius, successor, in Caedm.
47, 22, and even, contractedly, eafr, also in Caedm.
10, 11; which eafora seems to be a compound of ea&
(possession, blessing, contracted into ea, or of ea cor-
rupted from the Celtic ua, child, son), and of
fora, which, as well as fore, served to denote ante-
riority. The word afole is found, in Anglo-Saxon,
* The O now prefixed to names, to signify the descendants in
any degree from a certain ancestor or stock, was formerly written
ua, as Ua-Brren, Ua-Neil ; now written O'Brien, O'Neil. — Ua sig-
nifies a Son, and is of the same root with the Greek uicus, gen.
ttious, ace. uiea, Lat. flius, so ua, in the ahlative plural, makes
ibh, whence ibh signifies a tribe, as Il/eragh, Ib'e»iai/c, &c. VaN
lancey, p. 61, Grammar of the lri>h language. Are wc to be
surprised that ua, in Iberno-Celtic, should be presented at a sign
of the ablative case, and considered as meaning something like
from ?
to
Ill
to mean what is expressed by the Latin anima, mens^
very proper wefrds as to moving to or causing to do
such or such thing : but, having reason to believe that
this word afole is itself a compound word, the dissection
of which would hardly produce any thing beyond the
idea of operator, I shall dismiss it. — Upon the whole then
the Hebraic element ab (whence aba, father), and the
oriental ab (production, offspring, &x.), afford the true
origin of the pretended preposition of or of, as well as
of the obsolete Greek verbs a$ziv and atsm, of the Gothic
preposition abu, &c. *
■ 4thly. From e%oj (echo), which the obsolete verb ex«
(eco or eko) served to form, came Via (exo), as well as
«|wv (ex6n), equal to the Latin adjectives externus, pere-
grinus, and to the Latin Jbras, Jbris, extra, prater,
absque, sine (which is not to be wondered at, since the
adjectives, being used elliptically, would convey the
same significations) : from the adjective Ifa came Ifwrepo;
(exterior), t^uraro; (extimus). — The Greek preposition I*
(pronounced ec or ek) used before a consonant, became
\\ before a vowel, and meant the same, or nearly, as the
Latin ex, contractedly e. Now, these pretended prepo-
sitions are fully accounted for, thus : 1st, when they are
used by way of announcing Operator, they come from
the verb i%u, in the sense of causam alicujus rei affero or
prtebeo materiam ; they signify as much as in Latin
operator or causam ajferens, &c. 2dly, when they are
used to express the same as the English out of or not in*
they may be equal to the Latin externus, peregrinus :
3dly, they may be equal to the Latin participial adjee-
* Count de Gobelin felt this, at least in regard to the Greek
f word nfiawe?, which he derives from the Oriental, thus : " De pri,
fruit, et ab, pere ; mot-a-niot, Le ptre de \a.f<jcondite.
tires
112
tives habens, possidetis, Sec. used by transposition, when
the noun they precede may be considered as the indi-
vidual or thing that has or that possesses the matter whence
an extraction is made j or they may be equal to the La-
tin nouns possessor, possessio.
65. B. Those who have had occasion to observe that
the Latin preposition ad (formerly at), the Old Saxon
<et, the Gothic at, and the English at, were often used
in the sense of the Latin apud, may think that they are
contractions or corruptions of apud.
LXVI. The Greek preposition avso has, in my opinion,
very little to do with the Latin apud : but, as the Latin
preposition ad is often employed instead of apud, many
people would be apt to consider ad like a contraction of
apud, which may have become apd, and lastly ad. I
cannot now but be surprised at seeing etymologists
derive apud thus : iS From the Greek a'w, changing
into u, and adding d, as med and ted are found for me
and te :*' I cannot now but be surprised, I say, because
I find not in avso the meanings attached to apud. The^
real origin and significations of apud may be stated as
follows :
1st, In Anglo-Saxon, abutan, abuton (equal to the
Latin circa, circum, to the English about), by changing
b into p, and suppressing an or on (unnecessary, because
an or on is, there, only a termination), will give aput :
whereupon it is to be observed that, in ancient inscrip-
tions, aput is seen instead of apud. Now, I look upon
abutan, abuton, to have been formed from abugian (and
indeed, bybt was formed from bygan), which abugian,
though not found now, came from bugian (incolerc,
habitare), just as abugan, found to mean inclinare, in-
curvare, came from bugan (flectere, inflectere) — From
the
113
the noun byhi, which bygan served to form, or from
such source as bugan, came the English word but in
the sense of bmndary^ he. ; the French but (aim or end
proposed), the French bout (end, extremity) ; the Eng-
lish bout (turn, revolution or rotation, what is done at
one time, or as a pastime) ; and the English about equal
to on or at the confines or boundaries^ in or within the
confines or boundaries, Sec. The French butte for bute
(whence the verbs butter and buter) ; the Latin bodo or
boto, and botontitus (found in those authors who wrote
de linut'ibus agroru.Tt) to express or denote extremity or
boundary , clearly conic from such a verb as the Gothic
beidau ; or from such a noun as the German bode for
boden, which we are going to notice. See in the mean
time Interlocution LXII. p. ioo, ior, 102.
adly. We find, in Dutch, the noun bodem for the
English bottom, andj in German, the noun bode or boden^
for ground, lowest pi ice or p. irt, bottom, and consequently
place where a rest must necessarily be had, inmost part,
exlrem-ty as to the interior, Sec. These cannot but have
come from such a verb as the Gothic beidan (exspectare)
which served to form the Anglo-Saxon abidan (transla-
ted into Latin by manere,, exspectare, Sec), whence the
English verb t» abidf. The past tense of the Anglo*
Saxon abidan was abaci or abod, and the past tense of
the English / abide is I abode, from which [abode came
the English noun abode, equal to habitation, dwelling-
place, residence, spot inhabited, lodging, blace of st y,
continuance in place) &cc. And, as the Anglo-Saxon
verb buan had bude for its 3d person singular of the past
tense (which verb buan means, like bugian, habitare,
incolere) ; so, abuan (not found now) would have had
a bude for its 3d person lingular of the past tense. It ap-
pears then evident that;, from the first of these sources,
1 by
114
by a change of b into p, would come apod, easily to fj«
converted into apud : from the second, would, by the
same process, arise apude, apud. That abad, abbd, could
have been changed into abot, abut, abud, we have this
proof: the Latin abbas^ the German and Dutch abt,
the French abbe, and the English abbot, are found to be
in Anglo-Saxon abbad, abbod, abbot, abbud, abut. Now,
on recollecting how often b and p are interchanged, one
conceives how easily abut, abud, may have become aput,
apud.
3dly. It is rational, therefore, to consider apud as
equal to habitation, dwelling-place) residence, place of
abode, spot inhabited or occupied, lodging, apartment : ,- or
the like, with or without attaching to the same the no-
tion of continuance. Now, as apud has been extended
to announce place where is such a person or thing, and
to present the idea of about, near, before, or in the pre-
sence of, among, addressing one's self to, attending to, it is
rational also to consider apud as containing, in many
particular circumstances, something of the force acknow-
ledged to be in the verb hugan (or the Latin fcctere) i
whereby apud will appear to be a particle equal not only
to habitation, dwelling-place, Sec. or to the French chez,
or to the English at used for at the house of or in the
country of and consequently among, but sometimes to the
English by which we have seen used as announcing thai
sort of contiguity expressed in French by en presence de^
auprcs de; or as intimating as much as addressing one's
self to, attending to, and even about, around, rendered
into French by aux environs de or environ, autour de.
4th.lv. Let us now see what we can do with the- Latin
ad or at, the Gothic at, and the old Saxon tst. Mr.
Tooke derives the Latin ad or til from the Latin agere,
thus :
Agitum,
115
Agitum,agtum, agdum, actum, acdurri, agd, act, ad, at.
Following the same process, when ad or at is a fore-
runner announcing possessor or possession (a circumstance
which Mr. Tooke does not notice), I might say that ad
or at cOmt'S from the Latin habere, thus :
Habitumj habtum, habdum, hatum, hadum, hat, had,
at, ad.
But there is, in Anglo-Saxon, the noun teht, and the
noun aht or able, which mean possession, and come from
the Gothic verb aigan (to have, to possess), whence the
Anglo-Saxon verbs agan, agan. I must observe, [ist,
That such a noun as aeht, aht, or ahte, is actually a past
participle obtained by contraction, and meaning had (for
thing had or thing being had, 8cc). 2dly, That if there
had not been such a noun to be found; aht, the preterit
of agan, would have done. 3dly, That, in German, the
preteritof haben i3 hatte± arid the past participle \sge-habt.
4thly, That, in Dutch, the preterit of hebhen is had, and
the past participle ge-had.
5thly. Again, at is frequently used as a fore-runner
announcing place where, for resting-place or habitation^ ,
or, at least, •vicinity of place (another circumstance not
noticed by Mr. Tooke, who, indeed^ touched only upon
the Latin ad or at) ; and then it may be said to be a
slight alteration of some word like the Greek noun atrog
(aetos) which means resting-place or place of rest, place
of shelter j place to be in, house, inn, &c. ; or from some
word whence the Latin adis (house) has been formed.
As a further confirmation that the old Saxon &t, the
Gothic at, and the English at, when they announce
place where or place near which, come from such a noun
as the Greek aiTo,-or the Latin W«, I shall add that the
derivation perfectly agrees with that of the French chez,
undoubtedly from the Celtic noun cas, whence the
t 2, Spanish,
116
Spanish or Italian casa (house). — The Italians joften
contract casa into ca. It' the Celtic noun cas had not
existed, I might have said that the French having con-
tracted the Italian cas i (or their own noun case) into cas,
changed the ca into cbe ; as, from the Italian or Spanish
caro, they made cher, so, from cas (for case or casa),
they made cbes, and then cbez.
6thly. Though Mr. Tooke's derivation would easily
suggest that '.he Latin ad or at, used as a fore-runner an^
nouncing the Operator, might stand for actor equal to
agent, I think it proper to observe that, in Greek, dnla
(rctia) means as much as causa, ratio, occasio, in Latin ;
that we find amov to mean causa t ratio ; and ra ai^ia for
origines ; that we find dirto; to mean auctor j and lastly
dirichi to mean causa <vim babens, causam indicans. —
Now, as we find that the old Saxons used at and the
Goths at (where the English use at), as prepositions, I
gay that whether the Greek words mentioned came from
the obsolete Greek verb airco or ara ; whether the old
Saxon preposition at, and the Gothic at, come from an
obsolete Gothic or old Saxon verb such as aitan or a tan
or atari, or from the Gothic baitan (nominare, &c), it is
evident that the Latin at, ad, the old Saxon at, the Go-
thic at, and the English at, come every one from the
same stock, when used as fore-runners equal each to ope-
rator, agent, actor, See. — But what proves'that at and at
would, in the old languages, be words used with pro-
priety to announce Operator) agent, actor, maker, autbor,
See. is that the Celtic words alia and ala are acknow-
ledged to have been in many dialects of the Cdtae for
fatbtr, and atta in Gothic mcamfatber.
66.
117
66. B. In the Gothic language, in the Greek, and
in old Saxon, we find that ana was used as a preposition.
LXVII. S. The word ana must have come from a
Gothic verb in anan, lost perhaps in the sense which
could, with propriety, produce a noun equal to operator :
but the Greek verb am (ano) must have existed, since
we find that a'w«, formed from it, is equal to the Latin
verbs perficio, conjicio, ejficio, perago, Sec. impleo, Sec. j
since we find that aw is equal to the Latin nouns perfec-
tio, absolutio, factum ipsum ; since wc find that d\a%
(the vocative of which was £va anciently, as if av*$ had
then been used) was an appellation common to deities,
given to any ruler, such as king, hrd-\ insomuch that,
in the holy Scriptures, those men are frequently called
Gods who were possessed of authority. — Can it be now
wondered at that ana should have served to announce
the Operator ? If I add that u was used in Greek
to express the Latin superior, tuferius, &c. who will not
see immediately (and indeed «*«£ suggested it) that ava,
the adjective dvu>(oi'dvet,i) } contracted by a\and sometimes
a, may serve to denote superiority, by going beyond
others, and that, from this, excess may result ?— As the
verb iwti is found to mean also impleo, and ava is found
used to denote that something is yet wanting, see In-
terlocution LXX.
67. B. I hive observed also that, in old Saxon, and
was used as a preposition, as well as ond\ and, on seeing
and-lang and ond-long were said for along (Latine, in
longum), one might imagine that anJ 9 ;r,d t a, must, in
this case at least, have had the same origin.
LXVIII. S. 1st. Nor would that person be irrational :
qnd may be a past participle of such a verb as I men-
1 3 lioned
118
tioned in the preceding interlocution, equal to what we
express by to manage ; hence, and, and by a change of
the vowel, ond, could serve to denote operator or agent.
2dly. But we have seen in the etymological observa-
tion, after example 68, p. 89, that in old Saxon ende was
equal to species, angulus, pars ; and, as evnde was also,
used in old Saxon (ovspecies, pars, he. it is easy to becon-
ceived that eonde may have been contracted into ond, and
that this word ond may have been used to announce what
the French express by parti operant, the English by party
concerned, and that either of them is equal to operator.
This being granted, it is easy to be conceived also that
ora^may afterwards have become and. Nor is it ridicu-
lous to consider ond-long and and-lang as being equal to
such an elliptical phrase as the port — (is) the length, for,
the part to attend to is the length ; see the etymological ob-
servation on en, as em-lang and emn-lang are there men-
tioned, and those are equal to and-lang, &c. p. 119, Sec.
3dly. It is not improper to remark here that ond, among
the Cimbrians, meant anima, spiritus, animal : it came
from a verb corresponding to the Greek &vu, which, by a
change of the vowel, became om ; or from such a verb as
the Greek da, which, by a change of the vowel, became
cu : now aw means to breathe, to bhiv, and, in French j
Celui qui souffle la discorde, means the same as He ivho t
causes or who occasions discord ; hence, He is a sort of
agent or operator.
