-NRLF B 4 Sn b37 GESENIITS'S HEBREW GRAMMAR, READING BOOK. GESENIUS'S HEBREW GRAMMAR ENLARGED AND IMPROVED BY E. ROD I GEE, Ph.D., D.D I'ROFESSOR OF ORIENTAL LITERATUEE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF HALLE. WITH A HEBREW READING BOOK, B. DAVIE S, Ph.D., OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPSIC. Multffi terricolis liiigute, coelestibus una. LONDON: SAMUEL BAGSTER AND SONS, LIMITED. VI CON T E NTS PART II -FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, OK. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 30. The Stem-Words and Roots (Biliterals, Tri- literals, Quadriliterals) .... yi. Graniinatical Structuro .... CnAri'EU I. — The Fronouu. 3*2. Tlie Personal or Separate Pronoun . 33. Suffix Pronoun 34. The Demonstrative Pronoun 35. The Article 36. The Rehilive Pronoun .... 87. The Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns . Cn.\rTKU II. — The Verb. 38— 41. General View I. The Regular Verh. In General A. Tiie Simple Form, or Kal. Its Form and Signification Preterite of Kal, and its Tiiflexioii The Infinitive ...... The Imperative ..... The Future, and its Inflexion Shortening and Lengthening of the Future and Imperative (Jussive and Cohortativc Forms) ....... Preterite and Future wiih Vav Conversive The Participle ...... 4-2. 43. 44. 4.3. 46. 47. 4S. 49. 50. Pago 58 (;2 63 65 67 67 6!) 6!) 74 10 7.) 7S 70 B. Derived Conjugations. 51. Niphal 5-2. Piel and Pual 53. lliphil and Uophal 54. Uithpaol 5^}. Unusual Conjugations . . . . . 56. Quadriliterals ...... C Regular Verb with Pronominal Suffixes. 57. In General ...... 55. The Suffix of the Verl> .... 81 S3 84 85 87 89 91 9-2 94 94 95 Section PttRS 59. The Preterite with Pronominal Suffixes . 97 60. Future w ith Pronominal Suffixes . . 99 61. Infinitive, Imperative, and Participle with Suflixes 100 11. The Irregular Verb. .1. Verbs with Gutturals. &1. In General 100 63. Verbs Pe (iuttural. E. g. npv, /o »/«/«/ . 102 64. Verbs Ayin Guttural. E.g. tiriL", to slaughter 104 (i5. Verbs Lamedh Guttural. E.g. HX', to sciid lOJ B. Contracted Verbs. iMd. Verbs |3. Y^. g. 'C'i^, ti> approach . . 106 67. Verbs l-y. E.g. 2?D 109 C. Feeble A'erbs (A'erba Quiescentia). 68. Feeble Verbs nE. E. g. ^?X, to cat . 113 69. Feeble Verbs ^S. First Class, or Verbs ori- ginally 12. E.s.yS'l^todiceU. . .114 70. Feeble A'erbs ^2. Second Class, or Verbs properly ^2. V.. g. TQ^ , to be good . 117 7 1 . Verbs ^3 . Third Class, or Contracted Verbs 'E 118 72. Feeble Verbs iy. E.g. QJip, to me up . . 119 73. VirbsT. E.g. \'2, to discern . . . 123 74. Verbs nS'. E.g. NVrp A>/m/ . . 124 75. Verbs n5. E. g. rhi , to rcvcid . . 125 76. Verbs doubly anomalous .... 132 77. Relation of the Irregular Verbs to one another 132 78. Defective Verbs 133 CuArnii HI. — The Xoiin. 79. General View . . . . . .134 80. Forms which mark the Gender of Nouns . 135 81. Derivation of Nouns . . .136 82. Primitive Nouns ... .137 83. Verbal Nouns in General . . .137 84. Nouns derived from the Regular Verb . 1 38 CONTENTS. VI 1 Section Page 85. Nouns derived from the Irregular Verb . 141 86. Denominative Xouns . . . . 142 87. The Plural 143 SS. The Dual 145 89. The Genitive and the Construct State . . 146 90. Traces of Ancient C:\se-Eadings [Paragogic Letters] 148 91. The Noun with Pronominal Suffixes . 150 92. Vowel Changes in the Xoun . . . 153 93. Paradigms of Masculine Xouns . . . 154 94. Vowel Changes in the Formation of Feminine Xouns . . . . . . 160 95. P;u-aJisjms of Feminine Xouus . . . 161 Section 96. List of the Irregular Xouns 97. Numerals. I. Cardinal Numbers . 98. Numerals. II. Ordinal Numbers Page 164 165 168 Chapter IV. — The Particles. 99. Greneral View 100. Adverbs 101. Prepositions .171 102. Prefix Prepositions . . . . . 172 103. Prepositions with Suffixes and with the Plural Form 104. Conjunctions . . ... 168 170 173 175 105. Interjections 176 PART III.— SYXTAX. Chapxee. I. — Syntax of the Noun. 106. Relation of the Substantive to the Adjective, — of the Abstract to the Concrete . . 178 107. Use of the Genders . . . . .179 108. The Plural, and Collective Nouns . . 181 109. Use of the Article 1S4 110. Ditto 185 111. Ditto 186 112. Connexion ot the Substantive with the Adjec- tive 187 113. Apposition ....... 188 114. The Genitive 188 115. Expression of the Genitive by Circumlocution 190 116. Further use of the Construct State . . 190 117. Indication of the other Cases . 191 lis. Use of the Accusative .... 192 119. Modes of Expressing the Comparative and Superlative ...... 194 120. Syntax of the Numerals . 195 Chapter II. — Syntax of the Pronoun. 121. Use of the Personal Pronoun . . . 197 122. The Demonstrative and Interrogative Pro- nouns ... . .199 123. Relative Pronoun and Relative Clauses . 200 124. Mode of Expressing those Pronouns for which the Hebrew has no Proper Forms . . 202 Chapter III. — Syntax of the J'erb. 125. Use of the Tenses in General . . . 203 126. Use of the Preterite 204 127. Use of the Future 207 128. Use of the Lengthened and Shortened Future (Cohortative and Jussive) .... 209 129. Use of the Future with Vav Conversive . 210 130. The Imperative 211 131. Use of the Infinitive Absolute . . . 213 132. Infinitive Construct 215 133. Connexion of the Infinitive Construct with Subject and Object .... 216 134. Use of the Participle 218 135. Construction of the Participle . . ■ 219 136. Expression of the Optative . . .219 137. Persons of the Verb . . . 220 138. Verbs with the Accusative . . . .221 139. Verbs with two Accusatives . . . 223 140. Verbs with Prepositions .... 224 141. Coiistructio Pragnans .... 224 142. Construction of two Verbs to express one Idea 225 143. Construction of Passive Verbs . . . 227 TABLE OF ALPHABETS. ARABIC. ETHIOPIC. ARxMENlAN. COPTIC. GREEK. GERMAN. Final. Medial. Initial. UI a \ I .. a *a. u. i. a. a. e,f. o. P^ P A a A a a % a t__J ( ■> X :' b u i> f^ V y y ij h •h k B b,v B ^ b 25 b -V 3 t there A rV A, A A, ^ A- •1 hh 1- h t ss 1" A 6 g d e r A 7 g d (5 c 2) b •i^ r^ h CK> (?>■ <3^ <3^ CK^ iJs> cp m 4- e ^ z E e e e c Z t •5> r^ UJ llh Ui Ui Ut AJJ MJ s e H ei t t ii ri- kh 4 4, <^ ^ d, C C r th sh e til Z r z S f J jk •• d f] h. h, f\ ^ r\ ^ s b i 1 i H V e ® 9 • J J. there <^ <^ c^ ^ c^ J}3 cf k u 1 K k & e th ^ () J > r n fv a n a 'fi (^ b J- hh ds A 1 I i i S ii J ^ . . • • z LI m 1" 1^ in ;J" 't "^ "T t k gh 1^1 1 n K K k R f -1. A sh -^ ^ -^ -> ^ ^ < kh h zz X A X 1 S I u* u-^ -^ m9 S9 ^ '^ ^. 7 ^ ^ T n T- gh O b p,b r M H- m ?K m u^ u-^ -^ -J dd A A- A, A A A A a X dsh n P c T N V n 91 n k t tz ® ax T T T (D-P k w J 1, m h n s t,d 2 f X D t t X .c O ph 11 TT P J c^ A f k P 8 R. i' ^ ^ P- £ ^, J^ ^ J^ ^ ^ y d tsch b dj X -1' ch ps P Si P J? r s CJ LL) :=^L £=$ kh 1 "l- 1. 1. 1 •) g- fi_ rr CO !l T t X t J J i 1 I f/ s q I U u r r j Jb in n h rn nv ra Ti ra ^ rr» t p z 4 ut p a V d r tz cr sz sh 1 T X V Y 1 u ph ch e 9- a q a 6 ^ sz L. v,u 2 h 9E r J J j^ y ^ /i: di < < ^ d? f -A PP l3 kli w ylr ps ?) V LS L5 ^ kh t ti 1 n, (1) o ::i^ il •■ la T T X X ± T T p ^ f ii 3 5 r a as in Sam. e as in met. as in cot. • \ owEL Sounds. ^ a as in psalm. e as in feet. 6 as in bone I d as in mate. i as in fit. M as in full. CONSTRUCTED FOR BAGSTEr's GESENIDS's HEBREW LEXICON AND GRAMMAR. THE HEBREW GRAMMAR I N T R I) IT C T I N. Sect. 1. THE SHEMITIC LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 1 . The Hebrew is but a sino-le branch of a laro-e stock of lang-uao-es in Western Asia, which was native in Palestine, Phoinicia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Arabia; that is, in the countries from the Mediterranean Sea to the Tigris, and from the Armenian mountains to the south coast of Arabia. In early antiquity, moreover, it became diffused from Arabia over ^Ethiopia, and, by means of Phoe- nician colonies, over many islands and shores of the Mediterranean, but especially over the Carthaginian coast. There is no name, sanctioned by long usage, for the nations and languages united m this stock. The name Shemites^ Sheniitic laiiguages (suggested by Gen. x. 21, etc., where most of the nations using these tongues are derived from Shem) is, however, generally received at present, and may well be retained in the absence of a better.* 2. This Shemitic class of languages consists of three principal divisions: I.) The Arabic^ which has its seat in the south of the territory of the Shemites. To this belongs ^thiopic (in Abyssinia) as a branch of the southern Arabic (Him- yaritic).f 11.) The Aramcean in the north and north-east; which is called Syriac^ in the form in which it appears in the Christian Aramaean literature, but Chaldee^ as it exists in the Aramaean writinsfs of the Jews. To these writino-s belong: some later portions of the Old Testament, viz., Ezra iv. 8 — vi. 18, and vii. 12 — 26; * From Shem were derived (Gen. x. 21, etc.) the Arumaeiin and Arabian races as well as the Hebrew, but not the Canaanites (Phoenicians), who are derived from Ham (vs. 6, 15, etc.), though their language is decidedly Shemitic. The Assyrian language has been proved, after long uncertainty, to be Shemitic, as might indeed be presumed, since Asshur also stands among the Shemites in Gen. x. 22 ; where too the Elamites stand, whose lan- guage is not yet ascertained. t See Rodiger's Excurs zu Wellsted's Reisen in Arabien (Halle, 1842), Bd. II., S. 361. I See Tuch in d. Zeitschr. d. denhchen Morgenl. Gesellscha/t, Bd. III., S. 129 ff. 2 2 INTUODL'CTION. § 1. TIIK SHEMrilC LANGUAGI'S IN GENKRAL. Dji,,, ii. 4 vii. 28,* The Samaritan is an Araimcan intermixed with Hebrew forms, the idiom of the inscriptions upon tlie peninsuhi of Sinai, but more approxi- mate to the iVrabic.f The Aramajan of the Nassorceam (John's disciples, SabiansJ) is a very low and corrupt dialect, and just so the vernacular Syriac of the present day. III.) Tlie Ifebrew, with Avliich the Canaanitish and Phoenicia?! (Punic) stand in close connection, occupies in a measure, according to its character and o-eoo-raphical situation, a middle place between the Arabic and the Aramaean. As a separate and fourth principal division may be regarded the Assyrian {Old Bahi/lonish) as it is found in the cuneiform inscriptions. § All these languages stand to each other in much the same relation, as those of the Germanic familv (Gothic, ancient Northern, Danish, Swedish; High and Low German in more ancient and more modern dialects), or as those of the Slavic (Lithuanian, Lettish; ancient Slavic, Servian, Russian ; Polish, Bohemian). They are now partly wholly extinct, as the Phoenician, the Assy- rian, and partly only exist in a degenerate form, as the modern Syriac among the Jews and Syrian Clhristians in Mesopotamia and Kurdistan, j] the ^-Ethiopic in the newer Abyssinian dialects (Tigre, Amharic), and also the Hebrew among a portion of the modern Jews (although these in their writing aim especially at a reproduction of the Old Testament language). The Arabic is the only one that has, with little change, not only kept to this day its original abode, Arabia proper, but has also spread abroad on all sides into the regions of other tongues. The Shemitic family of languages was bordered on the east and north by another still more widely extended, which became diffused under most diverse forms, from India to the west of Europe, and is called the Indo- Germanic, as embracing the Indian (Sanskrit), ancient and modern Persian, Greek, Latin, Slavic, and Gothic, together with the other German languages. With the ancient Eo-yptian, from which the Coptic is derived, the Shemitic came many ways into contact in very early times. Both have accordingly much in common, but in some respects they differ materially. •! The Chinese, the Japanese, the Tartar, and other languages have a fundamentally different character. 3. The grammatical structure of the Shemitic languages has many peculiarities, which, as a whole, constitute its distinctive character, although many of them are found singly also in other tongues. These peculiarities are: a) Among the consonants, which always form the main body of these languages, are many gutturals varying in grade; the vowels, originating in the three primary sounds * The most ancient passage where Aramtean words, as such, occur, is Gen. xxxi. 47. Comp. also the Aramsean verse in Jer. x. 11. t See Tuch in d. Zeitschr. d. deutsrhen Morirenl. Ge.^elhchaft, 15.1. 1 1 [., S. 1 'I'd ff. l\r. A. Levy, ibid., Bd. X I V., S. 36:3 fY. \ So called from yi-f as being iia-nTiaTal : see Neander's Kircheiigeschichte, B. I., S. 646. — Tr. § After limclinsons first attempts, the deciphering of cuneiform letters specially advanced under Ilincks and Jul. Oppcrt; for the latter see Elements de la fft-amm. Asxyrienne, Paris, I860. Comp. Zeitschr. der d, M.G.^ Bd. X., S. 7-29 if. II See Riidiger in der Zeitschrift fiir die Kinide des Morgenlandes, B. II., S. 77 fF. ^ See Geseriius in d. Allg. Lit. Zeitung, 1839, No. 77 ft'., 1841, No. 40. Th. Benfey iiber das Verhdltniss der (igypt. Sprache zum Scmit. Sprachstamvie, I^eipzig, 1844, 8vo. Schwartze in den Alien Aegypten, and in Bunsen's Aegypten, I., S. 5"20, etc. § 1. THE SHEMITIC LANGUAGES IX GENERAL, 3 (a, /, w), serve for more subordinate distinctions; b) most of the radical words consist of three consonants; c) the verb has only two forms of tenses, with a peculiarly limited usage, and great regularity and analogy prevail in the formation of verbals; d) the noun has only two genders and a more simple indication of case; e) in the pronoun all oblique cases are indicated by appended forms (suffixes) ; /) scarcely any compounds appear in verbs or nouns (except proper names); g) in the syntax is found a simple combination of sentences, without much periodic subordination of members. 4. In respect, also, to the character of their lexkograpliy^ the Shemitic tongues vary essentially from the Indo-Germanic ; yet they appear to have more in common here than in their grammatical structure. A great number of stems and roots* resemble in sound those of the Indo-Germanic class. But irrespectively of expres- sions obviously borrowed (see below), the actual similarity is reduced, partly to words which imitate sounds (onomatopoetica), and partly to those in which the same, or a similar, sense results from the nature of the similarity of sounds, accordino- to a universal law of human speech. All this, however, is insufficient to establish an historic (gentilic) affinity, which latter can only be proved by an additional agree- ment in the grammatical structure itself.f As onomatopoetics, or roots similar in the nature of their sounds, may be classed together Pi:/, "=ID7, A.£ix^! (Egyptian yor, yero, yaro) river, the Nile ; =ini< (Egypt, ahi, achi) Nile-reed ; D^"]? =7rapa- 0€M7O9, Persian pleasure-garden, park; rC|i11 daric, Persian gold coin; D'!?J;}, from Ind. (Tamul togdi, peacocks. Several such words are found also in the Greek, as S|ip ''Sansk. kapi] ape, Kri-iroANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 5 Arabic not till the earliest centuries after Christ (Himyaritic inscriptions, the jEthiopic version of the Bible in the fourth century; and the northern Arabic literature since the sixth century). But distinct from this is the question, as to which of these languages has adhered longest and most true to the original Shemitic character, or which of these has come to us in a more antique appearance of its development. For the slower or quicker progress of a language spoken by a people depends on causes quite distinct from the development of a literature; and often the structure of a language is materially altered, before it attains to a literature, especially by early contact with foreign tongues. So in the Shemitic department, the Aramaean dialects exhibit the earliest and greatest decay, and next to them the Hebrew-Canaan itish, and the Assyrian in its peculiar manner ; the xA.rabic was the longest to maintain the natund fulness and original purity of its sounds and forms of words, being preserved undisturbed among the secluded tribes of the desert, until the Mahomedan revolution, when it suffered considerable decay. It was not till so late a period as this that the Arabic reached nearly the same point at which we find the Hebrew, even as early as the times of the Old Testament.* This accounts for the facts (erroneously considered so very surprising) tliat the ancient Hebrew, in its grammatical structure, agrees more with the modern than with the ancient Arabic, and that the latter, although it appears as a written language at a later period, retains yet, in many respects, a fuller structure and fresher vowel system than the other Shemitic languages, and therefore takes a place among them similar to that which the Sanskrit occupies among the Indo-Germanic, or the Gothic in the narrow circle of the Germanic. The Lithuanian, as compared with the other tongues properly called Slavic, shows how a language may preserve its fuller structure even in the midst of decaying sister tongues. So the Doric preserved with great tenacity older sounds and forms ; and so the Friesic and Icelandic among the German and Northern languages. But even the most steadfast and enduring structure in a language often deteriorates in single forms and inflexions ; while, on the other hand, we find here and there, in the midst of universal decay, traces of the original and the ancient. Such is the case with the Shemitic languages. Even the Arabic has its chasms antl its later growth ; yet in general it is entitled to the precedence, particularly in its vowel system. To establish and work out these principles would be the province of a grammar for comparing the Shemitic languages with one another. From what has been advanced, however, it follows — 1) that the Hebrew language, as it appears in the ancient sacred literature of the Jews, has suffered more considerably in its structure than the Arabic, which appears later in our historical horizon ; 2) that we are still not to concede to the Arabic the priority in all respects ; 3) that, finally, it is a mistake to consider, witli some, that the Aramaean, on account of its simplicity (occasioned, in fact, by derangement of structure and curtailing of forms), is the more orlginyl model of the speech of tlie Shemites. * The language of the Beduins in the Arabian desert has still preserved some of the anticjuated forms. See Burckhard's Travels in Arabia, Append. VHI., p. 466, his Xafe.s on (he Beduinx and Wahaby.i, p. 244; Wallin in d. Zeit.sch: d. Morgenl. Ges., Bd. Y. (18.51), S. 1, etc.; VI., S. 190, etc., .3()'J ; XII. S. 673 f. 6 INTRODUCTION. § 2- SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. On the character, literature, grammars, and lexicons of these languages, see Gesenius's Preface to his Heb. Handworterbuch, from 2nd to 4th edition. [Translated in the America7i BibUciiL Repository y vol. iii.] Sect. 2. SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. (See Gesenius's GesrJiichte der hchriiisrhen Sj)rac/ie imd Sclirift. Leipzig, 1815. ^§ 5 — 18.) 1. This language Avas the mother tongue of the Hebrew or Israelitish people, during tlie period of their independence. The name, Hebrew language (pli^*7 nn^y, y\o)(Ta-arMu'El3paia)v, e^pa'ia-rL) does not occur in the Old Testament, and appears rather to have been the name in use among those who were not Israelites. It is called, Is. xix. 18, language of Canaan (from the country in which it was spoken). In 2 Kings xviii. 26 (comp. Is. xxxvi. 11, 13), and Keh. xiii. 24, per- sons are said to speak nn^n"*. Judaice^ in the Jews' language, in accordance with the later usage which arose after the removal of the ten tribes, Avhen the name Jew was extended to the whole nation (Hag., Xeh., Esth.). Of the names Hebrews (□''"l^i?, 'Ejipalot, Hehrcci) and Israelites, (''>?']P'l \^2>, the latter was more a national name of honour, and was applied by the people to themselves with a patriotic reference to their descent from illu.'^trious ancestors ; the former was probably the older and less significant name by Avhich they were known among foreigners, on which account it is seldom used in the Old Testament, except when they are distinguished from another people (Gen. xl. 15; xliii. 32), or when persons who are not Israelites are introduced as speaking (Gen. xxxix. 14, 17; xli. 12 ; comp. the Lex. under ^1?^). The Greeks and Romans, as Pausanias and Tacitus, and so also Joscphus, use only the name Hebrews. It may-be regarded as an appellative, meaning ichat is beijoiid, people from the coiintry on the other side, with reference to the country beyond the Euphrates, from "I3y a haul on the other side, with the addition of the derivative syllable "'t (§ 86, No. 5). This appel- lation might then have been given to tlie colony which, under Abraham, migrated from the regions east of the Euphrates into the laiid of Canaan (see (ien. xiv. 13). The Hebrew genealogists, however, explain it, as a patronymic, by sons of Eber (Gen. x, 21. Num. xxiv. 24). In the times of the New Testament, the term Hebrew {k^pdia-Ti, John v. 2; xix. 13, 17, 20; e/Spais SiaXeKTos, Acts xxi. 40 ; xxii. 2 ; xxvi. 14 ;) was also applied to what was then the vernacular language of Palestine (see No. 5 of this section), in distinction from the Greek. Josephus, who died about a. t>. 95, understands by it the ancient Hebrew as well as the vernacular of his time. The name lingua sancfa was first given to the ancient Hebrew in the Chaldee versions of the Old Testament, because it was tlie language of tlie sacred books, in distinction from the Chaldee, the jwpular language, which was called lintjna profana. 2, In the oldest written monuments of this language, contained in the Penta- teuch, we find it in nearly the same form iu which it appears down to the Baby- lonish exile, and even later; and avc have no historical documents of an earlier date, by which we can investigate its progressive development. So far as we can trace its history, Canaan Avas its proper home: it was essentially the language o!" § 2. SKETCH OF THE HLSTOKY OF THE ^EBKE^y LANGUAGE. 7 the Canaanitish oi- Phoenician* race, by which Palestine was inhabited before tlie immigration of Abraham's descendants, witli whom it was transferred to Eg3'})t and brought back again to Canaan. That the Canaanitish tribes in Palestine spoke the language now called Hebrew, is proved by the Canaanitish proper names ; e. g.p'}.'^"''P^^ kinff ofri(//iteot(sness ; "iSP H^"}!? hook-toion. No less do the remaining fragments of the Phoenician and Punic language agree with the Hebrew. These are found, partly, in their own peculiar character (§ 1,5) in inscriptions (about 130 in number) and on coins (see copies in Gesenii Momimenta F/ioem'cia, T. HI. Tab. 6 — 48, and the explanations on pp. 90 — 328 ; Judas, Etude de la Langue Phcnicicnne, Paris, 4to, 1847 ; Bourgade, Toison d'or de la Lang. Phen., Paris, fol. 1852; De I/Uynes, M'emoire sur le sarcophage d' Esmti- nazar, Paris, 4to. 1856), and partly in ancient Greek and Latin authors, as, for instance, in Plauti Fosmdiis, 5, 1,2, where an entire piece is preserved. From the former source we ascertain the native orthography, and from the latter the pronunciation and vowel sounds, so that from both together we get a distinct notion of this language, and of its relation to the Hebrew. Deviations in the orthngraphij and inflfxion of words are, e. g. the almost constant omission of the vowel-letters (| 7, 2), as T\2 for rT-n house, ^P for Vip voice, pV for pTV, DiHD for U'^n^i priests, and the feminine ending in fl (ath) even in the absolute state (§ 80, 2), co-existing with that of X (6), and many others. More striking are the deviations in pronunciation, especially in Punic, where the i is generally sounded as u, e. g. tSDEJ' sufet (judge), K'lX' salus (three), ^'1 rus = K^Xi (head) ; and where we find the obscure obtuse // often in the place of short i and e, e. g. -ISlin ynnynnu (ecce eum), r\^ yth ; and o fori?, e. g. IpV^ Mocar (comp. nsyo LXX. Mw;^a). See a collection of the grammatical peculiarities in J/ofi. Phwnicia, p. 400, etc., and Movers' article Phonizien, in Ersch and Gruber's Encgclop., Sect. HI. Bd. 24, S. 434, etc. 3. The remains of tliis language, which are extant in the Old Testament, enable us to distinguish but two periods in its liistory. The first, which may be called its golden age, extends to the close of tlie Babylonish exile, at which epoch the second or silver age commences. The former embraces the larger portion of the books of the Old Testament; viz., of prose writings, the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, and Kings ; of poetical writings, the I'salms (\vith the exception of many later ones), Proverbs, Canticles, Job ; of the earlier prophets, in the following chronological order : — Joel, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Nahum, Obadiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel. The writings of the last two, who lived and taught just before the commencement and during the first years of the captivity, as well as the latter part of the book of Isaiah (chapters 40 — 66, together with some of the earlier chapters f), stand on the borders of the two ages. * |y33 , ''pyJS is the native name both of the Canaanitish trihes in Palestine, and of those who dwelt at the foot of" Lebanon and on the Syrian coast, whom we call Phoenicians, while they are called j^JS on their own coins. Also the people of Carthage went by the same name. t For an able defence of the genuineness of the latter part of Isaiah, see Hengstenberg's Christologij of the Old Test., vol. ]., p. 398 ff., of Keith's translation, or in the American Bib. Beposito7-y, vol. i. p. 700, etc. ; also Haver- nick's Einleituvg ins Alte Testament, §§ 217 — 220. That of the Pentateuch has also been successfully vindicated by many distinguished critics. See a valuable article on the subject in the American Bibliolheca Sac7-a, vol. ii., No. G.-- Tr. 8 INTRODUCTION. § 2. SKETCH OF THE HISTOHY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. The point of time at which we are to date the commencement of this period, and of Hebrew literature in general, is certainly as early as that of Moses, even if the Pentateuch, in its present shape and compass, be considered a work remodelled at a later period. For the history of the lano-uao-e, and for our present object, it is sufficient to remark, that the Pentateuch certainly contains some peculiarities of language which have the appearance of archaisms. When these books were composed, the words Nin he (§ 32, Rem. 6), and IV; young man, were still of the common gender, and used also for she, and young rvoman (like 6 Trats and rj irais). Some harsh forms of words, e. g. py^', pnv, which are common in these books, are exchanged in others for the softer ones, ?V\, PHE'. On the other hand, in Jeremiah and Ezekiel are found decided approximations to that Aramaean colouring which distinguishes the language of the second or silver age. See No. o. 4. In tlie books of the first period, which cover about 1000 years, we find con- siderable differences in language and style, owing partly to the difference of date and place, and partly to the individual gifts of the writers: e. g. Isaiah writes quite differently from the later Jeremiah, as also from his own contemporary Micah; and the historical books not only difi:er according to their dates, like Judges and Kings, but also contain older documents strikingly different in language and style from those of the later writer himself. Yet the structure of the language, and, with triflino- exceptions, its store of words and its usage, are on the whole the same, especially in the prose works. But the language of poetry is everywhere distin- guished from prose, not only by a rhythm consisting in measured parallel members, but also by peculiar icorch, forms, and significations of Avords, and constructions in syntax; although this distinction is not so strongly marked as it is, for example, in Greek. Of these poetical idioms, however, the greater part occur in the kindred lano-uages, especially the Aramaean, as tlie ordinary modes of expression, and pro bably are to be regarded partly as archaisms, which were retained in poetry, and partly as enrichments, which the poets who knew Aramaian transferred into the Hebrew.* The prophets, moreover, in respect to hmguage and rli}'thm, are to be regarded almost entirely as poets, except that in their poetical discourses the sen- tences run on to greater length, and the' parallelism is less measured and regular, than in the writings of those who are properly styled poets. The language of the later prophets, on the contrary, approxhnates more to that of prose. On the rhythm of Hebrew poetry, see De Wette's Commentar iiher die Psalmen, Einhitung, § 1 .] [The subject is briefly treated in the Reading Book at the end of this Grammar.] Of poetical words, for which others are used in prose, the following are examples, viz., K'iJN = DtX map ; ni'X = '^I'l path ; HHS = Ni3 in come ; HTO = in"1 word ; nTH = HXT fn see. • In Isaiah's time ('ind haU' of tlie 8th century before Christ) the more educated Hebrews, at lease the officers of .state, understood Aramrean, as is expressly mentioned in 2 Kings xviii. 2(i ; comp. Is. xxxvi. 1 1. f Translated in the Bihlical Hepnsi/nrt/. No. IX. — Tr. § 2. SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 9 Under poetical significations of words may be ranked the use of certain poetical epithets for substantives, e. g. T3N stro7ig one, for God; 1'3X, do. for bnllock, horse; njn^ alha, for lunn ; HTn^ unica, or solitaria, viz. anima, vita. Examples of poetical forms are, the longer forms of prepositions of place (§ 103, 3), e. g. "bv. = hy, "'bs ='?S, nj?=*iy ; the endings 't, \ appended to the noun (§ 90) ; the suffixes io, ID- 1D- for D, D7, Dt (§ 58) ; the plural ending Tt for D't (§ 87, 1). Among the peculiarities of Sj-ntax, are, the far less frequent use of the article, of the relative, and of the accusative particle HN ; tho use of the construct state even before prepositions, and of the apocopated future in the signification of the common future (§ 128, Rem. 2) ; and in general an energetic brevity of expression. .5. The second or silver age of the Hebrew language and literature, extendino- from the return of the Jews from the exile to the time of the Maccabees, about 160 years before Christ, is chiefly distinguished by an approximation to the Aramaean or Chaldee dialect. To the use of this dialect, so nearly related to the Hebrew, the JcAvs easily accustomed themselves while in Babylonia, and after their return it became the popular language, exerting a constantly-increasing influence on the ancient Hebrew as the language of books, in prose as well as poetry, and at last banishing it from common use. Yet the Hebrew continued to be known and written by learned Jews. The relation of the two languages, as they existed together during this period, may be well illustrated by that of the High and Low German in Lower Saxony, or by that of the High German and the popular dialects in Southern Germany and Switzerland ; for in these cases the popular dialect exerts more or less influence on the High German, both oral and written, of cultivated society. It is a false impression, derived from a misinterpretation of Neb. viii. 8, that the Jews, during their exile, had wholly forgotten their ancient language, and were obliged to learn its meaning from the priests and scribes. The Old Testament Scriptures belonging to this second period, in all of which that Chaldee colouring appears, though in different degrees, are the following, viz. — Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, Esther ; the prophetical books of Jonah,* Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Daniel ; of the poetical writings, Ecclesiastes, and the later Psalms. These books are also, as literary works, decidedly inferior to those of earlier date; though tliis period is not Av^anting in compositions, wliich, in purity of language and poetic merit, scarcely yield to the productions of tlie golden age; e. g. several of the later Psalms (cxx. etc., cxxxvii., cxxxix.). To this later form of the language, as affecled by the influence of the Chaldee, belong, — Words, for which others are used by the earlier writers; e. g. V^\ time=r\}}-^ 72ip fotal? {to sat/) to command; HJU (/o answer) to commence speaking. Peculiarities of grammar ; e. g. the frequent scriptio plena of 1 and *t, as ^*^ (elsewhere ''?'^}, * See a defence of the earlier flate and the geiniiiu'ncss of Jdiiah, in Haverniok's Eiiilcititng inx A, Test., %% 242 -247.— Tr. 10 INTRODUCTION. GRAMMATICAL TREATISES ON THE HEBREW LANGUAGE^. and even ^IP for ^IP, ^^"1 for 2") ; the interchange of H— and i<"7 final ; the more frequent use of substantives in i^, ]~, ni, etc. We are not to regard as Chaldaisms all the peculiarities of these later writers. Some of them are not found in Chaldce, and must have belonged in early times to the Hebrew pojiular dialect, especially in northern Palestine, where, perhaps, Judges and Canticles [and Jonah] were composed ; and hence we may account for the use in these more ancient books of -^ for "i^X (§ 36), which obtained also in Phoenician, and is found again in some later writincjs. Remark 1. Of peculiarities of dialect in the ancient Hebrew, only a few slight traces are found. Thus from Judges xii. 6 it appears that the Ephraimites always pronounced ^ like b or D ; and in Neh. xiii. 23, 24, the dialect of Ashdod (of the Philistines) is mentioned. 2. It is not to be supposed that the remains of old Hebrew literature in our possession contain all the treasures of the ancient language. These must have been more copious and richer than they now appear in the canonical books of the Old Testament, which are only a part of the national literature of the ancient Hebrews. Sect. 3. GRAMMATICAL TREATISES ON THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. (Gesenius's Gesch. der hebr. Sprache, §§ 19 — 39.) 1. After the gradual extinction of the Hebrew as a spoken language, and the collection of the books of the Old Testament into the canon, the Jews applied themselves to interpretation and criticism of the text, and to the preparation of translations of this their sacred codex. The oldest version is that into Greek by the so-called Seventy interpreters (LXX). It Avas executed by several translators, and at different periods of time. The work was begun with the translation of the Pentateuch, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, at Alexandria. Its design was to meet the wants of Jews residing in Alexandria and other Grecian cities, and was made, in part, from a knowledge of the Hebrew, whilst yet a living language. At a somewhat later period, the Chaldee translations or Targums ( p^^ii^iri, i. e. trans- lations) were made in Palestine and Babylonia. The interpretations^ drawn in part from alleged traditions, relate almost exclusively to civil and ritual laws, and to doctrinal theology. These, as Avell as the equally unscientific observa- tions on various readings, are preserved in the Talmud^ of which tlie first part {Mishna) was composed in the third century of the Christian era, the second part (Gemara) not till the sixth. The Mishna forms the commencement of the modern Hebrew literature, while the language of the Gemara closely approximates to the Chaldee dialect. 2. To the interval between the conclusion of the Talmud, and the age of the first writers on the grammar of the language, is especially to be assigned the applica- tion of vowel-signs to the hitherto unpointed text (§ 7, 3). Of the same period § 3. GRAMMATICAL TREATISES ON THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 11 te the collection of critical observations called the Masora ("TID/^ traditio)^ hy which our received text of the Old Testament was settled, continued down in MSS., and from which it bears the name of the Masoretic text. The various readings of the Q^ri are the most important and ancient portion of the Masora (§ 17V The composition of the Masora is not to be confounded \yith the task of siipplying the text witli the points. The latter is a work of earlier date and much more ability than the former. 3. The first attempts to illustrate the grammar of the language were made by the Jews, after the example of Arabian scholars, at the beginning of the tenth century. What was attempted by Saadia (ob. 942), and others in this department, is wholly lost. But there are still extant, in manuscript, the works of R. Jehuda Chayug (called also Abu Zakaria Yahya, about the year 1030), and R. Jona (Abulwalid MerAvan ben Gannach, about 1050), composed in the Arabic language. Aided by these labours, Abraham ben Ezra (about 1150), and R. David Kimchi (1 190 — 1200), acquired a classical reputation as grammarians of the language. From these, as the earliest ^Titers on the subject, are derived many of the methods of classi- fication and of the technical terms which are still in part employed ; e. g. the use of the forms and letters of the verb ^VS (formerly employed as a paradigm) in designating the conjugations, and the different classes of irregular verbs ; the voces memoriales, as J^??"]??, etc.--" 4. The father of Hebrew philology, among Christians, was the celebrated eJoh. Reuchlin (ob. 1522), to whom Greek literature also is so nmch indebted. He, however, as well as the grammarians down to Joh. Ijuxtorf (ob. 1629), adhered almost entirely to Jewish tradition.. After the middle of the seventeenth century the field of view gradually widened ; and the study of the kindred languages, through the labours, especially, of Alb. Schultens (ob. 1750), and N. W. SchrOder (ob. 1798), led to important results in the science of Hebrew grammar. To estimate correctly those works which have since appeared, and which are of permanent, scientific value, it is necessary to understand what is required of one who attempts to exhibit the grammar of an ancient language. This is, in general, 1) a correct observation and a systematic arratigement of all the phenomena of the language; 2) the explanation of these phenomena, partly by comparing them with one another, and with analogous appearances in the kindred languages, * On the origiii and earliest history of Hebrew lexicojrrapliy, see the preface of Gesenius to the 4th edition of his Heb. HandwurterJjuch. On the first grammarians, see also Sam. David Luzzatto's Prolegomcni ad unagramrn. ragionata deJla lingua ebraica (Padova, 18.36), p. 26 full ; 11. f:vvald and L. Dukes's Bcitriige zur Geschichte der aUesten Auslegung wid Spracherkldning des Alten Test. (Stuttg. 1844, 3 vols. 8vo ); II. Ilupfeld, de rei grnmmaticfp. njmd Jud(Pos iniliis antiqidssimixque scriptnrihts (Ilalle, 1846, 4to.) ; iMunk, Notice sur Ahmd-Walid ct sur qndqves antrrs grnnwiairipiif; hehreux da A'"" fit dv XI' siede, in the Jounml Asiatiqup^]fi'>0. 12 INTliODUCTION. DIVISION AND ARRANGExMENT OF GRA>LMAR. partly from the general analogy and philosophy of language. The first may b^ called the historical^ and the second the philosophical element in grammar. [The most valuable grammatical works are, (je^emvi&s Lehrgebdnde der hebr. Sprache, Leipzig. 1817. Lee's Lectures on Hebrew Grainmar. London. 1827. Latest edition, 1844. Ewald's Ausfiihrliches Lehrbuch der heb. Sprachs. Leipzig. 1844. Nordheimer's Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 2 Vols. New York. 1841. Th« best extant. Hupfield's ^w«/«A/-/j'cAc Aeir. Granimatik. Cassel. 1841. 1 Thl. 1 Abschnitt.] Sect. 4. DIVISION AND ARRANGEMENT OF GRAMMAR. The division and arrangement of Hebrew grammar are suggested by the three elementary parts of every language; viz., 1) articulate sounds expressed by letters^ and their union into syllables; 2) ivords ; and 3) sentences. The first part (which treats of the elements) contains, accordingly, instruction respecting the sounds, and the representation of them by letters. It describes, therefore, the nature and relations of the sounds of the language, teaches how to express the written signs by sounds (orthoepy), and shows how to write agreeably to established usage (orthography). It treats, moreover, of sounds as connected into syllables and words, and exhibits the laws and conditions under which this connexion takes place. In the second part (which treats of grammatical forms and inflexions) words are considered in tlieir quality as parts of speech. It treats, 1) of the formation of words, or the rise of the several ])arts of speech from the roots, or from one another; 2) of inflexions, i. e. of tlie various tbrms which words assume, according to their relation to other words, and to the sentence. The third part (syntax) shows, 1) liow the various inflexions of the language serve to modify the original meaning of words, and how other modifications, for which the language furnishes no forms, are expressed by periphrasis; 2) assigns the laws by which the parts of speech are united \vXo sentences (syntax in the stricter sense). PART FIRST. THE ELEMENTS. CHAPTER L— READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. Sect. 5.— the consonants, their forms, and names. 1. The Hebrew Alphabet consists of twenty-two consonants, some of wliicli have also the power of vowels (§ 7, 2). HEBREW ALPHABET.* Form. 1 r 2 J 1 n ? n 2 D y P n Represented by Hebrew- name. Sounded aa SiguificatioD of the names. ^or' ei^x A'-leph Ox b, bh n^5 Beth House g, gl' ^9'^ Gi'-mel Camel cl, dh V T Dd'-leth Door 1^ ^D He Window V 11 T Vdv Hook z n Zd'yin Weapon ch n'n Cheth Fence t m> Teth Snake y nv Yodh Hand k, kh 1? Kdph The hand bent 1 V T Ld'-medh Ox-goad m DQ Mem Water n lu Nun Fish s ■^»o Samekh Prop y or " rv A-yin Eye P, ph KS Pe Mouth ts " T Tsd-dhe' Fish-hook qt ^ip Qoph Back of the head r trn. Resh Head 1 sh, s ptr Shm Tooth t, th in T Tdv Cross Numerical value. i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 * For the sounds of the consonants and vowels in this table, see § 6 and note on § 8. — Tr. t The Latin q serves well for the Shemitish p (Greek Konna), as it occupies its very place in the Alphabet, 14 PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. KEADIXG AND OKTIIOGUAPII V. 2. The letters now in use, with whicli the manuscripts of tlie Old Testament are written (called the Assyrian or square character), are not of the original form. On the coins of the Maccaba^an princes, and upon some signet stones, is found another character, doubtless in general use at an earlier period, which bears a strong resemblance to the Samaritan and Phoenician letters (§ 1, 5). The square letter may also be traced back to the Phoenician; but it agrees best with certain Aramaean inscriptions found in Egypt, and with the Palmyrene.* 3. The five characters wliich have a different form at the end of a word {final letters),^ *], D, |, P|, ]^, terminate (with the exception of D,) in a perpendicular stroke directed downwards, whilst the common form has a horizontal connecting line, directed towards the following letter. 4. Hebrew is read from right to left. The division of a word at the end of a line is not allowed. To complete a line, certain letters {dilatabiles) are at times dilated. These are in our printed books the five following: — - D, n, S, n, X, (cn^n.^). Remark 1. The ^(/iires of the letters were originally slight and abridged representations of visible objects, the names of which began with the sounds of the several characters ; e. g. 7 » V the rude figure of a camel's neck, denotes properly a camel (/^il = -'91), but as a letter only the initial j ; O prop, eye, HV, stands only for y, the initial letter of this word. In the Phoenician alphabet espe- cially, the similarity of the figures to the object signified by the names is for the most part still apparent, and even in the square character it is still preserved in some letters ; e. g. 1, T, O, \ 7, ]', C. The most probable signification of each name is given in the alphabet. [For further information, see the initial articles under the several letters in Gesenius's Hehreiv Lexicon.^ However certain it is, on the one hand, that the Shemites were the first to adopt this alphabet, it is yet highly probable, on the other, that the Egyptian writing (the t^o-called phonetic hieroglyphics) suggested the principle though not the figures ; for these hieroglyphic characters indicate, likewise, chiefly the initial sound in the name of the object sketched; e. g. the hand, tot, indicates the letter /,• the lion, laboi, the letter /.J 2. The orde)- of the letters (the antiquity of which is clearly proved by the alphabetical poems in Ps. XXV., xxxiv., -xxxvii., cxix.. Lam. i.-iv., Pr. xxxi. 10-31) certainly depended originally on a grammatical consideration of the sounds, as we may see from the occurrence in succession of the three softest labial, palatal, and dental sounds, viz., 3, j, i, also of the three liquids, 7, D, 3, and other similar arrangements {^see hcpsms, sprachverc/lcic/tende Ab/uiii(Uu)i(/e>i, Berlin, 1836. No. 1); * On the ancient Hebrew signet stones, see Kodiger in d. Zeitsch. dcr deutschen Morgenl. Gesellschaft, Bd. IH. (1849), S. 243 and 347. f These letters are supplied with vowels and pronounced together, thus "33^3. Such coces memoriales were invented by the early Hebrew grammarians to assist in remembering certain classes of letters. ♦; See the works of Young, Champollion, and others, on the Hieroglyphics. Lepsius exhibits the chief results in his Lettre a M. liossclini sur Valphahct hieroghjphiqite. Rom. 1837, 8vo. Conip. Gesenius in der Allgem. Lift. Zeilu/ig, 1839. No. 77—81. Hitzig, die Erfindutig des Alphuheti. Zurich, 1840, fol. J. Olsliauseu ubur dun Ursprnng des Alphalets. Kiel, 1841, 8v{>. § G. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 15 but other considerations and influences have doubtless also had some effect upon it, for it is certainly not a mere accident, that two letters representing a hand ( Yodh and Kaph), also two exhibiting the head {Qoph and Resh), are put together, as is done moreover with several characters denoting objects which are connected [Mem and Nun, Aijin and Pe). Both the names and the order of the letters (with a sliglit alteration) passed over from the Phoenician into the Greek, in which the letters, from Aljjha to Tau, correspond to the ancient alphabet. Just so are the old Italic and Roman alphabets, and all directly or indirectly proceedin<' from them, dependent upon the Phoenician. 3. The letters are used also for signs of number, as the Hebrews had no special arithmetical characters or ciphers. But this usage [exhibited in the table of the alphabet] does not occur in the Old Testament text; it is found first on coins of the Maccabees (middle of the 2nd cent. b. c). It is now employed in the editions of the Bible for counting tlie chapters and A'erses. As in the numeral system of the Greeks, the units are denoted by the letters from x to D, the tens by i — v, 100 — 400 by p — n- The hundreds from 500 — 900, are sometimes denoted by the five final letters, thus, 1 500, D 600, | 700, ^ 800, X 900, and sometimes by n = 400, with the addition of the remaining hundreds, as pn 500. In combining different numbers the greater is put first, as i<' 11, NDp 121. Fifteen is marked by It3 = 9 + 6, and not by r\\ because with these the name of God nirT" commences; from a similar consideration also TD is written for 16 instead of V- The thou- sands are denoted by the units with two dots above, as X 1000. 4. Abbreviations of words are not found in the text of the Old Testament. On coins, however, they occur, and they are in common use by the later Jews. The sign of abbreviation is an obliqu; stroke, as V) for ^{^X''^, 'S for ^j"?? aliquis, "1J1 for "ipiil et completio = et ccetcra [&c.], '\\ or « for nin;. Sect. G. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. 1. It is of the greatest importance to understand the original sound of every consonant, since very many grammatical peculiarities and changes (§18, etc.) are regulated and explained by the pronunciation. Our knowledge of this is derived partly from the pronunciation of the kindred languages, particularly of the yet living Arabic, partly from observing the resemblance and interchange of letters in the Hebrew itself (§ 19), partly from the tradition of the Jews.* The pronunciation of the Jews of the present day is not uniform. The Polish and German Jews imitate the Syriac, while the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, whom most Christian scholars (after the example of Reuchlin) follow, prefer the purer Arabic pronunciation. The manner in which the Seventy have written Hebrew proper names in Greek letters, furnishes an older tradition of greater weight. Several, however, of the Hebrew sounds they were unable to represent for want of corresponding characters in the Greek language, e. g. y, k', so that, to relieve * Important aid may also be derived from an accurate physiological observation of the whole system of sounds, and of their formation by the organs of speech. See on this subject Liskovius's Theorie der Stimme, Leipzig, 1814; J. Miiller's Handbuch der Physiologic, Bd. 11. S. 179, etc. ; also Strodtmann's Anatomische Vorhalle zur Physiologie der Stimme und der Spracldaute, Altona, 1837. In its reference to grammar, see 11. Hupfeld, von der Natur und den Arten der SpracUaiite, in Jahn's Jahrbucher f. Philologie, 1829, H. 4; and II. E. Bindseil's Ahhnndlungen zur allgem. vergleichenden Sprachlehre, liamb., 1838. /. Physiologie der Stimm-und Sprachlaute, S. 1, etc. IQ PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. READLNG AND ORTHOGRAPHY. the difficulty, they had to resort to various expedients. This is likewise the case in the transcribing of Hebrew words with Latin characters, as Jerome sometimes gives them according to the pronun- ciation of the Jews of his time. On the pronunciation of the present Jews in the north of Africa, see Barges in the Journ. Asiat. 1848, Nov. 2. The following list embraces those consonants the pronunciation of which re- quires special attention, exhibiting in connexion those which bear any resemblance in sound to each other. 1. Among i\\e gutturah N is the lightest, a scarcely audible breathing from the lungs, the spiritus lenis of the Greeks ; similar to n but softer. Even before a vowel it is almost lost upon the ear pDS afxap), like the A in the French /labit, homme [or Eng. honr~\. After a vowel it is often not heard at all, except in connexion with the preceding vowel sound, with which it combines its own (X>*D mdtsd, % 23, 1). n before a vowel is exactly our h {spiritus asper) ; it is also a guttural after a vowel at the end of a syllable ("^Qi?.^ neh-pakh) ; but at the end of a word it often stands in the place of a vowel, so that its consonant breathing is not heard (H^S gala), on which see § 7, 2, and § 14. y is related to ^{ ; and is a sound peculiar to the organs of the Shemitic race. Its hardest sound is that of a y slightly rattled in the throat, as "TJ^J^, LXX. Fo/toppa ; wy, Fa^a; it is else- where, like X, a gentle breathing, as in "hv , *HAi; P.PPJ?, 'A/LiaX«K. In the pronunciation of the Arabian, the first often strikes the ear like a soft guttural r, the second as a sort of vowel sound like a. It is properly as incorrect entirely to pass over y, as some do, in reading and transcribing words with our own letters, e. g. yV. Eli, P.?py Amalek, as it is to read it simply like g. The best representation we could give of it in our letters would be gh or ^g, though its sound is sometimes softer, as V?"!^, something like arhu9^, iTJ^y *'g^mora. The Jewish pronunciation of it by the nasal gn or ng is decidedly false. n is the firmest of the guttural sounds. It is a guttural ch, as uttered by the Swiss [and "Welsh], resembling the Spanish x andy. While the Hebrew was a living language, this letter had two grades of sound, being uttered feebly in some words and more strongly in others.* 1 also the Hebrews frequently pronounced with a hoarse guttural sound, not as a lingual made by the vibration of the tongue. Hence it is not merely to be reckoned among the liquids (/, m, ti, r), but, in several of its relations, it belongs also to the class of gutturals (§ 22, 5). 2. In sibilant sounds the Hebrew language is rich, more so than the kindred dialects, especially the Aramaean, which adopts instead of them the flat, lingual sounds. ^ and b' were originally one letter ^' (pronounced without doubt like sh), and in unpointed Hebrew this is still the case. But as this sound was in many words softer, approaching to a simple «, the grammarians distinguished this double pronunciation by the diacritic point into U s?i (which occurs most frequently), and b s. b' resembled d in pronunciation : it differed from this letter, however, and was probably uttered more strongly, being nearly related to B*. Hence 1?9 to close up, and "OC' to rewai'd, have different meanings, being independent roots, as also /SD to be foolish, and ??^ to be ivise. At a later period this distinction was lost, and hence the Syrians employed only D for both, and the Arabians only * In the Arabic language, the peculiarities of which have been carefully nOted by the grammarians, the hard and soft sounds of y and H (as well as the different pronunciations of T, 12, V), are indicated by diacritic points. Two letters are thus made from each ; from V the softer y Agin, and tlie harder ^ Ghuin ; from n the softer r H/iu, and the harder ^ Kfia. § G. PRONUNCIATION AND DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. ' 17 their (_/w " They also began to be interchanged even in tlie later Hebrew ; "I2D = -\2b to hire, Esr. iv. 5; ni^pb* for D^h^p Jhll^, Eccles. i. 17. T was like ds (hence in the Septuagint ^), as V was is. It is well represented by the French and English z. 3. p and o differ essentially from 3 and n. The former (as also v) are uttered with strong articulation, and with a compression of the organs of speech in the back part of the mouth. 3. The six consonants, n, 3, D, 1, J, :i (nij^-iJ3) have a twofold pronunciation:* 1) a harder, more slender sound (te?iuis), as b, g, c?, Ii\ p, t^ and 2) a soft sound uttered with a gentle aspiration {aspirata). The harder sound is the original. It is found at the beginning of words and syllables, when no vowel immediately precedes it, and is indicated by a point in the letter (Baghesh lene, § 13), as 2 b, ^ g, 1 (/, 5 /f, B />, P\ t. The aspirated sound occurs after a vowel inunediately preceding, and is denoted in manuscripts by Raphe (§ 14, 2), but in the printed text it is known by the absence of the Daghesh. In some of these letters (especially ^) the difference is less perceptible to our ear. The modern Greeks aspirate distinctly ^, y, 8, and the Danes d at the end of a word. The Greeks have two characters for the two sounds of the otlier letters of this class, as 3 /c, D %, S tt, S ^, ^1 r, H 0. For the particulars as to when the one or the other pronunciation is applicable, see § 21. The modern Jews sound the aspirated 3 as i', and the n nearly as s, e. g. IT'K'KT reshis, ^1 rav. 4. After what has been said, the usual division of the consonants, according to the organs of speech employed in uttering them, will be more intelligible and useful. The common division is as follows : — a) Gutturals, H, H, V, N* (VrinN) b) Palatals, p, D, :i, " (p5'^) c) Linguals, tO, fl, 1, with \ h (^.j'??^) d) Dentals or sibilants, ^, ^, D, T (SJ'^pT) e) Labials, ^,n,tt,1 {^m) The letter ^ partakes of the character of both the first and third classes. The liquids also ^, 3, tt, 7, which have many peculiarities in common, are to be regarded as a separate class. * Sound PI as f , n as th in thick ; "1 as (/, "I dh as th in that ; 3 a.i /), 3 as ph or/; 3 as ft, 3 bh as y ; j and 3 both as g- mgo; 3 and 3 both as h. If one wishes to give the aspirated sound of 3 and 3, let hira pronounce^ and A, rolling the palate with tlie same breath, the former as the German g in sagen, and the latter as ch in ich. — Tk. 3 18 PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. In the Hebrew, as well as in all the Shemitic dialects, the firmer and stronger pronounciation, which characterised the earlier periods of the language, gradually gave way to softer and feebler sounds. In this way many nice distinctions of the earlier pronunciation were neglected and lost. This appears, 1) in the preference of the softer letters ; e. g. PV^, PVl (see § 2, Rem. 3) Syr. pi?T ; 2) in the pronunciation of the same letter; thus in Syriac y has always a feeble sound, while the Galileans uttered it, as well as n, like ^^ ; in Ethiopic 'C' has the sound of s, n that of A. Sect. 7. ON THE VOWELS IN GENERAL, VOWEL LETTERS, AND VOWEL SIGNS. 1. That the scale of live vowels, a, e^ /, o, ii, pi'oceeds from the three primary vowel sounds, A, /, Z7, is even more distinctl}^ seen in the Hebrew and the rest of the Shemitic tongues than in other languages. E and are derived from a blending together and obtusion of the purer vowels, viz., short ^from for also a, short from ii ; further, the long e from the connexion of / with a preceding short A (AT), and the long 6 partly fi-om a, partly from the combination AU, according to the following scheme* : — • A d fr. d d=au 0, fr. ii The more ancient Arabic adheres to the diphthongs ai and au, that is, with stronger consonants : e. g. tsVki' Arab, saiif, 0!?''^, Arab, ainaim. It is only in the later Arabic they become e and d, at least, with feebler consonants, as P.?, Arab, hain, bni, QV, Arab, yawn, yom. The close relation of those sounds is also sufficiently familiar from Greek and Latin, (e. g. Kato-ap, Ceesar ; Oav^a, Ion. ^w/xa ; plaustrum=plostrum), from the French pronunciation of ai and au, from the Germanic languages (Goth, auso, auris, Old High-Ger. ora, ear ; Goth, snaivs, Old High-Ger. sneo, Schnee [snow]), and even from the modern German vulgar dialect {Oye for Auge, Goth. a?/^d [eye] ; Sfeen for Stein, Goth. S'/ains [stone] ; comp. in Eng. ai in said, and au in naught). In the present Arabic of the Beduins, the use of the vowels does not extend itself in the pro- nunciation so much beyond the three primary sounds, a, i, and ?<, as in the Arabic spoken in Syria and Egypt (see Wallin alluded to ante, p. 5, note), and the same is reported of the African Jew.s by Barges in the Jouni. Asiat., 1840, Nov. 2. With this is coimected the manner of indicating the vowel sounds in writing. As only three principal vowel sounds were distinguished, no others were designated in writing; and even these were represented not by appropriate signs, but by certain consonants employed for this purpose, whose feeble consonant powers, * For the souikI of these vowels, see note on § 8. — Tb. § 7. THE VOWELS IN GENERAL. 19 according to their nature, approximate so very mucli to the vowel sounds to be expressed. Thus ) (like the Lat. F) represented ^and also ; ^ (like the Lat. J) represented / and E. The designation of A^ the purest of all the vowels, and of most frequent occurrence, was regularly omitted,* except at the end of a word, where long a was represented by H, and sometimes by ^.-f These two letters stood also for long e and o final. [The four letters mentioned (forming the mnemonic **"inX eh''vi) are commonly called quiescent or feeble letters.^ Even those two vowel letters (1 and ^) were used but sparingly, being employed only when the sounds which they represent were long, and iwt always then (§ 8, 4). J Everything else relating to the tone and quantity of the vowel sounds, whether a consonant should be pronounced with or Avithout a vowel, and even whether 1 and ^ were to be regarded as vowels or consonants, the reader was to decide for himself. Thus, for example, ?t3p might be read qdtal, quiel, gdtdl, q^tol, qoiel, qlltel, qattel, quttal ; "lai, dabhdr (a word), ddbMr (pestilence), dibber (he has spoken), dabber (to speak), ddbher (speaking), duhbar (it has been spoken) ; niO might be mdvUh (death), or muth, mdth (to die) ; ]*3 might be read bin, ben, bai/in. How imperfect and indefinite such a mode of writing was, is easily seen ; yet during the whole period in which the Hebrew was a spoken language, no other signs for vowels were employed. Reading was therefore a harder task than it is with our more adequate modes of writing, and much had to be supplied by the reader's knowledge of ithe living mother tongue. 3. But when the Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language, and the danger of losing the correct pronunciation, as well as the perplexity arising from this in- definite mode of writing, continually increased, the vowel signs or points were invented, which minutely determined what had previously been left uncertain. Of the date of this invention we have no historical account; but a comparison of * So in Sanscrit, the ancient Persian cuneiform writing, and Ethiopic, short a alone of all the vowels is not indicated by any sign, but the simple consonant is pronounced with this vowel. t The close connexion between the aspirates H, X, and the A sound, 1 and the U sound, * and the I sound, admits of easy physiological explanation, if we attend to the formation of these sounds by the organs of speech. The vowel A is formed by opening the mouth without changing the position of the organs ; so also H and X. U is sounded in the fore part of the mouth, with the lips a httle projecting and rounded; so also 1 [our 2r]. And I is formed at the fore part of the palate ; so also '' [our _?/]. E sounds at the back of the palate, between i and a; O in the under part of the mouth, between u and a. I The Phoenicians did not indicate even the long vowels, except in very rare cases, and their oldest monuments have scarcely any vowel signs. (See Mon. Phanicin, pp. 57, .'»8 ; and ante, § 2, 2.) 20 PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. ' I. UKADIXG AXD ORTHOGRAPHY. liistorical facts warrants the conclusion, that the present vowel system was not completed till the seventh century of the Christian era. It was the work of Jewish scholars, well skilled in the language, Avho, it is highly probable, copied the example of the Syrian and perhaps also of the Arabian grammarians. See Gesch. d. hcbr. Spr. S. 182 ff. and Hupfeld in den theolog. Studien und Kritiken, 1830, No. 3, where it is shown that the Tahnial and Jerome make no mention of vowel points. 4. This vowel system has, probably, for its basis the pronunciation of the Jews of Palestine; and its consistency, as \ye\\ as the analogy of the kindred languages, I'urnishes strong proof of its correctness, at least as a whole. AVe may, however, assume, that it exhibits not so much the pronunciation of common life as the graver style in reading the sacred books, which was sanctioned by tradition. Its authors have laboured to represent by sig-ns the minute gradations of the voAv^el sounds, carefully marking even half vowels and helping sounds (§ 10), spontaneously adopted in all languages, yet seldom expressed in writing. To the same labours we owe the different marks by which the sound of the consonants themselves is modified (§§ 11 — 14), and the accents (§§ 15, 16). The Arabs have a much more simple vowel system. They have only three vowel signs, according to the three primary vowel sounds. The Syriac punctuation is likewise based upon a less com- plicated system. It is possible that the Hebrew also had at an earlier period a more simple vowel system, but no actual traces of it are found. Sect. 8. THE VOWEL SIGNS.* 1. Of full vowels, besides which there are also certain half vowels (§ 10, 1, 2), grammarians have generally reckoned ten, and divided them into^ii-^' long and Jive short. As this division is simple and convenient for the learner, it is here pre- sented f : — Loiiff Voivels. "7 Qdmets, a, D^ yam. — Tse're, e^ DK^ shem. ''— Chireq long, z, P5 bin. i or — Cholem, <5, zip qui, !lb sohli. 1 Shureq, w, M^D muth. Short Voivels. — Pd'thdch, a, nS hcWt. — Seghol, e, "|3 hen. — Chireq short, f, ]P nun. — Qamets-chdtu'ph, 6, "pPI choq. — Qibbu'ts, w, (H?^ shiilchdn. * The vowels, as represented in this transhition, are supposed to be sounded as follows : — a or a. like a in father ; a like a \nfat; a like a in fate; e or e like e in there; e like e in err ; I like i in pique; i like i in pick; 5 or 6 like o in no; 6 like o in not; u like u in rule ; u like u in full. — Tr. 1^ It is not given in the six latest editions of the original. — Tk. § 8. THE VOWEL SIGNS. 21 A more philosophic and useful exhibition of the vowels, according to the three, primary vowel sounds (§ 7, 1, 2), is the following: — First Class. For the A sound. 1) — Qamets^ a, fz, 1\ yddh (hand), Dj^ qam (he arose*). 2) T Pathdch^ a, n3 bath (daughter). 8) — Seghol, e, ^, as in the first syllable of DDl^. yetVkltem (your hand), np3 phdch {iracTxa)^ where — has sprung from — f ydcVkhew., and also in union with ^ as YT y^deJchd, nr73 (fiend, like the French ^ in ???(?/•(? [which is like our e in there]. Second Class. For the I ««f/ E sound. rl) *•— and T long Chireq, ?, D'^p'^V tsdddiqlrn (just ones). l2) T short Chtrcq, ?, D5< f>??. (when), o) V and — Tsere., with and without Fot///,, ^, ^, H"? heth (house), DC^ shem (name). Very seldom — (defective, see No. 4) for e. 4) T Seghol., "[^ slien (tooth), where it has proceeded from the form z, in the tone syllable e for XJ-', H^'D not H^'b mo-she. \^ (with two points), when no vowel stands under it, isA-Z^o. as '^'QbKsh6-7)icy; when no vnwel goes before it. ov, as t."2"!''. ytr-pos, □''Xll'Sn hannns'im The figure i is sometimes sounded or, tlie \ being a consonant with Cholem before it, as '1p lo-vp. (lending) ; and sometimes fo, the Cholem being read after the Vav, as PV d-v6n (sin) for pi^. In very exact impressions a distinction is made thus : V ov, \ ro, and "f o. 3. The vowels of the first class [for the A sound] are, with the exception of * ~ in the middle, and of H— , J<— at the end of a word, indicated only by vowel signs (§ 7, 2); but in the two other classes [for the /and E sound and for the U and sound] the long vowels are mostly expressed by vowel letters, the sound oi which is determined by the signs standing before or within them. Thus, — *• may be determined by Chireq Ct)? Tsere Ct)? Segliol (*~). 1 by Shureq (1) and Cholem (i).t In Arabic tlie lonff a is regularly indicated by the vowel letter Aleph (X~) written in the text, so that in it three vowel letters answer to the three vowel classes. In Hebrew the relation is somewhat difierent (§9, 1, and § 23, 4, Rem. 1). 4. When, in the second and third classes, the long vowel is expressed without a * Only very recently we have been made acquainted with a vowel system in many respects different from the common one. It is found at Odessa, in some MSS. coming from Persian Jews. All the vowels besides -1 are placed above the consonants, and deviate almost throughout in figure, and partly also in respect to the sound. Thus, for instance, Pathach and Seghol, when they have the tone, are expressed by the same sign ; but the short vowels without the tone are marked variously, according as they stand in a sharpened syllable, Ity Daghesh forte (§ 1-2) or not. The accents deviate less, and stand partly under the line of the consonants. Comp. Pinner's Pro- upeclus of the Ancient Heb. and Rahhin. MSS., belonging to the Odessa Society for History and Antiquities, Od. 1845, 4to. ; and a sketch of this Persian Jewish vowel system, by Kodiger, in the Halle Allgem. Lit. Zeit. 1848, Aug., No. 1G9. . f The vowel sign, which serves to determine the sound of the vowel letter, is said to be homogeneous with that letter. jNIany, after the example of the Jewish grammarians, use here the expression, " The vowel letter rests (quiesces) in the vowel sign." Hence the letters » and l (with X and n, see § 2'i) are called literce quiescibiles ; when they serve as vowels, quiescentes, when they are consonants, mobiles. But the expression is not suitable ; we should rather say, " The vowel letter is sounded as this or that vowel, or stands in place of the vowel." The vowel letters are also called by grammarians, mutrcs ledionis [since they partly serve as guides in reading the unpointed text]. § 9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OE THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 23 vowel letter, it is called scriptio defectiva^ when with a vowel letter, scviptio plena. Thus 7ip and USp are written fully ^ ri/p and Dp defectively. The choice of the full or the defective mode of writing is not always arbitrary, as there are certain cases in which only the one or the other is admissible. Thus, the full form is necessary at the end of a word, e. g. TOD, W^P, HI? '*'?/'^ ; but the defective is most usual when the vowel is preceded by the analogous vowel letter as consonant, e. g. D^iil for D\^i5. But in other cases, much depended on the option of tlie transcribers, so that the same word is written in various ways, e. g. '•nitS^pri Ezek. xvi. 60, ^nbjpn Jer. xxiii. 4, where other editions have 'rn^ipri (comp. § 25, l). It may be observed, however, a) That the defective writing is used chiefly, though not constantly, when the word has increased at the end, and the vowel of the penultima has lost somewhat of its stress in consequence of the accent or tone of the word being moved forward [see § 29, 2], as P^'^V, D'i?'^.V ; ^V , ^'^^p\ b) That in the later books of the Old Testament the full form, in the earlier the defective, is more usual.* 5. In the kindred dialects, when a vowel letter has before it a vowel sign that is not kindred or homogeneous, a diphthong is formed, e. g. 1— au^ 1— eit., *— , *— ai But in Hebrew, according to the pronunciation handed down by the Jews, 1 and '^ retain here their consonant sound, so that we get av^ eu, «y, f e.g. 1) vdv (nail), 12 ^^u (back), ^n chdy (living), ^iil goy (nation). In sound V— is the same with I-7-, namely, av^ as V']^'! d^bhdrdv (his words). The LXX, give generally, in these cases, an actual diphthong, as in the Arabic, and this must be considered as an earlier mode of pronunciation ; the modern Jewish pronunciation is, on the other hand, similar to the modern Greek, in which av, cu sound like av, ev. In the manuscripts Yod/i and Vav are, in this case, even marked with Mappiq (§ 14, 1). The Italian Jews sound these syllables more like diphthongs, e. g. chai, gcti, and so also bait (J^l?). Sect. 9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. Numerous as these signs appear, they are yet insufficient for completely repre- senting the various modifications of the vowel sounds in respect to length and shortness, sharpness and extension. It may be observed further, that the indication of the sound by these signs cannot be called always perfectly appropriate. We therefore give here, for the better understanding of this matter, a short commentary The same historical relation may be shown in the Phcsnician, and in the Arabic where J< is used as a vowel letter,— in the latter especially, by means of the older Koran IMSS. and the writing on coins, t The y in this case should be sounded as much as possible like y in yet, not as in nay. — Tb. 24 TART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. READING AND OllTHOGRAPIIY. on the character and value of the several vowels, especially in respect to lengtli and shortness; but at the same time their changeableness (§§ 25, 27) "vrill be noticed in passing. I, First Class. A sound. 1 . Qamets., though everywhere long «, is yet in its nature of two kinds : 1) The essentially long and unchangeable a (§ 25), for which the Arabic has N— , as ^n3 Ifthahh (-writing), !333 ganndbh (thief), D|!D qam (he arose), written at times DXp. 2) The prolonged a of prosody (see § 26, 3), both in the tone-syllable and close before or after it. This sound invariably proceeds from the original short *7,* and is found in an open syllable (i. e. one ending with a vowel, see § 26, 3), e. g. "^z, /^P, ^^"^jl, ^'^pT' ^^^^ ^^^'^ i^^ ^ closed syllable (i. e. one ending with a consonant,) as 1\^ D^^V- In the closed syllable, however, it can stand only wheii this has the tone,f ^5*1, uf\V •, but in the open, it is especially frequent before the tone-syllable^ as "15"^, |pT, 7113, ''J.^p, D5/. When the tone is either moved forward or lessened, this vowel becomes, in tlie former case, short a (Pathach), and in the latter, vocal Sh'va (§ 27, 3), W, n^l^ {d'blidr) ; D?n, D:Dn {cmhdm);h'k\l, oStpp. Under the final letter of a Avord, Qamets may stand alone (ri7pp, 'y)i ^^^^ ^'^ tliis position it is also indicated by T\ (nn'p^j^, nriX, H^'X). 2. Pathach.^ or tlie shorter a, stands properly only in a closed syllable with and ^^•ithout the tone (/lPJ^, Cri/^p). J\Iost of the cases where it now stands in an open syllable ("^pi, ^^5), had the syllable originally closed ("^PJ, ri!*?, see § 28, 4). Otherwise such an a in an open syllable is changed into a (— ), comp. above, Nos. 1,2. On the rare union of Pathach ■with ^* (*^t), see § 23, 2 : on a as a helping sound {^Pathach furtive), see § 22, 2, h. and § 28, 4. 3. Segliol (//, e) belongs chiefly to the second class of vowels, but now and then, according to its origin, to the first or the third class. It belongs to the first, Avhen it is a modification of a (like German Gast^ Gdste [comp. Celtic bardh^ pi. beirdli])., e. g. |*'1X from f'^X. iVlthough an obtuse sound, it can stand in the tone-syllable, as in the first syllable of Jlp qdren^ and even in the gravest tone-syllable at the end of a clause or sentence (in paiif^c^ § 29, 4). II. Second Class. I and K. sound. 4. The long t is most commonly expressed by the letter * (a fidlj/ written Chireq ^v) ; but even when this is not the case, it makes no essential difference, provided the vowel is long by nature (§ 8, 4), e. g. pn^ pi. D'p'^V ; N^' pi. ^^l'. * In the Arahic, this short a is still continued. t WJien the tone is marked in thi.<5 book, the sign — is put over the first letter of the syllable, .see § l<5, 1, 3. — Tr. § 9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 25 Whether a defectively written Chireq is long, may be best known from the gram- matical origin and character of, the form, but often also from the character of the syllable (§ 26), or from the position oi Methcgh (§ 16, 2) at its side, as in ^5<1\ 5. The short Chireq (always written without *') is especially frequent in sharpened syllables (T'tDp, ^^X)*, and in closed unaccented sjdlables (^12'^'?). It originates, not unusually, in a by shortening, as in ""ri^ (my daughter) from n!!l, ^l^l'l from 'll'l, vbp^ out of /bp\ Sometimes also it is a mere helping vowel, as in T\]'^ for ra(§28, 4). The Jewish and the older grammarians denominate c\ ery full i/ written Chireq, Chireq magnum, and every defectivehj written one, Chireq jmmim. In respect to the sound, tliis is a wrong distinction. 6. The longest ^, Tsere^ Avith Yodh ("*t), is a contracted sound of the diphthong ni ^— (§ 7, 1), which, in the Arabic and Syriac, is employed instead of the former, as 7p''ri (palace), in Arab, and Syr. haikal. It is therefore a very long and an unchangeable vowel, longer even than ''-7', since it approaches the quantity of a diphthong. This ^— is but seldom written defectively {'^}X1 for ""^y Is. iii. 8), and then it retains the same value. At the end of a word V and ^r must be written fully : most rare is the form W>\^p^ (§ 44, Rem. 4). 