68. B. I have observed that the old Saxons used an and
on where the English now use in : I have also observed
that the English in and on are often used where the
French employ en : whence can those four prepositions
come ?
LXIX,
119
LXIX, S, 1st. That the Anglo-Saxon an may be a
contraction of the Gothic ana is very possible ; and that
it may be a contraction of the Greek am (superior, supe-
rius) is also very possible.— r From the latter derivation,
an may be considered as equal to that causes or has in-
fluence to cause, and consequently to Operator or Agent,
But as on was, more frequently than an, used in Anglo-
Saxon, for the present English in ; as the French en so
often replaces the English in and on, and even by : I
shall enter into such details as may throw some light
upon their origin and value.
2dlv. We have seen, in page 53, that the French en
often comes from the primitive word which served to form
the German adjective eben or the Anglo-rSaxon adjectives
emn, efn, whence the verb efnan (used for the Latin per-
fetrare, pr&stare, he.) —Upon the same principle, I say,
that the primitive word which served to form the Gothic
adjective 'ibn or 'ibns (par, cequalis, planus, &c.) ought
to be considered as the origin of in, when this in serves
as a fore-runner to announce that the operator is coming
forth; and indeed, from ibn, came the Gothic verb
'ibngan (a3quare,&c.)~ By contraction, '/£?/ becamei>z used
in Gothic as a preposition, to announce that the ope-
rator is coining forth ; and 'ibns became is, used by the
Goths, as a pronoun equal to ihe Latin is, Me, or, in
English, (the) same. From the Gothic Is may have
been formed the Greek adjective foot which means alike,
equal, same ; hence, those who would not allow the La-
tin is to come from the Gothic 'is, would hardly reject
its being derived from the Greek element ig whence Itrcc.
Again, in Hebrew, is means man or male being, and issa
I 4 means
120
means woman or female being. Now, from this Hebraio
is may have come the Latin demonstrative adjective is
to denote male, and perhaps the Gothic ts ; as from the
Hebraic issa may have come the Spanish and Italian essa,
to denote female, whence afterwards in Italian esso to
denote male, in Spanish esse to denote male, and esso to
denote neuter : custom afterwards may have allotted to
those words the function of recalling to mind some indi-
vidual already mentioned. -r-Let us return to the French
en, — In Syriac enu, ena, enh, being found to stand for
the Latin hie, ille; and hen, hena > for the Latin hie, iste,
ille, it is possible that those words came from the Hebraic
htn (mark, behold) : that word hen was very proper for
drawing the attention of the hearer to the object pointed
to ; and may be the origin of the Syriac hen, hena, and
by corruption enu, ena, enh, which custom may have in-
vested with the power of recalling to the mind some in-
dividual mentioned before or already known. When
we present an object to one's view, with some expression
equal to mark, behold, we force the individual, to whom
we speak, to fix his mind upon, that object, in order to
observe its peculiarities, and compare it with those of
some other object similar or dissimilar : now the repeti-
tion of mark or behold, applied to the same object,
naturally recalls to the mind, each time, the very object
•with the peculiarities which have already been observed
tn it or about it ; and this circumstance alone may have
ponduced men to view hen, hena, enu, ena, enh, as,
equal to what we find expressed by the Gothic 'ibn or 'ibns,
the Anglo-Saxon emn, efn, 6cc. that is to say, the same,
the like, &c. words which forcibly recall to the mind the
idea,
121
idea of some individual mentioned before*. He wha
wishes to conceive all the gradual significations of such
particles of similarity, equality, Sec. may consult any
good German dictionary at the word eben both as an
adjective and as an adverb: lie will find that eben is used
for like, similar to, precise, exact, conformable to, of the
nature of , actually , precisely, &c Let such gradual sig-
nifications be applied to the Gothic 'ibn or i'bns, to the
Anglo-Saxon emn } efn, &c. to the English even or
e'en, to the French and Spanish en; their value will
be ascertained on very many occasions ; among those,
it will appear that en, constantly used in French (for
the English into) when the point is to express transmuta-
tion, alteration, change, metamorphosis, is constantly
equal to same as, like, or like unto, similar to, so as to
resemble, Sec. hence Habiller un homme en femme, i. e.
Habiller un homme comme une femme or d* manure
qu'il ressemble a une femme, in English, to dress a man
like a woman : it will appear that, when en is found in
French before a present participle (which present partici-
ple, with its complement, stands not for the operator of
* Samati, in Persian, means a boundary, a limit, a place where
any tigH or mark is placed to distinguish one territory from
another. — From the material feme of this Persian Srmttn, (a
boundary), may have come the abstract meaning of the Gothic
S<ima (ihat which defining, marking, ftgnifyiag, or expressing
a thing to be what it is, makes it eviaito or like what it is defined,
marked, signified or expressed) ; whence, the Anglo-Saxon and
English adjective *a»w (like, alike) — It was thus also, perhaps, that
from the material 'ense of term (a boundary), came the abstract
meaning ftf term, applied to a word (that whiihdefir.es, maiks,
.signifies or expresses). — This hint is merely an extension of that
yhich we fipd in p. 66. of Winter's Etymol. magnum.
am
122
an event or a state mentioned either before or after), it
means same with the subaudition of time, that is to say,
en stands then elliptically for at the same lime, or and at
the same time', ai in; "Tout est connu, tout est pardonne,
dit-il a Coraly en Vembrassant." All is known, all is
forgiven, said he to Coraly, embracing her at the same
time, or and. at the same time he embraced her. It will
even appear that the English suffix en, which gives a
noun the force of an adjective, is a contraction of e'en
for even (equal to the German eb.en), and actually means
like, similar to, precise, exact, conformable to, of the na-
ture of, &c. thus golden is for like gold, of the nature of
gold, actually gold, precisely gold.
3dly. As {.he English preposition in, the French and
Spanish en, are so used that, in a great many in-
stances, they seem to announce the place containing, the.
place capable of receiving and containing ; as the same
may be said in regard to the preposition in used in Latin,
Italian, German, Dutch, &c. this point of view suggests
the necessity for fresh investigations. — The Gothic noun,
haima, haims, is translated ager, vicus ; but it was ap-
plicable to such portions of ground as were inclosed. —
Ham, htem, in Anglo-Saxon, mean home : this word
home suggests the notion of incloswe, fold, &cc. hence
from h<zm came the Anglo-Saxon verb b<?man, literally
to inclose, to fold in, but used figuratively only and so
as to express to marry, because one of the couple is sup-
posed to go to the habitation of the other and to remain
there, or because both arc bound by their mutual agreer
ment, which agreement was considered as a sort of in-
cisure. — The Spaniards, who call a house casa, have,
by imitation perhaps, made their verb casar (to marry)
an.4
123
and casarse (to get married).— r-Hem, in Anglo-Saxon,
means border', hence the English noun hem, arid the
verb to hem, which presents an idea of inclosurc. — In
German heim is used for home, place of abode, to be
considered as an inclosurc : lexicographers, indeed, pre-
sent heim as an adverb meaning at home, in or to (one's)
home, and then as a word used initially in composition
to denote home, place of abode \ but, helm could never
have denoted, in composition or adverbially, place of
abode, if it had not primarily meant place of abode. — The
Puteh lexicographers are precisely in the same predica-
ment ; the word heyme (as answering the German heim)
is found in heyme-lyk (literally, homely, home like) to
express figuratively secret, as the German heim- lich does,
because what passes under one's roof or in one's apart-
ment (at home, or within a certain hem) is not likely to
be so well known as what passes in public view. Reise, in
German, means journey, travel, voyage, excursion, pas-
sage across or over f turn, going up or down ; and heim- reise,
said to mean return, is literallyj'owrw^y (to) home* . The
perman noun iveg means way, road; it became iveh
\\\ heim-iueh, to express that disorder which is occasioned,
by a longing to return to one's native home, for. instead
of heim reise, we also find heim-iveg, to express return
(loj home. It seems then that the German heim wasorigi-
* The Latin prefix re comes from such elements as served to
form the German noun «/«, and the Dutch /vy.v, rey:.t, which,
besides journty, voj/aqe, travel, &c. is found to mean time or bvut
yery proper to denote repetition, revolution, retrogradation, bark,
back again, &c. Observe also that the Gennan rcilie, which must
have arisen from the like elements, is found to mean turn, round,
scries, chain, order, rank, row.
nally
• 124
rally equal to the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon bus,* to the
German baus ; as the Dutch hey me was equal to the Dutch
buys ; but, because heim and heyme became obsolete, it
does not follow that the signification of each was not
equal to home. From the German heim (home), or the
Anglo-Saxon h'me or biua (place inhabited or habitation,
since hina-ealdor or bine-ealdor means elder tj the habita-
tion^ father of a family > and bine-man means husband-
man, one tuba cultivates a portion of land for his family or
for some family, and since we find bine-weard for within
equal to towards the inside or the inclosed place) : from
those nouns heim, bine, bina, I say, came the German
bin, or from the German bin (arisen from heim) came the
Anglo-Saxon bine, hina. The German bin used adveiv
bially (according to lexicographers) to express here or
this place (side, way, part), was primarily equal to
bouse, place of abode, habitation, Sec. — The same bin
is used as an initial word in German composition, so as
to denote place of rejug e, place of safety , inclosure, house,
Sec. as in £i//-fliehen, to fly to a place, to retire to a place,
etc. — The German expressions bin-gang, bin-fabren,
said to mean death, are literally equal to going (to or
from) home, the act of setting off; nay, the verb hin-fah-
ren is given as synonymous to weg-jabren, and ex-
plained by to set-off, logo away, to go upon a journey. The
Anglo-Saxons had bin- gong, to express departure ; and
as sitb was, among them, wgy, road, &x. so bin-silh or
hinn-siib was, with them, equal to death, as a departure
from home, or a departure for borne ; and even now the
* VLencc-hitslcnd, in English, from hushond or Inishonda ; for
bond (the participle of bindan) means t/gutus in Latin, i.nd ionda
means maritus, spuu.se or man bound, father of tin -j'miuh/ y conse-
quently husband, is literal^ 'man hound to the house ox fuvdly.
vulvar
125
vulgar will say of a man who is dead, that he is gone
home, or that he is gone to his long home. From the same
obsolete German uoun hin, or the obsolete Anglo-Saxon
noun hinn (seen in junction with sith), came, by re-
moving the aspiration, the Anglo-Saxon nouns imic or
inn (diversorium, hospitium, tabemaculum, domus,
caverna, cella, cubiculum, &c), and the English noun
inn : from that very Anglo-Saxon noun inn, the verb
innan (ingrcdi, intro se reeipere) arose; nor is it to be
doubted but the preposition in, used in so many lan-
guages to point -out. what may receive and contain, has
been formed either from the German noun hin, or from
the Anglo-Saxon noun inn ; which kin and inn come
themselves from the Gothic haima or the German heim.
In regard to the Gothic inna and 'inn, used as prefixes or
adverbs denoting inside situation obtained or aimed at,
they surely were primarily a noun equal to the Anglo-
Saxon inne or inn ; and the Gothic preposition or prefix
in is a contraction of inna or inn, when the point is to
bring forth a place containing or capable of containing ^
instead of bringing forth the operator, as mentioned in
the 2d article of the present interlocution — With those
of my readers who have observed that in English in is
often found where at would not be wrong, the won-
der will now cease, since I have proved that both come
then from a word equal to hah it at ion, house, Sec. That
in was used to express inner part we find a remarkable
instance in a poetical composition given by Hickes in
his Gramm. Anglo-Saxon, p. jj?. There in in occur
together for in the interior part of.
Eardiath, aeth them eadige, There rent, with these saints,
In in them mynstre, In the interior part of t/w minster,
Vnarimeda rc-Lqua, Retiekt without number,
Timer monigc uundrum guuur- Which perfittm many miracles.
thath.
4 th1y.
H6
^tlily. The French and Spanish en, when so used a£
to announce place containing or receiving, place capable
bf containing, 8tc. must arise from some noun that can
bf itself express such a notion. Heen, in Dutch, is pre-
sented^ by Lexicographers, as meaning way, tract, places
side, part, spot, as in, Hy is dat been gegaan, He is gone
that Way \ now observe that the way contains him, the
situation he occupies is in that tract. The same word
been is also presented, by Lexicographers, as used ad-
verbially for away ; it is then equal to the bin and weg
which we have seen in the preceding artiele, and its real
meaning is way with the subaudition of what a or on i$
equal to. In beentrckken^ presented as meaning to go a
journey, I see literally to draw (a) way or lb draw
(along the) way, as well as to draw (from) home; which
latter agrees with the German verb binfabren.
Again; ebun, in Hebrew, means habitation; place of
abode, place occupied, situation occupied. Now, when-
ever the French preposition en is so used as to announce
place tuber e, place or situation occupied', or when the.
point is to introduce any subject as dwelledupon or taken
hold of, so as to appear a sort of figurative situation ; I
hesitate not to say that the same en is a contraction
either of the German heim^ or of the Dutch been, or of
the Hebraic noun ebun. When en is to announce any
commensurate power, the acting like or appearing like,
8cc. it comes most assuredly from such a word as the
German eben, or the Anglo-Saxon enin or efrij mentioned
in the 2d article of this interlocution, and more particu-
larlv in page 53. Yet, it would not be improper to con-
sider en as standing for way in the sense of manner, with
the subaudition of used, because way used, or manner
used, presents as much as way equal to that, way pro-
ducing
127
uucing that, Sec. and consequently is an expression which
operator may replace with propriety. — Viewing e/? in this
light, it must come from some such word as the Dutch
/teen, which means wayi
5thly. It is possible that the preposition in should
sometimes come from such an adjective as the Iberno-
Celtic in, inn, ionn, which means Jit, proper, suitable^
meet, right', these significations, though seemingly dis-
tant from equal, like, imply some notion similar to capa-
ble; and this might be extended to capable of receiving
and containing. Nor should I think him ridiculous
who would derive the preposition on from the above Cel-
tic ionn. It is onlv by investigating all the different man-
ners in which in, en, and on, have been introduced,"each
of them well exemplified, that it is possible to determine
whether such Celtic adjectives, as I allude to, have been,
at any time, recurred to or not.