7. The Tserc without Yodh is the long J of a secondary order, and stands onlv in and close by the tone-syllable, like the Qamets above in No. 1, 2. Like that, it stands in either an open or a closed syllable; the former in the tone-syllable or hefore it (^SD hool-^ Ti^^ sleep)^ the latter only in tlie tone-syllable ([3 son^ DpX dwnh). 8. The Seghol^ so far as it belongs to the second class, is most generally a short obtuse e sound obtained by shortening the ( t ), ^^ "j^ from \T\ (give). It arises also out of the shortest e (vocal Sh''va, § 10, 1), when this is made i)rominent by the tone (in pause, § 29, 4, ^), as '•H*) for ^Pip., ''TV. for ^n? ; and it appears besides as a helping sound, 13p for '13D, ^^^. for 7^1' (§ 28, 4). The Seghol with Yodh ( ^T ) is a long but yet obtuse a {e of the French) formed out of az, 'T\yh^ (j'iena.^ and hence belongs rather to the first class (§ 8, 1, c). See more on the rise of Seghol out of other vowels in § 27, Rem. 1, 2, 4. For this slinrp ; tho l.XX. mostly use f, ?N^3?i'V 'F/l//a^pt'^^• 26 PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. III. Third Class. U and O sound. 9. In the third class we find quite the same relation as in the second. In the u sound we have: 1) the long u, whether a) fully written ) Shureq (answering to the *— of the second class), e, g. 7^1| (dwelling), or h) defectively written without Vav — (analogous to the long -7 of the second class), Qibbuts ; viz., that whicli stands /(9r Shureq, and might more properly be called defective Shureq (v^^ P^?*!)? being in fact a long vowel like Shureq., and only an orthographic shortening for the same. 2) The sJiort z7, the proper Qibbuts (analogous to the short Chireq)^ in an unaccented closed syllable, and especially in a sharpened one, as \\h^ (table), ^^p (bedchamber). For the latter the LXX. put 0, e. g. oPlV, 'OSoXXdfx. ; but it by no means follows that this is the true pronunciation, though they also express Chireq by c. Equally incorrect was the former custom of giving to both sorts of Qibbuts the sound ii. Sometimes also the short u in a sliarpened syllable is expressed by -I, e. g. HpV = "Ip.^ (see § 27, Rem. 1). 10. The sound stands in the same relation to Z7, as E to I in the second class. It has four gradations: 1) the longest ^, obtained from the diphthong au (§ 7, 1), and mostly written in full ') (Cholem plenum)., as tOiSi^ (whip), Arabic saut., Pipiy (evil) from nil.y ; sometimes it is written defectively, as ^p (thy bullock), from 2) The long o, which has sprung from an original a [conip. Germ. alt=- Eng. /?/rf], usually written fully in a tone-syllable and defectively in a toneless one, as h^[> Arab, and Chald. qdtel niS« Arab, and Chald. elah, plur. D^niS«, dSij; Arab, and Chald. alam. Somethnes both forms co-exist, j^w^ and |V~iki^' (coat of mail). 3) The tone-long o, which is lengthened from an original short o or u by the tone, and which becomes short again on its removal, as 75 (all), "73 {kol)., 0^3 {killldm), y'i^p'^., "^/pp!, ^^^p? (in tliis last instance it is shortened to vocal Sh%'a, yiqflu). In this case the Cholem is fully written only by way of exception. 4) The Qamets-chatuph (— ), always short and in the same relation to Cholem as the Seghol of the second class to the Tsere., "73 kol^ Dpjl vay-yd-qom. On the dis- tinction between this and Qamets.^ see post., in this section. 11. The Seghol belongs here also, so far as it arises out of u or o (No. o), e. g. in Cnx, DnStJp. (See § 27, Rem. 4, b.) On the half voicels, see the next section. 12. In the following table we give a scale of the vowel sounds in each of the three classes, Avith respect to their quantity, from the greatest length to the utmost § 9. CHARACTER AND VALUE OF THE SEVERAL VOWELS. 27 shortness. The table does not indeed suffice to exhibit all vowel transitions which occur in the language, but yet it furnishes a view of those in more frequent use : — First Class. A. ~ longest a (Arabic K7). ~ tone-lengthened a (from short a or 7) in and by the tone- syllable. T short &. ~ partly tone-lengthened e, partly short ^. Greatest shortening to t:" or 7*, also to T I- Second Class. I and E. *T e diphthongal (from ai). *7 e (from ai). V or T long I. 7 tone-lengthened e (from 7 1, or 7 ^) in and immediately before the tone-syllable. T short I. ~ accented e. Third Class. U and 1 d diphthongal (from au). i or _L d changed from a. •1 or 7 long a.. 1. tone-lengthened o from 7 6 or 7) in the tone-syllable. 7 short M, specially in a sharpened syllable. 7 short 6. ~ accented c. Greatest shortening to 7 " or i Greatest shortening to 7 » or ON THE DISTINCTION OF QAMETS AND QAMETS-CHATUPH.* As an instance of incongruity in the vowel system, we may notice the fact, that the long a ( Qamets) and the short o ( Qamets-chatuph) are both represented by the sign (t), e. g. Dj^ qdm., "73 kol.^ The beginner who has as yet no knowledge of that surest of guides, viz., the grammatical derivation of the words he has to read, may, in order to distinguish between these two vowels, attend to the following two rules : — 1. The sign (t) is 5 in a closed syllable ivhich has not the tone [or accent'] ; for such a syllable cannot have a long vowel (§ 26, 5). The examples are various: a) When a simple Sh®va follows, dividing syllables, as in '"lD?n chokh-md (wisdom), iTIpT z6kh-ra ; with a Metheyh, on the contrary, the (») is a, and closes the syllable, and then the following Sh^va is a half vowel [vocal Sh®va) as n^DT za-kh^ra, according to § 16, 2. b) When Daghesh forte follows, as W'lyi hbtlhn (houses), '?3n c/i6}i-ne-?i{ (pity me); also ^TB^, bdttekhem (notwithstanding the Methegh, which stands by the vowel in the ante-penultima). c) When Maqqeph follows (§ 16, I), as ^l^^i^"'?? kdl-haad/u'mi (all men). d) When the unaccented closed syllable is final, as DfJ'l vayydq6ni (and he stood up). — There are some cases where d in the final syllable loses its tone by Maqqeph (§ 16, 1) and yet remains unchanged, e. g. riTn"2n3 Esth. iv. 8 ; v"^^ Gen. iv. 25. Methegh usually stands in these cases, but not always. In cases like i^??'}' '^W Idtnma, where the (t) of the closed syllable has the tone, it is a, accord- ing to § 26, 6. * Tliis portion must, in order to be fully understood, be studied in connexion with what is said on the syllnhlcs in § 26, and on Methegh in § 16, 2. [In the original it is all printed in small type, but its importance justifies tha change we have made]. t For the Oiuise of this, see p. 21, 28 PART I. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. I. READING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 2. The sign (t) as short o in an open syllable is far less frequent, and belongs to the exceptions in § 26, 3. It occurs: a) when Chateph-Qamets follows, as pyg* po"-h5 (his deed) ; b) when another Qamefs-chatuph follows, as ''[PV? po-ol'kha f (thy deed) ; c) in two anomalous words, where it stands merely for (t:), which are found so even in manuscripts, viz., D'*w^'7j]5 qo-dliashim (sanctuaries) and ^'P^}y sho-rashim (roots), see § 93, 6, Rem. 3. In these cases ('■) is followed by Methegh, although it is 6, since Methegh always stands in an open second syllable before the tone. The exceptions that occur can be determined only by the grammatical derivation, as *J>f3 in the ship (read: ha^ni) 1 Kings ix. 27, with the article included ;, on the contrary ^5? *'}n3 h(f)ch°ri aph (in anger's glow) Ex. xi. 8, without the article. Sect. 10. THE HALF VOWELS AND THE SYLLABLE-DIVIDER (SH«VA). 1. Besides the full vowels, chiefly treated in § 9, the Hebrew has also a series of very slight vowel sounds, which may be called half vowels. "l They are to be regarded in general as extreme shortenings, perhaps mere traces, of fuller and more distinct vowel sounds in an earlier period of the language. To them belonofs, first, the sio-n — , which indicates the shortest, slio-htest, and most indistinct half vowel, something like an obscure half e. It is called Sh'va,^ and also simple Sh'va, to distinguish it from the composite (see post, No. 2), and rwcal Sh^va (Shh'a mobile), to distinguish it from the sile7it (Sh^'va quiescens), which is merely a divider of syllables (see jwst, No. 3). This last can occur only under a consonant closing the syllable, and is thus distinguished from the vocal Sh^-a, whose place is under a consonant beginning the syllable, whether a) at the begin- ning of the word, as bbp q'tol, t^^'P? m' malic, or b) in the middle of the word, as nStDip qo-rla, ^StPj7. yiq-t'lf', 'l^^j? qit-flu. So also in cases like ^S'pn ha-tltl (which stands for h)>r\ hal-Mn), H^^^^S la-m''nats-tse''ch (for '^S), further hmr\ ha-m'shol Judges ix. 2 (where the interrogative H makes a syllable by itself), "'IDt'O ma-l'klir. In the last examples the Sh^va sound is specially slight, in consequence of the very short syllable preceding. * That Q ought here to be considered and divided as an open syllable r>V, 1 S appears from § 26, Remark. f This case is connected with the foregoing, so far as the second Qamets'Chatuph is sprung from Chateph' Qamets. \ In the table § t), 12, the half vowels have already been exhibited for the sake nf a more complete view. We express them by letters of a small type. ^ The name SII^' is written also >53w', and its derivation and proper meaning are obs^curc. ^ 10. HALF VOWELS AND THE SYLLABLE-DIVIDER (sH^Va). 29 The sound S may be regarded as representing vocal Sh^va, although it is certain that it often accorded in sound with other vowels. The LXX. express it by c, even rj, D''3'I~I3 X.ipovBiix, ^1 •l-'pn aXkyjXovia, oftener by a, 7XVJ^ Sa/xoujjA, but very often they give it a sound to accord with the following vowel, as D'~I9 2oSo/a, nb'?p SoXo/x.wi' (besides also 2aAoyu.aiv), riix^V '2,a/3aw$, ?N3riJ 'NaOavr'jX.'^' A similar account of the pronunciation of Sh«va is given also by the Jewish gram- marians of the middle ages.f How the Sh^'va sound springs from the slight or hasty utterance of a stronger vowel, we mav see in ^?"1? (for which also '"ip^?. occurs, see No. 2, Rem.) from barakha, as this word also sounds in Arabic. This language has still regularly for vocal Sh^va an ordinary short vowel. The vocal Sh^va is too weak to stand in a closed syllable ; but yet it can with the consonant before it form a hasty open syllable, as appears from the use of Metheyh (see § 16, 2), and also from the fact that it can become an accented ", as '"H? from ^H? (§ 26, 4). 2. With the simple vocal Sh'ua is connected the so-called composite Sh^va or Chateph (r^ajyid), i. e. a Sh%'a attended by a short vowel to indicate that we should sound it as a half tZ, e, or o. We have, answering to the three principal vowel sounds (§ 7, 1), the following three: (-■) Chateph-Pathach, as in ^itJT! clfmor (ass). (••••■) Chateph-Seghol^ as in ^121^ ^mor (to say). (t:) Chateph- Qamets^ as in vH ch"li (sickness). The Chatephs^ at least the two former, stand chiefly under the four gutturals (§ 22, 3), the utterance of whicli naturally causes the annexed half vowel to be more distinctly sounded. Hem. Only (-:) and (':) occur under letters which are not gutturals. The Chateph- Pathach is thus found instead of simple vocal Sli^va, but without any fixed law, especially a) under a doubled letter, since the doubling causes a more distinct utterance of the vocal Sh^va,Jsometimes also where the sign of doubling has fallen away, '|IJ?y for *J3y Gen. ix. 14, •"in.V^XJjll Judges xvi. 16; 1)) after a long vowel, e. g. 3nt (gold of), but 3nT1 Gen. ii. 12; VO^ (hear), but J?P'sf-1 Deut. v. 24, comp. Gen. xxvii. 26, 38. The Chateph- Qamets is less connected Avith the gutturals than the first tw^o, and stands frequently for simple vocal Sh^va when an O sound was originally in the syllable, and requires to be partly preserved, e. g. ""i*^ for ^^"^ tision (§ 93, VI. Rem. 6), ^S^T. for the usual ^,?"1T. Eze. xxxv. 6, from ^"^y.; ''"'iin^ ^"'* PC'i^i horn. *lp15. It is used, also, like (-:) when Baxjhesh forte has fallen away, nrii'^^^ for nrii'p^^ Gen. ii. 23. In nnyo-l 1 Kings xiii. 7, and ^?y>:'l Jer. xxii. 20, the choice of this composite Sh'va is dependent on the following guttural and the preceding Z7 sound. 3. The sign of the simple Sh^va {—) serves also as a mere syllable-divider^ with- out expressing any sound, and therefore called in this case silent Sh^va (Sh^va * This is not unusual in the Phoenician language, e. g. HppQ Malacca, Qvl^il gubulim (see Gesen. Mon. Phcenicia, p. 436, Mover's article, Phonizien, in the Encyclop., etc., p. 436). Comp. the Latin augment, in inomordi, pupiigi, with the Greek in TiTv<{)a, Tervfifievos, and the old form memordi. f See especially Juda Chayug, p. 4 and p. 200 of the edition by DuUes, also in Ibn. Ezra's Tsuclwlh, p. 3, Gesenius's Lehrgebdiide der heb. Spracke, S. 68. I As in ''/2C-" (branches), Zcch. iv. 1'2. 30 PAKT I, ELEMENTS. — CHAP. I. READING AND ORTHOGKAPHY. guiescens)^ answering to the Arabic Sukun. It stands in the midst of a word under every consonant that closes a syllable;^ at the end of words, on the other hand, it is omitted, except in final ^, e. g. "^/^ (king), and in the less frequent case where a word ends with two consonants, as in l.*!^ (nard), HX (thou, fern.), n'?Dip (thou hast killed), j7^n, WX ^W^^, etc. Yet in the last examples Sh'^va under the last letter might rather pass for vocal, since it is pretty clear that a final vowel has been shortened, e. g. J^l^!? att^ from ''^1*? atti, ^{'^'^ from ''^/Pi^, ?t^'! yishb' from n2tJ',\* etc. The Arabic actuallj' has a short vowel in the analogous forms. In "^1?., borrowed from the Indian, this is less clear. ^'^'\> (truth) Prov. xxii. 21, seems to require the pronunciation qoslit. For ^P'iJ^'''^> {ne addas) Prov. xxx. 6, others read flpin"7X . Sect. 11. SIGNS WHICH AFFECT THE READING OF CONSONANTS. In intimate connexion with the vowel points stand the reading-signs^ which were probably adopted at the same time. Besides the diacritic point of b and t^ (p. 16), a point is used in a letter, in order to show that it has a stronger sound, or is even doubled ; and, on the contrary, a small horizontal stroke over a letter, as a sign that it has not the strong sound. The use of the point in the letter is threefold: a) as Daghesh forte or sign of doubling ; b) as Daghesh lene or sign of the hard (not aspirated) sound ; c) as Mappiq^ a sign that the vowel letter (§ 7, 2), especially the H at the end of a word, has the sound of a consonant. The stroke over a letter, Baphe, has a contrary effect, and is scarcely ever used in the printed Hebrew copies. Sect. 12. OF DAGHESH IN GENERAL, AND DAGHESH FORTE IN PARTICULAR. 1. Daghesh is a point written in the bosom f of a consonant, and is employed for two purposes; a) to indicate the doubling of the letter (Daghesh forte)^ e. g. '7'^'p qit-tel ; b) the hardening of the aspirates, i. e. the removal of the aspiration (Daghesh lene.) The root t.*'n, from which ^}r\ is derived, in Sj-riac signifies to thrust through, to bore through (with a sharp iron). Hence the word Daghesh is commonly supposed to mean, with reference to its figure merely, a jvick, a point. But the names of all similar signs are expressive of their gram- * So thought Juda Chayug among the Jewish grammarians. t Daghesh in 1 is easily distinguished from Shureq, which never admits a vowel or Sh^va under or before the ^ . The Vav with Daghesh (-1) ought to have the point not so liigh up as the Vav with Shureq (-1). But this differ- ence is often neglected in typography. § 13. DAGHESH LENE. 31 matical power, and in this case, the name of the sign refers both to its figure and its use. In grammatical language {i>JT means, 1) acuere literam, to sharpe7i the letter by doubling it ; 2) to harden the letter by taking away its aspiration. Accordingly t^'H means sharp and hard, i. e. sign of sharpening or hardening (like Mappiq, \>''^'^ prof er ens, i. e. signum prolationis), and it was ex- pressed in writing by a mere prick of the stilus (^punctum). (In a manner somewhat analogous, letters and words are represented, in the criticism of a text, as expunged {ex-puncta) by i. point or pointed instrument {obeliscus) affixed to them). The opposite of Daghesh is HDT soft (§ 14, 2). That CJ'JT? ill grammatical language, is applied to a hard pronunciation of various kinds appears from § 22, 4, Rem. 1. 2. Its use as Daghesh forte^ i. e.. for doubling a letter, is of chief importance (compare the Sicilicus of the ancient Latins, e. g. Luculus for LucuUus, and in (ierman the stroke over m and n). It is wanting in the unpointed text, Hke the vowel and other signs. For further particulars respecting its uses and varieties, see § 20. Sect. 13. DAGHESH LENE. 1. Daghesh lene, the sign of hardening^ belongs only to the aspirates {literal aspirates) nSSI^S (§ 6, 3). It takes away their aspiration, and restores their original slende?' or pure sounds {liter ce tenues)^ e. g. "^/^ mdlekh, but 137^ malko ; *l5n tclphar, but ISH) yith-por ; T\T\^ shdthd^ but T\T\p\ yish-te. 2. Daghesh lene^ as is shown in § 21, stands only at the beginning of words and syllables. It is thus easily distinguished from Daghesh foi'te^ since in these cases the doubling of a letter is impossible. Thus the Daghesh is forte in "•£{< appi^ D''?'] rahhim^ but lene in 7'!^''. yighdal. 3. Daghesh forte in an aspirate not only doubles it, but takes away its aspira- tion, thus serving at once for both forte and lene^ as ^3X appi ; T\^y\ rak-koth (Compare in German stechen and stecken^ wachen and wecken.) This is accounted for by the difficulty of doubling an aspirated letter in pronunciation. In con- firmation of this rule we may refer to certain Oriental words, which, in the earliest times, passed over into the Greek language, as ^S? Kairira (not Ka<^^a), yet "^^SO o-a7r€tpos. The doubling of a letter does not occur in Syriac, at least in the Western dialects. Where it would be required, however, according to etjTuology and analogy, the aspiration at least is removed : thus p3>? in Syriac is read ajieq, for appeq. 32 vaur i, elements. chap. i. reading and orthography. Sect. 14. MAPPIQ AND RAPHE. 1. Mappiq^ like Daghesb, to which it is analogous, is a point in a letter. It belongs only to the vowel-letters 1, ■•, and i<, H {literce qulescibiles)^ and shows that they are to be sounded with their full consonant power, instead of servmg as vowels. It is at present used only in final H, for in the body of a word this letter always has a consonant force, e. g. H^^ ga-bhah (the h having its full consonant sound), H^liljt ar-tsah (her land), in distinction from rii^lX dr-tsd {j,o the earth), which ends witli a vowel. Without doubt such a n was uttered with stronger aspiration, like the Arabic He at the end of the syllable, or like h in the German Schuh, which in common life is pronounced Schuch. The use of it in and under X, 1, N to mark them as consonants, is confined to manuscripts, e. g. ^.13 {g6y), •1i^ {quv). The name p''?^ signifies producens, and indicates that the sound of the letter should be clearly expressed. The same sign was selected for this and for Daghesh, because the design was analo- gous, viz., to indicate the strong sound of the letter. Hence also Hajjhe is the opposite of both. 2. Raphe {^tTl i- ^- *^/0 written over the letter, is the opposite of both Daghesh and Mappiq, especially of Daghesh lene. In exact manuscripts an aspirate has generally either Daghesh lene or Raphe, e. g. "^/^ mcilekh, "^^ri, HH^ ; but iii printed editions of the Bible it is used only when the absence of Daghesh or Mappiq is to be expressly noted, e. g. inV/Jji^riT for ^in^pXJyil, Judges xvi. 16, and V. 28, (where Daghesh lene is absent), ^[appiq in Job xxxi. 22. Sect. 15. THE ACCENTS. 1. The design of the accents in general is, to show the rhythmical members of the verses in the Old Testament text. But as such the use is two-fold, according to which they are chiefly to be noticed in the grammar, viz., a) to show the logical relation of each word to the whole sentence; h) to mark the tone-syllable to each word. In respect to the former, they serve as signs of interpunction ; in respect to the latter, as signs of the tone or accent. By the Jews, moreover, they are regarded as signs of cantlUation, intimating the elevation and depression of the tone, and are used as such in the recitation of the Scriptures in the synagogues. The use made of tliem in tliis way is also connected w'ith the general rhythmical design. § 15. THE ACCENTS. X\ 2. As a sign for marking the tone of a single word, the accent, whatever its rhythmical value may be besides, stands regularly (conip. Keni. 2) with the syllable which has the chief tone in the word. In most words the tone is on the last syllable, less frequently on the penultuna. In the first case, the word is called by the grannnarians mil-rd {^}?'^ Chald., from hdow)^ e. g. 7^p qatdl ; in the second, mll-el (y^Vhf^ Chald., from ahove)\. e. g. "^/b malclh. On the third syllable from the end (antepenultima) the chief tone never stands; but we often find there a secondary one or by-tone^ which is indicated by the Methegh (§ 16, 2), 3. The use of the accents as signs of interpunction is somewhat complicated, since they serve not merely to separate the members of a sentence, like our period, colon, and comma, but also as marks of connexion. Hence they form two classes, Distinctiues {Domini) and Conjimctives {Servi). Some are, moreover, peculiar to the poetical books* (Job, Psalms, and Proverbs), which have a stricter rhythm. The following is a list of them according to their value as signs of inter'punctio7i : A. Distinctives (Domini). I. Greatest Distinctives {Imperatores), wliich may be compared with, our period and colon. 1. (— ) Silliiq (end), only at the end of the verse, and always united with (:) Soph-pdsuq^ which separates each verse, e. g. J]"]^i!n. 2. {—) Atlmdch (respiratio), generally in the middle of the verse, dividing it in two halves; but in the three books. Job, Psalms, and Proverbs, it is lighter than MerTcd-Mdhpdkh (No. 3), and then divides the second half of the verse. 3. (— ^) Merkd with Mdhpdkh* in Job, Psalms, and Proverbs, mostly principal dividers in the middle of a verse. II. Great Distinctives (Reges) : 4'. (—) SeghoUd]] '. 5. {—) Zdqepli-qdton : 6. (— ) Zdqeph-gddhol: 7. (~) Tiphchd. III. SmaWev (Duces): 8. {-) Eebhia : 9. {Z)Zdrqd^^: 10. {-) Fdshtaff: 11. (-) YethJbh'f: 12. (7) Tebhir : 13. (-L) Shdlshe'leth^ : 14. (-) Tiphchd initialef. IV. Smallest {Comites): 15. (-) Pdzer : 16. (_) Qdrne-phdrd : 17. {-) Great Telishdj: 18. {-) Gd'resh : 19. (-) Double Gn'resh: 20. (i) Pesiq, between the words. B. Conjunctives (Servi). 21. (7) Merld: 22. (7) Miindch: 23. (7) Double Merkd: 24. (7) Mdhpdkh: These accents are marked in the following list with an asterisk. On the mark ]' and ff see helow, Rem. 2. 4 ?>A PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. I. HEADING AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 25. (-1) Qddkmd: 26. (t) Ddrga: 27. {-) Yardch: 28. {-) Little Telishd]]: 29. (-) Tiphchd final*: 30. (f) J/^>^a with Zdrqd* : 31. (,-) Mdhpdkh ^Yitl^ REMARKS ON THE ACCENTS. I. As Signs of tJie Tone. 1. As in Greek (comp. ei/Ai and t'/xi), so also in Hebrew, words which are written with the same consonants and vowel signs are often distinguished by the accent, e. g. -132 ha-nu {they built), -133 bdmi {in ns) ; HDi^ qdmd {she stood up), HOP qamd [standing up, fern.). (Compare in English compact and compact. — Tk. ) 2. As a rule, the accents stand on the tone-syllable, and properly on its initial consonant. Some, liowever, stand only on the first letter of a word {prepositive), others only on the last letter {postpositive). The former are designated in the table by f , the latter by f f . These do not, therefore, clearly indicate the tone-syllable, which must be known in some other way. Those marked with an asterisk are used only in the poetical books. 3. The place of the accent, when it is not on the final syllable, is indicated in this book by the sign (1), e. g. 7\%\> qa-tul-ta.^ II. As Signs of Interpunction. 4. In respect to this use of the accents, every verse is regarded as a period, which closes with Silluq,f or, in the figurative language of the grammarians, as a realm {ditio), which is governed by the great Distinctive at the end {Tmperaior). According as the verse is long or short, i. e. as the empire is large or small, so varies the number of Domini of diff'erent grades, which form the larger and smaller divisions.^ 5. Conjunctives {Servi) unite only such words as are closely connected in sense, as a noun with an adjective, or with another noun in the genitive, etc. For the closest connexion of two or several words Maqqeph is used (§ 16, 1). 6. In very short verses few conjunctives are used, and sometimes none ; a small distinctive, in the vicinity of a greater, having a connective power {servit domino maj'ori). In very long verses, on the contrary, conjunctives are used for the smaller distinctives {Jiunt legati dominorum). 7. The choice of this or that conjunctive depends on very subtile laws of consecution, with which the learner need not trouble himself at present. It is sufficient for him to know the greater distinctives, which answer to our period, colon, and comma, though they often stand where a half comma is scarcely admissible. They are most important in the poetical books for dividing a verse into its members. (See in the Reading Book at the end of this Grammar, and more fully in Nordheimer's Hch. Grammar^ §§1151—1157.) Sect. 16. MAQQEPH AND METHEGH. These are both closely connected with the accents. 1. Maqqeph (^(i?^ hinder) is a small horizontal stroke between two words, which * [In the present edition, although we have used this mark (») in the body of the work, we have adopted this (7) instead, in the tables of the pronouns and conjugations, as the more convenient.] t This has the same form with Methegh (§ 16, 2) ; but they are readily distinguished, as Silluq always stands on the last tone-syllable of a verse, while Methegh never stands on the tone-syllable. § 17. q^Rl AND Ki'TiriBH. 35 thus become so united that, in respect to tone and interpunction, they are regarded as one, and have but one accent. Two, three, and four words may be united in this way, e. g. D'1^5"73 every man; ^t^T7Tr^ every herb, Gen. i. 29; ^'5"*l^^'^?■':?3■n^{ all ivhich to him (was), Gen. xxv. 5. Certain monosyllabic words, like '^^ to, TiX sign of the Ace, "?3 all, are altnost always thus connected. But a longer word may also be joined to a monosyllable, e. g. nb"'^?nnn Gen. vi. 9, I,?"*n'l Gen. i. 7, 9 ; or two polysyllables, e. g. I'^^'nypp' Gen. vii. 11. 2. Methegh (JH^ a bridle)^ a small perpendicular line on the left of a vowel, forms a kind of check upon the influence of the accents as marking the tone- syllable, and shows that the vowel, though not accented, should not be hastily passed over in pronunciation. It stands, therefore, chiefly by the vowel of the antepenultima when the last syllable has the toney whether that vowel be long, as DlXn, nXIM, or short, as W'^'V) qodhashim.. DlTl!l bottekhem. But this rule is to T T IT ' V Tl" ' ' • tIiT 2 ' V •• IT be understood according to the view which regards the half vowels {simple Sh"va vocal and composite Sh'va) as forming a syllable (§ 10, 1, and § 26, 4); accordingly Methegh stands a) by the vowel which precedes a vocal Sh^va (simple or composite), rhtpp^ qa-f-ld, \S7; yJ-r'-il, HDg^, nSljh, iiy;, iSyS pd'^-lo, and b) by even the vocal Sh'va itself Xi"X*1p Job v. 1 . T tJi: "When it stands by Sli^va, many Jewish Grammarians call it Gaya ^^Vi, while others use this name in general for every Methegh. N.B. It is of special service to the beginner, as indicating (according to letter a above) the quantity of Qamets and Chireq before a Sh^va. Thus in n"13T zd-kh^ra the Methegh shows, that the {■') stands in the antepenultima, and that the Sh^va is here vocal and forms a syllable ; but the (t) in an open syllable before ( :) must be long (§ 26, 3)^ consequently Qamets, not Qamets- chatuph. On the contrary, nn3T z6Jih-ra without Methegh is a dissyllable, and (t) stands in a closed syllable, and is consequently short {Qamets-chutuph). Thus also •1^'},'! (they fear) with Methegh is a trisyllable with a long i, yl-r'-u, but -IX"!*. (they see) without Methegh is a dissyllable with short i, yh--U. (See above, the rule about Qamets and Qamets-chatuj)h, in § 9 at the end.) Sect. 17. QBRI AND KETHIBH. The margin of the Hebrew Bible exhibits a number of various readings of an early date (§ 3, 2), called Hp {to be read), because in the view of the Jewish critics they are to be preferred to the reading of the text, called !l"'n5 {written). Those critics have therefore attached the vowel signs, appropriate to the marginal reading, to the consonants of the corresponding word in the text; e. g. in 3G PART I, ELEMENTS. CHAT. 11. CHANGES OF LETTERS. Jer. xlii. 6, the text exhibits ^5^f, the margin ^1p "liPIii^. Here the vowels in the text belong to the word in the margin, which is to be pronounced ^^H^i^ ; but in reading the text I^X, the proper vowels must be supplied, making ^iX, A small circle or asterisk over the word in the text always directs to the marginal reading. As to the value of the marginal readings in point of criticism, see Gesenius's Gesch. der Hebr. Sprache, S. 50, 75. CHAPTER II. PECULIARITIES AND CHANGES OF LETTERS; OF SYLLABLES AND THE TONE. Sect. 18. In order fully and rightl}^ to comprehend the changes which the forms of the various parts of speech undergo, it is necessary first to get acquainted with certain general laws on which those changes depend. These general laws are founded partly on the peculiarities of certain classes of letters, considered individually or as combined in syllables, and partly on certain usages of the language in reference to syllables and the tone. Sect. 19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. The changes occasioned among consonants by the formation of words, inflexion, euphony, or certain influences connected with the progress of the language, are commutation^ assimilation^ rejection and addition^ transposition. 1. Commutation takes place most naturally among letters which are pronounced similarly, and by the aid of the same organs, e. g. \7^-, D/V, Py to exidt ; HX?, '^kJ^^ Aram. Xy? ^^ ^^''■^/ ^V and \'— (as plural ending); ]'n7, ]*nj to 2?7rss ; "1_iD, ^DD to close ; u7l2^ u^^ to escape. In process of time, and as the language approximated to the Aramcean, hard and rough sounds were exchanged for softer ones, e. g. 7X^ for 7^5 to reject ; pHb^ for pny to laugh ; for the sibilants were sub- stituted the corresponding flat sounds, as T for T, ID for V, T\ for ^. This interchange of consonants affects the original forms of words more than it does their grammatical inflexion; the consideration of it, therefore, belongs rather § 19. CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 37 to the lexicon.* Examples occur, however, in the grammatical inflexion of words; viz., the interchange a) of H and 12 in Hithpael (§ 54), b) of 1 and * in verbs Fe Yoclh (§ 69), as nS^ fornSi (he begat). 2. Assimilation usually takes place when one consonant at the close of a syllable passes over into another beginning the next syllable, so as to form with it a double sound, as illustris for inlustris ; diffusus for disfusus. In Hebrew this occurs — a) most frequently with the feeble nasal i, especially before the harder consonants, e.g. Dljvp for ^'1^)12 from the east; H-Tp for 'Pi])}^ from this; \T\\ for \r\)\ he wAll (jive; rin^ for J^^H^ tlwu hast given. Before gutturals J is commonly retained, as vH^^ he will possess ; seldom before other letters, as ijl^?^ thou hast dwelt, h) less frequently, and only in certain cases, with 7, ^, H, e. g. ri|^^ for np/) he takes; pi3n for pbriH to he established; '^ for n^N* luho (§ 36). In all these cases, the assimilation is expressed by a Daghesh forte in the fol- lowing letter. In i\Ji?ml consonant, however, as it cannot be doubled (§ 20, 3, a), Daghesh is omitted, e. g. ^J< nose for !i)ii< or t|iX; M^l for HJ^ to give ; TV for Tny to bear. (Comp. Tv^d_ (§ 59, Rem. 3), -IS^p for inpK)p/rom Mm (§ 103, 2). With this may be classed.up 3^2* for 33p^ he surrowuh (§ 67, 5). 3. The rejection or falling aicay of a consonant easily happens in the case of tlie feebly -uttered vowel letters ^^, H, 1, \ and also of the liquids. It happens — a) at the beginning of a word (apha^resis), when such a feeble consonant has not a full vowel, and its sound is easily lost upon the ear, as ^^Hi and ^J^^^f (we) ; •^ for ^m (comp. No. 2, b); n^ (sit) for ^p'; jn (give) for p^ b) in the midst of a word (contraction)^ when such a feeble consonant is preceded by a Sh^^a, e. g. ^^^7, the prevailing form for "^^fp^? (§ 23, 5, and § 35, Kem. 2); h'^p] for %\)r^] (§ 53, 1). c) at the end of words (apocope), e. g. h\p\:^'. for pSt?|T; D'^| sons, before the genitive *i?. Bolder changes were made in the infancy of the language, particularly in casting away con- sonants at the end of a word; thus, from )?>? was formed "^S^ ojili/ ; from ri'3, ?; from 70, H (see § 99, and § 100, 4). Here belongs also the change of the feminine ending n- alh to n- d (see § 44, 1, and § 80, 2). * See the first article on each letter in Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon, translated and edited by Dr. Trcgclles. Small Quarto. Bagster and Sons. 38 PART r. ELEMENTS. CHAP. II. CHANGES OF LETTERS. 4. In other cases a harshness in pronunciation is prevented by the additiun of K (Aleph prosthetiacm) with its vowel at the beginning of a word, e. g. VT\] and yi"liX arm (com p. x^e?, e%^e9, Lat. spiritus = French esprit). 5. Transposition^ in grammar, seldom occurs. An example of it is l^ri^'H for "I^P^nn (>§ 54, 2), because sAds easier to sound than thsh. Cases are more frequent which fall within the province of the lexicon, as b^^3 and ^b^3 lamb ; TDh^ and T^U}^ garment ; they are, however, chiefly confined to the sibilants and liquids. Consonanls, especially the weaker, may also at the end of a syllable be softened to vowels, like cts from Ifs, chevmix from cheval (comp. § 30, 2, e), e. g. 3313 star from 33^3, 33)3 ; C"X man from t^'pX or t^'.J.^? (where the Seghol is merely a helping vowel, see above. No. 2).* Sect. 20. DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. 1. The doubling of a letter by Da.ghesh forte takes place, and is essential^ i. e. necessary to the form of the Avord (Daghesh essential) — - a) when the same letter is to be Avritten twice in succession, without an inter- mediate vowel; thus for ^iJHJ we have ^SH^ we have given; for ''riH^, '•ri^ / have set. b) in cases of assimilation (§ 19, 2,) as p) for [W\ In both these instances it is called Daghesh compensative. c) when the doubling of a letter originally single is characteristic of a grammatical form, e. g. "1^7 he has learned^ but 1^7 he has taught {^Daghesh characteristic). The double consonant is actually and necessarily written twice, whenever a vowel sound, even the shortest (a vocal Sh^va), comes between. Hence this is done a) when a long vowel precedes, as in □""/pin (^insolent), which is read h6-Mim (§ 26, Rem.), frequently also after a mere tone-lengthened vowel, as in -I^Pf^, which is, however, usually contracted into •IJStr' ; b) when a Daghesh has already been omitted, as •l?^'!' hd-lHu iox 'OfT} hdl-Mu ; c) Avhen the two consonants have come to stand together by composition, but properly belong to two words, as ^3"13^ {he blesses i/tee), 'P.^IS^^i?.^ {^hei/ rail me), where "^ and ''3 are suffixes ; d) when the form has come from another which has a long vowel, as ^7??. construct of 'v/i?. Sometimes the same word is found in both the full form and the contracted, e. g., ^1^}^] Jer. v. 6, and ^'^}^'] Prov. xi. 3, Q«n; ^??.3n Ps. ix. 14, and '33n Ps. iv. 2. 2. A consonant is sometimes doubled merely for the sake of euphony. The use of Daghesh in such cases {Daghesh euphonic) is only occasional, as being less essential to the forms of words. It is employed — a) when two words, of which the first ends in a vowel, are more closely united in In the Punir, "[.^ mnlkh (l}^\. On the contrary, it is usually omitted in the preformatives ) and P in Piel, as "t^Tl, C}3"i?pn, n:V3P^ for m^^b ; so also in 'n^, and in cases like 'h^ for •l'?|>n, ^;pn for ^3|n. In some cases a vowel or half vowel was inserted to render the doubling of the letter more audible, e. g. D?pV li'ith you for D^PV ; niap for n?p (§ 07, 4), -IJ^i?; Is. Ixii. 2. c) In the gutturals (see § 22, 1). Rem. In the later books Ave sometimes ^nd Daghesh omitted, and then compensation* made by lengthening the preceding vowel (comp. mile for mille), as ID'"'?* he terrifies them for \^'^\ (Hab. ii. 17), D^:niJD thrcshhuj-sledges for D^IT?^, 1 Cliron. xxi. 23. Sect. 21. ASPIRATION AND THE REMOVAL OF IT BY DAGUESH LENE. The ijuve hard sound of the six aspirates (H, 3, P, *T, J, ^,) with Daghesh lene inserted, is to be regarded, agreeably to the analogy which languages generally exhibit in this respect, as their original pronunciation, from which gradually arose the softer and weaker aspirated sound (§ 6, 3, and § 13). The original hard pro- nunciation maintained itself in greatest purity when it was the initial sound, and after a consonant; but when it followed a vowel sound innnediately, it was softened and aspirated by the influence of the vowel, so jn|) pCirats becomes ThS* yiplirots. Hence the aspirates take Daghesh lene: 1. At the beginning of Avords, when the preceding word ends with a vowelless consonant, as |3"7y dl-ken {therefore)^ ''^3 "py ets p'ri {fruit-tree) ; or at the begin- ning of a chapter or verse, or even of a minor division of a verse (consequently after a distinctive accent, § 15, 3), e. g. ^''t^'X'^5 in the beginning^ Gen. i. 1 ; 1Ei^X3 \T1 it happened,, when,. Judges xi. 5; on the contrary, p"''np. it was so^ Gen. i. 7 ; VJ|) 6|)*1 (with dist. accent) iv. 5, but in ver. 6 ^^3 ^^} (with conj. accent). Also a diphthong (§ 8, 5), so called, is here treated as ending in a consonant, e. g. ? ^"]^ Judges v, 15. {Daghesh lene is therefore regularly found after ITin^ because ''ihS was read instead of it.) 2. In tiie middle and at tlie end of words after silent Sh'va, i. e. at the begin- ning of a syllable, being immediately preceded by a vowelless consonant, e. g. N3T he heals,, Sn^pp ge have killed, i^l^l let him drink. On the contrary, after vocal Sh'va they take the soft pronunciation, e. g. 5^3'! heal thou,, rin^5 .^^lie is heavy. N.B. The aspirates have the soft sound also especially in — o) Forms which are made, by the addition or omission of letters, immediately from other forms in Avhich they had their soft sound; c. g. -icni (udt •121'!) from «1'T!; "'?^0 (not ''3^0) formed imme- § 22. PECULIARITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. 41 diately from D'SpJ? (on the contrary, ''^)>^ mal-M, hecanse it is formed directly from ^^ mdlk) ; nn^2 (not 3?3?) from 2n|. In these cases, that pronunciation of the word, to which the ear had become accustomed, was retained ; thus, rid^p/iu, viaPhhi, bikh^fhdbh.^- Rem. 1. The form Jjin?^, where Ave might expect the feeble pronunciation of H on account of the preceding vowel, was originally ^n^l^ ; and the relation of T\ , notwithstanding the slight vowel sound thrown in before it, was regarded as unchanged. Comp. § 28, 4. b) The 3 in the suffixes "^— , D^t, |3— , has always its soft sound, because vocal Sh^va is before it, § 58, 3, b. 2. Also the tone appears at times to affect the division of a Avord into syllables, and consequently the sound of the aspirates; thus, nSi?^ Num. xxxii. 14, but Pinbob Ps. xl. 15; |31i^ (qdrbdn), but l-5"]i50 (in pause) Eze. xl. 43. c) Finally in certain classes of forms, e. g. riOpD {nial^ldiuth), T\yV)l. 3. That the hard or soft pronunciation of these letters did not affect the signijication of words, affords no reason to doubt that such a distinction was made. Comp. in Greek Oqi^, t/)iyos. Sect. 22. PECULIARITIES OF THE GUTTURALS. The four gutturals, H, H, y, X, have certain properties in common, which result from the pronunciation peculiar to them; yet &< and y, having a softer sound than n and n, differ from these in several respects. 1. The gutturals cannot be doubled in pronunciation, and therefore exclude Daghesh forte. To our organs also there is a difficulty in doubling an aspiration. But the syllable preceding the letter which omits Daghesh appears longer in con- sequence of the omission ;■{■ hence its vowel is commonly lengthened, especially before the feebler letters J^ and y, e. g. \\'^T\ the eye for j^^H; ^I2i^\ it is said for 1Db{^, etc. The harder gutturals, H and H, allowed a sharpening of the syllable, though orthography excluded Dagh. f. (as in German the ch in sichei\ machen, has tlie sharp pronunciation without being written double), and hence the short vowel almost universally maintains its place before these letters, e. g. ^inH the month, N^nn that, j'^inp outside (but also :ibht2 from fat). As these last forms are treated as though the guttural were doubled, the grammarians not inap- propriately speak of them as having a Daghesh forte implicitum, occultum, or delitescens ; e. g. Q^H^? for D^^^5 brothers ; Cn? snares; □''HH thorns. See more in § 27, Rem. 2. 2. They are inclined to take a short A sound before them, because this vowel stands organically in close affinity to the gutturals. Hence — * A particularly instructive case occurs in § 45, 3, in the Inf. with prefixes. t Comp. terra and the French te7re ; tlie Germ. Rolle and the French role; Germ, drollig, and Fr. d?6le. In this omission, we see the diminished vigour of the language. The fresher and more original sounds of the Arabic ("§ 1, r>) still admit the doubling of the gutturals. 4*2 PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. II. CHANGES OF LETTERS. a) Before a guttural, Pathach is used instead of any other short vowel, as z, e {Cliireq parvum^ Seghol), and even for the rhythmically long e and o {Tser^e and Cholem)] e. g. HIT sacrifice for HIT, ^/pl^^ report for ^/p^. This is still more decisively preferred when the form with Pathach is the original one, or is used in common with another. Thus in the Imp. and Fiit. Kal of verbs; TU^ se7id, rhp: he will send (not rt^\)', Fret Piel nW (not rh\^)) ^A a youth, where Pathach in the iirst syllable is the original vowel ; Httri- ^^^ "^^D- ^^^ ^^"^'^^ desire. b) But a strong and unchangeable vowel, as i, 'I, *—, (§ 25, 1), and in many cases Tsere, is retained. Between it and the guttural, however, there is involuntarily uttered a hasty a {Pathach furtive), which is written under the guttural. This is found only in final syllables, and never under X; e. g. TliT\ ru"ch (spirit), n^S^ shd-liTch {sent), H*''! ra"ch (odour), V'l re'^ (companion), nU5 gd-hh<7h (high), n^S^n hish-l'fch, etc. For the same reason the Swiss pronounces ich as t"c/j, and the Arabian fT'tJ'lS mesi^ch, though neither writes the supplied vowel. [Analogous to this is our use of a furtive e before r after long e, f, a, and the diphthong ou ; e. g. here (sounded M'r), fire {fl'r), pure (pu^r), and our (o?f'r).] The Pathach furtive falls away when the word receives an accession at the end, e. g. D''"' spirit, 'Pin niT/ spirit, where the n is made the beginning of the new syllable. The LXX. write e instead of Pathach furtive, as D^ Nwc. Rem. 1. The guttural sometimes exerts an influence on the follotviur/ vowel. But the examples of this usage are few, and are rather to be regarded as exceptions than as establishing a general rule, e. g. IV? a youth for 1^3 ; ?y3 deed for /J?'S . The A sound is preferred only where it would be admissible without the influence of the guttural, as in the Imp. and Fut. of verbs, e. g. t^DK', t^ni^J. If, however, another vowel serves at all to characterise the form, it is retained, as Cn?* he fights ; 7^*1 and he waited, not ?n*1 . 2. Seghol is used instead .of Pathach both before and under the guttural, but only in an initial syllable, as tJ'2n^ he binds, \??n . Without the guttural these forms would have Chireq, in place of Seghol. When, however, the syllable is sharpened by Daghesh, the more slender and sharp Chireq is retained even under gutturals, as ^), Inf. n'PJfn (conformed to "^'PiPn), Pret. Hoph. ipyn (conformed to ^Ppn). For some further vowel changes in connexion with gutturals, see § 27, Rem. 2. 5. The *1, which the Hebrew uttered also as a guttural (§ 6, 2, 1), shares with the other gutturals only the characteristics mentioned above in No. 1, and a part of those given in No. 2; viz. — a) The exclusion of Daghesh forte; in which case the vowel before it is always lengthened, as '^'l!3 lie has blessed for "^"^.5; '^!^ to bless for "^"l.?. b) The use of Pathacli* before it in preference to the other short vowels, though this is not so general as in the case of the other guttural sounds, e. g. X1*l and he saw, while for the full form nxi'' is in use: ^0*1 for ^D*1 a?id he turned back, and for "10*1 and he caused to turn back. V T- Unfrequent exceptions to the principle given under letter a are n"')?^ mor-ru, Prov. xiv. 10 ; ''I^.C' shdr-rekh, Eze. xvi. 4, where "1 is notwithstanding doubled (also in Arabic it admits of doubling, and the LXX. write H'lB' 2appa). There are some other cases in which neither the doubling of the "> nor the lengthening of the vowel has taken place, as ^Tp (for ^1"^.P) 2 Sam. xviii. 16. Sect. 23. the feebleness of the breathings x and t\- 1. The X, a light and scarcely audible breathing in the throat, regularly loses its feeble power as a consonant (it quiesces)., whenever it stands without a vowel at * The preference of?- for the vowel a is seen also in Greek, e. g. in the feminine of adjectives ending in pm, as '\l^pa for ('x^prj from f\(^poy.— Tr. 44 PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. II. CHANGES OF LETTERS. the end of a syllable. It then serves merely to prolong the preceding vowel (like the German h in sah)^ as N^*^ he has found^ N7/p he was filled^ X'*n she^ Ni*0 to jind^ t*X^^ for 7V^|,!, also S^J^' (with a clianged to o, § 9, 10, 2) for /5^!t,!, or it wholly displaces it, as in DX^b for DXnS Neh. vi. 8, D\S*pn (chotlm) for n>*tph {sinning) 1 Sara. xiv. 33, ^l^ryi^fi {two hundred) for D^HXp, D''E^'X'^ {heads) for D''^X*!. vSometimes there is a still greater change in the word, as h^V^""^' for Sxy^ti^\ n:DX^D {business) for HDXb'^. Some- times also the vowel before K remains short when it is a, e. g. ''^'iXl for ^^^IX^, ''iyh for ^j^vsS, nx^pS for nxnpS. Instead of X in such a case, there is often written one of the vowel letters 1 and *, according to the nature of the sound, tlie former with d and the latter with e and 1 ; e. g. "112 for "IJ^S (^cistern), on. {hiffalo) for DXT, P^^'n {the frst) for fl^N"! Job viii. 8, comp. 1^ for ^^^ {not) 1 Sam. ii. 16, K^thihh ; at the end of a word H also is written for i^, as n?D^_ {he Jills) for ^'Q\ Job viii. 21. 3 AVhen X is thus quiescent, it is sometimes entirely dropped, e. g. ""T^^ {I went forth) for ^^r^ '^^9 {I am full) Job xxxii. 18, for 'HX^p, ^DvX (/^a?/) constantly for 1/^XX, fe Eze. xxviii. 16, for ix'p^, niL^'^'7 (^(? % zra.s-?e) 2 Kings xix. 25, for n^xt^^^^ is. xxxvii. 26. Kem. 1. In Aramaean the x becomes a vowel much more rcadil)' than in Hebrew ; but in Arabic. on the contrary, its power as a consonant is much firmer. According to Arabic orthography n serves also to indicate the lengthened d ; but in Hebrew the examples are very rare, in which it is strictly a vowel letter for the long A sound, as Q^'i' Hos. x. 14 for the usual Q|^ he stood up, K'NT poor Prov. x. 4, xiii. 23 for tJ'T. Hebrew orthography generally omits, in this case, the vowel letter (§ 8, 3). 2. In Syriac X even at the beginning of words cannot be spoken with a half vowel {vocal Sh'va), but then always receives a full vowel, usually E, as ^?^^ in Syr. ekhal. Accordingly in HebrcAV, also, instead of a coinposite Sh^va it receives, in many words, the corresponding long vowel, as ins girdle for litS, D^^HX tnits for D'^^X, n^-JX stalls for ninx. 3. We may call it an Arabism. or a mode of writing common in Arabic, when at the end of a word an X (without any sound) is added to a -1 (not being part of the root), as ^'^^(\} for 'i'^?<} {thet/ go) Josh. X. 24, X13X {they are willing) Is. xxviii. 12. Similar are S"'ip3 for ^i?3 pure, Sv for ^^ ij\ Xisx for isX (hen. The case is different in N"in and X'H ; sec § 32, Rem. 6, § 24. CHANGES OF THE FEEBLE LETTERS 1 ANr3 \ 45 4. The n is stronger and firmer than the X, and scarcely ever loses its aspiration (or quiesces) in the middle of a word;* also at the end it may remain a consonant, and then it takes Mappiq (§ 14, 1). Yet at times the consonant sound of the n at the end of a word is given up, and T\ (without Mappiq, or with Raphe H) then remains only as a representative of the final vowel, e. g. fh (to her) Num. xxxii. 42, for Th Job xxxi. 22; Ex. ix. 18. The H at the beginning of a syllable preceded by vocal Sh^va often disappears and is omitted in writing, as "Ip^? {in the morning) for ^J^'^^h, pX? (in the land) for H^Stn?, pjiri) contracted jnjV. In these cases of contraction, the half vowel ' (— ) before H is displaced by the full vowel imder it. In other cases, however, the vo\s^el under H is displaced by the one before it, as D3 {in them)^ from dHS; oi' both are blended into a diphthongal vowel, as ID^D (also PtbD) from ^HD^D, i^bj^ from ^riStpp. According to this, the so-called quiescent H at the end of a word stands, some- times, in the place of the consonant ^. But usually it serves quite another purpose, viz., to represent final a, as also J, ^ and a (Seghol), e.g. n^{<, nSil, nS;1, rh^ m\. See § 7, 2, and § 8, 3. Rem. In connexion with o and e it is occasionally changed for 1 and ^ (iX"l=n'Nn, ''311 = n3n Hos. vi. 9), and in all cases for x according to later and Aramaean orthography, particularly in connexion with a, e. g. ^}^ {sleep) Ps. cxxvii. 2, for ^}^, Nb'J {(o forget) Jer. xxiii. 39, for r\^'\, etc. Sect. 24. CHANGES OF THE FEEBLE LETTERS 1 AND *. The "I [the sound of which is probably between our w and v'\ and the "• [our y] are as consonants so feeble and soft, approaching so near to the corresponding vowel sounds u and ?', that they easily flow into these vowels in certain conditions. On this depend, according to the relations of sounds and the character of the grammatical forms, still further changes which require a general notice in this place, but which will also be explained in detail wherever they occur in the in- flexions of words. This is especially important for the form and inflexion of the feeble stems, in which a radical 1 or * occurs (§ 69, etc., and 85, III. — VI.). 1. The cases Avhere. 1 and ^ lose their power as consonants and flow into vowel sounds, are principally only in the middle and end of words, their consonant sound * A very few examples are found in proper names, as PXnbji^, "IIVnTS, which are compounded of two words, and in many MSS. are also written in two separate words. One other case, n»B"nQ| Jer. xlvi. 20, is also in the printed text divided by Maqqeph, in order to bring- the quiescent il at the end of a word. 46 PART r. ELEMENTS. CHAP. 11. CHANGES OF LETTERS. being nearly always heard at tlie beginning.* These cases are chiefly the fol- lowing : — a) When ) or ^ stands at the end of a syllable, immediately after a vowel. The feeble letter has not strength enough, in this position, to maintain its consonant sound. Thus 2m it is inhabited for 2m or 2m • yp'] he awakes for yp)^; n"T'in'*3 for rriin^S; so also at the end of the word, e. g. V^'^P^) yisrdeii (properly, -%, hence /^/;i. -liyi/a), )t*^ (made) Job xli. 25, for )')t^V (conip. r\))bV 1 Sam. XXV. 18, K'thihh). After homogeneous vowels, particular!}^ pure u and ^, 1 and "" constantly quiesce in these cases. But after a heterogeneous vowel they sound as consonants (according to § 8, 5), as 1/^ quiet^ IT May mouthy ^\^ nation^ ''^/il disclosed. But with a preceding short a 1 and * mostly form a diphthongal o and e ; see below, No. 2,5. b) When 1 or Ms preceded by vocal Sh^va, and such syllables are formed as q'vom^ b'vo. Hence XiS to come for Nl!?, U)p to arise for Dip. So also especially when 1 and ^ preceded by Sh®va come to stand at the end of a word; as ^'^) for ^'TT (from n;n:), '^^fmit for n3. c) Very seldom when the feeble letter has a full vowel both before and after it; as Dip surgendo for Dilp, DID for D'lp. Comp. \_'parvum contr. paruni]^ mihi contr. W7Z, quum contr. cum. In Syriac, where these letters flow still more readily into vowel sounds, ' is sounded, even at the beginning of words, merely as i, not as ] or ) (like e for ^) ; and so in the LXX. iTlin* is written *IovSa, pHV! 'IcraaK. Hence may be explained the Syriac usage, examples of which occur also in Hebrew, which transfers the vowel i, belonging to the feeble letter, to the preceding consonant, which should properly have simple Sh^va, e. g. P"in'3 as the superiority/ for piH^^ Eccles. ii. 13, •1?n''1 (in some editions) for -l^n^l Job xxix. 21 and they tvaited. 2. When such a contraction has taken place, the vowel letter quiesces (see }). 22, note f ) regularly in a low/ vowel. Respecting the choice of this vowel, the following rules may be laid down : — a) When the vowel, which an analogous form icithout the feeble letter would take, is homogeneous with the vowel letter, it is retained and lengthened, as ^D**) he is good for Ip)^ (analogous form /^p!); it^^H (habitare /actus est) for 2\^\r\. b) When a short a stands before * and 1, there arise diphthongal S and d (according to § 7, 1); thus 2'^]f2 becomes l^p^^ doing well; nW, ym ; hSv;, nSi^.f * An exception is 1 for 1 and, see § 26, 1, and § 104, 2, b. f Instances in which no contraction takes place after a short a are, D'J1''P^?D, using the right hand, 1 Chron. xii. 2 ; DTp*X / chastise them, IIos. vii. 12 ; ''jyO^ I am at ease, Job iii. 26. At times both forms are found, as Tw)y and npiy evil; *n Hving, construct state *n. Analogous is the contraction of r\)D death, constr. m!D, |)y eye, tonstr. I^y. § 25. UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS. 47 c) But when the vowel sign is heterogeneous, and at the same time is an essential characteristic of the form, it controls the feeble letter, and changes it into one which is homogeneous with itself. Thus ^^V becomes ^y\; Dp becomes Dp qdm; v5 and v?^ become 11721 and ^7£^^* i'T -T TT TT An original ''t at the end of words becomes — o) n— (for ''— is never written at the end of a word), when the impure sound d must be used ; e. g. n)r. for 'b?\ (§ 75, 1) ; rWA-pform for 'Xno ; ^^b feld (poet.), common form ITlb.f b) n— when the A sound predominates, and is characteristic of the form: as n75. n^a, rhl tor ?l, 71, "n. Sect. 25. UNCHANGEABLE VOWELS. What vowels in Hebrew are firm and irremovable, can be known, with certainty and completeness, only from the nature of the grammatical forms, and from a c(imparison with the Arabic, in which the vowel system appears purer and more original than in Hebrew. This holds, especially, of the essentially long vowels in distinction from those which are long only rhythmically^ i. e. through the influence of the tone and of syllabication, and which, having arisen out of short vowels, readily become short again by a change in the position of the tone and in the division of the syllables. The beginner may be guided by the following speci- fications : — 1. The essentially long and therefore unchangeable vowels of the second and tldrd class, viz., 7, ^7, ^, o, are mostly expressed among the consonants [or in the line] by their vowel letters, i and *9 (§ 23, 1) do not belong here. 3. Unchangeable is also a short vowel in a sharpened syllable, followed by Daghesh forte^ e. g. 23i thief ; likewise in every closed syllable which is followed by another closed syllable, e. g. tTiS^p,^ garment^ JV^NI poor^ "^ll'P v:ildeimess. 4. Such are also the vowels after which a Daghesh forte has been omitted on account of a guttural, according to § 22, 1 {forma dagessanda)^ e. g. /^^"^■J^ for ^{<"'''\!n mountains of God; ^^ for '^^ he has been blessed. Sect. 26. SYLLABLES AND THEIR IXFLUENXE OX THE QUANTITY OF VOWELS. To obtain an adequate view of the laws, according to which the long and short vowels are chosen or exchanged one for another, a previous acquaintance is required with the theory of syllabication^ on which that choice and exchange depend. The syllable may then be viewed with reference, partly to its commencement (its initial sound) as in Xo. 1, and partly to its close {its final sound) as in Xos. 2 — 7. The latter view is of chief importance. 1. AVith regard to the commencement of the syllable, it is to be observed, that every syllable must begin with a consonant; and there are no syllables in the language which begin with a vowel. The single exception is ^ {and), in certain cases for 1, e. g. in "^^w^ (§ 104, 2, b)* The word "l-^X is no exception, because the J< has here the force of a light breathing. 2. AVith regard to the close of a syllable, it may end — a) AVith a vowel, and is then called an open or simple syllable, e. g. in np^jj the first and last are open. See Xo. 3. b) With a half vowel or vocal Sh*va, as ;/ in ^2 p'j^i {fruit), ch" in ^Vl? ch^tsi {half), f in ^/tDD qd-tf-lu. Such we call half syllables ; see Xo. 4. c) AVith one consonant: a closed or mixed syllable, as the second in /pj^, ^^!?. See Xo. 5. Here belongs also the sharpened syllable, as the first in 7t2p qdt-tel. See Xo. G. * It may be questioned whether ^ in the above position be a real exception ; for ^pi ought probably to be pro- nounced xrum'dlehh (not umalekh'), the 1 retaining its feeble consonant sound before the Shiireq. — Tk. § 2G. SYLLABLES AND THEIR IXFLUENXE ON THE QUANTITY OF V0\Y1:lS. 49 d) AVith two consonants, as tptJ^p qosht, ^T^p ; comp. § 10, o. AVe shall no\v (in Nos. 3—7) treat in particular of the vowels that are used in these various kinds of syllables. 3. The open or simple syllables have, as a rule, a long vowel,* whether they have the tone, as ^5 in thee, *^^ book, ^*lp sant^tuary,, or not, as SdP, M grape, ^^y they will fear. Usually there is a long vowel {Qamets, less frequently 7'sere) m an open syllable before the tone (pretonic vowel), e. g. DH/^ DID^, Stpp, ^^/.f iShort vowels in o/)«/* syllables occui- only in- the following cases : — a) In dissyllabic words formed by means of a helping vowel (§ 28, 4) from monosyllables {Segholates), as "n^O, "ly? youth, n>i house, 2T, from f?^? , 1^3, a'?, ?T. The reason is, that the final helping vowel is very short, and the word sounds almost as one syUable. Yet the first vowel is also lengthened, as in 3^.'., another form for 3T (§ 75, Rem. 3, b), K'OK' (in pause, § 29, 4). h) In certain forms of the suffixes, as ''??9i'?) T]?"^. (from T)-?*^). c) Before the so-called He local, which has not the tone (§ 90, 2), e. g. nbo"!? towards Carmcl, n^2"10 towards the icildernrss. In all these cases the short vowel is supported by the chief tone of the word. Elsewhere it has at least the support of Methegh, viz. — (/) In these connexions, "T",-"", ~rT ^ ^^ "i^y^' his taste, "IDX,!, he will hind, i^VS his deed, TI^^D.^ atid thy adorning. e) In some other forms, as •IptCC.- ye-eh^-z'gu {they are strong), "^7^^ p6-bl^hhd [thy deed), ^"'"^"Jtj' sh6- rashwi {roots) ', comp. page 27 and § 28, 3. The first syllable in Cl^iiJ, ^ip^', and in similar forms, does not come under this, but under No. 6, below. 4. Tiiere is also a slighter sort of open syllables, consisting of one consonant and a half vowel {ov vocal Sh'va^ § 10, 1, 2), and may be called half syllables. They are so short, and so unfit to stand by themselves, that they constantly lean on the stronger syllable that follows, e.g. ^H? {cheek) I'ch'i, T\^\7\ yil-m'dhu, vH (sickness) ch% 'h^hpo-^lo. The modern grammarians do not regard these as actual syllables, but always reckon them as part of that which immediately follows [thus they regard "H? as forming but one syllable l''clil, and * This is certainly a fundamental law in IIcl)row, as its pronunciation is now indicated by the vowel sig-ns, but not a matter of absolute necessity, fur other languages very often have short vowels in open syllaMes, as iyiviro, Arab, qatala. At an earlier period the Hebrew, like the Arabic, most probably had short vowels in those open syllables in which the vowel was not essentially long, and the present pronunciation is derived in part from the solemn, slow, and chanting way of reading the Old Testament in the synagogues. t The Arabic has for tliis pretonic vowel constantly a short vowel ; the Chaldee only a vocal Slfva, pHp to them, D"lp^ "ptpP, 33^, which is the case also in Hebrew, when the tone is shifted forward (§ 27, 3, a). But this pretonic vowel must not be regarded as if it had been adopted, perhaps in place of Shf^va, on account of the tone on the following syllable; but it originally belongs to this place, and the circumstance of its standing before the tont- syllable only causes it to remain, whilst it is reduced to a voeal Sli'^vn upon the shifting forward of the tone. 50 PAJiT I. ELEMENTS. — CHAP. II. CHANGES OF LETTERS. not two l^-chl']. The half vowel is certainly not fit to serve as the final sound of a full syllable ; and, according to the pronunciation handed down to us, this syllable with Sh^va is obviously of a different sort from the open syllable with a full vowel (No. 3). But yet that half vowel is in general but a shortening of an original long vowel, which is commonly still to be found in Arabic; and even the Jewish grammarians, from wliom the vowels and accents came, have assigned to the union of a consonant with a half vowel the value of a syllable, as appears from the use of Methegh (see § 16, 2, b). 5. The closed syllables, ending with one consonant, have necessarily, when without the tone, short vowels, both at the beginning and at the end of words,* as n|S» queen, pim understanding, H^pn wisdom; "IDJI and he tur7ied bacJc, Dj^;i a)id he set up, Dp*l and he stood up. When ivith the tone, they may have a long vowel as well as a short, e. g. Dpi! wise, D^n he was wise; yet of the short vowels only Pathach and Seghol have strength enough to stand in such a syllable having the tone.f Examples of long vowels in the final syllable, are W, StSp, Sb)T.; in the last but one, nj%p, ni%j:p. Examples of short vowels, %\>', Dns*, DJtT; in the penultima, ^^\>, ^^?P)?% 6. A peculiar sort of closed syllables are the sharpened, i. e. those which end Avith the same consonant with which the following syllable begins, as ^^J< im-im, 'h'Z Ml-li. Like the other closed syllables, these have, when without the tone, short vowels, as in the examples just given ; when with the tone, either short, as ^3p, ^^'r\, or long, as H^g^, n^H. Sharpened syllables are wholly avoided at the end of words ; see § 20, 3, letter a. 7. Closed syllables, ending with two consonants, occur only at the end of words, and have most naturally short vowels, as JJv^J^, 5?^!5, yet sometimes also Tsere, as 1^}, "I]!*!, and Cholem, as ^^p- But compare- § 10, 3. Most commonly this harshness is avoided by the use of a helping vowel (§ 28, 4). * There are some exceptions, when a word loses the tone through Maqqeph, as JT^H'^ril {Mhdbh), Esth. iv. 8. t See § 9, 2. Short Chireq (r) occurs only in the particles DX and DV, which, however, are mostly toneless, because followed by Maqqeph. § 27. changes of vowels, especially in respect to quantity. 51 Sect. 27. CHANGES OF VOWELS, ESPECIALLY IN RESPECT TO QUANTITY. The changes which the Hebrew language has undergone with respect to its sounds before arriving at the state in which we know it from the 0. T. (see § 2, 3) have also affected its vowel system, so that, for the better comprehension of the vowel changes occurring in the 0. T. language, it is of importance to trace back the corresponding states and relations of the language in that earlier period, and, at all events, to compare that which is retained in the Arabic. In general it is principally to be observed : 1. That, as it is at present, the language has often, in an open syllable, preserved only a semi- vowel (vocal ShH'a) where originally a full, short vowel, stood ; this is the case in the second syllable of the noun, and the first of the verb, before the tone, e. g. TVi^_ (ground form aydlat) waggon, ■^RIY (S'^* form tzadakdt) righteousness, vtpp^ (Arab, qdtdlii) ; 2. That originally short vowels have now, in the tone syllable, but in nouns also in open syllables, before the tone, passed over into tone-long vowels, a into a, 1. into e, H into o (see § 9, No. 1, 2. No. 7 and No. 10, 3). These, again, either return to their original shortness, when the tone is shifted or made lighter^ or they become still more shortened, even to semi- vowels (vocal Sh^vas), at a greater distance from the tone, or are entirely dropped in consequence of a change in the relations of the syllables. E. g. 19? (Arab, mdtur) rain, in construction with a following genitive {status constructus) IPP, pi. nntpD, const r. nntpr? ; 2\>V (Arab, dqih) heel, pi. D'^i^V., ""3?^? ; y^p^ (Arab, ydktul), pi. •I/'PP! (Arab, ydktulii). The vowels, with the changes of which we are chiefly concerned here, are all the short ones, and as many of the long as owe their length simply to the tone and rhythm, viz. — The short vowels, — d {- The vowels lengthened by the influence of the tone, e — a, e T ^ '— u [Qamets-chatuph) u To these add the half vowels or Sh^'vas T, "T, ~, ~, as the utmost shortenings. Let the student compare here again what was said in § 9, on the character and value of the several vowels ; and in § 25, on the unchangeable vowels. Agreeably to the scale of § 26, the following changes occur: — 1. A vowel become tone-long is changed into an original or kindred short, when a closed syllable loses the tone (§ 26, 5). Thus, when the tone is moved forwards, ^\ hand^is T, as Hin^T hand of Jehovah; \^son^ D"^^^^"||l .§6>;^ of man; 72 whole^ DJjn~73 ^^ TT T bli PART I. ELEMENTS. CHAP. II. CHANGES OF LETTERS. the iL'hoIe-of-the-jjeople ; also Avlieii the tone is moved backwards, e. g. DiT, DP*V, "^z!, v.*5- So also, when an open syllable with a long vowel becomes by inflexion a closed one, e. g. ^3D Z;o6>^', H^D 7»y ^(?(?/(;; ti'lp sanctuary^ "*^"lj? '"y sanctuary. In these cases 76'^re (^) passes over into Seghol (e) or Chireq (z), Cholera (o) into Qamets-chatuph (o). But Avhen a closed syllable with a long vowel becomes a sharpened one, i, e. ending with a doubled consonant, Tsere is attenuated into ( 'hireq, and Cliohyni into Qibbuts, as ^i^ i?} other ^ ''^S ????/ mother; pH statute^ plur. D^pn. The short vowels ? and w are more pure, and lience puss for shorter than e and d. 2. On the contrary, a short vowel is changed into a corresponding long one, — a) When a closed syllable, in which it stands, becomes an open one, i. e. when the word receives an accession, beo-inninfr with a vowel, to which the final consonant of the closed syllable is attached, as /tpp, i/i^p he has Mled him ; '•HID^D from h) When a syllable, which should be sharpened by Daghesli forte^ has a guttural for its final consonant (see § 22, 1), or stands at the end of a word (see § 20, 3, a). c) When it meets with a feeble letter (according to § 23, 1, 2; § 24, 2), as XV? for ^lso in Arabic pronounced kdlb], for which we get, first, ?>|, and then with a helping Seghol ;§ 28, 4) 2^| ; >?! (jussive in Hiphil from n^S}, then W^, and finally ^{l* ^3. In a closed (and sharpened'^ syllable, which loses the tone, d is at times attenuated into I, e. o-., C^P'n your blood for C2pi, i"^!? ^js measure for H? ; ^jniS^ / hate begotten, 'Vk'tA I hate begotten thee.\ Comp. above, Cnn^'^. 4. The Seghol arises, besides the cases given above, jja Rem. 1 and 2, also — a From the weakening of a {Qamets) at the end of a word (comp. Eoma, T lench. Eome ; Arab. nzt'hn read khalife), as nO and nO what ? (§ 37, 1}. See similar examples in Ps. xx. 4 ; Is. lix. 5 ; Zech. ix. 5. b) Even from the weakening of u, as 2'"'*? {you) from the original n^Mm (Arab, antum], see § 32, Rem. 5 and 7 : Cn^ 7o Mem) from the original lahum. Comp, § 8, Third Qass of Vowels, p. 21. 5. Among the half vowels, (-) is shorter and lighter than (-), and the group (— ) than (r^;, e. g. CnX Edom, *?^^{ EdomUe; HDX truth, in5?^? his truth; pSr3 hidden, plur. D*P,%; '^')7V.JX\ Sj:cT. 28. RISE OF NEW VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 1. When a word begins with a half syllable (§ 26, 4), i. e. with a consonant which has a half vowel (vocal Sh^va), and there comes another half syllable before it, then this latter receives, instead of the Sh^-a, an ordinary short vowel, which is recnilarlv i (Chireq), but with gutturals a (Pathach; e. g. /£^ (to fall) n'phol, A\-ith the preposition 3. not ^2?3 h'rrpliol^ but /SpS hin'phol ; so also b^2 Jcin'phol for '^hj2\ ^"1$S for fruit for ^^b; HTin*!! (whence mT^'ll according to § 24, 1) forni^in^S; DV^n {iium parum est?) ham' at for l^l'^ri Jfm'at. At times another division of syllables takes place, so that the second consonant gives up its half vowel and forms a closed syllable with the first, as 72^7 Irn-pol Xum. xiv. 3. ^'\2 Jer. xvii. 2. A similar process occurs in the body of a word, as "i^'f^. rlsh'phe and *^?"1 rtshpe, "t'px from C'*J';S ; yet here the initial vowel comes immediately from a full vowel, and is more like I in cnn^^. (§ 27, 3). In Sj-riac, the usijal vowel here is d (e), even in the absence of gutturals : in Chaldee it is the same as in Hebrew ; the Arabic has always a firm short vowel for the vocal Sh^va. 2. When the second of the two consonants is a guttural witli composite Sh'va, then the first takes, instead of simple SVva, the short vowel with which the other is compounded, so that we obtain the groups ^-7, -3-7. :;;^, e. g. ^^^^ hoii\ * So the LXX. also express ?l»"*?r? by MtXxirrebtK. f Analogous to this attenuating of n into f, is the Latin tango, attingo ; laxus, prolixus; and to that of a into c, (in Rem. 2) the Latin carpo, decerpo ; spc-go, conspergo. § 29- TONE AND PAUSE. 55 nhvh to serve, Sb«S to eat, ^Snj in sickness, for "l^N?, ^hvh, ^b^f^, ^^n^. The new vowel in such cases has Methegh, according to § 16, 2, a. 3. When the first Sh'va is composite, and comes to stand after an open syllable with a short vowel, then it is changed into the short vowel with which it is com- pounded, e. g. 11 W yddm'dhu for l^^-V- '^^^^V ^^'^'^^ stand, I^SHJ nehepli''khu for IIDSH^ they have turned themselves, ^"^^ pool^khd {thy ruork). Comp. § 26, 3, e. 4. At the end of words, syllables occur which close with two consonants (§ 10, 3, § 26, 7); yet this takes place only when the last of these is a consonant of strong sound, D, p, or an aspirate with its hard sound {tenuis), viz., !l, 1, *^, f1,* e. g. "dp^ let him tuni aside, p^*l and he caused to drink, ^7^P thou {fern.) hast killed, "^5*1 and he loept, 'I'l.''. let him rule, 3^*1 etnd he took captive. This harsh combination of letters is, however, avoided in general by supplying between the two consonants a helping vowel, which is mostly Seghol, but Pathach under gutturals,! and Chireq after ^ e. ff. py'^ and he revealed for 7^*1; C'lp sanctuary ■ for ^"^p', vTl^ stream for {^^ '■> ^U7^X ^'^^' ^H/^ ihou hast sent ; n^5 house for ri^!l. Compare German Magd and the old form Mdged. These helping vowels have not the tone, and they arc dropped whenever the word increases at the end, as nn^3 to the house. These helping vowels have inappropriately been called y?/r/n' (tbe last two examples have * There is no instance of a similar use of J and «], which would in tliat case likewise require Daghesh. The use of Sipin in Prov. xxx. 6 (shortened from FlDiri) is the only exception ; and in some MSS. the f] has Daghesh. t With the exception, however, of S, as Xn2 uuhl ass, Hl^n fresh grass. On account of the feehle sound of the N, the helping vowel may also be omitted, as NtOn sin, N^5 valley. I In this form (§ 65, 2) Daghesh lene remains in the final Tav, just as if no vowel preceded (§ 22, 2), in order to indicate that the lielping Pathach has a very short sound, and at the same time to suggest I^nyC' as the original form. (Accordingly riHip) thou hast taken is distinguished also in pronunciation from nili^p ad sumendum.) The false epithet ftirtive given to this helping vowel, in connexion with the notion that such a vowel must be sounded before the consonant, caused the decided mistake, which long had its defenders, viz., that J^in?^ should be read shnlaacht; although such words as nnK', ^m were always correctly sounded shdchath, nuchal not naachl. Quite analogous is "^n^ yichad (from nnn, see § 75, Rem. 3, d). 56 PART I. ELEMENTS. — CHAT. II. CHANGES OF LETTERS. it even on additions to the root) ; less frequently on the penultima, as in '^S^, rh']? night, ri^ipp. Connected with the principal tone is Methegh, a kind of secondary accent (§ 16, 2). Small words which are united by Maqqeph with the following one, arc destitute of the tone (§ 16, 1), It is not necessary here to single out the words accented on the penultima {voces penacuta:) ; for the sake, however, of calling attention to these words, they are chiefly marked in this book with 1, as a sign of the tone. In Arabic the tone is more on the penultima, and even on the antepenultima. The Syrians •accent mostly the penultima; and the Hebrew is pronounced thus, contrary to the accents, by the German and Polish Jews, e. g. i<"J3 ri'tJ'Xn^ breshis boro. 2. The original tone of a word frequently shifts its place on account of changes in the word itself, or in its relation to other words. If the word is increased at tlie end, the tone is thrown forward {descendit) one or two syllables, according to the length of the addition, as^n'^ word, D^l?*^ words, D?^1?"^. your words; SJ^lp sanctuary, W^'l^^ sanctuaries ; ^761'!), ^nrizOj'p. For the consequent shortening of the vowels, see § 27, 1, 3. In one case the tone is thrown forward in consequence of accession at the beginning of the word. See § 44, Rem. 5, b. 3. On tlie contrar}^, the original tone is shifted from the final syllable to the penultima (ascendit) — a) When the syllable '\ (§ 49, 2) is prefixed, as ^N^ he will say, *1^*1 and he said ; \)l he will go, "^7*1 a?id he went; Dp^ let him rise, Dp*l and he rose. b) Wlien a monosyllabic word, or one with the tone on the penultima follows, in order to avoid the meeting of two tone-syllables;* e. g. iS *T7JX I was horn in it Job iii. 3, for i!l H^IX.; 0^3 d'^IH heating the anvil Is. xli. 7, for DVB oipin Gen. i. 5; iii. 19; iv. 17; Job xxii. 28; Ps. xxi. 2. c) In pause. See No. 4. The meeting of two tone-syllables {letter h) is avoided in another way, viz., by writing the words with Maqqeph between them, in which case the first wholly loses the tone, as D^'^RSM. The mode given above {letter b) is adopted whenever the penultima is an open syllable with a long vowel. Compare § 47, Hem. 1, § 51, Rem. 3, § 52, Rem. 2. 4. A^ery essential changes of the tone, and consequently of the vowels, are eftl'cted by the Pause. By this term is meant the strong accentuation of the tone- * Even the prose of tlie Helircws proceeds, according to the accentuation, in a kiml of lanihie rhythm. That the autliors of the system intended tu secure ttiis objcet is evident, particularly from the application of Methe^'h. § 29. TONE AND PAUSE. 57 syllable of the word which closes a period or member of a period, where one of the great distinctive accents stands, as 1^'^^?^, ^IS"!!. The changes are as follows: — a) When the syllable in pause has a short vowel, it becomes long; as S^P, y^p', D:^), D^g; nS:?j7, nStOp; y^\) (conspiracy), ^f\l 2 Ki. xi. 14; p>S*, y^ii Jer. xxii. 29. b) When a final tone-syllable is preceded by a half syllable (as nSlpIp, see § 26, 4), the vocal Sh^va of the latter gives place to a full vowel; a more fitting position is thus secured for the tone, which is moved from the last syllable to the new penultima; e.g. nStp^, rh^\^; Hx'p^, r\^hf2; ^^tpj^^, hbpi The vowel selected is always that which had been dropped from the same syllable, in consequence of the lengthening of the word.* Moreover, vocal Sifva in pause becomes Seghol, as ^Plp, '•H?; and a Chateph gives place to the analogous long vowel, as ^:X /, ^1^^; hn, "Sh sickness. • —■ ' ■ AT ' • t: ' -A c) This tendency to place the tone on the penultima in pause shows itself, moreover, in several words which then reo-ularly retract the tone, as **^j^< /, Oj^?; T\T\^ thou, ^n^^; nny now. nW; and in sino-le cases, like 173 Ps. xxxvii. 20, for iSs, and also ^^7 Job vi. 3, for ^Vp, from ny^. The rule given under letter a relates mainly to Pathach and Seghol. Seghol is, however, strong enough to be retained in pause, as '^^|^., and specially when the syllable closes with Daghesh forte, as, -la^Pip*. Pathach is sometimes adopted in place of Seghol, as \^'l, in pause V-?.!; l/l?'''^ lodge not, in pause i/.^''^? Judg. xix. 20. Pathach even takes the place of Tsere in pause; e. g. 3t^n brmg back, for 3??'n, Is. xlii. 22, although more usually Tsere remains ; and, on the other hand, Pathach occurs also even when the word is not in pause ; e. g. "T^J^ for *T?.^ Ecc. iii. 48. Several other changes occasioned by the pause will be noticed farther on, when treating upon the Forms and Inflexions. ♦ Such a pausal syllable is sometimes strengthened further by doubling tlic following consonant, § 20, 2, o. PART SECOND. FORMS AND INFLEXIONS, OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Sect. 30. THE STEM-WORDS AND HOOTS (BILITERALS, TRILITERALS, QUADRILITERALS). 1. The stem-words of the Hebrew and of the other Shemitic languages have this peculiarity, that by far the most of them consist of three consonants^ on which the meaning essentially depends, while its various modifications are expressed by changes in the vowels, e. g. D15< he was red^ dlijl red, Wli^ man (prop, red one). Such a stem-word may be indifferently either a verb or a noun, and usually the language exhibits both together, as \>f^ he has reigned, y^ king. Yet it is customary and of practical utility for the beginner to consider the third person singular of the Preterite, i. e. one of the most simple forms of the verb, as the stem- Avord, and the other forms of both the verb and the noun, together with most of the particles, as derived from it, e. g. pH^ he was righteous, p"T^ righteousness, pnV righteous, etc. Sometimes the language, as handed down to us, exhibits only the verbal stem without a corresponding form for the noun, as 7pD to stone, pn!l to brag ; and occasionally the noun is found without the corresponding verb, e. g. 1^^ south, yi^ri 7iine. Yet it must be supposed that the language, as spoken, often had the forms now wanting; most of them being actually found in the cog- nate dialects. Rem. 1. The Jewish grammarians call the stem-word, i. e. the tlilrd person singular of the Preterite, the root, ^hp, for which the Latin term radix is often used ; and hence the three consonants of the stem arc called radical letters, in contradistinction from the servile letters (viz. X, 3, n, 1, *, D, 7, JD, 3, C*, n, forming the mnemonic expression 3?31 HCD fn^N Ethan, Moses, and Caleb), which are added in the derivation and inflexion of words. Wc, however, employ the term root in a different sense, as explained here, in No. 2. 2. Many etymologists give the name root to the three stem-consonants, viewed as vowelless and unpronounceable, from wliich the stems for both the verbs and the nouns are developed, as, in thp. § 30. STEM-WORDS AND ROOTS. 59 vegetable kingdom (from which the figurative expression is taken), the stems grow out of the concealed root. Thus for example — Root : 'P^ to reign. Verb-stem : v^ he has reigned. Noun-stem : '^I^O king. This supposition of an unpronounceable root is, however, an abstraction too remote from the actual state of the language ; and it is better, at least for the historical mode of treatment, to consider the concrete verb [3rd pers. sing. Pret.] as the stem-word. 3. These triliteral stems are generally of two syllables. But among them are reckoned also such as have for their middle letter a 1, which is uttered as a vowel (§ 24, 2, c), and thus reduces the form to one syllable, e. g. Di^ for Dll^. 2. The use of three consonants in the steins of the verbs and nouns is so preva- lent a law in the Shemitic languages, that it is to be regarded as a characteristic peculiarity of this family. Even such monosyllabic nouns as might be deemed originally monosyllables (biliteral roots)., since they express the first, simplest, and commonest ideas, as !15< father., DX mother, PtX brother, come under this law; thus, Ave have *^i< mij mother, as if derived from ^P^. Yet, on the other hand, stems with three consonants (triliteral roots) may be reduced to two consonants, which, with a vowel uttered between, form a sort of roo/^-syllable, from which again several triliteral stems with the same meaning have sprung up. Such root- syllables are called primary or hiliteral roots. They are very easily distinguished when the stem has a feeble consonant or the same consonant in the second and third place. Thus, the stems '^3'1, ^^V\, ^s5'^, HD"^ have all the meaning of fo beat and to beat in pieces, and the two stronger letters ^ dakh [comp. Eng. thwaclc] constitute the monosyllabic root. The third stem-consonant may also be strong. To such a monosyllabic root there often belongs a whole scries of triliteral stems, which have two radical letters and the fundamental idea in common. Only a few examples of this sort here : — From the root KP, which imitates the sound of hewing, are derived immediately }*Vi5, PlVi? to cut off; then ^Vi^, J?Vi^, "IVlJ, with the kindred significations to shear, to moiv, and metaph. to decide, to Judge (hence !"'Vi^ Arab. Kadi, a judge). Related to this is the syllable t^'p, Dp, from which is derived DDj'^ fo cut into; 3K'|5 to sharpen; H^'i^ to 2^(ire. With a lingual instead of the sibilant t3p, *ip ; hence 3Pi5 to cut dotcn, to destroy ; 7i?i5 to cut down, to kill ; IPi^ to cut off, to shorten; HPl^ to tear off, to pluck off; "rii"3 to cut asunder, to split. A softer form of this radicnl syllable is D3 ; hence DD3 to cut off, to shear off; D33 Syr. to sacrifcc, to slay for sacrifice. Still softer are TJ and 13; hence TTS to moio, fo shear ; ^\\ to hew stones; D!^, V\i, Pli, IT^ to hew off, fo cut off, to eat off, fo graze ; and so Tl^ fo cut, Vli, fo cut off; compare also H"!^, FllJ. With the change of the palatal for the guttural sound 3Vn, 3pn fo hew stones and wood, KV'?, '^VC ^^ split, divide, VD arroiv (o-;^i^a), "Tin to sharpen, ^"'I^ arroiv, lightning, also i^JH to see (Lat. cernere, Germ. untcvschcidm) and many others. 60 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. The syllable 0"^ expresses the Innnynlng sound made with the mouth closed (/xv'w) ; hence i^'?'i'» Dn3 (D5<3), Arab. DHDn, to hum, to buzz. To these add DHl to he dumb; DHT to become mute, to he astonished. The root-syllable Vl, of whicli both letters have a tremulous sound, means to tremble, in the stem-words "ly, ^V"*, ^VJ, ^'^"^ : then it is expressive of what causes tremulous motion or agitation, as thunder (Dy), the act oi shattering, of breaking in pieces (yV"l, fyi). Compare with these the root-syllable 33 with the idea of elevation, curviiig upward (gibbous), ID to break, vh,rh, to lick, to sup, under the articles 33|, "I"!?, ^'O, in Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon. From a further consideration of this subject, we may draw the following observations : — o) These roots are mere abstractions from stems in actual use, and are themselves not in use. They merely represent the hidden germs {semina) of the stems which appear in the language. Yet the latter have, now and then, so short a form, that they exhibit only the elements of the root itself, as on perfectus fuit, ?|"5 light. b) Most of these monosyllabic roots are imitations of natural sounds, and sometimes coincide with the roots of the Indo-Germanic stock (§ 1, 4); e. g. ^Zin [comp. Eng. tap'], tvVtw (ti'ttoj), XQ"J pdirro) {pdffxo), ^7^ [comp. Eng. club'], KoXaTrrw. c) The stems with hard, strong consonants are to be regarded, according to the general progress of lano-uage (§ 6, 4), as the oldest, while the feebler and softer consonants distinguish forms of a later period, which consequently are more frequently used for the derivative and metaphorical sio'nifications • e. o^. ^IP^ and Hpll to be smooth, to be shorn, to be bald; and even n?| to he bare. Sometimes, however, the harder or softer sound is essential to the imitative character of the word, as ^^3 to roll (spoken of a ball, of the rolling of waves), but TDS more for a rough sound, as made in the act of scraping = a-aipw, avpoi, verro : 3>'n to cut sto7ies or xcood, requires a stronger sound than na to cut grass, to moiv. d) It appears also that those consonants, which resemble each other In strength or feebleness, are commonly associated in the formation of root-syllables, as P, D3, TJ, n: (never p, P, D3, Tp) ; ya, n (seldom tQ) ; Dp, HJ (not t23). Scarcely ever are the first tAvo radicals the same {p'']'X) or very similar (''l'?)- On the contrary, the last two are very often the same (§ 67).* e) The tendency to substitute smooth for harsh sounds (see letter c) is sometimes so great, that /, n, r, especially when used as middle stem-letters, are even softened to vowels, as ^Tl, ^"1, to tread dotvn, to thresh ; Y7^, Y^ (comp. D3S), to j^ress, and many others. Comp. salvare, French sauver ; calidus, Ital. caldo, in Naples caudo, French chaud ; falsus, /also, in Calabria /«?<;?/, French /rn/j: ; and the pronunciation of the English words talk, walk. Comp. § 19, 5, Rem. f) Often, however, the three stem-letters must all be regarded as original, since all are necessary to make the sound of the word expressive of the sense, e. g. '^^n, pin, pjy, to be narrotv, to afflict, ayxta, ango [anguish, Welsh ijng, angau] ; "ni"] to tread [comp. track] ; D13 , Ppipua, fremo, [Welsh brefu, Ger. hrummen], to make a humming sound {to buzz, hence to spi)i), etc. A fuller development of this active change among the elements of the language is to be souglit for in the Lexicon. 3. To a secondary process or Liter epoch of the hmguage belong stem-words of four ^ and, in the case of nouns, even of five., consonants. These are, however, * Letters which are not found associated as radicals are -called incompatible. They are chiefly such as too strongly resemble each other, as 3p, p3, ^13, 3D. Some letters, however, have been falsely considered ivcompatible, as 7, T, which are often found associated, e. g. in b')l and ?"in, from the harsher forms 1^5, T\J\, Comp. ypanroi along with ypal^br^v, o/crw along with oy^oor, and much tliat i? nnnlngous in Sansl<: comp.Num.xi. lo: Deut.v.24. The feminine form was originally pronounced "'^>? (with the feminine designation V, probably from i<^n she, properly thou she ; compare vPl"?^ § 47, 2), as in Syriac, Arabic, and ^thiopic. This form is still found in a few instances (Judg. xvii. 2, 1 Kings xiv. 2). Some forms in the inflexion of the verb are derived from it (see § 44, Rem. 4, § 59, 1). The final I sound, however, was gradually given up (in Syriac also it was at length only written, not pronounced), and the ' therefore dropped, so that the Jewish critics, even in the above-mentioned passages, place in the Q«n ri*?, the Sh^va of whicli stands in the punctuation of the text (§ 17). The same final * appears, moreover, in the imfrequent forms of the suffix, ^?t, ''t'.''~ (§ 58). 5. The plurals Q^X, jFlX, are blunted forms (comp. § 27, Rem. 4, b) of D-iriX (Arab, antuin, Chal. I'lPl^, a form which lies at the foundation of some verbal inflexions, § 59, 1), and I'TlN or V^^^, the full final vowel giving j^lace to the obtuse sound of e, somewhat in the manner of the third person. \B^ is found only once (Eze. xxxiv. 31, where another reading is 1^^^), and HJFIX (for which MSS. have also HSKIX) occurs only four times, viz., in Gen. xxxi. 6; Eze. xiii. 11, 20; xxxiv. 17. For the ending H— , sec No. 7. III. Third Person. 6. The X ^vas, perhaps, heard at the end of ^''n and t^^O, as a kind of half vowel, hua, h'la, as e in German die (old Germ, th'm, th'id), sie, tvie. A trace of this is also preserved in the Arabic, as hmva, hit/a, in the common dialect hua, h'la. The masculine fc5"in is of common gender in the Pentateuch,'^ in which it is used also for she. (See § 2, 3.) The punctators, however, whenever it stands for X^H, give it the appropriate pointing of tliis form C^li?), and requii-e it to be read i^''^ (comp. § 17). It is, however, to be sounded rather according to the old form XIH. 7. The plural forms ^^ and JH are obtained from J^in and i<^n in the same manner as DJ!!*? from nriX. In Arab., where they are pronounced Jnim, hunna, the obscure vowel sound is retained, for which Seghol stands also in the suffixes DH and iQ (comp. § 27, Rem. 4, b). The H— in both forms ( n?3n, nSPI ) has a demonstrative force. In Chald. (P^H, l^i?), Arab., and ^thiop. (Jiumu, homu) there is an 6 or u appended, which appears in Hebrew in the poetical forms "10, i»7, iO^ (§ 58, 1). 8. The pronouns of the third person, XIH, X^H, DH, ]n, are aXao demonstrative T^rononw?, (see § 122, 1). * Some rare exceptions occur; see in Lev. xiii. 10; xx. 17. § 33. the suffix fronoun. 65 Sect. 33. THE SUFFIX PRONOUN. 1. The full and separate forms of the pronoun, as given in the foregoing section, express only the nominative :* tlie accusative and genitive, on the contrary, are expressed by shortened forms or fragments, which are joined to the end of verbs, nouns, and particles {suffix pronouns, usually suffixes); e. g. VI and ^ his (from Xin he), thus ^IT'ri'pipp / have killed him, ID^D his horse. Instances of the same construction occur in Greek, Latin, and German, as TraTip [jlov for TraTrjp ifiov, Lat. eccum in Ptautus for ecce eum, Germ, du hasi's for du hast es [comp. vulgar English fftve'm for ffive them']. In Hebrew this is done systematically, as in Egyptian, Hungarian, and some other languages. 2. In respect to the cases which these suffixes denote, let it be remarked — a) When joined to verbs, they denote the accusative (but comp. § 121, 4), ^rr'^n/Dp / have killed him, h) When joined to substantives, they denote the genitive (like '^ary'jp fiov, pater ejus), and then serve as possessive pronoims, as ^^5^ (abh-i) my father ; ID^D his horse (so that it is as much equus ejus as equics suits, comp. § 124, 1, h). c) AVhen joined to particles, they denote either the genitive or the accusative, according as the particle includes the meaning of a noun or a verb, e. g. ^H^ (prop, my vicinity) with me, like mea caussa, on the contrary ""Jiin behold me. d) The dative and ablative of tlie pronoun are expressed by combining the prepo- sitions that are signs of these cases (? sign of the dative, 5 in, \^ from, § 102) with the suffixes, as r> to him, 13 in him, U2f2from you. 3. Some of these suffixes are probably derived from forms of the separate pro- noun, which were early lost in Hebrew, as "^— thee, from a form like HSK = nriX f thou. This applies also to the afformatives of the verb (§ 44, 1). 4. The suffix of the verb (the accusative), and the suffix of the noun (the * See an exception in § 121, 3. t That a palatal (A) and lingual (0 are liable to be exchanged, is manifest from the speech of young children, who frequently confound them, as likkie for litde. Obvious instances of this exchange are found in many languages, as Gr. 8aio)=Ka'Lco, Gr. Tis=Mo\. /cisr, Lat. quis, and in the Hebrew itself HHC^ = Hi?^ to drink. There is thus a strong presumption that the pronoun of the second person in the Shemitic languages nmst have had two forms, our with h and the other with t, as nSS and HPIX, D3S; and DriS.— 'J'r. 66 PART II. — PARTS OF SPEECH.— CHAPTER I. PRONOUN. genitive), are mostly the same in form, but sometimes they are different, e. g. \J The following Paradigm gives a view of all the forms of the pronoun, both separate and suffix ; more explanation about the suffix of tlxe verb and the mode of attaching it to the verb will be found in §§ 58, etc., about the suffix of the noun in § 91, about prepositions with suffixes in § 103, about adverbs with sufF. § 100, 5. A. THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.* NOMINATIVE OF THE ACCUSATIVE OF THE PRONOUN, OR GENITIVE OF THE PKONOUN, OE PRONOUN, OB, A'ERBAI, SUFFIX. NOMINAL SUFFIX (PRON. possessive). SEPARATE PRONOUN. A. B. A. B. Singular. Simple Form. With 3 Epenthetic. SUFF.TONOUNSSINGULAR. To Nouns Plural AKD Dual. 1. co7n.*33X, in paused ''3;*3-j "-J- vie. 'K' '^.t: 1— my. ^— my. ''3bSI;''^^N,inpausel /. ^3X J rw. nnx(nK),in^ 2. J P^"^^ ^^^ i thou. ■Jl, ^— , in pause-i X.'^^W ^.^-.inpause^-- V^ 1 ^- (^7) \ ''*««• ■ thy. > thy. •!1;^-:V;(^7)' not found. "1. I7. (^t) - Xt J (m. X-in he. .'■•1 •in,i;-in--, (ri),-> > him. •"ini- -"13-, 03) •in, 1; -"in-, i. (ri) his. ^"-^-.^irv-^his. 1; -in^ J [_/. X^n she. ri; n-; n— her. ^\7. H; n-; n- her. n"i— her. T !•.• Pliual. 1. com. -ijnjxoijm),-) •' '• •' > we. •"l2;13-;-13-(nos) Mi. •13:7 •13; -i:-; (-13-) our. •13^— our, !•• 03X) J {m. DnX -) DD, DD--) ny- •) 2. \ '■•■ " \ ye. t/. Ipx, njpx J i''^^ '""• not found. your. 19^7 1 ■"■"""• rm. Dn, nsn -i (DH), D; D-, Dt," > they. iD-^n-.CD^). ^0J°7.i»7l ^i)''-,^^'^*] 7 . \0-* {eos) not found. ■ their. 3^ • 2 ./•in. nan (1,0), I; I7. (It)-. ? \- (<-««) 10. in. I7 • W'- • The fonna w ■ith an asterisk are exclusively poetical, and those in parentheses are of rare occurrence. § 34. the demonstrative tronoun. 67 Sect. 34. THE DEMONSTRATIVJi: PRONOUN. Sinq. 7??. MT* "] _ ^, j.^^ . , u.^ , , J. ,- •, > tJas. Fliir. coiniu. TVi^ (vnYely 7i<) these, f. nXT (IT, HT) J ■■ ^ '' " ' The feminine form DXT is for HXT (from XT = HT and the feminine ending H, see § 80), and the forms IT, nt, Avhich are both of rare occurrence, come from HXT by dropping H. 7X and PlpX (akin to the Arabic article 7{<, see § 35, Rem. 1) are plural according to use, and not according to grammatical inflexion. The form 7X occurs only in the Pentateuch and 1 Chron. xx. 8, and there always with the article 7Xn (Rem. 1). The ending T\— in n^X (same as H— ) is a demonstrative appendage, as in T\^T\ (§ 32, Rem. 7). Another secondary form of the demonstrative is IT, used only in poetry. It stands mostly- for the relative (like that for who)^ and it is used alike for all num- bers and genders, like ^'^ (§ 36). Rem. 1. This pronoun receives the article (i^itL?, '^.f^v', ''^'?) according to the same rules as the adjectives, § 111, 2, and § 122, 1. There are, besides, some peculiar forms in which "? is inserted after the article, n.J^'n Gen. xxiv. 65 ; xxxvii. 19 ; •"It.'pn fem. Eze. xxxvi. 35, and shortened T?n usually masc. Judges vi. 20 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 1 ; xvii, 26 ; but fem. in 2 Kings iv. 25. In Arabic there is a corresponding form alladhl as relative pronoun. 2. Some other pronominal stems occur among the particles, § 99, etc. Sect. 35. THE ARTICLE. Originally the article was a demonstrative pronoun, akin to the pronoun of the 3rd person. It nowhere occurs in Hebrew as an independent word, but always in close comiexion with the word before which it stands. Its usual form is -n, with a short sliarp-spoken a and a doubling of the folloAving consonant (by Daghesh forte), e. g. mfr\ the sun, ^K^ the river for 'IX^n (according to § 20, 3, b). AVhen, however, the article -H stands before a Avord beginning with a guttural, * In most languages the demonstratives begin with d, hence called the demonstrative sound, which is, however, interchanged with a sibdant [as in Heb. HT] or a rough breathing. Thus in Aram. i^'H, H., '^'^. this, Arab, dhu, d/ti, dim; Sanskr. sa, sd, tat, [Gr. 6, fj, to], Goth, sa, so, thata; Germ, da; der, die, das [our the, tins, that; Welsh dyna ; hyn, hynd], etc. 68 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. I. PRONOUN. which (according to § 22, 1) does not admit of Daghesh forte^ then the short and sharp a (Pathach) is lengthened into a (Qamets) or a (Seghol). But to be more minute : — 1) Before the weakest guttural i< and before 1 (§ 22, 5) the vowel of the article is always lengthened, as ISH tJie father^ ^l'^'7 i^^^ other^ D^fH the mother, t^^Xn the mail, *lixn the lir/ht, D^H AS*n 6 ^eo?, h^'ljl the foot, miT} the head, ^^yi the evil-doer. 2) For tlie other gutturals it is in general the rule, that the stronger the guttural tlie firmer is the syllable of the article, both as to its sharpness and its short a. ])Ut there are then two cases to be distinguished: — A) Wlien the guttural is followed by any other vowel than «, — or J, — , then a) Ix^fore H and T\ (as l)eing stronger), the article regularly remains H, as i^)T\7^ that, ^inn the month, Vrin the strength ; with rare exceptions, as ''nn Gen. vi. 19, and always DHn those ; h) before ^ the Pathach is generally lengthened, as j^yfl the eye, T'iJn the city, 1'2Vl\\ the servant, pi. Dnjyn. (Exceptions in Jer. 12. 9; Prov. ii. 17.) B) But when the guttural is followed by a, —, then a) before H and V the article is always H, provided it stands immediately before the tone-syllable, else it is n, e. g. DyJl the people, ^HIl the mountain, p^n (in pause), rT^nil towards the mountain, on the contrary D"''inn tlie mountains, \\'QT\ the guilt ; h) before H the article is always H, without regard to the place of the tone, as CD^Hll the wise, ^nn the feast; so also c) before H, as vOO ^^^^ sickness, W^^lJlT} the months. (On the contrary n^^HLl according to A, a.) It ma}'' be added, that gender and number (just as in our language) have no influence on the form of the article. Rem. 1. The form of tlie Hebrew article "H seems to have originated from b^, the ^ of which is constantly assimilated to the next letter (like ^\^\ from n;^?*. § 19, 2.) This assimilation is to be accounted for from the enclitical nature of the article. In the Arabic it sounds ?!;? (pronounced hal by the Beduins*), the ^ of which is likewise assimilated, at least so before all letters sounding like s and /, and before I, n, and r ; e. g. al-Koran, but as-sana (by the Bed. has-sana), e. g. Heb. n3L''n f/ic year. The Arabic article itself occurs also in the Old Testament in the Arabic name T]^^?^ Gen. X. 26, and perhaps also in t^^?|?^ ice, hail, e. g. t^*?5 Eze. xiii. 11, 13; xxxviii. 22; and according to others also in D"lp?X the jieople, Pr. xxx. 31. N.B. 2. When the prepositions ?, ?, and the | of comparison (§ 102) come before the article, the n is dropped by contraction, and the preposition takes its points (§ 19, 3, h, and § 23, 5), as D^DB'? m the heaven for Dnpt;'n3 ; DV^ to the people for Dyn^ ; D"'"}n3 on the mountains. With | , however (which is less closely connected with the woi'd), the n very often remains, as DTns Gen. xxxix. 11, but also Dl*? Gen. xxv, 31, 33; else it seldom remains except in the later books, as See Wallin in the Zeitschr. der D. Morgenl. Ges. Bd. vi. s. 19.5. 217. § 37. THE INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITP: PRONOUNS. 69 Dyn? 2 Chron. x. 7. (Yet see 1 Sam. xiii. 21 ; Ps. xxxvi. 6.) With ), which is in its conception still less closely connected with the word, the n always remains, as Oyni and the people. Sect. 36. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. It is the same for both genders and numbers, ^^^f wlio.^ lohich. In the later books, and also in some of the earlier, viz., in Canticles constantly and in Judges occasionally, instead of this full form we have '^ (with the 5< elided and the 1 assi- milated, § 19, 2, 3), more rarely "^ Judges v. 7; Cant. i. 7, once ^ before X Judges vi. 17 (else ^ before gutturals), and even ^* Eccl. ii. 22; iii. 18. On the mode of expressing the cases of the relative, see § 123, 1. 1??'^ is used also as a conjunction, like quod, on, that. Closely connected with it in meaning is ^3, which also belongs to the pronominal stems, § 104. Sect. 37. THE INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1. The interrogative pronoun is '^p wliof (of persons), and H^ what? (of things). The pointing of HD with Qamets is seldom found except in pause and before K and i, as Dnx n^ what are ye? ^T}"^^"^. HD u-hnt do ije see? rarely before n as in Josh. iv. 6, 21. It is commonly written in close connexion with the following word : a) "HO with Maqqeph and Daghesh forte conjunctive (§ 20, 2), as "'Ip'nO tvhat to thee ? and even in one word, as D??'? tvJiat to youf Is. iii. 15, H;^^ xohat is thisf Ex. iv. 2 ; b) before the harder gutturals n, n, y, it likewise receives Pathach with the Daghesh implied in the guttural (§ 22, 1), K-inTlD Num. xiii. 18 ; f) when the guttural has Qa^nets, it receives Seghol (according to § 27, Rem. 2), as ri''t^y"no rohat hast thou done ? This Seghol stands also occasionally before letters that are not guttural, as "\y\ y\\> no rchat voice, etc. ? 1 Sam. iv. 6 ; 2 Kings i. 7, but only when the tone of the clause is far removed from the word ; moreover, in the form ri^3 , n^B (see more in the Lexicon, under no in the note). 2. Both ''^ and T\'t2 occur also as an indefinite pronoun, in the sense of whoever., whatever. * In PhcEnician the full form "lEi'X does not occur, but ^ is pronounced sa, se, si, and CX ys, es ; see Gesen. Mon. Phcenicia, p. 438. Mover's Phcenic. Text I. p. 81, etc., TI. p. 44. Comp. above, § 2, 5. Also in modern Hebrew •t^' has become quite predominant. 70 PAET ir. TARTS OF SrEEClI. CIlAr. II. VERB. CHAPTER II. T HE V E R B. Sect. 38. GENERAL VIEW. 1. The verb is, in the Hebrew, the most elaborated part of speech as to inflexion, and also the most important, inasmuch as it mostly contains the stem of the others (§ 30), and its various modifications are, to a great extent, the basis of the other forms in the lano-uasfe. o O 2'. Yet all verbs are not stem-words. Like^ nouns they may be divided, in respect to their origin, into three classes, — a) Primitives^ e. g. "^7? to reign; ^^J to sit. b) Verbal derivatives, derived from other verbs, e. g. pTi to justify , p'^^V'7 to justify one's selj] from p*!^ to be just ; commonly called conjugations (§ 39). c) Denominatives, or those derived from nouns in the form both of the primitives and the derivatives; e. g. /HX and /HX to pitch a tent, from /HX a tent; ^'^^ to root out and ^'^^pT} to tale root, from ^"^^ a root. The noun, from which the denominative verb comes, is in most cases itself derivative ; c. g. I?^ (n he iL'Jiite, hence ^}li> a brick (from the colour), and hence again i?/ to make bricks ; from HH to increase greathj, y% ajis/i, and hence again JT^ to Jish. A jieculiar kind of secondary verbs, and at least of rather late formation in the language (hence frequent in the later dialects), are those denominatives, one of whose consonants, originally a mere servile, has become a radical ; e. g. DIJ to rest, to set one's self down; hence the noun rinj a setting down ; hence again nn3 to descend: in like manner T\T\'<:y grave, destruction (from n-icr), hence riHK' to destroy. Sect. 39. 1. The 3rd person Preterite of the simple form of the primitive verbs (i. e. Kal, see No. 4) is generally regarded as the stem-form or ground-form of the verb, as Stop lie has killed, H^l he ivas heavy.* From this are derived the other persons of the Preterite and the Participle. Another, more simple still, is the Infinitive, as 7bp, also ■'^-^P, with wliich the Imperative generally agrees in form, and from wliich is derived the Future. * The Infinitive is here used for the sake of brevity in most grammars and le.\icons, thus IW to learn, prop, lie has learned. § 39. CONJUGATIONS. 71 The first ground-form, of two syllables (Arab, qatala, qatila, qatula), may be called the concrete, and the second, which is generally monosyllabic (Arab, qatl, qitl, qutl), the abstract. The same analogy prevails in the division of nouns into abstract and concrete. In verbs whose second radical is 1, the full stem a^ipears only in the second form; e. g. n-IC^, of which the 3rd person Pret. is 2^'. 2. From the simple form of the primitives, viz., Kal, are formed, according to an unvarying analogy in all verbs, the verba derivativa, each distinguished by a specific change in the form of the stem, Avith a corresponding definite change in its signifi- cation (intensive, frequentative, causative, passive, reflexive, reciprocal); e.g. lu^ to learn^ Hte? to cause to learn^ to teach ; !35^ to lie, ^^^k^ to cause to lie, to lay ; tOSC^ to judge, ^^^^ to contend hefore a judge, to litigate. In other languages such words are regarded as new derivative verbs ; e.g. to fall, to fell ; lactere, to such, lactdre, to give suck; jacere, to throw, jacere, to lie; 7tVoyu,ai to he horn, yewdo) to bear. But in Hebrew, where these formations are beyond comparison more regular than e. g. in the German, Latin, and Greek, they are called, since the time of Reuchlin, conju- gations (Heb. D"^^^??, more correctly species, modifications) of the primitive form, and both in the grannnar and lexicon are always treated of in connexion as parts of the same verb.* 3. The changes of the primitive form consist partly in varying its vowels, or doubling one or more of its letters (S^Sp, 7J3fp; 7tpip, 7^1p; SStpp, StpStpp; comp. to lie, to lay ; to fall, to fell); partly in the addition of formative letters or syllables (7Dp3, AppH; comp. to speak, to besj^eak ; to count, to recount; to bid, to forbid); sometimes in both united, as 7t3prin. (Comp. § 31, 2.) In the Aramaean this is effected less by the change of vowels than by the addition of formative syllables ; so that, for instance, all the passives are formed as reflexives by the prefix syllable HX, riX. The Arabic is rich in both m.ethods, while the Hebrew holds also here the middle place (§"l,6). 4. Grammarians differ as to the number and arrangement of these conjugations. The common practice, however, of giving to them still the old technical designa- tions, prevents any error. The simple form is called Kal (vp light, because it has no formative additions); the others (LDn;?^) heavy, because burdened with forma- tive additions) derive their names from the Paradigm used by the old Jewish grammarians, SyS he has done.\ Several of them have passives which distinguish * The term Conjugations, therefore, is evidently to be taken here in a difterent sense than in Greek and Latin grammar. t This verb, on account of the guttural which it contains, is unsuitable for a Paradigm, and has been exchanged for 1i53, which possesses this advantage, that all its conjugations are actually in use in the Old Testament. There is, however, some indistinctness in the pronunciation of some of its forms, as J^lpS, Drnj"!?. The Paradigm ,UiJ, 72 TART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. VERB. themselves from their actives by the obscure vowels. The most common conjuga- tions (including Kal) are the jive following; but few verbs, however, exhibit them all : — Active. Passive. 1. Kal. /i^p to kill. (wantinfT.) . - |t \ O / 2. Niphal. ^^p^ to lill one's self. (very rare.) 3. Piel. 7t3p to till m.any^ to massacre. Pual. 7t2jp 4. HiphiL ^'^[^^ to cause to kill. Hophal. Sppn 5. Hithpael. ht3pr\r\ to kill one's self. Hothpaal. St^p^nn There are several other less frequent conjugations, of which some, however, are more common than these in tlie kindred languages ; and in the irregular verb in Hebrew they sometimes take the place of the usual conjugations (§ 55). In Arabic there is a greater variety of forms, and their arrangement more appropriate. Arranged after the Arabic manner, the Hebrew conjugations would stand thus : — 1. Juil. 2. Piel and Pual. 3. Poel a.nd Ponl (^ 55, \). 4. Iliphil and Hop /hi I. 5. Hit/ipael and Hof/ipaal. 6. Hi t /ipoel {^ 55). 7. Niphal. 8. Wanting in Hebrew. 9. Pilel. The more appropriate division is into Mree classes; a) The intensive Piel, with the analogous forms derived from it ; h) The causative Hiphil, and its analogous forms [S/iaphel, T'phel) ; c) The reflexive and passive Niphal. Sect. 40. 1. The Hebrew verb is indebted, for whatever copiousness it exhibits, chiefly to these conjugations or derivative verbs. In moods and tenses it is poor, having only two tenses (Preterite and Future*)., an Imperative^ an Infinitive (with two forms), and a Participle. All other relations of time, absolute and relative, must be expressed by these, either alone (hence the diversity in the senses of the same form, § 125, etc.) or in syntactical connexion with other words. The jussive and optative are sometimes indicated by peculiar forms of the Future (see § 48). In the Germanic languages, also, there are distinct forms for only two tenses (the Present and Imperfect). In the formation of all the others auxiliary verbs are employed. Comp. Grimnis d. Gramm. 2. A. 1, 135. 2. In the inflexion of the Pret. and Fut. by persons, the Hebrew differs from tlie Western languages, having in most cases distinct forms for both genders., as in the personal pronoun, which is incorporated in the forms of these tenses. in common use since the time of Danz, obviates this inconvenience, and is especially adapted to the comparative treatment of tlie Shemitic languages, inasmuch as it is found with a slight change (Arab, and .SDthiop. /Tip) in all of them. In Hebrew, it is true, it has only the forms of Kal, which are not frequent, and occur only in poetry ; yet it may be retained as a type or morlel sanctioned by usage. * See note on " the Future and its inflection," § 47, p. 79. — Te. § 41. CONJUGATIONS. 73 As a preliminary view for the beginner, we exhibit here in a Table the formative syllables {afformatives and preformatives) of both tenses. Fuller instruction con- cerning them will be found in §§ 44 — 47 in connexion with the Paradigms. Preterite. 3 m. 3/ 2 m. 2/ 1 c. Sing. n- T n T Siv^. 3 c. Plur. Future. 3 m. > ' * : 3/ • • ^ 2 w. • • ^ 2/ >T . . . JJI 1 c. . . ?:? 2 ??i. Dn . . . 2/ I^. . . Ic. 3 m. ^ . . * 3/ T • ^ 2 7??,. 1 . . ];i 2/ nj . • • ^ 1 c. . . . i Sect. 41. The general analogy in the inflexion of verbs, which is normally exhibited in the stems with strong and firm consonants, holds good for all verbs; and the deviations which occur from this model of the strong and regular verb, are only modifications owing to the peculiar nature and the feebleness of many consonants, viz. — a) To the presence of a guttural as one of the stem-letters or radicals, which occasions various vowel changes according to § 22 (guttural verb^ §§ 62 — 65). b) To the falling away of a strong stem-letter by assimilation or contraction {contracted verb, §§ 66, 67), as m'^^, ^l^D. c) To the presence of a feeble letter as one of the radicals (§§ 23, 24), so that many changes occur through its commutation, omission, or quiescence {quiescent ov feeble verb, § 68, etc.), as i^J, Dip. The letters of the old Paradigms ^i^S are used in naming the letters of the stem, Q designating the first, y the second, and 7 the third. Hence the expressions, verb ND for a verb whose first radical is X {prhnce radicalis ^) ; verb H? for one whose third radical is n {tertice radicalis n) ; verb yy (y doubled) for one whose second and third radicals are the same {media radicalis geminatce). [In the Tables which follow, the words marked with an asterisk arc normal forms, which serve as models for others.] 74 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. I. THE KEGULAR VERB. Sect. 42. As the rules for the inflexion of the regular verb apply, with only occasional modifications, to all the irreo-ular verbs, it will be most convenient, and it will also exhibit the subject in the clearest light to the learner, if we present, while treating of the former, whatever belongs to the general analogy of the verb. TABLE B. REGULAR VERB. -1 KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. Pret. 3. m. ^9?.* n33* "^Pi?? * ''PP* ^}PP* ^'ppn* "^ppi^ * ^ppn"* 3./. r6\DD* mns* Hr'Pi?? * n^pp* n^pp* n^''ppn* n^Dpn* n^ppnn* 2. m. n'poD* mna* ^^pi?? * J?^pp * ^r'PR* ^rPPrt* Jji^PP^" * Fi^ppnn* 2./. n^op mna J^^pi?? n^tiP Ji^^pp J^rPP^i Jiirppn ^^ppnn 1. c. ^rhvip ^mn3 "J^^'t^PP '^"ppp ■ ""^^pp "'J!''?ppn "^^PP^i 'ri>ppnn IHur. 3. c. •"i^op ■n33 •i'?Pi?P •i^PP •"irPP •iS''ppn •I'pPPC •i^ppnn 2. m. nn'pup * Dm33 nri'ppp: ^^h^P Dp^PP Dp'ppp'7 op'pppn DFi'ppprin 2./. jn^up jmna iJ:?^Pi?P IP^PP i,l?^Pp !^!i^PP'? i|5^Ppi7 il^^Ppnn 1. c. •i3^Pi"? ""!?? •i^^PP? •I^^PP •I3^pp •ij^ppn ■ij^ppri •ij^ppnn I-NF. absol. Vitpi^ * ytppp.^Dijn* 'isp* ^b|^* ^'PP^i * constr. "rbp* ^Pi'^n * ^pp* ^pp*' ^'ppn * ^ppn * 'pp.rin * Imp, m. bbp* 133* ^pi^ri * ^pp* ^ppLi * ^ppnn« /. ^^Dp* '•133* >^Dpn * '^t2p* '^'Dpn* ')ppnn» I'lur. m. •ibpp •1133 ■iS'Pi'i'.r' •I^PP wanting ■I'^'ippri wanting •i^ppnn f. n^bbp * n;"!,?? * nj^pi'^n * ^J^PP* nj^pp^! * nj^ppnn* TvT. 3. m. ^np** 133'* ^PiT.* 'PP! * ^P?'.* ^'PP!' ^pp:* ^ppn'.* 3./. hbpn n33n ^Pi"?^ ^PPPI ^PpJ? ^'ppJii ^pp^ ^ppriJ;! 2. »n. ^9Pi? n33n ^pp^d ^ppj"!i "^PP^ ^'pp^ ^pp? ^ppr"? 2./. ^•piDpri * "1330* '^P^i^,^ * "i^^ppn* i^^ppri « '^'PpJil * '.^ppj? * ')pp.nn* 1. c. ^i2p5< n33X ^Pi"?^ ^pp^. ^pp^ ^'pp^* "^ppN' ^ppi}? Plur. 3. m. •i^Pi?'. •1133"' •ifPi^: •i"?PP'. •I^PP! •I^^PPI •IfPP' •ifPP^. 3./. niVopn * n:n33n* nj^pi^n* nj^pp^* m^ppri* ^^^P\>^ nj^ppn* n:^pp.riri * 2. »«. •i^ppn •'n33n •i^Pi'?,'? •lyppri •I'pppri •i'?''ppri ■I'pppri •i^'pprin 2./. n^yDpn nn33n "^^PP,'!! nj^ppri HJ^ppri ^?^pp^ nj^ppri n3^ppj;iri 1. c. ^5?!?? *i,??? ^Pi'?? ^pp? "^pp? ^'PPP 'PP? ^ppnJ FuT. apoc. 1 "^PP!* Part. act. Vp* ^^i??* ^ppP* •ppprp* ^'PP^* ^PP'?* ^pprip* pass. ^iDij* t [Or /nsslve, acccnlins to Rodiger, and so througl-.out all the following Tables.— Ki'IT.] § 44. PRETERITE OF KAL AND ITS INFLEXION. 75 This Paradigm (together with the Table of the formative syllables in § 40, 2) exhibits a complete view of the usual and normal forms. Full explanations are given in the followino- sections (43 — 55), where every subject is elucidated on its first occurrence ; thus, under Kul the inflexions of the Preterite, and of the Future and its modificatiens, are minutely explained with reference also to the other conjugations ; and under the regular verb are given the forms and significations of conjugations which apply also to the irregular, etc. A. THE SIMPLE FORM, OR KAL. Sect. 43. rrS FORM AND SIGNIFICATION. 1. The common form of the orcl person Pret. in Kal is 7^p, with a short A (Pathach)^ in the second syllable, especially in transitive verbs. There is also a form with E {Tsere)^ and another with {Cholem)^ in the second syllable; the two latter are usually found with intransitive meaning, and serve for expressin^rr states and qualities, e. g. n!l3 to he heavy^ pi^) to he small. Sometimes both forms, the transitive and the intransitive, exist together, as N?^ to fill (Esther vii. 5), ■N79 to be fall (comp. § 47, Rem. 2), yet also with the same signification for botli forms, as T)j^ and ^"Ijti to approach. A verb middle E will be found in the Paradigm by the side of a verb middle A."^' The example selected shows, at the same time, the effect of inflexion on Daghesh lene in the middle stem-letter. Rem. 1. The vowel of the second syllable is the principal vowel, and hence it distinguishes between the transitive and intransitive. The pretonic Qamets in the first syllable has little strength, and becomes ^ocal Sh^va on the shifting of the tone, as Dri?P[?. In Aramaean it wholly falls away in the root itself, as ^^i?, ''Pi?. 2. Examples of denominatives in Kal ; "I'^n to cover tvith jntch, from I^D pitch ; npD to salt, from rhh salt. Sect. 44. PRETERITE OF KAL AND ITS INFLEXION. 1. The inflexion of the Preterite, in respect to person, number, and gender, is effected by the addition of fragments of the personal pronouns (afformatives) to the end of the ground-form. In explaining this connexion, we may treat the ground-form as a participle, or a verbal adjective^f thus ^ /^P thou hast killed, * A verb middle A is one that has Pathach or Qamets under the middle j-adical or in the second syllable ; a verlj middle E, one that has Tscre ; and a verb middle O, one that has Cholem. — Tr. "j" On the intimate connexion between the Preterite and the verl)al adjective, see what has been already said, § 39, 1. In intransitive verbs they have the same form, as K.'PJO fidl, or he is full; j'Jf^ small, or he is small. In transitive verlis the participle presents, indeed, a different form ('?PP), still with 7l?i"^ may be compared the adjective form 70p, though generally it is expressive of rpiality, as C32n wise, jOb* adversary/ (§ 48, 1). 76 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. (itYo-perly Jcilling-thou, or killer-thou^ a killer wast thou^ HnX /Dp), NT he was fearing, Dn"X"l'* fearing ye (for Df^X XT'). In the second person this is readily seen as Avell as in ^i7&|7 we have hilled for IIS* Sd^. In the first person sing. ^ri7L)p we have *— the simple germ of the pronoun, united Avith the demonstrative sound fl, by which the afformative is at once distinguished from the suffix forms ^^ and ^-7 (as if one would form '^T\y^, ''T\'i^ /after the analogy of nriX).* In the third person, n— (orio-inally H— , comp. Rem. 4) is a designation of the feminine (as in the noun § 80, 2), and 1 (orig. p) is a sign of the plural. In the Indo-Germanic tongues, the inflexion by persons originated in the same manner, by appending pronominal forms, as is shown in Sanskrit and Greek ; e. g. from the stem as (to be) Stmskr. asmi, el/Ji-i, Doric ifxixi for eV/xt I am, where the ending /xi belongs to /not and /tc; Sanskr. asi, Dor. iaai thou art, where cl is nearly equal to (tv ; Sanskr. asti, cVti he is, where ti corresponds to the pronoun to, etc. ; [and this is shown better still in Welsh, e. g. tv;//, I am (with ending/ from Ji I), tviji thou art (ending / from ti thou), 7/to he is (no ending as in Hebrew), pit we are (ending m from ni we), i/ch you are (ending ch from chwi you), pii they are (ending nt from hwijni they)]. But the etymology in all these languages [except in Welsh] is more obliterated than in Hebrew. This is partly true also of inflexion in the other Shemitic languages; e. g. 1st pers. Arab, qataltu, Syr. qetleth, where the characteristic i is wholly lost. 2. In respect to vowel changes, the analogy of the Z fern. sing. n7tpj:5 is followed by the 3 masc. plur. ^^pp, and that of the 2 masc. sing. J^?^p, by all the forms of the first and second persons. f Only DJ^/^j?, IW^j? ^^'^^'® ^^^^ ^^^^^ <^^ ^^^ ^^^^ syllable, and, in consequence, Sh^va under the first radical (§ 27, 3). N.B. Rem. 1. Verbs middle E, falling back in their inflexion to the type of verbs middle A, generally lose the E sound, which passes over into Pathach, as the Paradigm shows. The original E appears, however, regularly in the feeble stems vh (§ 74, Rem. 1) ; in strong stems only vn. pause, i. e. when the stress of voice falls upon it, as ^^^^ri she cleaves. Job xxix. 10 ; comp. 2 Sam. i. 23 ; Job xli. 15. 2. In some feeble stems middle A, the a under the second radical sometimes passes over into (t) or (t), when the syllable is closed and toneless, and the first radical has not a full vowel (§ 27, Rem. 2, 3). Thus DJ?"?*?^ ye have asked 1 Sam. xii. 13, DJ^Ip'")^ ije possess Deut. iv. 1, 22 ; so also before suffixes, Vri^SK' / have asked him 1 Sam. i. 20, '^''PiV\ I have begotten thee Ps. ii. 7. Such forms must not be considered verbs middle E: the weakening of the vowel is owing simply to the general weakness of the form, and the 3rd pers. Pret. is strictly ?^?^^ t^n-^, *!?), not ^^^' , t^T,, *1.^;. See § 64, Rem. 1, and § 69, Rem. 4. 3. In verbs middle 0, Cholem is retained in the inflexion where it has the tone, as 1^"1J'. But when the tone is thrown forward, Cholem becomes Qamets-chatuph, as DnpD^ ye are able, VFipD^. / have overcome him Ps. xiii. 5, V}?'^\\ (see § 49, 3) atid thou wilt be able Ex. xviii. 23. " Gesenius maintained (and so does Ewald), that the afformative ''F\ comes strictly from ''Fi^^, ^^l^?, an ancient form supposed to have been actually used for OJK . — Tb. t In the Paradigms, the forms H^Pi"? and n^l?|5 nre, therefore, marked out with an asterisk as model-forms, for the notice of the beginner. § 45. THE INFINITIVE. 77 4. Unfrequeiit forms:* Si7}g, 2, fern, in T\— (as in Arab. -lEtliiop. Aram.) e. g. riptX Deut. xxxii. 36. Before suffixes this is the prevailing form (§ 59, 1, a) common also in stems i^, plw\ SbjpJ, « is an abbreviation of ^^X, ) of ^iS*. This person required no addition at the end. In the 27id jyers. sing, the M in ^bp^l is from njJlJSJ, the V iii /^P^l is the sign of the feminine, as in ""Jjl^ thou (feminine, see § 32, Rem. 4). In the 2nd pers. plur. the ^ (more fully ]1, see Rem. 4) in ^7top)1 is the sign of the plural as in the 3rd person and already in the Preterite (§ 44, 1), and is here appropriated to the * In this translation the grammatical terms, used by Gesenius himself, and by most other Hebraists, are gene- rally retained, in preference to those adopted by Rodiger after the example of Ewald. A general change of the terminology would occasion inconvenience and some perplexity, particularly in using the best Hebrew lexicons now extant, while it would scarcely secure advantages to counterbalance. Accordingly the tenses are here designated by the usual names. By Rodiger, however, the Future is called Imperfect, as expressing what is unfinished, in progress, and future ; in contradistinction from the Perfect, which expVesses what is actually finished and past, or conceived to be so (see in the Syntax, § 125). It may be added, that Prof. Lee calls the Future the Present tense. In this, however, he seems to stand alone. — Tr. t There is this striking difference in the formation of the two tenses, that the more objective Preterite begins with the verbal stem, and ends with the pronominal sign as something subordinate ; while the Future, on the contrary, begins with the pronoun denoting the subject from which the action of the verb proceeds. See more in the Syntax, § 123, etc. 80 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. masculine;* HJ in njl?^'?^ is the sign of the plural femiJiine (in Chaldee [— ), or borrowed from Hin ea\ In the 3rd person /bp!, the * cannot be so easily explained, as no corresponding pronoun can be found for it in the Hebrew; the ^ may, however, stand as a stronger consonant for 1 (from t^^H), properly /bpl, because "1 at the beginning of a word was mostly avoided in Hebrew (comp. IK'^ for i^), § 69); and hence the plural r?^p] by adding the plural-ending ^. The P\ in the femi7i{nes y^p^, HiptopJ^I, which are precisely the same as the 2nd person, is probably allied to the feminine-ending, n— [or it may come, as Gesenius thought, from i^'^T) she, by changing H into H, which is often done]. 3. In the course of inflexion the final vowel is dropped in some forms, while in others it is retained. In this respect the analogy 7bjT is followed by all the other forms which receive no addition at tlie end, and that of v^p^ by the forms ^/^p!, 'l^ppri ; analogous to niiptOpn is !^Jl?^p in the Imperative. Rem. 1. The final o {Cholem) is only tone-long (§ 9, No. 10, 3), as in the Lijin. and Imper. Hence, a) The examples in which it is written fully are very rare, and are to be regarded as exceptions, b) Before Maqqeph it becomes Qamets-chatuph ; e. g. DK^'DPlpM and he icrote there. Josh. viii. 32. c) It becomes vocal Sh®va before the afformatives V and •"! . In the few instances in which it remains before such afibrmatives, the pointing becomes -1, because it stands close before the pause, e. g. -ItilSP'* ylsh-putu {they icill judge) Ex. xviii. 26 ; Ruth ii. 8 ; comp. Prov. xiv. 3. N.B. 2. This Cholem is confined almost exclusively to verbs middle A, like ^'Pi^, Intransitive verbs {middle E and 0) take a [Puthach) in the Future, as ''13 to he great, Fut. ^1)); Pi^ to be small, Fut. IPi?? . Sometimes both forms exist together ; the Fut. with o is then transitive, and that with a intransitive ; e. g. "l^'p* ^^ '''^^^ ^"^ ^ff'< ^^^^^ ^^^P » "^^'l?- ^^ ''^'^^ ^^ ^"^ 'i^' ^- ^- ^^^^^ ^® short. So also ^7^, Fut. o, to subdue; Fut. a, to be subdued; Ex. xvii. 13; Job xiv. 10. More seldom both occur without any difference in signification ; e. g. "n^'? and W! he tvill bite. In the irregular verbs, the feeble c {Tsere) is also found in the final syllable, as \^\ for 1?^!. he will give. These three forms of the Future are called Future 0, Future A, Future E. 3. For the 2)rd plur. fetn. njpbj^ri is substituted in three instcUices, to distinguish it from the 2nd per s., the form njpbp^, as in Chaldee and Arabic; e. g. "^^ibyi they shall arise, Dan. viii. 22 ; comp. Gen. xxx. 38 ; 1 Sam. vi. 12. In several instances ni?bpn seems to have been used impro- perly for the Zrd 2iers. singidar, Ex. i. 10; Judg. v. 26 (and, according to some, Job xvii. 16; Is. xxviii. 3). (In the vulgar Arabic, necul, properly ice cat, is the common form for / eat ; and in the French patois, favons for j'ai). — In the Pentateuch ^| (na) occurs in place of ^3, especially after Vav converstve (§ 49, 2) ; e. g. Ex. i. 18, 19 ; xv. 20, as in Arabic nu. A still more abbreviated form of this termination is found in the Imp. (§ 46, Rem. 3). — Once occurs (Eze. xvi. 50) tlie anomalous form ^3^^23^1 with ''~ inserted, after the manner of verbs VV and "ly (§ 67, 4, § 72, 5). N.B. 4. Tlie plural forms ending in •I appear also not unfrcquently with the fuller ending |1, * This is also tne proper gender of the plural sj'llable un, u. It is true that in the Pret. the Hebrew employs it for both genders ; but in the kindred tongues, it stands even in the Pret. for the masculine alone ; as in Syriac, mas qetaluH,fein. qetalcn, so in Arabic, mas. qiitulrt,fcm. qntdlna ; .Etli. qulalii, qalala. ^ 4.8. SHORTENING AND LENGTHENING OF THE FUTURE AND niPERATIVE, 81 most commonly with obvious stress on the word at the end of a period, where the vowel of the second syllable is then retained, as IITa"]*. they tremble Ex. xv. 14, yiV'0f7\ ye shall hear Deut. i. 17. But it is not confined to this position ; see e. g. Ps. xi. 2, riL*'p l-l^in^ ; comp. iv. 3 ; Gen. xviii. 28, 29 30 — 32; Is. viii. 12; 1 Sam. ix. 13. But the preference for this form at the close of a period is clearly seen in Is. xxvi. 11, -l^i^M •1^'^.'! \^'''^J}!'.. ^1 they see not ; may they see and be ashamed.^' This original ending l"! is common in Aramaean and Arabic ; yet in the vulgar Arabic it is shortened. Of the Fut. with N appended, ^«Vt^•^:' Jer. x. 5, is the only example. (But this stands for ^^^%). 5, In like manner ""^Pipn has a longer form with final J, viz., IvPl?^, which is also common in Aramaean and Arabic. The Pt here is scarcely original ; probably it arose from imitation of the plural-ending l"! . See examples in 1 Sam. i. 14 ; Ruth ii. 8, 21 ; iii. 4, 18. 6. In Patise, the vowel of the second syllable, if it had become Sh«va, is restored and takes the tone, as ^'?b|'?n, -1^10?^ Comp. § 29, 4. But the fuller forms in |-1 and |''t retain the tone on the last syllable. ^.81. Sect. 48. SHORTENING AND LENGTHENING OF THE FUTURE AND IMPERATIVE. {Jussive and Cohortafive I^orms:) 1 . For the insufficiency of specific forms to express the relative Tenses and the Moods in the Hebrew and its kindred dialects, a small compensation is made by changes in the form of the Future^ to which a certain signification is either exclu- sively or principally appropriated. 2. We must distinguish, accordingly, between the common form of the Future and two others, viz., a lengthened form (with a cohortative force) and a shortened form (with a jussive force). The lengthened Future, however, occurs only in the 1st person (with unimportant exceptions), while its shortened form is confined to the 2nd and 3rd persons. In Hebrew, however, the short-spoken Jussive is not always orthographically distinguished from the common Indicative form of the Future. In Arabic the distinction is always clear. Besides the common indicative Future yuqtulu, it has, a) a Subjunctive, ydqtula ; b) a Jussive, ydqtul ; and c) a so-called Ftitvre energic, ydqtulan, which is nearly related to the Heb. Cohortative. 3. The characteristic of the Cohortative is a long a, T\— {He paragogic), attached to the 1st person; e. g. ^h^'p^ for SbjpwX. It is found in all the conjugations and in all classes of regular and irregular verbs (except in the passives)^ and has the tone wherever it is taken by the afFormatives ^ and ^— , hence it affects the final * It is worthy of remark, that the Chronicles often omit the Nun where it stands in the books of Kings ; see 1 Kings viii. 38, 43 ; comp. 2 Chron. vi. 29, 33.— 1 Kings xii. 24 ; 2 Kings xi. 5 ; comp. 2 Chron. xi. 4 ; xxiii. 4. 7 82 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. vowel in precisely the same manner as these do; e. g. in Kal^ JTlXp^X I will observe; in Piel^ ^f?^^^ ^^^ ^-^ break asunder^ Ps. ii. 3 ; but in Hiphil^ ?T^''3TX / will make meniio?i of. In a veri/ few instances the more obscure ending H— takes the place of H— (according to § 27, Hem. 4), 6. g. 1 Sam. xxviii. 15 ; Ps. xx. 4. As rarely is it attached to the 3rd person (Is. v. 19 ; V>/.G. xxiii. 20 ; Ps. xx. 4). The 2nd person, however, receives it in the Imperative. See No. 5. n— , as an accusative-ending to a noun, denotes motion or tendency towards a place (§ 00, 2), and after the same analogy the Cohortative with this ending expresses effort and the direction of the will to an action. Accordingly it is used especially to express excitement of one's self., determination., wish (as Optative), etc. (see§ 128). 4. The Jussive occurs only in the 2nd and 3rd persons. Its form is orthogra- phically often the same as that of the Indicative, e. g. 7bp'*. as Ind. lie will kill., as Juss. let him kill. But at times the shortening is clearly indicated, as will be shown in every case under the conjugations. In the regular verb it is confined, as a disthict form, to Hiphil, as Juss. 7Dp^_ for Ind. 7^^^\. It is found in Kal and Hiphil of verbs "ly, as 'Pb\ and T\12\ for T\'^'!2i\ and H^pJ; and in all the conjugations of verbs il7, where it consists in the removal {apocope) of the ending H— ; e. g. 7^^, for ri7Jl\ (Hence the term, Future apocopated., is frequently applied to this form.) But in all cases the plural forms of the Jussive coincide with the common, only that the ending ^ cannot occur. Also the 2nd pers. sing. fern, sounds lii^e v''ppn, Tllbri, vJlP, etc., and besides also all the singular and plural forms, when they have pronominal suffixes, e. g. "'^H^'tori, as Indicative in Jer. xxxviii. 15, as- Jussive in xli. 8. In signification this form is similar to the other, with some modification occa- sioned by difference of person. In general it expresses command and wish., and stands also in conditional sentences (§128). 5 The persons of the Imperative, as it is allied in form and meaning to the Future, are also lengthened (by H— ) and shortened, in a manner perfectly analo- gous. So also the Arabic has an Imperativus energicus. In most conjugations only one of these forms is found, in others both together. Tlic lengthened Imp. occurs, e. q. in Kal of the regular verb, as ibtJ^, H^lDtJ', l^tJ', H^D^ ; the shortened Imp. in verbs H?, as 73 for Hpi; both together in Hiphil, as 7tppn and HTppn for Tppn. The signification of these forms is not always so strongly marked as in the Future. The longer form, however, is often emphatic, as Dip stand up., HDIp up ! jri give., Hiri give ! § 49. preterite and future with vav conversive. 83 Sect. 49. PRETERITE AND FUTURE WITH VAV CONVERSIVE. 1. The use of the two tenses^ as will be shown more fully in the Syntax (§§ 12G, 127), is by no means confined to the expression of the past and the future. One of the most striking peculiarities in their use, and, indeed^ in the Hebrew diction generally, is this: that in continued narrations of the past, only the first verb stands in the Preterite, the others being in the future fonn ; and, on the contrary, in continued descriptions of the future, the first verb is in the Future, while the rest are in the Preterite form. Gen. i. 1: In the beginning created (Pret.) God the heavens and the earth. 3 v. And said (Fut.) God^ Let there he light, and there loas (Fut.) light. 4 v. And Gad saw (Fut.), etc. Just the reverse in Is. vii. 17 : Jehovah will bring (Fut.) upon thee, and upon thy people, and upon thy father's house, days, such as have not come since, etc. 18 v.. And it will happen (Pret. H^rnj on that day 19 v. Aiid they will come {¥ret.). This progress of time, this succession of thought, is usually indicated by the Vav copidative, which, however, in this case, partly, receives itself a somewhat different form, and partly affects the form of the Preterite and Future to which it is prefixed.* 2. The Vav conversive of the Future is the most important. This a) is regularly prefixed with Pathach and a Daghesh forte in the next letter, as Sbpl and he killed, but to the 1st person sing, with Qamets (according to § 22, 1), as /bfpX) and I killed [see another exception with Daghesh forte omitted, as ^5T1 ^^^^^ ^'"^P-' in § 20, 3, />] ; b) it takes a shortened form of the Future, when that exists (comp. § 48, 4), e. g. in Hiphil Sdj;^! (§ 53, Rem. 4), and often at the same time draws the tone back to the penultima, as n6^, shortened HD), with Vav conversive W] (and he died), § 67, Rem. 2 and 7; § 68, 1; § 69, Rem. 3; § 71; § 72, Rem. 4 and 7; § 73, Rem. 2.f Yet it is often, particularly in the later books, prefixed to the 1st person sing, with the lengthened form in n— e. g. H^^I^XJ and I plucked, Ezra ix. 3. See more in § 129. * Since it changes in a degree the meaning of the tenses, it is called by the Hebrew grammarians [including Gesenius] Vav conversive (i. e. converting the Fut. into the Pret. and the Pret. into the Fut.). Better [in the opinion of Rodiger, who follows Ewald] is the term Vav consecutive^ since it essentially denotes sequence or progress. t The forms, also, in J-1 and J^-, occur very seldom after Vav conversive, |13*T,!! Judges viii. 1 ; Eze. xliv. 8. 84 PAKT ir. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. This -1 is, as to form, a strengthened Vav copulative (comji. i^??, '^'?l, '""??. where the prepo- sitions 3, 3, /> are strengthened in a similar way), in the sense of and then, and so. The retracting of the tone is found also in similar connexions, like i^?^, and the shortening of the verb at the end [apocope) is only accidentally similar to the form of the Jussive, yet this seems to have occasioned the growing use of the Cohortative form in the 1st person,* 3. The counterpart of Vav conversive of the Future is Vav conversive of the Pre- terite^ which joins Preterites to a foregoing Future. In form it is the usual Vav copulative ("1), e. g. n^ri"| (after a Fut.) and it will be; yet it has generally the effect of shifting the tone to the last syllable in those verbal forms which Avould other- wise have it on the penultima,f e. g. ^^l^^n / icent^ '^T\'^'r\\ (with a Fut. preceding) and 1 u'ill go.^ Judges i. 3 ; nV^^^' Pret., n*7n!irTj and it shall divide^ Ex. xxvi. 33. See more on the use of the Preterite in § 126. This shifting forward of the tone does not always take place, and the exceptions are sometimes strange. It does not take place a) in the \st pers. pi. ^'^7^1\ Gen. xxxiv. 16; h) in verbs K/ and n?, e. g. riTyi Ex. xxvi. 4, 6, 7, 10, etc., (on the contrary, ^11^1 ibid. vs. 9 and others); c) when such a Perfect stands in pause, e.g. JJV-?^! Deut. xi. 15, and frequently also when followed imme- diately by a tone-syllable (according to § 29, 3, h), as rT3 nPllK'M. Deut. xvii. 14. Sect. 50. THE PARTICIPLE. 1. Kal has two forms of the Participle, viz., an active^ called also Poel ipVlB)^ and a passive^ or Pdfd (7iyQ).J The latter is probably a remnant of a lost passive form of blDp^ . In the Aramaean the passives of Piel and Hiphil are in like manner lost, except in the Parti- ciples. 2. The form of the Participle active of Kal in the intransitive verbs mid. F, and mid. 0, coincides with the form of the 3rd person sing, of the Preterite, as \^l * The opinion of earlier grammarians, according to which ^Opfl is an abbreviation and contraction from Hin 7t3pJ it was (that) he killed, is in every respect erroneous, and now nearly obsolete. The •], is everywhere an emphatic and. When entire sections and books of the Old Testament begin with it, it is a proof that they were either originally connected with what precedes them, or have been afterwards thus combined together (Lev., Num., Josh., 1 Sam., 2 Sam., Ruth, Est.) ; so indeed do some books be.«in with the simple copulative 1 (E.\., 1 Ki., Ezr.). Equally unfounded is the opinion that it is a contraction of ^Op.' Hini. t As to whether the hastening of the tone foricard expresses in itself the reference to the future, and, on tlie contrary, the shifting of it hachvard, as in Di5»1, a closer connexion with what i?, past, may be left undecided. X The Jewish Grammarians call the Participle also ^Jir? (middle icord) ; yet not in the sense of the Latin name, but as used for a present tense (§ 134, 2), and accordingly holding the middle place between the Preterite and the Future. § 51. NIPHAL. 85 sleeping^ from \V^\) ^V'^ fearing, from "ir. Comp. the formation of the Part, in Niphal, § 51, 1. But the Participle in verbs mid. A, takes the form of 7bp, the 6 of which has sprung from a, qdtel from qdtel (§ 9, No. 10, 2). The form 7lOp is in common use only as a verbal noun (§ 84, 1). The inflexion of the Participle in Piel, Hiphil, Hithpael follows a different method. 3. Participles form their feminine and plural like other nouns (§§ 87, 94). Kem. 1. An unfrequent form is "T*pin supporting, Ps. xvi. 5 (for ^^in, from "^'5'?) ; comp. 2"'5b 2 Kings viii. 21, and i\\e pi-op. n. ^''D'lX 1 Chron. xxvii. 30. Many reckon here also ^pi^ Is. xxix. 14; xxxvili. 5 ; but this is much rather 3 sing.ftit. Hiphil of ^PJ. Compare a quite similar construction Is. xxviii. 16. The form D?in Is. xli. 7, for D!?in, is explained by § 29, 3, b. 2. The Participle in the passive form has not unfrequently an active signification, especially when it belongs to an intransitive verb, which cannot take a passive meaning. Compare in English, aged, fled. Thus, t-inx means holding (not held). Cant. iii. 8 ; n"ILD3 conflsus for confldens, Ps. cxii. 7. C/omp. the deponent verbs in Latin. B. DERIVED CONJUGATIONS. Sect. 51. NIPHAL. 1. The full characteristic of this conjugation is the syllable ^H (in the cor- responding seventh conjugation in Arab. ^X) prefixed to the ground-form. This characteristic appears only in the Inf. constr. /tPjpn, which is contracted from Stpp^n. With this are connected the Imp., which has the same form, and the Fut. 7t?jp'', contracted from /p[^n!. In the Pret. the (less essential) He is dropped, and only Nun remains as the characteristic, hence 7pp^. The same applies to the Participle, which is distinguished from the Preterite only by the long (t) as ^'Op') fern, np^p^ or n7t5p^ . The inflexion of Niphal is perfectly analogous to that of Kal. Niphal may be distinguished in the Pret. and Part, by the Nun prefixed ; in the Imp. Inf., and Fut., by the Daghesh in the first stem-letter. The same marks are found in tlie irregular verbs, except that, where the first stem-letter is a guttural, Daghesh forte must be omitted (§ 63, 4). To compensate for this omission, the preceding vowel is made long (§ 22, 1). 2. The signijications of Niphal. It is similar to the Greek middle voice, and hence, a) It is primarily reflexive of Kal, e. g. ^^^J to look to one's self to beware, ^v\d(r(Teadai, IFlp^ to hide one's self ; often in verbs Avhich express passion or feeling which re- acts on the mind, as Dili to trouble one's self, to grieve, H^N^ to bemoan one's self to bewail ; comp. oSvpea-dai, lamentari, contristari. b) Next, it frequently 86 PAllT II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAPTER II. REGULAR VERBS. expresses reciprocal action, as from tOSC^ to judge ^ t03^^ to contend with aiiother at law ; YT, to counsel^ Nipli. to consult together ; coirip. the middle and deponent verbs BovXeveaeat (f^l^), fidxeaSai (ChS^), altercart, prceliari. c) It has, also, like liithpael (§ 54, 3, c) and the Greek middle^ the signification of the active, witli the addition of self] Lat. sibi^ for one's self e. g. 7^^"! to ask for one's self (1 Sam. xx. 0, 28), precisely like alTovfial ae tovto, ivBvaaadac x'-'^^^"' to put on {one's self) a tunic. Here, instead of the accusative (5^), the remoter object (usually expressed by the dative sibi) lies in the idea of the conjugation, d) It is often also passive of Kal, e. g. \>\ to bear, Niph. to be born ; *11p to bury, Niph. to be buried ; likewise of Piel and Hiphil, when Kal is intransitive or not in use, e. g. 1^3 to be in honour, Piel to honour, Niph. to be honoured, nr!|l in Piel to conceal, Hiph. to make disappear, to destroy, Niph. passive of both : and in this case its meaning may again coincide with Kal (nSn Kal. and Niph. to be sick), and even take an accusative (§ 138, 2, Rem. 1). Examples oi denominatives are, ~l?T? to he born a male Ex. xxxiv. 19, (from "13J a male), 2?p3 cor- datum Jieri Job xi. 12, (from 33? heart). The older Hebrew grammarians have represented Niphal as the proper passive of Kal. This representation is decidedly incorrect; for Niphal has not the characteristics of the other passives. There are still found in Kal traces of an early passive form (§ 50, 1), and the Arabic has an inde- pendent conjugation, corresponding with Niphal {inqatala), which has its own passive; nay, in Hebrew itself, there is probably a trace of the passive of Niphal in the form ^^J3, Is. lix. 3 ; Lam. iv. 14. According to the usage of the language, \\\e passive signification is certainly the predomi- nant one ; but it was first derived from the reflexive. The \^ prefixed has the force of a reflexive pronoun, like I^n in Hithpael.* Rem. 1. The Inf. ahsol. vi^pJ connects itself, in form, with the Preterite, to which it bears the same relation, as •'l^i^ to ''PiJ. Examples of this form, ^'Xp? rogando 1 Sam. xx. 6, ^1033 desiderando Gen. xxxi. oO. An example of the other is, injn Jer. xxxii. 4 ; once ^^^^ exaudiendo Eze. xiv. 3. The "I in the final syllable (which is essentially long) is also exhibited in this Infinitive form in Piel and Pual, and it resembles, in this respect, several Arabic Infinitives, in which there is a corresponding d. Moreover, the form ^Pi^i? is not less frequently used for the Inf. absol., e. g. Num. XV. 31 ; Dcu. iv. 26 ; 1 Ki. xx. 19. 2. In Pause, Pat/tach often takes the place of Tse)-e in the final syllable ; e. g. '^jpl*). and he teas weaned Gen. xxi. 8, as also in otlier cases (§ 29, 4, Rem.). In the 2nd and 3rd persons plural feminine, the form with Pathach is more common than that given in the Paradigm, e. g. •13"1?-Tn theg shall be rrmctnhcred, Isa. Ixv. 17 ; but only few examples occur of these forms. 3. Wlien tlie Fut., Inf., or Imp. is immediately followed by a word of one syllable, the tone is commonly drawn back upon the penultima, and consecpiently the final syllable, losing * In other languages, too, the change of the reflexive into the passive is observed. It is still clear in Sanskrit and in Greek how the middle goes before the passive voice ; the r at the end of the Latin passive is the reflexive pronoun = se ; in the ancient Slavic and Bohemian, amat-se stands for amatiir, in Dacoromanic io me laiidii (I am praised). See Pott's Eti/mologischc For.sdnmgcn, Th. 1, S. 133 ff., Th. 2, S. Oti ; Bopp's Vcrgleichende Gram- malik, §..476 fV. § 52. PIEL AND PUAL. 87 the tone, takes Scghol instead of Tsere ; e. g. ^2 X'3'' he stumbles at it, Eze. xxxiii. 12; w "iriy'l and he heard him. Gen. xxv. 21 ; comp. D''^?^. "1DV*1 and God heard, 2 Sam. xxi. 14 ; Ezr. viii. 23. In a few words, this form with the retracted tone has become the exclusive one, as "'^K'n take heed, Ex. xxiii. 21 ; Dn?>1 ayid he fought. Num. xxi. 1. 4. For the 1st pers. sing. ^^\>^ the form ^PJ^X is equally frequent, as 5^'^■^S / idU be found, Eze. xiv. 3 ; y?V'K / srvear, Gen. xxi. 24. Comp. § 69, Rem. 5. Sect. 52. PIEL AND PUAL. 1. The characteristic of this conjugation (Arab. Conj. II, qattala^ Aram. ?tSpj is the doubling of the middle stem-letter. In the active, the Fut. 7t3p^ and the Part. 7t3p^ (preformatives of which retain their original Sh®va) are formed, according to the general analogy, from the Inf. and Imp. /tSp. Tlie passive (Pual) has an obscure vowel of the third class after the first stem-letter, and a (Pathach) after the second. In other respects the analogy is the same. In the inflexion of the Preterite of Piel, Pathach takes the place of Tsere in the 1st and 2nd persons ( 7tSp, J!^/t3p), which properly have for their basis the form /^P. See Rem. 1. The ^, which occurs also in the succeeding conjugations, as the characteristic of the Part., Is connected with ^P loho ? in the sense of some one. Piel and Pual are throughout distinguished by the Daghesh in the middle stem-letter. It is omitted only in the following cases : a) Always when this letter is a guttural (§ 64, 3). b) Some- times, though rarely, when this letter has Sh^va (§ 20, 3, b), as -inni^') Job xxxvii. 3, for ^^"W) he directs it; nnpK' she stretches forth, for nn?B' Eze. xvii. 7; xxxi. 4; then also the omission is at times indicated (§ 10, 2, Rem.) by a Chateph under the litera dagessanda ; e. g. ^T}\i7.^ for nnfp? she is taken, Gen. ii. 23; comp. ix. 14; Judges xvi. 16. In the Fut. and Part, the Sh^va under the preformatives may always serve as a mark of these conjugations. 2. Significations of Piel. a) It denotes intensitij and repetition (comp. the Nomina intensiva and iterativa, which are also formed by doubling the middle stem-letter, § 84, 6 — 9);* e. g. pHy to laugh., Piel to sporty to jest (to laugh repeat- edly); 7X!J^ to asl\ Piel to beg ; hence it denotes that the action is performed upon, many., as ^Ip to bury {one) Gen. xxiii. 4, Piel to bury (many) I Kings xi. 15. * Analogous examples, in which the doubling of a letter has an intensive force, are found in the German words, reichen, recken ; streichen {stringo, Anglo-Saxon strccan), sfrecken; comp. Strich, Strecke ; Wacker, from wachcn: others in which it has the causative signification, are stechen, stecken; tvachen, wecken; in Greek WAXco to bring to an end, from the stem reAo) to end, yevvaa to beget and to bear, from yeVw to come into being. The above exampltsi from the German show also that ch, when doubled, takes the furni of kk, ch, in accordance with the laws relating to the Daghesh in Hebrew (§ 13, o). 88 TART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. (So in Syriac frequently.) This signification of Piel is found with various shades of difference, as ilHS to open^ Piiil to loose; ^3D to county Piel to relate. With the eager pursuit of an object is connected the influence which the subject of it exerts upon others. Hence, h) It has a causative signification (like Hiphil), e. g. "l/p/ i'^ learn^ Piel to teach. It often takes the modifications expressed by, to permit^ to declare or to reganl^ to help, as Hjn to let live ; p*i|V fo declare innocent; *lV to assist in child-bearing, c) Denominatives are frequently found in this conjugation, which in general mean to make a thing (sc. that which the noun expresses), or to be in any way occupied with it; as from |p neH, t.^f? to make a nest; from "ISV dust^ "I2y to throw dust, to dust. It also expresses the taking away or injuring the thing or part of which the noun is the name (as in English, to behead, to skin, to bone), e. g. EJ^"ltJ' (from *^'P a root) to root out, extirpate ; 3BI (from IJT tail) properly to injure the tail, hence to rout the rear of an arni}^ ; ]p^'"l to remove the ashes. So also in verbs the origin of which cannot be traced to a noun ; e. g. 7jj5p to stone, and also to remove the stones, sc. from a field.* The significations of the passive will present themselves spontaneously, e. g. 1j\ to steal, Piel to steal, Pual to be stolen. In Piel, tlie proper and literal signification of a word is often retained, when Kal has adopted a figurative one, the former being the stronger and more prominent idea ; e. g. S^Q"! in Piel to stitch up, in Kal to heal ,- X^3, Piel to cut, to hew out, Kal to form, to make; ri75 , Piel to uncover, Kal to reveal. In intransitive verbs, also, Piel occurs as an intensive form, but only in poetry, as nnn fraiu/i, Jer. li. 56 ; nns to be open. Is. xlviii. 8 ; Ix. 11 ; i^]"] to be drunken. Is. xxxiv. 5, 7. N.B. Rem. 1. The Pret. Piel has frequently (-) in the final syllable, instead of (••), e. g. ISJ* to destroy, "^W to break in pieces. This occurs especially before Maqqeph (Eccles. ix. 15 ; xii. 9), and in the middle of a period, when other words immediately follow ; but at the end of a period, Tsere is the more common vowel. Comp. ^"15 Ls. xlix. 21 with >''!!| Jos. iv. 14; Eslh. iii. 1. Some verbs have Seghol, as ''S'^. to speak, "If? to atone, D33 to tcash clothes. A single instance of (-) in the frst syllable (after the manner of the Chaldce) is found in Gen. xli. 51, HK^? to cause to forget, occasioned by the play upon the name H^'JO. Compare the quadriliteral TK^'IS, wliich is analogous in form with Piel (§ 56). 2. The Fut., Inf., and Imp., when followed by Maqqeph, generally take Seghol in the final syllable, e. g. i^'^?.?) he seeks for himself I?,, xl. 20, 'h'^''^.?. sanctifj to me Ex. xiii. 2. So in Hith- pael. In the 1st pers. sing. Fut., there occurs, besides ^^i2>?, also in a few cases the form with (•••:) under S, as HITX Lev. xxvi. 33; and even with (••), as "lj?p^ Zech. vii. 14 (according to § 23, 4, Rem. 2). With Vav. conr. we have also ^!^i?^] to listen (properly to make ears) ; PP'pn to chatter, to slander (after the same analogy, properly to make tongue, to use the tongue freely). The significtitioii of Hophal^ tis of Niphal, may sometimes coincide Avith that of Kal, e. g. hypotuif, Fut. Hopli. jootens Jiet., i. e. poterit. Rem. 1. Only the Preterite of Hiphil retains always the V of the final syllable (in 3rd pers. sino-. and plur.) ; on the contrary, the Inf., Imp., and Fut. frequently take Tsere instead of it (in Chaldee the usual form), although usage generally makes a distinction between forms with ! and e. Tsere is in this case only tone-long, and hence in the lengthening of the forms it becomes vocal Sh^va, and, with gutturals, it is changed into Pathach. 2. The Inf. absol. has generally Tsere, with and without Yodh ; as t^'"!!pn Judg. xvii. 3 ; "ISPO Ex. viii. 1 1 ; I^^^D Amos ix. 8. After the manner of the Chaldee, we have X instead of the n in □\3^S mane surgendo, Jer. xxv. 3. Unfrequent exceptions, in which the form with l^sere stands for the Inf. constr., are found in Deut. xxvi. 12 ; xxxii. 