6thly. Let us now return to the English on. — Setting
aside the latter derivation, which might at once decide
how on could in Anglo-Saxon be used instead of in, I
shall view the subject from a fresh stand. I have suggest-
ed that in often is for a noun equal to habitation, place of
abode, place containing or capable of containing ; and that
the French and Spanish en often are for such a noun*
My opinion is that the Hebraic noun cbun has been
changed by the Germans into ivohn, and by the Anglo-
Saxons into ivnn. The Germans made ivohn (habitation)
become their verb ivohncn, which means to inhabit, to
dwell, to occupy ; and indeed ivohn-zi\ (which is possessed
of a habitation or of a house) proves that the noun ivohn
(now replaced by wohnung) has existed : the Anglo*
Saxons made ivun (not to be found now) become their
verb ivunian, explained by the Latin habitare, degere,
morarif
128
vtorari, continuare, manere, durare, esse, extare, consisted)
&c. : and probably the Islandic noun onn, explained by
the Latin one cccupatio, conies from the same soured
From the German wobn, the An^lo-Saxons, by a sup-*
pression of w, as well as b, got their on, and very possi-
bly this on was afterwards changed into mi: the Anglo-
Saxon on announced then properly, as well as in, some-
thing like habitation, place of abode, place containing, of
capable of containing, place occupied, situation occupied,
See; and so does the English on, which, besides, serves
to announce the subject taken bold of and to be dwelled
upon. But, at present, the function of the English on is
restrained to denote that what follows it should be con-
sidered as a b.:se to support such or such thing, or as a
ground-work which points out the original reason for
doing such or such thing. It must be confessed that the
ground we occupy is under us ; that the subject we take
up, bring forth to view, and treat or speak of, becomes
a subject under our consideration, the base of our act'ons 5
thai, at the same time, we are occupied or taken up by the
same : hence, a view arises wherein the objects seem to
present themselves as reciprocal in regard to contiguity,
and yet as different in regard to a situation which it is
necessary for us to declare to be either inferior or supe-
rior. What follows on is described to be lower, since it
is to serve as a base, while what precedes (or ought na-
turally to precede) on, is described as being upper, and
resting upon that base which en brings forth. After many
researches concerning on applicable to base, I say : either
up, having been prefixed to on, as denoting place (an*»
ciently, upon was much more frequently used than it 19
now, and where the simple on is now considered as suf-
ficient), a suppression has, at times, taken place in re-
gard
129
gartl to up, and custom at last attributed to the simple
on the meaning conveyed by the compound upon, which
is actually superior place or upper place', or else, the
English must, in regard to their on applicable to base,
have considered it to be a contraction and corruption of
the Greek adjective cem (superior). As to the English
on employed, without anv complement, to denote con-
tinuance, process, or upper situation, J. am of opinion that
there is then a subaudition in regard to the noun, which,
if expressed, would point out the base.
69. B. Whence come the van of the Dutch, and the
von of the Germans, which are so frequently used by
them for the English of and from, for the French de, 8cc. ?
LXX. S. The German preposition von, as well as the
'Dutch preposition van } may prove to come from such
elements as iuon, wobn, wun, ivahn, &c. whence the
English verb to won (to dwell), the German verb wolmen,
the Dutch verb vjoonen; which verbs, like the Anglo-
Saxon verb ivunian or wunigean, are equal to the Latin
ha'itare, &c. (as in the last article of the preceding in-
terlocution). — In this German phrase " Ich komme von
meinem vater," I look upon von as used elliptically for
Jzvelling, place of ab.de, house, apartment, and con-
sidered as equal to from the house or apartment of, by
which elliptical von an abbreviation in construction is ob-
tained — To the having of an habitation is attached the
idea of a source of possession, as well as the idea of a pos-
sessor ; hence von and van may serve each as a fore-
runner to announce that the possessor is coming forth, or
that the source of possession is going to be mentioned. I
beg leave to remind you that the notion oi 'source is often
expressed by the w r ord house in English, maison in French,
Itc. that house is then used figuratively, and thus
k made
130
made equal to extraction, family, ancestry, race, stock, &C.
—To this circumstance I attribute the German von and
Dutch van, prefixed, as the Spanish Don, to proper
names ; the same circumstance may have led to the
making of von and van fore-runners capable of announ-
cing the source whence an event sprang, as well as
whence a possession did arise ; and von or van, being ex-
tended afterwards to a space of ground occupied, was
finally used to denote a space of time.
Again, the Gothic noun fan is equal to the Latin
Dominus (lord, master, &(*.) ; hence the Latin noun
fanum (house of the Lord, &c.) — Many people, there-
fore, would say that, by changing the f into v, the
Dutch van would arise from the Goih\c fan, and that,
as the Germans are apt to change the a into o, the pre-
position von might also come from the Gothic fan. —
Though the preceding derivation of vow and v^n appears to
me the true one, yet I must confess that, if they be deri-
ved from the Gothic fan, the notions of source, source of
possession, as well as- that of possessor, must naturally
arise.
70. B. The question which I am just now prompted
to start may be ill-timed, as it may break the chain of
those ideas you intended to communicate : but, rely-
ing upon that affection which you bear to me, I shall
venture to ask you, how you account for so many of the
pretended prepositions to be used as prefixes in com-
pound words, and so that the former should have the
power of reversing wholly, or partly, the meaning
which the word annexed to them would naturally con-
vey.
LXXT. S. 1st. Among the participial adjectives, some"
are
131
are Used, in the aucieut language, to express what is
done, some to express what is doing, some to express
what is yet to he done. The latter sort has, no doubt, been
liable to contractions as much as the others : hence, pre-
fixes arose which were at times for done or doing, at other
times for to be done ; now, to he done, far from conveying
the notion of done, necessarily intimates that the thing is
undone For instance, many of the prepositions which
may be derived from verbs implying toadd, to join, to associ-
ate, to Jill, to complete, or the like, are susceptible of being
used, so that the contrary will appear to result j because,
if considered in the light of what remains to be added
(joined, associated,completed), that very thing to be added,
&c. is actually wanting', and indeed, if you say, i( There
is a sum of i£.t?o, add ^.10 to complete <£.$o", it is as
if you should say, " There is a sum of £.10, a sum?
wanting £.\o, to make up ^.30." — This may serve to
explain, in a manner, how the French de, or the English
by 9 may be introduced to announce the difference be-
tween the state of an individual and the state of another,
or between a present state and a former one. " You will
find him shorter by the head," i. e. you will find him
the head to be added or wanting the head, in regard to
his former state, or in regard to another individual com-
pared to him as to size.— The French de, in this case
(for we say, " vous le trouverez de la teUe plus court),
may come from the Greek verb Uu (ligo, vincio) ; nor is
it to be wondered at that this very verb ?& should also be
used to express dejcio, opus babeo ; for, what you are
going to tie or join to another thing, may be considered
as something wanting to the bulk intended by you. —
You join an associate, merely because the associate ap-
K 2 pears
•
132
pears necessary to you, or because you appear necessary to
the associate. Again, if, having 1, you say add i, an
idea is suggested that there should be 2 ; and, if,
having 1, you say wanting 1, a similar idea is suggested,
that there should ^be 2. — Upon the whole, my opinion is
that a word which appears to express an idea in certain,
circumstances, and the reverse of that idea in other cir-
cumstances, must have either a double origin or belong
to the class of words which intimating added, may take
that inflection whereby to be added is to take the place of
added,
3dly. Ain, in the oriental language, is equal to the
Latin negative ne, non, and the English not. — This ain
must have come from such an oriental noun as meant
negative, denial, or from such an oriental verb as cor-
responded with the Greek caria (equal to the English /
refuse, I reject). — But still the radix of «;v£M must have
been, either actually, or approximately, aw ; and the
radix of the oriental verb must have been, something
which, by a particular inflection of the verb, could pro-
duce ain. — From such a negative noun as ain, the nega-
tive particles ana, an, on, un and in, may have come, and
been used so as to reverse the meaning commonly attached
to the word which is not thus compounded. — Let us see"
whether any other origin may be assigned to those nega-.
" tive prefixes.
3dly. Ohne is given, by German Lexicographer?, as
a preposition which meaus the same with the English
without. — This ohne, which, in composition, beeoimi
ohn, must, like the French preposition sans, be equal to
some word meaning absence y and indeed it it a corrup-
tion of the old Saxon wona, won y which means the same
with the Latin nouns deficientia, inopia, indigentia } ab*-
sent'ia?
133
smlia, d-efcctus, or with the Latin adjectives deficiens,
imperfectus, absens, expers, and (in composition), fra-
i'us, vitiosus. — To confirm my assertion, I need only
mention that the French preposition sans, and the ob-
solete Italian sanza, or the still in use senza, are cor-
rupted from the Italian assenza (absence). — From the
German obne, ohn, one may easily comprehend how the
negative particle on, for composition, was obtained and
used in Anglo-Saxon, as well as in Dutch, to denote
that what the second word means (when uncompounded)
is to be considered as thrown out, or dismissed, or of
little avail, in regard to the individual mentioned, which
individual is thus represented as destitute, or having but
little, of whatever the word after on can possibly imply.
To those who may still doubt my being right, I shall ob-
serve that hwon, hwonn, hwan, huon, are found in Anglo-
Saxon, to express the Latin faululum or pusillum, and
the German ivenig (but little) ; I shall observe also that
in old Saxon, the verb ivonian means the same with the
Latin dejicere, &c. — Now, the author of Dictionarwm
Islundicum, on the word aan (defectus), from the Gothic
wan, says " Nota hie Islandos a multis abjicere w ut
in ord (verbum) word, in orm (vermis) worm ; Gothic^
waurd, waurm" — What the Islanders did, other peo-
ple did also. —The Dutch use likewise ont as a negative
prefix ; this ont is a sort of corrupted past participle,
arisen from such a verb as the Anglo-Saxon verb wo-
man.
4thly. Van is used, in Islandic and in Dutch, as a
negative prefix. — This came from the Gothic noun wan
(deficientia, inopia, &c), whence the Anglo-Saxon
prefix wan, the Anglo-Saxon wan or wana (meaning
precisely the same with the won or wona mentioned
K 3 «»
134
in the preceding article). — From the Gothic noua
zvan, the Anglo-Saxon verbs w anion and wansian
were formed to express the Latin minuere, defcere,
auferre, demere, amputate, decrescere, &c. nor is it
impossible but that the Greek negative particle avx
should have corne from the Gothic wan or the Anglo-
Saxon warm.
5thly. The negative prefix un uteed by the Goths, the
Germans, the English, and the negative prefix in used
by the Latins, the Spaniards, &c. come from the Gothic
verb winnan, the preterit of which would be tuann or
ivunn (as rinnan becomes rann or runn). — This Gothic
verb formed the Anglo-Saxon winnan, interpreted by the
Latin laborare, conari, niti, pugnare, praliari, contendere,
rebellare, certare. The nouns win, winn, wyn, formed
from the latter winnan, mean labor, molestia, infortunium,
calamitas, bellum , and winna means bellator, hostis :
consequently, the negative prefix un (if not had by chan-
ging on into un), as well as the negative prefix in (if not
had by changing on into in), may rationally be said to
come from win or winna, and to denote that the follow-
ing word is to be taken in the opposite or contrary mean-
ing of that which it would signify if it were uncom-
pounded*.
Again, the Anglo-Saxon verb by nan is equal to the
Latin opprimere, vastare, impedire ; the Anglo-Saxon
henan means spernere, buimliare, impedire, contravenire ',
the nouns bynth, byntbe, mean damnum,- detrimentum,
noc urn en turn,
* It may not be improper to fay that the Anglo-Saxon itin was
used to express ideas very different from those mentioned above
as indicating reverse, jarring, misfortune; for the liquor called
■sine, and afriendor beloved, were often designated by the Anglo~
Saxou
135
mcumentum, lasio, clades, contumelia ', as well as penuria,
res angusta; since bentb, benlbe, hentho, benlbu, are
found to have these significations : any of these might
have, hy contraction and corruption, dwindled to the
negative prefix in.
6thly. For, used sometimes in English as a negative
prefix, comes from the Anglo-Saxon adjective^fer, equal
to the Latin adjectives cassus, vacuus, improvisus. —
Now cas%us (unprofitable, vain, useless, idle, improper,
or, not to\ the purpose), being considered as used ad-
verbially*(unprofitably, vainly, uselessly, idly, improper-
ly, or, not to the purpose), will become equal to for used
as a sort of negative particle : as in i( Target my les-
sons," i.e. I get my lessons unproftably or uselessly ;
and in u He will ^/jrswear himself," i. e. He will swear,
himself idly or improperly or not to tbe purpose he should,
&c. — Jn German and in Dutch, the negative Anglo-
Saxon^rr has been changed into ver ; thus wrgessen
in German, and i^rgeeten in Dutch, express the same
with the English to forget*.
Saxon win or teine. — The reason of this is that the Oriental ad-
jective oen or oiu (pleasant, agreeable) was changed by the Anglo-
Saxons into win or iiyn, corresponding with the German wonne
(joy, delight). — Hence, win in Anglo-Saxon, vein in German,
wynn in Dutch, wine in English, vin in French, vimtm in Latin,
flivoc in Greek, are all equaJ to pleasant, gladdening, with the sub-'
audition of such a noun as liquor ; hence the Latin adjective ve*
nustus (agreeable, pleasant), and the very name of Venus.
* When this prefix ver is not negative, it comes from the An-
glo-Saxon noun J'wr which is rendered by the Latin gressus, pro-
fectio, iter, via, woids denoting transition, passage, and proper to
make this farr,- by its position as a prefix, equal to far, trans, over,
and to enable it to denote a change of state : and indeed, the ne-
gative for or ver denotes a change or deviation from the course
•which is considered as the right one.
B 4 7tbly.