8. 3. The Imp. but seldom takes the form ''^Ppn (Ps. xciv. 1 in pause, perhaps also Is. xliii. 8) ; instead of it are employed the shortened and the lengthened forms /'Ppn and nrpjpn, as ]^fr} to make fat. HT^'pn attend! The first takes Seghol before Maqqeph, as X3"13pn Job xxii. 21. V^ppn and •l-'^Pi?'!' are never shortened. N.B. 4. In the Fut. of Hiph. the form with Tsere for the Jussive is the usual one, as ?"!!jlJil 'J;? make not great Obad. 12, H"]?^ let him cut off Ps. xii. 4, especially with 1 convers., as ''"ll^i! and lie divided Gen. i. 4. Before Maqqeph tliis Tsere becomes Seghol, as 13"p|ntl and he held him Judg. xix. 4. In the plural the forms ■"'''"'Pi?!, •"1?"'P!?^ stand also for the Jussive and with 1 conv., e. g. •Ip^a"!?! Judg. xviii. 22 : but the i (after the manner of the Aramaean) sometimes becomes Sh«va, as •12?"!ll and they bent Jer. ix. 2, -IPS'!!! and they pursued 1 Sam. xiv. 22 ; \xxi. 2. The defective mode of writing Chireq, e. g. D.-P'-^ is not an essential variation. 5. The form of the Part, with (••) in the sing, is doubtful (Is. liii. 3); but perhaps the plurals WJpbm dreamers Jer. xxix. 8, DHTVP helpers 2 Chron. xxviii. 23, are derived from this form. The fern, is ri.VppP, e. g. ^IJb'P Lev. xiv. 21. Comp. Gen. xxxv. 8. * The verb nb'y to make, is employed in the expression of the same ideas, e. g. to make fat (fatness), for, to produce fat upon his body, Job xv. 27 ; to make fruits, to make bj-anchcs, for, to produce, to put forth, IIos. viii. 7 ; .Job xiv. 9. Compare in Latin, corpus facere, Justin. 11,8; rohur facere, Ilirtius, Bell. Afr. 85 ; soholcm diritios, fuccre, riin., and in ItaHan, far corpo, far forze, fur fruito. § 54. HITHPAEL. 01 6. In the Pret. are sometimes found the forms "'^'p/'pO ^'^^ ^'^^^ approached 1 Sam. xxv. 7, and *ri7N3SI I have soiled (with tt for n, as in Aramaean) Is. Ixiii. 3. Comp. Job xvi. 7. 7. In the Fut. and Part, the characteristic n regularly gives place to the preformatives, as b'PiP*, ?''tpp^, but not to prepositions in the Inf., /''PPHp, because their connexion with the ground- form is less intimate than that of the preformatives. To both rules there are some few exceptions, as yK'in^. he tvill save, Ps. cxvi. 6, for y^^'V ; nnin' he will praise, for ^1)''' (in verbs IS only; on the contrary rPf-^ for T^f^) Ps. xxvi. 7; ^'1^^. for ^Hi^nV to cause to faint, 1 Sam. ii. 33. Comp. Is. xxiii. II ; Ps. Ixxviii. 17. N.B. 8. The tone, in Hiphil, does not fall on the afformatives -1, H— , and 't- They take it, however, in the Pret. when Vav conversive is prefixed, as np^'^^Dl Ex. xxvi. 33. 9. In the passive [Hophal) Pret., Fut., and Part. « (s) is found in the first syllable as well as 6 {•'), ^Pi?'!?, but not so often in the regular verb, e. g. '^'?'^k^ Eze. xxxii. 32, and '"l^f^H xxxii. 19; •^J^t'.l, Part, "q^f)? 2 Sam. xx. 21, and ^i^f^ Is. xiv. 19; but verbs IS have u constantly, as "^l^X (according to § 9, 9, 2). 10. The Inf. absol. is distinguished by (••) in the final syllable ; e. g. ^'d^<^ fasciando Eze. xvi. 4, njn mtntiatido Jos. ix. 24. Of the Inf. constr., as given in the Paradigm, there happens to be no example in the regular verb. ,11. For Imperative Hophal, see above, § 46, 1, note. Sect. 54. H I T H p A E L. 1. This conjugation connects itself with Piel, inasmuch as it prefixes to the form S^j? the syllable JlH (Chald. m, Syr. m*), which, like ^H in Niphal (§ 51, 2, Rem.), has undoubtedly the force of a reflexive pronoun. 2. The n of the syllable TTl in this conj., as also in Hithpoel and Hithpalel (§ 55), suffers the following changes: — a) When the first radical of the verb is a sibilant (D, |', tJ'), it changes places with n (§ 19, 5), as ^Dri^H to take heed, for ^J^mri; S^inpn to be burdened, for 75pJ^n. A single exception is contained in Jer. xlix. 3. With V, moreover, the transposed H is changed into the more nearly-related tO, as pIPVH to justify one's self for p'^riV'? . b) Before "T, D, and H, it is assimilated (§ 19, 2), e. g. *l5in to converse, "IH^H to cleanse one's self D^nn to conduct one's self uprhjhtly ; sometimes also before J and 3, as ^5^3^^ to prophesy, elsewhere J^^^nn ; piSH for pHHH to make one's self ready. Once before T Is. i. 16, before ^ Eccl. vii. 16, before 1 Is. xxxiii. 10. * See also in Hebrew *13nnS 2 Chruii. xx. 3.1. 92 PART 11. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CllAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. 3. The fiignlfications of H'lthpael. a) ]\Iost frequently it is reflexive^ but chiefly of Piel, as J^'ilPHH to sanctify one's self 0)1??^^ to avenge one's self "T-TXnn to gird one's self. Then further it means, to make one's self that which is expressed by the first conjugation; hence, to conduct one's self as such, to show one's self to imagine one's self to affect., to be sucli ; properly to make one's self so and so, to act so and so ; e. g. /"l^Pn to make one's self great., to act proudly^ ^^T^T^T} to show one's self canning., crafty ; also, Eccles. vii. 16, to think one's self wise; ^W^T}T\ to make., i. e. tofeign, one's self rich. Its signification sometimes coincides with that of Kal, and both forms are in use with the same meaning, e. g. 713X, Kal to mourn., is found only in poetry; Hithp. in the same sense, is more common in prose, and even takes an accusative (§ 138, 2, Rem. 1). h) It expresses reciprocal action (like Niph. § .51, 2, 6), as ^^{'^I1^ to look upon one another., Gen. xlii. 1. More frequently c) It expresses what one does indirectly to or for himself {com]). Niph. § 51, 2, c). It has then an active signification, and governs an accusative, e. g. tDty'Brin exuit sibi (vestem)^ nn^nn solvit sibi {vincula). So Avithout the accusative Tlpnnn to ivalk about for one's self {ambulare). Only seldom d) It is passive., e. g. IpSnn to be numbered, mustered., Judges xx. 15, 17; xxi. 9. Comp. Niphal, § 51, 2, d. So n^ritrn to be forgotten, Eccl. viii. 10. The passive Hothpaal is found only in the few following examples : -llpDrin (so always for 'i??riCj they tvere mustered. Numb. i. 47 ; ii. 33 ; NfStsn to he retidered unclean, Deu. xxiv. 4 ; D23n to be toashed. Lev. xiii. 55, 56 ; I^Jy"'!!'!} it is smeared with fat, Is. xxxiv. 6. Denominatives with the reflexive signification are : "'D*'?'] to embrace Judaism [mahe one's self a Jeiv), from "l-IH*, niin* Jew ; T.PV'? to supply one's self loith food for aJQurney, from HTi* . N.B. Rem. The Preterite, as in Piel, has frequently Pathach in the final syllable, as p-IOnn to be strengthened, 2 Chron. xiii. 7 ; xv. 8. Final Pathach occurs also in the Fut. and Imp., as D?D'!1' he deems himself tcise, Eccles. vii. 16; t^'li^^'? sanctify thyself, Jos. iii. 5. In pause these forms take Qamets, as ^}^r^) Eze. vii. 27, -"ns^ri) Job xxxviii. 30. With the form in Piel HJ^^Dn (§ 52, Rem. 2) comp. Hithp. njp^nnri Zech. vi. 7 Sect. 55. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. Of the unusual conjugations (§ 40, 2) some are connected, in form, with Piel, and are made by the doubling or the repetition of one or more stem-letters, or by the lengthening of a vowel, i. e. by changes within the stem itself; others are analogous to Hiphil, and are formed by the addition of prefix letters or syllables. To the former class, besides a passive distinguished by the vowels, belongs also a reflexive form with the prefix T\T\^ after the analogy of Ilithpael. I § 55. UNUSUAL CONJUGATIONS. 93 Those which are analogous to Piel, and which follow it in their inflexion, are — 1. Pod; as ^taip, jmss. Poal ?;?ip, reflex. Hithpoel ?pipJ^n (corresponding to Conj. III. and IV. in the Arabic qdtala, qijitila, taqdtala), Fut. ''tpip*, Part. ''pipP, Fut. pass. -'Pip?, etc. In the refuUir verb it but very seldom occurs. Unquestionable examples are : Part. ''psb'D 7nr/ opponent at law. Job ix. 15 ; ''TOli^ I have ajjpointed, 1 Sam. xxi. 3 (unless we should read ''flj?lin) ; tJ'niK' to take roof • • • " L L- ' . .' ' (lenotn. from ^'}p root. In verbs VV (§ 67) it is more frequent, e. g. ?.?''", ^IID, j.^in. The signijication of Poel is, like that of Piel, often causative of Kal. Sometimes both Poel and Piel are in use in the same signification, as )^^1"l and X^Pt to oppress ; sometimes each has its peculiar modification of meaning, as 320 to turn about, to change ; 3i?1D to go about, to surround ; ?.?n to exult, ?.?"in to make foolish (from ??n to be Irilliant, but also to be vainglorious, foolish) ; |3n to make pleasant, l.3in to commiserate ; ^'?.?^* to root out, C'lIC to take root. With ^nip is connected the formation of quadriliterals by the insertion of a consonant at the end of the first syllable, as ^Pl? (§ 30, 3). 2. Pilel, Pulal, Hithpalel ; as ^.'?tpp and ^b^\> , pass, ^.^tpj^, reflex. ^.^PpriH, like the Arabic Conj. IX. iqtalla, and XI. iqtdllu, used especially of permanent states or conditions, e. g. of colours, as i^^t^' to be at rest, l^yi to be green; pass. 7??pj< to be loithered ; but of these verbs there is no example in Ka!. It is more frequent in verbs 11?, where it takes the place of Piel and Hithpael (§ 72, 7). 3. Pealul; as ?PpI^P, with repetition of the last two stem-letters, used especially of slight motions repeated in quick succession, e. g. "1D"!DD to go about tvith quick motion, hence (of the heart) to jyalpi- tate, Ps. xxxviii. 11, from "IHD to go about; pass, "ip'jpn to ferment with violence., to make a rumblinq sound. Lam. i. 20. Nouns of this form are diminutives (§ 84, 23). Nearly related to this is — 4. Pilpel, formed from verbs VJ? and ij), by doubling both of the essential stem-letters ; as 3D3p from 3D=:35D; 7373, from /"S (pia). Tliis also is nsed of motion rapidly repeated, which all lan- guages are prone* to express by repetition of the same sound, ^)?QV to chirp, 7)f?V to tinkle, "l|')5 to gurgle, ^V^V. to flutter (from ^^V to fig). With Hiphil are connected — - 5. Tiphel ; as ^Upri, with fl prefixed, as ^IT^d to teach one to walk, to lead {denom. from /.^l afoot); in a stem of H?, iTinri, Fut. ^"ViO] to vie with, Jer. xii. 5 ; xxii. 15 (from Hin to be ardent, eager). The Aramaean has a similar form, D^.^J? to interpret. 6. Shaphel ; as 'PP^, frequent in Syriac, as "^KiW to fame, from nn'?. In Hebrew it is found only in the noun nnnpL^'j^awe, § 84, No. 35. <{■ ■*? •!$■ a- Forms of which single examples occur: — 7. ^?PP, jmss. t3?PP ; as DStpnp scaled oj^, having the form of scales Ex. xvi. 14, from ^PH, ^^H to peel, to shell. — 8. ?i2Pi5, as P|^ni a violent rain, from ^"IT. — 9. 7Ppri? (frequent in the Rabbinic), a form compounded of Niphal and Hithpael, found in the examples •1"iB13 for •IIBiri? theg suffer themselves to be teamed Eze. xxiii. 48, "1233 for "iSpri!! to be expiated Deut. xxi. 8. We may mention also, as Avorthy of notice, — 10. the form 1>!ivn to sowid the trumpet, commonly * Compare tinnio, tintinnus, and in German Ticktack, Wirrwarr, KUnghlaiig [our ding dotig"]. The repetition of the .same letter in verbs VV produces also the same effect ; as in pp? to lick, pp"n to beat, ^ISp to trip along. Other languages express the same thing by diminutive forms ; comp. in Lat. the termination -illo, as in cantiUo, in Germ. -eln, em, m flimmern, trillern, trbpfeln [comp. our drip, drihhJe'\. Hence we may explain tlie relation, mentioned under No. 3, between these forms and tlie diminutives. 94 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. REGULAR VERBS. derived from the stem "ivn. But it is probably a denom. from iTIVI^'n a trumpet, an onomaropoenc form like the old Latin taratantara^=.tuha. Ennius apud Servium ad ^n. 9, 503. . .' Sect. 56. QUADRILITERALS. Of the formation of quadriliterals we have already spoken (§ 30, 3). The few verbs of this kind (of nouns there are more) are formed after the analogy of Piel, once after Hiphil. The following are all the examples that occur; — • Pret. TK'IS he spread out. Job xxvi. 9 (with Pathach in the first syllable, as in Chaldee). Fut. •^I^Pl?? he will devour it, Ps. Ixxx. 14. Pass. t^'SP"!} to hecome green again. Job xxxiii. 2,'). Part. ^3-l3p girded, 1 Chr. xv. 27. After Hiphil ^'Xtptf' n contracted ^^SO'^H to turn to the left (denomi- native from bxbi;'), Gen. xiii. 9, and other places. a REGULAR VERB WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES.* Sect. 57. The accusative of the personal Pronoun which follows a verb active may be expressed a) by a distinct word, HX (the sign of the accusative), with the sufjix (§ 117, 2), as inx 7^1*5 {he has killed him) \ or h) by a mere suffix^ as 'inSlpp or l7bj5 [he has hilled him). The second method is the usual one (§ 33), and it is only of it we now treat. Neither of these forms are employed when the accusative of the Pronoun is reflexive, in wliich case a reflexive verb is used, viz. Niph. and Hithpael (§ 51 and 54), e. g. U^lpT\r\ he sanctified himself, not i^"^)"?, which would only signify he sanctified him. This matter embraces two points, viz., the form of the suffix, and the changes in the verbal form in consequence of appending it. The former is exhibited in § 58. and the latter in §§ 59—61. * We treat of this subject hare in connexion with the regular verb, in order to show in it the general analogy. As to the irregular verbs, the mode of shortening their forms before the suffixes w ill be noticed under each clais. t On tlic cases where the former must be employed, see § 121,4, Rem. § 58. THE SUFFIX OF THE VERB. 95 0. REGULAR VERB WITH SUFFIXES. §§57—61. Kal. 3.m 3./. *:n [Suffixes for 1 Sing. 2 Sing. m. 2 Sing./. 3 Sing. m. 3 Sing./. 1 Plur. 2 Plur. m. 2 Plur.f. 3 Plur. m. 3 P/wr./. T'l ^^^?P *^p ^^9P ''r^l '^,^PP -1*91^ q?^top -:n^Dp ^n^pp ^n^op ■''"'?pi? !, nn^i2p -lin^isp DDn^taD •in^Dpj " '' ='"'' '■■■''"' 2... ^^P^^^l - - '"^^l nr>^op .:ri^op - *3n?ppJ iJ^ipppJ "■'' "'"' 2./. ^yn^Dp — — ■""^'Ppi? n^n^Dp .irn^Dp — vripppj ' ' • • '■= ^ I.e. — T^^^i? T^^^P "^'T^DP C''?'???!? — Q?'fi^P? Plur.S.c. •'3-I^Dp ^-ijjDp ^l-lSop •in-lj'np PI-l'ppp -IM^tpp D^-I^pp 2.m. ^>in^pp — — -"iniri^^pp n-iri^pp -"lainSpp — I.e. — ^•i3'?t?p "^-iJ^op •imjbpp niJ^pp — Ds^^'pDp pn'?Dp DnSop •— Drhup IT : - '; |3^ri^pp Q^ri^t5p l>i^pp D-l^tpp — DiFi'pop |3-i3^pp m:'?pp i-ij'pDp Inf. Kal. ^3^DP •q^pp i^Dp n^pp .IJ^Dp °v l''?!? 1. pLjj^p D^Dp I^Dp Imp. Kal. V).P)? •in'pDp v',^'??} -i^^Dp _ IT : 't / n'pDp — !•• : 't FUT. Kal. 3. m. *3^Pp» "fej '"'''" '""''" '-"■^'•' ""■'■' with Sun -iv : ': • epenthet. 3-l'pPP"' Plur. 3. m ^•i^tpp) ^-i^PP: -ini^pp) C-ii'PP? -lii^PP? ci,5-^^PI?! i,?-i^PP! Q-i^PP? Vr'PP' •iD^DP* nn^op^ .13^i:d^ _ Pret. Piel. 'ibi^j? ^^pp ^"^pp i^pf) n'ptap -la^pp OD^pp pStsp D^pp )^t2p Sect. 58. the suffix of the verb. 1. The suffixes appended to the verb express the accusative of the personal Pronoun ; and they are the following : — Singular. 1. comm. ^i; ^i^-i in pause ^J-^/J^ me. fm. ^, "?]— {'kha,)., in pause '^^; 2. J also "^T* \thee. Plural. 1. comm. 'Il 1i— ' T W5. you. 96 PART ir. TARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. 11. REGULAR VERBS. 3. Singular. w. in, 1; ^iri-^, (!i), i; v\^ idm. /• J?; ^t; ^~ her Plural, m. Cn,* D; D— (contr. from' Cn-), C^, D- (contr 3.^ from Cn-), D^, poet l/. t?,* I; IT, 14-, t- • them. 2. These suffixes clearly are, for the most part, shortened forms of the personal Pronoun^ and only some of them require explanation. In the suffix of the 2nd person ("^, M, p) the basis appears to be a lost form of the pronoun nriX with 3f instead of H (MS^X, HSX; D3i;s), which Avas employed here in order to distinguish the suffixes from the affiDrmatives of the Preterite (§ 44, 1). In tlie 3rd person masc.^ out of ^^t"' ^7 rejecting the feeble A, there arose «-?/, and thence o (§ 23, 5), usually written 1, much more seldom rf. In the few.,., the suffixes from N**!! ought, according to analogy, to sound H, H— , H— ; but instead of n^-, Ave have, for the sake of euphony, simply n— , where the H is regularly a consonant, and therefore marked Avith Mappiq. Once (Eze. xli. 15) NH stands for H, as in Chaldee and Arabic. 3. The variety in the forms of the suffixes Avas occasioned by the regard had to the form and tense of the A'^erb Avliich receiA^ed them. Thus, three forms of almost every suffix may be distinguished : a) One beginning Avith the consonant itself, as ''^, IH, 1J, (CIl), D, etc. This is appended to A^erbal forms Avhich end with a A^owel, as '•^l/bp, in^ri7Pp« h) A second and a third, with the so-called iinion-vou-els% (''^T, ""Pt) for the \''erbal forms which end Avith a consonant (for the exception, see § 59, Rem. 3): Avith the union-vowel a for the forms of the Preterite, as *iJ/^p, ^^^^p, ^;^pj with the union-vowel e (rarely a) for the forms of the Future and Imperative, as inplpp^, ^^^p- "I'o the Preterite belongs also the suffix i, as having originated * on occurs very seldom as verbal suffix (Deut. xxxii. 26) 5 JH not at all. Yet they are given in the list as being ground-forms, which frequently occur with nouns and prepositions. t Traces of this lost form appear still in the afformatives of the iEthiopic Preterite, as qatalha (thou hast killed), and also in the Samaritan (see Gesenii AnecdoUi Orieiitalia, p. 43). Comp. what was said in § 44, 1, on ^riyD|5. The forms with I and k are not unfrequently interchanged in languages generally (see § 33, 3, note). J We retain the common name union-vowel [Bindevocal], although it rests on a rather superficial view, and is somewhat vague. These union-sounds seem, for the most part, to be residues of ancient terminations of the verb, like i in -in^riptpp. Take, for example, the Hebrew form q'tal-ani, when compared with the Arabic qatala-ni ; and, on the other hand, the Ileb. q<'tnlatni and the Arab, qntalatni. § 59. THP] PRETERITE WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 97 from ^n— . With "^, D^, ]iD, the uniting sound is only a half vowel {vocal Slifva)^ as ''[— D5t» PT' ^- §• M ?i? { ^I'e (together with ^\} and i^) rather weio-htier [more strongly accented] forms than the others, and hence are called grave suffixes. They always have the tone, and cause in the 3 m. simj. of Pret. Kal a greater shortening than the others (called light suffixes), e. g. V^i?, ^?r^?- This difference has still greater effect in the case oi nouns (§ 91), ♦ Tlie short a here belongs probably also to the form of the verb itself. See the preceding § 3, b, note. § 60. FUTURE WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. . 99 2. In the 3 sing. masc. -"inpop is also contracted Into y>^\>, according to § 23, 5, and so likewise in the 2 sing. masc. -innppp into iPlVpp- 3. The 3 sing. fern. n?^\> (='^r'?i?T) ^^^^ ^^^ twofold peculiarity, a) that the ending ath constantly draws the tone to itself, except with D3 and 19 (see Rem. 1), and then takes the suffixes that make a syllable of themselves (^?, ^, -in, n, -13, DD, |3) without a union vowel, contrary to the general rule (§ 58, 3, a); b) with the other suffixes the union-vowel is indeed adopted, but the tone is drawn back to the penultima, so that they appear with shortened vowels C^rr^, Dr^ e. g. "^niinx she loves thee Ruth iv. 15, DnD"Jlp it hurneth them Is. xlvii. 14, OD?J|l she has stolen than Gen. xxxi. 32. For *?ri4- "^^^ etc., we find in pause ''^r^— Ps. Ixix. 10, "^r*— Cant. viii. 5, and also without j^nuse, for the sake of correspondence in sound, 'lO)^?'!' {she has born thee) in the same verse (Cant. viii. 5). The forms -IJ^^pi?, nn^nip are contr. from -inn^pi?, nnSpp after the analogy of -13- for -inj- CS 58 4^ 4. In the 2 sing. masc. IJlpPP is always used, and the suffixes have no union-vowel, except in 'JFiptpip, from JiipPP and ^?t, e. g. \3^1^n. thou searchest me Ps. cxxxix. 1, but also ^?n?iy thoti hast forsaken me Ps. xxii. 2. In the 2 sing. fern. ^J? is written also defectively -l^ri"!?^ Jer. xv. 10; Cant, iv. 9; Ex. ii. 10 ; instead of it the masc. form is also used "IJRya^n thou (fem.) acljiirest us Cant. v. 9; Jos. ii. 17; and with Tsere •"I3ri"|']in thou (fem) hast let us doicn Jos. ii. 18. 5. From a verb middle we have ^^^P?^. / have subdued him Ps. xiii. 5, witli a shortened o in a syllable that has lost the tone (§ 44, Rem. 3). Sect. 60. FUTURE WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. In the forms of the Future, which end with the hist stein-letter, the vowel o of the final syllable is shortened generally to simple Slfva vocal (— ), at times to Chateph-qamets (— ) Jer. xxxi. 33; but to Qamets-chatuph (— ) before '^, D^, p. Instead of ni7bp)l the form ^/tpp^l* is used as 2nd and as 3rd person, Cant. i. 6; Jer. ii. 19; Job xix. 15. The form with Nun demonstrative (§ 58, 4) is specially adopted at the end of the clause or period. N.B. Rem. 1. Verbs with Fut. A (to which belong all that have Vi guttural for the 8rd radical, § 65) retain the full A in the Fitt. and Imp., and the Pathach, when it comes to stand in an open syllable, is lengthened into Qamets, e. g. ^?n?^ send me Is. vi. 8, ^^t^f?^ it ptit me on Job xxix. 1-1, •"ini7X5''_ let them demand it back Job iii. 5. 2. Occasionally, as exceptions, suffixes occur also in the Future, with the union-vowel a, as U^2h\ Ex. xxix. 30; comp. ii. 17; Gen. xix. 19; xxix. 32, 3. The suffixes are at times appended also to the plural forms in I"l, e. g. "'3^'1* forms are found which depart from the analogy of segholate nouns, e. g. ^v:?^ y"'* eating Gen. iii. 5, XV^% thy standing Obad. 11 ; but, as conformable to this analogy, are to be regarded I231.VP your harvesting Lev. xix. 9, and Q2pSD (^md-ds'-khan) your contemning Is. XXX. 12. 2. What has been said of the Inf. is applicable also to the leading form 7tPj5 of the Imp. The forms V^P? ^^'Pp? which are not presented in the Paradigm, suiFer no chan^'e. For the fem. T\j?^p is substituted the masculine form ^/L3p, as in the Future. On ^^H?^, see § 60, Kem. 1. In the Imp. of Hiphil, not the form /tDp^, but S^ppn is used; e. g. ^H^inpH offer it, Mai. i. 8. 3. In the Participles, the shortening of the vowels is the same as in nouns of the like form, e. g. /tDp, /tSp^, according to § 93, Parad. YII. On the difference between '^Pp and ^?!?P*p, see § 135, 2. II. THE IRREGULAR VERB.* A. VERBS WITH GUTTURALS. Sect. 62. Verbs which have a guttural for one of the three stem-letters are governed, in their deviations from the regular verb, by the general principles laid down in § 22. Of course ^< and H come under consideration here only when they retain their power as consonants, and are not mere substitutes for vowels; *1 also partakes only in part of these anomahes (§ 22, 4). For convenient representation, we See tlie general view of the classes, in § 41. §62. VERBS WITH GUTTURALS. 101 distinguish the cases in which the guttural is the first, second, or third stem-letter. The following three Paradigms, D, E, and F, where those conjugations, which are wholly regular, are omitted, exhibit their inflexions, and the following sections explain them more fully : — ■ TxiBLES OF THE VERBS WITH GUTTUKALS. D . Verb PE Guttural. § 63. E. Verb AYIN Guttural. § 64. KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. | KAL. NIPHAL. PI EL. PUAL. HITHPAEL. Pret.3. m. np^ ipz\.* "^V^.!}.* *^PV:P * t^pjj' Dn^} ■^7:?* "^13* "^psnn* 3. /. ^^py nnpy^/nTp^n nnrpi^n* nont^' * ntontrj * HDin n3-i3 n3-i3nn 2. m. rinpy J?"!^^.?, ?1P¥:^. ?1PV:i? nonc^ nonLvj n3-i3 ri3-13 F13"l3nn 2. /. J^IPV ^ipJ^-i ^"iP^v!- ^"l^^y^i? n^nc' nnnc'j riDin n3i3 n3n3nn 1. c. >nnpy 'J?ip?^.i?, 'Ji^lP^.^. '^1P^;P ^nDnc? ^nDn^3 ■•nD-ia ^ri3p3 ^M^ipn Plur. 3. c. •npj; -npyj -n-pyn -np^i? •iDnt;'* -innL'o* !|3-|3 ■1313 •I3"i3nn 2. m. nnnoy* Dpi??j?;3. Qj^lP^''^. Q.^T^V^f? nnt^nt^' Dnnnt^^: Dn3-13 Dnpns Dn?"]3rin 2. /. Ipl^y.* I??1^??.l li?1'?V-'il i|?1^V:i^ ]n^m iPipnu'j |ri?n3 |n3"]3 |J^3n3nri 1. c. •13-ipy -i^ipyj, •''2"!PV(3 -""^IPV:!! •i3pnK> -ijpnt^j •I3?p? •1:3^3 •"i:3n3nn Inf. conslr. nipjl* *ipV?* 'T'PJ?P* Dht^ i^p^C V^* •n"i3nn* wanting ' •' : • Inf. ahsol. lipij; lipy.,?* Tpyp* T$?J?\i* Dinc' DinK>3 •;]1")3» Imp. m. Dnc'* DHK'n vr ^;?.iriri* "I'py* RtQ* ^py^* "^^V.j;]* Plur. m. noy ^prn noyn n'-oyn r : • 'r: • r : it- • r -:.- wanting •inipy •ii;)Tn -noyn n^pyn ^pnti'* *pnK'n* •ipntiJ -ipnt^'n •13-)3 *3-i3nn wanting '' '■''' ■ ' f. nnby* njpm/nnpyn njipyn nipnc' mpn^'H ^,^?;i? n33n3pn FUT. 3. m. *ipy!* Rl.D,'!* "ipV,"* "^'PC* "'P^iJ* DHL"*.* pn^'*. V^' * ■517>.* V^^'-* 3. /. "I'pyjii I'^iDp *ipvp ''''pyi^ *^PV-I? tDpV'n Dny'j!) "^?.?^ ^n3n •qnsnn 2. m. *ipy.^ riinp ipvp ''T^P "^PV:? Dnp-n pDf^ '^p-?'^ "?in3ri "q^snn 2. /. "•^pyp* ^i?tDp* ^^py? ^I'pyi^- ^"jpyp* ^nnt^n* ''t^^t^'n* "J?"'?^ ''3")3n ""siinn 1. c. ipy.«.* R!Q!!? IPV,^ "^'P^:^ "'PF:^ lipEJ'x t^n^'K ■^p.?^. ^nbx "q^apK Plur. 3. m. •n^J^-* •''l?^'^••* 'n^??" •"""^'P^:,- ■''"!PV,T ■innij'' -lonu'^ •1313-. •13-lT. 13"13p^. 3. /. nj-tbyn n^fsTnri njnpyp nppyn njnpyn nronrn nioncj'n ^33^.30 njsnbri n:3p3pn 2. m. •npyn -"liprnn -npp -n^pyn -npyri ■ionL*'n -lun^j-n •1313F1 •I3i3n •i?"}3riJ!> 2. /. nnbyn njpTnn njnpyn njnpyn nnpyri n^DTO'n n^nnt^'n n33n3Pl n^pnhn njsnsnri 1. c. tpy,? r?]n3 npy;. n^py? ipya Dn^'3 pnu'3 V^} •iinha Tinsri? FuT. apoc. (Jussive) ipy,! FuT. irt//i S(# •1^pnt^•"; Part. act. npy np^.3* n^pyp* pnb' onB'a V^^* 1 V^^^* pass. TWi; IPKP* u-inK' ■^i^^p* 102 TAUT II. PARTS 0¥ SPEECH. CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. F. Verb LAMEDH GuTirUAL. §65. ■ KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PUAL. IIIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. j Pret. 3. jn. rhiy n^:;': n^-j- n^:;' n^'pD^n » n^^'c n^nL''n« 3. /. nnS'j' r\nh^b nnW nn^K' nn^^K'n nn"prn nn'?ni"n 2. m. nrh'^ nn^:^': nn^'kj' nn^f' nn'?:;'n nn'pc'n r\rhr\^r^ 2. /. nrb'S' * nrhiih * nnW« nn*?:^ • nnSt^n • nn'pr^'n • nn'?nt'n« 1. c. ^nn^Li' "nn'pB'j 'Pin^K' ^nn'pt^ TinVti'n »nn'?£^.-i ^nn^riB'n Plur. 3. c. ■in'?-c' •in^c^3 •in-)::^ •inW •in^'?L"n ^rh^n •"l^^nt^■•^ 2. m. cnn^C' ur\rhm onnW cnn^K' nnn'pK'n nnrht'n DnnVn::'n 2. /. ipn^t?' IJjn^P'? i,i?n^^ l.Pin^?^ l.^n^^J? )Fin^:i'n ipHi'^t^'n 1. c. : i-T •i:n^K': •ijn)^ •i:n^K' •i^n^fn •lan^if'n •i:n)ric'n Inf. comtr. rhi^* n^K'n* nkv * wh^n * n -TiL-'n * Inf. abwl. ni^t?' * nVfc*'j * nW* wanting d)v'l' * n^K^n* Imp. m. n'pc'* n^K'n* n^j:;* n'?:;'n * n^n-j^n • f. Plur. m. •in'pEj'n wanting wanting f. n^n.^^* njnWn njn^U'* n^n^ipn '""jn^nti'n ♦ FuT. 3. m. n'p'i;'^ * rhdf'* rfp^i* rh'^'< n>^K'^ * rhiy' rhm" • 3. /. nWn rh^n rh'^'n nWn n'^K'n n'pt'n n->r;*t>'n 2. m. rhiyn rh^n rhz'n n^ii^n n'''?L*'n nSci'n n^n-j'n 2. /•. ''n'piyn '•rhwn *nW*n ^n^K'n '•n'-'pt^'D ^n'^c'n -n^ni'^n 1. c. n^tj'x rh'^a n^j^x nWs n-'^B'X n'pc^'X vhn'c^a P/wr. 3. »i. ■in'pc^' •in'pj^* •in^C'* •in^t^j >ir\'h^' ^rhi:}'' •in^nc'' 3. /. njnSii^n * ^3^^t^'n » njnWj'n * njn^K^n n:rh^r\ * n:n'?K'n njn^nt^n* 2. m. •inS'in irhn^n •"in^L-'i-n •in^c'ri •in^'pt'D •in^i"n •in^nc-'n 2. /. n^nyj'n n^rhii^n ninjiL'-n nin^^j'n nanSij'n runbivn n3n'?nL"n I. c. n)^^ n)'i? n^'^'? ni*?'? D'H*'-^ n!?V*'3 ^'^p}^'} FoT. a/)or. (jussive) nVtJ'* FoT. tt'iK53 rh^* n^'pK'o* rh,W^ * pass. - 1 T nk'p (T : T Sect. 63. VERBS PE GUTTURAL. E. g.~*iPV /" «'««f^- P^^"'^^- ^' § ^^■ The deviations from the regular verb may here be reduced to the followinej particulars : — § 62. VERBS TE GUTTURAL. 103 1. When the first stein-letter, at the beginnhig of the word, would regularly require a simple Sh^va ( /bj?, Dn/^p), it takes here one of the composite Sli*"vas (§ 10, 2; § 22, 3); e. g. Inf. iby, SbwS* to eat, Fret. Dril^y, DmSH from ]*Sn to he, inclined. 2. When a preformative is prefixed to sucli forms, it takes the vowel which lies in the Chateph (§ 28, 2), as *1W, Clbn^ he will dream, ^bs|' he luill gather ; or the composite Sh^va conforms to the vowel of the preformative, viz., when the latter is an essential characteristic of the form ; e. g. Pret. Nijih. "l^yj (for ^^V^), Hiph. yt2V.rj (for y^V^), Inf. and Fut. yt^VT}, y^V^, Hoph. Fret. n^^H, Fut. ^W^. (On the Metliegli in these forms, see § 16, 2, a.) In many verbs, however, the guttural, especially H, when it stands after a pre- formative at the end of a syllable, retains the simple Sh^va; but in this case the preformative always has the vowel corresponding to the composite Sh^va, which the guttural would take according to the above rule ; e. g. Fut. Kal ^'OiV\\ he will desire., ^?^!'. he loill hind, Niph. *^^ni} to change one's self ^TXi girded, Hiph. T'DPin to cause to fail. The grammarians call this the hard, the former with the comj). Sh^va the soft, combination. Both forms often occur in the same verb. 3. When in forms like *lby^, ^^Vi, the vowel of the final syllable is changed into simple Sh'^va vocal, on account of the accession of one of the afformatives (^, V, n— ), then the composite Sh^va of the guttural gives place to the corre- sponding short vowel, as ^l2i^\, plur. T\l2'^l (read 7/ddm'dhu) ; rilT^^ she is forsaJcen. But here also there exists a harder form besides, as T>'2T\\ they take a pledge, ^pJH*, as well as ^pTH'', they are strong. Compare in general § 22, 4; § 28, 3. 4. In the Inf., Imp., and Fut. of Niph., where the first stem-letter would regu- larly be doubled ( /^pri, ^^P!), the doubling is always omitted, and the vowel of the preformative is lengthened in Tsere, as H^p!'. for*I^^\ R E ]M A R K S . I. On Kal. 1. In verbs nd the Inf. constr. and Imp. take (— ) under the first letter (according to § 22, 4, Rem. 2); as "IT.i^ gird Job xxxviii. 3, 3nX love thou Hos. iii. 1, ^^f; to eat, with a prefix ThwS^., ^bx|?. The (— ) is found here only when the tone is forcibly thrown forward ; e. g. tJ'Xn 7b5?3 Num. xxvi. 10. For the same reason we have D^"}^^, not D|!l"}^^. In the other forms also of the Imp., the guttural often exerts its influence upon the vowel, which it changes to Seghol, as *S"^n strip thi/selfls. xlvii. 2, nsny set thi/self Job xxxiii, 5, especially when the second radical is also a guttural, as "l^n^ Ps. xxxi. 24. Fathach occurs in -inpnn Prov. xx. 16. 2. The Fut. A, as the Parad. shoAvs, has regularly under the first two letters --; and with the 104 PART ir. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. liai'd combination tt, as ^"V^l he ceases, ^'^V'l he is ivise. This is true likewise of those verbs Pe guttural, which are besides also H?, as Htn^. he sees, i^^D,!, he divides. The pointing "T^r is found even in verbs Fut. 0, but less frequently, as ^DK*_, ^iCi^n^., he lays bare. The form SSyiDl and she loves, Eze. xxiii. 5, is the only instance of the hard combination TT in a verb Fut. A. In these forms the pointing -z^. is frequently shortened to ZT^ (according to § 27, Rem. 5), as 1DX^_ he binds, plur. with suffix -innipx:, -iDH.!, •■npFi:. II. On Hiphil and Hophal. 3. The rule given in Rem, 2 respecting ~— and 7-;r is applicable here also in the Pret. after Vav conversive ; i. e. the throwing forward of the tone occasions a change of e^ and a", as l^"!PJ|(3 thou, didst set, ^I^Spl and thou ivilt set, '^nm. iii. 6; viii. 13; xxvii. 19; "Jil^^Vp, "^l^i^pl- 4. In the Pret. of Hiph., ttjt is sometimes changed into tT", and 7777 into 7, in Hoph. Pret., by prolonging the short vowel, which was sustained \>y Metheg, e. g. I?"1?y.i^ thou leddest over, Jos. vii. 7; "Xvn, he brijujs up, Hab. i. 1,5 ; nSyh, Nah. ii. 8. III. In General. 5. In the verbs n*n fo live, and H^FI to be, the guttural is treated as such only in very few forms ; the Fut. is i^^/}\, ^v'^\' The rule given under No. 1 is indeed true of these verbs, hence riVH; but so soon as a letter is prefixed, the first radical drops the peculiar pointing of the guttural, as ^iVn?, nvn!), Dnvm Eze. xxxvii. .5, 6. 6. For verbs NS in which X loses its consonant and is resolved into a vowel, see § 68. Sect. 64. VERBS AYIN GUTTURAL. E. g. ^D^ to slaughter. Parad. E, § 62. The deviations from the reguhar verb are not so great in this class, and are mainly as follows ; — * 1. Where a simple Sh%'a is required, the guttural takes, without exception, the composite Sh^^a (-) ; e. g. Pret IDHK^, Fut. ^l^n^^ Imp. Niph. ^'O'nm. In the Imp.., the vowel supplied under the first radical conforms to the Chateph of the second; as W^, W^. So in the //;/'. Kalfem., as i^?D^ to love, i^?^?[ to languish. 2. As the preference of the gutturals for the A sound has generally less influence on the following than on the preceding voAvel (§ 22, 2), so not only is the Cholem m Inf. Kal tDinC^ tohp' retained, but also, for the most part, the Tsere in Fut. Niph. and Piel DH'?) he jh/hts, DHy he cojnfort^, and even the more feeble Seghol (after Vav conversive) ^0^*1- ^^'^^^ i'^ ^^'^^ ^^'^'■^- ^^^ Imp. of Kal^ the last syllable generally takes (t), through the influence of the guttural, even in transitive verbs, e. g. tD^L^^ tonp':; pyr, \)-^V; nna, to; (seldom like Dh;;:), and in the Pret. Piel also, Pathach occurs moi-e frequently than in the regular verb, as DHJ. * Hophal, whioli is not exliihited in tlie Paradigm, is varied like Kal. Hiphil is regular. § 64. VERBS LAMEDH GUTTURAL. 106 3. In Piel., Piial^ and Hithp., the DagJiesh forte is inadmissible in the middle stem-letter; but, in the greater number of examples, particularly before H, H, and y, the preceding vowel remains short, the guttural having Daghesh forte implicitum (§ 22, 1); e. g. Piel pH^', Inf. pPlb^ to jest ; Pual ]*n'n to he washed; Hithp. 'V!t^^T\ cleanse yourselves. Before N, the vowel is commonly prolonged, and always before *1, as Piel \^t2 to refuse., ^^ to bless., Put. *^*!5), Pass. "^'13, seldom like ^XJ to commit adultery. Rem. 1 . The peculiar feebleness of the K causes, in the Fref. Kal of the mvich-used verb /^?^ to ask, a weakening of the a (t) under it to (~), and in a closed syllable to (t) and to (t), when the syllable loses the tone, and the N is not preceded by a full vowel (exactly as in some verbs >Q , I 69, Rem. 4), e. g. with suffix, '^)'^' Gen. xxxii. 18, lyh^l^ Ps. cxxxvii. 3, 27id. pers. pltir. ^^^f 1 Sam. xii. 13; xxv. 5; 1 sing, with suffix ■in''ri7XtJ' Judges xiii. 6; 1 Sam. i. 20; also in Hiphil •in^ri^NK^n l Sam. i. 28. Comp. § 44, Rem. 2. 2. In Piel and Hithp., the tone is sometimes drawn back upon the penultima, and the Tsare of the final syllable shortened to Segliol ; viz., a) Before a word of one syllable (according to § 29, b), as DK' T\')^^ in order to serve there, Deut. xvii. 12; comp. Gen. xxxix. 14; Job viii, 18. b) After Vav convei-sive, as '=1'5?!1 and he blessed Gen. i. 22, t^lj!! and he drove ont Ex. x. 11; comp. Gen. xxxix. 4. 3. The following are unfrequent anomalies in the Pret. Piel: -lini? they delay Judges v. 28, for •"l"'n^; and the similar form *?n^m she conceived me Ps. li. 7, for ''JJp^n!. or '?ri'?n'.. 4. A few examples where the X, as a middle guttural, loses entirely its consonant sound and is resolved into a vowel, will be found in § 73, Rem. 4. Sect. 65. VERBS LAMEDH GUTTURAL. E. g. n^'^ to send. Parad. F, § 62. 1. According to § 22, 2, a and 6, we here distinguish two cases, viz., either the regular vowel of the final syllable remains, and the guttural takes Pathach furtive., or the fall vowel Pathach takes the place of the regnlar vowel. The more par- ticular statement is as follows : — a) The strong unchangeable vowels *— 1, 1 (§ 25, 1), are always retained; hence Inf absol. Kal HlS^, Part. pass, nm, Hiph. nhm^ Put. r\h^\^ Part. nh^^. 0, though less firm, is also retained in the Inf. constr. H?^, in order to distinguish it from the Imp. (as in verbs y guttural), h) The merely tone-long in the Put. and Imp. of Kal becomes Pathach^ as H?^*, nS^. (With suff. 'JnS^:, see § 60, Rem. 1.) c) Where Tsere is the regular vowel of the last syllable, the forms with Tsere (attended by Pathach furtive) and Pathach are both emplo}'cd. Usage, however, makes a distinction in these forms. Thus — 106 VAllT II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. In the Pari. Kal and Pi'el, ^?t^', n?pp is the exclusive form, and the full Pathach first ai)pearg in the constr. state ^/^, n?"^'0 . In the Fut. and Inf. Nipli., and in the Pret. Inf. and Fut. Pi'el, the form with (t) is employed at the beginning and in the middle of a period, the one with (tt) at the end, and in pause ; e. g. VDI, it is diminished Num. xxvii. 4, and Vp.f, xxxvi. 3; V^'^\ he cleaves Hab. iii. 9, and Vi?.?^ Eze. xiii. 11 ; y?3 fo sivallotv, Hab. i. 13 ; Num. iv. 20. It maj' further be observed, that the Inf. ahsol. retains Tsere, which is lost in the Inf. constr. ; e. g. H?^ Deut. xxii. 7, else Hpy^ to send. In HipJt. the shortened forms of the Imp. and Fnt. admit only (t), e. g. n?^n prosper, nU3*1 nnr/ ^e caused to trust. The 7?j/. ahsol. takes (r".) as ID^i^l to mahe high; but as Inf. constr. also nslH occurs. Job vi. 26. 2. The guttural here has simple Sh^va whenever the third radical regularly takes it (because it is Sh'va quiescent., which is generally retained even under gutturals, §22, 4), as rin'pC', W*?^. But in the 2 /!]n* K^3n* 3./. HK'Ji HK'^an riK^an 2. m. njj'-i3 nL''3n r\mr\ 2./. mji3 nL''3n nc'in 1. c. regular "mi^ *n:^3n ^fiK^jn Plur. 3. c. •it^'aj •i^^an •1^/3 n 2. m. Dntyjj DPiK'3n DnK'3n 2./. 1,9?-*'-^? I^^^ID \^^^^. 1. c. •13^*^^? •"l3L*'3n •135^3^1 Inf. constr. m* vyjr\ K'^3n* B>an« Inf. afisoi. •^133 c^'33^ t^^.sn * Imp. m. tya* rjDn c^an* /. ^.^J'^ ^C'jsn ^t^^Ll wanting Plur. m. •itj'a •v^j3n /. n^i^l n3*^;33n n3t^.3n FuT. 3. m. £.;!]>» c;'33^ t^^3^* t^'r* 3./. L''jin ti'^an cran 2. m. t'^n &m t;'3n 2./. *:^'•ln ^:;>*3n *K^3n 1. c. I- V regular K'^SK c'aK Plur. 3. TO. •15^r ■"ISr'3' •1t.*'3* 3./ niK'SPi n3K^3n ^3t^'3n T : 1- \ 2. m. •iK'iin V - •iEj'3n 1 : ••. 2./. ^3t^'•ln n3C'3n r\im7\ I. c. t^l? &i^ ^'}} FuT. a/wc. {jussive) ^'^l* Part. or^ K'33 ^1?* tj'-'jD* mi:i* pOM. tj'-IJl 1 108 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — ^CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. The characteristic of these verbs in all forms which begin with a formative letter, is the Daghesh forte following it in the second radical. Some forms, however, of one class of verbs 'D (§ 71) and even of verbs V)3 (§ 67, 5), exhibit the vsame appearance. Verbs IS likewise exhibit such forms of the Imp. as t^l, also "ti'5 (Gen. xix. 9), and l^^. Rem. 1. The instances are comparatively few in which the forms mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 retain their Nun, e. g. /mp. ^^} let alone, •l'??l? fall ye ; Inf. V^ (as well as T\Vl) to touch; Fut. ibV. he keeps, Jer. iii. 5 (elsewhere lis^.). In Niph. this never occurs, and in Hiph. and Hophy very seldom, as "Jl'^pn to melt Eze. xxii. 20, '^p^}T} they are cut off Judges xx. 31. It regularly occurs, however, in all verbs which have a guttural for their second stem-letter, as ^^^\ he tvill possess. In these verbs the Nun rarely falls away, as nn?. he ivill descend, and nnr.; Niph. DH? for Dn?3 he has comforted himself N.B. 2. These anomalies are in part exhibited in the verb ^2^ to take, the ? of which is treated like the Nun of these verbs (§ 19, 2). Hence, Fut. n^\. Imp. Hi? (seldom n^h). Inf. constr. nnp., Hoph. Fut. ni?;". Niphal, however, is always Hpp? . N.B. 3. In the verb IDJ fa give, the fnal Nun is also assimilated, as *nn3 for ''^}V'}, J?03 for Wnj; Inf. constr. HFI for njn (see § 19, 2), with stiff. *nn my giving- Niph. pret. DPIW for Dn3n3. In other stems, the 3 as third radical is retained, ^^?^, '*^^i2J. § 67. VERBS yy. 109 Sect. 67. VERBS AYIN DOUBLED (VV). E. g. a?D Parad. H. H. Verb AYIN DOUBLED {V]}) KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. POEL. POAL. Pret. 3. m. 30* 3p: • 3Dn» 30-1 n * 3310 * 3310 * 3./. nap* n3p: » n3Dn * nsoin » n33io n33io 2. m. ni3p * ni3D: * n'uon • ni3pin * n33io n33iD 2./. ni3p ni3DJ ni3on ni30in 1 - 1 P)33i0 n33io 1. c. *ni3p ♦ni3D: >ni3on *ni30-in ''n33iD 'n33io Plur. 3. c. •13p •1303 •i3on •130-1 n •13310 •13310 2. m. Dni3D Dn'l3D3 Dni3on Dni30-in CW331D 0.^3310 2./. ini3P II?'"'2P? ipi^pn ipiap-in |ri33iD lj?33ip I.e. •1313P •1J13p3 •iyi3pn •i:i3p-in •1J33iO •133310 Inf. corner. 3b* 3Dn* 3on* Inf. absol. 3130 3iprj • 2pn 301 n • 3310 !•• 3310 Imp, m. 3b* 3Dn* 3Dn* 3310 P/ar. m. »3b*- • 1 •13b ^Ipn * •i3Dn 'spC * •i3on wanting ♦3310 !• : 1 •13310 wanting /■ nysp • nyspn • !^5\3pn * "33310 FuT. 3. m. 3D'* 3D>* (301) 3p-V * (3Pt) 33i0: 3310' 3bj * 3b> • 3./. 3bn 3bn 3pri 3pn 3pin 33iDn 33ion 2. m. 3pn 3ipn 3pri npri 30-in 33ion 33iDn 2./. '3bn * ^3Dn >3Dn* *3on* '3DW • '33iDn '33ion 1. c. 3bx 3bs ^m 30S 30-IN* 33iON 33iOX Plur. 3. m. ."I3b> UQ'> •130* •13 0> •130-1> •13310' •13310' 3./. ny3Dn • n33bn T IV \ : T : 1 • ny3Dn * T IV - • nj''3on * T IV • : n:''3p-iri • 'i^^niori n333ioj;i 2. m. •I3bn -nDn •I3pri •lap? •i3D-in •n3iDn •1331Dn 2./. n3^3pj;i n33bn n3'3Dn n3'3Dn T IV • : n3*30-in n:33iDn n333'lDFl 1. c. 3b3 3b: IT 1 • 3,?? 3p3 3p-i: 3,5103 3310: FoT. u;i/A Vav conv. 3D*1 * 30*;. * Put. with Suff. '•330'' • • !*• •■. : 'W:* (D.??PP '*??•?'"'?• Part. ac<. 3310 3D; ITl 30!? * 301D* IT 3310D 33100 pois. 313D _a 110 PAKT ir. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. 11. IRREGULAR VERBS. 1. The principal irregularity of these verbs consists in the contraction of the second and third radicals often into one double letter, as 13p for ^^1?D, even -when a full vowel would regularly stand between them, as ID for ihp, ^D for ^^D. Those forms are not contracted which contain unchangeable vowels, or a Daghesh forte, as nilD, nilD, nSp. 2. The monosyllabic stem thus obtained takes, throughout, the vowel which the full form would have had in its second syllable, and which in the regular verb characterises the form (§ 43, Rem. 1), e. g. !2p for y^^', Inf. ID for ^hp; Eiph. npn for nilDn (comp. No. 6) 3. The Daghesh forte, which, after this contraction, properly belongs to the final stem-letter, is excluded from it (§ 20, 3 a), except when formative additions are made at tlie end, as iSD, 130, Fiit. 13D*, but not 3p, Sb. 4. When the afFormative begins with a consonant (i, H), a vowel is inserted before it, in order to render audible the Daghesh of the final stem-letter (§ 20, 3, c, Rem.). This vowel in the Pret. is 1, in the Imp. and Fut. ''— , e. g. HISp, liISp, Fat, nj^iiDn. The Arabian icn'tes indeed regularly rmo, hut pronotoices in the popular language nnO maddit instead, also mailduta, wliich last is exactly analogous to the Hebrew inflexion."^" 5. The preformatives of Fut. Kal, Pret. Nipk, and of Hiph. and Hoph., which in consequence of the contraction stand in a simple syllable (IDP instead of !3ilD^), take, instead of the short vowel of the regular form, the corresponding loiig one (according to § 27, 2, a). Hence Fut. lb; for ni3p:=n3p:;t Fut. A, ^l for W; fliph. npn for :i'2D'n, fnf npn for nSOri; rJopk. npin for nilpn. This long vowel (except the 1 in Hophal) may be shortened. There is still another mode of constructing these forms (the common one in C/taldee), which supplies a Daghesh in the Jirst radical in place of doubling the third (comp. § 19, 2 Rem.); e. g. Fut. Kill 2b] for 33p^ FuL Hiph. nn] for Dnr>!, Hoph. n^\ for r\r\^\. These forms do not usually take Daghesh in the fund letter on receiving an accession, as -nip* thei/ bow themselces (from Tli^), •"in3'1 and they nmole (from nns), becaiise the doubling is already supplied in the first letter, and the tone also rests on the afFormative instead of the stem-letter ; but see -ISO!! Judges xviii. 23, -WS* Job iv. 20. They therefore omit also the vowels i and ^~, e. g. n37>*ri thetj will tinkle (from /'?)*) Jer. xix. 3. Tiie Paradigm exhibits this form by the side of the otlior in Fut, Kul. * The explanation given here of tliis inserted vowt-l may certainly suffice, if an approximation be supposed between this class of verbs and tliat of n*? ; compare TpiO and Arab, maddltn with riv5 or n*?!, and nvapri with n3^73ri. f It might seem far mure easy, in explaining the origin of the Fiit. 3D^ (as well as of the Fut. in verbs IV, Dip)) to regard it as formed froni the contracted stem-syllable lib by prefixing J, so also Hiph. and Hoph. But the niuchauically easier way is not always the natural one. - - § 67. VERBS yy. Ill 6. Of many of these contractions, however, the originals are not found in the reguhir verb, but they may be considered as more ancient forms. Thus !lb^ stands for !lbp!, with a under the preformative, as in the regular Arabic form;* Hiph. Ipn for i^pn has in the contracted stem- syllable the sliorter e (like the Aram. h^\)'ii, comp. § 53, 1 and Rem. 1); Pret Niph. np^ for ^^Ip^; Fut Niph. np: for nnD^, comp. S:P|'^^ § 51, Rem. 2. 7. The tone has this peculiarity, that it is not thrown forward upon the forma- tive syllables beginning with a vowel (ri— , ^, "•— comp. § 44, Rem. 5), but remains before them on the stem-syllable, as ^^p.f Before the other afformatives, it rests upon the inserted syllables 1 and ''— (with the exception of Dri and \T\ Avhich always take the tone), and in consequence the vowels of the word are shortened, as i3Dri, riripri; nspn, but niipn. 8. Instead of Pi'e% Pual, Hithp. and in the same signification, is found in numerous verbs of this kind, the unfrequent conjugation Poel (§ 55, 1), with its |i;issive and reflexive, e. g. 77iy to treat one ill., pass. 771^, 7'eflex. yT(^T\T\ (from '?7y);in some is found Pilpel (§ 55, 4), as 7^73 to ?'oll, 7^7^nin to roll one's self (from 77J), pass. V^f^ to be caressed (from yp^). They are inflected regularly J ike Piel. R E M A R K S. I. On Kal. 1. In the Pret. are found some examples with Cholem (comp. /b^, § -13, l),as 'I'-iil, from Db"J they are hiyh Job xxiv. 24, -l^l from ^ST Gen. xllx. 23. 2. The Cholem of the Inf., Inip., and /'«if. (3b, 3DJ) as a changeable vowel, is written defectively, with a few exceptions, which are found especially in the later orthography ; e. g. TH? for th? to plunder, Esth. iii. 13; viii. 11. It is consequently shortened into Qamets-chatuph or Qibbuts, whenever it loses the tone, as Inf. ']") to rejoice Job xxxviii. 7, with stiff. IpH? wheii he founded Prov. viii. 27, Imp. ''^3n pity me, Fut. with Vav. convers. 3D*1 Judges xi. 18, with suff. U'^'!^\ he lays them ivaste Prov. xi. 3, Q,^ri. 3. Of final Pathach in the Inf., Fut., and Imp. (''PP, ''^^P'!), the following are examples; Inf. "^^ to stoop Jer. v. 26, Imp. 7| roll Ps. cxix. 22, Fut. ip.! he is bitter Is. xxiv. 9, ST. he is sliyhted Gen. xvi. 4, '^T.. he is soft Is. vii. 4. Examples of the Chaldaisiny Fut. are: 3D\ though 3bj is also in use; D'^! he is astonished, 1 Kings ix. 8; -nip*} and they bowed themselves, hon\'\'']p^. In the Participle occurs the Arampean form D5\ from ?bp^, § 9, 5. The a appears also in verbs S guttural, especially in verbs ND, § 68 ; and verbs iy, § 72. t The terminations for gender and number in the Participles take the tone, as these are not a part of the verbal inflexion, as Th\>}, raptp. 112 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. II. On Niphal. 5. Besides the most usual form with Pathach in the second syllable, as given in the Paradigm, there is still another with Tsere, and another with CJiolem (analogous with ''Pi^, i^T^, /3^, § 43^ 1), extending through the whole conjugation; e. g. Pret. '■p.\ (also ^\l}) it is a light thing Is. xlix. 6, Part. DD3 ivasled away 1 Sam. xv. 9. With Cholem "l^JJ they are rolled together Is. xxxiv. 4, Fut. *S'nn thou shalt he laid waste Jer. xlviii. 2. In the Inf. and Imjj. forms with Pathach do not even exist, but those with Tsere and Cholem, as Inf. DGH to melt P.s. Ixviii. 3 Lf. Abs. TlSn to he plundered Is. xxiv. 3, Lnp. -lOin take yourselves up Num. xvii. 10. Chaldaising forms of Niphal are ^n? Eze. xxv. 3 (from "p.^n), ID? (from TlT}) Ps. Ixix. 4; cii. 4 (also inj Jer. vi. 29), T\n)fractus "'it (from nnn^, Mai. ii. 5. III. On lUphil and Ilophal. 6. Besides Tsere the final syllable has also Pathach, especially with gutturals, as "ir'[l he ynade hitter ; Inf. "l?n to cleanse, Jer. iv. 11. But also without a guttural, as PID he pounded small, 2 Ki. xxiii. 15; plur. "ISDn 1 Sam. v. 10, Part. 7^^ shadowing, Eze. xxxi. 3. 7. The Future with the tone retracted is formed like "^91 ^'^ protects Ps. xci. 4, 7.JJ1 o?»/ he rolled Gen. xxix. 10. 8. Chaldaising forms oi Hiphil and Hophal : 3S!1 E.x. xiii. 18, -in^^l aw/ Mey swo/e Deut. i. 44, 7nX profanaho Eze. xxxix. 7, -l^^fH /Aey perish Job xxiv. 24, n3* Is. xxiv. 12, -Ipn^ in pause (Job xix. 23) for -"Ipq:. IV. In General. 9. Verbs VV are very nearly related to verbs "Ii? (§ 72), as is already apparent from the great similarity in their conjugations throughout. In form the verb VV is generally shorter than the other (comp. Sbj and QlpJ, ^DH and DN'pn). In some cases they have precisely the some form as in the Fut. convers. of Kal and Hiphil, in Hophal, and in the unfrequent conjugations. On account of this relation, they have sometimes borrowed forms from each other, e. g. |-"I"1J for P) he rejoices, Prov. xxix. 6. N.B. 10. Along with the contracted forms there are found, especially in certain conjugations and tenses, others which are wholly regular ; e. g. Pret. Kal. n3 to plunder, plur. -ITn , IJUa (also =I3VT2 Deut. iii. 7); Inf. 3hp and 3D. Fut. i?.n' J,e is gracious, Amos v. 15, elsewhere I'nj. Hiph. rpn, Fut. r?")! he tvill rejoice (which is never contracted), Part. D*J?P'P astonished, Eze. iii. 15. The full form appears to be more poetic and intended for emphasis (Ps. cxviii. 11). 11. We have seen above (No. 5), that in the Fut. of the Chaldee form, the Daghesh of the third radical, together with the preceding vowel, is omitted before afformatives, which however take the tone, as •1"li?*1. Of tlie same omission in other forms there are unquestionable examples, as '1/?3 Gen. xi. 7 for ^}''^\ we will confound (Cohortative from ??3) ; IDr for ^'^V verse 6 they will devise ; Pret. Niph. nnD3 for n3p3 Eze. xli. 7; DJ?^P? for ^^^ Gen. xvii. 11 (from /'^9=^in to circum- cise)', comp. Is. xix. 3; Jer. viii. 14. Without Daghesh, but with the accented full vowel: myn for njyn Prov. vii. 13, nn: l Sam. xiv. 36, D^pm is. Ivii. 5, for D^^n;. 12. Although the afformatives here attract the tone less (see No. 7, p. Ill), yet it is occasionally thrown on them, as -l^"] Jer. v. 6 ; Ps. iii. 2 ; civ. 24 ; and also when suffixes are appended, as 130, ^iiap Ps. xviii. 11. The vowels suffer before Daghesh the changes pointed out in § 27, 1, viz., Cholem in the Fut. becomes Qihhuts, less frequently Qamets-chatuph, Tsere in Hiph. becomes Chireq (after the analogy of nrapri, nnupH) ; the preformatives then, in place of the full vowel, take Sh^va; e. g. 'jId'^ Ps. xlix. 6, -inbD'^ Job xl. 22, >^m\ Ps. Ixvii. 2. Hiph. 'll^^\ Eze. xlvii. 2. § 68. VERBS N3. 113 a FEEBLE VERBS (VERBA QUIESCENTIA). Sect. 68. FEEBLE VERBS ^^. E. g. bx to eat. Puvad. I. So far as ^^ is treated as a consonant and a guttural, these verbs have all the properties of verbs Pe Guttural exhibited in § 63. But here we regard them only in so far as the i< quiesces^ i. e. loses its consonant sound, and is blended with the foregoing vowel, which happens only in certain verbs and forms, as follows : — I. Verb PE ALEPH (X"a). § 68. KAL. NIPHAL. mpHiL. HOPHAL. Prbt. 3. m. t=9 'pDXi* ^•'3xn* ^Dxn* 3. /. 2. m. 2. /. i. c. Phtr. 3. c. Like the Verb Pe guttw -aij in. Paradigm T). 2. m. 2. /. 1. e. Inf. constr. y^N- b5^r^ "^^^N'D ^,5^!? Inf. absol. fex ^bxn Imp. m. ^?«* ^Dsn ^Dxn Plur. m. ETC. ETC. wanting /. •■^?^'9^ FnT. 3. m. bs^* ^?W.* ^\?i<^* bx*» 3. /. ^3Nn 2. m. !?3xn 2. /. ^Saxn ETC. 8TC. KTC. 1. c. ^3k' Plwr. 3. «. •tSdx* 3. /. n3V,?Nn 2. m. •■i'?DNn - 2. /. n3^3Nn 1. c. ^,?N3 FuT. with Vav conv. ^?K>1,* lOK'l* Part. act. ^DX ^N] ^■•sxo ^3X0 pass. bnx 114 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH, — CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. 1. Ill the Fnt. Kal of five verbs, viz., "T^i^ to perish, ^^!l^? to be willing^ 7l)X to eat^ "IpX to say, nSX to bake, the t^ always quiesces in a long 6 {Cholem), as "l?^*. In some others, the form in which it retains its power as a consonant is also in use, ns THX'* and ThX*;. he takes hold. The o in this case is but a corruption of tlie vowel a (§ 9, 10, 2), which is itself derived by contraction from -^^-^ or ^::^^. The feebleness of these verbs (§ 41, c) affects also their last syllable, so that it receives, instead of the stronger vowel, o an e {Tsere), particularly with distinctive accents at the end of a period or clause; but with conjunctive accents, which mark the continuance of the discourse, it takes a (Pathach)^ e. g. 1^7 H^J^h Ps. ix. 19, on the contrary, "T^J^H Ps. i. 6 (comp. a similar exchange of e and a, § 65, 1, c). When the tone moves back, the last stem-syllable has sometimes Pathach, as DV "7!15<^ perish the day Job iii. 3, 7DS*^. aiid he ate^ and sometimes Seghol, as *1pN*T {MiUl) with conjunctive accents, but ^J?X**! {Milra) with distinctives (only in Job a few times 1^X*'l in pause). It is but very seldom that Tse7-e stands before N in the Fut. Kal, as ^nxri {( shall come, Mic. iv. 8, contracted from i^p^I!) : always, however, in the form "I'^i^l? dicendo {Inf. with ?), for l"^^c.. 2. In the 1st pers. sing. Fut. the radical X (to avoid the repetition of this letter) is regularly dropped (§ 23, 4), as 7/pS{ for 7pX&^ I will say. Except in this case, the radical i< is seldom dropped, as ^P^l for 'IPXJ^ thou takest aicay Ps. civ. 29, ^•1"ip^ for '?I'l"ipX^ they speak of thee Ps. cxxxix. 20, yf^ ihou goest aivay (from ^'1^) Jer. ii. 36. The Parad. I shows the forms in which i< is treated as a quiescent (viz., Fut. Kal), and merely indicates those in which it retains its character as a guttural. Rem. 1. In the derived conjugations, the t< but very seldom quiesces, as in Niph. -ITriXJ Jos. xxii. 9 ; IIij)h. ''VN*! and he took away Num. xi. 25, 3'!)*1 (for 31>^y) and he lay in ivait 1 Sam. xv. 5, r?^ / hearken Job xxxii. 11, n"1''3i< / will destroy Jer. xlvi. 8, YXQ attending Prov. xvii. 4, Imp. •1*^1? bring ye (from "^0?) Is. xxi. 14. 2. In Pi'el, X is sometimes dropped by contraction (like n in /"^Pipillo ?^PP!), e. g. ^?P (so pre- valent in Syr., Chald., and Samar.) for ^?>?P teaching. Job xxxv. 11. Sect. 69. feeble verbs *d. first class, or verbs originally is. E. g. ^C'j to dwell. Parad. K. Verbs ^3 are divided principally into two classes, which are different from each other in their origin and inflexion. The first embraces those verbs which have properly a 1 for their first stem-letter. In Arabic they are written with 1 (e. g. IT, Arab, wdlada), but in Hebrew, by a difference of dialect, they take ^ instead of it, wlierever tlie first stem-letter begins the form. The second embraces those § 69. VERBS "•*). 115 which are properly ""S, and which have Yodli als(5 In Arabic (§ 70). A few of these verbs ^S form, in some respects, a third class inflected like verbs \h (§ 71). In "IV^ the forms are distinguished according to the signification ; viz., a) "IV) (1st class, for 1^*^), Fid. "IV;., "^f). to be in a strait; b) ">V; (2nd class), Fut. "l>'^!, "l^'^!! to form. \ K. Verb PE YODH *'S (orig. '.'S). § 69. L. Properly Pe Yodh (^'Q). § 70.' 1 KAL. NIPHAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. KAL. HIPHIL. PRET. 3. V\. nc:'^ ac'ij * 2-^)n * n^^'-in * 3p: 3*L2M * 3. /. nnK'ij nn^nn nnt^-in n3''D''n 2. m. nnt^ij nnt^in n^K^-in n3D''n 2. /. nnt^ij niK'in nat^'-in n3t:)>n 1. c. reg jlar ^naK'n *j^3K^in ••nat^'-in regular *n3t2"'n Plvr. 3. c. •nK'ij •n^K^in ■ntj'-in ■n*DM 2. m. Dnnri3 nnnt;nn Dn3:^'•'l^ t3|5?p\n 2. /. I|??^i? 1)5??^''' ^1 J|;)?K'in ll!!???'',^ 1. c. •133^*13 •i:ne'in •linK'-in •l^^P'D Inf. (onstr. m '. ^■?*. I- T • a-'B'in* nK'-in* ab» 1 : 3*ii*n * Inf. afcso/. ^¥t :*^tfin, nnn* nits* 1 T 3pn» Imp. m. , nc'-in * n^in * 3t2> 3D*n* nK'* ^-n» f. Plur. m. r : wanting •13"'D^^ /• "t^^F "?^P: ^P,??'-!^ nj^K'in i^??P*. nj^P'D FuT. 3. m. 2^'>* K'T''* njj'-r * 3''J^r* 3Er-r » 30''** 3. /. 2m Eh»pi 3t^-"lFl 2"'E;'in 2mn 3t3*n 3"'0''n 2. wi. iK'n B'-i^n 2:^-in a^crin yJm 3t3*n 1- • 2. /. "•2ti>n ^K'l^n nt^-in '>3''jrin •<:imn *3t:*n *n*t3*n 1. c. ntj'x m'n 2mii * n'-tyix nK'-ix no-N 3'D'« P/ur. 3. ni. H2^> •IK'-l^^ um'' •n-K'v nK'-v •i3t:** •n^D** 3. /. njnc'n n^K^iTi nnt^in n33K'in n33t;'-in nisp-'n T :i" •• 2. m. •nt^'n •itj'-i''n ■laK'-in •n'^^'in •nc'-in •nu"?! ■n-D^n 2. /. nj?;^pi nja^i'-ri nptr-in n:n;?'in njn^^i'in n33p"'ri '■'??P''^ 1. c. T^?. 1- ■ ^,^')? ^'F^- 2t^••13 ^p"? ^y?. Fut. apoc. (Jvssive) 3^1' • 3tD\\* Fut. vnth Vav conv. 2K^*.l* 3;^i*r 2P''!1. riT:.i Part. act. nB>» 3Kn3* IT IT 3D' 3*D'D pass. n-iB^ 3-1D> 1 T 9* I 1 G PART II, PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. The peculiarities in the inflexion of the first class, Avhich is analogous with the Arabic 13, are the following: — 1. In the Fut., Imp., and Lif. constr. of Kal there is a twofold inflexion. About the half of these verbs have here the feeblest forms, viz. — Fut. '2^1 with a tone-lengthened e in the second syllable, which may be short- ened to Sef/hol and vocal Sli'va ; and Avith a somewhat firmer e in the first syllable, which in a degree still embodies the first radical ^ that has been dropped (but scarcely ever written 2^''\) ; Imp. 1^ from 21^] by omission of the feeble ] ; and — Inf. T\^p shortened in like manner, and with the feminine-ending H^, which again gives to the form more length and body. The other half of these verbs are inflected Avith stronger forms, have the Fut. A, and retain the Yodh at the beginning, viz., in — Imjy. ^y. and Inf. ID) as a consonant, but in — Fat. ^y] as a quiescent, or resolved into the vowel i (§ 24, 2). That the latter mode of inflexion belongs to verbs actually IS (which has often been overlooked and falsely denied), is shown, partly by the numerous verbs which take these forms in Kal, and at the same time have 1 in Niphal^ Hiphil, and Hophal, partly by the analogy of the Arabic, where the verbs 12 have precisely the same double inflexion. Even in the same verb are found both forms, one with the Yodh, the other without it, as PV 2 Kings iv. 41, and P'^\ ^Jour Eze. xxlv. 3, ^'Tl 1 Kings xxi. 15, B'"] Deut. ii. 24, and K'T, possess, ■with lengthening Hpn'' Deut. xxxiii. 23, Fui. ^i?''! Deut. xxxii. 22, and 112.'! he loill hum up. Is. x. 16. To the first mode of inflexion belong, e. g. 1?J to hear, i^yj to go forth, ^^^ to sit, *!"!)) to descend, Wr to know [Fut. yi*. with Pathach in the last syllable on account of the guttural) ; to the second belong ny* to iveary, X^.\ to counsel, ^"y^ to he dry, though the latter is in Arabic ''3. 2. The original Vav appears always in the Inf., Imp., and Fut. Niph., where it ought to be doubled, as a consonant, as 2^'^^, S^V (just like /tPjprr, '^tDjp)); and also in the Hithp. of some verbs, e. g. yiinn, from V"]), and in two nominal forms, viz., y?) offspring, from 1/1 to bear [and *1T1 guilty]. The "1 at the end of the syllable becomes a vowel, as u {')) in all Hophal, e. g. '2^T\ for ^ti^iri; and in com- bination with a preceding a, as a diphthong.'U o (1) in Pret. and Part, of Niphal, and in all Hiphil, e. g. itTIi for "im, ymr\ for yW. 3. The other forms, with few exceptions (see Rem. 3, 4), are quite regular. In those forms in which Yodh does not appear, these verljs may be distinguished, in the Fut. of Kal hy the Tsere under the preformativcs in Niph., Hiph., and Hoph., by the "V'av (1, ^, -1) before the second radical. (The defective orthograph}', as in IvH, is not frequent.) Forms like 25^, ^^55?^, they have in common with verbs IS. Ilophal nas the same form as in verbs VV and 1^. Rem. 1. The Inf. of AVJ without the radical Yodh (see No. 1), has very seldom the masculine § 70. VEiiBS ^3. 117 form like i??. to hiow Job xxxii. G, 10, or the feminine ending H— , like ny^ Exod. ii. 4. With a guttural, the latter takes the form ri^-4- instead of ^^^-^ e. g. rij?"! to knnto. T\'T> to bear, in 1 Sam. iv. 19 is contracted to rip (§19, 2). Examples of the regular strong form occur with suffixes, ''IP* Job xxxviii. 4, Hp^ Ezra iii. 12. The strong form has seldom the feminine-ending, as T02\ to he ahlr. 2. The Imp. Kal often has the lengthening H— , as ^3^ sit, ni") descend. From 3nj to give, tlie lengthened Imp. is '^'^'>} ■, fern. ''?n, jylur. -I^n, with accented Qamets, owing to the influence of the guttural. 3. The Fut. of the form 35?'.'I takes Pathach in its final syllable when it has a guttural, as 1?!?., also '^IB Jer. xiii. 17. When the tone is drawn back upon the penultima, the final syllable takes Seghol, viz., before a word of one syllable, and after Vav conversive ; e. g. ^J'^L''.'; Gen. xliv. 33; "II*!, ^^.'.l, but in pause "^^'.^A and "ip.ll. A very rare exception, in which a Fut. of this kind is written fully, is n??*^ Mic. i. 8. The Fut. ^T^ , when lengthened, can also lose its radical \ as •1£y^ Is. xl. 30, W^^ Ixv. 23. Yet the cases are rare and doubtful where this occurs after otlier preformatives than * (see Is. xliv, 8). 4. In some stems the feebleness aflects also the Pret. Kal, so far, that the a vmder the second radical becomes c or l, as v'-lti'l''. , DripT, T'n*lP1, from ^1), y>\. Examples are found in Num. xi. 12; Deut. iv. 1 ; viii. 1 ; xix. 1 ; xxvi. 1 ; Ps. ii. 7; Ixix. 36, etc. In Syriac e is here pre- dominant: in Hebrew the feeble vowel is found only in such forms of the Pret. as have not a full vowel under the first radical. For a similar case, see § 73, Rem. 1. 5. As an exception, the Fut. Niph. sometimes has * instead of the 1; e. g. ?n**1 and he ivaitrd. Gen. viii. 12 ; comp. Ex. xix. 13. The first pars. sing, has always the form ^.V*)^ not 2L"1X; comp. § 51, Hem. 4. 6. In Piel, the radical Yodh is sometimes dropped after \ preformative, which takes its punctuation (comp. § 68, Rem. 2); e. g. -in^a*! for -inL'^Ii:;! and he dried it up, Nah. i. 4. 7. Fut. Hiph., like Fut. Kal, takes Seghol when the tone is drawn back, as ^Dl' let him add Prov. i. 5, ^W'- ^"^^ ^'^ added. On forms like yV^'^]) see § 53, Rem. 7. In Hoph. are some cases of i for -1, as yiin for Vim Lev. iv. 23, 28. N.B. 8. The verb "=]?n to go, is connected witli verbs ''2 of the first class, for it forms (as if from "^h) F^f't- "^?"» with Vav "^^.'.l, in pause "^?M, Inf. constr. r\yi , Imp. "1?, lengthened n3^, and also "^^, and so Hiph. "nv^n. Rarely and almost exclusively in later books and in poetry, we find also the regular inflexions from n?^ , as Fut. '^D^., Inf. "^/H (Nuin. xxii. 14, 16 ; Eccles. vi. 8, 9), Imp. pi. •13^n (Jcr. li. 50); on the contrary Pret. Kal is always "^y} , Part. ^2^ , Inf. ahs. i'hT\, Piel "^^n, Hithp. "=I?iIirin, so that a ^ nowhere distinctly appears as first radical.* An obsolete stem '=1?J may liowever be assumed, although in a word so much used as "HPi^ , the feeble letter n may itself be treated like \ and so the inflexion resemble ^3. Comp. also the feeble ^'^, e. g. v?^ from ?]fr5 (8 68, 2), and ''?!?ri from "^^ , Fut. Hiph. HT^X from 'l?^! and nS'-VlX 2 Kings vi. 19, from l'?n. Sect. 70. FEEBLE VERBS ^3. SECOND CLASS, OR VERBS PROPERLY 'k E. g. npj to be good. Parad. L, § 69. The most essential points of difference between verbs properly ^£ and verbs 13 are the following: : — 'O * But comp. 1^?'?^ under Hem. 3. 118 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. 1. Kal has only the stronger of the two forms described in § 69, 1, viz., that in which the radical * remains, Inf. ^b^, with the Fut. A, as !l^V, fp"*!, the Pathack of which becomes Seghol when the tone shifts back, as I'lT!! ^^i<^^ ^^^ awoke Gen. ix. 24, IV^l, "^T".] pn wanting ^ppip •ippip wanting •i:''2 as Dipn f. n^Pip * njppn nJ9p,^! njppp FuT. 3. m. Dip; * Dip!* D'pl * Dp.V * D,pip! Dpip! r?:* 1^3! 3. /. Diipri Dipn D'pn Dpjin Dpipri opipn 1'?? as Dip! 2. m. Dii^ri Dipn D-pn Dpjin Dpipri Dpipn |''2n 2. /. ^p-lpFI * ^pipn * np^pri 'ippin *ppip^ 'ppip^ *:^2n 1. c. D-li^S Dip>5 D'pN' DpjlS D,pipx DpipK P2N Plur. 3. )»?. •1D-1ip; •loip! •iD^p; •lOpV^ •ippip! •ippip^ •i:*2^ 3. /. nyo-ipn njppri n:ppn * njppjin njppipn n:ppipn n:^:*2n * 2. m. •iD-ipn •IDIpFI •lo-'pn •lopin •vppipn ■ippipri •i:^3n 2. /. nrpipn njppn f^JPp!? njppjin njppipn njppipn n:^:^2n 1. c. DIpJ Dip? D'pJ Dpi: D,pip? Dpip: r?; Fdt. apoc. y«M. Dp; * Dp»* 1,?:* FuT. i^i^A 1 < ^onv. Dp'l, DJpM* Dp.*;.* i5,ti* FoT. with S si7ig, ri^V from H^^ /6> set. 2. These Hiphil forms may easily be traced to verbs 1^, and possibly they in part belong strictly to that class. The same may be said of Niph. jll^, Fil. pi!3, and Hithpalel pi^r^H (as if from j^3). These verbs are in every respect closely related to verbs IJ/. Hence it is that we find several verbs used promiscuously, as IV and ^y, and Avith the same meaning in both forms, as |v {denom. from 7v) to spend the Jiiglit., Inf. also J^S; 0**^^ to place .^ Inf. also Dib', Fut. D"'b'^, once D^b'J. In other verbs one of the two is the predominant form, as T3 to exult (715 is found only in Prov. xxiii. 24). But few are exclusively ''V, ^s i'''*] to contend.^ ri''K^ to set.^ '^''P to rejoice; so also 73 to comprehend., to measure., Is. xl. 12; and the denom. |*P (from pi'p) to pass the summer., Is. xviii. 6. The older grammarians did not recognise this class of verbs, but referred all its forms to verbs iy, which may indeed be right in some cases. In modern Arabic we find an exactly corresponding abbreviation of the Hiphil (Conj. IV.) of verbs "IJ?. Yet the Arabic, as also the ^thiopic, has actual verbs *y, and the Hebrew has some with a Yodh as a consonant, like 2^^? to hate, and ^1^ to tire. A fluctuation and interchange between the closely-related stems must certainly be assumed. The Paradigm N is placed in connexion with that of verbs IV, in order to exhibit the parallel between the two classes. The conjugations which it omits have the same form as in Parad. M. Rem. 1. Examples of the Inf. absol. are 2"^ litlgando Judges xi. 25, T\U ponendo Is. xxii. 7, also nn Jer. 1. 34. 2. The Fut. apoc. is |i?J; with retracted tone it takes the form with Seghol, as "0 3V Judges vi. 31. So with Vav conversive, DK^M and he placed, 13M and he perceived. 3. As Part. act. Kal we find once I? spending the night, Neh. xiii. 21 ; Part. pass. D^V' or D-ltJ' (according to a various reading) 2 Sam. xiii. 32. 124 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VEPvBS. 4. Verbs xV scarcely ever suffer tlieir i< to quiesce, and hence are irregular only as represented in § 64. A few examples where the N has lost its force as a consonant are : -Ili^S they are fah\ fKp.* he blooms, Fut. HIphil of TX3, for X^T- ^ccl. xii. 5. Sect. 74. FEEBLE VERBS vh ; e. g. ^^^ to find. Parad. O. 0. Verb LAMEDH ALEPH (S '^). §74. KAL. NIPHAL. PIEL. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. Fret. 3. m. N\'?0» nvd:* X^iO X:»D * x'^on xvon * x-ii'onn 3. /. nxi'D nx:>03 nii'iD nx-^*D nx^VDH na'i^n nx-'i'?3nn 2. m. ns:>'o * nxvo3 * nx-'i'o * nx-^a * nxvDn * nxwn * nx-^-ann » 2. /. DNVO nxvD3 nx-^*o nx^'o nx^'DH nxvan nx-vann 1. c. 'nxvo *nXi*o: Tix-^'ro ^nx-vo *nXi*Dn Tix^ion inx-vonn Plur. 3. c. •1XV0 •ixvd: •IX-'i'O •IX'-lfO •ix^^'on •ix:;on •ix-vonn 2. m. DnXiD nnxvro: nnx-'i^D Dnx-^'D Dnxvon nnxvon Dnx-'!»*Dnn 2. /. ip^V'^ iJ^^vpj ips^VP ins->*o }nx>:pn if^i^^^'pr] |nx->;pnn 1. c. •UN'VD ■1^^>!P? •i:x^>*p •ijX;>:o •"ijxvpn •ijs^'pn •i:X;>:pnn Inf. constr. NVO xvtsn X'liO X'i'O x-'von xvpn x-"!iDnn Inf. absol. si^D xvpj x-'i*p ^,xpn Imp. m. NVD* x^*?3n x\*o xvon x\*Dnn Plur. m. •IX-'i'O wanting •ix-'VDn wanting ^x-vpnn •ix-'ifonn f. ^^^^.■? * njx^>;?3n * n3X-;^:p * niwxvpn* njx-pnn • Fut. 3. m. H'^rD' * XV'3^ * x^-ro" XVD* X*VD* xvi:^ x-"i-on* 3. /. xvDn xv?3n x-iiroFi xvon x^vron xv?on x-"!»Dnn 2. m. x^'Dn xv?3n Xijon i^-iDn x^^'on xvpn x-vonn 2. /. \s^'Dn \xv?3n '•X-^'DjI \x:iDn ^X'^-on "xvon ^x-^*Dnn 1. c. xvos ^>-?? X^'DX XVDX X^VDX xvox x-'i*onx Plur. 3. m. •1XVD* •ixva* •1X-VD"' •1X-VD'' IX'VO' ■IXVO* iH'^^n" 3. /. n:svJon» njxv^ri ♦ nDX-':>Dn ♦ njx-wn * nDXVon* njxvrDn • n;x-"!»Dnn * 2. m. •iN^*an •ix>v3ri •ix-'i*on ■ix-von •ix'von •ixvDn •ix-':>?onn 2. / njxv'on n3X^>*;3n n^x-von n:x-\*DFi njx^ion njxvrrn n3X-^*onn 1. c. ^V'^? ^>'^? i^iV'P? ^;V^? N*'>'9? *^>'PP x>;pn: Fut. apoc. (Jnssire) >*,>'P1 Put. UJttA Suff. *?i!?yp! ^?,^-V'?! '?i??*VPI Part. ar/. ^<>*^ ^.V?? X-"!i»0 NVDO x'vr^D xvpp x-vono j /)««. x-iyiD § 75. VERBS ri7. 125 The X is here, as in verbs X3, treated partly as a consonant with a soft guttural sound (scarcely audible at the end of a word), partly as a quite inaudible (quies- cent) letter, according to the following rules : — 1. In those forms which end witli the third radical, the final syllable has always tlie regular vowels, e. g. Xp, N5^*^, X^^f?, N^'V?^'; but Pathach before the feeble letter K is lengthened into Qamets (§ 23, 1), viz., in the Pret.^ Fut.^ and Imp. Kal, in the Pret. Niph., and in Ptial and Hoph. This (t) however is changeable (§ 25, 2, Rem.), hence in the plural ^5^ "t^^c Pret. of all the other conjugations, in Tsere., HX!^^!); in the Imp. and Fut. of all the conjugations, in %/w/, nis*&, nis*i£5ri. The use of Tse7-e and Seghol in these forms arose doubtless from the great resemblance between verbs i*i^ (from ^'^\) Deut. xxviii. 57. In the forms D^S^p'n 1 Sam. xiv. 33, and DXia Neh. vi. 8, the vowel is drawn back after the manner of the Syriac. 4. The X is sometimes lost, as in ^riy^ Num. xi. 11, ''TO^ Job xxxiii. 18. Niph. Oripp? ye are defiled. Lev. xi. 43. Hlph. ^pnn Jer. xxxii. 35. "L See more in the Remarks on verbs , No. VI. Sect. 75. FEEBLE VERBS n^. E. g. rhl to reveal. Parad. P. These verbs, like those ""S (§§ 69, 70), embrace two different classes of the irregular verb, viz., *7 and n, which in Arabic, and especially in yEthiopic, are 126 PART 11. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. more clearly distinguished. But in Hebrew the original * and 1 have passed over into a feeble H, as a substitute for a final vowel (§ 23, 5), in all those forms which end Avith the third radical, and which hence are called verbs Jl? ; e. s. TU^ for vH ( ' , ^ O T T - T he has revealed ; TV^ for wl^ he has rested. By far the greater number, however, of these verbs are originally v ; onl}^ a few forms occur of verbs \7. The two classes are therefore less prominently distinguished than verbs 13 and *3. A true verb y> is npK* to he at rest, whence ^ri^r^, Part. vK', and the derivative ^X?P rest ; yet in the Fut. it has -V^^^ (with Yodh). In r\}V (Arab, ^^y) to anstver, and njy (Arab. I^V) to suffer, to be oppressed, are two verbs originally distinct, but with the same form in Hebrew (see Gesenius's Lex. art. njiy). In Syriac the intermingling of these forms is carried still farther, verbs ^^^ also being confounded with those H?, i. e. with the two classes v and v of the Arabic. As an entirely different class are to be regarded those verbs whose third stem-letter is a con- sonantal n (distinguished by Mappiq) ; e. g. i^?| . They are inflected throughout like verbs Lamedh ijuitural. It is certain, hoAvever, that some verbs H? originated in verbs with final n, this letter having lost its original strong and guttural sound, and become softened to a feeble n , e.g. nns , Arab. I'lnS to he hlunt. Hence it is that verbs H? are often related to tliose n?, for which the verb n? may be assumed as an intermediate form; e. g. H^'j? and HK'i'? to he hard; nns properly = nns to he open. § 75. VERBS n? 127 P. Verb LAMEDH HE (H"^). §75. KAL. NIPHAL. PI EL. PUAL. HIPHIL. HOPHAL. HITHPAEL. Fret. 3. m. rhi* n^33* rhi* n^3* n'psn* nSan* n^ann* 3. /. nrhi * nn'?j3 * nrhi* nn^3* nn'pan * nn^3n * nn^ann* 2. m. n'''?-!* n^"?33 * n'hi* n^^3* n*^3n * n'''?3n » n'->ann* 2. /. T\'hi n'^i3 n^>3 n^^3 n''^3n n*^3n n'Vann 1. c. *n^^5 ^n^^w *n*j>a >n^^a ^n^^3n ^n*'?3n ^n^^ann IHur. 3. c. •1^5 • •"1^33 •1^3 •fe^ •1^3 n •i'?3n •i^ann 2. w. Dn^^5 Dn^^33 nn^W Dn^b Dn^^3n Dn-'?an DD^^ann 2. /. Ip'^^ IP'.^?? |n^^3 \i^M lp\^^n iP'^an iP'.^inn 1. c. •w^Sj •12^^33 .13^^3 J|3^^3 •i3*"?3n •I3^^3n •la'-^ann \m.constr. rihi* nhiry* ni^a* nij>a* ni^an* niban* niVann* \vir. absoi. fhi H^aa H^a n^an nVan* n^ann* Imp. m. n?a * I" ; Plur. m. -I^a /. na^^a • I FuT. 3. m. I 3. /. 2. m. 2. /. 1. c. /'/Mr. 3. TO. 3. /. 2. m. 2. /. 1. c. »'?an* I* T • •ifian n3''^an* *j>a* •i^a wanting na''^ na-'San ■■ wanting n^ax n3^'?ari ^ >hyn '"13^.^30 nSaa r T • n'paK n3>^an - T IV T • •"i'?an I T • n3^.^an nbaa hm * n^3S n3';^an n^a3 n.c'^.P n^3K nji^an ' I s: n3;>'3n nVa3 •i^an I : - n3'''?3n /nV33 n.c'?p n.^?p »^3n< r : T n^ax n3^.^3p ' I : T n3>^3n nS33 '>IP!? •iVann na^^anrr niani* ^^Vanri* •i^ant na»Vann * n^ana Fur. apoc. {jussive) vr ^,r.* ^,5r ^.?r ^an** 1- : • FuT. with Stiff. *?)?'.* '?,b'.* V,^?!* Part. act. pass. n.^?? * n^P * nh^ * n^?^* n'?30* IV : T n^ip«?* The grammatical structure of these verbs (which Paradigm P exliibits) is as follows : — 1. The original Yodh or Vav^ in all forms which end with the third radical, 128 PART 11. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II. IRREGULAR VERBS. o-ives place to H as a vowel-letter, and representing the final vowel ; which is the same in each form through all the conjugations, viz. — n- in all the Preterites, rh^, rhy), rh^, etc. n— in all the Futures and Participles active, H"*^^, n7il, etc. n— in all the Imperatives, ri7il, Dfil, etc. ri— in the Inf. absol. (except in H'q)h. and HopL), rl7j, etc. The Part. pass. Kal forms the only exception, in which, at the end, the original * appears, ^^75, as also in some derivatives (§ 85, V.). The Inf. comtr. has always tlie feminine form in T\ ; hence in Kal m?^, in Pi'el ni^il, etc. In explanation of these forms we observe — That in the Pret. Kal, TOl stands for "•?!, according to § 24, 2, c; so mNiph. and Hoplial. Piel and Jlithp. are based on the forms ^^'i> , ^^?.^'^ (§ 52, Hem. 1), Hlph. on the form "^^pn, after the manner of the Arabic aqtala (§ 53, 1). In the Fut. Kal, T0);\ is a Fttt. A for "bV. (according to § 24, 2, Rem. a), whence also are such plural forms as •IvV. (see Rem. 4). The same is true of the other conjugations, all of which, even in the re<''ular verb, have, in connexion with the usual form, another with Pathach in the final syllable. ° See § 51, Rem. 2 ; § 54, Rem. Tsere in the Imp. H?!! is, at all events, a shorter vowel than the accented Seghol with a broad sound in the Fut. n?y . Comp. the const/: state of nouns in H— , § 89, 2, c. 2. Before the afformatives beginning with a consonant (H, i), the original *' remains, but not as a consonant. Properly it would here form with the foregoing a (Pathach) the diphthong ai ; but this diphthong in the Pret. is contracted first into S (^t), '"ind then further attenuated into i; but in the Fut. and Imp. it is chano-ed into the broad and obtuse ''—. Thus, in Pret. Piel, from H^^^ (after ri*7t2p) we get first ri'''?3, and then, by attenuating the e into ?, i}y^; in the Fut. Piel ny j)iri . In the passives the e is always retained ; in the actives of the derived conjugations and in the reflexives, both e and i are used alike (see Rem. 7, 9, and 13); on the contrary, in Kal (the conjugation more in use than the rest) we find only 1. Accordingly we have in the — ■ Preterite Kal ?, as 7)72 ; M Preterites of the other active conjugations and also the reflexive promiscuously f S and I, as H^ ?3 and T\w^ ; Preterites of the passives only e, as H^J ; Futures and Imperatives always ^— , as ^Jvil, n2l"*7!iri. The diphthongal forms are throughout retained in Arabic and ^Ethiopic, and the diphthong is contracted only by way of exception and in the popular idiom. In Chaldee and Syriac, the con- tracted forms predominate, yet these dialects have in Kal ^p^ as avcII as r)*2J. § 75. VERBS n"?. 129 3. Before the afforraatives beginning with a vowel {\ '—, H— ), the Yodh with the foregoing vowel is usually dropped, e. g. ^7^ (for V7|5), r^J? (for \ /^ri), nSil, Dvil; yet it is retained in ancient full forms, particularly in 'pause^ as V?^. (see Rem. 4 and 13). I'efore siiffixes it is also dropped, as Y^i (Rem. 19). 4. The Yodh disappears also in 3 Fret. sing, fe/i/., since with the feminine- ending; n— the form Tw^ is obtained. But this ancient form is become rare (see Rem. 1) ; and, as if this mark of the gender were not sufficiently distinct, a second feminine-ending H— is appended, so as to form MH/^. So in all conjugations, e. g. Hiph. n7^n, common form njl/^n, in pause nri7jn, 5. The formation of the shortened Future .^ which occurs in this class of verbs in all the conjugations, is strongly marked, consisting in the rejection of the H— by which some other changes are occasioned in the form (see Rem. 3, 8, 11, 16). The shortened Imperative is also formed by apocope of the H— (Rem. 11, 15). 6. Of the Future lengthened by H— (§ 48, 3), only the following examples are found in verbs TO : — from Kal., n^t^i;}, Fs. cxix. 117, I^^'^D^ (retaining the 3 radical, see Rem. 4), Ps. Ixxvii. 4, and from Niph. n^ri^J, Is. xli. 23. U JO M A K K iS. 1. On K(d. 1. For the 3 Pret. fern., the older and simpler form rip|, from HvJ (comp. the verb 5<^, § 7 1, Rem. 1), is almost entirely banished from common use. One instance is '^^V she did. Lev. xxv. 21. So in Hiph. and Hoph., e. g. ^Vl'"^ she pays. Lev. .\xvi. 34, n?^n she is taken captive, Jer. xiii. 1'.). But with suffixes it is always used; see Rem. 19. 2. The Inf. ahsol. has also the form ll^'l videndo. Gun. xxvi. 28. As the Inf. const/: occurs also, though seldom, nX"l Gen. xlviil 11, nby, 1. 20, or ^^'V. xxxi. 28, as well as the feminine form HINl to see, Eze. xxviii. 17, like i^iv spying, Prov. xxxi. 27, nj~li2 fruitful, Ps. cxxviii. 3, in the plur. like ni*riiS Is. xli. 23. The Part. pass, is sometimes without \ as y^'}! for Mb'V made. Job xli. 2.5, -IQV xv. 22. 6. The second syllable is but seldom written defectively, as n*n 2 Sam. xv. 33, ^^^V.P[ Job v. 12, and (according to the Q^ri) nrxnn Mic. vii. 10, II. On Niphal. 7. Besides the form wither in 1 and 2 Pret., the form also with ""t is found, as •"•^Vl'? 1 Sa. xiv. 8. 8. The apocope of the Fut. occasions here simply the rejection of H— , ?V_ from >\>\\ ; yet in one verb, Atjin yuffural, we find a form with (7) shortened to (t), viz., T\'\p\ (for ^^\) Ps. cix. 13. Similar also in Pi. "lyjp (from n^yi^) Ps. cxli. 8, and in Hithp. Vir^n (from n?;"inri) Prov. xxii. 24. 111. On Pi'el, Pual, and HithpaU. N.B. 9. In the Pret. Pi'el, the second syllable has Chireq instead of the diphthongal *t in the greater number of examples, as "'n''-1i?, n"'!3"=T, which is therefore adopted in the Paradigm. Before suffixes, Chireq is always employed, e. g. "l^n-ai. Ps. xliv. 20. In Hithp. not only ''—■, but also 't is sometimes found (Prov. xxiv. 10; 1 Ki. ii. 26; Jer. 1. 2i). Yet Pual has always Tsere (*r). 10. The usual form of the Inf. abs. Pi. is like n?3, H;)}? (according to T't3i5, also the more frequent form with the strong verb, see § 52, Rem. 3) rarely like H-li^, Ps. xl. 2. N.B. 11. The Fut. loses, after the apocope, the Duyhcsh forte of the second stem-letter (comp. § 20, 3, a) ; hence Piel IV!"! and he commanded ; Hithp. ?^'!)\\ and he uncovered himself. Gen. ix. 21 Less frequently is Pathach, in this case, lengthened into Qamets, as IH^.l and he marked, 1 Sam. xxi. 14, l^ni he craves, Ps. xlv. 12. Comp. Rem. 8. 12. In Piel and Hithp. are found also apocopated forms of the Imp., as 1^ for H-IV command; D3 for ^^\ prove, Dan. i. 12; 7>T]T\T} feiyn tin/self sick, 2 Sam. xiii. 5. 13. Examples of Yodh bein<; retained in cases where it is more commonly omitted : Fut. ''V\,'^t2y!^ will ye liken me. Is. xl. 25, lOVp^'. (hey cover them, Ex. xv. 5. IV. On Uipliil and Hophal. 1-1. In the Pret. Hiph. 3 sing. nbpH is also found besides i^/^i?, especially "^^7?' '^???- The forms ri'ipw and nvPO are about equally common; before suffixes the latter is used as somewhat shorter than the other. The Paradigm exhibits the older with ^tt. In Iloph. only ''r occurs. 15. The Tsere of the Inf. ahsol. Hiph. is the regular vowel (as in ^Pi^H); to this the Inf. absol. Iloph. conforms, as in n;i^n Lev. xix. 20. The verb nnn lo be much, has three forms of the Inf., viz., nann (used adverbially) much, nsnn used when the Inf. is pleonastic, ni3"in the Inf. constr. Comp. Gen. xli. 49; xxii. 17 ; Deut. xxviii. 63. N.B. 16. The Fut. apoc. Hiph. has either the form "^"1* Is. xli. 2, '!^^\ Gen. ix. 27, P^'-- or (with a helping vowel) ?.?!, for which, however, is invariably substituted the form ?5.' (§ 27, Rem. 2, c), as ^h. 2 Kings xviii. 11, l?^.! Ps. cv. 24. Examples with gutturals : W'.\ Num. xxiii. 2, ^VXI, etc.. § 75. VERBS n?. 131 which can be distinguished from the Fut. Kal only by the sense. The Imp. apoc. Hiph. has invariably the helping vowel Seghol or Pathach, as ^I.H inn-ease for 3")n, T\2.~\r\ Ps. H. 4 • Sinn let alone for ^lin,' nsnn Deut. ix. 14; hvn for n"?!?:! Ex. xxxiii. 12. 16. The Fut. Hiph. with Yoclh retained occurs only in jvyn Job xix. 2, from HV. V. In General. 17 In the Aramaean, where as before remarked, the verbs f<^ and H? flow into one another. both classes terminate in the Fut. and Part, of all the conjugations, without distinction, in i^r or *T. As imitations of this mode of formation, we are to regard those forms of the Inf., Imp., and Fut. in n— , more seldom i^T and ^r, which are found in Hebrew also, especially in the later writers and the poets. Inf. n\r] to he, Eze. xxi. 15. Imp ^.l.n he thou. Job xxxvii. 6. Fut. n''.nri"?i< Jer. xvii. 17, i^nh "PX folloro not, Prov. i. 10; nb'yri-'PiS! do not, 2 Sam. xiii. 12>' Inf. Picl \3n Hos. vi. 9. The Yodh is found at the end of the word (wliich is also a Syriasm) for H— in the Fut. Kal. "•Jltni and she committed fornication, Jer. iii. 6 ; (according to others even instead of H— in the Pret. Hiph. v.nn he made sick, Is. liii. 10), comp. the plur. 1''ppn thei/ intimidated, Jos. xiv. 8. 18. In three verbs is found the unfrequent conjugation Pilel, or its reflexive (§ 55, 2), where the third radical, which the conjugation requires to be doubled, appears under the form HI; viz., H^NJ, contracted niX3 to he heatitiful, from nS3 ; D^irit?p the archas, Gen. xxi. 16; but especially nriK' to bow, Pilel njri^, hence the reflexive niriri"-*'n to bow one's self, to prostrate one s self 2nd 2)ers. rib- and n^- Fut. njDI!lf!, apoc. inri^'»l for inri?^*l (analogous with 'r\\ for VT.). • N.B. 19. Before suffixes, the n final, and the preceding vowel, are displaced by the union-vowel (§ 58, 3, b), as '??y he answered me, ^^y,, DJJ?, Fut. -inJl?:, -^^Vl, Hiph. *33n, ?iVyn. Very seldom '- takes the place of the final H— or H— , as in 1^\B?^ he will cover them Ps. cxl. 10, ^3^?n smite me 1 Kings XX. 35. The 3 Pret. fern, always takes before su^f. the older form rip5 (see No. 4), yet with a short a, as in the regular verb, e. g. -IR?? for -inJ^JS Zech. v. 4 ; in pause ''^r'fj'V Job xxxiii. 4. VI. Relation of Verbs H? and ^^ to each other. 20. The verbs of each of these classes, in consequence of their intimate relation, being quite identical in Aramaean, often borrow the forms of the other, especially in the usage of the later writers and of the poets. 21. Thus there are forms of verbs i*; to go forth, Imp. NV, Inf. DXV, Hiph. i^'Vin. e) Verbs ""S and n? (comp. §§ 69, 70, and 75), e. g. HT to throw, in ^/yjA. to con/ess, to praise, properly IS, and nn* to throiv, HQ^ to be beautiful, which are properly ''2. Inf. nT, nil'.; hnp. -"n*.; Fw/. P]".!. with 5?//.^DT3 loeshotat them (from nij) Num. xxi. 30; P/e/ T^!! for •I'^l*,! (§ 69, Rem. 6); Hij)h. nnin, n-jin, /«/. niin; 75^^^. nnv, o^joc -lin.. . /) Verbs "iV and ^?, particularly the verb i<'l3 /o come; Pret. t<2, n^*?, once -132 for -12X2 1 Sam. xxv. 8 ; Hiph. N^nn, ri>«?D, and riX'?n; i-W. ^?5< for K^?{< Mic. i. 15; Imp. '■nn Ruth iii. 15. So '?J he refuses, Hiph., from i^-l^ Ps. cxli. 5. Moreover, g) tlie verb ^!in /o live, deserves to be noticed, being treated as a verb VV, and hence has ^D in the 3 Pret. Kal, Gen. iii. 22. In Hebrew it occurs only in this form. But of more frequent occurrence is the synonymous n^^n ^^^^ a verb H?. Sect. 77. RELATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS TO ONE ANOTHER. 1. Several classes of irregular verbs, e. g. those IS and ''3, N7 and H?, IJ^ and VV, stand in a very intimate relationship, as appears from the similarity in their i § 78. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 133 meaning and inflexion, from the forms which they have in common, and from their mutual interchange of forms. The affinity consists, as a rule, in the essential equality of two stem-consonants of firm sound, to which the common signification attaches {hiliteral root^ § 30, 2), so that the third feebler radical is not taken into account. Thus, "^P"^, *=I^'^, ^p"^ nil mean to strike^ to heat in pieces ; Hli, Tl^, rrij to flee. In this manner are related in form and signification — 1. Verbs iy and VV (in which the essential stem-letters are the first and last), e. g. "=[^1^ and "n??? to become poor ; t^'-IO and ti't^'P to feel, to touch; "1-13 and 11 J to flee. 2. Verbs ""S and |Q (in which the two last are the essential stem-letters), both to each other and to the former class. They are related to each other in the verbs ^VJ and 3V? to place, t^pj and ^p\ (i/aqosh) to fowl; to the former class, especially to verbs 'iV, in 1"I2 and 13^ to fear ; 21t3 and 2PJ to be good; "HP? and "^-ID to anoint; HQJ and H-IQ to hloic ; V?? and '('-IS to break in pieces. Verbs N2 are less frequently found connected with these classes, as D?>'X and QP'^ to be destroyed ; K'l« and tJ'-n to thresh, etc. 3. Verbs ^ and ri7 (in which the first two consonants properly form the stem), both to each other and to the former classes ; to each other in ^5^'^ and HD'^ to break in pieces, ^"^i^ and n"l|3 to meet ; to verbs of the former classes, in nyo and )*V'p to suck, nni and HH to thrust, etc. Sect. 78. DEFECTIVE VERBS. It often happens, when two kindred irregular verbs are in use in the same signification, that both are defective^ i. e. do not occur in all the forms. As these, however, are not generally the same in both, the two are combined to make out a complete verb, as in Greek epxofiat,, Aor. ^x9ov, Fiit. ^eva-ofiai, and in Latin, /^ro, tulij latum, ferre ; with this difference, that in Hebrew these verbs are almost universally related in form as well as signification, like the Greek jSaivco, Aor. 2. e^7]v, from the original form /3a-w. Of these verbs the following are the most common : — K'ia to be ashamed, Hiph. t^^?D, but also C^'ilin (from ^^)), especially with the intransitive signification to feel ashamed. 3iD io be good. Fret. nio. Fut. St?''! (from npj). Inf 3113. Hiph. 3^t?^n. ~li: to fear. Fut. ~^l\ (from 115). 3VJ and ^V? to place, neither used in Kal. Ni/>h. 3>*? to stand. Hiph. and Hoph. ^'"$^ and 3-Vn. Hithp. 3->':rin. r?3 to break in pieces. Fut. fis; (from pS). Imp. P^- ^^'ph. Y'm . Fiel V^? (from Y^})- Pil. 1>>i2 (from pS). Heflex. ft^m ■ Hiph. Y'Pi} . Pilpel r^V? Job xvi. 12. 1iy and ">VI to he strait. Hence Fret. \^ IV / am in a strait, lit. it is strait to me, from liy. Fut. 134 PAllT II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. III. NOUN. "l>*! (from 1^;) and "1>*'.1. Hiph. "IVH, "IV^, to hr'uuj into a stra.it, to distress. The related form "11^' is transitive, to press, hence to besiege, nnC' to drink, used in Kal ; but in Hiph. ni?"^n to give to drink, from ni5K'. On "^?n to go, see above, § 69, Rem. 8. Rem. 1. The case is similar when different conjugations of the same verb, having the same signification, borrow tenses from each other ; — ^"^1 lie is able, ??•'!'' Fat. Hopli. he loill be able, used for Fut. Kal, which is wanting. HP) he has added, borrows its Inf. and Fut. from Hiph. *l*pi'"l^ ^^pi\ t^JJ to approach. Pret. Niph. ^1} for the Pret. Kal, which is not in use; yet the Fut. t^"T, Imp. ^''i , and Inf. Ht^a of Kal are all in use. nnj to lead. Pret. usually in Kal, also the Imp. nn^ ; but the Fut. always in Hiphil ^'OT. ; rarely also the Pret. nn?n . ■^n: to pour out. Pret. Niph. "^n? , along with Fut. Kal "^H^ but Fut. Niph. and Pret. Kal are not in use. Rem. 2. The early grammarians often speak of mixed forms {formis mixtis) in which, as they maintain, are united the character and significations of two tenses, genders, or conjugations. On correct grammatical principles most of the examples adduced are set aside (e. g. HJOn*, § 47, Rem. 3) ; in others, the form seems to have originated in misapprehension and inaccuracy, e. g. '=]???"I3?? in thy building, Eze. xvi. 31 (where the plural suffix is appended to the ending ni, as if a plural-ending). Others again are merely false readings. CHAPTER III. OF THE NOUN. [substantive and adjective]. Sect. 79. . GENERAL VIEW. 1. In treating oi i\\Q. formation of tlie noun, it is very important to keep in view its relation to the verb, since most nouns may be derived from verbs (considering the 3 sing. Pret. as the stem-form, according to § 30, 1), and even those which are not, whether primitives or derived from other nouns, follow the form and analogy of the verbals, l^esides, on this relation is based the explanation of the form of the feminine gender (§ 80, 2 ; comp. § 94). The adjective agrees entirely with the substantive in form, though it is manifestly only by a figure of speech that forms witli an abstract signification can be treated as adjectives (§ 83, Rem. 1). 2. A regular inflexion of the noun bv cases does not exist in Hebrew, although perhaps some ancient traces of case-endings remain (§ 90). The relation of case § 80. FORMS WHICH MARK THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 135 in a noun is either learned simply from its position in the clause, or indicated by prepositions. In the form of the noun there is no change ; and hence the matter belongs not to this division of grammar, but to the Syntax (§ 117). On the contrary, the connexion of the noun with suffixes, with the feminine, dual, and plural terminations, and with a noun following in the genitive, produces numerous changes in its form, which is all that is meant by the inflexion of nouns in Hebrew.* Even for the comparative and superlative, the Hebrew has no appro- priate form, and these relations must be expressed by circumlocution, as taught in the Syntax (§ 119). Sect. 80. FORMS WHICH MARK THE GENDER OF NOUNS. 1 . The Hebrew, like all the Shemitic languages, has but two genders, the mas- culine and the feminine. Inanimate objects properly of the neuter gender, and abstract ideas, for which other languages have a neuter form^ are regarded in Hebrew as either masculine or feminine, particularly the latter (see the Syntax, § 107, 3). 2. The masculine., as being the most connnon and important form of the noun, has no peculiar mark of distinction. The ending for the feminine was originally H— , as in the 3 sing. Pret. of verbs (§ 44, 1). But when the noun stands without a genitive following (i. e. when it is not in the construct state^ § 87), the T\— usually appears in the weakened form n— , or is shortened to H— unaccented. The original T\— is very seldom found, except when the noun is in close connexion with a succeeding genitive, or has a pronominal suffix. Irrespective then of these two cases (for which see § 89, 2, ^, § 91, 4), we have as feminine- ending — a) Most commonly an accented H— as D^D horse., HD^D mare ; h) An unaccented T\—^., after a guttural H^ (which also remains unchanged before the genitive), as /Ipp, fern. Tu^yp killing., '^1^2 f em. nyilZD acquaintance. Here the termination of the noun follows the manner of segholate forms (§ 94, 2). When the masc. ends with a vowel, we have for T\~ simply ri, as ■•li^ltt Moahite, n''iX1i5 Moahitess ; XtSPl sinner. nXLsn sinfulness, sin. The vowel-changes occasioned by these endings are exhibited in § 94. f * Tliis has been called, by Gesenius biiiiself and otbers, the declension of the Hebrew noun, f On the feminines not distinguished by the form, see § 107, 1, 3, 4. 136 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. Rem. 1. The feminine form in n_i. is, in general, less frequent than the other, and occurs almost exclusively when the other is also in use. It is only in the Participles and Infinitives that it is found more frequently than the other (e. g. J^.?P'p oftener than "^/P'p, ^Ti.^' than '"'^/') ; it is, more- over, in common with O— , a form for the construct state (§ 95, 1). 2. Unusual feminine terminations : a) n— accented, as ri|?"l3 emerald Eze. xxviii. 13, riXj^ pelican Is. xxxiv. 11, riVpt^' crowd 2 Kings ix. 1 7, and often m proj^cr names among Phoenicians and other noiglibouring tribes, as ns"]^ Sarcpta, H/'S Aelana in Idumea, on the Arabian Gulf, ^y.\ pr. n. Goliath. h) n— , almost exclusively poetical, e. g. ripnj Jteritarje Ps. xvi. G, n'JTU Jielp Ps. ]x. 10. TTJ^fecunda Gen. xlix. 22 ; but in prose also is found ri'nn^p morrow Gen. xix, 34. c) N— , Aramaean orthography for H— , found chiefly in the later writers, e. g. KJK' sleep Ps. cxxvii. 2, NPl'li^ baldness Eze. xxvii. 31, i^l}^'^? mark Lam. iii. 12. d) n— very rarely, a weakened form of H— (§ 27, Pem. 4), as IT^.^T for ^'f''^ , Is. lix. 5. e') n_2., without the accent, as i^^l^"?, Dcut. xiv. 17, i^"^J^2 "^MT}. burning furnace, Hos. vii. 4: comp. Eze. xl. 19; 2 Kings xvi. 18. In all these examples there should be the usual accented n— , but the punctators, not comprehending the feminine here, marked the n (by depriving it of the tone) as not feminine, which is however no rule for us. Also H?^? night apjicars by the tone to be a masc. form, particularly as it is always construed as masc, and we find /'.V, ^V also occurring. Like it are nD"inri the sun Judges xiv. 18 (else 01,^), ^7113 brook Ps. cxxiv. 4, nni^n death Ps. cxvi. 15, and some other woitls. ]\fuch of this is doubtful.* /■) nri±- in poetry, properly a double ending (as in nnX-TH fjiin r.=::nwn, Jer. xxvi. 6 K^thibh. and in the verbal form nn^|, § 75, 4), e. g. HTO help (=nnr^, mjy), nny-ic': salvation (=niM£j^), nnS)y wickedness (= f^/l'y), see Ps. iii. 3; xliv. 27; xcii. 16; Job v. IC; Ex. xv. 16, and other places. f 3. It is wholly incongruous to consider (as Gesenius and Nordlieimer did) the vowel-ending H— + as the original termination of the feminine and tlie consonant-QruYxxxf^ ri— as derived from it. The ■ ^thiopic still has the n constantly, and in the Phoenician also the feminines end generally in n (not n or ti), which is sounded atlt in the words foimd in Greek and Roman authors (see Gesenii Monumenta Phoenicia, pp. 439,440; Movers in Ersch. and Gruber's Encyclop., Sect. III., T. 24, p. 439). The ancient Arabic has the weakened vowel-ending scarcely anywhere but in the pause; the modern Arabic is, in this respect, much like the Hebrew. Sect. 81. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. Nouns are either primitive (§ 82), as 2ii, father, Ui^ mother, or rJerivative. The latter are derived either from the verb (Verbals, §§ 83 — 85) in tlie sense given * The ending T]~ in these words has been taken for the termination of the Aramncan emphatic state, so making n?n3 pass for ?n3n . But there arc these objections : a) That some examples have the Heb. article, which implie? at least that the Aramaean form was not recognised ; h) That the examples in part belong to the more ancient books; and c) That we find among tlieui so old and familiar a word as TD'h ■ Yet n?v might be strictly an accusative with adverbial signification noctu, and then used simply for nox, no regnrd being liad to the embng something like n3J33, § 90, 2, c. See Gcsenius's Lexicon under Pv in the Note. f This ending nn— , too, has been compared with tliat of the Aram, emphatic state, or has been regarded as an accusative-ending. I A consonantal H h is quite out of the question in this ending. § 83. VERBAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 137 :.l)ove ill § 79, 1, as p''!^ just^ pl)i, Tlpl)^ righteousness, from pl^ to be just; D"! high, nO"l high place, U)1i2 height, from U)1 to be high ; or from another noun {Denomina- tives), as 7^1 foot, T\"Dirp place at the feet. The vei-bals are by far tlie most numerous class. Rem. 1. Many of the early grammarians, who admitted none bnt verbs as sfem-ivords, classed all nouns among the A'erbals, and divided them into, a) Formes nudes, i. e. such as have only the t/iree (or two) stem-letters, and b) Formes auctes, such as have received formative letters or syllables at the beginning or end, as nD7?pO, n"ID70. These formative letters are : 1, ^ n, 3, D, ts\ n, (rrip?Dsn)* According to the view of roofs and stems given in § 30, 1, the relation of the noun to the verb is, strictly speaking, somewhat different, since, according to it, many nouns are formed immediately from the (ideal) root. But we here retain the common view, as being easier for beginners. Comp. §79,1. 2. Of compound nouns, as appellatives, the number in Hebrew is very small, e. g. ^i?*?? properly worthlessness, basetiess. As proper names, they occur pretty frequently, e. g. 7^''1?5 man of God, D'p^in^ ?r//om God raises up, '^'^l\^\J} strength of Jehovah, "^2!?^^!?^ father of the king. Sect. 82. PRIMITIVE NOUNS. 1. The number of primitives is, strictly speaking, very small, the nouns which are in most languages primitive being here usually derived from verbal ideas; ('. g. most of the names of natural objects, as *l^y^ lie-goat (prop, shaggy, from y^^), rrn^b^ barley (prop, bearded, also from ^V^), HTpH storh (prop, pia, sc. avis), IHT gold (from '2T\\ = UTTi to be yelloiu). There are but few nouns, e. g. the names of members of the body, in men and beasts, for which no stem-verb can be found, as pp horn, [^S? eye. 2. The/orm of the primitives is that of the simplest verbals, as 7tpjp, 7pp, etc.; and it makes no difference, in the grammatical treatment, to which class the nouns are reckoned. E. g. S'liJ man, follows the analogy of the verbals No, 1 (§ 84), whether it comes from Cl"IX (/o he red) or not ; ^^ father, Qi? mother, have the same form as if derived from f^?^, ^P^, which is very improbable. Sect. 83. VERBAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 1 . In Hebrew, as in Greek and Latin, the verbal nouns are connected in form and signification with certain forms of the verb, viz., the Participles and Infini- * From this vox memorialis (§ '>, p. 14, Note \) the nomina aucta arc also called, by the old grammarians, nomina heemantica. 138 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. tives, which, even Avithout any change, are often employed as nouns; e. g. Hyi {to know ) = hiowledge, y'ii {hating) = enemy. Still oftener, however, are pre- dominantly employed for the verbal noun certain forms of the Infinitive and Participle, which are seldom or never found as such in the regular verb itself, thoug^h in use in the irregular verb and in other dialects; e. g. the participial form /pP, the Infinitives /^pP, ri76p (§ 45, 2), etc. Some, as the Arabic shows, are properly intensive forms of the Participle. 2. As to signification^ it follows from the nature of the case, that nouns which have the form of Infinitives regularly denote the action or state^ with other closely- related ideas (such as the place of the action), and are therefore mostly abstract; that participial nouns, on the contrary, denote, for the most part, the subject of the action, or of the state, and hence are concrete. It often happens, however, that a certain signification is found in single examples of derivative nouns, which is not characteristic of the form. Rem. 1. It need not, therefore, appear strange (for it is found m all languages) that a noun which in form is properly abstract, should be employed metaphorically as a concrete, and vice versa. So, in English, we say, his acquaintance, for those with tchoni he is acquainted ; the Godhead, for God himself ; in Heb. Vl^'^ acquaintance and «« acquaintance ; ^Orl simplicity and a simple one ; on the contrary, nxt2n that lohich sinneth for sin, which is a frequent use of the fein. concrete (§ 84, 5, G, 11). 2. For facilitating the general view, we treat first of the derivatives from the regular verb (§ 84) and then of those from the irregular (§ 85). Sect. 84. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB.* We distinguish here — I. Forms originally Participles, or participial Nouns, from Kal. 1. ?'^\>fe7n. "^/PP, the most simple form of this class and analogous to the two following (Nos. 2 and 3), but not in use as a Participle. It is most frequently employed as an adjective expressing qualify, as C)?n li'ise, tnn new, 1t^'^ upright. It occurs, however, also with an abstract sense (No. 12). 2. ^^p,Jem. i^/Pi?, Part, of verbs middle E (§ 50, 2), mostly serves for intransitive notions (§ 43) and for adjectives of quality ; e. g. Ji?.J old, old man ; t^'i?^ dry; \^'\ fat. 3. Vt^i^ and y\^> (with firm o), fern. ^J^P, next to Part, of verbs middle 0, and properly with intransitive sense; e. g. "^y, fearing, Pi'P small, ^'Pl fowler ; then frequently as an adjective, even when no Pret. with Choleyn is found, as 7113 great, p'^^']far, t^*^i5 holy. As a substantive alstr. 1133 honour, U)bu' 2)eace. From this is to be distinguished No. 21, with the doubling of the last radical. Under the regular verb we here include the verb with gutturals, §§ 63 — G5. § 84. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE REGULAR VERB. 139 4. Ppip, ?Pp, fern, nppp, np^p, the usual active participial of transitive verbs, e. g. ^.I^ enemy, P.^T' suckling ; hence of the instrument by which the action is performed, as tJ'nn a cutting histru- ment. A feminine with a collective signification is found in nniN caravan, properly the loandering, tvandering host. 5. 710i5 and P^tpi^, passive Participles of Kal, the latter (the usual Aramtean form) employed rather as a substantive, like the Greek verbals in tos ; e. g. "I•'1D^? imprisoned, n-1u'?D anointed, T'DS prisoner, ^V^ anointed one. Also in intransitive verbs with an active signification, as '^V.'i small, D-IVy strong. Some words of the form ?^Pi5 express the time of the action, as T'Vi' titne of cutting, harvest, t^'^H time of ploughing , like the Greek verbals in tos ; e. g. a/XT/ros, dporos, properly the being harvested, or ploughed. The feminines are apt to take the abstract signification (Synt. § 107, 3 b), e. g. nyitJ''' deliverance (the being delivered). 6. ^^p. (Arabic -"5t3n sinning), 335 thief; so of occupations and trades, e.g. nilD cook, C^nn (for ^'=\n)faber. Here again the feminine ('^Ipp or n^|p) often takes the abstract signification, as i^^^D female sinner and sinfulness, sin; ripp"^ burning fever, with a guttural riyip signet. Such intensive forms are also the three following : 7. ?"'PP and ^^^\l, of which forms are most adjectives in the Chaldee, as P''"^V righteous, "l''3N strong, tlSH compassionate. In Heb. from intrans. verbs alone. ■'<. '^i^p, as "lIB! censurer, 'y\yp drunken one, "I13| strong one, hero; seldom in a passive sense, as 11^^. born. 9. /"Pp indicates very great intensity, often excessive, so as to become a fault or a defect, e. g. I?! hunch-backed, nip bald-headed, DpX dumb, ^f!V blind, ni?? lame, ^"T^ deaf The abstr. signification is found in the^em., as ^1?)^ fiHy- II. Nouns after tlie manner of Infinitives of Kal. '^ 10. ?PP, 'PP, ?t3p, (with changeable vowels), are with No. 11 the simjDlest forms of this class, of which the latter is the predominant, and the first the unfrequent form in the verb as Infinitive (§ 45, 2). As nominal forms they are rare, e. g. "1?| man, 1^?? ornament, pHV laughter. Instead of these, the three kindred segholate forms — 11. ^n|, h^2, ^np, are far more frequent; e. g. '^^ , king (for "q^??, 11^0, § 27, Rem. 2 c), "iSp (for 1?P) book; K^'lp (for ^1P) sanctuary; these have the characteristic vowel in the first syllable, and the helping vowel Seghol (§ 28, 4) in the second. Instead of the Seghol, a Pathach is used with gutturals in the second or third place, as y]J seed, nVJ eternity, ?V^ loork. Examples of feminines, ^370 queen, i^^T. fear, "TITJ? help, "^^P^ wisdom. In masculines as well as feminines the abstract is the proper and prevailing signification, yet not unfrequently the concrete occurs, especially in the form ''^P, e. g. "^?0 king, "IVJ a youth, 1^3 brutish, T^y servant, 7J?2 lord, "IJv 'J^^"- In such forms the concrete sense is secondary and derived from the abstract, as in "ly? prop, brutishness, "IP^ prop, season of youth (comp. Eng. youth and a youth), or the form of the word is shortened from another with a concrete sense, as '=IF?, 1?^ from participial forms, meaning riding, serving.] But altogetlier the meaning of these forms is very * All these forms are found, mutatis mutandis, in the Arabic as Infinitives, or so-called nomina actionis. t Such an origin of ^?'0 may he proved from the Arabic ; and in some other nouns it is obvious. Comp. "ll^ as the name of a town, with "l"l,3 a n-all; and fjriS sliortened (in the constr. state) from f]ri3 shoidder. 140 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. — CHAP. II [. NOUN. various, e. g. even for the instrument, as ^"^i) sword, t^"!)n graving-tool, and passively QH^ bread. In the passive sense the form ?9P i^ niore common, as ^"^^ food ; this form ?^p is also more used in the abstract sphere, hence "ly? a youth, "ip youth. 12. ''t?!^, like No. 1, fem. "^/Pi?, both very often with the ahstr. sense: e. g. SV"! hunger, DlI'X guilt, V^^ satiety (besides their concretes 3^^ hungry, D?^?J, ^.7^); fem. '^5'7V righteousness, "^^i^? vengeance. Less frequent is tlie form ^'Pi?, as "'^K' strong dritik, ^}V grape. 13. ^9P, "^Pi?, ^'•t??, ^it^ip, ^"l^ip, all with an unchangeable vowel (§ 25) between the second and third radicals, and a Sh^va under the first, as 3n3 , hoo/c, ^^?^ pain, ^^^^ icay, Di?D dream, ?n^ dioelling ; sometimes \v\\\\ Aleph prosthetic, as J|TiTX=yny arm, n"i?X brood. The corresponding feminines will readily suggest themselves; the forms n?''Pip, H/i-IDp coincide with those of feminines in No. 5. 14. ''Pi?P, the Aramaean form of the infinitive, e. g. t^Sp'P judgment. Related forms are : "I'l^TP song, ipnp desire, nip?p booty, n3?pu kingdom, Kpip^ wages. Under this form, besides the action itself, is specially also expressed lhe place of the action, as 03^0 altar, "I3~|p (from 1?'^ to drive) place of driving, i. e. to ivhich cattle are driven, tcildcrness ; and the instrument, as n^DJ^D knife, S/TO fork, nnsp key. 15. P^tpip, l/t2P, and other similar forms, with the terminations P and \~. as P"IDI> interpretation, Ippt^ table, I3"lf? offering ; but there are also forms like P"13J remembrance, P^-JH prophetic vision. For p there is a truncated form 1, written also r1, w-hich occurs especially in proper names, as nip and P"^3P, ^'^^ for pb?lJ^ (comp. nAttrwv, Plato). In patronymic and gentilic nouns (§ 86, 5), the iVM?i is restored, e. g. '^P^^ from n?*^' the city Shilo (also still Shilun). 16. With the feminine-ending ril, e. g. T)'\?'DD folly, hMsp"] healing. In the Aramaean, this is a usual termination of the Infinitive in the derived conjugations (comp. No. 28). Its frequent use appears only in the later books. As a synonymous ending we find at times n^— in earlier use, as n^lX'w' remnant. Comp. the denominative nouns, § 86, 6. III. Parlicipials of derived Conjugations. 17. From Niph. 7p?3 , as riiJsS?)? {plur.) toonders. 18. 19. From Piel and Hiph., e. g. rillSTp snuffers, ^"^^'^ pruning -knife. 20. From Poel, as '^.V'ly and 'pj'iy child. 21. From Pilel yCi\>,fem. nppp, and 22. ''/Pi?, for the most part adjectives of colour, as D'^^?,y«?^. n?3-lX red, IJ^^T green, \\W gtciet.-^ 23. ''P/Pi?, ''i^/Pl?, forms of adjectives with a diminutive signification (§ 55, 3), as D"np"]X reddish, "IHinii' blackish ; hence in a contemptuous sense (like miser, misellus, Germ. Gesinde, Grsindel), as ^P?Pi? (with the passive form for ^IDX) collected rabble. \Y . Infinitives of the derived Conjugations. 24. From Niph. the form DvW?? struggles. 25. From Pi'el, like }*S3 dispersion, more frequently in the fem., as np'j?? request, with Qamets imchangeable in the second syllable. 26. ^Vi^ip, and 27. ^It^ipri, ?''Pi?ii), likewise Infinitives of Piel (the latter very common in Arabic), e. g. Dl'?'^ requital; P'i^n folding of the hands; ^-ID^ri benefit; "^''ipri mantle. * No. 21 may be regarded also as a mere modification of No. 3. § 85. NOUNS DERIVED FROM THE IRREGULAR VERB. 141 28. From Hiph. of the form '^'^^\^ remembrance-offering , niVD^n announciny (with firm Qamets), Aramaean Infinitives. 29. From HitJip. t^'n^inn register. 30. From Po'i'l, like ^J?'^'^^ folly , and perhaps also 31. as "litD^p smoke. PJ"'V pr>.S'^e»2s ly «-/u/ "iy. Participles: 1. "^X foreign; 2. "15 stranger, iTiy a female ivitness, testimony; 3. 310 yoorf, nSIO 7f.'Ac^ es yooflf. Infinitives: 11. Difierent segholate forms, as HID death, and H^S house; ^Ip tjo/ce, Vi^"^ spirit ; feminines, npiy and npiy etvY, rii^'3 shame; 14. ni3n,yem. nm:?p ri>s^, Dip?^ js/ace, also tOitJ'O or//- (from tJ-IB') ; 27. Hjnri intelligence, nn-iyn testimony ; 28. nmq res/. On the foniiution of feniiiiines without the Daghesh, see § 94, Rem. 2. 142 PART II. PARTS OF SrEECII. — CHAP. III. NOUN. V. From Stems rh ■ Participles: 2. ^^\ fair, nfji hard, fern. HS^, nC',T. Some lose the n-, as W sign, for Hiri. 4. ^^{'■^ seer, f em. H^iy burnt-offering. 5. ^-103 covering, ''J^^ pure, ''^V poor. Infinitives: 11. The segholates in different forms ; not often with the H— retained, as in nD2 « ivecping, T\Vr\ friend, ^ip, '^?"' vision,, revelation (Is. xxviii. 7, 15), commonly without it, as V!) (for nyi). Sometimes the original '' or ^ appears, which is then pronounced as a vowel, ^ or w (comp. on ^1*, § 75, Rem. 3), as in ''1^ fruit, vn siclcness. The 1 also quiesces, as in -inS loaste. In masculines, the third radical rarely remains a consonant, as in "'H. sickness, though in feminines it is always so, as in npK' rest, ^Vh garland. 13. Inp winter, ""n^, fcm. n*n^ a drinking ; fern. njJD ^^ar^, n'lVn the half H-inp' and n^n^ pit. 14. i^.^pP possession, n?<")0 appearance ; fern. i^JVP command. Apocopated form ^VO A^^rA^ for J^/yP. 15. i;^i? ivealth, \Vv2 destruction. 27. n7?n annihilation, n*::?n structure, n-iann Jroof/. 28. "^V'? /^-s/'He for ns^N, from n^K'. VI. From doubly anomalous Stems. We present only some cases of especial difficulty to the beginner : 1. From a verb |3 and ^, nb elevation for OXb, from ^'^'\, Job xli. 17. 2. From a verb ^Q and n?, n"1in instruction, laio, HSIJD 5?yn. prob. from nSJ. 3. From a verb Xy and 'rh , ny) tumidt. Num. xxiv. 1 7, from r\m for riSl|'. 4. From a verb ly and n^, 'i* zWa/jJ, from njX /o r/2t'eZ^ for "'1^< ; niX sign for flix, from HIN ; ^|5 corrf, from nji"? ; XFl chamber for W, from Hin /o die ell ; ''15 people, from ni3, Arab, to flow together ; n irrigating for ''l"), from HH. To the learner the stem is often obscured also by contraction, when it originally contains Nun, Daleth, or //e; e. g. n| u-ine-press for n33, n3?.3 (from |?3) ; ^IX anger for ^l^X ; T\t^^ faithfubiess for n?.l?S^ (from IPX), ny #me for nny (from nny) ; it for Vnr (from nnj) brightness. Sect. 8G. DENOMINATIVE NOUNS. 1. Such are all nouns which are formed immediately from another noun, whether the latter be primitive, or derived fi'om a verb, e. g. p^ll"? eastern^ imme- diately from D^jt) the east^ which is itself derived from the verb DID. 2. ^lost of the forms which nouns of this class assume have already been given, — the denominatives (which seem in general to be a later phenomenon of language than verbals) being formed in imitation of nouns derived from the verb. The verbal with tt prehxed, e. g. was employed to express the place of an action (§ 84, No. 14); accordingly this 12 was prefixed to a noun in order to make it a designation of place (see No. 3). Also in Greek and German (and so in English and Welsh), the verbals and denominatives are exactly analogous. The principal forms are the following: — I. In imitation of tlio Part. Kal (No. 4 of the Verbals), as "^W porter, from lyC' gate ; "liP.a herds- man, from "l|'^3 catih' ; D"?3 vine dresser, from D"J3 vineyard. § 87. THE PLURAL. 143 2. liike verbals of No. 6, riK^p archer, from T\f\>__ hoio ; nPD seaman, from vhh salt, sea. Both these forms (Nos. 1 and 2) indicate one's emjjloi/nient, trade, etc., like Greek nouns in tt;?, tcvs, e. g. TroXiTTy?, ypafjifxaTev^. 3. Nouns Avith JD prefixed, expressing the place of a thing (comp. No. 14 of the Verbals), e. g. ]'!)i^ place of foiut tains, from yV fountain ; TCO^'yO , niC'^nJp, place about the feet, — about the head, from ^-p., t^'5<"l; Hl^'PP for HX^pp ^^/r/ of cucumbers, from Xtf'i? cucumber. Comp. dfXTreXwv, from a//,7r€\os. 4. Concretes formed by the addition of p, ]—, as P'^"|i2 eastern, from Q"]P. ; pinx hinder, from "^D^ ; IOt^. «^'o? Israelite, from h^i^\. When the substantive is a compound, it is commonly resolved again into two words, e. g. ''?^'?!'I| Benjaminite, from PP^^^a (for the use of the article with such forms, see § 111, 1, Rem.). Rarely instead of V we have, o) the ending ^t (as in Aramaean), as y'3 deceiffid, and in proper names, as vp.? {ferreus) Barzillai; and, b) the corresponding H— , as '"1337 (prop, milky) white poplar. 6. Abstract nouns formed from concretes by the addition of ri-l and H''— (comp. the Eng. termina- tions dom, hood, ness, etc.); e. g. ri'1370 kingdo^n, immediately from "^?9 ! ril^Pr"^ widoivhood, from 19?^ 5 "^JP?^* loidoioer, loidoio ; nVX") principium, from K'^^l = t/'X"l ^^nnce/w. (See the Verbals No. 16.) Sect. 87. the plural. 1. The plural termination for the masculine gender is D''— e. g. DID /wr5^, plur. D"'p^D horses^ at times written defectively D— as in Gen. i. 21, D^''iiri. Nomis ending in *t take D\*— in the plural, as D''!'"l!lV Hebrews., from ''^^V (Ex. iii. 18), but usually a contraction takes place, as □'*"l5y (§ 93, VIII.), U")"^ crimson gar- ments from ""J^. Nouns in T\— lose this termination when they take the plural- ending, e. g. nth seer., plur. D^H. This ending ini is also prevalent in Phoenician, e. g. DH^ Sidonians, in Aramaean it is in, in Arabic un (nominative) and In (oblique cases) in iEthiopic an. Compare also the ending P in Zrd pers. pi. masc. of verbs.* Unusual terminations of the plur. masc. are : rt) \'t-i as in Chaldee and Syriac, almost exclusively in the later and poetical books, e. g. P3^P kings, Prov. xxxi. 3 ; PPJ days, Dan. xii. 13 ; defectively PX islands, Eze. xxvi. 18. Comp. Judges v. 10 ; Job XV. 13; xxiv. 22; xxxi. 10; Lam. i. 4; and other places. * On the connexion between all these endings, see Dietrich's Abhandlungen zur Heb. Grammatik, Leipzig, 1846, Bvc, p. 62. 144 PART II. PAKTS OF SPEECH. OHAl'. III. NOUN. b) 't (with D cast off, as in dual 'T for DJIJ, Eze. xiii. 18; comp. the cotistr. st. § 89, 2), e. g. *3P chords, Ps. xlv, 9, for D"'30 (if it is not to be written so) ; *?>y peojiles, 2 Sam. xxii. 44 (yet in the parallel passage, Ps. xviii. 44, we have DV, but the other form in Lam. iii. 14, and Ps. cxliv. 2). This ending is, however, doubted by some in these single passages (see also 2 Sam. xxiii. 8 ; comu. 1 Chron. xi. 11 ; 1 Sam. xx. 38 K^thibh) or in general, see Gesenius's Lehryebiiude der Hcb. Sprache, S. 524 ff. More doubtful still is — c) *T (like the constr. state in Syriac). Here are reckoned, e. g. ^I'n white cloths. Is. xix. 9 ; *1!^ for □n^' princes. Judges v. 15; '5i?n loindoivs, Jer. xxii. 14. Yet this last is perhaps dual (§ 88, Rem. 1) tivo icindows, *T^ may be inij princes (with suff.), and ''t in ^l^H may be a formative syllabic. Further ^Slt^Q, in Is. xx. 4, is constr. st., but the 't belongs to the stem in *?i3 locust-swarm, Nah iii. 17 (from n3|) : and in ^W (= '^^ after the form ^tsg) the Almighty; finally, in ^HS the Lord (prop, my lord, from Q'Plff lord) it is originally a suffix ; see § 121, Rem. 4. d) D~, obsolete and rare, e. g. D3?= D^?? Jiies, D/D ladder (from ?/D) (prop, steps), comp. our stairs.'--' 2. The plural termination for the feminine gender is HI. This takes the place of the feminine termination H— , H— , H— , when the noun in tlie singular ends with one of these; otherwise (§ 80, 2) it is merely appended to the form of the singular, as T]fr\r\ song of praise^ plur. T\\^T\T\-, n"]5X letter^ plur. Hl'ljli^ ; ^X^ a well, plur. m'nX!!. Feminines in fl^— form their plural in ni*— and those in HI, in m*— , e.g. n'''lVP a7i Egyptian woman, plur. JlV'^P ; H^i/t) kingdom, plur. T\Vy7l2. These plural terminations have, however, for their basis, the endings !!*— and H*— in the singular with double Yodh. It is only from a disregard of the origin of the terminations ni and H*— that some words ending with the same, form their plural by the addition of DV, e. g. ri"'3n spear, plur. D"'n"'3Q and riin'jri ; niST lohoredom, plur. Cni^T; D^n'l3^pX ividowhood, and many other instances. Strictly in the manner of the Syriac is the formation of the plural ri'l']^ [edh^-voth) laivs, with Vav as a consonant, from the singular r\\^V . This ending m {-6th) stands for -dth (as it sounds in Arab., ^i^th., and Chaldee, .see on the change of d to 6, in § 9, 10, 2), and -dth is properly only a longer and stronger form of the singular- ending dth (§ 80, 2). The strengthening is intended to denote the plural. But this ending is then by a further application appended also to such nouns as have not -dth in the singular. For the changes of vowels occasioned by the addition of the plural endings, see §§ 92—95. 3. Words which are of two genders (§ 80, 2, h, and § 107, 3) have often, in the plural, both the masculine and feminine terminations, e. g. ^3^ soul, plur. D''P*£J and niC^S^ : both forms may be employed as masculine and feminine, but their gender must be determined by observing the usage of the language in respect to each word. This is also true of several other words of both genders and both [masc. iiudfem.) terminations, e. g. ^V\ an age, masc. plur. DHT^ and miH ; H^^ a year,fem., plur. D^J^ and HIJK^. The gender of the singular is here retained in * See the adverbs in D7, § 100, 3. Dietrich loc. cit., p. GO. § 88. THE DUAL. 145 both tlie plural forms, e. g. ''IX masc.^ a lion^ ^''''l^ masc.^ Zeph. iii. 3, HIII^I masc.^ Job xlii. 16. Sometimes usage makes a distinction between the two plural forms of the same word. Thus, D^P) dai/s, and D^3^ years, are the usual, but rilDJ, JTIOEJ' the unfrequent and poetical forms. Tliis distinction appears especially in the use of several words which designate members of the human body. The dual of these Avords (see § 88) is employed as the name of the living members them- selves, while the plural in ni (which is here regarded as neuter) represents something similar, but inanimate ; e. g. D??l hands, mS? handles, manubria ; Q^^"^? horns, rnj'nip cornua altaris ; ^^T"^.. eyes, mj^J? fountains. 4. A considerable number of masculines form their plural in HI, while many feminines have a plural in D''t- The gender of the singular, however, remains the same in such case; e. g. ^iji father^ plur. m^^{; DtJ' name., masc, phcr. m^^; on the contrary, n?t2 word., fern.., plur. Cp^; £^^p3 concubine., fern.., plur. D''^^f3, etc. 5. It is chiefly only in adjectives and participles that we find the plural-endings regularly and constantly distinguished according to the gender, e. g. D^^ltD honi., ni!l1D honce ; Dvpp masc, T\y)'\d^ fern. So also in substantives of the same stem, when the difference depends on sex, as D''J!!l jilii., niJ2 jilice ; D^?/? '^(^g^s ; Hl^?^ regince. Rem. 1. In some few words, there is added to tlie plural form in n'l the other termination of the plural D^ (before the genitive *Tr, comp. § 89, 2), or that of the dual D)— ; e. g. HDS lieight, plur. riiD3, construct state ''nim ; ^-ISfJ' '•niL'•^^^a y^om the head of Saul, 1 Sam. xxvi. 12; HDin wall, plur. mDin {iuoenia), D^niOin double loall. This double designation of the plural appears also in th'e manner of connecting suffixes with the plural forms in ni (§91, 3). 2. Some nouns are used only in the plural, e. g. Q^CP men (in the ^thiopic, sing, met, man) ; and some of these have a singular sense (§ 108, 2), as D^33 yoce. Also when the actual plural of the latter is required, there is but the same way of expressing it ; hence, ^''^'f means also faces in Eze. i. 6. Sect. 88. THE DUAL. 1. As a modification of the plural, we have the dual., which however is used only in substantives (not in adjectives, verbs, and pronouns). It is indicated in both genders by the ending D^-^, appended to the singular, as DH^ both hands., D^DV two days ; but the feminine termination T\— always becomes in this case fl— as n3^ lip., D^^3i^' both lips., and the T\ of the termination T\~ remains, as riK^n^, dual D^n^n^ double fetters. The vowel-shortening in the noun upon the addition of the dual-ending is rather greater than in the plural, particularly in the segholate forms (§ 84, 11), as 11 146 PART 11. TARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. ^T\.foot, plur. D'Sjn, dual l^'^^^, yet n'h\:) is used as well as n];ip_ from [n^ horn. D^.^rt? from "'H? cheek. Rem. 1. Unusual forms of the dual, mostly occurring only in proper names, arc: a) 1!^ and contr. ]-, as HnM Gen. xxxvii. 17, and inM 2 Kings vi. 13 (/;r. name^ signifying iwo wells); b) D7 and D^T, as QJ''^, W3^ (;«•. names); UW iwo in the combination "ib'V ^W /""^^^'e; c) *T (with n cast off), ''ll Eze. xiii. 18, perhaps also ^5i^n {double toindoiv) Jer. xxii. 14 (but see § 87, 1, c). 2. Only seemingly dual are the words D''? loater, D^P^' heaven, Dvt^'n^. or ??;^'"l"l'. Jenmdem. The former two are plurals from the lost singulars '^, ""^tJ^ ; the latter is a lengthened form for the older d'pJ^IT,* comp. the shorter form Q.'pC' Ps. Ixxvi. 3, and tlic Chaldee D./p-IT. 2. The use of the dual in IlebreAV is confined, except in the numerals 2, 12, 200, etc. (§ 97), chiefly to sucli objects as are by nature or art in pairs^ as D)T both haiub, D^^TX both ears, D;3^ teeth (used of the two rows), D;7V; pair of shoes, C^^TXb 2)air of scales (Lat. bilances), or at least are thought of as forming a pair, as D^^V two (successive) days, biduum, Q^HJ^ two years (in succession), biennium, D^n^X two cubits. In the former case the dual is used also for an indefinite plural, or a plural defined by a number, as D^5J|) W six wings. Is. vi. 2 ; Eze. i. 6 ; 0:312-^3 all knees, Eze. vii, 17; DWV? cymbals, Ezr. iii. 10; D^n3^ two hooks, Eze. xl. 43. For additional stress the dual takes also the numeral two, Amos iii. 12; Judges xvi. 28. For more remarks on the use of the dual, see in § 87, Nos. 3, 5 (Rem.). It cannot be doubfed that the Hebrew, at an earlier period, made a more extensive and free use of the dual, and that the restrictions above specified belong to a later phase of its development. The ancient Arabic forms the dual in the noun, pronoun, and verb almost co-extensively with the Sanskrit or the Greek ; but the modern Arabic omits it almost entirely in verbs, pronouns, and adjectives. The Syriac has it only in a couple of words, but yet without living force, somewhat like the Roniiin forms amho, duo. In like manner, the dual is lost in the newer East-Indian tongues. On the German dual, see Grimm's Gramm. I. S. 814, 2 Ausg. Sect. 89. THE GENITIVE AND THE CONSTRUCT STATE. 1. The Hebrew has no longer the living use of case-endings,] but indicates the relations of case, either by no outward means, as that of the nominative and generally also of the accusative, or by prepositions (§ 117); but the genitive relation is indicated by a close connexion between two nouns. The noun, which serves as i;enitive to limit the other, remains unchanged, and is only uttered in * See Gesenii Thesaurus Ling. Uchrcem, p. 629. \ On some traces of obsolete case-endings, see § 90. § 89. THE GENITIVE AND THE CONSTRUCT STATE. 147 more close connexion witli the preceding nomen regens. In consequence of this connexion, the tone hastens on to the second (the genitive) of the two nouns,* and the first is therefore commonly shortened, by changes partly in the consonants, but chiefly in the vowels (when changeable), e. g. ^ll*^ word^ ^'^'TP^ ^?'^. word of God., literally word-God (where we reverse the order, as God's-icord., like fruit- tree)', 11 hand; "^^^H 1\ hand of the Idng ; D'*'!?'^ words, 0^11 ''l^l'l wo?yIs of the people. Thus in Hebrew,^ the noun which stands before a genitive suffers the change (when there is any) by which this relation is indicated, and in grammatical language it is said to be in the construct state, while a noun Avhich is not thus followed by a genitive is said to be in the absolute state. Such words are often connected by Maqqe^A (§ 16, 1). The insertion or omission of it, however, does not affect their relation to each other, and depends merely upon the accentuation. On the further use of the consfmct state, see the Syntax, §§ 114, 116. 2. The vowel ohnMgQ^ which many nouns exhibit in the construct state are taught in the Paradigms, §§ 92 — 95. This form of the noun has, moreover, peculiar terminations better fitted for union with the following noun. Thus: a) In place of the plural and dual terminations D**— and D^^-i it has, by throwing off the 7?2, simply *•— (comp. Rem.); e. g. D''p*lD horses, M^*]^ ""D^D horses of Pharaoh ; D)3''y eyes, t^"'^5^ "'^'•y eyes of the man. b) The feminine-ending T\~ is used, and it always takes the place of the usual termination ri— , as nS/D queen, X!3^ H^/^ queen of Sheba. When the same word has also the termination T\^, this form of it is adopted in the co?istr. st. (§ 80, 1, Rem. 1; § 95. 1). c) Nouns in H— from verbs iT7 (§ 85, V.) form their constr. st. in H— ;| but nouns in ^— chang-e this termination to ''— . Exs. riN*1, constr. Tii^l seer; - O •• V / ..7 "•n, constr. '•n life, and so also 5^!*il, constr. ^5''il valley. On the ending 1 and ^— in the constr. st., see § 90. Rem. Probably the □ at the end of a word was pronounced obscurely, lilce the Latin -m before a vowel, and hence might be wholly lost in jironunciation, just as the m, in the case alluded to, was slurred over in the language of common life and in poetry. (Quinct. Inst. Orat. IX. 4, § 40.) So also the corresponding n of the plural-ending in Arabic and Aramaean is slurred over, and that '* In accordance with the universal tendency of the tone, in the Hebrew language, to hasten towards the end of words (§ 29, 1). t What is here said of the Heb. mode of expressing the relation of the genitive, is applicable in almost every particular also to the Celtic. In Welsh, for instance, they express tco7-d of God by gair Duiv, i. e. loord-God, without any change in either noun. The close connexion in utterance is all that indicates the genitive case. — Tr. X This n— stands in the same relation to the broader vowel sound H— , as that in the Imp. Tv?^ does to H— of the Fut. rhy, see §75, Rem. 1. 11* 148 * PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. of the plural-ending l-l in the verh (§ 44, 1, and § 47, Rem. 4). After the rejection of the m, the final vowel i of the plural-ending was strengthened by a foregoing a {Gitna, in Sanskrit grammar), so that ai arose, which was then contracted to e (§ 7, 1, and § 9, 6). Instead of 'r, the SjTiac still has *t: in Hebrew, too, this form may be clearly traced in the suffixes to the plural noun (§ 91, 2). Of this the Old Testament, perhaps, furnishes an example in the form ri'.i' ^pibq Is. xx. 4 (accordir.g to some, also Judges v. 15). It is obvious that the "7 of the dual has come from ^t. Sect. 90. TRACES OF ANCIENT CASE-ENDINGS (PARAGOGIC LETTERS). n— local^ *•" and 1 ap2')ended to the construct state. 1. As the Arabic distinguishes three cases by terminations, so we find also in the Hebrew noun three endings, which correspond in sound to those of the Arabic, but have mostly lost their signification. These endings remain only as obscure traces of a fuller and more vital organic development than the language exhibits in tlie Old Testament, where it no longer ordinarily distinguishes the cases by terminations. The Arabic case-endings are : -u for the nominative, -i for the genitive, and -a for the accusative (corresponding to the three principal vowels). In modern Arabic, these endings have almost entirely disappeared ; and when they are now and then used, as by the Beduins, it is done without regularity, so that one is used for the other (Wallin, in Zeitschr. d. morgenl. Geselhch. Vol. V., 1851, p. 9). Already, in the inscriptions upon Sinai, the regular use is not adhered to (Beer, Studiu Asiaiica, III., 1840, p. xviii; Tuch, in Zeitschr. d. morgenl. Ges. Vol. III., p. 139) ; and even at present may be heard among the Arabs of the peninsula of Sinai, e. g. ammuk (thine uncle, 7iom.) used also for ammik {gen.) and ammak {ace). The ^thiopic, likewise, has preserved only the a-, which is, however, still used for the whole range of the accusative, and, moreover (the distinction of case being dropped), as a termination of the constr. st. for connecting it with a following genitive. '1. The accusative relation is still very obvious in the toneless- ending H— , which is appended to the substantive — a) Most generally to denote direction towards an object or motion to a place,* (answering to our -ivard)^ e. g. Hte^ towards the sea, westward, H^IS^ towards the north, northward, 'PTW^ to Assyria, 1^/5? to Bnhylon, ny")X to the earth, T\iy% into the house; riHTy to Gaza (from IlTy) Jud. xvi. 1 ; with the article, mnn to the mountain. T\T\'''^T\ into the house; n/HXn iuto the tent; after the TTT 't:-- ^ tAv: T ' plural, n^''"^b'3 to the Chaldeans, ri/^^ptTri towards the heavens ; even after the constr. state with a following genitive, ^DV nn''5 into Joseph's house, T\'^\T^p pb^"! towards the wilderness of Damascus, ^Ip'^ "^C^IIP (here with the tone, contrary to rule) towards the rising of the sun, eastward. See on this force of tlie accusative, § 118, 1. § 90. TRACES OF ANCIENT CASE-ENDINGS (PARAGOGIC LETTERS). 149 h) Sometimes in a weaker sense, as merely pointing to the place where* as npilj in Babylon Jer. xxix. 15, npSl in the dwelling Hab. iii. 11, also T\'!2>^ there Jer. xviii. 2 (usually thither), c) The proper sense of the ending H— is still more suppressed when a prepo- sition is prefixed to the word, as ^l7^{^7 to hades Ps. ix. 18, Tr7]2fy? upwards, nS^l^l i7i the south Jos. xv. 21, Tw'fl'Zfp from Babylon Jer. xxvii. 16, ripfiX iy unto Aphek Jos. xiii. 4. This termination H— has usually reference to place (hence called He local); yet it also, in rare cases, refers to ti7ne ; so, perhaps, HJ^y (with the tone on the last syllable) now, at this time (from Py), H^'^PJ S''^*P from year to year. Its use is peculiar in nT/H, prop, ad profanum! = absit! As accusative of the object (but bordering on the local sense) we may regard ^/llT H^'l^ and v^^^ "^^1^ Is. viii. 23; comp. Job xxxiv. 13. As this ending is properly unaccented, the vowels of the word, as the ahove examples show, undergo scarcely any change, except that the helping vowel of segholate forms becomes Sh®va ( § 93, 6), and also the Chireq in D^^t^. Moreover, the H— itself is in some cases shortened to '"I—, as ni3 to Nob, 1 Sam. xxi. 2 ; comp. Eze. xxv. 13. 3. Much less frequent, and almost exclusively poetical, is the use of the two other endings, which along with the accusative in H— are presumed to correspond to the Arabic terminations of case, ^— for the genitive, 1 (also ) in proper names) for the nominative. Yet the reference to case in these forms is quite lost, and they are to be regarded only as archaisms, which occur in poetry or in stately speech, and are besides found in many compound names handed down from early times. As in these names, so also elsewhere, these terminations stand only with a noun closely connected with another, viz., in the constr. state.f a) The ending *•— is not very unfrequent, and it usually has the tone, e. g. ]K'^ri ^'2]'}^ forsaking the flock Zech. xi. 17, H]p ''^^W dweller of the bush Deut. xxxiii. 16; appended to the feminine, HT? ""n^^^ stolen at night Gen. xxxi. 39 (in prose), tOS^^ 'mbf^ fidl of justice Is. i. 21, p^r^S^^ ^nW Sy after the manner of Melchizedek, Ps. ex. 4 ; very often when a preposition follows (comp. § 116, 1), as 0^151 ''HB'n mistress among the nations Lam. i. 1, '•'IDX * So likewise at times the accusative, § 118, 1. t In ancient combinations of words, endings are often retained which have disappeared elsewhere, or are but seldom employed ; e. g. the feminine-ending T\— with the noun in the genitive connexion (§ 89, 2, b) and with the verb in connexion with suffixes (§ 59, 1). In like manner, many peculiarities of the language are retained in proper names, and also by the poets. 150 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUX. j32*7 binding to the vine Gen. xlix. 11; comp. Is. xxii. IG ; 31icah vii. 14; Ps. cxiii. 5 — 9, and other passages : in like manner it is found with many particles which are strictly nouns in the constr. st., as ^n'7'1' .( = n^^») besides^ "^ (=|!?)/Vo/«, ^'il'?3 not^ and in compound names, as pT^'O^i^ (i. e. king of rio-hteousness), '75<^"p5 (man of God), ^5St*iin (grace of God), and many others : corap. the Punic name Hannibal^ i. e. /VTiJn (favour of Baal). 6) The ending 1 is of much rarer occurrence, in prose only in the Pentateucli, and that in solemn style. Gen. i. 24, "("IX in*n the beasts of the earth for T\\T] ]*"1X; the same is copied in Ps. 1. 10; Ixxix. 2; civ. 11, 20; Zeph. ii. 14; Is. Ivi. 9; other cases are "l>5 1^5 son of Beov Num. xxiv. 3, 15, and 1j)V5 D*fi fountain of water Ps. cxiv. 8. perhaps also /VV "- r? soul of the sluggard Prov. xiii. 4. The effect these endings have on the vowels may be seen from the examples given. The Pathach of the feminine ending H— becomes sometimes vocal Sh®va, sometimes Qamets. Rem. As these two terminations *t and i have wholly lost their significance, they can no longer pass for proper case-endings ; yet it is probable that once they as well as H— (^Xo. 2} were so used in the livino- language ; for we find that the ancient Arabic had exactly corresponding endings, and like the Hebrew (see above) lost them at a later period. This is the case also in other tongues. In Latin, for instance, we find a trace of the local case with the same ending as in Sanskrit (in names of towns, ruri, domi, etc.); in modem Persian the plural-endings an and hd are ancient terminations of case, which are no longer so used, — ^not to mention the Germanic languages and the lingua Romana. Even in cases where the ancient Arabic attached, with stronger sound, case- endings to the stem, as in ^3X, ^1S<, Xax (constr. st. of 2^ father), the modem uses all three forms without distinction of case. Hence also probably in the Hebrew constr. state *?><. '~>^, we have properly a genitive-ending, and in Chald. ^2^, in' Heb. ^no (nS'JMnO}, ^^'C' ^b^^^'C), «? v^X^J?;, a nominative-ending, so that ???*?? could more readily occur along with /"i^^^?, and 'pin}« with Sect. 91. THE NOUN WITH PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. In connecting the noun with pronominal suffixes, which in this case denote the genitive of the pronoun (§ 33, 2, b), we have, as in the verb (§ 57, etc.), two things to notice, viz., the form of the suffixes themselves and the change in the noun that receives them. Here we take up chiefly the first, as the second will be treated of under the inflexion of nouns in § 92. A general view of the suffixes is given also in Paradigm A. We exhibit the suffixes, first, as appended to the sino-ular, and then as appended to the plural and dual of the noun. 91. THE NOUN WITH TRONOMINAL SUFFIXES. 151 1. The suffixes appended to the singular are the following :- 1. com. m. 2. m. /■ Singular. 1 — "^, "^T" , in pause "^— T » T ' T V mij. thy. Ms. her. Plural. 1. C07n. 1i, !134- Dn, D- poet. 1D^ to, P^ It 6»wr. 2 T'"' if' your. their Rem. 1. There is less variety of forms here than when they are attached to the verb, and their use is as follows : — a) The forms without a union-vowel are joined to nouns which end with a vowel, as ''I^?^, •in''3K and V3K, n^nx -IJ^aX, D^^?^i;, I3^nJi5 Dnn^iJ, jn^lX. Yet it must be distinctly understood, that nouns ending in H— (see below, in No. 4) and H— (see letter h) do not come under this rule. h) The forms Avith a union-vowel (§ 58, 3, b) are joined to nouns ending with a consonant, which include the great mass. The union-vowel is usually a in the 3rd sing. \ , rt (contracted from •1'^~), fern. ^~, and Zxdiplur. Q7, 1^-r» \T ^^^ i"^ these cases e is rarely used (e. g. -irniN his light Job XXV. 3,) and almost exclusively with nouns in H— , where the termination either blends with the union- vowel, or is displaced by it, as •liTIK' his field, I^^^ her Ji eld, v'?"!^ ^'^'^ look; but "Hr, "''^-r-, are the customary forms, while '^~^, -13^ are of rare occurrence ; see Rem. 2. 2. Rare forms are — Sing. 2nd pers. ni. n3-i. in n333 thy hand, Ps. cxxxix. 5; fern. "i]''T Eze. v. 12, ''3-i- Ps. clii. 4, once HD— Nah. ii. 14 (several MSS. I^?", prob. H— ='— V — 3rd pers. rl, e. g. in the frequent "^^Jl?? Gen. ix. 21 ; xii. 8 ; xiii. 3 ; xxxv. 21 ; n'^i? 2 Kings xix. 23, for which we find Vifj? in Is. xxxvii. 24, nh-ID Gen. xlix. 11 (K«ri in-1D). » .... * Phir. 1st pers. -13-^-, as -I^O^"? Job xxii. 20, and so in Ruth iii. 2, Is. xlvii. 10. — 2nd pers. H:? Eze. xxiii. 48, 49. — 3rd pers. m. On-i. 2 Sam. xxiii. C for OH— (from which by contraction the usual form Q7). Fern. "^Ji^-r 1 Kings vii. 37, '^}^ Gen. xli. 21, n:-i- Ruth i. 19, else mostly in pause; also in is unfrequent (Is. iii. 17), usually I7. 2. In appending the suffixes to the plural masc. in U*— and the dual in D)— , these endings are changed for the construct-QntWwg (§ 89, 2) in ''— , which becomes blended with the suffixes : and hence we have these Suffixes of Plural (and Dual) Nouns: com. m. /• m. /• Singul s — V— poet. ar. r\' my. thy. his. her. Plural. com. W'-r ' 777. d?'t -/• 15'T 'm. DH'- ./• lO'T our. } poet. 1^^-f "1 ?/CiZf?'. ^A^zV. In most of these forms the ending of the plural construct^ *— , remains un- changed, as 'inrWD, OI"'p1D, D^il^P^D; in some it takes Seghol in place of Tsere^ as 152 PART II. TARTS OF SPEECH. — CIIAr. III. NOUN. ■^IPDID, ril^WD; in three forms, with very short suffixes, it takes Pathach (the original ending '-, § 89, Rem.), us VD1D from II'D^D, "Tj^p^lD from ^PD^D (comp. § 28, 4), ""p^D susdi from silsdi-i. Rem. 1. The Yodh, which distinguishes these suffixes, is occasionally omitted in most of the persons; e.g. "^I'^'^ for 'V'^Tl thy toays Ex. xxxiii. 13, '\>'^V^. for -liT-yn his friends Job xlii. 10. nnrp'? after their kiiids Gen. i. 21. This happens most commonly with the suff. 3rd pers. m. siny., where we very often find I7, which is, however, almost invariably changed in the K^ri to V7 ; e. g. Vyn his arroics Ps. Iviii. 8, K^ri vyn. 2. Unusual forms are : sitiy. 2nd pers./c?>i. Tr Eccles. x. 17, '•?!4- Ps. ciii. 3—5; 3rd pers. masc. ^ni' (quite a Chaldee form) Ps. cxvi. 12; 3rd /em. «n'±- Eze. xli. \b.—Flur.fem. n3D^- Eze. xiii. 20, 2nd pers. masc. n»nv Eze. xl. 16, fern, njn''— Eze. i. 11. 3. On iO^-^, see further in § 103, 2, in the Note. 3. It is clear and beyond doubt that the Yodh in these suffixes, in reality, belongs to the ending of the constr. st of the masculine plural. Yet this was so far lost sight of by those who spoke the language, that there arose the strange peculiarity (in a sense, inaccuracy) of appending these suffix-forms (already em- bracing the plural-ending ''—) to the feminine plural in HI, as ^J^'llD^D, Y^"?"^^^^' VniD^D, where in reality a double indication of the plural occurs.* N.B. This is the rule ; yet the bare suffix (as in No. 1) is sometimes appended to the ending ni, as ""nny Ps. cxxxii. 12, "^nia^ Deut. xxviii. 59. This is even the more prevalent mode in the Svdplur.; e. g. Oril^X their fathers, oftener than DH'^nhS ; so also DniOi^ their names, Dnn'n their generations. 4. We now subjoin, in illustration of the preceding statements, a Paradigm of the mascidine dindi feminine ; and choose for the purpose a word whose stem- vowel is unchangeable. Instead of the feminine-ending Jl— in the singular, the construct- ending T\— is employed, which retains its Pathach before Dp, p, but changes it to Qamets before the others, because it then comes to stand in an open syllable (§ 89, 2, b). * See a case analogous in § 87, 5, Kem. 1. Comp. the double feminine-ending in § 80, Rem. 2,/. § 92. VOWEL CHANGES IN THE NOUN. ' Masculine Noun. Feminine Noun. ' Singu lar. , i D!1D a horse. T a mare. 1 1 ' Suff. sing. 1. com. *p1D m/y horse. ^riD^iD • T my mare. r,nasc. Ijem. "?|D!1D thy horse. •JITOD thy mare. •^IP^D thy horse. "^nWD thy mare. fmasc. ' Xfem. ID^D his horse. inp^D his mare. T her horse. T T her mare. plur. 1 . com. lip^D our horse. ^inp^D our mare. fmasc. ' Xfem. D5D^D your horse. DpnwD your mare. pDID your horse. IJIIp^D your mare. fmasc. 'If em. T their horse. T T their mare. tP^D their horse. ]np^D their mare. Plural. D^pID horses. niWD mares. Suff. sing. 1 . com. ^WD my horses. *niD-iD my mares. fmasc. ' Xfem. YP^D thy horses. ^niD^D thy mares. ^:p1D thy horses. •Ti^niD^D thy mares. fmasc. 'Xfem. VD1D T V his horses, her horses. T his mares, her mares. plur. 1. com irpID our horses. li^niDiD our mares. fmasc. ' Xfem. Dp^p^D your horses. D^^niD^D your maizes. t?'P1C) your horses. p^niDiD your mares. fmasc. ' Xfem. Dn^pID their horses. DH^niDID their mares. tO'PIC) their horses. jn^niDiD their mares. Sect. 92. VOWEL CHANGES IN THE NOUN. 153 1. The vowel changes of nouns (to which is commonly given the name declen- sion)., are caused, a) by a noun following in the genitive, h) by pronominal suffixes, c) by the plural and dual terminations; to which is added, again, the effect of a 2:enitive following:, or suffix. 2. The tone, in all these cases, is moved forward more or less, or even thrown upon the following word. We here distinguish three cases, viz. — a) When the tone is moved forward only one place. This effect is produced by 154 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. most of the suffixes for singular nouns (V ; "^T", "^T ; "I, ^■^"t 5 ^~, "7"^ 5 5|J-|^; D— ^^-7), and by the pUiral and dual ternihiations, as 1^"^ word^ ^^?*^ my word^ plar. U'^y^/^ P|!l3, dual D^3^3 wings; y-, n^--; ^0^-, 1^^-, e. ^. ni'^, irnn^. " 7 T V ' ..7 ..7 o -T :' "T : Z') When the tone is moved forward two places^ as in the plural construct^ and when the grave suffixes are appended to the plural (D^V: ^C**")- ^^ ^^^^^ case both vowels, if mutable, are shortened to the utmost, e. g. D^H ^"^5"^ words of the people ; t^y^yi your words ; Dfl'*']!'^ their words. In Segholates, as they have the tone on the penultlma, there is here a difference. The suffix has not so great effect as the (heavier) plural- ending DV, ^"^ • the former leaves the chief vowel still under the first letter, as ''??'? ; but in the latter vocal Sh^va is substituted for it, but a Qamets is put under the second consonant, as t2''??P. Comp. § 93, 6. r) When the suffix is preceded by a semi-syllable with vocal Sh^va, which is the case with "^^ Di?, p, also DH, jn, p (for which we have more commonly D— , |— ). Of these the first is a light suffix, and regularly affects the vowels in just the same manner as ''— , *I, e. g. '^9'!!i ll'5'l' "It'I^^ '^^^^ others are grave suffixes, and have more effect in shortening the vowels, as DD^l*!, Eze. xiii. 17, etc., as is shown in the Paradigms. A similar effect is seen in tlie construct state of the singular number, as D^nbx "ll'H; H^^D "^VD (from ^VH). 3. The vowel changes in fem. nouns (§95) are not so considerabh?, the addition of the feminine-ending having already occasioned a shortening of the vowels (§ 94.) Most of the vowel changes, which form this internal inflexion of the noun, are based on the ])rin- ciples laid down in §§ 23 — 29. There are others, however, whicli are occasioned by the peculiar structure of certain forms of nouns exhibited in §§ 84, 85, 86. They are nearly all confined to tlie lust two syllables of the word, the third syllable from the end seldom having a mutable vowel (§27 at commencement). There is a striking difference between the vowel changes in the verb and the noun. In the verb the second of two changeable vowels mostly disappears (^Pi^, '^^PiPr^ ■"'''9i?t)' ^" ^^^^ noun the first ("1?"^, ni-i, nnn"^), comp. § 27, 3. Clianges of consonants are very few, and occur only in Paradigm IX. Sect. 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. Masculine nouns may be most conveniently arranged, with reference to their vowel changes, in nine classes, as in the Tables on the two following pages. See the necessary explanations in the pages which immediately follow these Tables We here only remark in general, — * Abuut ligld and grave suffixes, see Note on the two following pages. § 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 155 a) That all feminines without a distinctive termination (§ 107, 1, 3) are inflected like masculine nouns, except that in most cases they take the plural endino- T\)', e. g. ^IH sivord. Plur. ahsol. Hll'in, construct state Hl^'in, which is also the form before all the suffixes ; see § 95. h) That, in the plural, light suffixes are without exception attached to the absolute^ and grave suffixes to the construct state, as may be seen from the Paradio'm. Paradigms of Masculine Nouns. 1. II. III. IV. (No vowel changes.) a. 1 b. SiHff. ahsol. DID p>iy " i^P? IT T tT T (horse) (eternity) (overseer) (word) (\^'i^e) constr. Dip P^^y ^'i?? np^ Dpn light stiff. 'rpc ^pSiy 'n'p?5 1* T : ^ppn grave stiff.'^ D3?^P D5?^iV °31'p^ Dpnn^^ DpP^O Plur. ahsol. D^pID t * T 1 Dn^p$ !• T ; D^ppn constr. ^piD ^pSiy n;p£) np"! ^5pn light suff. ^D^D I- 1- T C n;pi? nil 1- T : ^9pn grave suff. DD^pIp D^^'piy Djn^p? DDnp^i ^7^?^ Dual ahsol. D:pv n'r\rhi2 D:np' D^SJp D:^^n (two days) • 1 - 1 T : V (pair of tougs) (two weeks) (wings) (tips) ' constr. '^}^ V. VI. a. b. c. a. b. C. Sing, ahsol. li?] ^p? 1" T |V IV n|p tr-f|p (old) (shoulder) (court) (king) (book) (sanctuary) constr. p t|n3 ^^n '^^5 npp trnp light suff. '?|1?! n^pi 'ph^ '"^sp fll^ grave suff. D^^ipj £ 35"}Vn Q5?^P Dpnpp Dp^^lP Plur. ahsol. D^JpT Dn>:n D^pSa DnSJD 1 * T '• !• t|t: cojistr. 1- 1" : nvn ^p^P nsp flp. light suff. '}^\ n^n ^?^? nsD 1- T ; 'rip grave suff'. pp\:?pT D:?nvn ^7^7'^ opnsp Da'K'-iiD Dual ahsol. ^'5T D^Sr. D'I??P D'JTO constr. (thighs) (feet) (doulJle) (loins) I" ; T * Grave suffixes are those which have always a strong accent or tone. Such are most suffixes of 2nd anrl Srd 156 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. Paradigms of Masculine Nouns. VI. {continued.) Sing, ahsol. constr. 1 d. (a youth) X3 e. (perpetuity) (work) g- niJb (death) h. nn •1- (olive) i. (fruit) light suff. 'X2 W ^Sys) ^ni^: '^'\ ''IS) grave i mff. D3"!W Dpnv^ np'pyg Dsni? 03^7. DDns Plur. ahsol. constr. 1" t: It 1" (gazelles) light suff. ns3 i-T : V^} 1- T : ^nib T'l grave i mff. Djny^ Dp^™ IV " t: It D3^ni^ DD^nn Dual ahsol. constr. (pair of sandals) 1- -:i- VII. VIII. (eyes) (cheek's) IX. Sing, ahsol. constr. ( a. (enemy) b. (name) a. (sea) 1- b. (mother) 1 C. (statute) TO (seer) light suff. '?>>* !• : r - '^^ 'm 'P grave suff. ^5?S>* °??^ DD^! D5^« °m dDT'n Plur. ahsol. !• : 1 nip;^^ ni^wS o'l^n D^n constr 'y^ ni^s:^ 1~ - 1 • 'm nh light suff. 1- : 1 'ni'b?^ V. 'rjm 'm 1- grave suff. r^yy^ DD^niD^ ^y^\ C33'ni»is* Q5*j?n Djnh Dual ahsol. constr (pair of scales) (nostrils) (teeth) Explanations. 1 . To Paradigm I. belong all nouns whose vowels are immutable. Of course there are no vowel changes in this Paradigm, and it is inserted only for comparison with the others. pers. plural, whether joined to the singular, as 03, p. QH, ]n, Imt not D— , '"^l^ --, or to the plural, as D^^^i i--?*"^ t^n^T, I'.'T, ^'ut not 'ID" ^. The other suffixes are called liirlU. § 93. PARADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 157 Exs. "I'V, Vip, m2^, ynr, (§25,1); D|^ for DX|^, -\i for "1^, (§ 25,2); 113|, p>"nv, P^D, n^n^D, (§ 25, 3) ; ^"3? for L'W? (§ 25, 4). Here belong the classes of verbal notins given in § 84, Nos. 6, 7, 8, 13, 26, 27. 2. To Parad. IT. belong nouns which have a changeable Qamets in their fin.'il syllable, and are either monosyllabic or have the preceding vowels immutable; e. ff. 1^ hand. ^313 star. ^Sltt wilderness. O T It ' t : • With the suffix Q? we have the regular shortening, as in D3p?iy, but "I^ becomes OIiT (for ^5"'.!), and D"n becomes DJOI; see § 27, Rem. 2, 3. There are some nouns which resemble, in form, the above examples, but which have an unchunyeable Qamets in their final syllable ; and hence they do not belong to this class, e. g. forms like !?^p., '?t?P, (§ 84, Nos. 6, 13), ^P, as Part, of verbs IJ?, etc. Derivatives from verbs n"? also commonly retain their Qamets, e. g. ^'^PP, idur. constr. ''^"^P'?. 3. Parad. III. embraces those nouns which have an immutable vowel in the final syllable, and a mutable Qamets or Tsere in the penultima as a pretonic vowel (§ 26, 3). Exs. Snj great, \r\^ lord, U^^ strong, p^X (plur. iD^^ltoX) faithfulness, piyi hunger, |1'^3T remembrance. The last two take in the constr. st. the forms jin^nandin^i. Here also are to be distinguished nouns which reyemble the above forms, but which have an immutable Qamets before the tone-syllable. Exs. flJ? for f'^y, I'-I'in for |*-"l"^n (see verbal nouns, § 84, No. 7); also t^'vt^, jilu)'- ^''^Yi'-, Ex. xiv. 7. Many fluctuate, as Vj^y^* loeeli ; see Lexicon. 4. Parad. lY. embraces nouns of two syllables with Qamets changeable in both. For the changes in these vowels, see § 92, 2. Nouns of this form are very nume- rous. The influence of a guttural, especially on the form of the iilur, constr., is seen in the second of the tAvo examples given in tlie Paradigm. Other examples are : ^HT gold, ^^T tail ; with a guttural, D^K guilt, i^'l hunger. In like manner are declined nouns of the less frequent form, v^p, e. g. ^^7 heart, 7D£J^ strong drink ; with a guttural, 'lySJ' hair, 1^15? grape. A few nouns of this class take a segholate form in the constr. st. singular ; e. g. 13.3 , constr. st. "1?.3 Deut. xxxi. 16 ; vW, constr. V^f also vY^ 2 Sam. xvi. 13 ; lyj?', constr. "W and ly'f ; once followed by Makkeph, "1?^ (for |?^) from J?^ ivhite Gen. xlix. 12; "Tjn, constr, llil and "l"1.n Dan. xi. 20; \fV,, constr. \fV, and 1^^ Ex. xix. 18 (comp. I?! and "l?| § 84, Nos. 10 and 11). Qamets is immutable in both syllables of t^nn for t^'S-jn, and K'-J? for ti't<'=)?, § 84, No. 6. 5. Parad. V. is properly a mere variation of the preceding one. The final Tsere is treated like final Qamets in Parad. IV. except that in the constr. st. Ijpj stands for IpT. Some nouns, however, take the segholate form (No. VI.) in the constr. st. ; e. g. P)n3 shoulder, constr. st. f|n| for ^jH?; "l"!^ wall, constr. st. ^"IJ for *in5; "^y^ thigh, constr. St. *^'1_''. for "^"IV In a few cases both fjrnis occur, as 122 heavy., constr. st. 122 Ex. iv. 10 iind "1113 \s. i. 4; 7*li? uncircumcised, constr. st. 7*11? and 71^. 158 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. Rare exceptions are forms like /^^ Ps. xxxv. 14, where Maqqeph follows. Examples of tlie first sort are: *1D^ P^, lyi^, y?'