136*
7tfily, The Greek prefix fog must hare been a noun
equal to reverse, primarily confined, perhaps, to denote
evil, wrong, misfortune, or an adjective equal to bad,
evil, wrong, unfortunate. — In short, &?$ is a Greek word
equal to the Gothic adjective mtssd, (wrong, &c.)
whence the Anglo-Saxon and English prefix mis, and
the French prefix nivs. — Now, when the point was to
announce an alteration, so to be conceived that the veiy
reverse of what the second word, in its oncompound-
ed state, would present to the mind, should be the re-
sult, this alteration could be frequently pointed out
in Greek by fog, in Gothic by missa, in Anglo-Saxon
by mis ; and can now be expressed in English by
dis or mis ; in French by des or contraetedly by de,
as also by mes or contraetedly by me, and some-
times by dis : hence, to misapply, to disown, disunion,
disadvantage, discredit, dishonour, disappear, &c. in
English : hence, mesallier, messcani, misuser, in French
(wherein formerly the prefix mes occurred very frequent-
ly, in the room of which the contracted »ze is more ge-
nerally used except before a vowel, as in mecontcnter, me-
flant, &.C formerly written mesconte?iter, mesfiant, &c.):
hence also disparoHre in French ; in which language
the Latin dis from the Greek fog has been changed into
des before a vowel or h mute, and contracted into de be-
Fore a word beginning with a consonant, as in disunion,
disavantage, dishomieur, desapprendre, See. and in decre-
dil, di'pourvu, ditromper, dlrider, &c. formerly written
des credit, despourveu, destromper, des rider, £cc,
I think that what I have said, concerning negative pre-
fixes, will be sufficient to prove that every one must have
arisen from either a noun or an adjective ; and, therefore,
after I have added a few words on dis, as denoting separa-
tion
137
ficn or diffusion, I shall not mention here any other
word of that class.
The Greek prefix 3i? (as well as the Gothic prefix:
dis) is a contraction of such a Greek noun as 2i'<n$, formed
from 3Ya> (separo, divido), to express separation or division
of an object into two or several parts. — The Latin prefix
dis, and contractedly di, generally comes from the Greek
$i considered as equal to separately, differently, diversely
or several ways ; as in disparo, discurro, &c. divido (for
dis-Jldo), diverto (for dis-verto),8tc.— But, sometimes the
Latin prefix dis seems to be for the Greek live, when the
point is to make the second word in composition express
the very reverse of what it conveys uncompounded ; as
in dissimulo, dissolvo, disjungo, 8cc. : and even in this
sort of composition, dis may be considered as denoting
separation. — The notion of separation is also found to be
expressed, in certain words which the French and English
have adopted from Latin, by the prefix dis, or contract*
edly di, as in *focerner, to discern ; divevllr, to divert,
&c.
The Italian negative prefix s is a contraction of the
Italian or Spanish es, for the Latin ex, and equal to any
of the negative prefixes, such as dis, mis, un, See— hence,
idegnare for <fodegnare, to ^wdain (" I sdain'd sub-
jection," said Milton) ; hence, jcontentare, formerly
w&contenter in French, now Wcontenter, and to dis-
content in English ; hence, .sfoi tunare, to make ^wfortu-
nate or to cause wwfortune ; hence, sbastare, to wwsad-
dle, to take off the pannel, formerly Chaster, in French,
now dehk-ter; from basto, pack-saddle, pannel.
71. B. I am curious to know what origins you will
jgive to the French d } considered, by all Grammarians,
as
138
as a preposition denoting sometimes agent, sometimes ten-
dency towards or attribution, sometimes possession, some-
times privation, &c.
LXXII. S. The notion of Operator or agent, that of
possessor, and that of possession, (whether obtained or
aimed at) are those chiefly which the French preposition
« is allotted to convey : the other notions I shall state in
some future publication, if it be reouired. — For the pre-
sent, then, I shall content myself with giving you the
following hints.
In " Je ferai faire cela A mon fr&re," in the sense of
" I shall cause that to be done by my brother," many
Grammarians say that a is for the apo of the Greeks, or
the ab, a of the Latins : but that very a may be said at
once to stand for agent, equal to operator, actor j and
indeed " Je ferai faire cela : agent or operateur (dans
cette occasion). — Mon frere, is as if I should say : u Je
ferai faire cela ; mon frere le fera."
If " Je ferai faire cela a mon frere" were for " I shall
cause that to be done or made for my brother," not
only my brother will cause that I shall get it to be
done or made, but he will become possessor of that
when done or made —Observe that in the Greek and La-
tain ago, and the French agir, the real primitiveis ag. — In
Greek ayoj means chief, leader, that manages, that con-
trives, &c. and in Latin agens means the same or nearly:
now, since these are virtually equal to operator, there is
no necessity to recur to the Greek d^c, and it is more
convenient to derive, in this instance, the French^ from
ago or ayo$ : however the French a for operator mav be
an abbreviation of the Hebraic and Oriental ab mention-
ed in the 3d article of Interlocution LXV; and in
many
139
many other circumstances it may be a contraction of the
Latin ad or of the Gothic at, as mentioned in the 4th,
5th, and 6th articles of Interlocution LXVI. When the
French d appears before a noun which may, by any
me. ms, be considered as a possessor or as a possession, it
may indeed be said to be I contraction which represents
the value of ayant, or of avoir (taken substantively, as if
it were V avoir de). — This French verb avoir has been
formed from the Italianaiw*, this from the Greek a|?Eiv,or
ihe Latin habere: besides, the Goths had the verb haban,
whence the English have : the Anglo-Saxons had
bakbait, hcebban, hafan, &c. &c. — Observe, that you can
deprive an individual of that only which he possesses :
observe, also, that when you give or attribute any thing
to an individual, this individual is virtually made by
you the possessor of the same.
72. B. The Latin, the Spanish and French de, the
Italian di and da, and the Greek Sia, return so very often
each in its respective language, that I must beg of you
to state what your thoughts are about their origins.
LXXIII. S. Suppose I derive the preposition de from
the oriental dei (sufficient), it may be considered as bring-
ing forth who or what is, has been, or will be sufficient
for (or equal to) the producing of the thing already men-
tioned or to be mentioned afterwards, an idea which is
of a value similar to that of operator. — If I derive that
preposition from such a verb as the Greek o«a (invenio),
it may be considered as bringing forth the source when
springs, sprang, or will spring any event, condition, dis-
tinction, &c. — If I derive it from the Greek verb dsu as
meaning I tie, or bind, or join, or fasten, it may be con-
sidered as equal to the French liant, He* (tying, tie) :
from
140
from that verb was formed fovpai, to be wanting, to be de-
prived, because what we add to form the complement
#f a thing is wanting to form the complement : from the
same verb was fonned Sew, what ought to be, what must
be, conveniency, decency , proper : the verbs J*», dec*, $f*, dow,
&xa>, Sex®, otxofioa, will, by an attentive examination,
serve to explain how the preposition de may have become
a fore-runner, to announce source whence something pro-
ceeds, proceeded, or will proceed ; every one of those
verbs having meant I give, I distribute, I dispense, J
communicate, I extract, 1 separate, 8cc. it is evident that
what follows de, may be considered as a sort oi possessor,
for in order to give, or distribute, vou must have, and
hence, it might be conceived how, in a vast number of
circumstances, the French de serves to supply the French
a, and vice versa, sometimes for the sake of variety. This
subject requires elucidations by means of examples ; not
wishing to throw the least confusion into the way of
operator, I shall content myself, for the present, to obi-
serve that, when the French de, in connecting two words,
brings forth the possessor, l'avoiji (the property) is sup-
pressed by ellipsis, and the noun which comes after de
points out the possessor : if that de brings forth the pos-
session, it may then be considered as equal to join, and
the noun which comes after de may point out what,
being joined, will explain or determine the source, man-
ner, nature, &c. as to some preceding word. Again, if
the preposition de be derived from the Celtic de or dhe
in the sense of chief, it might be considered as bringing
forth the principal operator or agent, or at least the first
point, first object, matter first had, &c. and thus made to
correspond with the English preposition from. From
the
141
the idea of chief, the word de or dhe may easily have been'
extended to those of extraction, family, ancestry, race,
stock, &c. Many French proper names have the prefix
de, perhaps from the latter circumstance, as often as
from the place which occasioned those proper names.
But, it will be found that most of the prepositions,
which are used to announce the operator, are words equal
to the nouns way, ccurse, means, manner, or the like,
because what is introduced by such prepositions comes in
answer to the question hoiv P Therefore, I am inclined
to think that the preposition de comes from such a word
as, in the primitive languages, actually expressed some-
thing like way, course, means, manner, or \source Now
I find that in Jberno -Celtic da or ta (which, in certain
circumstances, became dha or thd) was used to denote
manner or nature similar, to what the preceding noun
expressed by itself, as in fear-dha or fcar-tba, man-like,
manly, speaking of a virago or one who has the nature
or manner suitable to a man ; as in bean-ta, or bean-da,
woman-like, womanly, speaking of one who is effeminate,
or who has the nature or manner suitable to a woman.
In this point of view da, ta, producing the very effect
which we sometimes see in German, by means of weis
or iveise (in Dutch, by means of zuys, wyze, in English,
by means of wise or way), it would not be irrational to
say that §uch a noun as da or ta has existed and been
used to express actually, and by itself, manner, way,
mode, &c. : that the Italian preposition da may be that very
noun, used elliptically : that the Latin, Spanish, and
French de is a slight alteration of the same, and may be
looked upon as equal to manner used elliptically, and as a
fore-runner bringing forth that which is necessary to ex-
plain
.142
plain how a thing comes, came, or will coiile to piss j
or how certain distinction is, was, of will be established,
&c Even, if the Iberno-Celtic da, ta, be considered as
an adjective equal to like, similar, equal, exhibiting the
qualities of, such an adjective would be proper for bring-
ing forth the manner how, and consequently the operator j
as well as for establishing distinctions arising from what
da or de brings along.
Again, di, de, dia, in Celtic expressed the divinity j
and di, de, die, expressed light, day-light, day. — With
the Latins God was deus, and day or light was dies : with
the Greeks Ztu;, <J)j, 2loj, &cc. was Jupiter, and they used
£« and 3ia as prepositions. The French, in the days of
the week, Lundi, Mardi, Mercredi, Jeudi, Vendredi>
Samedi, Dimanche, have retained the Celtic di (day), and
God is with them Dieu : the Spaniards, with whom God
is dios, have dia for day ; the Italians with whom God is
dio, have di and dia for day ; and, it is to be observed
that they anciently used the preposition di instead of
da, which circumstance gives reason to suspect that da
(perhaps as a contraction of *&«) having been used, through
affectation, by some author or some, eminent person, be-
came a favourite word, in which subsequent commenta-
tors imagined they discovered some particular difference
as to signification. The Greek preposition &a, accord-
ing to Lennep, " proprie notat per et dicitur a permeando,
quae notio verbo llu, perinde at que $du, et &a adest :"
E. Scheidius says on Seoxw (video) ll a Jlndendo, sive acic
penctrandfly quae prima notio est verborum &zu, Jiw, di'<u :'*
at llu Lennep says " Quidquid vehementer mo vet, aut
movetur ex uno in alium locum penetrando, dicitur pro-
prie fiitv." — My opinion is that those verbs were formed
from
143
from the notion of the dawning of light and of its power
of penetrating through the least crevice and dispelling
darkness, or at least removing it partly*. Dags in
Gothic is light ; in Anglo-Saxon light is d<?g, dcci, dag,
dah, dcg, and Aurora or dawn is dagung. — In Anglo-
Saxon, to dawn, is dagian, which in German is tagen
(because light is there tag) ; and in Dutch, it is dagen
(because light is there dag). — The notion of light, ap-
plied to that part of the twenty-four hours wherein light
remains, was considered as forming together the day,
and, afterwards the twenty-four hours were called day
though part of these were wrapped up in darkness. — Jour,
in French, is not only for light and the twenty-four
hours into which the day is divided, but it is used figu-
ratively for point of view in regard to judging of pictures,
of actions, &x. as well as for means, way, manner, op-
portunity. In English, too, light is figuratively for point
of view, and is said besides of any information, of what
clears up any doubt, of any thing capable of bringing
things to evidence : to dawn is said of the effect produced
3t the time between the first appearance of light, and the
sun's rise; and dawn expresses figuratively beginnings
first rise, promise of lustre or of future beneft. This
investigation warrants me to say that the prepositions da,
de, di, dia, are words which all claim the same origin
(from the Celtic), and may be each considered as a
noun which serves to bring forth who or what is, was >
or will be the principle of any event or condition (con-
* This primitive signification is actually equal to those con-
veyed by to scatter, to disperse ; and observe that the oriental
verb dht!c\s equal to what we t'xpfess in English by to drive, t</
repel, topush.
sequently,
144
sequent! y, the operator of the same), or else, who of
•what is, was, or will be, the principle or the source whence
any distinction springs, sprang, or will spring.
73. B. How will you account for the English from, so
often used where the Italians would use da; where
the French and Spaniards would use de, as denoting
extraction or separation', which from is sometimes con-
tracted into fro, and which, in old Saxon, was fram f
sometimes fra, sometimesyVoOT.
LXXIV. S. In Gothic, the words fruma, frumo and
frum, are found to mean principium, orlgo, auctor, pri-
mus : there also are found frumist for primm, and fru-
misti for milium. — You see that those significations are
closely connected with those alfotted to the English dawn.
I am inclined to believe that the verb fruman has existed
in Gothic, and that fruma, frumo, were participial adjec-
tives meaning creating, producing, &c. I believe also,
that the Gothic language had such a secondary verb, as
framan, which would have given from for the 3d person
singular of the preterit (as, from grab an came grab or
grof) ; and whence fram (said to be a preposition), as a
contraction of such a participial adjective zsframa or
framo. However, the old Saxons had the verbs fremman
or f reman, framan, framian, fremian, fromian, to ex-
press the value of the Latin verbs prodesse, expedire, va-
lere, facere, facessere : the English have the noun frame,
and the verb to frame (to form, to make, contrive, plan,
invent, &c.) — Now, on finding that fram and from were
used, among the old Saxons, to express these Latin ad-
jectives efficax, pra;stans, acris, strenuus ; on rinding that
the \ s\and\c framur (m which the finalaris amere article)
had the same meanings, I hesitate not to pronounce, 1st,
that
u.3
that from may be usee! as a forerunner to announce ope-
rator; and sdly, that f rem may be used as a forerunner to
im\win\cejirsl,jirst point, jirst object, matter Jirst bad*,
&c. — Now, if such a person or such a thing must be had
before an event can take place, that very person or thing
becomes virtuallv an agent or art operator as to the event,
While he is, or it is, a sort of possessor, or possession.