^, constr. si. Vy^. Some nouns of this form retain their Tsere in constr. st. plural; e. g. Wl plur. contitr. *.J5?') ; so also \b>f,, 'W^ (but also ^nob), ^■^5t;', ""^'sn. 6. To Parad. VI. belongs the large class of nouns denominated Segholate forms (§ 84, No. 11). Before suffixes, and in the constr. st. of the plural and dual, they resume their original monosyllabic form and primary vowel {a, z, o) under the first radical, as ^3/^, ''ISD, ''^IP- But the plur. absol. takes an a (in an open syllable, hence Qamets) immediately before the accented termination, while only a vocal Sh^va remains in the proper place of the stem-vowel (i. e. after the first radical), as '^hf2, plur. ^'^712. Comp. § 92, 2. These forms may be arranged in three classes, the first having A., the second /, the third (9, in the first syllable. The Paradigm exhibits, under a, 6, c, derivatives of the regular verb; under <:/, c,/, forms which have a guttural in the final syllable; under ^, A, derivatives from verbs ij) and ""J) ; and under z, a derivative from a verb n^. Comp. § 85, IV. No. 11, V. No. 11. REMARKS. 1. The form "v^ (for '^^P, § 27, Rem. 2, c) exhibits the original A, not only before suffixes, as in '3^0, but also in pause (§ 29, 4), e. g. D:}3, and before He local (§91, 1), as n>nx. In the Septuagint, also, the proper names like ''5^, 1^?.) are uniformly written with A in the first syllable, 'AfieX, 'la(jied. The w^ord Yl^, with the article, is invariably written I'l?'?; derivatives from verbs ly also take Qamets for their first vowel, as HIO. The original monosyllabic form is seen in the word i<;3 a valley. Many of these Segholates keep the Secjhol also in pause, e. g. Pl^.» '^■/B' ^"^'a-.-' also "V^A but generally^ appears, as in t^•Q3^, tJ^^K', 2"!![l, especially in connexion with gutturals. There are, however, nouns of this form which take i instead of a, either because the a is short- ened (§ 27, Rem. 3), or because they pass over to the form 1?P; e. g. "I^P. (in pause, "1?^t)» '")?i?. i » i, pi. constr. ^"]?i?; I^?? ""^P? ; P1V» ''PIV; "^.5?, ''1?? (by way of exception without Dagesh lene in 1, hence to be read hig'^cU, difi"ering from ^3/P); n^T, ^HIT. At times both forms occur, as "1./.% ^I^*! Hos. i. 2, and 'i?\ Is. Ivii. 4. Nouns of the form "W^, when their third stem-letter is a guttural, are pointed like HIT, y"]T, y?p; when the second stem-letter is a guttural, like ^^}, "li!^ (see Parad. d), seldom like Dp.?, without the influence of the guttural. It is to be observed, moreover, that in the hard combination (viz., when the second radical has quiescent Sh^va, and when the third radical in ^^12 would take Daghesh Icne, as in ^?r''?) simple Sh^va may be retained here also, as in 'pn? ; on the contrary, the forms corresponding to ""PpP are always pointed as ''19^^\ "".cT]^. 2. The form "I??, nV3 (5, e), Avhen its first letter is a guttural, takes Seghol in the plur. constr. and before suffixes in the singular; e. g. ?Jy., v?y., V^y . The monosyllabic form appears in ^^PH. With He local Tsere is retained, as ^P"]ir!, from C)"Ji?. . Examples of this form are : ^J.V', 11?., I'^H. 3. The form ^'Ip (c) sometimes, though not often, takes Qibbuts in the cases mentioned in the preceding number ; e. g. ?1^, i?"]3 Ps cl. 2. From 2C)p, though without a guttural, we have in § 93. PAEADIGMS OF MASCULINE NOUNS. 159 Hos. xiii. 14 ^^^I?^ similar to Q?f'i?3 pobPkhem. From ?ys (letter /) comes with sufF. also *^?y'S for i^ys (not from ^^3) Is. i. 31, and so also S-\^7\ Is. lii. 14 for iixn 1 Sam. xxviii.14, where the Qamets-cliatuph supported by Methegh is lengthened to a long vowel; comp. § 63, Rem. 4. In the plural absolute, only few nouns have the form with Chateph-qamets under the first radical as it is given in the Paradigm; e. g. t3''P'in, D'^'ISJ^, miTiS ; most take simple Sh'^va, as 0^(53 from .» .». ... ^ , "lp_3, D^nOl from noi, hence Dn'^D^OT with Qamets-cliatupli, but also ''??P from "^9° ; two have Qamets-chatuph, as Q"'P''!Ji?t {ko-dhd-shlm) hence also with light sufF. '*^^'?„, "W^P,^ ''"'^'li?. C^^it also ''^p'']l7."J^^ and with the art. regularly D''p''li5n with Chateph-qamets) , and D^^^^ {sho-rd-shlni), with light sufF. ^'f^f, k}'^!^!, from t^nt^' (see § 9, Rem. 2). The word ^n'K has, by a Syriacism, D^^nx for D'^HN; with light suff. 'b^^, Tl^'V^, ^')\^^ (see § 23, 4, Rem. 2); but with a prefix and the article it is pointed as DyHXH, in the constr. st., and with grave suffixes V|?fJ, D?''.?fl^. With He local the Choleni is retained, as npn'xn . 4. According to the same analogy, are inflected the kindred monosyllabic forms which have their vowel between their last two stem-letters (§ 84, No. 10); as Q?^, with st(ff. ^P^EJ*; Lifin. ?bjp, 7Di? ; nplp, ^IDC* (thus the Inf. usually without Dag. lene in third radical, not like "'?/'P). tt tt 5. Only derivatives from verbs IV and '^V change their form (by contracting the dipthongal aio and ay to 6 and e, § 24, 2, b) in the constr. si., as T)yo prop, mawth, contracted rilD. Before He local this contraction does not take place; e. g. '^p)^' "^Z:- (except in constr. st., as ^pi^ '^^"'2). On the contrary, the middle radical becomes sometimes a consonant in the j^Zj^r. ahs., as D'E^'^^1 from K^JJil , nij^^y from ry . This is the case even with such in which this radical has already become a vowel by contraction in the general form ; e. g.'\'\'^, jilur. ^"""y^f; l-l'^, Q^H; P'''^'> ^'P)f • 6. Of Segholates from verbs H? there are also properly three classes, distinguished by the A, E. and sounds (§ 84, V. 11); e. g. ^^5, ^n^, >^n ; in jmusc, n^^, ^nj?, ^Vn; tvlth suffixes, ^^X, ^:n^, \yn ; in the plur. and dual, C!"^^, 1^1!^?, D"'vn . In the plur., some nouns take ^< instead of "> on account of the preceding Qamcts (§ 24, 2, c); as "'?>*, plur. CJ^^V ; ''rif), j^lur. D-fr^np. 7. To Parad. YII. (which approxnnates itself to Paracl. II.) belong nouns which have mutable Tsere in their linal syllable, and are either monosyllabic, or have their preceding vowels immutable. It accordingly embraces all participles in Kal (of the form 7Dp, not 7tp|'p), and those in Piel and Hitlipael^ the form 7^p (§ 84, No. 9), and several others, e. g. /pD staff\ "lyi^ season, V^^^)^ frog., etc. The following deviations from the Paradigm are to be noted : a) Several nouns take Pathach in the constr. st. (as in Parad. V.); e. g. "tSpP, constr. st. 1?PP ; especially with gutturals, as D??P, constr. St. n3|?p. b) Before the suffixes which begin with a consonant occur such forms as C1??P.P, DDns'lD from riQID, or '^^?P? from XS3, or as '^U?'^. c) In words of one syllable, Tsere is retained in the plur. absol., as the Paradigm shows ; it is also retained in several words which are not monosyllabic, as ^'P^^, D'^Dpc. 8. Parad. VIII. embraces all nouns which double their final stem-letter when they receive any accession at the end. This doubling may be either the result of a contraction within the stem, or more of a euphonic character. The vowel pre- ceding the doubling is then sliort; and the syllable sharpened (according to § 27, 1). If the Avord is of more than one syllable, the vowel of the penultima conforms to the principles which regulate the vowel changes; e. g. /^J camel., 2)lu)'. D^'Pr*, t^I; 160 ]'AKT II. PAKTb 0¥ SPEECH. — CHAP. 111. KOUN. |S1J< wheel, plar. D^B3^^{ ; 7^17^ wheel, plur. D Vr* /^ • Nouns of almost every form are found amono; those which are inflected accordino; to this Paradio^m. Whether a noun belongs here cannot, therefore, be knoAvn from its form, though its etymology will generally decide. Etymology refers to this Paradigm the following classes of nouns; viz., a) All derivatives of verbs yy (§ 85, II.), as ?1, ID, '^Vi^ 1.30, etc., and primitives which follow the same analogy, as DJ, in, m. b) Contracted forms, like H^ (for f\^, § 19, 2), with stif. iSX, n? (for n^l), tvifh suff. ^n|, nv. (for ^"ny), /?/«/". D*ny or niriy. c) Denominatives, especially patronymic and geniilic forms in ^t, as C^P, D^IT'in^, though the forms On^i^), ^^1?? are at least equally common, d) Derivatives of the regular verb (§ 84) under the following forms: 10. l^T ; 14. "^^'D^, ''Pnp ; 15. IJJ^X, \:'^l, plur. D>|3^a; 21. ni«; 36. "pp"]?, wWi suff. iVp"!?, Db-in, plur. D'^'^plD." But there are also words of all these five forms which do not take Daghesh in the plural, and those which are here adduced are to be regarded rather as exceptions to the prevailing usage. They are pointed out in the Lexicon. Before suffixes having vocal Sh'va as union-vowel (like 'It, '^^t), the Daghesh may be omitted ; the same vowel is generally retained, however, except that in words of the form pn it is more commonly Qamets-chatuph. Pathach before the doubled letter is either retained, as y}, plur. D^?! ; or is shortened into Chireq, us HS , "•riQ . 9. Parad. IX. embraces derivatives from verbs li*!? (§ 85, V.) which terminate iu n— ; as T\^\ beautiful, HX^ seer, HX'!^ appearance. Only the changes which affect the final syllable T\— (which is treated as in verbs TO) are peculiar to this Paradigm, the vowel of the first syllable being treated according to tlie general rules. The original termination ^T for which H— is substituted (§ 24, 2, and § 75, 1, Hem.) is often restored, and affects the inflexion of the word. Thus, ivith suff. T'E'PP {sing., thy covering, which might also be expressed by ^ip?P) Is. xiv. 11, '^\3i5p tJty cattle Is. xxx. 23, '^]'^'P thy form Cant, ii. 14, on^Xnp, Dan. i. 15, Gen. xU. 21, Vb'I?0 his deed 1 Sam. xix. 4, ^Jpp my cattle Ex. xvii. 3, and so perhaps also "'^y my maker Job xxxv. 10. But forms also occur in which (as the Parad. shows) the n- falls away, as ^?PP Gen. xxx. 29, -in^pp Gen. xxxi. 18. In the plural D'^npp (from nnpp for 'DPP Part. Pual), Is. xxv. 6. Sect. 94. VOWEL CHANGES IN THE FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS. 1. The termination H— (§ 80, 2) appended to a masculine noun, affects the tone of the word, and consequently its vowels, in the same manner as the light suffixes beginning with a vowel (see § 92, 2, a). The following are examples of the formation of feminines in the several Paradigms : — Viirnd.J.ti)Ohorse,fem.mD. II. NTO,/m. HX^ID (?w(^o%. Ul. ^M^ rjrcrrf. fern. nSn^ IV. Dp;i, fem. n^j-JJ vengeance. Y. ]\^l old, fern. njpT. VI. 1|^/p, I § 95. PARADIGMS OF FEMININE NOUNS. 161 fern. ri37^ queen; ^iHp, fern. Hinp covert; I^iJ, fern. HTO delight; S^j^, fein. hS^^ food; ^y^, /^w. rril^i ?/6»?(?z^ woman; H^'V, /^w. HT^ game; '')h (not in use), IT'p garland. VII. 7Dp, /(??7z. nStpp. VIII. 11, /e?/?. nil vm^cA; ph, /em. nph /az(; ; 1^^ fern. T\1Jp measure. IX. n^p,/?/^. H^p (gnr/. 2. The vowel in the penultima is affected in the same manner when the femi • nine-ending n^ is employed,* e. g. ITl^y and H'lDy crown; IIH companion^ fern. rriin. The final vowel is also affected in several ways, so that the termination of the word is formed after the analogy of the Segholates : a) Qamets and Pathach are both changed to SegJiol^ e. g. DHIH seal., fern. Htonin. b) Tsere in some words is retained, in others is changed to Seghol^ e. g. ^J'^M, fern. r\^^'n_five ; ^l^,fem. n'l'li wall. c) Vowels which are long and immutable (1, 1, ''■7-) pass over into the cor- responding mutable, e. g. £1^11, fern. MK'il shame ; 1^^S^5<, fern. I^nSt^X nz^A^ M;a?cA (also H'llX^^X) : nni^ /«(/y (also H^lll), from 1^1|1. Hence there are three segholate forms for feminine nouns, r\~ (for H^ or n^), Htt-^, and ^7^, corresponding exactly to the forms of masculine nouns in Parad. VI. The same correspondence appears also in their inflexion in the singular. The termination H^^ (when the word ends with a guttural) always changes the preceding vowel to Pathach., e. g. VTif^^fem. Hyil^ acquaintance; P'^, fern, ny"! knowledge ; Hi (not in use), fem. riH^ rest. Rem. 1. A rare form, T^^r-r for ^Itt-t, lias already been noticed in § 74, Rem. 3. Another form, after the manner of the Arabic, viz., PI*]?' for riTP'', occurs in Gen. xvi. 11 ; Judges xiii. 5, 7 (like ^?p=";]7D). Since this form, in all the three places where it occurs, stands in connexion with the 2nd pers. ?,mg. fem. Preterite, it may perhaps be owing to a wish to copy after that Preterite form ; for, in connexion with the 3rd pers., we find the regular form Pl'i.T, Gen. xvii. 19 ; Is. vii. 14. 2. When masculines of Parad. VIII. receive the termination H-i, they necessarily omit the doubling of their final stem-letter; hence r\f^n_ and n-fDH; D^D"]^?, plur. Q^^"10nx, fcjn. ri»|pix:. So ^l and r\)\ from ^h> "STfrom n?")- Sect. 95. PARADIGMS OF FEMININE NOUNS. The inflexion [or declension] of these nouns is more simple than that of mascu- lines (§ 92, 5), the addition of the feminine-ending having already occasioned as I * This is contrary to the general rule (§ 27, 3), since the tone is not thrown forward. But as Htt-^ is merely a secondary form (§ 80, 2) derived from the original accented termination 0^, it is not strange that they should similarly affect the pointing of words to which they are appended. 12 162 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. much shortening of the vowels as can be admitted; e. g. from Parad. III. Hp^^; VII. TVW; YIII. nS"), (T^^, ri|T)n. ah these feminine forms belong to the single Parad. A. In the plural, no distinction is made between the light and the gi^ave suffixes, the former, as well as the latter, being appended to the construct state. These nouns have only three modes of inflexion, Parad. A (inserted merely for the sake of comparison) having no vowel changes. A general view of these inflexions is presented in the subjoined Table, which is followed by the necessary explanations. Paradigms of Feminine Nouns. A. B. a. b. < C. Sing, ubsol. npiD It t It •• ^p-f^? (IT T : (mare) (year) (sleep) (rigliteonfiness) constr np^D T\}f T\y^ 1- : HjpIV light suff. !• T 1 '* T : !• T : Tip-IV i'|t : • grave suff. IV : - 1 L3p)?;^ Dpp.:i^ Dpri|pn^ Plur. absol. niD^D 1 Tim 1 T Tim nijpn^f constr nipiD Tim Tim 1 : nijpiv light suff. *niDip 'Tim 'Tim '•nip-jv grave mff. Dp'nip^p ..Dn'rii??' urpTim on^nipiv Dual absol. I 2\T\^^ (lips)" • 1- T : (corners) constr. a '^W ^n«5 * Sing, absol. n^S^ b. npnn c. nam It : .T a. T\\)}y b. Tbh\ constr. (queeu) (reproach) (waste) 1" : T (sprout) T\0' (AuU) ^ Thf?\ light suff. ^nsSp T^l? 'T\T\'n 1 ■ T : T 'T\'py\] '^hhk grave suff. ogn^^^ ^jr^s'in ^?r^5iD Dpnjp;v ^^^h\ Plur. absol. nipSo nisin nii-in nijp;iv Tihh\ constr. nip'?^ nipin nip^n nijp;ii; Tib^i light suff. '^^^h^ 'nisnn 1 1- : T '^W< 1- : : \ grave suff. DH^nipSp cn^nip'in IV " 1 : T ^'D'^W'' IV - 1 : : s Dual absol. D_^np7. l~ T 1 . D^f^'pv? D^ri^n: constr. (sides) (double embroidery) (cymbal) (double fetter) § 95. PARADIGMS OF FEMININE NOUNS. 163 Explanations. 1. To Parad. B belong those feminines which have a changeable Qamets or Tsere before the feminine-ending H— ; e. g. H^p eiid, H^y counsel, i^P'7V righteous- ness, i^^y^i^ abomination. It accordingly embraces the feminine forms from the masculine nouns belonging to Parad. II., IV., V., and several belonging to Parad. IX. For the formation of the new syllable in words having Sh'va (§ 26, 4) before their mutable Qamets or Tser^e (which falls away by inflexion as in the Parad. np"!^), see § 28, 1. Compare nSrip corpse, nS^J, ^^h:l^', nSjy a wain, ^^^^. Many nouns of this form, however, take in the construct state, and before suffixes, the co-existing form in T\~ or T\^ (§ 89, 2, ^, § 94, 2); e. g. H^/P^ kingdom, constr. st. H^^O^, with suff. "'ri?:?^; '^'1^?J!> ornament, niX^ri; nns^p family, Tsnhm, 'P^w't^. Qamets is firm in all nouns like n^i'??, nns^X (§ 84, Nos. 25, 28), cunstr. st. rit^|^3, nn3|N. Tsere is also firm in most verbals of the form ^"13^?, n?!^ (§ 84, No. 13) ; but in others it is shortened, as in i^^^i^ (§ 84, No. 2). The character of the vowel, in each case, is given in the Lexicon. 2. To Parad. C belong feminines derived from the segholate forms (Parad. VI.). These two Paradigms are also analogous in their inflexion, the plural absolute in both taking Qamets under the second consonant of the original form; e. g. *^?0, d^dS^J; nsS^:, r\):hj:i; r\t:2:i, D^iy^^ iambs. Care must be taken not to confound with nouns of this class those feminines of the same form which are not derived from Segholates, particularly the derivatives from verbs H? of the form HJVP , ^^"1^, whose masculine form is '"i^.V?, ^^"IP. The first syllable of these nouns is immutable. 3. To Parad. D belong segholate nouns formed by the addition, of the feminine- ending n^ (§ 94, 2). These correspond, in the inflexion of the singular, to masculine Segholates (§ 93, Parad. VI.). To the examples in the Paradigm may be added, n'l^tp^ endosui^e, ^1^5^? letter, r^l^^p wages. Of the form "iSp, which is not frequent in this class of nouns, HK^S tooman, ivith suff. 'J!1^^5, is an example. The same inflexion, however, is exhibited by some words ending in ^t-t, viz., those in which this termination takes the place of H-i ; e. g. 0^.? (for ^1?.), ivith siff. "'^1? ; in like manner, r\^f, ""ripK^ (from the masc. nt^).— nyilO takes with suflixes the form ''JyiVliro. Many nouns of this class borrow their plural from the co-existing form in "^^i-^, n^;-7 (Parad. B)-, as n'lhl3 capital of a column, plur. m*ini5; ri^inp ploughshare, plur. T\M^^r\f2; nn^in correction, plur. mn^iri; Hlht^'^ Astarte, plur. r\T\'P\p'*) ; with suff. 'P\t'^, "^np'X, plur. U'm, abbreviated from D'P'JX, constr. 'm. * As these nouns, though primitives, follow the analogy of verbals (§ 82, 2), it is necessary, in order to under- stand their inflexions, that we should know to which class of irregular verbs they respectively conform. § 97. NUMERALS. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 165 n^3 house (probably a softened form from HiS (^^?), § 19, 5, Eem., from H^^ to build^ like Zofio^ from Se/zco), constr. st. H^S, plu7\ D^r)5 bot-tJm, perhaps for D^W3 from another sing. HS for D^b (like MS for M^l) which others read hdtttm. 15 50?2 (for nj5, from !li!l), constr. 5^. "t|, seldom "p, once ^^5 (§ 90, 3, a) Gen. xlix. 11, and IJlp (§ 90, 3, h) Num. xxiv. 3, 15 With suff. ^;!l, "fJ^S; plur. D^J^ (as if from [3 7 foi^ '^j??)i constr. st. ^J5. n!l daughter (for rij|, /e;?i. from |5, comp. § 19, 2), with suff. ^ri5 (for ^)^^3) ; yr^M?'. niD^ (like ClJ^l 5on5, from the sing. nj3), constr. st. ri1i!l. DH father-in-law.^ ivith suff. Y^?5 ^^^^ Hl^n mother-iii-laiv^ compare HNI brother., T D1* ^«?/, dual D^^1\ bnt77/?rr. D^p;, ^^^ (as if from DJ for H^;). V? vessel., plur. DvS (as if from 73, hSs). D!*^ ^?z/?'. water (comp. § 88, 1, Rem. 2), constr. st. *^ and also doubled ^^"'/^, with suff. ^yi^'i2. ^^y city., plur. CD'*'!!?, '•'ly (from iy, which is still found in proper names). rt3 mouth (for ^^^?, from n5J3 ;7re, Welsh pumpl, Lat. quinque [Gaelic cuig'] ; with VillX , Lat. qvatu or [Celtic ccatliar, also pedwar'] ; with n\lf (Aram. |nn), Sansk. dva, Lat. duo [Celt. J«?i, (fo], etc. But a close analysis makes these apparent coincidences again doubtful (but not in the judgment of Gesenius, Ewald, etc.), because there is a great probability, on the other side, that at least the numerals D;'::.'' (prop, folds), C'pn (prop, the five fingers) and ib'j; (prop, combination, multitude) are to be traced back to the pure Shemitic stems n:jy to bend, to fold, to change, to repeat, C'lOn to con- tract (comp. I'PP , |*S|5) and "ibj; to hind together (comp. "IpX , "lL"i5 , etc.) 166 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. III. NOUN. (§ 120). Only ^^^5 one {umis)^ fern. T\T\^ (ima^ see § 96), is construed as an adjective. Of the remaining numbers, each has different forms for the two genders, but usage employs the feminine form in connexion with masculine nouns, and vice versa. It is only in the dual form for iwo^ D)i^, few. D^ri^, that the gender of the numeral agrees with that of the object numbered. The numerals from 1 to 1 : — Masculine. Feminine. Absol. Const): Absol. Constr. 1. T V im nnx nnx 2. U^^ 'P DW* ^ri^ 3. n^'?^ n^Sy T y^^ 4. T T : - miisi V^^^ VTP^ 5. r\mr\ T * - : r\mr\ •• T ^PD 6. T • r\0 m m 7. T : npine^ y??' V^^ 8. • T : r\±^ r\p^ 9. T : nvm VP^ VP^ 10. H'ntry ni^y ^^i ^i The other Shcmitic languages exhibit the same peculiarity in respect to the genders. For the explanation of this phenomenon the following observations may perhaps suffice. These numerals, being originally abstract substantives, like dccas, trias, had both the masculine and feminine form. The feminine was the chief form, and hence became connected with words of the predominant masculine geiider ; and the other form without the feminine-ending was used with words of the feminine gender, f Usage made this a settled law in all the Shemitic languages. The exceptions are very rare; e. g. QV-l ^^^^-i Gen. vii. 13 (where the use of the feminine termination is mani- festly occasioned by the masculine /onu of the word QTp), Eze. vii. 2 ; Job i. 3 ; Jer. xxxvi. 23. 2. The numbers from 11 to 19 are expressed by adding to the units the numeral ten (in the form ib^y masc, "Tl^?? Z^"^-) written as separate words and without a conjunction. In such as are of the feminine gender (masculine in form), the units are in the construct state, which in this case indicates merely a * Shortened from Q^^l?£^' (according to others, it is for D^FlE^X with Ale ph prosthetic, § 19, 4), hence the Daghcsh lene in the Tav. t In the vulgar dialects of the Arabic, and in the iEthiopic, the feminine form of the numerals is used almost exclusively. This form appears in Hebrew also in tlie abstract use of the numerals (Gen. iv. 15). It may be added, that the feminine form is very frequently used for expressing the idea of phiralitj/. as in collectives; see § 107, ^, d. § 97. NUMERALS. CARDmAL NUMBERS. 167 close connexion, not the relation of the genitive (§ 116). These numerals have no construct state, and are always construed adverbially. In the first two of these numerals there are some deviations from analogy : the third shows the manner in which the rest are formed. Mi 2SC. Fern. ii.r^? ^ T T 12. \ 7^ 13. nb's? Trim D^ri^ rr\m ^hii^ Unusual forms are "l^'V ^^t^PD fifteen. Judges vili. 10 ; "IK^^ T\l)y^ eighteen. Judges xx. 25. Here the masculine too has the units in the const7\ state. 3. The tens from 30 to 90 are expressed by the plural forms of the correspond- ing units (so that the plural here always denotes ten times the singular) ; as D^^W 30, D^anX 40, n^mn 50, D^^*^ 60, D^V?^ 70, D^Jb^ 80, U'^m 90. Twenty is an exception, and is expressed by Q^'l^y, plur. of ^m teii.f They are of common ge^ider, and have no construct state. When units and tens are written together, the earlier writers commonly place the units first (e. g. two and twenty^ as in Arabic) ; but in the later writers the order is almost invariably reversed {twenty and two., as in Syriac). Exs. Num. iii. 39; xxvi. 14; 1 Chron. xii. 28; xviii. 5. The conjunction is always used. The remaining numerals are as follows : — • 100 nx^ fern, constr. HX^, plur, HIJ^D hundreds. 200 D:nK9 dual (for I2'mf2). 300 HM ^^7^, 400 m^^V VT}^, etc. 1000 ^7^, constr. SjSnI, plur. W^sh^ thousands. 2000 n'i% dual. 3000 D^sSx ng^^V, 4000 U'^hiji nv|>S, etc. * The etjonology of this word is obscure. R. Jona explains it by ni^'y '•ri^ *iy to twelve, as if close to tivelve, an expression lilie uncle viginti, but yet not so passable here. Besides, this explanation would properly apply only to the /em., whereas the masc. also has "ibj/ ^B^'IJ, where we should expect "iK'y ^JtJ'y for "I't^y ''^^ iy, or else must assume an inaccuracy. Others explain thus : sometliing ttiought of in addition to ten, from T\pV to think. t The plural forms Dnby, Q"]}!^, DWR, from the Segholates "vk, ^^^, ^^^^ take in the absolute state the shortened form, which, in other words of this clas^ appears first in the construct state. Analogy requires D^'lK'y, 168 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. IV. PARTICLES. rn^n, but in later books, T T : ' ' 10000 \ NISI (prop, multitude = myriad), pL niX3*1, (contracted niST) 20000 C^n^l'^l ducd. 30000 nixini ^S^, 400000 nixinn yanx, etc. Rem. 1. The dual form occurs in some of the units, with the effect of the English /oZf/: as Q'h^'^^ fourfold, 2 Sam. xii. 6; Q^ny^'^ sevenfold. Gen. iv. 15, 24; Ps. Ixxix. 12. The plural □nnX [comp. Welsli ychydig'] means some, some few, and also the same {iidem) ; niX'J( decads (not decern), Ex. xviii. 21, 25. 2. The suffixes to numerals are, as with nouns, prop, genitives, though we translate them as nominatives, as C?^*^?^' y^" three, prop, your triad. Sect. 98. NUMERALS. II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. The ordinal numbers from 2 to 10 are expressed by the corresponding cardinals with the termination ^— (§ 80, No. 5), besides which another ^— is also sometimes inserted in the final syllable. They are as follows : "^2^, ^^^W, ^V^in, ^trbn, and ^tJ'W, ^W, ''^^1^, '^^/!?'^, ^VT^, H^^P- The ordinal /rsif is expressed by pS^Xn for pt^^Xn, from ti'Xn AeafZ, beginning, with the termination |1 (§ 86, No. 4). The feminine forms have the termination H^— , rarely HJ— , and are employed also for the expression of numerical parts, as H'^'pn fifth part, nn^STy and Hn'b'y tenth part. The same meaning is found also in forms like ^^^V^ fifth part, y^"l and p^l fourth part. For the manner of expressing other relations of number, for which the Hebrew has no appropriate forms, see Syntax, § 120. CHAPTER IV. THE PARTICLES. Sect. 99. GENERAL VIEW. 1. The particles, in general, serve to modify the thought expressed by another word or words, and to exhibit more nearly the relations of words, or of sentences, to each other. They are for the most part borrowed or derived (§ 30, 4) from § 99. GENERAL VIEW. 169 ■nouns, a few from pronouns and verbs. The number of really primitive particles is very small. 2. The origm of those that are not primitive is twofold; 1) they are horrowed from other parts of speech ; i. e. certain forms of the verb, noun, or pronoun, are employed as particles, retaining more or less of their original signification, like the Lat. verum, causa, and the Eng. except, away; 2) they are derived from other parts of speech, either a) hj the addition of formative syllables, like D^V hy day, from UV (§ 100, 3), or most commonly ^) by abbreviation occasioned by frequent use. This abbreviation is effected in various ways; and many of the forms resulting from it are so obscure in respect to their origin that they have generally l^een regarded as primitives; e. g. '^^ only (prop, certainly, certe) for p^^. Compare in German, gen from gegen, Gegend ; seit from Seite ; iveil (orig. a particle of time) from We{le=o\iY while ; in English, since (old Eng. sithctice), till, contr. from to ivhile. Sucli words suffer still greater changes in the Greek and Latin languages, and in those derived from the Latin ; e. g. ciTro, «J, a ; i$, ex, e ; ad, Fr. d ; aut, Fr. ou, Ital. o ; super, Ital. su.'^" In some instances the particle has been so much abbreviated, that it has lost its character as an independent word, and has been reduced to a single letter prefixed to the following word, as is the case with the preformatives of the Future (§ 47, 1, 2) ; e. g. the prefix h from h^ (§ 102). That this reduction of a whole word to a single letter has actually taken place, and is to be regarded as a part of the process in the formation of the language, is evident from the fact, that in the subsequent stages of this process, as exhibited in the later Hebrew, the Aramsean, and all the Shemitic dialects, such abbreviations become more and more striking and frequent. Thus, for "1^^?, so early as the period of the later Biblical Hebrew, -f and even f had come into use, and in Rabbinic authors the full form "I'y'N' very seldom occurs ; the '''=! of the Biblical Chaldee at a later period became "^ ; in modern Arabic we have hallaq (now) from hulwaqt, lesh (why ?) from U-ayyi-sheiin, and many more. This view derives confirmation from the analogy of the Western languages. Yet the use of the simplest particles belongs to the earliest epochs of the Hebrew language, or at least to the earliest documents in our possession. It is not strange that the derivation of these particles, which often differ widely from the original form, should sometimes be obscure. This is the case, however, Avith only few of them ; and it is but just to infer, that even in these some change has been effected analogous to that which may be readily traced in others. 3. Particles are also formed, but less frequently, by composition; as Wp * Even short phrases are contracted into one word, e. g. German zwar from es ist wahr (il est vmi), Lat. forsitan from/ors 5/7 an, Fr. peut-etre. In the Chinese, most of the particles are verbs or nouns ; e. g. iii, to give, employed as a sign of the dative; t, to make use of, hence /o;-,- nei, the interior, hence in. 170 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. IV. PARTICLES. whereforef for yn*"n^ how taught? i. e. qua rations ductus? coinp. ri [xaOwv; ^"lySs besides^ from 721 and ^li?; Th^ia^Jl from, above, from p, 7, nSy^. More frequent is the combination of two words without contraction; as |? ^T!!!!^, '''? ^^, D'!? ""^i Sect. 100. ADVERBS. 1. Primitive adverbs are those of negation Nv not=ov, ovk, 7X = /a^', px ^Aere [is] not, and some few others of place and time, as DK^ there, Ti^ ^/jew. These adverbs may at least, for grammatical purposes, be regarded as primitive, even if it be possible to trace them to other roots, particularly pronominal roots. 2. Examples of other parts of speech, Avhich, without any change of form, are used adverbially, are — a) Substantives with prepositions; e. g. "lj^t5!3 (^ivith might), very, greatly; ^^7 alone (prop, in separateness), with suff. HI"? / alone (prop, in my separateness) ; T\\%'I2 within; 111X3 {as one), together. h) Substantives in the accusative (the casus adverbialis of the Shemites, § 118), comp. T^v apxnv, as 1X^ {might), very, greatly ; DSNt {cessation), no more; D1*n {this day), to-day; ^T\\ {union), together. Many of these substantives very seldom exhibit their original signification as nouns, e. g. 3^3D {circuit), around ; others have wholly lost it, as 113 {length), long ago; "Tiy {repetition), again, farther, longer. c) Adjectives, especially in the feminine (which answers to the neuter), as |3 rede, ita (prop, rectum), H^I^Xl {primum) at first, formerly, n31 and nil much, enough, mi), with; nnri (under part*), tmder, in place of. * In these examples, the signification of the noun is put in parentheses, and marked with an asterisk when it is still in use. On a similar feature in other languages, see W. Von Humboldt nber die Kaunsprache, Bd. III., p. 621. 172 PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. CHAP. IV. PARTICLES. h) Substantives in the construct state imth jv^efix prepositions (spec, the insepar- able); as ""ilSS {in face of), before; ''^3, '•S? {in accordance with the mouth, i.e. the command*), according to; //J!! {in consideration), on account of, [y^y {for the purpose), on account of. 2. Substantives used adverbially very readily take, in this manner, the con- struction of prepositions ; e. g. V^3, f^?, ^^^? {in the want of), without; *115^5 {in the continuing of), during ; '''l^, ^.^ {for the sufficiency of), for, according to proportion. Sect. 102. PREFIX PREPOSITIONS. 1. Of the prepositions given in the preceding section, p is frequently written as a prefix, yet without wholly losing its Nun, which is represented by a Daghesh forte in the following letter, as *iy*^ from a forest. On the Avays of using |P, the following particulars should be noticed. Generally it stands entire and ajmrt only before the article, as }*T!5 » 1. ""^Dp, poet, ''^p, in p. '^1)2 from me. ^3^P /ro??i ms. fy/i. "TT^!:, in pause "^^^1 . , ^r''^'] . 2-{/-. "Ijisp '■•• |/rom^A^e. ^>^p] from you. rm. mtp^ poet. in^6, in p. mifrom him. ^0^? ^^^^, poet. Dri^p,l/rom * It can only be accidental that p? does not occur in the O. T. t It has frequently been maintained, that the forni "id^ stands also for the sing. \h, for which various explana- tions have been given. An analogy might certainly be found in the njpbpri used for /bjpjjl (§ 47, Rem. 3). But it is, in fact, so used only with reference to collectives; see Gen. ix. 26 (in reference to Shem = the Shemites), Ps. xxviii. 8, Ixxiii. 10 (in reference to the people). Is. xliv. 15 (in reference to /p3, 7X, which the LXX have rendered deoi), liii. 8 (in reference to the foregoing "iin his generation., i. e. He and his like).. The same is true of IDvi? for DH vj? ; see Job xx. 23 (in reference to the ungodly man who, in the whole repre- sentation, vs. 5 — 20, is a collective, which obviously begins v. 5 with the plural D^yK'")) and xxvii. 23 (comp. at the beginning of the representation, v. 13, D''V^"iy). More striking is S'OyV Job xxii. 2, in reference to "13.3 man (human being). Yet this, too, is doubtless collective. [It is proper to remark, that the use of ID? for the sing, w is still maintained by Ewald in his latest work, Ausfiihrliches Lehrbuch der Ileh. Sprachc, 5te. Ausgabe, 1844. The same is maintained by other eminent scholars. — Tr.] J Not |n?, which signifies therefore. § Tiie use of ^3 for *— here is simply for the sake of euphony. § 104. CONJUNCTIONS. 175 The syllable 113 in ^J103 (in Aiabio i^f^ = HD tohat, prop, according to ivhat 'I, for as I) is in poetry appended to the pure prefixes ?, ?, ?, even without suffixes, so that iJ33, i^3, ID? appear again as independent words. In this case, poetry distinguishes itself from prose by the longer forms : in the case of IP it has adopted the shorter ones, resembling those of the Syriac. The preposition \Q with suff. makes •13^'? from him, which comes from -in'^DD (according to § 19, 2, Rem.), and is identical in form with •'I3DP from us, which comes from -li'^'Sp. The Pales- tinian grammarians wanted to distinguish the last by writing it -13©!?, but Aben Esra, with justice, objected. The form HSfflp always stands without Mcqjpiq, and comes from H"?©??. 8. Several of these prepositions, especially those which express relations of space and time, are properly plural nouns, like the Germ, wegen (for the ground of this, see § 108, 2, a).* They occur (some of them exclusively, while others have also the singular) in the plural construct state, or in connexion with those forms of the suffixes which belong to plural nouns (§ 91, 2). These are — *^^^t, more frequently ^HX (prop, hinder parts) ^ behind^ with suff. always HD^ behind me, Y*?5^^ behind thee, 1^0^ i j^p^'irii^, etc. /X, poet, also vNI (regions, directions), towards, to, with suff. always w^ to me, vSx, Dp^Sx, DH^SiS;, for which latter also poet. 'Myhi^. pS [interval of space), between, with suff. ''T^, '^T'^, but also Y-**^? ^5'*.'?'*5, ^my^, nnm (from n'T^, nm, intervals). \^ from, out of , seldom ''i?^ {plur. constr. st.). Is. xxx. 11. l'!^{ progress, duration, from n*iy) as far as, unto, plur. Hy (only poet.), but with suff. also in prose always ny, '^ny, V"Ty, Dpny (even the last with Qamets). 7^ upon, over, constr. st. of 7^ that which is above (from H^y to go up), plur. vS? (only poet.) but with suff. also in prose always vV, y7'^-> "^ t V? ^?v^5 fo^ which *fDvy is also used in poetry. nni? under (prop, that which is beneath), with suff. in plural ^J^lH^, VJjinri, but also in the singular DJ^HJ^. Sect. 104. CONJUNCTIONS. 1. Conjunctions serve to connect words and sentences, and to express their relation to each other. Most of them come originally from other parts of speech, viz. — * Some of these words, which came from stems n?, viz., "7^ , vl? , ^^y , may certainly be traced back to singular forms like vX , '•py , n^; but the analogy of the others makes it more probable that these also should be regarded as plurals. Comp. the plural forms \:3 from 13 ; ''^"1., '^'']}'}_, etc., from ]}X 176 I'ART II. TARTS OF SPEECH. CIIAl'. IV. PARTICLES. a) Pronouns, as ^^X and ""S that, because, for, the first being the common relative pronoun, and the last also having come from a pronominal stem (§ 36). />) Adverbs, as h^ {not), that not, U^ {num?), if. Also adverbs with prepositions ; e.g. D']^^ {in the not yet), before that; or with a conjunction added, as "'2 f)X there is added that = much more or much less. c) Prepositions which are fitted by the addition of the conjunctions ^^^{ and ^3 to show the connexion between prepositions ; e. g. liJ'X jy^ because (from [V) on account of), prop, on this account, that, ^^^ inj^ after that, 1^^t3 according as, ""^ Ipy and ^tJ^X l|!5y {in consequence that), because. The preposition may still be employed in this manner, even when the conjunction is omitted ; e. g. Sy (for ^m S^_) because, [3"Sy (for "iK'i^- p'Sy) on this account that, because. In like manner, all prepositions before the Infinitive may be rendered as conjunctions (§ 132, 2). 2. Even those words whicli are no longer in use except as conjunctions, seem to have belonged originally to other parts of speech, particularly nouns, and they generally betray their affinity with verbal roots, as 1J^ (prop, desire, choice, from niij to desire, comp. Prov. xxxi. 4) or, like vel, ve, kindred with velle ; ]^ {a turning away) that not. Even the only prefix conjunction ) and must perhaps acknowledge relationship with I} a fastening, a nail. The pointing of the conjunction ] is in many respects analogous to that of the prefixes ?, r, ? (§ 102, 2), but as a feeble letter it has some peculiarities. «) Usually it has simple Syva (]). h) Before words whose first consonant has simple Sh^va (excepting the cases under c), Vav becomes the vo>vel zi, as -'^p-'l (see § 26, 1, Rem). It is also sounded thus (yet with the exception of the case under r/) before its cognate letters, the labials 3, "^ , 3; as '%^'^ and even before a Chateph (under letters not guttural), as ^D].'' Gen. ii. 12. 6') Before \ the Vav takes Chireq, as in 'H^l (for 'H^.l. , according to § 24, 1, a); and before H and n it is sometimes pointed with Chircq or Seghol, as On^^i^) Jos. viii. 4, and H^n] Gen. xx. 7 (comp. § 63, Rem. 5). d) Immediately before the tone-syllable, it often takes Qainets, like 3, |, )*, e. g. V~]) I's. x. 15, and with the same limitation (§.102, 2, c), especially when words are connected in pairs, as •li^^J -inn Gen. i. 2, n^^^l Dr viii. 22, yet chiefly only at the end of a small clause, hence 02^.1 Dn? D.::' Gen. vii. 13, "5)^^.) CD''^ 1 Kings xxi. 10. It is otherwise when the word stands in close connection with the following, e. g. 1^3 1p.) t^''^') ^^'''N Ps. Ixxxvii. 5 ; and hence especially with monosyllabic words, the nature of which is to lean upon the following, as constantly HTI , nSI, X7), D31 and others. Sect. 105. INTERJECTIONS. 1. Among the interjections are several primitive words Avhich are merely natural sounds expressed in writing, as nnx, HX ah! ''IH, '•IX u-o I HXn ho! aha! § 105. INTERJECTIONS. 177 2. Most of them, however, were borrowed from other parts of speech, whicli, by use in anhnatecl discourse, gradually acquired the character of interjections, as |n or n^n helwld! (prop, here); H^iri, plur. ^^H (prop, give^ Imp. from ^nHJ) for age, agite ; nsS, ^^S (prop, go), the same;* nS^H far he it! prop, ad prof ana ! ^^ (perhaps for *y5 entreaty) I beseech, hear me; KJ now, I pray (in iEthiop. an Imp. well now ! come), a particle of incitement and entreaty (which is put after the expression it belongs to).f * nsn and n37 stand connected, in this form, also with the feminine and with the plural, which shows that they have quite assumed the nature of interjections. t The particle XJ serves to express the most various turns of discourse, which are exhibited in different parts of the Syntax. A short statement must here suffice, N3 stands, a) after the Imp. in commanding as well as in entreating (§ 130, 1, Rem.) ; b) after the Fut. in the first as well as in the third person (§ 127, 3, h, and § 128, 1) ; c) once after the Pi-et. (§ 126, 4, in Note); d) after various particles, as X3 n.3n behold now, particularly with conjunctions, W 7S ne (quaeso) and X^'DX if now, emoTe, i/with a courteous or modest restriction. In courteous discourse these particles are very freely employed. Gen. xviii. 3 ; xix. 7, 8, 19 ; 1. 17. \ 13 PART THIRD. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. Sect. 106. RELATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE TO THE ADJECTIVE,— OF THE ABSTRACT TO THE CONCRETE. In the Hebrew language, there is a want of adjectives in proportion to the sub- stantives, and some classes of adjectives (e.g. those oi material) are almost entirely wanting.* This deficiency is supplied by substantives, and especially in the fol- lowing ways : — 1. The substantive employed to express some quality in another is placed after it in the genitive. This is constantly the case in designating the material, e. g. P]p5 'h'2 vessels of silvers silver vessels; |'y tT^^s ark of wood = wooden ark, like des vases d'or ; in like manner 0715? r\\r\^ an eternal possession Gen. xvii, 8, 13pp '^Tp men of number = few men Gen. xxxiv. 30, p \'y^ a precious stone Prov. xvii. 8. This construction was employed even in cases where the language supplied an adjective, e. g. CJ^npri "•'1^3 tlie holy garments, Ex. xxix. 29. Comp. un liomme de hien. Rem. 1. Less frequently the substantive which expresses a quality in another is followed by it in the genitive, as X\l'^V, ""D?^ the choice of thy vallei/s, i. e. thy choice valleys, Is. xxii. 7, comp. xvii. 4 ; xxxvii. 24 ; Gen. xxiii. 6 ; Ex. xv. 4. With the substantive '3 totality for all ; this is the usual construction (see § 111, 1, Rem.). 2. Instead of an adjective which is to stand as the predicate of a sentence, the substantive is sometimes emploj'ed ; e. g. Gen. i. 2, the earth was desolation and emptiness ; Job iii. 4, let this day be darkness, Ps. xxxv. 6, Ixxxviii. 19, ex. 3, Is. v. 12, Job xxiii. 2, xxvi. 13. More seldom the substantive takes a preposition ; as in Ps. xxix. 4, the voice of Jehovah is n33 /;; poiver for poicerful. * A few adjectives of this kind, in the form of passive participles, are T-HS of cedar, C'-inj of brass, com'p. cuneatns (wedge-like). § 107. USE OF THE GENDEUy. 179 2. In Hebrew, many of our adjectives denoting a property, attribute, or habit, are expressed by circumlocution, viz., by an abstract noun or name of a thing, which designates the attribute, preceded by some general name of a person as the subject of the attribute. The subject is expressed by several words, viz.- a) by ^''^ man, e. g. Q*"]^'^ t^"'X an eloquent man, Ex. iv. 10; ny"n L''''5< an intdl'ujod man, Prov. xxiv. 5. b) by ?y? master, e. g. IV"??* ^y2 hairi/, 2 Kings i. 8; n'ir3Pr]n hv^, the dreamer. Gen. xxxA'ii. 19. c) by 1? son and ri2 daughter, e. g. ^ID"]!! a valiant man, 1 Kings i. 52; D^i!?"!? an oriental. Gen. xxix. 1 ; T\'l^'\2 one year old, Ex. xii. 5 ; niD"}2 doomed to death, 1 Sam. xx. 31 ; 7y*73 n3 a worthless ivoman, 1 Sam. i. 16. A bolder construction, and merely poetic, is the use of tlie abstract in place of the concrete, as 7yy2 ivorthlessness for ivorthless, like scelus for scelestissimus ; and at the same time for the plural, as nK'p how for bowmen. Is. xxi. 1 7. So far as this is a common characteristic of language, see § 83, Rem. 1. Rem. That, on the contrary, forms of adjectives and concretes often take the abstract signification, especially in the feminine, has been shown in § 84 ; comp. § 107, 3, 6. We may here remark, also, that the poets employ certain epitheta ornantia (which are at the same time perpe(ua) alone without the substantive; e. g. 1''?^ the Strong, i. e. God; "1''3^^ the strong, i. e. the bullock, in Jeremiah the horse ; i.T") the majestic, august, for the prince ; ^}^7 the pale^ i. e. the m,oon. In Arabic this is even far more common. Comp. merum for vinum, vyprj i. e. the sea, Odyss. i. 97. Sect. 107. USE OF THE GENDERS. Whether the Hebrew regarded a substantive as feminine is known partly from the feminine termination appended to it (§ 80, 1, 2), partly from its construction with a feminine predicate, and in most cases, though there are many exceptions (§ 87, 4), from the use of the feminine plural form. We have now to show for what purposes the designation of gender Avas employed. I. The most natural use of it was with reference to the physical distinction of sex in men and beasts, but with several gradations, according as this natural distinction is more or less strongly indicated. The principal cases are the following, viz., a) when the female is designated by an entirely different word, which, of course, requires no feminine-ending, as fatliei'^ mother^ in Heb. HlX, DX ; yis ram^ ^D*! ^w;e, ll^n he-ass^ jIHX she-ass ; b) when the female is indicated by the addition of the feminine-ending, as HX brother^ Hirti^ sister ; 07^ young man^ "^^/V y^^i-^^y woman; ^3 juvencus^ rTlB juvenca ; 7^5? vitidus^ I^/'??? vitula; c) when the feminine gender is shown only by the construction [communia), like 6, '^ jSou^ ; 6, rj 7rai5 used of God, see § 121 Rem. 4. 2. The plurals under a are also limited in common prose to few words, but in poetry there is a more extensive use of them, e. g. CP'-'T! tencbrm (of dark places), D'?.?yJ!l delicice, Q'^l^.*? faithfulness, and many others. * By transferring an e.xpression for numerical (|uantity to geometrical (comp. No. 4, Rem. 1 ). The language has other exaini)lt'S of the designation o? great and many by the same word (sec 3"], DIVJ?). f" Comp. the same use o^ \.\\e plur. in ra a-Tepvn, ra vaira, pracordia, cervices, fauces. I Somewhat like is the use of we by kings when speaking of themselves (Ezra iv. 18; vii. 24; comp. 1 IMac. X. 19; xi. 31), a mode of speaking which is then applied to God (Gen. i. 26; xi. 7; Is. vi. 8). The Jewish grammarians call such a plural ninbn ^-IS"! (pInraUs virium or virtutum); the moderns call it pluralis exccllentia or plur. majestaticiis. The use of the plural as a form of respectful address, as modern languages have it, is some- what differont from the Ilcljrew usage. § 108. TIIK PLURAL AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 188 3. When a substantive is followed by a genitive, and this compound idea is to be expressed in the plural, it is done, a) most naturally by the plural form in the governing noun^ as 7^n ^35 strong heroes ; so also in compounds, as ''i''pi"|5 Benja- minite^ plur. '•^'•p) '•^il 1 Sam. xxii. 1 ', h) in hoth^ as Dv^n '•'1^5 1 Chron. vii. 5, ''^121 D^N?^ prison-houses^ Is. xlii. 22, and hence Dv^ '*^5, Ps. xxix. 1, sons of Gods for sons of God ; c) even only in the noun governed^ as IX n"'3 family^ Hlli^ fT'^ families Num. i. 2 foil., Q^^O ^*1$ precious fruits Cant. iv. 16. On this remark, which has hitherto been overlooked by grammarians, compare also Judges vii. 25 {the head of Oreb and Zeeb for the heads)^ 2 Kings xvii. 29, Dan. xi. 15. Here the two words, by which the compound idea is expressed, are treated as a nomen compositum* The connexion with suffixes is also effected according to letter c, as 10^3 os eorum for ora eorum Ps. xvii. 10, D^''^^ Ps. cxliv. 8, where we also can say their mouthy their right hand. 4. To the modes of expressing plurality belongs also the repetition of a noun, with or without the conjunction. By this is indicated the whole.^ all., every., as DV DV day by day^ every day., tJ^"*X D'"*};^ every man., also C^^X] S^'*X Ps. Ixxxvii. 5, DV DV1 Esth. iii. 4, y\1\ "111 every generation Deut. xxxii. 7 ; hence distributively., as ni7 "^ly ^1?? ^^^^^ y?c»c^' % zVs^//" Gen. xxxii. 17; also a great mtdtitude, even with the plural form. Gen. xiv. 10; "ItiH ni'lX!! miXS asphalt-pits in abundance^ nothing hut asphalt-pits., 2 Kings iii. 16; Joel iv. 14; finally, diversity., more tha?i one kind., as /b signifies all and eveiy kind., e. g. pX] p^ ti^o kinds of weights Deut. xxv. 13, 1/5 1? a double heart Ps. xii. 3; 1 Chron. xii. 33. Not here but to rhetoric belongs impassioned repetition in exchimations (e. g. Jer. xxii. 29 ; Is. vi. 3). With many writers this appears to have but little emphasis, and to have become a habit (e. g. Is. xl. foil). Rem. 1. Names of substances viewed as wholes (e. g. the metals, liquids, etc.) very seldom occur except in the singular, as 3nT gold, ^D3 stiver, YV. wood, ]'',! icine (yet Q)0 loater is expressed by the plural, but in Arabic it is singular). But when the word is used to express />orif/o/is of a substance, then of course the plur. is used, as Q''?0? pieces of silver Gen. xlii. 25, comp. Is. i. 25; Q^V^ ligna, timber (for building or burning). So of grain, as H^n wheat {^growing in the field), □''tsn ivheat in the grain. 2. Even in cases where the plural is regarded as merely poetic, we are to connect with it the idea of real plurality, e. g. Job xvii. 1, the graves are my portion, equivalent to grave-yard, many graves being usually found together, xxi. 32 ; D^^2 seas for sea Job vi. 3 ; comp. Gen. xii. 49. * All the three methods occur also in Syriac and yEthiopic. See Hoffrnanni Gram. Syriaca, p. 254 ; Ludolfi Gram, ^thiopica, p. 139; Dillmann Gram. d. clthinp. Spr., S. 364 ff. 184 part iii. syntax. chap. i. syntax of the noun. Sect. 109. USE OF THE ARTICLE. The article ("H, H, § 35) was originally a demonscrative pronoun (as in other, 0. g. the Romance, languages, comp. 6, 97, to in Homer) ; yet its force was so slight that it was used almost exclusively as a prefix to the noun. Tlie stronger demonstrative force of -n [this) is still found in some connexions, as 0^*0 this day, to-day ; np^'pH tins niyJit, to-nhjht ; Dl'Sn tliis time. To this demonstrative sense is to be referred in particular, a) the fact, that sometimes it stands for the relative before the verb, e. g. •1^5VP?L' that are found, 1 Chron. xxix. 17; xxvi. 28; Jos. x. 24; Ezra viii. 25; comp. Gen. xviii. 21 ; xlvi. 27; Job ii. 11; and so ^17^? i- q- ?^-/V "V^. 1 Sam. ix. 24 ; b) the case where it is employed, mostly before a participle, to connect and to point back to a subject noun, in. order to make it again prominent, Ps. xix. 10, the laws of Jehovah are truth .... ver. 11, D''l'?n.?L' they that are pre- cious : here the article has nearly the force of HDn amoL So also in Ps. civ. 3 (three times); Is. xl. 22, 23; xlvi. 6; Gen. xlix. 21 ; Job xli. 25; and still more forcibly in Ps. xviii. 33, "pxn ^)^ '"'^y^'^i!' the God that yirds me with strength; ver. 48; Jer. xix. 13; Neli. x. 38. The article is employed with a noun to limit its application in nearly the same cases as in Greek and German (or English) ; viz., only when a dejinite object, one previously mentioned^ or already known^ or the only one of its kirid, is the subject of discourse ; e. g. Gen. i. 3, God said, Let there he light ("11^), ver. 4, and God saw the light (IIXnTlJ;^) ; 1 Kings iii. 24, Briiig me a sword, and they brought the sword ; comp. Eccles. ix. 15; T\67\^ ^fp^ the king Solomon, ^ptrh the sun, pXH the earth. Besides these examples, see Eccles. i. 12, I am king C^?^) over Jerusalem. Tn such definite cases the article can be omitted only in poetry, where it is used, in general, less frequently than in prose ; e. g. *^7/^ for "^//pH Ps. xxi. 2, J^'IK for X^^r\ Ps. ii. 2. I V T T Special cases in which the article is commonly employed, are — 1. When a general word is used collectively to denote all the individuals belonging to it, as the righteous, the unrighteous, Eccles. iii. 17; the woman for the female sex, Eccles. vii. 26; the Canaanite, Gen. xiii. 7; xv. 19, 20, like the Russian, the Turk.* 2. A\ hen a common term is applied by way of eminence to a particular person, and thus becomes a kind of proper name, like 6 irotriTi)^ (Homer), as \d^ adversary, ]\±;r^ the adversary, Satan; Sp!l lord, h'^'^'n (prop, name of the idol) Baal; DIN^H the first man, Adam; Sxri, C^n'^xn <5 0^09, the only, true God = T\'\r\\ (yet tl us Exactly so among the Attics, 6 'A^jji/nwy, 6 SiipaKoVtov. § 110. USE OF THE ARTICLE. 185 word D''n75< is often so used witliout the article, because it approaches the nature of a proper name, § 110, 1); ^"^^H the river, i. e. the Euphrates ; 133n the region around, viz., that around the Jordan 3. Hence it is used also with actual proper names of rivers, mountains, and of many towns, with reference to their original appellative signification (comp. the Hague, le Havre), as ^J^^H the Nile (prop, the river), j1i^?n Lebanon (prop, the white mountain), '•yn the town Ai (prop, the stone-heap). But its use in connexion with names of towns is unfrequent, and in poetry is generally omitted. (Comp. § 110, 1). Rem. 1. The Hebrew article certainly never stands for the indefinite article; but the Hebrew conceives and expresses many ideas definitely, which we are accustomed to conceive and express indefinitely. This is most commonly seen — a) In comparisons, where fancy paints the image of an object, and causes a more distinct perception, e. g. tohite as the loool, as the snoio, red as the scarlet Is. i. 18, as the cattle Ps. xlix. 15, he hurls thee like the hall Is. xxii. 18, the heavens are rolled up like the scroll xxxiv. 4; comp. x. 14; xxiv. 20; xxvii. 10; liii. 6; Ps. xxxiii. ,7. Instructive examples in Judges xiv. 6 ; xvi. 9 ; Is. xxix. 8. Yet where the noun compared is already made definite by an adjective, the article does not stand any more than when a genitive follows, e. g. li!?? Is. x. 14, but n?^D |ip3 xvi. 2, comp. Ps. i. 4 with Is. xxix. 5. Exceptions are rare, as "112 J3 Job xvi. 14, ^^5^ xxxi. 18. h) In the names of classes of objects which are generally known, e. g. the gold, the silver, the cattle, the water. Hence Gen. xiii. 2, Abraham teas very rich in the cattle, the silver, and the gold, where most languages would omit the article. He had much, is the Hebrew's conception, of these well-known treasures. Comp. Gen. xli. 42 ; Ex. xxxi. 4 ; xxxv. 32 ; Is. i. 22. c) Often also in the expression of abstract ideas (like to Ittttlkov, la modestie), hence of physical and moral evils, as the blindness Gen. xix. 11, the darkness Is. Ix. 2, the falsehood Is. xxix. 21. On these principles, it is easy to explain the use of the article in special cases, as in 1 Sam. xvii. 34, ^"l^i^ the lion, as the well-known enemy of the flocks (comp. rov Xvkov, John x. 12); 1 Kings XX. 36; Gen. viii. 7, 8; xiv. 13. The frequent expression Cl1*n ''Hjl should not be trans- lated it happened on a day, but the day, [at) the time, viz., as referring to what precedes. 2. The vocative also takes the article, and for the most part in those cases where it is usually required; e. g. ^'^'^^y^ tD'^D yti^'i""!;, Joshua, high priest, Zech. iii. 8; 1 Sam. xxiv. 9. Sect. 110. The article is regularly omitted* — 1. Before ih^ proper name of a person or a country (IH, Dn_^*^), and also of a people, when it coincides with the name of the founder of the race or the name of " In these particulars (relating to the omission of the definite article, viz., before proper names, before nouns in construction with a genitive or with a possessive pronoun, and before predicates), the usage of our language corresponds to that of the Hebrew. The same is true of the Celtic tongues. In Greek, it is quite otherwise, the article being freely used in nil these cases except the last. — Tr. 186 PART III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. I. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. their country (/X'lb'^, D'^i^). On the contrary, gent'dic nouns admit it both in the sing, and plur., as D'*'liyrt, the Hebrews 1 Sam. xiii. 3, *^P^5D tlie Canaanite (collect. § 109, 1). 2. Before substantives, rendered definite by a following genitive or a suffix, wliich renders the use of the article unnecessary; e. g. 0^"?^^? "1?"^ God's word, ^^^ my father. When the article is by way of exception used in these two cases, some special reason can gene- rally be assigned for it ; e. g. a) In some cases the demonstrative power of the article is required; as Jer. xxxii. 12, I gave this hill of sale (njpsn "IQDnTIt?) with reference to verse 11 ; Jos. viii. 33, ^VH a half thereof ; in the next clause i'V^D the (other) half thereof , Is. ix. 12. h) When the genitive is a proper name which does not admit the article (according to No. 1), as ^X-n>3 nar^n the altar of Bethel 2 Kings xxiii. 17, ^W^'l^ ^^0 the God of Bethel Gen. xxxi. 13, "I'lti'N ^^l^n the kinff of Assyria Is. xxxvi. 16; comp. Gen. xxiv. 67; Jer. xlviii. 32; Eze. xlvii. 15 (comp. xlviii. 1). c) In others the connexion between the noun and the following genitive is somewhat loose, so that the first forms a perfect idea by itself, while the second conveys only a supplemental idea relating to the material or purpose, as ^n?'"!) I.??'? the iceiyht, the leaden one Zech. iv. 10, T\Vr\lT\ n3TC)n the altar of brass 2 Kings xvi. 14, nnsn jhxn '•n'^: Jos. iii. 14, Ex. xxviii. 39, K!!?? nb^pon-^3 Jer. XXV. 26. bnii 3. Before the predicate, which from its nature is indeterminate, as Gen. xxix. 7, 1^ D1*n Tiy yet is the day great, it is yet high day; xxxiii. 13; xl. 18; xli. 26; Is. V. 20, yn nitsS Dn^Xn who call the good evil; Ixvi. 3. Yet there are cases where the nature of the predicate requires the article. Gen. ii. 11 33^11 NTH it is the encompassing, i. e. that which encompasses; xlv. 12, "ISIPD ^Q ^3 that my mouth {is) the speaking = it is my mouth that speaketh ; Gen, xlii. 6; Ex. ix. 27; Num. iii. 24. See another case where the article stands before the predicate in § 109, beginning. Sect. 111. 1. AVhen a compound idea, expressed by a noun in the constr. st. followed by its genitive, is to be made definite, it is done by prefixing the article to the noun in the genitive; as MfinSp tlJ^^X a man of war Jos. xvii. 1, T\^nl'f2!r\ ^^^X the men of war Num. xxxi. 49; "Ipt^' ^^'^ a ivord of falsehood Prov. xxix. 12, N''?p ^y^. the word of the prophet Jer. xxviii. 9. The article is put in the same way wlicn only the genitive, and not the nomen reyens, is definite, as iT^tf*'! ^\t?^ a part of tlie field 2 Sam. xxiii. 11 (see on the contrary Jos. xxiv. 32, Gen. xxxiii. 19), i^^l^i^ t^"^ a husbandman Gen. ix. 20 (on the contrary nnK* CJ'^N Gen. xxv. 27). Yet in this case wo usually find another construction, in order to avoid the ambiguity, see § 115. N.B. This explains the use of the article after >3 prop, totality, the tvhole. The article is inserted after it to express definitely all, whole (like ions les hommes, toute la ville), and is omitted when it is § 112. CONNEXION OF THE SUESTANTIVE WITH THE ADJECTIVE. 187 used indefinite'iy for of all kinds, cmy thing, or distrlbutively for every {tout homme, A tout prix) \'^' e.g. D"lXn"?|l all men, Y'^^i)'^'^ the whole earth, prop, the lohole of men, the ivhole of earth ; but l?^"?? stones of all kinds 1 Chron. xxix. 2, "I3'^v3 any thing Judges xis. 19, DVPD21 every day Ps vii. 12. Yet also ^D -'3 every Urging thing = all living. Even compound proper names may be resolved again into two words, and then the second takes the article; e. g. 'rP^"I| Benjaminite {% 86, 5), ^rP;D"|3 Judges iii. 15, '^rhn n'2 the Bethlemite 1 Sam. xvii. 58. Exceptions where the article stands before the governing noun and not before the genitive, see m § 110, 2, b. So in the later style, Dan. xi. 31 ; comp. xii. 11. 2. When the substantive has the article, or (which is equivalent) is made definite by a following genitive or a suffix, then the adjective, as well as the pronoun PIT, X'ln (§ 122, 1), belonging to the substantive, takes also the article. Gen. x. 12, '^v'^t'D "^''VC' the 07' eat city ; xxviii. 19, t^^Mri DIpDIl that place ; Deut. iii. 24, "^T npinn tliy strong hand ; ^Hilil Hin^ ^PV.P the great work of Jehovah. Not quite unfrequent is the use of the article — :i) With the adjective alone, which then serves to make the noun definite, e. g. ''^/'''^n DV, Gen. i. 31, day the sixth = the six/h day (on the contrary ''??-!* 01'' a second day, i. 8) ; xli. 26 ; 1 Sam. xix. 22; Ps. Ixii. 4; civ. 18; Neh. iii. 6; ix. 35; Zech. xiv. 10. So also n»nn U^} Gen. i. 21; ix. 10. This is the usual construction, when the adjective is properly a participle, as Jer. xlvi. 16, n31*ri 2"}!} the sword that doeth violence. b) With the substantive only, as in Eze. xxxix. 27 ; 2 Sam. vi. 3 (perhaps to be amended) ; yet rather frequently in connexion with the pronouns 5<-in and HT, which are sufficiently definite of themselves, as ^<"in n?^p3 Gen. xxxii. 23, -It "liin Ps. xii. 8 ; particularly when the noun is made definite only by a suffix, n?X T'^.^y 1 Kings x. 8 ; comp. Ex. x. 1 ; Jos. ii. 20 ; Judges xvi. 5, 6, 15. Designedly indefinite is Hi?"! OriSI. Gen. xxxvii. 2, a)t evil report respecting the^n (i^^'^'^ ^^J^?"^. would be tlie evil report) ; compare Num. xiv. 37 ; Gen. xlii. 19, '^^^^ Q^'^nJ^ in the sense of one of your brethren. Sect. 112. CONNEXION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE WITH THE ADJECTIVE. 1. The adjective, which serves to qualify the substantive, stands after it, and agrees with it in gender and number (as 7113 &'^^ TOiy HJ^V) ; and also in being made definite (according to § 111, 2). Comp. § 117, 2. Rem. 1. It very seldom occurs that the qualifying adjective stands before its substantive; when this is the case, some emphasis rests on it, as Is. xxviii. 21 ; liii. 11 ; Ps. Ixxxix. 51 ; cxlv. 7; com- pare also Ps. xviii. 4. Merely poetic is the form of expression D^3?9 ^■?;?^., Job xli. 7, the strong of shields for strong shields (comp. ver. 22 ; Is. xxxv. 9) ; or with a collective noun instead of the plural, Q"?? ''?.'?^* the poor of men = the 2)oor, Is. xxix. 19 ; Hos. xiii. 2. Similar is the Lat. canum degeneres. 2. When substantives of the feminine gender or those which incline to it (§ 107, 4) take two adjectives, the feminine form sometimes appears only in the one which stands nearest the substan- ^ What is here said of 73 applies also to its Greek equivalent, ttoj ; e. g-. naaa t) noXn the whole city (Matt viii. 34), hut Traaa ■n6\Li every city (Matt. xii. 2.5). — Tr. 188 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. I. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. tive; as DOJI npo? nSK^O 1 Sam. xv. 9; pmi rhli nil 1 Kings xix. 11, Ps. Ixiii. 2. Comp I 147, Rem. i. N.E. 3. In regard to number, the nouns in the dual take adjectives in the plural, as VSiys D.''3^^ loj'ii/ ei/es Prov. "vi. 17 ; Ps. xvili. 28 ; Job iv. 3, 4 ; Is. xx.kv. 3. M-oreover, the co/isinictio ad seiisuin is frequent. Collectives are construed with the plural in 1 Sam. xiii. 15 ; Jer. xxviii. 4 ; but the pluralis inajcstatis (108, 2, i) on the contrar}' with the singular, as P^'IV CO''^ Ps. vii. 10; Is. xix. 4 (but with the j^hir. 1 Sam. xvii. 20). 2. An adjective, when its meaning is more fully determined by a substantive, is followed by it in the genitive case,* as IXflTlS"*. beautiful in form Gen. xxxix. 6, D^3p '•W jnire in hands Ps. xxiv. 4, ^3^ ''ttJlX sorrowful in spirit Is. xix. 10. (Comp. the construction of the Participle, § 132.) In the same manner are often construed the participles and verbal adjectives^ only that they govern also the cases of their verbs; see § 135. 3. On the adjective as predicate of the sentence, see § 144 foil. Sect. 113. APPOSITION. 1. By this is meant the placing together of two substantives, so that one of them (commonly the secondf) serves to limit or qualify the other, as n^^75f< H^'X a woman (who is) a widow, 1 Kings vii. 14; Hy^n^ iT^y^ a damsel (who is) a virgin, Deut. xxii. 28; H^NI D'^'l^^ words (which are) triUh, Prov. xxii. 21. Sometimes the first of the two substantives has the form of the constr. St., see § 116, 5. Also two adjectives may stand in apposition, in wliich case the first modifies the sense of the second, as riijnp nins nnna 2)(de white spots, Lev. xiii. 39 ; in verse 19, nr^■^.p^^{ njn^ nnna a u'hite red (brigiit red) spot. Sect. 114. THE GENITIVE. 1. It has been shown above (§89) that the Hebrew regularly expresses the genitive relation by making the noun in the genitive dependent upon, and closely connected with, the nomen regens in the constr. st. A genitive is always * In Greek and Latin, the genitive is employed in the same manner, us tri.stis auivu; see liuhnlnil anT TTnoy a large croivn of gold, Esth. viii. 15. 2. The noun in the genitive expresses not only the sulvject, but at times also tlie object; e. g. Eze. xii. 19, D**!!^*!! D^ll the wrong which the inhabitants did., on tlie contrary Obad. verse 10, Y'^^ ^^'^ ^^^^ wrong against tliy brother ;f Prov. xx. 2, Tjpp ri^''l< the fear of a king., GlD ri|P5?T the cry concernitig Sodom Gen. xviii. 20, 1^ l^lpp the repoi't about Tyre; comp. also § 121, 5. Other applications of the genitive are, ]^y "^l^. way to the tree Gen. iii. 24, DID '•^^^p judges like those in Sodom Is. i. 10, D^^^'':'^? ^niT sacrifices pleasijig to God Ps. li. 19, T]\n\ Py^^ an oath sworn by Jehovah 1 Ki, ii. 43. 3. Not unfrequently the genitive construction stands also in the place of appo- sition, as T^yp iri^ river of Euphrates ; see more in § 116, 5. Rem. 1. Between the noun in the constr. st. and the following genitive is found, in some rare cases, a word intervening, as in Hos. xiv. 3 ; 2 Sam. i, 9 ; Job xxvii. 3 (in all these passages the word intervenes after ^is, comp. also Is. xxxviii. IG). 2. Proper names, as being in genei'al of themselves sufficiently definite, seldom take a genitive for further specification ; yet this is the case with geographical names, D^"^^'? "IIX JJr of the Chaldees Gen. xi. 28, Q^D^ D"1X Aram of the tioo rivers-= Mesopotamia ; so also niNZiy nin_* Jehovah of hosts for Jehovah the Lord of hosts. * It would be contrary to the Ilehrew idiom to say ^^ ni^Il'i \J2 the so?is and daughters of David, l)ut this must be expi'essed by Vnizil TIT "'J3 the .so7is of David and his daugh/crs. [Soe note on verse 12, p. 275. — Tr.] t In Latin, the genitive is similarly used after iiijuria (Cffis. B. Gall. 1, 30), vietus (like metus hostium, metus Pompeii), spes, and other words. Comp. Aul. Gell. 9, 12. In Greek compare niaris tov Qeov, "Koyos tov aravpovy 1 Cor. 1.18. 190 part iii. syistax. chap. i. syntax of the noun. Sect. 115. EXPRESSION OF THE GENITIVE BY CIRCUMLOCUTION. Besides the indication of the genitive reUition by the construct state (see in § 89, and § 114), there are certain periphrastic indications^ chiefly by means of the preposition ?, denoting the relation of belonging^ which is not unlike that of the genitive. Accordingly, we find — 1. ? "W^., used principally for the genitive of possession, as C'^??- "'^'^ 1^'''^'l' Gen. xxix. 9, xlvii. 4, the Jlock of her father (prop, the flock lohich to her father belonged) ; and also where there would be several successive genitives (to avoid the repetition of the constr. st., but see § 114, 1), as h'iiiCf'? nK't^ D^y-in n^2X the chief of the herdsmen of Saul 1 Sam. xxi. 8, nbV^ T^'t? nn^L^'n TK* the song of songs of Solomon Cant. i. 1 ; Gen. xl. 5 ; 2 Sam. ii. 8 ; 1 Chron. xi. 10. (Hence the Rab- binic designation of the genitive ^^-j in Syriac and Chaldee, the relative *1, also \ alone is the usual sign of the genitiA^e.) 2. 7 (without "1?:'^), which also denotes the idea of belonging, and hence the genitive of jjossession,* as 71XL*'^ D^B-Vn the watchnen of Saul, 1 Sam. xiv. 16. This is used particularly, a) when the governing (or first) noun is expressly regarded as indefinite, e. g. ''??'!? 1? a son of Jesse 1 Sam. xvi. 18 (whereas ^^] I? signifies as well the son of Jesse), ilvV 7Sp jna a jjriest of the most high God Gen. xiv. 18, xli. 12, ""VW) ^''^^t W ^"^^^ servants of Shimci 1 Kings ii. 39, in'? ^^^'^ a friend of David (was Hiram) 1 Kings v. 15, ^T\? "lto|p also "l^P "l)*]? a psalm of David (i. e. belonging to him as the author), and elliptically "1^7? of David Ps. xi. 1, xiv. 1 ; b) when seA'eral genitives depend on one substantive, e. g. Tyh? "Tl^'H rii^pn a portion of the field of Boaz Ruth ii. 3, 2 Kings v. 9, ^^iV) *?^P^ D'P*L> ''"^y^. the chronicles of the kings of Israel 1 Kings xv. 31, \33 nitS)?^ nnXH ^'^\r\ /'X'lb'^ Josh. xix. 51, where the pairs of more closely-connected nouns which form one conception are joined by means of the constr. state, while there is between them the ? indicating a looser connexion (yet comp. § 114, 1); c) after specifications of number, e. g. ^^J\> DV Q"'"]^'^! 'IV??'? on the seven and twentieth day of the m.onth. Gen. viii. 14. Sect. 116. FURTHER USE OF THE CONSTRUCT STATE. The construct state^ as it serves in general to put two nouns in ch^sc connexion, is, in the flow of speech, used not only for the genitive relation, but also — 1 ) Before prepositions, particularly in poetry, and mostly when the governing word is a participle, e. g. before 5, as *l'*V|p^ nn^J?^ tJie joy in the harvest^ Is. ix. 2. * Philologically considered, the Gascon says no less correctly la file a Mr. N., than the written language la file de — ; the former expresses the idea of belonging, the latter that of descent. The Arabians distinguish a twofold genitive; viz., one which has the force of ?, and one wliich has that of |0. "We have the latter conception of this relation in the dc of modern languages that are derived from the Latin (the Romance languages). In Greek. we may compare the so-called axny^i^ KoXo^cowoi', c. g. 17 K«Pn\r) tm dvOjiconu) for tov uvOpunrov (see Bernhardy'!> Syntax, p. 88). § 117. INDICATION OF THE OTHER CASES. 191 V. 11; before 7, as D^^S ^IHw^ Is. IvI. 10, xxx. 18, Ps. Iviii. 5, Job xviii. 2; before 7X Is. xiv. 19; before p, as ^^H^ y^^^l weaned from milk. Is. xxviii. 9; before 75? ill Judges V. 10.* 2) Before the relative pronoun, e. g. ^^^^ Dlp^ the place ivhere — , Gen. xl. 3. 3) Before relative clauses without '^^J^, e. g. in njn H^/lp ;f/i^. In both cases, of a and h, especially the first, the accusative-ending n— is often appended, on which see § 90, 2. The first relation may also be expressed by ?^ (as it commonly is v/ith refer- ence to persons), and the second by ?; but we are by no means to suppose that, where these particles are omitted, the construction is incomplete. 2. In designations of time; a) in answer to the question ivhen? as D*i*n the day^ i. e. on the day^ then^ or on this day^ to-day ; I'ly at evening^ '^7^?l' hy night; D^'in^ at noon Ps. xci. 6; T]^^ Hi^ niby ^if the thirteenth year {in the \Mi year) they revolted Gen. xiv. 4; D'''ni^b^ T*Vp ri^nri at the heginning of barley harvest 2 Sam. xxi. 9 {K'thibh); b) in answer to tJie question how long? D**^^ H^D' six days {long) Ex. xx. 9. [With nx in Ex. xiii. 7; Deut. ix. 25.] 3. In other adverbial designations: Gen. xli. 40, y^y^ ^^S^D P^. only in respect to the throne will I be greater ; 2 Sam, xxi. 20, four and twenty ^SD^ in number (comp. rpeh api,dfjt,6v three in ^lumber); 1 Kings xxii. 13, nHNt T\^ with one mouth i. e. with one voice; Zeph. iii. 9, they served God nriNt DD^ with one shoulder i. e. with one mind. AYitli a following genitive, 'T'^^ T^^y^ for fear of thorns^ Is. vii. 25; Job i. 5, he brought burnt- offerings Dp2l ^3pp according to the number of them all. Here belong also cases like P|p3 ri^^Jp the double in money Gen. xliii. 15, nS''{SI Dn'yb' an ephah of barley Ruth ii. 17, D^^; ^]^^^ two years' time Gen. xli. 1. Comp. also § 116, Rem. b. Similar cases in connexion with verbs are explained, § 138 and § 139. By the same process, carried still farther, many substantives have come to be distinctly recognised as adverbs (§ 100, 2,5). Rem. Similar reference to place, time, etc., may be denoted by a noun when it is connected with 3 (as, according to, after the manner of), but in that case the prefix 3 alone is in the accusative So in the Greek, but only poetically, II. i. 317, Kvia-a-q Kovpavov lue. 14 194 TAUT III. SYNTAX. CHA]'. I. SYNTAX Ob" THE NOUN. relation, while the noun is to he considered in the genitive. Thus, a) of place ; i2"J?"J? (is in their pasture. Is. v. 17, comp. xxviii. 21 ; P?3 after the manner of the stone i. e. as in stone (the water is collected when frozen) Job xxxviii. 30, xxx. 14; 55'-13p '1D| as in (juryeous apparel. Job xxxviii. 14; □l^ns as in a dream, Ls. xxix. 7, comp. xxiii. 15; ^) of time, especially in the forms DV? as the day — as in the day. Is. ix. 3; Hos. ii. 5; ^P'? as in the days of — , Hos. ii. 17; ix. 9; xii. 10; Amos ix. 11; Is. Ii. 9; c) with another reference, as in Is. i. 25, / icill purge aioay thy dross "13? us with lye; Job xxviii. 5, ti'X ID? after the mariner ofJire=as by fire. Rarely another preposition is used after such a |, e. g. n:K'X")33 Is, i. 26, 1 Sam. xiv. 14. It is, moreover, obvious that a substantive with 3 may stand either for the accusative of the object or for the nominative relation. Sect. 119. MODES OF EXPIIESSING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.* 1. When the comparative is to be expressed, the particle [D (•^) is prefixed to the word with which comparison is made, e. g. 1 Sam. ix. 2, Dyn"73D ^^2 taller than any of the people ; Judges xiv. 1 8, ^^^p plH^ sweeter than honey ; so also after verbs, especially those denoting an attribute, as Dyn"73p n!!l>^1_ and he was taller than any of the pieople, 1 Sam. x. 23; Vj:p-73/p t]pV-niS* nnx he loved Joseph more than all his (other) sons, Gen. xxxvii. 3. In other cases also the particle JO is employed in expressing pre-eminence (e. g. IP P'^Hl pre- erninenee over, Eccles. ii. 13; comp. Deut. xiv. 2), which the Hebrew conceives as a taking ^om, marking out. Compare the Latin ablative with the comparative, also the etymology of the Latin words eximius, egreyius, and in Homer Ik ttcii/twv /xaA-to-ra, II. iv. 96, and merely Ik TratreW, xviii. 431). Hence the signification viore than connects itself with the fundamental signification out from. (Compare the use of ?y in comparisons. Job xxiii. 2 ; Ps. cxxxvii. 6.) The predicate is sometimes wholly omitted, nnd must be supplied from the con- nexion, e. g. Is. X. 10, p7C^^"l\p Driv'pS tlieir idols are more numerous (mightier) than those in Jerusalem. : Job xi. 17, D"'*!!!^^ clearer than noon. The correlative comparatives, such as greater^ less., are expressed only by great., little, Gen. i. 16. 2. The several modes of expressing the superlative are in principle the same; thus, in all of them the positive form, by means of the article, or a suffix, or a following genitive, is made to designate an individual as pre-eminently the pos- * There exists in Arabic a strengthened form for the superlative and comparative, which would be like Pt?pN . Perhaps of this origin are *1TDK cruel, 3pX deceptive (of a drying brook), and its opposite jH^K (contr. from aitan) constant, perennial, although these forms have lost their force and remain as solitary traces, in the same way as the Lat. comparative disappears in the Italian, and still more in French, and its place supplied by circumlocution (with l)iii, plus) § 120. SYNTAX or THE NUMERALS. 195 sessor of the quality expressed (comp. le plus grand) ; e. g. 1 Sam. xvii. 14, and David was ]'^'\^^ the small (^one)^ i. e. the smallest^ and the three great (ojies), i. e. greater, etc., Gen. xlii. 13; Jon. iii. 5, D!lDp iy"l U7iy!2 from the greatest among them (lit. their great one), even unto the least among them (lit. their little one); 2 Chron. xxi. 17, VJ!l ptOp the youngest of his sons. A kind of superlative in substantives of quality is made by the construction t^^p^Hi^, L'Hp fhe holiest of all, proj'). the holy (^holiest) of holy things ; ^^y^T\ "T'ti^ the choicest soiiy. Canticles. Sect. 120. SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS. 1. The numerals from 2 to 10 (which are properly substantives, but may also be used adverbially, § 97, 1), are connected with substantives in three diiferent ways. They stand either, a) in the constr. st. before^ the substantive (the object numbered being accordingly in the genitive), D'PJ T\^b^ three days, prop, triad of days ; or, b) in the absol. st. before it (the thing numbered being then considered as in the accusative or in apposition), D^^l T\^7l^ three sons ; or, c) in the absol. St. after it, as in apposition with the object numbered (a usage of the later books, where the adverbs also are so construed), t^V'^ T\^'^ three daughters, 1 Chron. xxv. 5. In like manner, the constructions njK^ nXO Gen. xvii. 17, and nr^ nSD x.w. 7, 17, a hundred years, are equally common. 