74. B. Do Vou think that the English preposition-
with meansj at all times, be or join f
LXXV. S. No.— j st. When the point is to present
merely ah idea of association or concomitance, such as is
expressed in French by avec, in Latin by cum, it is cer-
tain that with is then either the imperative of the Gothic
verb withan, in Latin jnngere-, in English to join, or a
contraction of the old Saxon noun with the or withe, in
Latin loranientum, restis, 'vinculum, redimiculum, in
English band or whatever serves to join or fasten : we
even find thi* noun, in English, spelt wythe, ivithe and
'With (see Dr. Johnson's Dictionary, at the word ivithe').
— All those nouns, however, come probably from the
Gothic verb with ait.
-idly. When the point is to present a sort of opposition
or contention:, as when it is used in the sense of against,
of the Latin contra or adversus, of the French contre t &c.
ilis some part of the old Saxon verb ivigan or wigian
(in Latin, pr&liari, contendere, contumaciler resistere), or
a contraction of some part of the old Saxon verb wilherian
(which, as well as withrian, is equal to the Latin adver-
sari, resistere, recalciirare), whence wither usedj in com-
position, by the old Saxons (as wiedtr, by the Germans),
* So likewise the French dt- is sometimes considered as form-
im the Celtic ee or dhc [chief).
l for
146
foi the Latin contra, and the luith in the English verb tl
withstand. — The verbs witberian and wilbrian may how-
ever have been formed from the Gothic witbra, equal tu
the Latin juxtu, apud^ ad, contra^ in, oh : and this zuitbra
may have arisen from ivlthan.
3dly. But, when with is used as a fore-runner an-
nouncing that the operator is coming forth, it comes from
the Anglo-Saxon wit an or wissan. — The word bwita
(workman, maker of) is found in old Saxon, as in
u sweord-hwita'' a sword -cutler, a manufacturer of
swords : I look upon this bwita to be, by transposition,
for witha, whence with for operator, doer, ccc. — Again,
wyrcan, wyrcean, wircan, wirccan, in old Saxon, mean
to work, to fabricate, &x. whence wrytba (in English
wright) become so, by transposition, from wyrtbd
(workman, wright), which, by losing the r± may also
have become wytba, wytb, with. I cannot deny, how-
ever, that with, even used as the imperative of witbani
may bring forth the operator or a co-operator ; for, eon-*
s^defmg join as equal ioadd, after having stated an event
or a condition, it may be found necessary to add who
or what produced that event or condition) which notion
add is not indeed equal to the fore-runner operator or co-
operator, but which, after all, would have the effect of
presenting the sentence as complete.
4thly. Mitb, a Gothic preposition equal to the Latin
cum, una, s'lmid, and to the English with, comes from
the Gothic verb m'tan (to measure, to distribute, to
share) ; whence the Anglo-Saxon metan (in Latin, mc-
tiri, mensurare, invenire, impertire, adipisci, occurrerc,
disponere, occupare), the Dutch mcetcn (metiri, men-
surare, &:c.) the German messen (to measure, £cc). — If
I measure
147
? mcasure.out such or such a thing fur you, that thing
is to be an acquisition to you, and you arc to take it as
vour property : if, instead of measuring out a parcel of
thine:?, 1 allot to you an individual, my doing so is the
result of some comparison, made previously by me be-
tween vou. considered singly, and some object to be at-
tained : if vour powers appear to mc to be insufficient, I
measure oat additional powers ; and thus, whoever or
whatever is added by me to you, for the purpose of in-
fclS&sjng vour powers is, as well as you, in a state of conco-
mitance ; nor does it signify whether the individual added
be dependant on -you or merely a mate, a covipa?iion }
an associate. — Besides, the contents of a measure form
altogether one ivb-Je, every part of which cannot but be
in a state, of concomitance. — The Anglo-Saxon mith claims
the same origin, and so does mid when used for the
English with or the Latin cum. *— The Dutch expression
■mits-geders (together, with, also), is literally for mate-
fflloics. — The German preposition mit claims likewise
t he same oviyin ; and so does the Dutch mede, met, and
even the Greek fjttrd.-^ln short, all those prepositions,
used as prefixes or otherwise, being equal to the Latin
* When tniditfoi tnifldie (or half}, it is considered as coming
from the Gg\\\\<; midga ; whence the Anglo-Saxon middy midday
inidde,i}iiJdau,mldu<l, mid; the Gt'im-&niHitte,?nitte/,mi(tler, and mit
in composition; the Dutch middd, midden, aud sometimes mid in
composition ; the French mi in inidi, w/nuit, ;///iieu, &c. the
Latin jnedias ; the Greek pert?. — All these perhaps had their origin
in the Celtic- dialects; for instance, meodhuin or meadkoin, in Iber-
no-Celtic, means middle ; and some such word ma}' have served
to form the Gothic verb mitaa, as well as the Gothic adjective
midga ; and indeed, the /W/'ofany thing is obtained by raeasuie-
inent,
148
cum, con, co-, or the English concomitant ivith, should
be resolved in the same way, bv some word capable of
intimating association or concomitance, such as joint,
joint/)', &c,
75. B. What is, in your opinion, the origin of
thorough, through, thro' ?
LXXVI. S. Several origins may be assigned, all de-
pending upon the primitive significations of the words
whence the Caltic preposition iro arose, whence the Cel-
tic divinity thor, tlnir, received that appellation, and
whence the Gothic noun thairko or thanks was formed.
1st. The Iberno-Celtic tro is used as a word equainot
only to the English preposition through, bytt to by means
of. — I do not hesitate therefore to consider the same Cel-
tic tro as a noun or some contraction of a noun, the chief
part of which remains in the French noun trou (aperture,
hole, passage or break), whence the French verb trouer
(to make an aperture, a hole or passage, See). — Mr.
Tooke did not observe that, in the Gothic language,
uta-thro, fairra-thro, he are found —This suffix thro,
may be the very Celtic tro, the initial / of which became
aspirated (changed into th) on account of the r, and the
.same may be said in regard to the Chaldean and Persian
thro, if the Celtic tro did not arise from either.— The ut-
tering of thr at once may have proved difficult to many,
and these, in trying to give th its value before r, may*
after th, have made or u a sort of rest s such would
be, the process of a stammering person in his attempt to
pronounce throw and thrust, which words, in his mouth,
would be thorow and thurust : now the pronunciation of
wormy h precisely that given to thorough-,, hence thorough
, may
149
may be said to arise from thro found used as a suffix
in Gothic.
adly. The Gothic noun thairho or thairks is found in-
terpreted by the Latin mi\m foramen (hole, aperture), and
it is rational to believe that, by a contraction of the said
noun, thairh may have arisen to denote transition ; and
indeed thairh, in Gothic, used as a preposition equal to the
Latin tram, per, was actually equal to passage, way, ideas
which aperture, hole, naturally suggest. — It is not to
be wondered at, then, that this very Gothic word thairh
should be found made equal to the notions expressed by
the very English thorough. In the Gothic language, the
custom prevailed of adding u or uh to certain words when
used in particular circumstances; hence it is \vc find that-
uh, thhuh, tharuh, framuh, tnuh, fee. for that, this,
thar, fram, in, &c. consequently thairh, with the ad-
dition of u op uh, would have become thairhu or thairhuh J
then ai, being suppressed, tbrbu or thrhuh, which a
little more corruption would bare made tbruh (used as a
preposition in Anglo-Saxon) and the Gothic thro used as
a suffix. — Now, thrhuh, by resting the th upon o or u
(before pronouncing the r, would have beeome (borhuh,
ihurhuh, whence the Anglo-Saxon thuruh, thurh, thor,
employed as prepositions, whence the English thorough
(and contractedly through, thro'). — From the same
source would flow the Teutonic thuruh, thurab, iburx
and, by changing the aspirated th into d, would arise
duruch, duruc, duruh, durh. — The Germans chose to use
durch to serve as a preposition among them, while they
employed thure,thur, thor, for a door. — As to the An-
glo-Saxon dora, duru, dure, the Dutch deur, door, dore,
m$ the English door, they maybe considered as coming
l> 3 from
150
from the Gothic daur, or dauro; or from the Teutonic
durh. — All like the Greek Buoa, are equal to the Latin
janua, ostium, and may be used figuratively to express
also Jacultas re'i ejficiendce et via.
3cllv. The Gothic sub^antive daur or dauro, by
changing the d into th, may have become thaw, thauro,
and by suppressing^, niav thro, afterwards, have been
used. — It" to thaurc, you add that terminating syllable
uh so frequently found in Gothic, you will have thauroub,
whence, by changing a into o, will arise thourouh, then
ihourough, thorough, &fc.'
4thly. The appellation ojf tier, thur, may have been
given to the Divinity, as to express that pervades, or pene-
trates, and indeed thor is translated Dominus in Tbor-
rimmin, and thaur among the Armenians is king) ruler,
&c. : tar, in Persian, is equal to top, submit; and the
same tar serves in Iberno-Celtic to express beyond, out
of, by, over and above : the very God Thor or Thur was
also called, among the Celts Tarqn, Taranis, Tara?7iis,
Tharanis, Sec. probably from such a verb as the Gothic
tairan, whence the old Saxon verbs trcraji, teran, tiran, ty-
ran,tyrian, tyrigan, tyrwia?i, and the English verb to tear.
The Celts, the old Saxcns, and other people of the North,
worshipped Thor or Thur: the old Saxons h&dTlws-d&g,
Thurs-dag, and Thur-cs-djg (literally, the day of Thor,
the day that Thur has, the day appointed or consecrated
to Thur), which day is the very English Thursday, and
the Jovis dies of the Latins. — That very God went
among the old Saxons, by the formidable appellation of
Thunr, as if vibrating the thunder, which they called
thuner, ihunor, thunr, thunder: hence Thunr-es-day
(for Thursday, as if the day of the Thunderer) ; hence also
Thunr >
151
1'bunr- es-modur , as if the mother of the Thunderer, in-
stead of the mother cfThur, corresponding with Latona,
the mother of Jupiter. — The German say themselves
Donnerstag (with them, Donner means Thunder, and
tag means day) : the Putch say Dondcrdag (and Dander
is with them Thunder). — Now, if .you look upon Thar or
Thur as coming from a verb meaning to pervade, by
adding uh, you will get Thoruh or Thuruh : this thuruh is
the very word used by the old Saxons for the English
thorough (the Latin per, trans ; all which may be con-
sidered sometim.es as pervading, sometimes as peryadedL
and sometimes as to he pervaded) 5 and it is evident how.
easily thoruh would have become thorough.
5thly. Again, Thor is found in Anglo-Sa^on, as an
initial word ; n composition, to denote utility ; and though
this circumstance agrees still with the character of such
a deity as Jupiter, yet I have reason to believe that tbo?-
is then a contraction of thorf (need, occasion, cause, use,
profit, &c.) or of some part of the verb tborfian, \\h\ch as
well as thearfan, thearfian, means to need or have occasion^
to want, to be of service, from the Gothic verb ihaurban.
— Even here, I may observe that if an action or event
needed such or such thing to bring it to pass, this very
thing is virtually the agent or operator of the action or
event. — On the other hand, Tor is found used, among the
Cimbrians and Islanders, as an initial word in composU.
tion, to denote something hard to be done ; because tor
means properly steep place (as high mountains are), tower
(as difficult of access), 8cc. hence, tor-foera (a steep or
arduous road) ; tor-ncmur (hard to take, or rather hard
V) be taken) ; lor-wirki (arduous work) ; kc.
t, a. CON-
T52
CONCLUSION.
Whatever may be the real origin of the word thorough
(through, thro'), certain it is, that being considered as
equal to door, passage, its signification has been extended
to these figurative ones, way or course pursued or to pur-
sue, means employed or to employ (in order to remove ob-
stacles and come at or procure, such or such a thing), as
well as passage along or across or from end to end (ob-
tained or to be obtained in regard to what is mentioned or
implied).
76. B. The French preposition Par being often used
as a correspondent with the English through, I, who
have observed that the Spanish Para is- connected with
that kind of Par, should be glad to know whence you,
draw your French Par and the Spanish Para.
LXXVII S. ist. We have seen that the pretended pre-
positions en and in, when used to announce that the
operator is coming forth, were formed from Celtic, Gothic
or Anglo-Saxon adjectives, the meanings of which were
the same with those conveyed by the Latin adjective
far. — The French have the adjective pair to express equal,
alike, similar, &c. which they use substantively: with
them sans pair serves to express, like sans-pareil, what
is meant by the English words peerless, matchless, that
has not his (her or it?) equal or like : they, say, (i le
change est au pair," for, " change is at par j" cet oiseau
a perdu son pair, that bird has lost its mate or companion :
they say, nous voila J)air a pair, for, now we are even :
they say, aller de pair avec quelqu'un, to express to be
(or prdsume to be) upon an equality with one j se mettre.