2. The numerals from 2 to 10 are joined, with very few exceptions (e. g. 2 Kings xxii. 1), Avith the plural. But the tens (from 20 to 90), when they pre- cede the substantive, are regularly joined with the singular (in the accusative), and when they follow it in apposition, they take the plural. The first is the more frequent construction ; e. g. Judges xi. 33, "l^V D^1t^'y twenty cities ; on the con- trary, Dn^ry m^.Nt twenty cubits, 2 Chron. iii. 3, seq. The plural may be used in the first case (Ex. xxxvi. 24, 25), but the singular never occurs in the second. The numerals from 11 to 19 are joined to the singular form (in the accusative) only with certain substantives, Avhich there is frequent occasion to number, as DV day, nr^' year, t^'^^{ man, etc. (comp. our four year old. a thousand man strony) ; e. g. Di'' "^^'V ni?3"iy \n-OTp. fourteen day, Ex. xii. 6, With this exception, they are joined to the plural ; and in tlie later books they then stand after the substantive (1 Cliron. iv. 27; xxv. 5). 3. Numerals compounded of tens and units (like 21, 62) take the object num- bered either after them in the singular (in the accusative), as H^C^ W^^P] D^ri^ sixty-two years, Gen. v. 20; or before them in the plural, as in the Inter books 196 PAirr iii. syntax. — chap. i. syntax of the noun. (Dan. ix. 26); or the object is repeated, witli the smaller number in the j^lui'al, with the larger in the singular, as Gen. xii. 4, H^^ D^y^SJ'l D^^^ t^'OH seventy-jive years; Gen. xxiii. 1, D^:^' yn^] H^^ D'lP^Vl HJ*^ PlN/p one hundred and twenty- seven years. 4. Beyond 10, the ordinals have no peculiar forms, but are expressed by those of the cardinals, which then stand either before the object numbered, or after it, as DV nb'y nynty? on the seventeenth day Gen. vii. 11, V'^f) D^^y n;£^5 in the year twenty-seven 1 Kings xvi. 10. In the latter case, the word HJ^' is sometimes repeated, as in Gen. vii. 11; 2 Kings xiii. 10. In numbering days of the montli and years, the forms of the cardinals are used, even for the numbers from 1 to 10, e. g. D^rip' ri3£^2l in the second year^ l^'h^ n_Jti'!l in the third year^ 1 Kings xv. 25; 2 Kings xviii. 1, ^inS Hi'S^'nil on the ninth of the montli., ^^Th "IHN*? on the first of the 7no?ith^ Gen. viii. 13; Lev. xxiii. 32. Rem. 1. The numerals take the article when they stand without a substantive, and refer to subjects mentioned before, as D^^f '1 ihe two, Eccles. iv. 9, 12. The case like D*P*n nypK' the seven days. Judges xiv. 17, is to be explained on the principle stated, § 111, 1. 2. Certain substantives employed in designations of loe'iyht, measure, or of time, are commonly omitted after numerals ; e.g. Gen. xx. 16, ^D3 fj^X a thousand {shekels) of silver ; so also before 3nr gold, 1 Kings x. 16; Ruth iii. 15, Dny?^ &^ six {ephahs) of barley ; I Sam. xvii. 17, Unh nnbi^ fen {loaves) of bread. Thus QV is omitted Gen. viii. 5, and t^'in viii. 13. The number of cubits is often stated thus, n?2iNZl ^^{0 a htmdred cubits, proj). a hundred by the cubit, Ex. xxvii. 18. 5. Numbers are expressed distributively by repetition of the cardinals, as D.^^^ Li''}^ two by two., Gen. vii. 9, 15. Ojic time., once., is expressed by Dy3 (prop, a tread)., ^)W^ two times., twice., C^V^ ^T>'^ thrice. The same may be denoted also by the fern, forms of the cardinals, as T\T\^ once., D^J??^ twice., \2^'h\^ thrice ; also ^l^^s^ once., Num. x. 4. The ordinals are employed in the same way, as H^i^ a second. time, Gen. xxii. 15; Jer. xiii. 3; Eze. xxi. 19. §121. USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 197 CHAPTER II. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. Sect. 121. USE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUN. 1. When a personal pronoan is the subject of a sentence, like a noun in the same position, it does not require for its union with the predicate a distinct word for the copula, when this consists simply in the verb to be (§ 144), e. g. HN^il ''pJ5< /(am) the seer 1 Sam. ix. 19, ^JH^X D^33 lionest (are) lue Gen. xlii. 11, nnx DW upright (wast) thou Eze. xxviii. 15, DH C^T^ '^'2 that naked they (were) Gen. iii. 7, 5«{!)n "iriNI nhn one dream it (is) Gen. xli. 26. 2. The pronoun of the third person frequently serves to connect the subject and predicate, and is then a sort of substitute for the copula or the verb to be;' e. g. Gen. xli. 26, the seven good cows T\IT\ C^^ yi^ seven years (are) they , Eccles. V. 18, N'*n D'TI/X 7X1^12 PIT this is God's gift. Sometimes such a pronoun in the third person refers to a subject that is of the first or second person, e. g. J^'Ul T\P\'^ ^^/D thou art my ling Ps. xliv. 5, where ^s^^I at the same time points to the predi- cate and makes it prominent (prop, thou (art) he^ my king)-, Is. xxxvii. 16; Neh. ix. 6, 7; Deut. xxxii. 39. (Conip. in Chaldee Ezra v. 11.) 3. To the general rule (§ 33, 1), that the separate pronouns are in the nomi- native and the suffixes in the ol)lique cases, there is but one exception, viz., when the personal pronoun in an oblique case is to be repeated for the sake of emphasis {me^ me ; thy^ ihy), it is expressed the second time by the separate form, which is then in the same case with the preceding suffix, to which it stands in apposition; e. g. in the accusative, Gen. xxvii. 34, ^^^{ D^ ''^'T)^ bless me, me also, comp. Prov. xxii. 19; oftener in the genitive, with a nominal suffix nnX Dil "^0"^ 1 Kings xxi. 19, thy blood, yea thine (prop, sanguis tui, utique tui), Prov. xxiii. 15; Ps. ix. 7. So also in apposition under the influence of a preposition (i. e. in the genitive, according to § 101, 1, comp. § 154, 4), as Hag. i. 4, DH^ Uy? for you, you ; 1 Sam. XXV. 24, ""^X ''3 in me, me; 1 Sam. xix. 23, N^H D5 Ivy also on him; 2 Chron. XXXV. 21, nriX Y^V ^'' ^^^^ against thee. On the same principle is to be ex- plained Gen. iv. 26, Xin 05 r\^7 to Seth, even to him ; x. 21. 198 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. 11. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 4. The suJjj: to the verb is properly always in the accusative (§ 33, 2, a, § 58), and is the most common form of expressing the accusative of the pronoun (see Rem.). In certain cases, however, it is used through an almost inaccurate brevity of expression for the dative, as Zech. vii. 5, ^^ri^VD did ye fast for me? i. e. to my advantage, for v DJ^lit^VH; Job xxxi. 18, !2X3 ^^/"l^ he (the fatherless) grew up to me as to a father^ Eze. xxix. 3 comp. verse 9. Rem. The accusative of the pronoun must be expressed by ns (§ 117), the sign of the accusative, a) when the pronoun, for the sake of emphasis, precedes the verb, as ""^nn TD^ Num. xxii. 33 ; h) when the verb has two pronouns in the accusative, only one of which can be a suffix, as inV* ''^^'T} 2 Sam. xv. 25. The use of this si^jjn with the pronoun is found, however, in other cases; see Gen. iv. 14 : xv. 13. 5. The siiffixes to nouns^ which are properly genitives (§ 33, 2, 6), and supply the place o{ possessive pronouns* express, like nouns in the genitive (§ 114, 2), not only the subject but also the object; e. g. "'p/'^n the wrong done to me^ Jer. li. 35; 1"m^: the fear of him, Ex. xx. 20. 6. When one noun is followed by another in the genitive, so that they together express but one complex idea, a suffix which refers to this whole idea is appended to the second of the two nouns (compare the analogous position of the article, § 111, 1). This occurs most frequently in the case (mentioned, § 106, 1), where the second noun is used to express a quality of the first, and serves for an adjective to it; e. g. Ps. ii. 6, ""^Ip "l"!} my holy mount; 13pD V/^ his silver idols, Is. ii. 20, xxxi. 7; 1^1^^ nyV his strong steps, Job xviii. 7. We seldom liave constructions like n?3T "^,3'l'^ thy letcd conduct, Eze. xvi. 27 ; comp. xviii. 7. So also Lev. vi. 3 ; Ps. xxx. 8. Rem. 1. Through a certain inaccuracy, which probably passed from the colloquial language to that of books, masculine pronouns are sometimes used in reference to feminine substantives (Gen. xli. 23; Ex. i. 21). The reverse also occurs, but more rarely, Deut. v. 24; 2 Sam. iv. 6. 2. The accusative of the pronoun, as object of the verb, is often omitted, where it can be easily supplied from what has preceded, e. g. the accusative it, after verbs of saying, as "ipx'1 like dixit^ he said it, Ex. xix. 25 ; 1.5*1 and he told it. Gen. ix. 22 ; but also after otlier verbs, e. g. Gen. xxxviii. 17, till thou send (it); xxiv. 12, let {it) meet me. 3. There is, on tlie contrary, a redundancy of expression, when the noun, for which the pronoun stands, is itself employed in apposition after it, e. g. Ex. ii. 6, she saio him, the child; Prov. v. 22, Eze. X. 3, K'^fr^n ixb^l ivhen he tvent in, the man ; 1 Sam. xxi. 14. So also Gen. ii. 19, n*n L*'S,3 . . . i^ to it, the livimj creature ; and with rejictition of the preposition Josh. i. 2. * Tlie possessive pronoun may be expressed hy circumlocution, after the manner of the Aramaian ; Ruth ii. 21, V "l^*^ C?V?'^ '^'^ servants ichich (are) to me, for inij servants; especially after a substantive, which is followed hy another in the genitive, as in 1 Sam. xvii. 40. (Comp. the analogous circumlocution for the genitive, § 115.)— In this case there is sometimes a pleonastic use of the suffix, as il^H"^?* ^TWl'q prop, his litter of Solomon, Cant, iii. 7 ; comp i G. § 122. THE DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 199 4. In some instances the force of the nominal suffix or possessive pronoun has become so weak, that it has almost ceased to exist; e. g. ""Jl^^ my Lord (prop, my lords, see § 108, 2, h), viz., in addressing God (Gen. xv. 2, xviii. 3 ; Ps. xxxv. 23), but then without regard to the pronominal suffix, tJie Lord, meaning God;* HH! (pi'op- *'* '''^"* ^^ *^* connexio7is =. he, it toyetlur), e.g. nn^ ^Vv'"''? ^^- ^^^* ^' ^^^^ e^Qn after the first person, without regard to the suffix, as "1"^^! -IJ^JX 1 Kings iii. 18; comp. Is. xli. 1, after the second porson in Is. xlv. 20. Similar is — Itpar, yt> nations D?3 Micah i. 2. Sect. 122. THE DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. The pronoun of the third person KP,/e;7i. ^'^T^^plur. riJSn, feni. jll, HSri (/6', ea^ id; ii, ece^ ea) is also used as a demonstrative pronoun, and then it takes regu- larly (see exceptions in § 111, 2, b) the article, but almost everywhere in connec- tion with a substantive equally definite; e. g. X^nn ^"•XH is vi)\ XPfl DV!3 eo die [conip. in vulgar English, in them days for iji those days\ When employed in this way, Hin is to be distinguished from the demonstrative HT ; for nT=: ouTos, hie, always points to an object present or near, but ^^■1^=auTo?, is, indicates (like the article, § 109) an object already mentioned or known [the former answering to this, and the latter nearly to tltat']. The distinction is clearly seen in Judges vii. 4, of lohom I say to thee, " this (HT') shcdl go loith thee,'^ that one (N-in) shall go ivith thee ; and of tvhomsoever L say to thee, " this (HT) shall not go with thee^' that one (X-ln) shall not go. So also in Ps. xx. 8, HpSI ovtol, and HfSn avToi in verse 9. Hence nin D1*n this day, means the day in which any one speaks or writes (Gen. xxvi. 33), but ^'^^\^ Dl'n (that day) means the day or time, of which the historian has just made mention (Gen. XV. 18; xxvi. 32), or the prophet just predicted (Is. v. 30; vii. 18, 20), and goes on to relate or to predict. 2. The demonstrative HT (also ^T, IT) has also, especially in poetry, the force of the relative *1^5^, comp. in English that for which; e. g. Ps. civ. 8, to the place UTO n*]p^ 1^1 ichich thou hast destined for them. It is even employed (like ^^^l?, § 123, 1) to give a relative sense to another word; e. g. Ps. Ixxiv. 2, 3 fount Zion 13 ^l?pt^' rtT on which thou divellest. nt is used adverbially, «) for there, HT T\IT\ see there! and then merely as an intensive particle, especially in questions, as HT. ns? ivherefore then? (prop, wherefore there?); h) in reference to time, for 7101V, as □.''pys nT now (alieadv) twice. Gen. xxvii. 36. '" ". . L 3. The interrogative 'p can be used in reference to a plural, as HfNI ''12 Gen. xxxiii. 5 (for which, however, ''pi *'12 is more accurately used, Ex. x. 8), also in reference to things, yet only when the idea of persons is implied, e. g. D^^ ''p who are the Shechemitesf Judges ix. 28; comp. Gen. xxxiii. 8. — ^D may also stand in * See Gesenii Thesaurus Linguce Hehrcece, p. 329. Comp. the Phoenioian names of idols, Adonis ('3^^^) and Baaltis (*n?y3), also the French Notre Dame. 200 TAUT in. SYNi.W. -t. ii.M. 11. >VNTAX oy THE PRONOUN. the genitive, ai> *3 n3 icho.^ic daughter ? Gen. x.\iv. 2.'). It is also used indefinitely for any one whoever^ and HS for any thin xiii. 13). For MO in tlii^ sense, we have also tlic s|)eciric term H^^ND (from Hlpl Hp quid<^in TT'-l-'-'-^v f.. .-..,. tl,,. ,J.7; ,,,.. ..,,o. o of ♦!... .-.i..t:< o pronoun, irho^ uhich^ viz. — Dative, 'D /o /i/w. lS X'X to whom; Cn^, pS to tlien,. CnS X'N, pS n^N /^ Aermatiiw 'JW*, nnx ///w, /w ; inN *V>*. '"^r'^* "^^*^* ^rhom {fpiem, qtiaw). With prepositiom, 13 therein, 13 n^rx wherein, ^j|D therefrom, lit)!: X\X ir/j^"/-*-- Genitive, 131^7 ")C^X trA- merely .is a sign of relation. 2 The wo/d ^rtt is co.nmoiily separaUd from the one which tl thus affects by one or more words, .IS DL" Ti,''J\ "C'^t tchrrr ictu. Gen. xiii. .T Oiilv «oldom .Tie th.v written together, as in 2 Chron. vi. II. 2. The relative pronoun "II^'X fi*eqtJcntly includes the personal or demonstrative pronoufi he, she, tiiat, for wliich the Ileb. has no appropri:it<' w«^rd (see § 124, 2), as in Latin, qui is .<5tands for qui : o. g. Num. xxii. 6, *KXn X^XI and (he) whom thou cursesf; Is. lii. 1.5, Y;*^ vX^ nc>* (tliat) which th,y have not heard. The pronoun is almost always to Ixi supplied where a pre[)osition stands before X*X; the preposition is then construed with the supplied pronoun, and tlic nlative takes the case wliich is required by its connexion witli tlic following part of the sentence; e. g. X>7 /'> him who, and to them who; X'X-p from him who, from § 1*23. RELATIVE PROXOUN ASD RELATI\T; CLAUSES. 201 fhose icho or which ; "12^3 prop, according to that ichich^ hence, as ; ^£'^'^^» him frho^ that which, or those who* Sometimes the idea of place or time L? n.!-n '^ '^e supplied; as "'^S in ''that place) where; lE'S*^ yrowi (that time) when. 3. The pronoun "T?^ may be omitted in all the cases which have been specified : there is then no expression of the relative, as in the English construction the friend I met ; the booh I told yoiL of ; where the only indication of relation is, that the relative clause is added to a preceding word, in the way of apposition. This omission of 1C^ (most frequent in poetry) takes place — a) Where it would stand as a pronoun in the nominative or accusative; e. g. Gen. XT. 13, Cm? N"? j*^? ^^ '^ land (which belongs) not to them; Ps. vii. 16, ^'£* ~"?^r ^-** ^^^ he falls into the fit (which) he made; Gen. xxxix. 4, "73 "TS^ cdl (which) was, i. e. belonged, to him, comp. vs. 5, where "^C^ is inserted; Eccles. X. 5 (comp. vL 1, where with the same words "12^ is employed). f b) When it would be merely a sign of relation, e. g. Ps. xxxii. 2, hapfy th.e mxin, py t7 np* 38^n* N7 to whom Jehovah im.puteth not sin ; Job iii. 3 ; Ex. xviii. 20. Frequently in specifications of time, when it would have the signi- fication when; Ps. iv. 8, 'JSI ZBHTH* ^H^. *^? '^ ^^^ ^"^^ (when) their corn and neic icine are abundant ; Jer. xxxvi. 2. c) When there is also an omission of the personal or demonstrative pronoun TNo. 2); e. g. Is. xli. 24 2^3 *^^^' riliy*!^ an abomination he who chooses you ; Job xxiv. 19, Sheol [carries away] **5ipi7 (those who) sin; comp. vs. 9. The pronoun thus omitted may include the idea of place or time, as 1 Chr. xv. 12, '7 *nu*Drr75< to (the place which) I have prepared for it; comp. Ex. xxiii. 20. Rem. 1. When the pronoun to be supplied would be in the genitire, the preceding noun takes the constr. at.; e. g. Ex. iv. 13, HtC^ T3 5y the hand (of him whom) thc^u tcilt send ; Hos. i. 2, rnn^~Q"=? ri'prj^ the beginning (of that which; Jehovah spake ; Ps. Ixxxi. 6, ''kvH*. ^ "y?* the speech (of one whom; I knew noi ; Ixt. 5; Lam. i. 14; Jer. xiviiL 36. Comp. § 116, 3. 2. Relative clau3e3 are joined on ako by means of the copula (V, e. g. Job xxix. 12, the orphan, i^ ^3; iCn and that hath no helper. * > 'TV rar? are the examples in which the preposition befijr« "C'K refers, as with us, to the relative itself, viz. ""^•X cy Gen. xxxi. 32, for '^> ">w^ rcith whom (xliv. 9, 10); perhaps "'BjHo Is. xhriL 12, for Dn3 "Iff^ in vrkich. Conip. also r- T -|- C' j j! nX Zwh. xii. 10. for inS VS^ -C^C. t The Arabic omits the relative when the substantive to which it refers is indeterminate, as above ; but inserts it when the substantive is determinate. In the latter case, the Hebrew commonlj inserts it in prose (see Jer. xxiii. 39; Ex. xiv. 1.3); though it is sometimes omitted, Ex. xviii. 20; 2 Sam. wili. 14; especially in poetry, Vi. xviii. 3; x!ix. 13, 21 ; Deut. xxxii. 17 ; .Job iii .5. 202 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. 11. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. • Sect. 124. MODE OF EXPRESSING THOSE PRONOUNS FOR WHICH THE HEBREW HAS NO PROPER FORMS. 1. The reflexive pronoun in the oblique case, myself^ thyself^ himself^ is expressed, a) by the conjugations Niphal and Hithpael^ see § 51, 2, § 54, 3; h) by the pro- nominal suffix of the 3rd pers.,* e. g. IIH H^HX 17 'W_\ and Ehud made himself (sibi) a sword ; Gen. xxii. 3, Abraham took two of Ids servants ^T\^ with him^ for with himself; viii. 9; 1 Sam. i. 24, she carried him up T\W. with her^ for with herself; Jer. vii. 19 ; Eze. xxxiv. 2, 8, 10. In like manner is the pronoun suus^ sua^ suum expressed by the pronominal suffix of the 3rd pers, with the noun, since ID^D signifies as much equiis suits (prop, sui, gen it.) as equus ejus ; c) by circumlocution with substantives, especially ^^)^ e. g. ^p^) yiX xS / know not myself Job ix. 21; Jer. xxxvii. 9; n3*ljp!l within herself {^vo^. in her inner p) art) ^ Gen. xviii. 12. Comp. Rem. 3. The Arabic, in a similar manner, expresses the idea self by soul, spirit, and so the Sanskrit (atman); the Arabic also by eye; the Rabbinic by D^*y, 0^.3 hone, ^^^ body ; the Amharic by t/'N"l head ; the Egyptian by mouth.] Comp. in middle High German min Up, din Up. 2. The personal or demonstrative pronoun is generally omitted (comp, 123, 2) before ^J^X in all the cases, both singular and plural: very seldom it is expressed by the interrogative pronoun, as '^"H^ that which, Eccles. i. 9; iii. 15. Rem. 1. Each, every one, with reference to a person, is expressed by K'^^ a man, sometimes repeated ^''^ K'^S Ex. xxxvi. 4, ^''i^) tJ'''X Ps. Ixxxvii. 5 ; with reference either to persons or things, by 73, commonly without the article (§ 111, 1); by repetition 11^33 *li?3? every morning ; also by the plural D^li^Bp every morniny, Ps. Ixxiii. 14. 2. Any one, some one, is expressed by ^'^^ Ex. xvi. 29 ; Cant. viii. 7 ; and by D^!!? I-ev. i. 2; any- thing, something (especially in connexion with a negation), by "'^li ""^T t without the article. Comp. besides, § 122, 3. 3. Self is expressed, independent of No. 1, c, in reference to persons or things, by X-in, S^'^, as X-in ^nx the Lord he, i. e. the Lord himself. Is. vii. 14 ; n^n DHin'n the Jews themselves. Est. ix. 1. The same is J^IH, S\'1 with the article; e. g. Xinn t^'^XH Job i. 1, the same man, i^''i)[} W^ at the same time (but this signifies also that man, at that time, comp. § 122, 1). In reference to things, the noun D^'V prop, bone, body (in this case fig. for essence, suhstance), is also employed as a peri- phrasis for the pronoun; e.g. Hin D1*n DVi;3 on the self-same day. Gen. vii. 1.'5; comp. 1'3^ ^^^? "' his very prosperity, i. e. in the midst of his prosperity. Job xxi. 23. 4. 27ie one — the other {alter — alter) is expressed by HT or inx repeated, or by J^''X with nx brother or IT] friend ; and where the feminine is required, by H^K woinan, with mnx sister or ri-iy"! friend; both the masc. and fern, forms are used also with reference to inanimate objects of the same * So also in tho German of Luther's time, a.s er mac/ite thin eiiwn Hock (where ihm stands for sich), which may be literally rendered into old-fashioned English thus, he made him (i. e. for himself) a rw//.— Tr. t M. G. Scliwiirtze, Kopt. Gram. Berlin, 18.50, p. .'^46, 351. § 125. USE OF THE TENSES IN GENERAL. 203 gender. See the Lex. under these words. The same form is used to express one another, as Gen. xiii. 11, and they separated, VnS ?yo tJ'^X the one from the other, \. e. from one another ; Ex. xxvi. 3, five eurtaijis shall be joined i^rnnN~'"X HK^X to one another. (But comp. Ex. xxxii. 27, for the usual sense of these words.) 5. Some is often expressed by the plural form alone, as D''PJ some days Dan. viii. 27, C?^ some years Dan. xi. 6, 8; and sometimes by It?'*? t^.l «?<»/ 6opa<;. (II. 15, 128). 5. For those relative tenses, in which the past is the principal idea, viz., a) for the Imperfect Subjunctive (which is, however, expressed by the Fut. also, § 127, 5); e. g. Is. i. 9, 1^''^*^ i^^^y? ^^\''v|l J^'^P? we should have been \essemus'] as Sodom, we shoidd have resembled Gomorrha ; Job iii. 13; b) for the Pluperfect Subjunctive, Is. i. 9, ^'''!y\T\ vP if he had not left; Num. xiv. 2, ^^Hp ^7 if we had but died! {y> with the Future would be, if we might but die! § 136, 2); Judges xiii. 23; Job x. 19, n^njSI '•n\''n X? "IJ^^J^S / should be as if I had never been; c) for the Future Perfect {futurum exactuni), e. g. Is. iv. 4, ]'*n'1 DX wlien he shall have washed away, prop, lie has washed away ; vi. 11. — Gen. xliii. 14, *^7i??^ 'r*?-^^ '^"^^'^ if 1 am bereaved (for, if I shall be, ubi orbus fuero), then I am bereaved (the language of desponding resignation). TV ^ ^ W tF 6. In all the foregoing cases, we have viewed the Preterite in its independent use, when not connected with preceding verbs. But its use is no less diversified, when it is joined to preceding verbs by the conjunction 1 ( Vav conversive of the * The assurance that something will happen, can also sei*ve to express the wish that something may happen. So Gen. xl. 14. '131 ^?ri"13jni non nJliy SrrT'b'yi ami do thou a kindness I pray, to me (prop, thou surely doest kindness to me, I hope), and make mention of me to Pharaoh. The addition of X3 makes this sense of the Pret. here unquestionable. In Arabic, likewise, the Pret. is employed in wishes and obtestations. In Ileb. further, Job xxi. 16, the counsel of the wicked ^30 ni^HT he far from me! xxii. 18. Comp. the use of the Preterite when following the Imperative, in No. 6, c. 206 I'AKT 111. SYNTAX. CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. Preterite). It then takes the tense and mood of the verb going before., and it shifts the tone forward., as explained above in § 49, 3. Hence it stands — a) Most frequently for the Future., when that tense goes before it, e. g. Gen. xxiv. 40, Jehovah will send his angel ^'2y\ nvVPl and prosper thy way (prop, and then he prospers). Judges vi. 16; 1 Sam, xvii. 32. Here the Future, in the pro- gress of the discourse, passes over by means of tlie Pret. into easy description, and the sense of the l^ret. follows the usage ex])lained in No. 4 above; also — b) For the Present Subjunctive., when tlie preceding Future form has this sense (according to § 127, 3); e. g. Gen. iii. 22, SpwSl npS] 11^^ rhv^', [3 lest he put forth his hand and take and eat (prop, and so takes and eats); xxxii. 12; xix. 19; Xum. XV. 40; Is. vi. 10. c) For tlie Imperative., when a verb in that form goes before; e. g. Gen. vi. 21, ^lSp^^1 "^7 np take for thyself and gather (prop, and then thou gatherest) ; Gen. xxvii. 43, 44; 1 Ki. ii. 36. As in the case under letter a, the command here passes over into a description of that which is to be done. At times tlie Pret. in this sense is put separate from the Vav, as in Ps. xxii. 22. d) For the past or the present time, according as the preceding Pret. or Fut. may require. Koiu. 1. The Pret. with Vav conv. relates to futurity, also when it is not preceded hy a Future tense, but bv some other indication of futurity. Exod. xvi. 6, 7, QJ^VI^I 3"iy at even, then ye shall knotv ; xvii. 4, i/et a little u'hile ^^l^'i^pl a?i(l tliexj loill stone me; 1 Sam. xx. 18; 1 Ki. ii. 42; Eze. xxxix. 27. After a participle which relates to futurity 1 Ki. ii. 2. The Fret, with Vav conv. may he thus employed in the .sense of the Fut. (and Imp.), even when there is no Indication of futurity, e. g. after antecedent clauses which imply, a) a cause, or, h) a con- dition. Comp. for letter a. Num. xiv. 24, beccmse another spirit is icith him Vri'X''3ni and {therefore') I will bring him; and without the causal particle. Gen. xx. 11, there is no fear of God in the place ""plO"- ""^ {therefore) they rvill kill me (for because there is, etc.); xlv. 12, 13; Ex. vi. 6, Comp. Ps. XXV. \\,for thy names sake ^^^^\ so forgive (or thou wilt forgive). For letter b. Gen. xxxiii. 10, //■ / have found favour jJlDi^?! then take; and without the conditional particle (§ lo5, 4, a). Gen. xliv. 22, shoidd he leave his father HOI then he (the father) ivould die ; xxviii. 20 ; xlii. 38 ; Is. vi. 7, lo, this touches thy lips "iDI and so is taken away thy iniquity. — Also to other very various specifications of the present we find appended by means of ] with the Fret, those of the future (e. g. Judges xiii. 3, thou art barren ^"Vl] ^''1^^) but thou shall conceive and bear ; 1 Sam. ix. 8, here is the fourth part of a shekel "'J^IDJI that ivill I give), or expressions of a wish (e. g. Ruth iii. 9, I am Ruth JJl^'lS-l then spread), or also of interrogation (e. g. Exod. v. 5, the people are many in the land Drii< DHZltJ'ni and will you let them rest? Gen. xxix. 15 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 10, 11). 2. A very frequent formula in prophetic language (like ''V')\ ond it came to pass in the language of history) is H^ni. and it ivill come to pass. This is found both with a preceding Future and without it (see Rem. 1), especially when a particular time is named, as Is. vii. 18, p^^'\ ^^T\r\ dV3 n^*ni. ^ 127. USE OF THE FL'TUllE. 207 Sect. 127. USE OF THE FUTURE. The significations of the Future lire perhaps still more various than those of the Preterite. But the language has here a more definite expression for certain relations of mood, inasmuch as it has (according to § 48) a shortened and a lengthened form of the Future, the former in the jussive sense and the latter in the cohortative (see § 128). The Vav conversive also has a very extensive influence on the force of this tense (§ 129). Yet the shortening, as has been shown in treating of the verb, is not obvious in all the forms, and in other respects, also, there is some uncertainty, so that the common form occurs in almost all the relations, for which the shortened form is especially designed. The Hebrew Future forms, in general, the exact contrary of the Preterite, and expresses, accordingly, what is unfinished, what is coming to pass and future, but also what is continued and in progress at any point of time, even of the past (see the first Note on § 47). Hence the Future stands — 1. ¥ or stvictlj future imm: Gen. ix. 1!, 7^3D "Iiy T^'^Tl] X? there shall not again be a flood ; also in narrative for the future with relation to some past point of time, as 2 Kings iii. 27, the jirst-horn who was to reign {reg?iatiiri(s erat). 2. For present time; 1 Kings iii. 7, "j^li^ N? / know not ; Is. i. 13, S^^X N? / cannot hear. Qen. xxxvii. 15. It is employed especially in the expression ol' permanent states, which exist now and always will exist, hence also in the expres- sion of general truths (where the Pret. also is used, but less frequently, § 126, 3, «, ^,), e. g. Gen. xliii. 32, the Egyptians may not eat with the Hebrews ; Job iv. 17, is man more just than God? ii. 4; Prov. xv. 20, ^X H^b^) DpH ]!l a ivise so7i glad- dens a father ; and very often so in Job and Proverbs. In the same formula is used sometimes the Preterite, and sometimes the Future, but not necessarily without difference of meaning, e. g. Job i. 7, N3ri |^Xp ivhence contest thou ? Gen. xvi. 8, riN3 n;tP'"'X ivhence dkht thou come ? 3. For a series of relations which in Latin are expressed by the Subjunctive, especially by the Present Subjunctive. In this way is expressed what is future or what is expected to occui-, according to a subjective view or according to some other condition. It stands — 208 PART III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. a) For the Subjunctive after particles signifying that, that not {ut, ne), as "im, ^2, ^^ jyp^, and ^£5? (without ^^X), also ^m ]T that, in order that;* e. g. Gen. xi. 7, ^l^'p'^! ^^'7 *^£^^^ that they may not understand; Num. ' xvii. 5, n'lp' xS nLr« p^*? that there come not near; Deut. iv. 1, Vnn p^S that ye may live; Eze. xii. 12, HX*)^ i<7 I^Nt \T that he see not; and after 13 that not, lest, e. g. IT hS^^ j3 Gen. iii. 22. ^) For the Optative; .lob iii. 3; DV ^l^^^ jjereat dies; vs. 5, 6, 8 ; vi. 0. In this sense the lengthened or shortened form is properly used (§ 128, 1, 2), followed often by the particle N*^;t e. g. ^5p""^Pi>^ Ps. vii. 10, O that might cease — ! "^'^^V NIl""l5T Gen. xliv. 18, might thy servant speah, for let thy servant speak; ver. 33, ^^i"2t^'.'•. may he noiv abide. Yet, at times, the full form is employed even where the shortened one clearly exists, e. g. ^^}'^^l let appear, Gen. i. 9; comp. xli. 34; HS^T 7^ Job iii. 9. c) For the Imperative, the place of whicli it always supplies in negative com- mands (prohibitions). When it expresses prohibition, it is preceded by K?, as ^i^n vh thou shalt not steal Exod. xx. 15; when dehortatory, by 7X, as ^^T^"7^5 fear not Gen. xlvi. 3; Job iii. 4, 6, 7 (and in this connexion with ^X the jussive or shortened form is proper to be used, §128, 2). It is also used for the Imperative when the third person is required, and for the Imperatives of the passive voice, so far as the forms of these are not in use (see § 46); e. g. "lli^ 'T\\ let light be, Gen. i. 8; H^V let hbn he put to death, Ex. XXXV. 2, 1 Ki. ii. 24. Comp. § 128, 2. d) For the so-called Potential, where we use may, can, might, could, ought, etc. ; e. g. Gen. ii. 16, SdXH Sbs* thou mayest eat; Prov. xx. 9, 1/^K^ ^p ^cho can sayf Gen. xliii. 7, PJ yTH could we know? Gen. xx. 9, m\ ^b ^^m (deeds) tliat ought not to be done. 4. Even for XimQ p)ast. It is thus used chiefly in these cases: a) After the particles T{< then,X D*]tp not yet, 0"^^^ {when not yet) before; e. g. Jos. X. 12, ^^T\\ ^yV, TX then spake Joshua; Gen. ii. 5, T\'r\\ D'lD there was not yet; Gen. xxxvii. 18; Xyri D'lp!! before thou com est forth, {priusquam * When these particles have a different signification, the Future is not used; e. g. ]V1 because, with the Pret. Judges ii. 20, Tki'X because^ Gen. xxxiv. 27. t The particle N3 (§ 105) gives to the verb the force of a request and of a wish. On its use with the first person, see § 128, 1. \ AVhen TS signifies then in respect to future time, this form of the verb has a future sense (Ex. xii. 48). § 128. USE OF THE LENGTHENED AND SHORTENED FUTURE. 209 exires)^ Jer. i. 5. (Compare the use of the Pret. and Fut. in the same sen- tence, 1 Sam. iii. 7.) h) Often also of customary or continued action, and in extended representation, like the Imperfect of the Latin and French languages. Repeated or customary action, as it involves the conception of something unfinished and yet to be, is properly expressed by the Future. Job i. 5, thus did {T\^'^.)) Job continually ; xxii. 6, 7, 8; xxix. 12, 13; Judges xiv. 10; 1 Sam. i. 7 ; 1 Kings iii. 4 (a thousand burnt- offerings he offered^ '^/'^-) Ts. x. 6; Ps. xxxii. 4; xlii. h. Yet also — c) Of single acts that are done and past, where the Preterite might be expected. Such is the case, at least, in poetry, on the same principle as we employ the Present tense in lively representations of the past. Job iii. 3, peinsh the day^ 121 1v\^ in which I was born; vs. 11, Hl^ijJ DH'!.^ ^7 T\Jp7 why died I not from the ivomb? iv. 12, 15, 16; x. 10, 11 ; very notable also is Judges ii. 2. 5. For the Imperfect Subjunctive, especially in conditional sentences (the modus conditionalis) both in the protasis and apodosis. Ps. xxiii. 4, '^T'5:il""'5 D^ . . . . X"!**}^ 5<7 even if I should go / shoidd not fear ; Job v. 8, I woidd apply unto God (were I in thy place) ; ix. 21, I should not know myself (if I spoke other- mse); x. 18, I had died, and no eye had seen me; iii. 16; vi. 14. In this case. also, the shortened form is properly used (§ 128, 2, c). Sect. 128. USE OF THE LENGTHENED AND SHORTENED FUTURE (COHORTATIVE AND JUSSIVE). 1. The Future as lengthened by the ending H— (the Cohortative) is used almost exclusively in the first person; and is expressive oi purpose or endeavour (see § 48, 3). Hence this form is employed, a) to express excitement of one's self, or a determination, spoken with some degree of emphasis. Ps. xxxi. 8, HT^NI nn^b^X"! let me be giad and rejoice ! ii. 3 ; Hpn^^ come ! let us break asunder. Also, with less emphasis, in soliloquy; Ex. iii. 3, MJSI'IX'! ^{5"n*^D^{ / will turn aside noio and see ; Gen. xxxii. 21. ^) To express a wish, a request (for leave to do some- thing); Deut. ii. 27, '^^^V^ let me pass through; Num. xx. 17, XJTTllnp^ let us pass through, I pray thee, c) When a purpose is expressed, and the verb is com- monly joined by \ to a preceding Imperative; Gen. xxvii. 4, bring it hither, Tv>'2i^\ and I will eat = that I may eat; xxix. 21; xlii. 34; Job x. 20. Less frequently, d) it stands in conditional sentences with if though, expressed or implied, Job 210 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAF. HI. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. xvi. 6; xi. 17; Ps. cxxxix. 8. Moreover, it stands, e) frequently after Vav con- versive (§ 49, 2). In Jeremiah this form is used to give force and emphasis of almost every kind ; iii- 25 ; iv. 19, 21 ; vi. 10. 2. The shortened Future (the Jussive) is used principal^, a) in the expression of command or Avish, as N^iri proferat Gen. i. 24, i<^'$^^\ proferet Is. Ixi. 11, Dp; sistat Jer. xxviii. 6, ^H) h utinam sit Gen. xxx. 34, also joined to a preceding Imper. bv I (comp. No. 1, c), Ex. viii. 4, intreat Jehovah "ID^] and may he taJce away = that he may take away; x. 17; Judges vi. 30; 1 Kings xxi. 10; Esther vii. 2 (b'OT). b) In dissuasion, or negative entreaty, as l^'H N^ bring not again Gen. xxiv. 8; 1 Ki. ii. G; nnp^jT'^X destroy not Deut. ix. 26, in the tone of entreaty ^j3"nx ll^•n"'7^s turn me not aicay^ 1 Kings ii. 20, of warning j^X; 7X ne conjidat Job XV. 31, XX. 17.* c) Frequently in conditional sentences (like the Arabic usage) both in the protasis and apodosis. Thus, Ps. xlv. 12 (^^*^!); civ. 20 (H^H and 'r\^-)- Hos. vi. 1 ( ^J ; Is. 1- 2 (nbn); Gen. iv. 12 (?lph); Lev. xv. 24 (™ . . . lJJ^); Job X. 16, xiii. 5, xvii. 2, xxii. 28; 1 Sam. vii. 3 (^VH)- d) After Vav conversive (§ 49, 2). As the jussive form of the Future is far from being always orthographically distinguished from the usual form (§ 48, 4, and § 127, 3, b, c), its force may occasionally be doubtful, especially as the poets now and then employ the shortened form where the usual one might stand without materially alteriniy the sense, e. g. Ps. xxv. 9. The jussive form, in that case, expresses rather a subjective judgment, such as we indicate by it may be, it might, could, should, must be, according as the sense and context of each passage may require. Sect. 129. USE OF THE FUTURE WITH VAV CONVERSIVE. 1. The Future with Vav conversive (^bp*^. and he hilled^ § 49, 2), stands only in connexion with something preceding. Most commonly a narrative begins with a Preterite, and then proceeds in the Future with Vav conversive; which is the most usual way of relating past events ;t e. g. Gen. iv. 1, and Adam knew (JH^) Eve his wife, and she conceived and bare ("1/J?1 "^^'J?!) Cain ; vi. 9, 10, etc. ; x. 9, 10, 15, 19; xi. 12—15, 27, 28; xiv. 5, etc.; xv. 1, 2; xvi. 1, 2; xxi. 1, etc.; xxiv. 1, 2; xxv. 19, 20, etc.; xxxvi. 2—4; xxxvii. 2. J * On the cases under a and b, see above in § 127, 3, b and c. J This construction may perhaps be accounted for by supposing, that what was thus put in the Future was conceived of as relatively fiUiire, i. e. as later than and subsequent to what had been expressed by the preceding Preterite. This conjecture will obviously hold good in the first example given above. Compare Rodiger's own \iew of the Preterite in § 125. — Tr. \ The preceding Pret. is, at times, only implied in the sense, e. g. Gen. xi. 10, Shem (was) 100 years old I^VI § 130. THE BIPERATm:. 211 2. If there be, however, any connexion with an earlier event, the Fiit. with Vav conv. may even begin a narrative or a section of one. In this case we find a very frequent use of ''m)! {koX hfevero) and it happened Gen. xi. 1, xiv. 1, xvii. 1, xxii. 1. xxvi. 1. xxvii. 1:* Hin^ l!:i^*1 and Jehovah said :^i\. 1. Tliis use of the Future is found also, especially, a) after an antecedent clause, e. g. after because, as in 1 Sam. xv. 23, because thou hasi rejected Jehovah's tcord "?Sr!l therefore he rejects thee. Gen. xsxiii. 10; after since (*2) Job iv. 5; 5) after an absolute noun, e. g. 1 Kings xii. 17, as to the children of Israel, -f^CH ^C"*^* vf*! *^ Rehoboam reigned oter them; is. 21 ; Dan. viii. 22. f The Vat. conv. (1) may be rendered that in sentences like the following : Ps. cxliv. 3, what is man ^"il'Z'l that thou takest knowledge of him! (comp. Ps. viii. 5, where *? is used^; Is. IL 12, tcho art thou ^^"yZl that thou shouldest be afraid? But the idea in the former passage (Ps. cxHt. 3) is this, how insignificant is man ! and yet thou dost notice him. 3. As to the relations of time indicated by this Future of consecution (see Xote *, p. 83), we may remark that, in accordance always with the preceding tense, it may refer — a) To the present time, viz., m continued descriptions of it, when preceded bv a Preterite (in the sense of a Present), Gen. xxxii. 6; Is. ii. 7, 8; Jobvii. 9; xiv. 2; or a Future (as a Present), Job xiv. 10; 1 Sam. ii. 29; or a Participle, Xah. i. 4; 2 Sam. xix. 2; Amos ix. 6. b) Less frequently to futurity, when preceded by a Pretente (as a Future), Is. V. 1.5, 16, xxii. 7, 8; Joel ii. 23; Micah ii. 13; Ps. cxx. 1 : or by a Jwssive, Joel ii. 18, 19; or by an Imperative, Ps. 1. 6 (also when joined to a clause without a verb, e. g. Gen. xlix. 15, or to an absolute noun, e. g. Is. ix. 11, or when it turns to the future, e. g. Is. ii. 9, ix. 13). The form 'n)l stands for then had been in dependent clauses after N*7, e. g. Is. xlviiL 18, 19; and "Ci*) in a conditional clause, e. g. Ps. csxxis,. 11 and (if) / should say [comp. the common Future, § 127, -5). Sect. 130. THE I M P.E Pu A T I V E. 1. The Imperative expresses not only command in the strict sense, but also exhortation ( Hos. x. 12). entreatv ("2 Kino-s v. 23. sometimes with ^j, verse 22: catd he begat, i- 1. So ako in this seDtecce, on tlie tJiird day Vl'T'T.'^ **?*!! and he lifted up his eyes; in full it would be, it happened on the third day Utcd — , Gen. xnL 4 ; Is. xxxrii. 19 ; vj. 1. * This connerion is customarr when a specification of time is to be made, e. g. Gen. niL 1, C^2~~ """S *n*2 ~lfl 2*~^Xr.5 r:|Xn and a happened after these things, that God tried; xrvL 8, s;^?^ u*Pfn 2r '."? ^Z"i< *? *rg; xxrii. 1-3, 15, IS, 19: Juices irL 16, 2-5. See tbe nomeroos passages in Gesenius's TTiei. Ling. Hebr. p. 372. In a similar way, we found i'>l'ji\ used of tbe Future in § 126, Rem. 2. T On the sentences which begin with tbe Infnitite or Participle, and then proceed with thia Frivre of eomtecution, jee 5 132, Bern. 2, ani 5 1*4. Eem. 2. 15* 212 PART III. SYNTAX. CiiAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. Is. V. 3), wish (Ps. viii. 2, and with ^7, Gen. xxiii. 13), permission (2 Sam. xviii. 23; Is. xlv. 11). It is employed especially in strong assurances (comp. thou shalt have it, which expresses both a command and a promise); and hence, in prophetic declarations, as Is. vi. 10, thou shalt make the heart of this people hard, for thou wilt make. These may be either, a) promises, Ps. cxxviii. 5, thou shalt see (^^^'^) the prosperity of Jerusalem ; Is. xxxvii. 30; Ixv. 18; Ps. xxii. 24; Gen. XX. 7; or, b) threatenings* Is. xxiii. 1, hoid, ye ships of Tarshish, for ye shall {will) howl; vs. 2, 4, x. 30, xiii. 6. In all these cases the use of the Imp. approximates much to that of the Fut., which may therefore precede (Gen. xx. 7; xlv. 18) or follow it (Is. xxxiii, 20) iu the same signification. In nearly all its significations, the Imperative is enlivened or strengthened hy the addition of the particle ^J age ! (§ 105), thus, in the sense oi command, both the milder {do noiv this or that), e. g. Gen. xxiv. 2, and the sterner or menacing, e. g. Num. xvi. 26; xx. 10; and in the sense of entreaty, e. g. ^J ^IP^ Gen. xii. 13. In the sense of ironical permission we have N3'npi? only persist ! Is. xlvii. 12. 2. We may, from the above, explain the peculiar use of two Imperatives joined by and; a) where they are employed in a good sense, the first containing an admonition or exhortation, and the second a promise made on the condition implied in the first (like divide et impera), e. g. Gen. xlii. 18, VH") ^b^S? HXT this do, and (ye shall) live; Prov. xx. 13, keep thine eyes open (be wakeful, active), and thou shalt have plenty of bread; Ps. xxxvii. 27 (comp. vs. 3); Prov. vii. 2; ix. 6; Job xxii. 21; Is. xxxvi. 16; xlv. 22; Hos. x. 12; Amos v. 4, 6; A) where a threat is expressed, and the first Imp. tauntingly [)ermits an act, while the second denounces the consequences; Is. viii. 9, ^rih) D"'?3y ^^h rage on, ye people, and ye shall surely be dismayed; Is. xxix. 9. Instead of the second Imp. the Fut. also may be used; Is. vi. 9; viii. 10; 1 Sam. xvii. 44. Rem. 1. How far the Pret. and Fut. may be employed to express command has been shown in § 126, 6, c, § 127, 3, c, and § 128, 2. 2. It is incorrect to suppose that the form of* the Imp. is used, as some grammarians maintain, for the third person {let him kill). Among the examples adduced of this usage is Gen. xvii. 10, "I3r73 nD7 711311 every male among you shall be circumcised. (In verse 12, ^iS) is used. But 7'\'^T\ is the Infinitive which gives the same sense, § 131, 4, b.) Equally mistaken are the other examples, viz., Ps. xxii. 9 {hi Inf.); Gen. xxxi. 50; Judges ix. 28; Is. xlv. 21 (in tlie last three passages we have actual Imperatives of the 2nd person). * Analogous is the form of monacc in the comic writers, vapnla, Terent. Phorni. V. (i, 10, vaptdare te juhea Plant. Curculio, IV. -4, 12. § 131. USE OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 213 Sect. 131. USE OF THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. The Infinitive absolute is employed, as has been remarked in § 45, 1, ^yhen there is occasion to express the action of the verb by itself, neither connected with some- thing following nor dependent on a preceding noun or particle,* The most im- portant cases of its use are — 1. When it is governed by a transitive verb^ and consequently stands as an accu- sative. Is. xlii. 24, ^^hri m wsS they would not go ; vii. 15, ^m) pS DliSp TOl'^ Ht33 U7itil he learn to refuse the evil, and choose the good ; Jer. ix. 4. Here, liow- ever, the Inf. constr. is oftener used, with or without a preposition, always accord- ing to the construction of the preceding verb, § 142, 1, 2. In the same construction is Is. xxii. 13, behold ! joy and gladness, '131 If<^ toin^'l ~\\>'2 jiin the slaying (prop, to slay) oxen, the slaughtering sheep, the eattJig Jlesh, the driiiking ivine (where the Infi- nitives are mere accusatives governed by behold !) Is. v. 5, / tvill tell you what I tvill do to my vine- yard 1"ll| pis . . . inaiti'rp "ipn the taking aivay [to take away) its hedge and the tearing down its tvall, — q. d. that will I do. 2. When it is in the accusative and used adverbiallyf (in Latin as gerund in do)] e. g. '2^'^T\ bene faciendo for bene, n^lD midtum faciendo for mult urn. Hence — 3. When it is used for emphasis in connexion with a finite verb: a) It then stands most commonly before the finite verb, to Avliich it gives, in general, strength or intensity. 1 Sam. xx. 6, ''3^^ ^'^''^^ vi^p} he urgently besought of me ; Gen. xliii. 3, he strictly charged us ("T'yri "T^n). A veiy clear example is in Amos ix. 8, / will destroy it from, the face of the earth, except that I will not utteidy destroy (T*^^i< I^^^H i^7) tlie house of Jacob. Judges i. 28. Its efiect is often merely to give a certain prominence to the thought contained in the finite verb, — which in other languages is done chiefly by the tone of the voice or by particles, — as in assurances, questions (such especially as express excitement in view of something strange and improbable), and contrasts; Gen. xliii. 7, could ive (then) knoiv? xxxvii. 8, ^^vV T^^^ T^'^H ^^^'^^ ^''^^^^ (indeed) * Here the Lif. constr. is always used. But when several successive infinitives are to have a preposition, it is often written only before the first ; and the second, before which it is to be supplied by the mind, stands in the absolute form, as in^l VdxS to eat and (to) drink, Ex. xxxii. 6; comp. 1 Sam. xxii. 13; xxv. 26; Jer. vii. 18; xliv. 17. This case is analogous with that explained in § 121, 3. Comp. also No. 4, a, of this section. t On the accusative as a casus adverhialis, see § 118. In Arabic it takes, in this case, the sign of the accusative, In general, the Inf. absol. answers in most cases (see Nos. 1, 2, 3, of this section) to the accusative of the Infinitive, to which No. 4 also is to be referred. 214 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. rule over us? xxxi. 30, haclst thou even gone* {^77^ T t)? -^^^ce thou didst so earnestly long (riSDD^ ^D^^); Judges xv. 13, we will bind thee, but we will not kill thee; 1 Sam. ix. 6; 2 Sam. xxiv. 24; Hab. ii. 3. h) When the Inf. stands after the -finite verb, this connexion generally indicates continued or lasting action. Is. vi. 9, yi^^ ^yp^ hear on continually; Jer. xxiii. 17; Gen. xix. 9, DISK' D3p^*1_ ajid he will always be playing the judge! Two Infinitives absolute may be thus used; 1 Sam. vi. 12, ^']^}\ *^l7n ^DpH they went going on and lowing, for they steadily went on lowing ; 1 Kings xx. 37. Instead of the second Inf., a finite verb is sometimes used (Josh. vi. 13), or a participle (2 Sam. xvi. 5). Rem. 1. This usage in regard to the position of the Inf. is certainly the common one, though not without exceptions. It sometimes follows the finite verb which it strengthens, when the idea of repetition or continuance is excluded by the connexion. Is. xxii. 17 ; Jer. xxii. 10 ; Gen. xxxi. 15 ; xlvi. 4; Dan. x. 11, 13. In Syriac, the Inf. when it expresses intensity stands always before, and in Arab, always after, the finite verb. — When a negative is used it is commonly placed between the two (Ex. V. 23), seldom before them both (Gen. iii. 4). 2. With a finite verb of one of the dei'ived conjugations may be connected not only the Inf. ahsol. of the same conjugation (Gen. xvii. 13; xl. 15), but also that of Kal (e.g. ^10 P|~iD Gen. xxxvii. 33 ; Job vi. 2), or of another of the same signification (Lev. xix. 20 ; 2 Kings iii. 23). 3. In expressing the idea of continuance (letter h), the verb "jipn is frequently employed, with the signification to go on, to continue on, and thus denotes also constant increase; e.g. Gen. xxvi. 13, ^1}\ WC "^^"^ ^'^ became continualli/ greater and greater. 2 Sam. v. 10; Gen. viii. 3, Q^^n '"l^t^'*! . . . ^it^•1 "nl^n and the loaters flowed off continualli/. (The participial construction is also frequent here; e. g. 1 Sam. ii. 26, 3101 ?T31 "^^H ?X-10p' "lySH the child Samuel went on increasing in stature and in goodness ; 2 Sam. iii. 1.) A similar mode of expression is found in the French: le mal va tovjours croissant, la maladie va toujoiirs en augmentant et en empirant, grows worse continualhj. 4. When it stands in place of the finite verb. We must here distinguish the two following cases, viz. — a) When it is preceded by a finite verb. This is frequent, especially among the later writers, in the expression of several successive acts or states, where only the first of the verbs employed takes the required form in respect to tense and person, the others being simply put in the Infinitive with the same tense and person implied. (Conq). § 121, 3.) So with the Pret. Dan. ix. 5, n'iDl liniD we have rebelled and (we liave) turned away ; Gen. xli. 43, he caused hi))i to ride in the second chariot, IHX |in3"! and p)laced him; 1 Sam. ii. 28; Jer. xiv. 5. With the Fut., Jer. xxxii. 44, tliey will buy fields for money (Fut.), and write and seal bills of sale, and take witnesses (three Infinitives), Num. xv. 35. * As much as to say, I understand well wherefore thou art gone, viz., from earnest longing. The Vulgate renders it, esto, ad tuos ire cupiehus. § 132. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 215 b) It may stand at the begimiing of the sentence, without a preceding finite verb. The Infinitive (being the pure abstract idea of the verb) may serve as a short and emphatic expression for any tense and person, which the connexion requires ; e. g. it stands a) for the Pret in lively narration and description, like the Latin Infinitivus historicus. Is. xxi. 5, liH^ 713^1 n^S^'H HSy jnpl^'n "Tjiny to prepare the table, to set tlie luatcli^ to eat^ to drink (sc. this they do), for they prepare, etc.; lix. 4; Hos. iv. 2; Eze. i. 14; Job xv. 35. Also, yS) for the Fut. in its proper sense. 2 Kings iv. 43, "inirT! 713X1 to eat and to leave thereof (sc. ye shall do); 7) most frequently for the emphatic Imp., as Deut. v. 12. ^1^^ to observe (sc. thou art to, ye are to) ; so Ex. xx. 8, 713T to remember (oughtest thou) ; hence, with the full form, \TmT\ ^^'!2^, Deut. vi. 17; nlDTn nbl, vii. 18. For the Cohortative Is. xxii. 13, IHtJ^I 71D&< to eat and to drink! (sc. let us eat and drink); 1 Kings xxii. 30 to disguise myself and go (will I do). Rem. 1. The Inf. for the Jinite verb is seldom found in connexion with the subject, as in Job xl. 2; Eze. i. 14. 2. The examples are also few of the Inf. consfr. employed in these cases. Such are Is. Ix. 14, where it is used adverbially like the gerund in do; it is connected with a finite verb in Neh. i. 7 (bbq), Ps. 1. 21 (nf\n), Ruth ii. 16 (Vc'), Num. xxiii. 25 (np). Sect. 132. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCT. 1. The Inf. constr. as a verbal substantive is subject to the same relations of case with the noun, and the modes of indicating them (§ 117) are also the same. Thus, it is found, a) in the nominative as the subject of the sentence. Gen. ii. 18, T^yp ^l^C ^"^^^ ^"^^ ^'' ^^^^ ^^^^^ (^'^^- ^^^^ bei?ig of man in his separation) that man should be alone; b) in the genitive. Gen. xxix. 7, ^pi;>D ^5? tempus colligendi, here is to be referred the case where the Infinitive is dependent on a preposition (as being originally a noun), see No. 2; c) in the accusative, 1 Kings iii. 7, V1^ ^^ N13] nj^^ / know not (how) to go out and to come in, prop. / know not the going out and comiiig in. (In this case the Inf. absol. may also be used, § 131, 1.) 2. For the construction of the Inf. with prepositions, as in the Greek ev tm ehai, the German [and English] languages generally employ a finite verb with a con- junction which expresses the import of the preposition; e. g. Num. xxxv. 19, n"iy^S!3 when he meets him, prop, in his meeting with him. Jer. ii. 35, '^']?^^ ^V because thou sayest, prop, on account of thy saying. Gen. xxvii. 1, his eyes luere dim niX"!!: so that he could not see (comp. the use of \J2 before a noun to express distance 216 PART III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. from^ and the absence or want of a thing). The lexicon must be consulted for particular information on the use of the different prepositions. 3. With respect to relations of time, the Infinitive refers also to the past (comp. on the Participle, § 134, 2), e. g. Gen. ii. 4, CXnsn^ wlien they luere created (prop. {?i their being created). Rem. 1. riib'yS n^n (or riib^^^ with the omission of H^H) signifies, 1) he is about to do, iritends or jmrjioses to do, and he is intent upon, is eager to do (comp. / am to play), as Gen. xv. 12, ti'Ok^'^ "'HM N13 7 and the sun teas about to yo doivn. Hence, it serves for a periphrasis of the Fut., 2 Chr. xxvi. 5, □•"ribx mih ■•nM. and he served God; without n^H in Is. xxxviii. 20, ^PV'P'inS T]}r[\ Jehovah saveth me; xxi. 1, Eccles. iii. 15, Prov. xix. 8, comp. xvi. 20. 2) It is to do for it must be done (comp. I am to give). Jos. ii. 5, "liilpp "iy?;'n '•n^'l a)Ld the gate teas to shut for was to be shut. IMore commonly without n^H; 2 Kings iv. 13, '"iVt^'y? no tvliat {is) to be done ; 2 Chr. xix. 2. Also, 3) He teas able to do (comp. the Latin non est sohendo). Judges i. 19, K'^'linp X? he coidd not drive out.^' 2. The Hebrew writers frequently pass from the Infinitive construction (described in No. 2) to the use of the finite verb, before which the mind must then supply a conjunction answering to the preposition before the Infinitive. Thus, a Pret. follows, in Amos i. 11, ^'^Hi^ ^W] — ^^'I'J ^^. because he pursued — and stifled his compassion; Gen. xxvii. 45; a Fut. with Vav conv. in Gen. xxxix. 18, NlipXI "•pip ''P^'injS wJien I raised my voice and cried. Is. xxx. 12, xxxviii. 9; most commonly a Fut. with only \ prefixed, as in Is. v. 24, x. 2, xiii. 9, xiv. 25, xxx. 26. (Comp. the participial construction, § 134, P^em. 2.) Sect. 133. CONNEXION OF THE INF. CONSTRUCT WITH SUBJECT AND OBJECT. J. The Infinitive may be construed with the case of its verb, and hence, in transitive verbs, it takes the accusative of the object; e. g. Num. ix. 15, TlX D'*jpn jSSJ'^ri to setup the Tabernacle; 1 Sam. xix. 1, IHTlN n'/p!!/ to kill David ; Gen. xviii. 25, pn^ ^^''P'^/ ^0 hill the righteous ; 1 Kings xii. 15; xv. 4; 2 Kings xxi. 8; Eze. xliv. 80; Lev. xxvi. 15, '•ni^*^"7|l"nx Hlb^y to do all my commands; Gen. xix. 29, Dnyn-nj^-'^SnS when he overthrew the cities; Prov. xxi. 15, LDS^J'p mby to do judgment.'f In like manner it takes the accusative of the pronouns, e. g. ■^nS} D''pri [y^pp in order to establish thee., Deut. xxix. 12; ^^?^t/*n to bring me back, Jer. xxxviii. 26; "'-?j?1'^/ to slay me., Ex. ii. 14; ''JtJ'jplsp to seek me., 1 Sam. xxvii. 1 ; * This sense is necessary from the context, and in the parallel passage Jos. xvii. 12 it is expressed by •173*^ iO B'nin?. Comp. also the Hebrew 7 )^X non licet mihi, and the Syr. "h r\'h non possum (Agrell. Suppl. Synt. Syr. pp. 9," 10). f In cases like the last, OSp'D might be easily regarded as genitive of the object (§ 114, 2), which construction is common in Arabic; but since in other instances DS is used, and since a form like D'jpn never occurs in such connexion, which form would decidedly mark the constr. state and also the genitive relation, we must suppose that the Hebrews considered, at least as a general rule, the object of the Inf. to be in the accusative. Compare Nos. 2. and 3 § 133. CONNEXION OF THE INF. CONSTR. WITH SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 217 V. 10; xxviii. 9; 1 Chroii. xii. 17; Gen. xxv. 26, Dni< H^?!! quura {mater) eos pareret. If the finite verb governs two accusatives, then they will be employed also with the Infinitive, as n^rS^'Hi^jl ^n^^ ^^'O^^ T^^'^ ''iTl^ since God has shown thee all this Gen. xli. 39. The same construction takes place with a verbal noun analogous to the Infinitive, as riin'^TlNI ny'l knowledge of Jehovah (prop, the knowing Jehovah)^ Is. xi. 9, ^!^5T7 ^nx to fear me Deut. v. 26, Is. xxx. 28, Ivi. 6.* 2. The subject of the action is commonly put immediately after the Infinitive, sometimes (where the Inf. is regarded rather as a substantive) in the genitive, but generally in the nominative; e. g. 2 Cliron. vii. 3, tJ^NH tTH the descending of the fire; Ps. cxxxiii. 1, *T\\ 05 D^nt^ fl^^ that brethren dwell together ; Ex. xvii. 1, there was no ivater Dyn nW^? for the people to drink (prop, for the drinking of the people). The genitive relation of the subject is quite plain after Infinitives of feminine-ending, as in Is. xlvii. 9, I'i^tp '^H^D J^PVV^ although thy enchantments are very numerous ; Gen. xix. 16, Ivy np) TOfpT}'^ by Jehovah's pity on him; and also when it is expressed by a suffix, like ''ij^lPS luhen I call^ Ps. iv. 2, 4 (yet also incorrectly ''^^^^^ ivhen I return^ Eze. xlvii. 7, for ""^l^^S)- On the contrary, the genitive is excluded, and the subject to be considered rather in the nominative in such cases as these: Ps. xlvi. 3, "f*'1Nt ^''^I^? {^^^^ '^''^D^') when the earth moves; Deut. xxv. 19, '^7 "^P^ r''*^v'5 when Jehovah gives to thee rest; 2 Sam. xix. 20, 1^7' ''^ ''J/^D D^^7 ^^^"^^ ^^^^ ^'^'^9 should lay it to heart ; also when the Inf. and the subject are separated, as in Judges ix. 2, ^'i^ DJ^ hl^f2 DK 1^'^ D^y;}^ Dp^l hmri irii^ ivhether seventy men rule over yoii^ or one man rules over you? Job xxxiv. 22, \\^ 'h'^h D^ ^r^BH/ that the evil-doers hide themselves there; Ps. Ixxvi. 10. See further in No. 3. 3. When both subject and object are connected with the Infinitive, the rule is, that the subject should come immediately after the Inf., and then the object. When the latter is plainly in the accusative, the subject is then put, as in No. 2, sometimes in the genitive, but chiefly in the nominative. The genitive (which prevails in Arabic) appears, e. g. in Deut. i. 27, 1i^^{ T\y\\ ^^Jib^^ because Jehovah hates us ; Is. xiii. 19, DlDTlN D^ri7}J MpS^PI as God overthrew Sodom ; Is. xxix. 13, "'^^} CDH^js*!) their fearing me; Gen. xxxix. 18, v^'p ''P''7r'r' (^s lifted up my voice: but the nominative is found, e. g. in Is. x. 15, V^**")^"^^ ^?^ ^^^^ '^^ ^f ^^'^ ^'od could shake them, that lift it up (where we should have liad ^"*^n3, if LD^lEi^ were in the Examples of an accusative of the object with the Inf. passive, see § 143, !, a. 218 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. genitive). Accordingly the subject is usually to be considered in the nominative, as 1 Kings xiii. 4, Cl'ri\s;n tr\S* inTHSI "^hfpn ybp'3 as the king heard the word of the man of God. Gen. xiii. 10, Jos. xiv. 17, 2 Sam. iii. 11, Jer. xxi. 1, Eze. xxxvii. 13. Now and then the order of the words is different, th^ object being put immediately after the Inf., and the nominative of the subject coming next (as a supplement) e.g. Is. xx. 1, iri'S HPL"!! Pil"ip ivhen Saryon sent him; Ezra ix. 8, ■IJ^iJ''.^ ^'^'^TV. ''"'^'7? ^'''"^ o?<;- God enlighteti our eijcs ; 2 Chron. xii. 1, Oy^n"} nnpD ppriS tchen Rehohoam had estaUiahed tlie kiiiydom. Jos. xiv. 11. Is. V. 24, xxix. 23, Ps. hi. 1. Sect. 134. USE OF THE PAllTICIPLE. 1. The only existing form of the Participle is used to express all the tenses, as T\'!^ dying (Zech. xi. 9); he who has died., dead (very frequently so); he who is to die (Gen. xx. 3); 7Si lie who falls., has fallen., will fall; r\^V fctcturus (Gen. xli. 25; Is. V. 5); though it most frequently has the signification of the Present. The passive Participles, therefore, stand also for the Latin Participle in -ndus., e. g. ^<'^13 metuendus., terrible., Ps. Ixxvi. 8; /^^^ laudandus^ worthy to be praised, Ps. xviii. 4. 2. The Participle, standing in place of the finite verb as predicate of the sen- tence, denotes — a) Most frequently the Present :^ Eccles. i. 4, ^^3 "^iT"! "^l^H "iH one generdtiun goes, another comes; vs. 7, D"'??'n ^yC^?'''? (M the rivers fioio ; Gen. iv. 10. If the subject is a personal pronoun, it is either written, in its separate form, in immediate connexion with the Participle, as ^^^^^ t*?)) I fear Gen. xxxii. 12, C*??.'! •"I3^3^5; we are afraid 1 Sam. xxiii. 3; or it is appended as a suffix to the word ^l [is), as Judges vi. 36, ^^t^'IO '^t^',^ DS if thou savest. In the same manner it is appended, in negative sentences, to Y^; e. g. D.?P'9 "^^''^ '2':^ if thou send not away. Gen. xliii. 5. Hence, li) the Future (conceived of as present, comp. § 126, 4). Is. v. 5, I tcill tell you 1L"X nx nC'y ^JX what I do, iox what I loill do. Gen. xix. 13; xli. 25. Also, c) the Past, especially when it stands connected with the statement of other past con- temporaneous circumstances. Job i. 1 6, X3 np "iBip PIT IIJ? the one (was) still speaking, and another came ; vs. 17. Gen. xiii. 35 ; Ex. ii. 6 ; Judges xiii. 9 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 23 ; 1 Ki. i. 5, 22. But it is also used with reference to past time, and even for the perfect Preterite, without any such con- nexion ; e. g. Deut. iv. 3, mxnn DD^^J? your eyes lohich have seen.\ With the verb H^^H it serves to express the Imperfect. :|: Job i. 14, riVJnn -VH "li^Sn the oxen tvere ploughing. Gen. xv. 17; Judges i. 7; xvi. 21. Rem. 1. In all the three cases alluded to above, a, h, e, ^'}i^ is employed before the Participle for awakening special attention ; e. g. (a) For the Present, H^n "^jsn behold ! thou (art) ivith child. * In Syriac and Chaldee, it is more frequently used for the Present than in its proper signification as a Participle. t For the use of the article here before tlie predicate, see § 110, 3, Rem. J In Syriac, the Present is expressed by interfciens ego (comp. letter a), and the Imperfect b}' Interjiciens fui ■ interjicieham. § 136. EXPRESSION OF THE OPTATIVE. 219 Gen. xvi. 11 ; xxvii. 42; Ex. xxxiv. 11. (5) For the Future, Gen. vi. 17; Is. iii. 1 ; vii. 14; xvii. 1. (c) For the Past, Gen. xxxvii. 7; xli. 17. 2. By a change of construction, the Participle is often immediately followed by a finite verb; the pronouns that, loho, etc. ("'.?'^) implied in the Participle, must then be mentally supplied before the verb. So Part, and Pret. in Is. xiv. 17, that 'made (^^) the world as a wilderness, and (who) destroyed ipl^) the cities thereof. Also Part, anil Fut. (^Present), so that the second clause begins with 1 or without it, e. g. Is. v. 8, -Hnpl nnb'a nnb n)?3 n^n ^y"'5D '•in tvoe to those ivho connect house loith house, and (who) Join field to field ; vs. 11, 23 ; xxxi. 1 ; 1 Sam. ii. 8 ; Prov. xix. 26 ; also with Van conversive, e. g. Gen. xxvii. 33, ^?*1 "I^V *^"V^ tliat hatli hunted game and brought it; XXXV. 3 ; Ps. xviii. 33. (Compare the strictly analogous deviation from tlie Infinitive-construction, § 132, Rem. 2.) Sect. 135. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. When Participles are followed by the object of the action which they express they are construed in two ways; 1) as verbal-adjectives having the same govern- ment as the verbs to which tliey belong; e. g. 1 Sam. xviii. 29, ^^"riNI l^X David's enemy (prop, one hating David); 1 Ki. ix. 23, D^^ ^H'^'^ ^^^^V ^^^^ *"^^^^ the people ; Ps. xxxiv. 13, Cfn y^^'HT} he who desires life; Eze. ix. 2, QHIl SJ'^l? clothed with linen garments ; 2) as nouns followed by a genitive (§ 112, 2); e. g. Gen. xxii. 12, J3 those ivho enter in at the gate. But there are also examples of the Participle, regarded as a noun, being followed by a genitive in cases where the verb to which it belongs is construed only with a preposition; e. g. I''?!^, "'^i^ those who rise up against me, — against him, for ly^, 'h]3 CPi^, Ps. xviii. 40, 49; Deut. xxxiii. 11; Is. lix. 20, yy*5 *?^ tJiose who turn from evil. 2. The difference explained in No. 1, holds also in regard to the suffixes. After the first method, we have ^^^y Ice who made me, after tlie second '•^J? my maker. Sect. 136. EXPRESSION OF THE OPTATIVE. We have already seen (§ 127, 3, ^) that the Future, especially as cohortative with the ending H— and with the particle 5>}i, is employed to express the Optative. Here must be added two other forms of circumlocution by which it is expressed, viz. — 220 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 1. By questions expressive of desire, e. g. 2 Sam. xv. 4, ^^^ '')^^] ""P i^ho ivill mahe me judge? i.e. would that I were made judge ! Judges ix. 29, DVn'nNI jjri^ ''12 ''y^k nn would that this people were placed in my hand! Ps. Iv. 7; Job xxix. 2. In the phrase \^\ ""p the proper force of tlie verb {to give) is often excluded, and nothino- more is expressed than would that! (utinam !) God grant ! It is followed, a) by an accusative, as Deut. xxviii. 67, I'^y ]^)~^^ icould it were evening! prop. who will give evening? h) by an Infinitive, as Ex. xvi. 3, ^^Hl^ p!'"'*P Q tliatwehad died! c) by a finite verb (with or without 1), Deut. v. 26, DhS HT DniS r\\r\\ \P\]"12 that they had this lieart! Job xxiii. 3. 2. By the particles DX .s■^, si! T> si I especially by the latter, Ps. cxxxix. 19. The particle is followed by the Fut., Gen. xvii. 18, by the Part.^ Ps. Ixxxi. 14, seldom by the Imp., Gen. xxiii. 13. When it is followed by the Prei., the desire expressed has reference to past time; as Num. xx. 3', ^^V^ ^7 icould we had died! Sect. 137. PERSONS OF THE VERB. 1. In the use of the persons of the verb there is sometimes a neglect in respect to the distinctions of gender: especially are the masculine forms (as being the most readily occurring) employed with reference to objects which are feminine; e. g. DHVI* Eze. xxiii. 49, DH^b^y Ruth i. 8, Hh^pril tliou (fem.) hast made a league Is. Ivii. 8; Joel ii. 22; Am. iv. 1; Cant. ii. 7. (Compare the analogous use of the pronoun, § 121, Rem. 1.) 2. The third person (most commonly in the masc.) is very often employed impersonally, e. g. \'1^1 and it happened; w 1^ and 17 ^^.*1 (lit. it ivas strait to him) he was in trouble ; w DH and w DH*! lie became warm. It is also employed thus in the fem., e. g. 1 Sam. xxx. 6, ^Tf? ^^^1 and David icas in trouble ; Ps. 1. 3; Jer. X. 7. The Arabic and ^T^tliiopic commonly employ liere the masc. and the Syriac the fem. form. 3. The indeterminate third person (where the Germans use mail, the French on, and we tJiey, one,) is expressed, a) by the 3rd pers. singular, e. g. ^{'^p they (prop. Jie) called Gen. xi. 9; xvi. 14; 1 Sam. xix. 22; xxiv. 11; b) by the 3rd pers. plural, as Gen. xli. 14, ^n^'''1^T and tliey brougltt liim in liaste, for lie was brouglit ; c) by the 2nd person singulnr, e. g. Is. vii. 25, H^^ X1!in"X7 tliere shall § 138. VERBS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 221 no one go thither; so in the common phrase "^Xi iy or '^^h until one comes ; d) by the passive voice, as Gen. iv. 26, NhpS ShIH T^5 then they began to call upon — .* Rem. 1. In the first case (letter a), the force of ^''''^ (impersonal, as we use one, men, they) is implied : the full construction occurs in one instance, 1 Sam. ix. 9, C'^Xn "ipx nb 7X"lb'|'3 □"'32_^ formerly they said this in Israel. Sometimes another construction is employed, viz., the repetition of the verb in the form of the Participle as a nominative ; e. g. Is. xvi. 10, "^^"^n "^^ir^^ the treader shall not tread, for they shall not tread =■ there shall be no treading; xxviii. 4; Jer. ix. 23* Eze. xxxiii. 4. The last not unfrequent in Arabic. 2. When the pronoun is to be expressed with emphasis, it is written separately before the corre- sponding verbal form; e. g. JJIH^ nnx thou hast given, Judges xv. 18; 1 Kings xxi. 7; Ps. ii. 6; cxxxix. 2; also after the verbal form. Judges xv. 12, and this occurs in the later writers Avithout any special emphasis, as ""p^^ ^Jf^l?"^ Eccles. i. 16, beginning; ii. 11, 12, 13, 15, 20; viii. 15. 3. In the poets and prophets, especially, there is often, in the same construction, a sudden transition from- one person to another. Is. i. 29, D^IPD 1K'J< D7''ti^1\ ^3 for they shall be ashamed of the groves in which ye delight, where both the third and second persons are employed wi-th reference to the same subject. Isa. Ixi. 7; Deut. xxxii. 15, 17; Mic. ii. 3. — In Job xiii. 28, the third person is probably employed SeiKTiKuJs for the first, compare also vi. 21 (according to the reading y>). Sect. 138. VERBS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. All transitive verbs govern in general the accusative (§118). On this rule we remark — 1. There are many verbs which are construed both without an object (absolutely), and with one (in this latter case the verb in German and English often takes the prefix he); e. g. JlipS to weep^ and to he-weep ; '2^\ to dwell., and to dwell in., inhabit; X^) to go forth^ and also like egredi in the form egredi urbem (Gen. xliv. 4). Here notice further : Rem. 1. Several verbs of this kind take after them their own substantive, i. e. one from the same root and with a corresponding signification, as *ins "inS Ps. xiv. 5, HVy YV\ 1 Kings i. 12, like j3ov\€V€Lv /3ovXas II. x. 147 ; most frequently as a specification, or as a limitation of the general idea of the verb (as also in Greek); e. g. Gen. xxvii. 34, n"10"l nil} "^i^VV PVV*! he cried a loud and bitter cry ; vs. 33 ; 2 Kings xiii. 14; Zech. i. 14; 1 Chr. xxix. 9. Comp. vocreiv voaov koki/v, etc. 2. Verbs Avhich signify to flow, to stream, take in the poets an accusative of that which is repre- sented as poured forth in a streatn. Lam. iii. 48, ^3^y "l^ri D^O'^pS my eye flows down streams of water. Joel iv. 18, the hills flow milk. So ^!3 to run, to flow, Jer. ix. 17, ^^J to distil, Joel iv. 18, and ^^^ to gush forth, to flow abundantly (hence, to bear along, as does a torrent). Is. x. 22: similar. * Sometimes, on the contrary, the impersonal dicunt must be understood as strictly the passive dkltur, Job vii. 3, nights of pain have they appointed me, for are appointed me (so. by God) ; iv. 19 ; xvli. 12 ; xxxii. 15 ; xxxiv. 20. So in Chaldee very frequently (Dan. ii. .30 ; iii. 4 ; v. 3), and in Syriac. 222 PART III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. III. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. but more bold, is Prov. xxiv. 31, C^i^'^i? i?P npj? nsn^ and behold it (the field) has all gone up to thorns. Is. v. 6, Compare in Greek, irpopUw vBotp, Hymn, in Apoll. 2, 202 ; SaKpva crra^etv. 3. It is also to be regarded as a mere poetic usage, when verbs which signify to do, to speak, to cry, and the like, take an accusative of the instrument or member with which tlie act is performed. This is best illustrated by the example ?i"I| Vlp pyt to cry a loud voice (comp. Rem. 1), for to cry tvith a loud voice, Eze. xi. 13 ; to speak a lying tongue (Ps. cix. 2), hence, Ps. iii. 5, ^"^i?^ V''P ivith my (whole) voice I cry ; *n^"Ji"^ ''? Ixvi. 17, ivith my (full) mouth I cry : so, to s^ieak with the mouth, Ps. xvii. 10, with the lips, xii. 3; to labour with the hand, Prov. x. 4; to help with the right hand, with the hand, with the sword, Ps. xvii. 13, 14; xliv. 3; Ix. 7 ; VV\ ^V'f'^r]*; in which cases the accusativus instrumenti is employed. In the same cases ? instrumenti is also used, e. g. to praise with the mouth, Ps. Ixxxix. 2; cix. 30; to supplicate with the mouth, Job xix. 16. But the same use of the accusative is found in Greek ; e. g. Trpo/SaiveLv TrdSa, Trateiv $l(}>os (see Person and Schafer ad Eurip). Orest. 1427, 1477, Bernhardy Synt. Gr. Sprach. S. 110); and that the accusative is actually dependent on the verb, in these cases, is clear from a comparison with those given under Rems. 1 and 2. In like manner, f in German, the instrument is sometimes construed as the object of the verb, as in the following examples, which are strictly analogous to those given above : Schlittschuhe laufen ; eine herrliche Stimme singen ; eine tiichtige Klinge schlagen [so in English, to ring tlie bell, to sound the timbrel, etc.]. 2. Many verbs govern the accusative in consequence of a peculiar turn given to their signification, when the corresponding verbs in Greek, Latin, and German are construed with other cases; e. g. H^y to reply to (like dnei^ofxal nva, prop, to acquaint one) ; l***! causam alicujus agere (prop, to defend him before the judge) ; 122^5 to bring good news to one^ to cheer him ; ^N^ to commit adultery with one (prop. to embrace one adulter oiisly) ) H'ly to become surety for one {to bail him). Rem. 1. In the same manner are construed even the passive and reflexive conjugations Niph., Hoph., Hithpa., the verb sometimes assuming under these forms a signification which requires the accusative, as ^3? to prophesy, Jer. xxv. 13; 3p3 to surround (prop, to place themselves around). Judges xix. 22 ; 'Jjl/O^vl / am made (involuntarily) to j^ossess. Job vii. 3 ; •'ir^r^'T' to plot against. Gen. xxxvii. 18; i.3"l3rin to consider, J oh xxxvii. 14. 2. In very common forms of expression the accusative after such verbs may be omitted without injury to the sense (an elliptical expression), as ri"]Ii , for ri"''l| T\'12 to 7nake a covenant, 1 Sam. xx. 16; rb^ to stretch forth, sc. "IJ the hand, Ps. xviii. 17. 3. Whole classes of verbs which govern the accusative are, a) those which signify to clothe and unclothe,, as ^1/ ^^ P'^'-^ ^'^ ^ garment, tOC^S to put off a garment, * in 1 .Sum. xxv. 26, 33, we luive "V.^ and nj as subjects to tlio Inf. y^^MH, see § 133, 2. t The Hebrews used also, on the other hand, the 2 instrumenti where we have the accusative. They used indifferently, as we also may, the constructions to shake the head (Ps. xxii. 8), and to shake with the head (Job xvi. 4) ; to gnash the teeth (Ps. xxxv. 16), and to gnash ivith the teeth (Job xvi. 9), where head and teeth may be regarded as the object of the verb and as the instrument. But there is a deviation from our mode of expression in these phrases, viz., HS^ nj?3 to open the mouth (Job xvi. 10, prop, to make an opening mth the mouiti), pH'? ^T!? to spread out the hands (Lam. i. 17, prop, to make a spreading with the hands'), comp. bip2 jnj and § 139. VERBS WITH TWO ACCUSATIVES. 223 rriy to put on as an ornament; e. g. [Nli^ri DH^ ^^?^ t^^^ pastures are clothed with flocks^ Ps, Ixv. 14; cix. 29; civ. 2 ; b) those Avhich signify fulness or want, as N?^ ^j be full, y^^ to sioarm with (Gen. i. 20, 21), V^?^ to be satiated, |*'13 ^o overflow (Prov. iii. 10), "IDH to want, 7b^ to ^055 {children)-, e. g. DHX |*>S*n ^%T\\ and the land was filled with them Ex. i. 7 ; M^pll Dpn^H D^^bPl [nDH^, ^S^S* lit. perhaps the fifty righteous will want five, i. e. perhaps there will be lacking five of the fifty Gen. xviii. 28; Oy^^ D5 7^pi< (^%) shoidd I lose you both together Gen. xxvii. 45; c) most verbs of dwelling, e. g. p?', '^'lil, ^^J, not merely in a place (Judges v. 17; Is. xxxiii. 16; Gen. iv. 20), but also among a people, with any one (Ps. v. 5; cxx. 5); d) those which express going or coming to a place {petere locum); hence X1!l, with the accus. to befall one. With this is connected the accus. loci, § 118, 1. Sect. 139. VERBS WITH TWO ACCUSATIVES. Two accusatives are governed by — 1. The causative conjugations {Piel and Uiphil) of all verbs which in Kal govern one accusative ; e. g. H^^n HII VHi^?^ / have filled him with the spirit of wisdom, Ex. xxviii. 3; ^*, n^n^ niy^J ''y^'^t' "^■^' '■'■■'^ r('.:^:u'h lui rnwk of hrar.H ; (jieii. ii. 7; lOx. XXV. '.',\); xxxvi. II. 'i'licrt; \h .iiiol.licr iih<: of l\V(j accUHaf-ivcH aCl-cr \.\\i- Hairif; activo vciIj, vi/., vvIhmi \.\u: h'-coruJ Horvr'^ to limit the fiiHt, by exjircHhing inoro definitely tlie oljjcct of tlie aetjijii. 