4 t
153
tirer) bors du fair or bors de fair, for, to rise above the
level, or to rise above one's equals : thev sav, vivre avec
quelqu'un (trailer quelqu'un) de pair a compagnon, for
to live with (to behave to) one as an equal ivouldvjitb (to)
bis companion : they call nombre pair what the English
call even number : they say, pair ou non pair, for, even
or odd ; hence, Jnuer a pair ei non pair, or jouer a pair
ou non, for, to play at even or odd : they say, un pair du
royaume, for, .a peer of the realm j and formerly the
principal vassals who were entitled to sit with the Lord
of the Manor at certain trials were called pairs ; hence,
etre jugc par ses pairs, to be judged by one's peers, — That
the feminine French noun paire claims the same origin
is evident, since the French have the verb apparier (to
pair, to sort, to match, to couple), and the noun pariade,
confined, it is true, to partridges or the time when
partridges do pair.
adly. The French have also the adjective pareil, an-
swering the Spanish adjectives pareja, parejo, parecida,
parecido, and the Italian adjectives pareccbio and (in
Dante) pareglio ; they have the noun paritc, answeringthe
Spanish paridad, and the Italian parita. — However, they
seem to have taken their preposition par from the Spanish
Janguage : in it we find " sentir a par ^muerte,'' which
Morino translates by " to have much sensibility ;" but
which means literally " to feel fo equality of death," a»
hyperbolical way of expressing one's self, equal to what
would be " to feci almost to death j" and, in this construc-
tion (ipar de, we clearly discover the equivalent of a pa-
ridad de (to equality of). — We find also a par, in Spanish,
which a par Morino says is for the French aupres (near),
ii cote (by the side) : this par is then a contraction of
either
154,
either parage or paraje or parte, which in Spanish men.-;
place, part, side, &c. — Hence, the Spanish d par is then
for a parage, or a paraje, or a parte ; consequently^
when the Spaniards say de par en par, that combination
is to be considered as equal to de parage en parage, or to
de parte en parte ; that is to say, from one place (part, side)
to the other place (part, side) ; hence <f Abrir de par en
par la puerta," means literally" to open the door from
side to side*'
3clly. The Latin verb parare, itself, often translated by
to prepare, fit, shape, contrive, mulcej order, &c. is
literally equal to what to male equal (suitable, fit, &c.)
to, or else to cause to fit, or the like, would express.
We may say the same of the Spanish verb parar, of the
Italian verb parare, and of the French verb parer, in
their primitive acceptation?. — The French expression
" parvenir aune chose" means literally " to come even to
a thing, to come (so as to be) level or quite contiguous
to a thing, &c.
4thly. The para, of the Spaniard?, is the very Spanish
adjective par, the different meanings of which, being
equal to those conveyed by the Latin adjective par (that
is, equal, like, similar, correspondent, suitable, fit, proper,
mutual, reciprocal, able to encounter or bear, capable, of the
same force or power, See.) will serve to explain the real
value of the French preposition par, as well as of en and
in (when these are derived from an adjective which is
given as meaning equal) . — Another circumstance which
confirms mv assertion that the French preposition par is
often for equal, even, similar, See. is this : The Italians
have the noun paraggio to express comparison, equal,
match', and say, (< non v'eil paraggio a lei" (there rs.,
not
155
not any one equal to her) ; and, if the adjective far
hatf not been found to exist of itself, I should not
have scrupled to present the French par as a contraction
of the Italian paraggio, or rather to assert that the initial
par was an adjective, and aggio a noun. — Now, I say
{hat the Spanish preposition para is for far a, which
two words united for,m one that means as much as match
for, equal la, like unto , &c. — When the Spaniards say
" es hombre para poco" (which Movino translates by
*' e'est un hommc de peu de courage/' he is a man of
little courage), the literal meaning of their expression
is " He is a man equal to little." — The Spaniards use
para que for the French afin que (id order that), a quel
pfopos, a quelle Jin (to what purpose, to what end) ; it is
obvious that their para que is then lor equal, or suitable,
to this or that (purpose, end), and, if spoken interroga-
tively, equal (suitable) to what (purpose, end) ?
5thlv. In regard to the French preposition fat (when
coming from the Spanish adjective^ar), the pretended pre-
position Alias been dropped, just as in regard to touchant;
for, while the French say " touchant cette affaire,"
the Spaniards may say " Tocantc a esta pendencia." —
When the French preposition does not come from the
Spanish adjective par, it may be considered as a contrac-
tion of the Spanish parage or paraje, whence the French
noun parage formerly applied, like lieu, to extraction or
birth or rank, and now confined to road (or ships along a
shore; or it mav be considered as a contraction of the Spa-
nish or Italian parte, whence the French part as applied
to place, Sec. From Italian I can quote a proof in point,
wherein par is found used by contraction for da parte di:
" Ecco io i^on so ora dir di no, far tai donna me n' hai
pregato
156
pregatoj^Boc. g. 8, n. 7. Voila quejene saurois mainte*
nant dire'non, vous m'en avez prie de la part J'une telle
dame. Behold, I no longer can saf nay, you have
begged the thing of ma from so great a lady.
6thlv. But afterjall, I am inclined to believe that this se-
cond par, as well as the Spanish parage or paraje, and
the French parage, come from the Gothic verb faran,
whence the Anglo-Saxon faran, faran, Seethe nouns
fare, far, farr, which, among other significations, have
these road, way, haunt, range, and consequently, space
(applied to land, sea, and even to time):—*-l am also incli-
ned to think that the Latin pars, the French part, parti,
partic, the Spanish and Italian parte, having been made
to signify the same, because a space may be said of a di-
vision or portion, a sort of confusion was the consequence
in regard to par and part. — I shall soon have occasion to
resume the verbs faran, faran, &c. ; and I shall prove
then the possibility of par being a derivative of faran.
7thly. When the French par is to be considered as
equal to operator or co-operator, or rather, is to announce
that an operator or a co-operator is coming forth, I might
say that it is for parti operant (active party), or that it is
a contraction of parero, which, from the Spanish parar,
would express fitter, contriver, deviser, &c. : but since
the simple adjective par has, in Spanish, a signification
which may be expressed in English by who. (or what),
is equal to, who (or what) is a match for, and the word,
seemingly governed hy par, is actually the individual per-
son, or thing, that is to be viewed as causing (having
caused, or that will cause) the action or event to take
place, I see no occasion for it.
Sthly. But, some perhaps will object that the French
pat
157
far is often found in Spanish, to bo por, and will ask :
Is the Spanish por a. corruption of the Spanish adjective
par? — The fact is, that anciently the French wrote
pour in circumstances wherein they now write por, as in
pourtraire, pourtraiet, pour traict urn, instead of portrairg,
portrait, portraiture, all rather obsolete, except portrait :
the French formerly used frequently pour, where they
now employ par, saying pource que instead of parce que :
the French use now very frequently pour, with the infi-
nitive, or pour que, with the subjunctive, where parce que,
with the indicative, might be introduced; as in " Vous
serez tance, pour etre {parce que vous tics) sorti sans per-
mission ;" and in " Jc vous fais cette question, pour ap~
prendre (pour que j' apprenne, parce que je voudrois ap-
prendre) ce qui s'est passe." — The Spaniards themselves
use para que and por que ; but as they do not employ
these indifferently, some shade of difference must have
been established between xYmvpara and por, perhaps by
the mere fancy of some author, or of some person of emi-
nence, more than by the real primitive of either or of
both; and indeed per, in Italian, is for the Spanish pa ra
and por, consequently for the French par and pour.
78. B. You have now clearly settled the French Par
and the Spanish Para; but whence can you derive the
Spanish Por, the French pour, the English For, the Ger-
man For and (in, the Dutch Voor, the Latin and Italian
Per, the Greek" •aa.l and tsa^a-, when used as preposi-
tions ?
LXXIX. S. The name preposition would, after all,
characterise that sort of words, nearly as well as the
name Fore-runner, if Grammarian* had been fully ac-
quainted with the several meanings and functions of each:
but
153
but T think that the name which would be most p.pplica*
ble is determinative. Your latter question, Mv ('ear
By, is rather complicate, but I shall give you a few h.nts,
that you may, at your moments of leisure, consider the
subject. The particles or words you mentioned lifla
(every one the same origin, whence sprang ver i \ us
families in Anglo-Saxon, Greek, Latin, G
glish^ &c.
ist. Mr. Tooke savs that the English preposition for
comes from the Gothic fairina, which, according '.o inm,
means cause. — I find indeed that the Gothic noun fairina,
existed, and is translated causa, culpa, crimen: I find
■also, in Anglo-Saxon, firen, translated causa, cm,. en,
feccaiuvi) with the verbs fireman, jirni an, ge-fir t nau (all
translated peccare, and nothing more) , and firenan (peccare,
mcechari). — This investigation gives reason to suspect that
the first interpretation causa was intended by the trans-
lator for mischievous deed (punished or to be punished),
and that it cannot be for the cause of any other event.
Yet, it cannot be denied but that in general the English
for may, with proprietv, be replaced by the word cavr:,
often equivalent to operator or co-operator : hence other in-
vestigations are necessity; the more so as ' the corres-
pondents, in other languages, to the English preposition
for, may thereby be traced each to its origin.
adly. I might have said that the Anglo-Saxons having,
to express life, spirit, -soul, the words J cor, feorh,jior ferb,
ferhth,ferth, these words have been corrupted into for,
which words, taken figuratively, may have become each
equal to mover, agent, operator • and indeed " He is the
soul of the Cabinet," is tantamount to " He is the chief
man (the head) looked up to by the members of the Ca-
binet ;
159
bmet ) he is the npcral',r of the measures resolved upon*
8ccv" — But, though this be possible, yet, being aware
that those words were already used figuratively tor hit-
man career, sphere, course, race, j'Aivr.ey (as applied to
the time allotted to mankind until dcath\ I thought
proper to push my investigations further. — These will
better than all others perhaps, serve as a clew for tracing
words to their right origins, and confirm that etymology
is a science, which though ridiculed by the ignorant and
conceited, ought to be particularly attended to by those
who wish to know the close relations which exist between
the words used in language, though differently written.
3<Hy» the Gothic participial adjective Baura (natus),
comes from the Gothic verb Bairan : the Gothic parti-
cipial adjective Faura comes consequently from such a
Gothic verb as Fairan, not be found perhaps at present,
or iron* / ^-an which is yet found. — It has been remarked
that the Anglo-Saxon writers of the middle age had in*
iroduced tiie particle free for an initial word in com-
position, by an imitation of the Latin particle pree ; so
very apt were the Saxons to change p into f.
4thly. The Greek relative answering the English that,
is in the dative feminine w orf,, and tu or a, sometimes &
(to that). — I consider the Greek prepositions wapa as equal
to vse^-zi (often with the subaudition of a noun in the
feminine)) and indeed zsa^al is found repeatedly in Ho-
mer, and several compound words have vafxi for the
initial word.— The Greek verb <mdfta has existed, and
from it Lennep has derived the Latin verb p <rare, a
Well as parr?;: (to appear, 8cc). In the Interlocution
LXXVH* I have derived the Latin verb parare from par
{equal, alike, similar, &c.) ; I look upon it that parere
claims
160
claims the same origin — The French verbal termination
t/trc (as it is considered in generajj was formerly oistre,
out of which istre, from the Italian isl^.re, for stare, was
equal to the ancient French verb eslre, now ctrc (to be) 2 it-
s !f from the Spanish es tar [lobv). Conn, in Iberno-Celtic,
means sense, reason, whence the English verb to eon (to
know, to examine attentively, and fix in one's mind),
and whence the verb kunnan in Gothic, cunnan in
^Anglo-Saxon, both equal to the Latin noscere, scire (to
know) ; one of the participial adjectives arising from
the latter verbs was kunna, cunna, or kunno, cunno
(knowing) : add to cunno, the ancient verb istre, you
will form cunnoistre, whence, connoitrr, of equal value
with ie be knowing, i. e. to know *. Let us apply the
same process, in order to find the primitive signification
of the French verb paroiire, which may be said of an
object that has reached such a level, or is 9 ^situated,
that the eye may catch the said object ; as the case is in
regard to the sun, when he comes even with the horizon,
or when he becomes free of such clouds as obscured
him. — The French use the expression " Paroitre grand,"
in regard not only to a man, but to any thing : the ex-
pression or phrase is then equal to Ctrc comme grand, to
be great like, Sec.
* But some will say that, anciently, the verb 'was cognoisfre,
•which circumstance indicates that the verb was formed from the
Latin caunoscc/e. I maintain that both verbs come from either
the Celtic clement coitn or from the Gothic verb kunnan ; that
the Latins, having subsequently changed in coniiosco, the con Into
cug, on account of the second 11 in nosco, the Gallic nation
imitated the conquerors, and wrote cognoistrc instead of con-
iwjstrv; and that when conmisfre was afterwards returned to,
the French, without being aware of it perhaps, pointed out the
real origin of the word.
Stilly,
161
5thly. The Greek tsaqo;, long considered by Gram-
marians as an adverb, the force of which was expressed
by the Latin ante, antea, prius, was virtually an adjec-
tive, absolutely used indeed, but equal to anterior,
prior : just as the GoiWxc f aura, faur, which (as I have
already said) came from the Gothic verb faran, or the
obsolete fairan ; all the gradual significations of which
may most probablv, be found in the German verbs
Fabreu and Fcchren ; some in the Anglo-Saxon faran
fcran, the English to fare, &c. — I have said, in the
preeeding article 3, that the Gothic Baura (BaursJ is
given as meaning natus : its other gradual significations
we may not be able to trace ; but it is a participial ad-
jective, formed from the Gothic verb Bairan* (portare,
ferre, gestare, &c), whence the Anglo-Saxon verbs
baran, bear an, beoran, beran, by ran, the English verb
to bear, the Dutch baaren, &c. all which ought to be
examined, as to their gradual significations, for these
were most assuredly applicable to the participial Gothic
adjective Baura, — What I have just said in regard to
Baura, ought to be done also in regard to Eaura,
although the dictionaries tell us it means the same
with the Latin ante, antea, prius ; and indeed it must
be like the Anglo-Saxon participial adjective fora,
fore, and the participial adjective forth, which the dic-
tionaries present as being equal to the Latin provecttcs,
translatus, but which must have had other significations
besides, according to the gradual views in which the
verbs have, themselves, been taken. — We plainly dis-
• This Gothic verb lairan was probably formed from the
oriental bar or her, which as well as the Islandic rerfc her, means
to bear, to produce-
M «o?«r
to
162
cover an equivalent to anterior in the adjectives ^/ora and
fore, when we read fora-saga (prasfatio), foran-bodig
(anterior pars corporis), foran-dteg (antelucana pars
diei), foran-htefde or fore-heafod (anterior pars capitis,
irons), foran-niht (primum noctis, crepusculum), on
foran-nibt (prima nocte.)
<5thly. I strongly believe that the primitive far, in the
sense of even, like, similar, level, equal (words so very
necessary for comparing objects together), is a word of
remote antiquity. Its origin may, perhaps, be traced
thus : It is by a sort of comparison that the French say,
<c Cela va bien/' and " eela va mal :** in " voyons
comment cet habit vous va," which would be trans-
lated, into English, by Let us see how that coat fits you
(suits you, &c), we clearly see that aller, in French, is
used for expressing to jit, to s?iit, &x. — Now as the
French verb aller hfaran in Gothic, we may rationally
consider the Latin adjective par (which among other
significations, suitable to comparisons, has those of fit,
proper, suitable^ correspondent) as derived from the Go-
thic element far in the Gothic verb far an. — Every one
conversant in Etymology knows how easily, and how
frequently f and p were used instead of one another.
In the Islandic dialect, we finder used as the Germans
and Dutch use paar (for the English pair, and the
French noun feminine paire), whence the German and
Dutch verb paarsn, in the sense of to pair, to match *
but, though the German and Dutch stop here, yet, it is
obvious that to match a thing, is to join to it its felloiv
or something of the same at least in some respect. — I
strongly believe that the verb miffr existed in Greek as
formed either from that par, or from the Gothic verb
f strati.
163
fay an (by a change of theyinto/>) ; that, consequently
the participial adjective Wpoj was, sometimes for. par (in
the sense of even, level, equal, similar, See. and some-
times for the primitive far (in the Gothic verb far an) ±
to denote, among other ideas, that of anterior part ; be-
cause, who or what moves on, suggests a notion of pos~
siblc anteriority : and, indeed, anteriority may be ob-
tained by the having gone beyond others ; from which
notions also it may be conceived how faura, fora, fore,
forth, came to imply motion along or around or
iff rough .
7thly. The Gothic fcra expresses, we are told, the
plural of the Greek noun mipctt, : that Gothic word Vera
comes from the Gothic verb feran, perhaps no longer to
be found, but which the Anglo-Saxon has preserved (as
well as feran, fer; an) — From that Gothic or Old Saxon
verb, came the Latin ' ferere anciently, and then, by con-
traction, ferre ; whence the English verb to fire, and
those infer (as to confer, to defer, to differ, to infer , &c.)
the French verbs, in ferer (as confer er, defer er, differ er y
inferer, 8cc), and even, by contraction and corruption,
the French verbs mfrir (as off'rir, sovffrir).
8thly. From the Gothic noun^ra, or the Old Saxon
verb feran (if the Gothic feran did not exist), by
changing they into/), arose the Greek verb tsi^, and it
js said, which is very probable, that from this arose wepas
(aperture, passage, transition, bound, limit, end, aim,
in short, the act of going along or around or through ;
from which ts'sqaq came is'i^a. (above, beyond), tstpav and
<Bepw used in the same sense with rzk^a, and the pretended
conjunction z:\p (through all that, nevertheless, how-
ever, and, wherever). — I do not know, however, whether
M 3 the
164
the Gothic participial adjective fera may not have
existed in the Gothic, to express passing (travelling, &c.)
along or around or beyond-, certain it is that analogy
is in favour of the affirmative. From the obsolete Greek
verb is-f^w, likewise, came the obsolete noun -ste^j, it is
said, the meanings of which are supposed, and not with-
out foundation, to be those of wecaj. Now, considering
fera, 'srepag, ts'i^H, as equal to road, way, course, range,
space assigned, circumscribed place, passage along or
around, or beyond, and end, we may conceive that end
proposed, aim, means pursued, motive for acting, may
easily result from the same, and these be equal to either
operator or co-operator.
gthly. The Greek verb terep (whence vstpdu, >mpxha i
vrspocioca, vssipu) became obsolete perhaps merely because
f spa came in use (especially as the pronunciation of the
latter may have been something softer than isspw), which
fiott was obtained by aspirating gently the vs in «Jjw. —
The Old Saxon participial adjective bora (ferens, gerens)
shows that the Old Saxon verb boran must have existed,
whence the Bnglish verb to bore. — Again, the Anglo-
Saxon fora came from the verb Foran, whence the
Latin foro, the French verb forer (to bore), the French
noun foret (auger, piercer, gimblet), and the French
noun forure (hole made with an auger, &c.) — The Greek
word tsopof (transitus, meatus, adjumentum, ratio
alicujus rei EFFieiEND^E et via) proves that
the verbs vso$u, iho$eu, izcfiw, have existed, to answer to the
Anglo-Saxon verbs boran, foran, by changing the b and
/"into to. — The Anglo-Saxon words foerde (precessit) and
ferde or fcrd (arising i'romferan, or the Anglo-Saxon
word ford), gave the Latins an opportunity to form (by
changing
165 %
changing/* into p, and d into /) their verb porto, whence
their partus, porta, 8cc. : from that very verb came the
French porter (whence port, parte, &c), the Italian
portare (whence a numerous family), the Spanish,
par tar (whence a small family, among which puerto and
puerta, for the Latin port us and porta). — From the
Anglo-Saxon boran ox far an (by changing b or f into
<p, just as in Qspu from beran or feran) came <p6pa, ob-
solete indeed, but whence the participial adjective <p6po$ t
the verb $opsx, and the word tpopro;, which perhaps gave
an opportunity to the Germans to say pforte for a door.
— Nay by changing b or f into <w t were obtained the
Anglo-Saxon verbs iveran, wexrian (from beran or
feran), the English to wear, the Dutch waaren, and
ivoeren.
lOthly. Since b andycould, in the ancient languages,
be changed into w, it would not be irrational to infer
that w and v could also, in those languages, be
changed into b ; and, as wc find that, in Celtic, viw, in
Gothic, wigs, wiga, trig, were used for the Latin via,
iter, in German weg, whence ivegen equal to for, on
account of, 8cc. iii Anglo-Saxon wig, weg, weg, weggc,
lueie, for the French voie, for the English way, wc
might look upon it as pretty evident that the English by
conies from those words, when it seems to stand either
for operator, or merely for ivay, side (as in Division V.),
and say that steering by it, for steering along it (or the
like expressions), may be for steering (the) way (of) it,
made equal ta steering (the) length (of) it : one might
also think it not improbable that the by noticed at Divi-
sion X, as standing for ocrrfpying, possessing, or to denote
situation, should come from the Old Saxon <wic or ivyc
(in
166
(in Latin, mansio, vicus, platea, &c), a derivative of the
Old Saxon verb mcian or vtcegsan (in Latin, habitare,
manere, babitationem habere. See.) — But I freely confess
that the proper origin of by, in the sense of way or road %
is, in my opinion, such as I have mentioned at Interlo-
cution LXII. However it be, what I have here sug-
gested is not only possible, but cannot do any harm ; and
the better to establish the figurative significations which
may be allotted to the noun way, I shall add that from
the Celtic v'iw, or Gothic wigs, came also other nouns
to express not only ivay but mode, -manner, method, (or
the like) : namely, the Old Saxon and English wise, the
German iveis or wcise, the Dutch wys or wyze, and the
French guise. Again, iveis added to adjectives is equal
to the English suffix ly * j as in, bestandige weis, firmly,
in a firm manner : the same weis used as a suffix to
German nouns expresses the manner how things are
disposed, arranged, sold, &c. as in ellcnwcis, by the
ell ; havfenweis, in heaps, by heaps, in crowds, by crowds^
&c. — Nay, I consider the German wie, called by some
an adverb, by others a conjunction, because it expresses
bow, in what manner, as being only a slight corruption
of the German noun weis, manner, mode, &c,
uthly. The derivation of the Greek prepositions
raapa.) and tsa^a, is suggested to be from wctpog, attrn
buting to this a double function, namely, of denoting
* Leika (in Gothic) means image, form, manne,r t representation x
pattern, resemblance ; and liea (in Anglo-Saxon) means the same;
hence maa-leica in Gothic, and man-lica or mon-lica in Anglo-
Saxon, for resemblance of man or ?nmis likeness, hnape of man, Sec.
— From those leika, lica, arose lie in Anglo-Saxon, like in English
and the contraction ly, to express wniivr, in a similar manner, &c,
anteriority,,
167
anteriority, excess, (according to the 5th article), and oi
comparing objects together (according to article 6th) —
The Latin pro. is a contraction of -sra^a* (by suppressing
the first «), whence afterwards the Latin prater.
The Dative masculine of ztdqos is tsa.fjj, whence, by
contraction, <srpo, and the Latin pro. The same wa^of*
by suppressing a, formed the Greejc preposition ^oj.
As the Greeks had anciently zsd^i;, instead of wdgos,
that WZflf, by suppressing a, became •&&, whence the
Latin pri in pridie, prior, &c. : and from the accusative
'ssfiv, the Latin prin came, found used in .the initial of
princeps.
The derivation of the Greek preposition nsst^l, con-
tracted ly isrsf, whence the Latin and Italian per is sug-
gested in article 8th.
The derivation of the Spanish por is suggested in arti-
cles 9th, 5th, and 6th : — nor does it signify much whether
you consider it as coming from the Greek wofoj or the
old Saxon for a, or from any word of the like nature, as
the Cimbrian foera (iter, &c.) or the Celtic porh which
means passage, opening, door, &c.
The derivation of the Old Saxon and English for is sug-
gested in articles 5th and 6th. — A thing which cannot
be denied, is that it might also be considered as a corrup-
tion of the German fur (an abbreviation of fubvc (way,
road, conveyance, manner of conveying, 8cc.) or of
fi'itjrcr (leader, guides, Sec), and aa contraction of fore,
when the point is to specify anteriority. In regard to
for used 2R a negative prefix, the subject has been dis-
missed in art. 5th of Interlocution LXXI.
^The German vor, <ooran, being chiefly used to denote
anteriority,
168
anterior' ty, come from the Gothic four or faura, or
rather from the old Saxon fora, for an : hence, the Ger-
man preposition vor is distinct from fiw.
The Dutch preposition voor, performing the double
function of denoting anteriority, and passage or transi-
tion, &c. comes from the old Saxon for (whence, the
English/or chiefly).
The French preposition, pour comes from the same
source with the Spanish por, the old Saxon for, &c. —
Nor, from the investigations I have entered into, is it
surprising that the French should have formerly used
four, in regard to circumstances wherein they now used
far, since it is evident that the words came from the
same kind of adjectives or the same kind of verbs.
79. B. Let me tell you, that though you seemed at first
to wish merely to establish one grand principle, namely,
to point out how far the notion of operator or co-operator
may extend ; and to make your readers understand that
(this notion being applicable to whoever or whatever
causes, did cause, or will cause, such or such event to
come to pass, such or such condition to be), on a per-
son asking the questions how P why P (or the like), after
the statement of the bare event or condition, the answer
will generally make him discover the operator or co-opera-
tor : — Yet, you have insensibly suffered yourself to be
drawn into a string of etymologies, in the getting put
of which, you have given repeated proofs of what man
can do when he is not be daunted by difficulties.— You
have successfully explained by what mechanism many
necessary tools had been contrived by our ancestors,
taught the workman to know their value, and even
pointed
169
pointed out where he may use them with ease as well
as skill. — On the subject of association or concomitance f
you have shewn by what sort of link individuals can be
introduced in many different languages ; nor have you
forgotten to touch on the contrary of concomitance : on
that of place, generally found by asking the question
where? You have thrown such a light as will not die
away ; and the value of the words, Introduced to an-
nounce place, will no longer be words of unsettled mean-
ing, whether continued to be called prepositions, whether
denominated henceforth fore-runners or determinatives :
on those prepositions which are introduced to announce
way, road, course^, &c. generally answering the question
which way ? you have said enough to prevent their being
hereafter placed among the words considered as fion-de
scripts. — 1 cannot recapitulate all the points you have
handled with success : but there is that of possessor and
possession, concerning which you have given several use-
ful hints* and I wish you would tell me if the notion of
possessors and possession extends very far in language.
LXXXi S. Next to the notion of operator or co-ope falor,
there is none that returns more frequently into speech
than that of possessor \ and that notion extends much
further than many people are aware of. Every moment
we are asking the question whose? — -Whatever a man
may dispose dfj as he pleases, is a possession quite real
in regard to him : whatever he thinks he may dispose of
he also views as a possession, however precarious this
may be. — A man goes even so far as to consider like a
-ession arfy person he commands or employs, all he
1 Niches, all he does* all he says, all he occupies himself
H with*
170
with. — What I say is so true, that, in presenting* with,
a noun, those aetions, occupations, 8tc. he gives to that
noun, or at least he may give it, one of the possessive
adjectives in lieu of its article; hence it is that your
action is not only for the action of you, the action which
you are performing or whicbyoii have performed ; but also-
for the action which you mention or which you have men-
tioned: hence, likewise, my man is not only for the man
of me or belonging to me, the man I have, See. : but for
'the man of whom I sptak, or have spoken, &c. so likewise
his book, is not onlv for the book he has, the book of him
or belonging to him, &c. but for* the book he is making or
has made, &c. &c. — These examples will be sufficient
for any one to conceive that the idea of possession may
be extended to a vast number of circumstances ; especi-
ally if he reflects that inanimate, things arc very frequent-
ly personified, and consequently susceptible of appearing
each in the character of a possessor. But how impercep-
tibly the notion of operator changes into that of pos*
• sessor, may be conceived by this instance : u the action
which you have performed," or" the action which has
been performed by you" wherein the word you represents
the operator j while in c 'your action," the word your is
generally understood to be a possessive adjective equal
to belonging to you, and (i your action ' is considered as
" the action belonging toyou:" and yet u your action"
i? often sajd for " the action which you have performed."
80. B. Before I quit you, I cannot but declare what
I feer — if a teacher be desirous of exercising properly the
judgment of his pupils, and of preparing them so as to
insure a rapid progress in their study of the ancient, as
well
171-
well as of the modem languages, he cannot put Into their
hands a book better calculated for both objects than the
one you have just contrived. —Wishing that your labours
may meet with the countenance which they deserve From
the Public, I shall now lake my leave of vou. — Fare-
well !
THE END,
rPI*T*ri BY R. Wll.KS, 80, CliANCSHY-MNE.
ERR ATA.
Page.
3 9, line 7, — For, I wish to be understood — read-^l wish it to be
understood.
33, the last line but one in the reference — -for, quos ortu Germano— read
— quos ortu Germanos
S3, line 7, — for, now, , whose nose — read— now, I, whose nose.
40, in Example \—for, by every man — read — by every good man.
in Example 5— for, by my father — read — of my father -The printer
changed of into by ; but the Author, by quoting that example with of,
intended to show that of was formerly used instead of by after a passive
verb.
52, line 25,— for, a toi, soi, — read — a toi, a soi.
53, the first reference ought to present itself with *,
09, line 15, — for, warlike part — read — warlike port
199, line 4,— for, bught — read — bugt.
Ill, line 1, of the reference— for, Count — read — Court.
113, iine 10, for, botontitus — read — botontinus.
1 1 i, line 7, for, abut — rend— abbut.
U", line lo,for, contracted bv h — read — eontractedly a- .
167, line 2-7, fur guides — read guide ; and for a a — read — as a.
, 1CS, line 12, — for, they now used — read — they now use.
line 28,— for, not be daunted — read — not tobedauntcd;
CONTENTS.
XI OW far the notion of operator, and co-operator, is applicable
p. r>,6, 7, 12, 13, H, 17-
A general rule for discovering the operator of an action, of an
event, of a condition or situation ; p. 13, in note.
An anecdote serving to prove how a name may he so clipped as to
retain part only of what it was originally, and then so writhed in
pronunciation as to appear, in the sounds, quite another word
than that which writing presents ; p. 8.
How consonants came to replace others ; p. 9, ]0.
W is frequently suppressed or changed into V, &c. p. 10.
The aspiration used in one dialect is omitted in another, or con-
verted into f, b, v,s, &c. p. 10.
J low vowels came to replace others ; p. 10, 1 1.
An anecdote concerning the French diphthong oi ; p. 11, 12.
Inanimate things are personified much moie frequently than one
is aware of. They may be introduced as Agents; they may also
be introduced as Patients ; p. 14.
l'.xamples to elucidate what grammarians mean by Agent and
Patient; p.. 15.
An action may be done in consequence of force or persuasion, in
iqi\!?quci}cco{somecirc't/nsta/iccs thereby the individual is mov-
ed to the said action; p 16,10.
^n example in elucidation, with an injluencing Agent and an »«•
jtuenced Agent ; p. \6, 17.
The preceding extended so as to present an additional Agent;
p. 17.
Tue construction which suits an active peri becomes reversed,
p when
CONTENTS.
» hen that is to be changed so as to demand the construction
allotted to a passive verb ; p. 18, 15.
What is to be undei stood by an oblique case ; p. 18, 19.
Two examples in elucidation of the oblique case; p. 20.
When au event, a condition or situation, is stated by a neuter
verb, the sentence may be so changed, as to become a 'sort of
active construction ; p. 20, 2.1, 22.
The individual whose situation or condition is presented with a
neuter verb, is actually the patient in the neutral construction,
and w ill remain so to be in any active construction replacing
the neutral one, p. 21, 22.
Sometimes a verb, in the active form, is used in the infinitive at
governed by another verb, and the Operator or Agent, in regard
to the governed verb, is left understood ; p. 22.
(Suffixes or terminations may be considered as articles : they are
often dispensed with ; p. 25, 26.
Whatever termination is added to a word, should be considered as
an article more or less powerful ; p. 27.
The care of removing the excess, or of supplying the deficiency,
which may arise from the curtailing of a word, or the manner
of its being introduced, has been gradually left, either to the
other words used in the sentence, or to the judgment of the
reader ; p. 25, 26.
With what a student of etymology ought to make himself well ac-
quainted; p. 26, 27.
How the real meaning of the prep is it ions has been lost sight of;
p 28, 29.
A ridiculous etymology heard by the Author, in regard to the
■word Guillotine; p. SO, 31.
There is no ground so slippery as that which Etymologists tread,
in search of primitives ; p. 31.
The language is rough in some countries, soft in others, -why ?-*.
p. 33.
A pure language never did, nor could exist for a long time, in a
considerable region, -without dialects ; p. 33.
Parts of the world in which the Celts were anciently seated
p. S3.
The Celtic said to have been the mother of all the dialects of Eu-
ropean nations ; p. S3.
The particular dialect, spoken by the people who inhabited a par-
ticular
CONTENTS.
tfenlar connfrv, must necessarily have become considrrablf
alfere bv the dialect of such an invading foe as, takin> v posses-
sion of that country, retained it for a considerable length of
time ; pL 54*
The Gaulish, or Gallic dialect was considerably altered, 1st by
Latin, 2dly by the Prankish, and other dialects: hence the pre-
sent Wench is a sort of mixture of all those, p. 34.
In Britain, a Celtic dialect was spoken, before the country hap-
pened to be invaded by the Romans ; this invasion altered the
dialect: fresh alterations were made by the Saxon-, who pos-
sessed themselves of the country : some more by the Danes, who
conquered it afterwards: the Normailic corrupted the dialect
prevailing in lotr>: but, in the 13th century, it began to unite
with the more modern French, and to form the present F.r.Jish
language, p. 35, 36, 37.
Through such a continual mixture of dialects, what course the
Author means to steer ; p. 37-
Whenever a word seemingly governed by a prcposit'on, can be
• brought to convey the notion of Operator or Cnoju-rafor, in re-
gard to an action, an event, a situation or condition, that pre-
tended preposition must be actually a. Noun, of equal value with
Operator or Cooperalor ; p. 8£J.
A set of 21 English sentences, with 'heir resolutions "so contrived
as to prove that the prepositions, used in those sen (cures, are
clearly standing each for some noun, equal to Operator or CD-
operator, introduce!} as afort-r/ciuer to announce that the O -c-
rjttor or Cooper.tt or h coining forth J p. 40, 41,4 2, 43, 44.
A set of 21 French sentences, with their resolutions so contrived
also as to prove that the prepositions, used in those sentences
may be made to disappear, by the same process as, applied to
the English sent.nces, evinced that each was equal to such a
noun as O em tor or Cooperate/ -; p. 47, 48, 50. '
By, Through, Of, For, At, With or any preposition whatever, found
introduced (in the modem and anciwit languages) along with
the Agent, the Cause, the Motive, the Instrument, the Manne>,
the Means ?ced or the Measure punned for causing something
to be, &c. — are each a fart-runnfr, equal to Operator or ('
tor, m meaning, butsimply announcing that i\\c rra! Operator*
or real Cooperator, is coming forth. Hence it appears that the
2, foltr
CONTENTS.
fore-runner is a redundant expression ; and indeed, some lan-
guages reject the same in many circumstances, and present ther
real Agent, or Cause, or Motive, &c. in a naked manner, that \s
to say, without expressing the preposition which other languages
must use, because custom has made it a law ; p,52, 54, 55, 56,
57, 58,59, 01. 105.
"When the preposition cannot he changed into Operator or Co-
operator, according to the resolutions that have been exhibited,
this preposition either must arise from some different significa-
tion allowed to exist in the primitive whence came that word
equal to Operator, or else must have been taken from some
other primitive ; p. 44, 45, 10G.
Several Latin sentences quoted, in everyone of which the Opera-
tor it pointed out, either by a fore-runner equal to that notion,
or by the word which, itself, is to stand as the Operator, p. 5S,
50,60,61,62.
Some of the words traced io their Primitives, or presented
as Primitives.
A, French preposition; p. 23, 48,
50, 54, 55, 138, 139
a, ab, abs, Latin ; p. 23, 58, 59,
60, from 106 to 111
about, English; p. 112, 113, 114
ad, at, Latin; p. 112, US, 114,
115, 116
along, English ; p. 77, 78, 79, 117
an, on, Anglo-Saxon prepositions;
p. 119, 132
ana; p. 117, 132
and, Conjunction ; p. 89
and, Anglo-S".xon preposition ; p.
117, 118
.inncau, French ; p. 98
apo, ap, aps, Greek ; p. 23, from
.106 to Hi
aprcs, French ; p. £0, 51, 57
apud, aput, Latin; p. 112, 113,
114
at, Latin for ad; p. 112, 1 IS, 114,
315, 116
at, Gothic, English; p. 41, 42,92,
116
arec, avecque; p. 48, 61,
62
Baguc, French ; p. 98
be, English prefix ; p. 07, 98
beside ; p. 79
by, English ; its origin andfuno
tions ; p. 7, 23, 6S, 64, 65, 99 r
100, 101, 102, 103
— for Operator or Co-perator •
p. 5, 7, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22,
40,
CONTENTS.
40, 41, 42, and from 66 to
71
— for performer, associate ; p. 72,
73
— for cours<; range, way, with
the additional idea of revolved,
completed, &c. p. 74, 75, 76
— for way, considered as n/>re-
sentalive ; p. 74, 75, 70
— for voi/, course, range, as equal
to steering along, &rc. p. 77, 78,
79
— for way, manner, as equal to
reciprocally contiguous, &c.
p. 80, 81, 8-2, 83
"— for way, manner, with a no-
tion of turning to, and naming •
p. 84, 85
— for icay, manner, method, as to
rotation, or succession ; p. 85,
86, 87, 88
— for -way, with a notion of turn-
ing and observing ; p. 89
— for way or road pursued, with
a notion of ranging, occupying,
possessing • p. 90, 91, 92
by the by, by the way, upon the
by ; p- 93, 94
by and by ; p. 94, 95
by, as a prefix ; p. 95
by, cs Subjoined, and with a Sub-
audition ; p. 96, 97
Chez, Trench • p. ] 15
co, col, com, con, cor, &c. as pre-
fixes ; p. 62, (53
connoltrc, French ; p. 100
cum, Latin; p. 61, 62
Da, Italian; p. 23, 138,139, 1 4 f,
142, 144
d'apres, French ; p. 5Q.
de ; p. 23, 26, 47, 43, 50, 55, 66,
60, 62, 139, 140, 141, 142, 14S
dc, a negative prefix ; p. 136
des, a negative prefix; p. J 36
di; p. 23, 27, 139, 142, 143
di, a negative prefix ; p. i£7
dia; p. 23, 27, 139, 142, 14S
dis, a prefix ; p. 136, 137
durch, German ; p. 23, 149
dys (fry?), Greek prefix ; p. 130,
137
E for ex, Latin ; p. 60, 111, 112,
1S7
en, French Pronoun ; p. 55, 55, 56
en, Preposition ; p. 50, 53, 55,
56, 119, 121, 122, 126, 154
en, English Suffix to nouns ; p. 1 26
essa, esse, esso ; p. 120
ex, Greek, Latin ; p. 00, 111,1 12,
137
Far, Anglo-Saxon; p. 135
fanum, Latin ; p. 130
feran, fer, frrer, fero ; p. 163
fitz, prefix to proper names ; p. 110
for, English preposititn; p. 41,
42, 57, from 157 to 168
for, English negative prefix ;
p. 135
frir, French, as in ojfrir, sourfrir,
p. 1G3
fro, from ; p. 26, 41, 42, 144
fur, p. 157, 167, 168
Gibraltar ; p. S5
guise, French ; p. 166
llof, suffix to proper names,
p. 109,110
lb, ibh^ Irish prefix to proper
names ; p. 110
in
CONTENTS.
for, preposition ; f). 119, 1*2. 125*
154
in, negative prefix ; p* 134
inn; p. 125, 127
is; p. 119
isos, Greek; p. 119
Like, ly; p. 166
Mac, a prefix to proper names}
p. 110
tne, mes, negative prefixes ; p. 136
tnet, meta, prepositions ; p. 147
mid, preposition and for middle ;
p. 147
tnis, missa, negative prefixes ;
p. 1S6
"mit, German preposition i p. 146,
147
Ne, Italian Pronoun"; As the
French en ; p. 54
O, art Irish prefix to proper names;
p. 110
of, preposition ; p. 1 7, 40, 4 1 , 42,
from p. 106 to 1 1 1
ohn, ohne, German ; p. 132, iS3
on, preposition; p. 42, 119, 127,
128, 129,
on, a negative prefix ; p. 133* 134
ond, Anglo-Saxon preposition ;
p. 117, 118
ont, Dutch negative prefix; p. 133
Par, French preposition ; p. 23,
47, 48, 50, 06, and from p. 152
to 157, 162, 168
par, Italian, for da parte di ;
p. 155
para; p. 23, from 154 to 159
paroitre, French; p. t6o
parvenir, French, p. 154
per; p. 23, 58, 59, 60, 157, 163,
167
peri ; p. 157, 164, 167
por, Spanish ; p. 2S, 157, l67, l6S
pour, French ; p. 50, 57, 157, 16?
prse, praeter ; p. 60, 167
pres ; p. 5 1
pro; p. 167
propter ; p. Go
pros, Greek; p. 167
Re, for, repeatedly, retragra-
dately; p. 128
S, Italian negative prefix; p. 137
same, English; p. 121
sans, French; p. 132, 133
sideway, sidewise; p. 79
son, a suffix to proper name*
p. 110
Term (boundary), term (word) ;
p. 121
thor; p. 148, 150
thorough; p. 15, and from 148
to 152
thro, Gothic suffix; p. 149
thro,' through, English ; as tho-
rough
thur; p. MS, i50
thura (S*p«) ; p. 23, 150
tor, Cimbridn ; p. 151
Ua, [irefix to proper names \ p. 110
un, negative prefix ; p. 134
Van, Dutch preposition ; p. 129, ISO
van, negative prefix ; p. 133
Venus, venustus ; p. 135
ver, a. negative prefix; p. 155
von, German ; p, 129, 1&0
vcor.
CONTENTS.
voor, Dutch; p. 157, 168 with, preposition; p. 20, 41, 145,
vor, German; p. 157, l67 146, 148
Wan, Gothic; p. 1S3, 134 with, wither, for German wieder,
way, ways, a suffix; p. 79, 141 p. 145, 146
wie, p. 166 witz, a suffix for proper' -names;
wieder, German; p. 146 p. 110
wise, as a suffix ; p. 79, 141, 165, won, wona, Anglo-Saxon ; p. W«V
166 1S3
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