'J'Imh nouily reHembleH tlie adverljiai UMe of the aceiiHative (§ 1 IBj; e. g. 'Op 'D n3n ^ HiniUi ona on lint chetJc^ f(jr lo Hinitc hiit i:h<:i:k, I'n. iii, H ('ftoriiii. iJ'iit. XHxiii. I 1 ; 2 Ham, ill, 27j; ^^Ij 'C n3n /^ aw//^/ om; an lo Iuh lifr, i, ir. /o «m«/'.' /'jVh ilriul, (ii\\. x.xxvii. '21 ; inid in the M;iine manner with ^IK' (ien. iii. LO. Skct. 110. vi'ii'jis wrm i'i'j;i'0.sirif).\s. Th<; Ilchrftvv I;trif(U}i;((; Ikis no vcrhs ("OinpfiUrKj*;*! vvil-h propoHitioriH. 'I'lioHd rnodiricitlJofis of IIh; v(;rl)ul i(l(.';i,, wliicJi f)|,||(;r \',\.w^\v,v^<-h iiKJicutc by c(Hr)p<>Hlti(;ii vviUi |>rf'.poHif/ions, Jirc cxpr-cHHcd in I Ik; I!f;hrcw cllJicr, r/) by approprliiM; verbal fit(!rns, ;is NH f.n f/o-u/.^ ii'i'' f.o (jo-oiU^ y\\^ to vd-hini^ D'^p lo pre-cede^ TVjp lo oc-CMr ; or, A) by prcposilions wri(,l,(;n 'aUcv (Ik; v(;rb [:ih in I'jioli,sli|, (;. cv///, willi 7 to »o?;', iUKi ulso lo fall ojf, willi ''I?)/ lo fall doitrn before; "yT} vvifJi '•'in^ '^'^ V'-' '//-f'-'/-, to follo'in. It in the tanic (W tlie Lexicon to mIiow the usr: of the several piepoHitioiiM with farh particular verlj. The Hiihject of wliol'- elasMen of wonis eoriKtrnf;(l with this or that parlieh: will he heHt referred to § l/j-l, .'J, whieh treatu of the eonstruetion and nne of the prejjO.silirjnH. \ Sf;e f)n the Huhjeet of thif« «ection, Nordheimer'n fich. (Jrummdr, tj l(),'',7. | Skct. 14 1. coNSTJi ucrio riiMdNA ns. The so-cullc*] amstructio pra^fjnanfi ocamlvh iti ll(;i)r<;\v piuiinihn-ly wlion a verb, ill itself not, ii, ve,rb of niol.ion, is er)ririected with a particle; whieh iin[)lie.s motion; HO that, loi- the <:oinpl(!tioii :iikI eoiT(;etneHH of the Hense, another verb of motion is to be iiK'ii(;illy su/ppl/wjl^ .so I hat the prineijcil vv r\^p] nni< hd'^S n^g to ftiiup to follow Jehovah, i. c to follow him, falli/, Num. xiv. 24; I's. xxii. 22, ')T}'y^^ DVpn ^Dlpp hear (and Have) i/ie front, the hor/i,.s of the In/Jfaloes ; Is. xiv. 17, Hn^Il nn3 H7 V"l^p{< his priHoner.s he did not relea,.se (and let i^o) to their homes; i's. ixxxix. 40; Gen. xlii. 28; Is. xli. I. § 142. co5STiiUCT:o5 or two "Zii- ro iz^'iSc ose idea. 225 Sect. 142. coxstructioy of two verbs to express oxl i,^-. When or.'; v<;Tb iier . " :r. the sec^:. ' ', .,rd- mcr to the ienije, the :.- ,- .. , . = , .... >.. . ■ ;. riz. — 1. It ^*ar is in the /«/., both a^*(j/. Cf 1-^1. . ^ ^'more wn?6-., after : ; vero. e. g. Deot. iL 2.3. 31, r^ ^^^^ Ji?€^ io gvce; Ger .5, KJ?' -^'^^ oiw/ ?Aey icer*/ <>» fc A-afe; Ex. xviiL 23. "^ ^i^^ ift^ot* caiwf endure; Is. v l^ VS^ T!^Z I am v.€ary to Ij^mt. But e freqaeatly^- 2. It stands in the /n/. preceded bv /. as ^. . -4^ "."il *j/ r "^T ^'"^-^ ^0^ ^^^in to shr/a: ; Gen- xL 8, T^yT> TTW^ an>i : c , ,.„:^J^ thou hu^ hrfj^.fr^M */:* ^^A. L e. &a*^ q^iifMy jrAtrtd^ etc " :.=r^ two are Xae m. prose a&w Tetfes t^sfahia^ to hepn PDO, '^****,i, to '-'-'. . fo r-.: i : ^ "1" " . . . -ce iz/AfA '- - ' ^ij:T6*.-se: . 3, iSt» fe wSBrng ^p^, 7f^ to r«^(«» T???^, to ««dL to «*r*r« ^^ ^^^^ to he tiHe f^, 3nC» ::.; ' . ' 'r^ to !»/:•■.. '"."':'. ■. '; "^" .■ '^ "' '.\' ' ' ' . ' ' , e-r^.. . , ,.7-&e 7 - ."-,... ?, Ex. X. z7, wim tae mere /«^. Joo xxxix. '^ : i^a. y%\. 9 ; xiiL ^i,t .3, It has, liiffi; the first, the foma of the finite verb : they are then consinei — a) With \ bef " ■ agrees n in tense. crendeT. and nTim-:. . . .i., .^ .^, ^r; .. 2. (Comp. o'lr exp-eidon, A>e tro* iphoied and w^it : : . ro^ fha^A to go,) — Judges xix. 6^ p^, K^ VN" I ^ pleased now and lod^e; Jos. viL 7. — Gen. xxvL 18. ^^^i ^S^i arid he returned (repeated) arid diaqed^ for he diqqed ogam ; xxxriL 7 ; 2 Kings L IL 13 ; GeiL xxr. 1- A-g add^d a a nxife. a ^fife. — ^Esth. viiL 6. TTH^i "TD^ njJV A^^MT ir-^^^j. I eridure m;. / lor bow f^tonjdd I ertdure to v:itrte^sf — Cant. iL 3; Eccles, iv. 1, 7. The &xs£iw:!lm& &m. alv5 ve^in with tbe JF«iL aad pro«ft»5d ia rise /Vf f ^''1 * '^at . . , 1 126, 6;, as in E<^i£r Tm. 6; I>?at. zzxL 12, Otd fkey mmy Uarm (FhX. ?!«<.), for to ^sor- Hcd. 5L 1 1 : Din, ix, 2#- Aid cas tite ©oBtEarj, is oaar be^ ia rise /' <: < ' - prc-eeed in ^ • To fiermit «me to 49 « Ouag. k «j«assBi 07 rrc?^ 'S JTS, asd r:'^^ S ITS, prcfu to ^wf «r grwO. om to QjiJJ ^^\ volchat tolleret (liuke xviii. 13), lie would lift up, but oftener with tlie conjunction that, j^P? (^t he icould come. The Latin :ilso may omit the conjunction in this case; Quid vis faciam ? Ter. Volo hoc oratori coiitingat, Cic. Brut. 84. So in (Jerman [and in English] Ich u!ollte, es wdi-e ; Teh dachte, es ginge [Z would it were, I thought it went.'] t For ^?|>nn3 (§ 20, Rem.) Inf. Iliph. of D»ri. X This construction is also common in Syriac (see Hoffmann's Gram. Syr., p. 343, b), where it is by no means to be taken (as is done by J. D. Michael is) for a Grrecism. § 143. CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 227 stood around and boived, for bowed arou7id; 2 Kings ii. 10, ?^??, by Avhich origin,, source,, in general, is often denoted), Ps. xxxvii. 23, Gen. ix. 11, Job xxiv. 1, xxviii. 4; ''iJ^P a parte., Gen. vi. 13; 3 by, Num. xxxvi. 2. Sometimes this relation is expressed without a preposition with accusat. instrumenti Comp. Qlshausen Emendalionen zum A. 1\, S. 24, 25. 228 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. IV. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (comp. § 138, 1, Rem. 3), as Is. i. 20, ^S^N*^! ^^J^ by the sword shall ye be devoured, comp. Ps. xvii. 13. Rem. Many neuter verbs are sometimes used as passive, in consequence of a peculiar application of their meaning ; e. g. T]^ io go doton, — spoken of a forest, to be felled; H^.y for io be brought up (on the altar), Lev. ii. 12; to be entered (in an account), 1 Chron. xxvii. 24; t<>') io be brought out of, Deut. xiv. 22. CHAPTER IV. CONNEXION OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE PKEDICATE. Sect. 144. MANNER OF EXPRESSING THE COPULA. The union of the substantive or pronoun, wliich forms the subject of the sen- tence, with another substantive or adjective as its predicate, is most commonly expressed by simply writing them together without any copida. 1 Kings xviii. 21. ^''n^Xri T]]'!!'^^ Jehovah (is) the true God ; Gen. ii. 4, nnp'^n n?X this (is) the history; ii. 12, niD Xinri ]nxri nn; the gold of that land (is) good; Is. xxxi. 2, D?rt N^iH D5 also he (is) wise! — In this construction, a personal pronoun of the third person, which refers to the predicate, frequently serves to make ]^rominent the union of the subject and predicate (see § 121, 2). Less frequently the copula is expressed by the substantive verb H^n. Gen. i. 2, and the earth was (riH^ri) waste and empty; iii. 1, the serpent loas {^Ik}) cra/^y; vs. 20. Also by ^\ and J''Ni (which include the idea of the substantive verb) when the subject is a pronoun and the predicate is a participle (see § 134, 2, a). On the gender and number of the copula, see § 147. Rem. Instead of the adjective, the Hebrew often employs the abstract substantive as a pre- dicate (§ 106, 1, Rem. 2); especially when there is no adjective of the signification required (§ 106, 1), e. g. VV. ^''ni'l^'p his icalls (are) wood=^of tvood, ivooden. Here the sense is the same as if the substantive, which stands as subject of the sentence, Avere repeated, in the consfr. sf., before the predicate {YV. rin^'? Vnn-p). Tliis full construction occurs Job vi. 12, V~ °'??^' O'S CN {s my strength the strength of stones? Similar examples are, Cant. i. 15. 0^?^' '=1*5"'>! thy eyes (are) doves' eyes; Ezra x. 13, DVpL^'•l nyn the time (is the time) of showers ; Ps. xlv. 7, ^"'n'bx ^SpS thy throne (is) a throne of God =: solium divinum ;'^' second member (with the full construction) "IK'^P 1^3^ * But see Ilengstrnbcrg's Psal/ncti, XL, p. 415. Philology requires no other than the simple and natural con- struction, " Thy throne, O God ! " <^c., which h given in all the ancient versions as well as in our own.- "^ -Tr. § 145. CASE ABSOLUTE. 229 ^ri-1D7? t35??' a righteous sceptre is the sceptre of thy dominion. So also especially with ? of com- parison, as Ps. xviii. 34, ri1?*X3 7p my feet like hinds' feet; Is. Ixiii. 2, nj^ "qVII) ^^^.J? thy gar- ments (are) like the garments of one treading the ivine-press; xxix. 4; Jer. 1. 9, "11333 V-^n A/s arrows as those o/o /^e?-o. Sect. 145. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE; CASE ABSOLUTE. 1. The most natural arrangement of words in the simple sentence, in calm discourse, is properly this, viz., subject^ copula., predicate ; or, when the predicate consists of the verb with its object, subject., verb., object. Adverbial designations (for example, of time or place) may stand either before or after the verb; a nega- tive always immediately before it.* But the Hebrew can, at pleasure, render either of these members prominent by giving it the first place in the sentence ; thus — a) The verb: Prov. xxviii. 1, they flee., when there is no pursuer., the wicked; Gen. xlii. 30. This is its common position when there is implied in it an indetermi- nate subject (the impersonal construction, § 134, 3), as Gen. i. 14, HII^^^ ^H) let there be lights, D^*5< njy they hotel (to wit) the jackals Is. xiii. 22 (corap. il vient des hommes) ; and also wherever the sentence or clause is connected with a pre- ceding one by 1 (of course wherever the Future with \ is employed), "l^^<. or *3: as Gen. iii. 1, all beasts ^^ H^y "l£J^^s which Jehovah had made ; ii. 5, N? ^5 • ' / T T T V -: ' '•'' l^tDtsn for Jehovah had not caused it to rain. T • : • J b) The adjective; and this, when it is the predicate, is more commonly placed before than after the subject, as the most important member of the sentence. Jer. XX. 6, '^^P ShJII. nriJ< 7n5 great thou art, and great is thy name. c) The object of the verb, which is then immediately followed by the verb, as Prov. xiii. 5, lying speech hates the righteous man ; Is. xviii. 5, a ripening grape becomes the blossom; viii. 13; Gen. xlvii. 21. Very rare is the arrangement as in 2 Kings v. 13; some great tiling had the prophet commanded thee. Ex. xviii. 23. d) The adverbial expression, which is then immediately followed by the verb. Gen. i. 1; Jos. x. 12, V^IH; I^T TN*; Judges v. 22. * Rarely the object is inserted between the negative and the verb (Job xxii. 7, xxxiv. 23, Eccles. x. 10), also the subject (2 Kings v. 26), or an adverbial expression (Ps. vi. 2). 230 TAUT III. SYNTAX.- -CHAP. IV. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. Another arrangement, viz. subject, ohject, verb, which is common in Aramaean (Dan. ii. 6, 7, 8, 10), is also found in Hebrew, though seldom and only in poetry. Ps. vi. 10, nj?^ ^O/Sri nin^.; xi. 5; Is. xiii. 18; xlix. 6. See Gesenius's Comment, on Is. xlii. 24. On the absence of inflexion in the predicate when put first, see § 147. 2. But the greatest proiiihience is given to any substantive in the sentence (whether it is the genitive, or accusative of the object, or employed by way of qujilitication of any kind) by permitting it to stand, absolutely, at the beginning of the sentence, and then representing it, in its proper place, by a pronoun (com- pare c'est moi, qu'on a accuse)-, e. g. the genitive, Ps. xviii. 31, 13^1. D\pri 7Xn God — perfect is his way^ for Gocts way is perfect; xi. 4, civ. 17; — the accusative, Ps. Ixxiv. 17, winter and summer — tJwu hast made them^ for thou hast made winter and Slimmer; Gen. xlvii. 21, tni< ^""T^^. il'^TTT^ the people — he removed them; xxi. 13, comp. Jer. vi. 19.* The suffix may also be omitted, Ps. ix. 7, and the connexion indicated by \ (as sign of the apodosis). Ps. xviii. 41 (comp. 2 Sam. xxii. 41). Job xxxvi. 26, ^\T\ N?! V^^ ^SP^, sc. DH/ tlie number of Ids years — there is no searching (to them). Gen. iii. 5; Job iv. 6, xxiii. 12, xxv. 5; 1 Sara, xxv. 27; 2 Sam. xv. 34. The use of the participle in this manner is peculiar, and resembles the Latin ablative absolute, Prov. xxiii. 24, HObjl DSn l^'V /^e tcho begets a loise son (i. e. wheti one begets, etc.), then he may rejoice. 1 Sam. ii. 13, !!?3n "lyj t^ll niT HIT t>'^N"?3 lohen any one brought an offering, then came the priest' s serva?it ; ix. 11 ; Gen. iv. 15. Sect. 146. RELATION OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMBER. The predicate (verb, adjective, substantive with copula) conforms, regularly, to the subject in gender and number. From this rule, common to all languages, there are many deviations, partly occasioned by regard to the sense rather than the grammatical form of words {constnictio ad sensum), partly by the position of the predicate before the other members of the sentence. In respect to the first cause, we remark — 1. Collective nouns, e. g. DS?, ^15 people, n''3 family, and nouns used as col- lective, as SJ'''X 7nen (see 108, 1), are usually construed with the plural, Judges ix. 55, Sx^tJ'^-:r\S* \snn and the men of Israel saw; xv. 10. 1 Kings xx. 20, 12*1 iti^'^X tJ^^X and they slew every one his man ; Prov. xi. 26. So when the collective * Such a case absolute may also have ? (in respect to) before it, Gen. xvii. 20 ; Is. xxxii. I ; comp. Ps. xvi. 3. § 146. EELATION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE TO GENDER AND NUMBER. 231 is itself /^;?i. but represents individuals which are of the masc. gender; e. g. 2 Sam. XV. 23, D01!l ]*ns*ri-^5 Vhe whole land (i. e. its inhabitants) loept ;* 1 Kings x. 24; Gen. xlviii. 6; 1 Sam. ii. 33, xvii. 47; and vice versa, Job i. 14, m^nh VH Ip^in the cattle (cows) wei^e ploughing. For examples of the predicate with the sino-ular form in such cases, see Gen. xxxv. 11; Is. ii. 4 (comp, Micah iv. 3). Often the construction begins with the singular (especially when the verb is placed first, § 147, a), and then, when the collective is introduced, proceeds with the plural. Ex. xxxiii 4, 6|Xn*l .... D^H Vlpm and the people heard .... and mourned ; i. 20. 2. On the other hand plural nouns with a singular signification (§ 108, 2) are construed with the singular, especially the jilwalis excellenticB. Gen. i. 1, 3.f Ex. xxi. 29, n^V V7y!l his owner shall he put to death. So feminine forms with a masculine signification are construed with the masculine, as in Eccles. xii. 9, D^n TVTiD riTl the ijreacher ivas wise. T T V V ) T T 1 3. Plurals which designate beasts or things (but not persons), whether they are masc. or fern, readily take the construction with the fern. sing-X (comp. the femi- nine form with collective meaning, in § 107, 3, d). Joel i. 20, ^liyri nnb m^H^ the beasts of the field pine for — . Job xiv. 19, H^PT'^p Pjbti'ri its floods ivash away. Jer. xlix. 24, H^lTHJ^ ^v?0 p(^^''^s have seized upon her. Ps. xxxvii. 31 ; Job xii. 7. The same principle applies to pronouns in connexion with their antecedents. Job xxxix. 15; Is. xxxv. 7; 2 Kings iii. 3. 4. Moreover, those plurals also which designate persons are construed with the singular, when, instead of the whole sum of individuals spoken of, the attention is directed to each one of them (comp. bb for omnes and omnis). Num. xxiv. 9, *1^1i< Yl"^^! '^'^'^ T^^^^ blessed, (be every one of) those who bless thee., and cursed (each of) those who curse thee ; Prov. iii. 18, ^^^t^ 'Q''^^^ happy (is every one of* those who retain her ; xxvii. 16, ri^TjSy H**.^^^*; xxviii. 1. 5. Dual substantives have their predicates in the plural, since verbs, adjectives, and pronouns have no dual form (§ 88, 1). Gen. xxix. 17, T\'\T\ HxS '•^'•yi. and the * Sallust. Jugurth. 1 4, pars in crucem acti, pars hestiis ohjccti. t D^n^^ is here and there construed with the plur. only in the older biblical books, and in certain forms of expression which perhaps had their origin in polytheism. Gen. xx. 13 ; xxxv. 7 ; Ex. xxii. 8 ; Ps. Iviii. 12. The later writers studiously avoid this construction, as polytheistic; comp. Ex. xxxii. 4, 8, and Neh. ix. 18; 2 Sam. vii. 23, and 1 Chron. xvii. 21. See the Lexicon [translated by S. P. Tregelles. Samuel Bagster and Sons]. X Perfectly analogous is the Greek construction ra -npo^ara ISaivei, where the Attics admit the plural only when persons are designated : ra dv8pdjro8a TKafiov. In Arabic, such a plural is caWed pluralis inhumauus (i. e. not used of men), and is construed chiefly with the/e7«. sing., like all its so-called ;jZMra^ia/racfa (collective forms). 232 ^-A.RT III. SYNTAX. CHAP. IV. SUBJECT AND PKEDICATE. eyes of Leah were tender; Ps. xviii. 28; Is. xxx. 20; 2 Sam. xxiv. 3; :.>am. i. 13, myi n^nSb' her lips moved; 2 ChroH. vii. 15, HU^p '^l^] HinnS Vri: fV; vi. 40; Micah vii. 10, nj\^nn W wy ey^5 s/i«/^ see. Jer. xiv. 6; Is. i. 15 Job x. 8; XX. 10; xxvii. 4; I's. xxxviii. 11. Rarely the principle stated in 1\:. 3 of this section is extended also to the dual; e. g. Mic. iv. 11. Sect. 147. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, IN RESPECT TO GENDER AND NUMER. The other cause of deviation from the general rule, is the position ( the pre- dicate at the beginning of the sentence. The subject, to which it woul regularly conform, not being yet expressed, it often takes its simplest and reaiest form, viz., the masc. sing., even when the subject, which comes after, is rminine or plural: the predicate in this case is not subject to inflexion; e. g. — a) The verb: Is. xlvii. 11, ny'l "^^Ssj N*5 tJiere comes upon thee evil; \Iic. ii. 6, niD73 y^\ i<7 reproaches do not depart. Ps. Ivii. 2; Deut. xxxii. 3: Esther ix. 23, Dn^'^!'D ^?p"! cir^d the Jews undertook. 2 Kings iii. 26, T\'!2Thl^\ piPl hard was the battle. 1 Sam. xxv. 27. Often the verb may here be rearded as impersonal, as in il vient des homines, il a paru deux volumes (§ 45, 1, a). More seldom before the plur. fern, we find (at least) the masc. plu; Judges xxi. 21, TO'''^ iy\y:^ ^X^^^"DX when the daughters of Shilo come forth, h) The adjective: Psalm cxix. 137, ^^^|^P "l^I righteous are thy idgments; vs. 155, rW] . . . rm-\ far (is) salvation. Job xxiv. 7, 10, O^H :ny they go naked. c) The participle as substantive: Gen. xlvii. 3, Y"^?^ t^^* '^*^"' sheph'ds (are) thy servants. Also — d) The copula, when it precedes the subject.* Is, xviii. 5, n^!l n"*n* S- 1D3 the blossom becomes a ripening grape ; Gen. xxvii. 39; xxxi. 8. But if the construction is continued after the introduction of the suject, the verb must conform to it in its gender and number. Eze. xiv. 1, D'*^>' ""J^ N13M ^^SS W'^- Gen. i. 14; Num. ix. 6. * Independently of this arrangement, the Nin, standing for the copula, is retained between pb. and /cm. unchanged. Josh. xiii. 14, '"inSq: N"in i; '•cj'x the offerings of Jehovah that is htnheritance. Coinp. Jer. x. 3 § 148. CONSTRUCTION OF COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 233 Rtn. 1. In general, the language is at times sparing in the use especially of the feminine forms (com. § 112, 1, Rem. 2), and when a feminine substantive has more than one predicate, contents itseKvith giving to the nearest one the appropriate feminine form. The following are instructive exaiples; Is. xxxiii. 9, ^N* >Y?^^ ''?^ the land moimieth and languisheth ; xiv. 9, HTn nriFlD Vs^ .... '2''^?"| V "'tl'iy Sheol beneath is moved . . . . it stirreth up the shades to thee. Examples of the mrts form in remote predicates, Gen. xxxli. 9 ; xlix. 15 ; I^ev. ii. 1 ; v. 1 ; xx. 6 ; in such as stand in clpendent sentences, Job vi. 10, ?bn^ ^ Of-) '"'^'0?; xx. 26; after ''3, vi. 20. G the same principle, pronouns which refer to plural nouns take the form of the singular when theftand remote from their antecedents; Job xxxviii. 32 ; Deut. xxi. 10. : rhe cases in which the predicate follows the subject, without conforming to it in gender and nu.uer, are mostly those in which a verb passive is to be regarded as impersonal and in construc- tio.\vith the accusative (§ 143, 1, Rem.); or the predicate is a participle used as a substantive; e. ;: Gen. iv. 7, K?"" T\^^n nns? at the dooi- (is) sin a lurher (i. e. a lurking lion).— Eccles. ii. 7, V '"^ ri!?'^?? Venice mihi s?«i^ (where v ^^'^ is to be understood as I have). Gen. xv. 17, n^^n np^yi andarkness, there became (with a special emjjhasis on the noun, — the verb standing impersonally). Sect. 148. CONSTRUCTION OF COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 1. V^hen the subject is composed of a nominative and genitive, the verb some- times conforms in gender and number to the genitive instead of the governing nouDT— viz., when the word in the genitive expresses the principal idea; e. g. Job xxii. 7, i^^pn \V'^'V U')'^ y^ the multitude of years (i. e. many years) should teacl i wisdom ; Gen. iv. 10. 2 Sam. x. 9, nttn7Xi>n ""^^ V7X nJl'Tl there was the ' 'tt:--":t"t:t hattUfront against him., i. e. the battle was turned against him.. Is. ii. 11; Job xxxiii. 21. \Vith the substantive ?3 the whole, and the numerals, this construction is almost universal ; e. g. 'c-n. V. 5, Cl'li^ ''Pr^S -VriM and all the days of Adam loere ; Ex. xv. 20; Gen. viii. 19. 2 When several subjects are connected by and^ their common predicate usually tak6 the plural form, especially when it follows them; Gen. viii. 22, ^p) y^\>\ VIJ ^nb'' K? . . . . Dh") seed-time and harvest, and cold and heat .... shall not cease ; ancln the masc. even with subjects of different genders, as, Gen. xviii. 11, ^'71'?^ D^^l" rri^) Abraham and Sarah (were) old; Deut. xxviii. 32. When it precedes, it cCen conforms in gender and number to the first (as being the nearest) subject. Ge. vii. 7, Vi!l1 HJ 5«511*1 there went in Noah and his sons ; Ex. xv. 1; Num. xii. 1, ' T T - T- ' ' pr!;1 Dpp "l^l^l there spoke Miriam and Aaron ; Gen. xxxiii. 7; xliv. 14. Rarely thepreference for the singular and also the 7nasc. appears, when the predicate fobws the subject; Prov. xxvii. 9, y2'T\J^^\ ^IP)?'^ W? ointment and perfume rejice the heart. If the construction is continued, it is always with the plural foin, e. g. Gen. xxi. 32; xxiv. 61; xxxi. 14; xxxiii. 7. 234 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. V. USE OF THE PARTICLES. CHAPTER V. USE OF THE PARTICLES. Sect. 149. Of the particles, as connected with the system of forms and inflexions (§§ 99 — 105), we have already treated in their relation to the other parts of speech. We are now to consider the signification and use of these words, which are so neces- sary to the nice perception of the sense, and hold so important a place in the philosophical treatment of the language. We shall present, in a general view, their most important peculiarities, leaving the more complete representation, as well as the necessary proofs, to the Lexicon. Sect. 150. the adverbs. The most important adverbs, classed according to their signification, are — 1. Adverbs of place: D^ there; nb, n'3, PIT and nT3, hie, here, D?p and HSH hither, the latter also here (from the Chald. ID this), '^^{p^ thither, farther on (prop, to a distance), hence n3nj ^^O {frorri thee hither) on this side of thee, and '"l^/i^l "TfP {from thee farther on) bei/ond thee, 1 Sam. xx. 22, 37. Is. xviii. 2; pV, more commonly P^^Ki above, nnrip below, n^VP tipwards, n^O doicmcards, I'lH outside, rnp on the outside, n.'lp and nD>:3 ivithin, Q^i|, D*1||p before, on the east, "I'lnX behind, D^nnX back- tcards, ^33 over against, pP' to the right, I'P'? on the right, DJP on the tvest (prop, on the sea side, 3^2p and 3>3Dp around, nVOpip upright. To many of these adverbs IP is prefixed, or the accusative-ending H— appended, indicating respectively the relations />-ow and towards; e. g. Q^ there, DtJ'P thence, ^^'^ thither; I'-in outside, ny-in outwards. There are several wliich occur only with H— appended, as H^Sp, HSpn. Both these additions, however, express also the relation of rest in a place, as HSiJ' sometimes there (not merely thither), TPJP on the right {not from the right). The H— is in both cases accusative- ending (§ 90, 2), and JP properly denotes hanging off from an object, and hence being upoti the side of it, like a dextra et sinistra, a latere, a tergo, and in French f/cAsous, f/essus, r/edans, c/6'hors.* 2. Adverbs of time; these are in part the same with those which have been mentioned as adverbs of place, and which, by an easy transition, are made to express relations of time ; as 0^ then, like cKci; n'a now; -^^^/fj onward; Hlin nj? and co«/;-. HSny hitherto. Exclusively such are ; nriy at the time, hence noiv, at this time, (also without the pure designation * Cant. iv. 1, iy?| inp "l^^yS they lie along the declivity of Mount Gilead, e inonte quasi pcndentes. Comp. Soph. Antig., 411, Ka6fifx(6' uKpav e'/c irdyoiv; Odgss. .\xi. 420, iK 8ig early ; UV'^'p'Z tlie lohole day, then all the time, always; '^''f?^ perpetually, always, Dpii?, T ^- y^'" ^''^'"i '^-'v '^V.^? continually ; TX /Ae/*, Avith reference to both past and future time, TSO Zojiy since, formerly, Q"'^^?, do., 1^3 [lengtli] long since; IIV (/o repeat), again, repeatedly, commonly yet, with a negative no more; "l^l^?? {us one), at once, together; VTH^, do., ^3'lCi'^5"] at first, J5 *"!)n^. [ifter it was so) afterwards, iT^DP speedily, DXIjlS instantly. 3. Adverbs for other modal ideas, as a) o/" quality ; nb (see above) and t? so ; li^P v^ry, IH^. exceedingly, very "•D"'' more, /oo much, n?3, nV?. wholly, ]!^?, l^Upi) (^aboict or near nothing, about, i. e. within a little = wanting little) almost, i^lSt^ so, so ^Aen (Job ix. 24), hence often used intensively in questions (see § 153, 2, P^em.), 2it3 and ^''^''H ivell, ?^ (in connexion with other adverbs), tvholly. Just, as 1iy"?3 icholly ov Just so long. Job xxvii. 3. h) Of quantity : n3"in much, 31? abundantly, pn (riches) richly, ''"!( followed by the genitive (prop. sufficiency), oiough, as !|1*.1 itVirt/ is enough for thee, ri3"1 m,uch, enough; T??, "^"7?? («'» separation), alone, the former also with suffixes, as ^"^?P / a/one ; "IH! together. c) Of asseveration : IP^, Cljpx truly, \^'^ certainly, indeed, and by apocope "=1?^; 7^^? i!r«<(?/, also (corrective) nay rather, immo. Gen. xvii. 19; 1 Kings i. 43; V'l^ perhaps.'^ The expression of asseveration may easily pass over into that of opposition (comp. verum, vero) and of limitation ; and hence some of the above-mentioned affirmative particles are partly adversa- tive and restrictive, as "^^ only, 1?^, ?3S (especially in later usage) but. Most strongly adversative is dVix 071 the contrary (the LXX. ov pr]v aAAa), thus used almost exclusively in the Pentateuch and Job. Restrictive also is PI (used before adjectives like '^^) merely, i. e. 07ily. d) Of cause : ]'?'^V , I??, ID/, therefore. e) Of accession : D^ also, and (more poetical, and expressive of accession) ^^ adeo, yea mo/'e, eve7i, — both which, however, often take the character of conjunctions. 4. Adverbs of negatio7i : on these, see § 152. 5. Inte7-royative adverbs include all the former classes : thus, the question may relate to ^jfoce, as ^^?, n>X, tohere? the first with suff. i*^? iohe7-e (is) he? so nj. >«, nfX, nb^N*, n3>SI ivhere?— >^)!Q *^, V.^'Q , ivhence ? njJ< (from nrX) tvhither f to time, ^s ^n? when? ''00 ny xmtil when ? how fo?ty.^ ^J^{ iy, the same; to quality, as n3''X, "^^t^, nDD''X hoio? to quantity, as n^3 /;o2« much? how often? to crt?^'^?. tvhence (relative); DK' the7-e, n^|' thither, D^P thence, D^ "i^i< tvhere, HG^ -|K>K whither, DK'p I^X tvhe7ice. * Compounded of IS and ^h = iih, comp. Aram, t^o'p^'n whether not, pei-haps, filjnoTe. It is once employed in the sense of "h^h if not, in Num. xxii. 33, then whether not (who knows whether not), consequently perhaps, expressing duii1)t, solicitude, and also hope. 236 part iii. syntax. — chap. v. use of the particles. Sect. 151. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 1. Adverbs not only serve, in general, to qualify a clause or sentence by expressing circumstances of time, place, etc., but also to qualify single words, as adjectives, e. g. ^^{p !21tD very good, and even substantives (like y '^Oh rj/j.epa). With the latter they stand either, a) in apposition after them, IDVO 2"*?^^^. « fii^ men Neh. ii. 12. 1X/p H^'in r\^)2r\ very much wisdom 1 Kings v. 9; or, h) in the genitive, C^H Hz/jP a curse uttered without a cause r*ro. xvi. 2, D^H iy a witness without a cause xxiv. 28, where the adverb is treated substantively, as in sponte sua. The adverbs also appear in the nature of the substantive, when, as in the later writers, they take a preposition; e. g. |5? in the so = |3, Esth. iv. 16; D3n'/X, prop, for wj vain., Eze. vi. 10. 2. The repetition of an adverb sometimes denotes intensity, and sometimes continual accession ; e. g. li<^ IX^ exceedingly Num. xiv. 7, also more and more Gen. vii. 19, n^5 H^D lower and lower Dent, xxviii. 43, lOyD DVp by little and little {pen a peu) Ex. xxiii. 30. On the use of verbs with the force of adverbs, see ^ 142, Rem. 1. Sect. 152. WORDS WHICH EXPRESS NEGATION. 1. The most important adverbs of negation are: N7 = ou/c 7iot, /^ = fir] that not, px (the opposite of ^]) there is not, D'l6 not yet, D^X no more. Almost exclusively poetic are 75, ^5 not; negative conjunctions, 7N, |3, '^ly)^ that not. We subjoin a more particular view of the use of these words : 50, like ou, owk, is used principally for the objective, unconditional negation, and hence it is com- monly connected with the Preterite or Future (as Indicative), and with the Future also to express prohibition (§ 127, 3, c). In connexion with ^b, when the latter is not followed by the article and therefore means aw// one, am/ thing, it expresses the Lat. nullus, none (comp. Fr. ne — personne). Ex. xii. 16, nb'i;;"^^ n3N7P"73 no labour shall be done. Ex. x. 15; xx. 4; 2 Chron. xxxii. 15. Prov. xii. 21 ; xxx. 30. (The negative is here closely connected with the verb, and thet-e does not hajypcn a7iy thing {?,■= there happens nothing. So also p^ witli ?'3; Eccles. i. 9, ^'^H'^'S P?^ there is nothing neto. But the case is different when ?3 is made definite, where it means all, the whole ; Num. xxiii. 13, '"'X'ln N7 i?3 all of him {his tvhole) thou shalt not see (but only a part). On the use of ^z' in interrogative sentences, see § 153, 1. N-' put before a noun, either substantive or adjective, forms sometimes with it a kind of com- pound, as ^^?"'^^ a not-god (Germ, ungoti), who is not God at "all, Deut. xxxii. 21; "l^l k? a not-thing (Germ, unditig) Am. vi. 13 ; "I^pn JO imjnous, Ps. xliii. 1. On the position of X? in the clause, see § 145, 1, and Note. 1 § 15^. WORDS WHICH EXPRESS NEGATION. 237 ^^?, like iJL-fj, Lat. ne, for the suhjective and dependent negation is connected with ^q future (as Jussive) ; hence the phrase N3J ?X ne veniat^ may stand either for he shall not come, or for may he not come. See above, § 127, 3, c, and § 128, 2. Sometimes it stands absolutely, without the verb, (like fxy] for jxr] tovto yevrjTai), nay I pray, not so, i. e. let it not be; e. g. Ruth i. 13, ""D^? 'X not so, my daughters; Gen. xix. 18. On the inter- rogative use of it, see § 153, 1. r^ (pi'op- const, st. of r^ nothingness) is the negative of t^?. {he, she, it) is, and includes the verb to be in all its tenses ; e. g. Gen. xxxvii. 29, "IIS? »lp1''"pK Joseph was not in the pit; Num. xiv. 42, DD3"1|p3 nirr; px Jehovah is not among you. The same formulas are expressed positively with ^.'l, and negatively with T^?, as Gen. xxxi. 29, ''']^ PNp'E^'.''. it is in my poioer (prop, it is in the power of my hand), Neh. v. 5, •lilj 7X7 PX it is not iii otir power. It follows, moreover, a) that the personal pronouns, when they are the subject of the sentence, are appended to PX as suffixes ; as ''3.5''X / am not, I was not, I shall not he, -I^^^X D3''X, etc. /3) When the predicate is a verb, it almost universally takes the form of a participle, the verb of existence being implied in PX ; Ex. v. 16, \7\} l-'N |3F1 straiv is not given; vs. 10, ini) "i3rx / will not give; viii. 17; Deut. i. 32. y) As ^^ sometimes signifies to be present, to be near or at hand, so PX is used in the contrary sense, to he not present or at hand; -l^yx he was not present ■=^ was no more. Gen. v. 24. From PX is formed by abbreviation the negative syllable ^X, employed in compovmds as a prefix : it is found in Job xxii. 30, ^?3"'X not-guiltless. In ^thiopic it is the most common form of negation, and is there used even as a prefix to the verbs. On the formation of the interrogative ^X from PX, see § 153, 1. \7l/?? (prop, constr. st. with the ending V (§ 90, 3, a) from n?3 want, non-existence, stem-word n/3) is most frequently employed before the Inf. when it is to be expressed negatively with a preposition; as ?^X? to eat, ?3X ''Jj>??? not to eat. Gen. iii. 11. Rarely with a finite verb it means tJtat not, Jer. xxiii. 14. |3 [removing, a clearing aivay) is the same as ne, that not, lest, especially after the mention of an action by which an apprehended evil is to be prevented or shunned (Gen. xi. 4, xix. 15); or after A'erbs signifying to fear, to beware (like Set'Scj fxi], vereor ne) xxxi. 24, 31 ; — also at the beginning of the sentence, especially in the expression of apprehension or fear, as Gen, iii. 22, "l"IJ ny^J'IS T\P\V) and 71010, lest he stretch forth his hand. 2. Two negatives in the same sentence, instead of destroying each other, as in Latin [and English], make the negation stronger, like ovk ouSe/?, ovk ouSa/^w?. 1 Kings X. 21, n^^X^S !3^n^ K7 t|p3 pX silver was not at all regarded for any thing, (in the parallel passage, 2 Chron. ix. 20, N7 is omitted). Ex. xiv. 11. — Zeph. ii. 2, 5«?1T"xS D'lb? lit. before there shall not come (so in Germ, ehe er nicht kommt, and in Lat. priusquam . . . non). Is. v. 9, !l^V pN*P, prop, without no inhabitant. 3. When one negative sentence follows another, especially in the poetic paral- lelism, the negation is often expressed only in the first, while its influence extends also to the second. 1 Sam. ii. 3, multiply not words of pride, — let (not) that ivhich is arrogant come forth from your mouth. Ps. ix. 19; Job iii. 10; xxviii. 17; XXX. 20. (Compare the same usage in respect to prepositions, § 154, 4.) 238 part in. syntax. chap. v. use of the " particles. Sect. 153. INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 1. Interrogative sentences are sometimes, though rarely, distinguished as such merely by the tone of voice in which they are uttered; e. g. 2 Sam. xviii. 29, "y^h DlS^ is it iDell idfh t/ie young manf Gen. xxvii. 24, S^Vl *^!l T\\ T\W> art thou my son Esau? 1 Ki. i. 24. This is somewhat more frequent when tlie sentence is connected with the previous one by 1; Jon. iv. 11, D^HX N? ''iXI and should I not spai^ef Job ii. 10; x. 8, 9, 13; Judges xi. 23; xiv. 16; and also after the particles D5 (Zech. viii. 6) and ^i< (Job xiv. 3). But negative sentences still more readily take, in utterance, the interrogative character; e. g. with ^^7, when an affirmative answer is expected {nonne?) Job xiv. 16, ''riX^il"7y "^I^^H J<7 dost thou not watch for my sin? Jon. iv. 11; Lam. iii. 36, 38; with /X in expectation of a negative answer, 1 Sam. xxvii. 10, Dl^n LDriD£i'3"7J< ye have not then made an excursion in these days ? * Even the few interrogative particles originally expressed either affirmation or negation, and only acquired by degrees their interrogative power.f Respecting l! and its original demonstrative signification (being related to the article), see § 100, 4. Probably ''i? where? sprung from a negation; — full form l^X (hence il^P wheyicef), prop, not there, is not there, — uttered interrogatively, is not there? =^ tchere is? VX is he not there? for ichere is he? Job xiv. 10 tnan dies 1*5:?1 and tvhere is he?=i'^'iy'^\ and he is no more. In Arabic, ^^? has become an interrogative pronoun =z ^P wJio f (comp. the Germ, wo [ivhere), and Eng. tvho) ; but this is not its original use. On the abbreviation of T^? into '''?, see § 152, 1. 2. Most commonly the simple question begins with He interrogative H 7ium, — the disjunctive question with H utrum followed in the second clause by DX an (Di< — T\=utrum — an?)^ as in 1 Kings xxii. 15, /"^nil'DX "^/^lI shall we go or shall we forbear? The indirect form of inquiry differs only in having D5< more frequently in the simple question, and in the first member of the disjunctive question. More particularly — The D is strictly a sign of the simple and pure question, when the inquirer is uncertain what answer may or should be given. Job ii. 3, hast thou considered ("^f? ^'>P^'i}) my servant Job? * In the same manner are used ovk (nonne f) and jxt] ; the former (Horn. 77. x. 165, iv. 242) in expectation of an affirmative, the latter {Odijss. vi. 200) of a negative answer. f So in Greek and Latin, originally affirmative and then interrogative are tj, num (=nu?ic), an (probably, perhaps); originally negative and then interrogative, — oik, /xr}, — ne ; in German, nicht icahr? (not true?) nicht? (not ?) § 153. INTERROGATIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES. 239 Often the inquirer expects a negative answer {jmm?), which may be expressed in the tone itself; Gen. iv. 9, ^?3X ^nx "ipti^r) am I the keeper of my brother? Job xiv. 14, if a man die, H'ln^n will he live again f Such a question may have precisely the force of a negative assertion ; 2 Sam. vii. 5, n*2 Y"'"l.??'yi ^IJl^p shalt thou build a house for mef (in the parallel passage, 1 Chron. xvii. 4, '131 nriX iO thou shalt not build a house for me ;) and, vice versa, the negative form of the ques- tion has the effect of an affirmation; 5*?n nonnef is it not so? for HSn behold J 2 Kings xv. 21 ; XX. 20, comp. 2 Chron. xxvii. 7 ; xxxii. 32.-'' On the other hand, the question may be so uttered as to show that the speaker expects affirmation and assent, when it corresponds, in efTect, with the negative form of the question in English ; compare the use of rj yap and ^ yap ov for is not ? and of the Latin, ne for nonne f\ Job xx. 4, ^^"1^ ^XTH dost thou [not) know this ? — The simple question is very seldom introduced by D^^, and then always in connexion with something already implied which gives a disjunctive sense, like our or perhaps (German oder etiva), liat. an, as in Is. xxix, 16; 1 Kings i. 27; Job vi. 12. The disjunctive question {utrum — anf) is usually expressed under the form Q4? — H, also 0^1 — D, Job xxi. 4, with emphasis on the first question Q5<1_ — fl^n, xxxiv. 17; xl. 8, 9. Yet also as in German [and English], with 1^^ or before the second clause, Job xvi. 3, Eccles. ii. 19. The use of this combination DX— H does not, however, always require opposition between the clauses, but often stands in poetic parallelisms and in other passages (Gen. xxxvii. 8 ; Hab. iii. 8), where the same question is merely repeated in different words in the second clause, as in Job iv. 17, is man just rather than God; and ip^) is a 7nan pure rather than his Maker? vi. 5, 6; viii. 3; x. 4, 5 ; xi. 2, 7 ; xxii. 23 ; hence 1 also stands before the second clause in such cases. Job x. 3 ; xiii. 7 ; xv. 7, 8, or there is no particle at all to connect the clauses, as in Job xxii. 4. The form of the indirect question is, in general, the same. After verbs of inquiring, doubting, examining, the simple question takes \\ [whether). Gen. viii. 8 ; Ex. xvi. 4, and 05;^, Cant. vii. 13; 2 Kings i. 2; the disjunctive question {whether — or) DN — n, Gen. xxvii. 21, and also i} — H, Num. xiii. 18. — The formula DX I?*1V ''P [tvho knoiveth whether — not) is also used affirmatively like the Latin nescio an, Esther iv. 14. For interrogative adverbs of place, time, etc., see § 150, 5. The words nj (§ 122, 2) and ^12*? quite, then, serve to give animation or intensity to a question (like 7roT€, tandem, Eng. then, now) ; as ><1Si< "=lf "^^ tvhat aileth thee noio ? quid tibi tandem est ? Is. xxii. 1 ; ^12?? i^.*.^ ichere now? Job xvii. 15. 3. The affirmative answer is given, as in Latin, by repeating the predicate of the interrogative sentence; Gen. xxvii. 24; xxix. 6; Judges xiii. 11; the negative answer is X7 no^ Gen. xix. 2. * In a similar manner, HO what? ["'%?], spoken with indignation, expresses prohibition under the form of reproach or expostulation. Cant. viii. 4, •IT'yn'nJD ivhy do ye rouse? Job xvi. 6; xxxi. 1. This negative force of ("ID is very frequent in the Arabic. t See Heindorf ac? Plat. Phcedr. 266 ; Heusinger ad Cic. de Off. iii. 17. 240 part iii. syntax. chap. v. use of the particles'. Sect. 154. THEPREPOSITIONS. 1. The simple* prepositions, like the adverbs, originally denote for the most part physical relations, viz. those of space, and are then used tropically of intel- lectual relations, as those of time, cause, etc. The prepositions of place original^ denote either rest in a place, or motion from or to a place ; but in each class there are some (several in the first, few in the second) which take also the signification of the other. a) The most important prepositions o^ place are : a) Of rest in a place, ? in, h>/, at, 7V npon and over, rinri under, "IHX , ^"^ns after ^ \JS/ before, 133, nD3, ?10, before, opposite to, ?y^, nt< tvith {apud), by, near, "l^?, ^V? (p^op. in separation from), about (apcfii), behind. T? between, "i^^ '^^ i^^ other side of beyond. /3) Of motion, iP from, ?>? and ? to, towards, ^V unto, as far as, — and also (from the former class) 3 to {usqne ad), i'V up07i, towards. b) Very many of the above-mentioned prepositions express also relations of time, as 3 in, within, \ip, ^?, iy. c) Of those which denote other relations we may mention, 3 as (^1?, ^?? according to), DV together tvith, tvith, ri>"lT, '•"ly?? besides, ''K^?^ without, besides, \V\, lyP/ on account of Ilj^y (prop, as a reicard), for, because. 2. The Hebrew language developes a great degree of dexterity and accuracy of discrimination in the composition of prepositions. Thus, those of motion are set before others denoting rest, so as to express not only a change of relation, but also the local one which was existing previously to the change, or which follows as the result of it, as in French de cJiez^ d^aupres.f So — a) With \f2: ^HX^ away from behind^ ^^^p out from between^ 75?^ aicay from upon or above., ^V^? ^^^ <^^ (^hez quelqvCun^ ^^H^P away from under. b) With ^X (more seldom): '*'^n^ /^ to behind or after; ? pH/p without, i. e. on the outside of ? "j^^H^ 7NI forth without., Num. v. 3. Thus also compound prepositions, which have adopted an adverbial significa- tion, take after them 7 (more seldom jD), and again become prepositions; e. g. 7y.t? * Among tliese we reckon such forms as \3D7, ]V^j7, which in themselves considered are indeed compoimd words, but as prepositions they express only one idea, and are thus distinguished from the compounds under No. 2, e. g. \^SpDfrom above. t When the Hebrew says, he took the offering, n^TSn 7V^ from upon the altar (airaj/ from the top of the altar), he presents the idea fully ;— while it is but half expressed in the Fr. il prciid le chapean snr la table, the Germ, er nimmt den Hut vom Tische tveg [and the Eng. he fakes his hat from flic fable'], the Fr. omitting one relation, the Germ, [and Eng.] another. § 154. THE PREPOSITIONS. 241 (adv.) ahove^ ? 7^^ (pi'<^P-) (^hove^ over^ riHri^ (adv.) helow^ 7 fT^^P (prep.) helow^ lender, 7 pMp (prep.) without, l^l separately, aside, ]f2 ly? aside from, besides. This accessory preposition may also precede the adverbial form; e. g., n??p = IO ^37 besides, ^nj^pap tcithouf, Syr. ^i^D ^Lii''' ; rarely it is wholly Avanting, as riPirin for ? nnriD, Job xxvi. 5. 3. AYe now present a few prepositions, — sucli as occur most frequently and have the greatest variety of meaning, — with their principal significations, in order to explain their construction with verbs (§ 140), and the most important idioms connected with them.f a) ?, which, of all the prepositions, has the greatest variety of significations, denotes, 1) prop. rest in a place (ev), hence in with reference to time, and to state or condition, as fl^?, J^'?^^?.?, D1PB'?, — with reference to a company, or number of individuals, among, e. g. D^lil?, — with reference to bounds or limits, ivithin, as C^V^'? wil/iin the gates, — of high objects, upon, as D''ip"lD3 ujwn horses, Is. Ixvi. 20; but it has rarely all these significations after verbs of motion =r€is (like jJonere in loco). The Hebrew says, a) to drink in a cup (for, to drink what is in it). Gen. xliv. 5 (so in Arabic and Chald., Dan. v. 2, Iv TroTrjpiw Iv XP'"'^^ Triveiv Xen. Anab. vi. 1, 4, 3, Ezra iii. 6, in ossibus bibere in Florus, French boire dans une iasse) ; (3) iti the manner, in the model or rule, for after the manner or model (comp. iv tw vofxw, Imnc in modmn), as '2 "I?"]? according to the command, 'S riVI|3 according to the counsel of any one, •I^D''^*]? "''^PrV? in {after) our image, after our likeness. Gen. i. 26; vs. 27, and v. 1, 3, Adam begat a son iO?V3 imD'13. Somewhat different is the signifi- cation in Gen. xxi. 12, in Isaac (pnV.''rl):=after Isaac thy seed shall call thonselves. Especial atten- tion is due to the passages, where we have, y) the 3 essentice or pleonasticum of the grammarians, which everywhere means, as, tanquani (Fr. en). Ex. vi. 3, / appeared to Abraham, etc., ^"^^ /X3 as God Almighty. Is. xl. 10, the Lord tvill come PJIjl? «« n strong one. The most striking use of it is before the predicate-adjective after the verb to be [^-conduct or behave as), Eccles. A'ii. 14, in the day of joy 21t2? H.^n be thou joyful; Ex. xxxii. 22, thou knowest the people i<-in j;"l_3 "iS that they are evil; Job xxiii. 13, 1p^? ^"l^ he is one [without a rival]. (In Arabic this idiom is frequent; see Thes. Ling. Heb. p. 174.) 2) Nearness, vicinity (Lat. ad, ajnul), at, by, on; "in33 =: eV Trora/xo), by the river, Eze. x. 15; \yy3 iyi the eyes of-= before the eyes of one {iv 6(j>9aXfJi.o2<;, II. 1. 587). In this sense it frequently indicates motion (Lat. ad), to, %mto : it diff'ers, however, both from ?^ to, toivards, and *iy u7ito, usque ad, since it .denotes that the object towards which the motion tends is actually arrived at (which is not determined by the use of ^^), and yet does not fix attention specially upon this point, as is done by ^y. Gen. xi. 4, a tower Q)^^"? Iti'NI tvhose top may reach to heaven. Hence, it expresses the relation of verbs of motion (and others analogous to them) to their objects ; e. g. 3 tnX to lay hold on, ? Vi^ to touch, 3 ^^*^' to ask at, to consult, 3 XIP to call upon, ^ HXT to look upon, ? 1^'P^' to hearken to. Verbs liaving the signification of the last two, often include the idea of the pleasure or pain with which one sees or hears anything. Gen. xxi. 10, I could not u'it?iess the death of the child / Hence, in a tropical sense, in respect to, on account of as ? PiQV to rejoice on account of, i. e. to have joy in something. * In the Syr. ^^ \>A^ means over, as preposition, but ^\l^ ^^ above as adverb (see Iloffmanni Gram. Syr. p. 280). The Hebrew in like manner says \u^ from (a starting point) onward, for ? ]12, precisely the Lat. wiqiie a, usque ex, comp. also inde. t For fuller information, Gesenius's Lexicon must be consulted. — Tr. 17 242 PART III. SYNTAX. CHAP. V. USE OF THE PARTICLES. With the idea of vicinity, nearness, that of accompaniment, and of Tielp, instrumentality (tvith) readily connects itself. Gen. xxxii. 11, tvith my staff iy^yQ"^) I passed over this Jordan. Ps. xviii. 30, hy thee C^?) have I rushed upon troops. Verbs of cominy and yoiny, with 3 (to come, or go, with) express the idea of brinying ; e. g. Judges xv. 1, Samson visited his loife tvith a kid, brought her a kid. Deut. xxiii. 5. b) 7y signifies upon (cttI) and over (vTrep) ; very frequently of motion (down) upon or over — (up) upon or over a thing. In the sense of (resting) upon, (coming) upon, it is used after verbs signifying to be heavy, i. e. burdensome, afflictive (prop, to lie heavily upon). Is. i. 14; Job vii. 20, — to set or appoint over {commission), as ^V IpS, — to pity, to spa7-e, as bv Din (prop, to look tenderly upon). "With the primary idea is connected that of accession (conceived as a laying upon) and of conformity, after, according to (with reference to the rule or pattern, upon which a thing is laid to be measured or modelled), and of cause {oh quam), on account of [prop, upon something as ground or motive], although. In the signification over, it is often used with verbs of covering, protecting ?V i^D3, ^J? |3| ^ (prop, to place a covering, a shield, over) ; and so also with those of kindred meaning, as ?V Dnp3 to contend for one (prop, in order to protect him). Judges ix. 17. It is used for at, hy, chiefly in cases where there is an actual elevation of one of the related objects above the other, conceived as an impending over; e. g. D*D ^V hy the sea [or, as we may literally render it, on the seci\; but also where this is not the case, as "t^ a', like our on the side. Hence, it expresses the relation of motion to the object at which it terminates, — to, towards, so that in the later Hebrew style and in poetry it is often used for ?^ and 7 ; e. g. Job vi. 27 ; xix. 5 ; xxii. 2 ; xxxiii. 23. c) IP (§ 102) indicates motion, removal, away from anything. Its fundamental signification is separation from a whole, derivation, descent. As constr. st. of the noun IP part, it properly means part of hence off, from, used at first with reference to the part which is taken from the whole, as to give, to take j)art of ^=. from. This fundamental signification appears plainest, when it expresses some (more rarely one) of; e. g. ''^*\ \^i??P some of the elders of Israel, C^P some of the blood (Fr. du sang). It has the same signification when (apparently pleonastic) it is connected with the words one, none, in the so often misapprehended idiom of the Hebrew and Arabic non ah una, i. e. not any one, not the least, prop, not even a part, a piece, the least portion, of one. Lev. iv. 2 ; Deut. xv. 7 ; Eze. xviii. 10. In its most ordinary use, with reference to motion area y from, it forms the opposite of t'X, ny, and is employed not merely after verbs which express actual motion, as to depart {from), to flee {from), but also those of kindred signification, as to be afraid, to hide, to beware: comp. in Gr. and Lat. KoXvTTTU) diro, custodire ah. In its tropical use with reference to time, it may mean eitheryrow (a time) on, in which case the reckoning is to be made from the beginning, not from the end of the period specified (like d-Tro vvktos, de node, from the coming on of night), as T'lp^P, Job xxxviii. 12, from the begimmig of thy days otiward ; or it may mean next from, i. e. immediately after {i$ apia-Tov, ah itincre), as TiP^P, Ps. Ixxiii. 20, immediately after awaking. Gen. xxxviii. 24, D^s^^H B'^^'p after three months. Hos. vi. 2. For the use of it to denote rest on the side of an object, where the idea is that of near distance, of being just off from {the p rope ahcsse ah, pendere ex aliqua re), see § 150, 1. For its use in the expression of comparison, see § 119, 1. d) ''?, \?^ (pi'op- regions, directions, hence towards), denotes ynotion, and also merely direction toicards (with reference both to material objects and the operations of the mind), whether one reaches the place towards which the motion is directed or not. In the former case it is equivalent to "ly, e. g. •in''S"7X even unto his mouth. Job xl. 23; sometimes it means even penetration into a thing, equivalent to "=1"!^"^^, c. g. n3rin"?X Xi2 to go into the ark. § 155. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 243 It is certainly an unfrequent and improper use of this particle (though sustained by unquestion- able examples) when it is employed to denote rest in a place at which one has arrived. Jer. xli. 12, they found him D'?"] D^P"?X hy the great waters in Gibeon. It is so used esijecially in the formula Dip^n"?^iccs and sorts, in the sense of all sorts of spices. As connecting clauses or sentences, it denotes either continuation (for then), hence before the apodosis (like German .so in da — so) and after absolute designations of time — (see Gen. iii. 5; Ex. xvi. 6 ; Prov. xxiv. 27, '1^"'? 0"'??'' "^^^ aftenvards, then build thy house) ; or enhancement, as in Job v. 19, in six troubles lie toill deliver thee, yea, in seven no evil shall befall thee); or com- pariso7i, as in Job v. 7, man is born to trouble, and so the sons of lightning fly on high, {ov Just as these (birds of pi'ey)7?y high: xii. 11 ; xxxiv. 3; Prov. xi. 16; xvii. 3; xxv. 3, 25. But the Vav is also — b) Adversative [and yet, while yet); Judges xvi. 15, hoiv canst thou say I love thee 'JJIX px "^27) and (yet) thy heart is not %oith me (i. e. toliile yet) ? Gen. xv. 2 ; xviii. 13 ; Ps. xxviii. 3. c) Causal {for, because); Ps. v. 12, let them ever shout for joy, because {when, since) thou dost defend them. Is. xliii. 12, ye are my witnesses ^i?''"'?^^). and I (am) God, that I am God. d) hferentidl , [then, so then, therefore) ; Eze. xviii. 32, / delight not in the death of him that dieth — •l^^p'n"! tJierefore turn ye. In this sense it may stand even at the beginning of a sentence, when it implies an inference of some kind from circumstances already mentioned; 2 Kings iv. 41, and he said nop'-inj?"! then take meal; Ps. iv. 4, ^V^^ then know ye; ii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 3. e) Final {in order that, so that); in this sense chiefly with the cohortative or jussive (§ 128). Of scarcely less extensive application are the two relative conjunctions (prop, relative pronouns) l.^'t? and ''S^ort, quod, quum, that, because, — running almost parallel with each other in their significations, except that ^? occurs as a conjunction far more frequently and in a great variety of senses, while "1'^'*^ is generally a relative pronoun, and takes prefixes. Both are prefixed, like quod, to a whole clause, standing in place of an accusative, and governed by the preceding active verb as its object. "1?^'*? is even preceded by the accusative particle n?? ; Josh. ii. 10, nin^ i;'^3"in""l^'5^ nx -l^yp^ loe have heard (id quod exsiccavit) that Jehovah hath dried up, — more commonly "l^'^f 'I^F^PV"' '^'^'•^ still oftcner *2 -"l^yD^. 1 Sam. xxiv. 11, 19. Hence the following uses of '? : a) it is employed before words directly quoted, like the Gr. on (very seldom * See fuller particulars on the use of Vav copulative, in Gesenius's Thesaurus I. p. 393 et seqq. § 155. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 245 "1^^, 1 Sam. XV. 20); h) it is temporal:=oTe, prop, (at the time) that, (at the time) tvhen, sometimes passing over to the conditional power of D5< [Eng. tu/ic7i=if, differing only in the form of repre- sentation], Job xxxviii. 5, comp. vs. 4 and 18 (seldom 1^^?, Lev. iv. 22 ; Deut. xi. 6), — but often with an accurate discrimination between the two, well illustrated in Ex. xxi. ; c) causal, eo quod-, because, fully ''3 1^!,"!"^'^? \T., propterea quod, also/or=yap; repeated C? — ''3, Is. i. 29,30, "•?) — *3 because — and because. Job xxxviii. 20), when more than one cause for the same thing is assigned ; d) adversative (in which sense ""S only is used) either, a) after a negative, but, — prop, but it is because, e. g. thou shalt not take a wife for my son from the daughters of the Canaanites — but a Hebrewess, =^for thou shalt take a Hebrewess, the former being prohibited because tlie latter is to be done ; or, /3) where negation is only implied, e. g. after a question which involves denial (§ 153, 1, 2), when it may be rendered no, but, — but no, — -for surehj (dAAa yap) Mic. vi. 3, what (injury) have I done to thee? . . .for surely I brought thee up, etc. Job xxxi. 18. See on 0^5 '•3 below, in No. 2, «. 2. We now arrange the remaining conjunctions according to their significations, and in the case of those (very many in number) that have a variety of senses, exhibit together the different uses of each as it first occurs. We must, however, confine ourselves here to a brief general notice, leaving the more complete view, with the references and proofs, to the Lexicon.* a) Copidative : besides 1,1, tlie properly adverbial forms D3 also, and ^i? intensive, there is added, wholly, even, once combined 2il"*1^1. and even also. Lev. xxvi. 44. The first is often used with plural forms emphatically, to include all, e. g. D^^P' Q^ both the two, ?3 03 all toyether. It also merely gives emphasis to the following word: Gen. xxix. 30, and he loved ''OynX'D^ Rachel (not, also Rachel) more than Leah; 1 Sam. xxiv. 12. — ""S ^^^ is prop, add that, hence not to mentioii, — according to the connexion, much more, much less. b) Disjmictive : 1^* or (etym. free tvill, choice, hence prop, vel, but also aut exclusive, 2 Kings ii. 16). Sometimes it stands elliptically for '? "ti^ or (be it) that, or (it must be) that, when it may be rendered unless that, e. g. Is. xxvii. 5 ; — hence the transition to the conditional sense, if, but if, Ex. xxi. 36 (the LXX. eav Se, Vulg. sin autem), if haply, 1 Sam. xx. 10, which has been contested without reason (comp. on V'l^, § 150, 3, Note). Repeated, iX— "IX, sive — sive, it is the same as DK_DS*. c) Temporal : ^3 , "1^'t^ z= ore, quum (see above), for which more rarely is used the conditional particle Di< (Is. iv. 4; xxiv. 13); IV, ■|^"^; IV, ^3 iy until that, also D5< ly, ON* "iv'^^^ "ly until that ivhen, "iV also duriny, so lony as, "IIV?, the same, 1^'*^. ''TlQ^ after that, TK^ (for "%% ?'?'?) since that, Dnti? and Q^.n before, "np"]!? for IK'J? npnp. before (Ps. cxxix. 6). d) Causal: (besides "'3 and '^t^'X, No. 1, c, e) '^^^. 1? ^J? because, or merely 1? ^V, with the omission of ~C:^. (§ 104, 1, e), Ps. xlii. 7 ; xlv. 3. ir^r^? (Gen. xviii. 5 ; xix. 8 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 20) and I3-^y -^^ (Job xxxiv. 27), for ^3 |3-^y, -|K'X^ I3-^y;t nC=X^ 1?^^ \>V, X'^^ nniN bv, prop. /«>• the circumstaitces that=^for this cause that, and emphatically "1?;'^. n'nix"73'7y ybr the very cause that, "l*^'5< "l-l^p, "It^X. \Vl (prop, on the account, that), and ''3 nnn [therefore, that), eo quod, because ■•S ^py (prop, as a reicard that), that. e) Final: "1^'^ I^?? to the end that, "l^^^ ">"l3y3 in order that (also causal), 1. that=in order that (see above), perhaps ?, 1 Kings vi. 19. With a negative force : ^X, )| that not, lest (§ 152). * See especially Gesenius's Heb. Lexicon, translated by Dr. Tregelles. t See, on these groups of particles, Gesenius's Thesaurus II. p. 682. 24G PART III. SYNTAX. — CHAP. V. USE OF THE PARTICLES. f) Conditional: principally DS and •IT' (for which rarely -l^^^), if. The first (which is also a particle of interrogation, § 153, 2) is purely conditional, leaving it uncertain whether what is expressed by the verb is actually so, is actually done, or not (rather the former), — as, if I do — have done — shall do: on the contrary, •1'' expressly implies that it is not so, is not done (if I should do — had done), at least that it is very uncertain and even improbable. Hence D^:^ may properly stand where ^ would express the thought more accurately (Ps. 1. 12; cxxxix. 8; Hos. ix. 12); but -1? cannot be used for Di<. Especially in solemn asseveration, expressed under the form of conditional imprecation, C!l>5 is used; Ps. vii. 4 — 6, '1i1 ^"^1,! — riXT '•^l^t^•;y"DX if I have done this — then let the enemy persecute me, etc. ; Ps. xliv. 21 ; Ixxiii. 15 ; cxxxvii. 5. What has been said of D^ and -v holds good, also, when they are connected with the negative, as in N? 05;^, ^^.?-'l^, and \?-1^. It must be observed further, that DS, after forms of swearing, e. g. T\)p) "'n as Jehovah lives, has the force of a negative (hence N'P DX is affirmative), 2 Sam. xi. 11 ; XX. 20. There is here an ellipsis, which is sometimes filled up, as in 2 Sam. iii. 35, Y'HK'J?^ nb DX ^3 Pl''pV nbl D^ripX so may God do to me and more also, if- — . Hence generally after verbs of swearing and adjuring, D^5 stands for not, Cant. ii. 7, iii. 5, also elsewhere in poetry, as Judges V. 8, Is. xxii. 1-1. On ^^<, ''3, "%%, as passing -over into conditional particles, see above, in No. 2,b, and No. 1, e. g) Concessive : Cl^5, with the Pret., even if (^= though) I «?», Job ix. 15, with the I^ut. {thoayh one ivcre). Is. i. 18 ; x. 22 ; ^y (for "i'^!'^. ?y), altliough. Job xvi. 17; "*? ^l even ivhen, although. h) Comparative; "'5?'^?5 as, quemadmodum, with |3 in the second member, as — so. Is. xxxi. 4; Iii. 14, 15. — "l*s^^ niay be omitted in the protasis. Is. Iv. 9 ; Ps. xlviii. 6, and j? in the apodosis, Obad. 15, Exact conformity is expressed by *^' nJ3y"?3 in all poijifs as, Eccles. v. 15. {) Adversative : (see on the adverbs, § 147, 3). Decidedly belong here, ""S DS>< only that — bttt, nevertheless, and the difficult combination Di^ "'? , prop, that if, for if, most frequently btit if, in the sense of *? explained under letter d, but united with Di? to form a connexion with the verb. Ps. i. 1, happy the man who tvalks not (if he walks not) in the counsel of the ungodly .... vs. 2, but if ip^ ''?) his delight is in Then simply but, Ps. i. 4 ; Gen. xxxii. 29, but if, but when. Gen. xxxii. 27, and merely but:=except (after a negative), xxxix. 9 ; xxviii. 17. li) On the interrogative particles, see § 153, and — l) The optative particles above, under letter _/". 3. A certain brevity and incompleteness* of expression (see No. 1) appears, among other things, in this, that instead of the compound conjunction, by whicli the relation is fully expressed, may be used one or the other of those composing it. Tlius, instead of the full form 1^i< jy^ on the account^ that=because, we have the shorter ]T. or "ItTX; instead of ^^X3 as (conj.), 3, Is. Ixi. 11, and "I^X, Ex. xiv. 18; 1 Kings viii. 24. * More rare is pleonasm, or an unnecessary fulness of expression ; e. g, DX ^3, for if, Ex. xxii. 22, comp. old Germ, weiin dass (prop, if it is that) and old Eng. " if so be that." On the contrary, a degree of pleonasm in the particles is quite at home in the Chal dee ; e.g. n"P3p"?3 (Germ. aZ/ dieweil) wholly— for — tliat=becajise, "P3 n3'=T"?3i? just for this ^therefore. Emphatic, not pleonastic, is the repetition of the conjunction in iy^3"l ]Vl because, even because, Lev. xxvi. 43. Like the Gorman sintemal nnd all dieweil. § 156. THE INTEEJECTIONS. 247 4. This brevity of expression is sometimes carried so far, that the conjunction, which is required to show the relation of one sentence or part of a sentence to another, is omitted altogether. This occurs — a) In conditional clauses: Gen. xxxiii. 13, drive they them hard^ then they ivill die, — for, if they drive them hard they will die. Job vii. 20, (if) / have sinned, what do I unto thee? Gen. xlii. 38. b) Where comparison is expressed: Ps. xiv. 4, DH? ^y^^ ''^V vDX who devour my people (as) they would eat bread, prop, (as) those who eat bread. Job xxiv. 19, drought and heat bear off the snow-water, ^i^DH 71^st^ (so) Sheol (those Avho) sin. Jer. xvii. 11. c) In members which are usually dependent on the relative conjunctions. Gen. xii. 13, say JjlNt ''^^^^{ thou art wy sister, commonly Jyi^jJ ""rirtX ^3. Ps. ix. 21, that they may learn, they are men. Is. xlviii. 8, for I knew, thou art utterly faith- less. Ps. xvii. 3, / have purposed, my mouth shall not sin. In all these cases, the second member stands properly in the accusative; comp. § 142, 4, Rem. 2. Sect. 156. THE INTERJECTIONS. The interjections which correspond to our ah ! oh ! alas ! woe ! expressing de- nunciation as well as lamentation (^!^^{, ""Ik^s, ""in), are connected with the object of the threatening or lamentation either by the prepositions 7^, /^?, ^ or without any of these particles, as ^^7 ^ti< woe to us ! ""lil ""in ivoe to the people I Is. i. 4 ; ''^T\ "•nt^ alas, my brother ! 1 Kings xiii. 30. On the construction of Hjin with the suffixes, see § 100, 5. INDEX I. (the numbers refer to the pages.) i*, as Consonant and Guttural, 17; prefers ", 4-3; as Feeble Letter, 19, 43, scq. ; as Dilated Letter, 14; Interchanged with H, 1, and ■•, 44 ; Omitted, 44. iN, 245. '^•1N*, 235, Note*'. ^^, Interrogative Particle, 238. ?:^?, ^^^ 236, seq. ^«, 237. *???, 242. Di<, its Difference from -1^, 220, 246. 1.K'«, as Relative Pronoun, 69, 200; as Relative Conjunction, 244; ^ -%% 190. nx, Sign of Accusative, 173, 192, Note*; as Pre- position icith, 173. ?, Preposition, 172, 174; its Use, 241. T*??, 201, Note *\ n, with Mappiq, 32, 45, 128 ; as Feeble Letter, 45. n, see under Article. n, Interrogative, 171, 238. n— , ending of Cohortative and Imperative, 81, seq. ; of Nouns, 135, 148. t^-in, and i<"'n, 64; how distinguished from HT, 199. n^'H, its Anomaly, 129; with the Participle, 218; with p before Infinitive, 216. 1, as Vowel-Letter, 19, 22, 43. ], see Vav Copulative and Conversive of Preterite. •1, see Vav Conversive of Future. njni , Prophetic Formula, 206. "'H^!, Historic Formula, 211. \, as Vowel-Letter, 19, 22, 44. ^Y^l-, with prefixes, 173. nj^bipj, 80. ?, with SufRxes, 174; its Force, 243. ^3 , 244, seq. DX >3 , 246, and Note f. I? ^y ^3, 245. ^3, with Negative, 236; with Substantive, with and without the Article, 109, scq. (, its Pointing, 172; with Suffixes, 174; its Mean- ings, 243; as Sign of the Dative, 192; for the Genitive, 190; with the Passive, 227. N^, 236; in Prohibition, 208. •iV, its Etymology and Use, 246, Note *; 220. io), with Plural Force, 174, Note *. 0, Sign of Participles, 87; Formative of Nouns, 137. •» for no, 69. •D for IP, which see. no and VO, 69. 1?-2, Poetical Addition to Prefixes, 175. IB? ^P, 220. JP, Preposition, its Pointing, 172; with SuflSxes, 174; its Senses, 242; with Comparative, 194. 1, see Nun. V, its Pronunciation, 16; as Guttural, 42, seq. ^y, Preposition, 242. Wfy, 167, Note * 1, as Guttural, 43; Doubled, 43. •L*"', Prefix, 69. n, Feminine-ending, 136, 147. INDEX II. A-sound, 24. Abbreviations, 15. Absolute Case, 299. Abstract for Concrete, 138; expressed by the Feminine, 180; takes the Article, 185. Accents, 32—34. Accusative, indicated by DX, 192; by the ending H— , 150, 192; governed by the Verb, ^^221 ; double, 223 ; as adverbial Case, 171, 193. Adjective, Cii-cumlocution for, 179; with the Article, 187 ; with a Substantive, 187; classed with Nouns, 134. Adverb, 170; expressed by a Verb, 226, seq. Alphabet, 13. Aphseresis, 37. Apocopated Future, 82. Apocope, 37; of Verbs H"^, 129. Apposition, 188, 191. Arabisms, 44, 68, 80, seq. Aramaean Tongue, 1. Aramaisms. See Chaldaisms. Archaisms, 8. Arrangement of Words, 229. Article, 67, seq. ; its Syntax, 184—187. Aspirates, 17, 31, 40. Assimilation, 37, 91, 106. Case Absolute, 230. Case-endings, Traces of, 148 — 150, Cases, 146, 191, seq. Celtic Tongues, 3, Note %. Chaldaisms, 10 ; in the Form of the In- finitive, 78 ; in the 3rd pers. fem. Fut., 80; in Piel, 88; in Verbs r\"h, 131 ; in Verbs yy, \\\,seq.; iu Verbs yy, 122; in the Plural, 143; in the Fe- minine, 135, .seq. Chateph-Pathach, 29; shorter than Cha- teph-Scghol, 54. Chateph-Qamets, 29. Chateph-Seghol, 29. Chireq, different Sorts of, 24, seq. Cholem, 26. Cohortative, 81, seq.., 209. Collective Nouns, 181—183; their Syn- tax, 230, se(i. Common Nouns, 179—181. Commutation of Consonants, 36. Comparative Degree, 194. Composition of Woi'ds rare, 61, 136, seq. Compound Notions, how put in Plural, 183 ; with Art., 186 ; with Suff., 183. Conditional Clauses, 247. Conjugations or Derivative Verbs, 70— 72; Number and Arrangement of, 72; unusual Forms of, 93. Conjunctions, 175, seq.^ 243—247. Consonants, Pronunciation and Division of, 15 ; softened into Vowels, 18, 38, 43—45. Construct State, 146; seq.; its Use, 188, seq., 190, seq.; with Art. 186. Construction, aavv^eros, 225, seq.; preg- nant, 224. Contraction, 37. Copula (logical), how expressed, 228. Daghesh, 31. Daghesb forte, 30, seq. ; various Sorts of, 38; where used, 38, seq.; excluded from Gutturals, 41 ; and from T, 43 ; Omission of in Verbs ]}"]}, 110. Daghesh lene, 31, 40. Dative, 192 ; comp. 190. Declension, 135, and Note *, 153, 162. Degrees of Compai-ison, 194. Diphthongs, 18, 23 ; how avoided, 45, seq. Doubling of Consonants, 38 ; its Effect, 87. Dual, 145 ; of Numerals, 168 ; Syntax of, 188, 231, seq. Ellipsis of the Relative, 201 ; of other Pronouns, 200 ; other cases (real or assumed), 191, seq., 201 ; of the Con- junction, 246, seq. Epicoene Nouns, 179, seq. Epithets, poetic, 179. Feeble Letters, Vav and Yodh, 45, seq. Feminine Gender, Endings of, 136 ; Vowel-Changes of, 160, seq. ; in Con- struct State, 147; in Plural, 144; other Indications of, 179 ; Use of in abstract and collective Nouns, ISO; Form of in the Infinitive, 78, 106, 116. Formse mixtte, 133 ; dagessandse, 48 ; auctsD et nudce, 137. Future, Name, 79, Note *; Formation and Inflexion, 79 ; shortened and lengthened, 81 ; with Vav Conversive, 83, 210 ; with Suffixes, 09 ; Syntax of, 207, seq. Ga'ya, 35. Gender, 135; Agreement in, 187, 230— 233. Genitive, how expressed, 146, seq., 190; Use of, 188, seq. Gentilic Nouns, 143, 186. Geographical Names, 181, 185; with Ge- nitive, 191. Gerund, 78, 213, 215. Gutturals, 17,41-43; in Verbs, 100— 106. Hebrew Language, 6 ; Monuments of, 6 ; Dialects of, 10 ; Copiousness of, 10 ; its Grammatical Exhibition, 10—12. Helping Vowels, 55. Hiphil, 89-91. Hithpael, 91, seq. Homogeneous Vowels, 22, Note f ; 46, seq. Hophal, 90. I-sound, 24. Imperative, 78 ; shortened and length- ened, 82; with Suffixes, 100; its Syn- tax, 211, seq.; other Tenses and Moods stand for it, 206, 208, 215. Imperfect, by Circumlocution, 218. Impersonal Construction, 221. Indo-Germanic Tongues compared, 3, and Notes. Infinitive, 77, seq. ; with Suffixes, 100 ; Use of the Inf. Absolute, 213—215; Use of Inf. Construct, 215; with ?, 225 ; Infinitivus Historicus, 215. Instrument, expressed by 3, and by Ac- cusative, 176. Interjections, 247. Interrogative Particles, 238. Jussive, 82, 210. Kal, its Form and Meaning, 75 Kaph veritatis, 243. Knhibh, 35. Lamedh auctoris, 190. Letters: liquids, 17; quiescents, 22, Note t; incompatible, 60, Note; dilatable, 14. Jfappiq, 32. Maqqeph, 34, seq. Matres lectionis, 22, Note t- Methegh, 27, 35, ;G. Milel and Milra, 33. Moods, how expressed, 72, 207, seq., 219 seq. 250 INDEX II. Negatives, 23G, seq. Neuter Gender, wanting in Hebrew, 135, 180. Niphal, 85, seq. Nomina uiiitatis, 181. Nouns, their Derivation and Sorts, 130 — 143; with Suffixes, 150—153; their Declension, 153—103; Irregular, 164, seq.; Syntax, 178. Number, 143--1 10 ; Agreement in,between Subject and Predicate, 232, seq. Numerals, 165 — 168; Signs of, 15; Syntax, 195. Nun, assimilated, 37, 100; epenthetic (de- monstrative), 97. O-sound, 26. Ononiatopoetica, 3, 59, seq. Optative, 208, 209, seq. Paradigms of Nouns, 155, seq.., 162. Paragogie Letters, 148—150. Participial Nouns, 138, ,?eg. Participle, 84, seq.; with Suffixes, 100; its Syntax, 218—220; changed for Verb, 219. Passives, their Construction, 227. Patronymics, 143. i'athach, 21, 24; preferred with Guttu- rals, 41—43 ; Furtive, 22, 42 ; in Pause for Tsere or Seghol, 57, 86 ; in Piel for Tsere, 87, seq. Pause, 56, seq. Perfect. See Preterite. Phoenician and Punic Languages, 2, 7; 19, Note t ; 29, Note * ; 38, Note ; 69, Note ; Writing, 4. Piel, 87, seq. Pleonasms, of the Pronoun, 198, seq.; of the Particles, 246, Note ; of the Ne- gatives, 237. Pluperfect, 204 ; Subjunctive, 205, seq. Plural, its Endings, 143—145; in Pre- positions, 175 ; its Use, 181 — 183. Pluralis excellentiae or majestaticus, 182; its Construction, 188, 231. Poetical Expression, 8, seq. Pointing of the Hebrew Text, 19. Potential, 203. Predicate, usually without the Article, 186 ; its Connexion with the Subject, 230—233. Prefixes, 172 ; with Suffixes, 174. Prepositions, 171—175, 240—243. Present, how expressed, 204, 207, 211, 218; Present Subjunctive, 206. Preterite, 75 — 77 ; with Yav Conversive, 83; with Suffixes, 97, seq.; its Syntax, 204—206. Pronouns, 63; Personal, 63, «e^. ; Suffix, 65 ; Demonstrative, 67 ; Eelative, 69; Interrogative and Indefinite, 69; Suffixes to Verbs, 97—99 ; to Nouns, 150—153; to Adverbs, 171; to Pre- positions, 173 — 175 ; Reflexive Pro- noun, how expressed, 202, seq.; Syn- tax of Pronoun, 197—203. Proper Names, with Article, 185 ; with Genitive following, 189. Prosthesis, 38. Pual, 88. Punic Tongue. See Plicenician. Qamets, 21, 24. Qamets-Chatuph, 21, 20; distinguished from Qamets, 27. Qn-i, 35. Qibbuts, 21, 26. Quadriliterals and Quinqueliterals, 61. Quiescents. See Letters. Radical Letters, 58. Raphe, 32. Relation of Verbs to each other, \Z2, seq. Relative Pronoun, 69, 200; Relative Con- junctions, 244, seq. Repetition of Words, 183. Roots, 58—61. Scriptio plena et defectiva, 23. Seghol, 21, 24,*eg.; with Gutturals, 42; before Gutturals with Qamets, 53, seq. Segholate Nouns, 139, 158. Servile Letters, 58, 13?. Shemitish Languages, 1—6 ; Relation to each other, 2. Sh'va, Name, 28, Note *; simple and com- posite, 29 ; moveable or vocal, 28 ; simple under Gutturals, 42 ; the moveable, a half-vowel, 48. Shureq, 21, 26. Sibilants, 17 ; transposed, 38. Silluq, 33. Square Character, 14. State, Absolute, how far from Construct, 190, seq. ; Construct, its Endings, 147 ; its Vowel-changes, 147; its Use, 188, seq.; when it takes the Article, 186. Stem-con?onants, 59, seq. Stems, different from Roots, 58, seq. Subjuuctive, 207, seq. Suffixes, see Pronouns ; theb* Syntax, 198 ; Grave and Light; Note on p. 155, se?. Superlative Degree, 194. Syllables, Theory of, 48—50. Syriasms, in the Pointing, 45. Tenses, their Use, 2QZ,seq.; Relative, 205. Tone, 55—57 ; Signs of, 33. Transposition, 36, 91. Tsere, 21, 25. Vav Conversive, 83 ; Origin of, 83 ; with Preterite, 84 ; with Future, 84 ; Co- pulative, 84; its Form, 176; its Force, 244. Verb, its Form and Inflexion, 70 — 73 ; Irregular Verbs, 73, 100—106; Verbs Middle E. and O., 75 ; with Suffixes, 94—100; Contracted, 106— 112; Fee- ble, 113 — 132; Doubly Anomalous, 132, seq. ; Defective, 132, et seqq. ; Syntax of, 203 ; witli Prepositions, 224 ; in Combination, to express one Idea, 225—227. Vocative, with the Article, 185. Vowel-Letters, 18. See Feeble Letters. Vowel-Signs or Points, 20, seq. Vowels, 18—21. INDEX III. TEXTS ILLUSTRATED OR PARTICULARLY NOTICED. GENESIS. 1. 1 .. [Genesis 1. 1. 4. 40,192, 204, 229 1, 3, 4 83 1, 3 .. 184,231 2 176, 178, 228 3 .. . 4 .. . 4, 10. 5 ... 6 ... 7,9 . 7 ... 184, 208 90, i»4 ....227 .... 56 .... 173 .... 35 .... 40 ....187 208 229, 232 .... 194 18, 19 83 20, 21 223 21 143,152, 187 105 . .. 150, 210 182 bis, 241 241 ••• 35. 205 9 14 16 187 .... 200, 204 92, 216, 228 204, 208, 229 . ... 118, 224 29, 176, 228 208 215 198 173 ... 29.87 . .. 228, 229 3, 4 122 4 214 5 100, 230, 244 7 ... 10, 11. 11 .. . 12 .. . 13 ... 43: 197 204 237 77 204 14, 17, 22.. 204 244 56 228 132, 206, 208, 237 IG 19 20 22 24 1 7 9 10 12 14 198 15 .... 166, 230 15, 24 168 17 56 18 227 204, 210 •••• 233 204, 239 218, 233 .... 210 10. 11. 20 223 23 79 25 27 20 .... 197, 221 1, 3 241 5, 8 122 5 ^ii 20 195 24 237 2 192 9 35 9, 10 210 10 192 13 227 16 181 17 219 19 68 21 206 7 233 9, 15 196 9 204 11 .. 35, 196 bis 13 166, 176, 202 19 236 20 193 3 214 5 196 7,8 185 8 239 9 202 12 117 13 122, 196 bis 14 190 19 233 22 176 10 187 11 .... 207, 227 14 29, 87 20 .... 186, 226 21 .... 1 30, 151 22 ....198,233 24 118 26 174 27 130 1 zio 6, 15, &c... 1 9,10,15,19 210 12 187 21, &c. . I bis, 6 21 197 22 I 26 68 1 211 4 237,241 5, 8 122 6 112 7 112, 182, 208 8 225 9 220 10 210 12 — 15, 27, 28 210 28, 32 122 28 l8q OLD 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. TESTAMENT. 1 211 4 196 8 151 13 .... 212, 247 2 .... 185, 244 3 .... 151, 200 7 184 9 94 10 217 11 203 1 211 4 193 5, &c 210 10 183 13 6, 185 18 190 19 227 23 172 1, 2 210 2 .... 198, 244 12 2i6 13 .... 198, 201 17 ....218,233 18 .... 199, 205 19, 20 184 1, 2 210 4, 5 Ill 8 207 11 .... 161, 219 14 220 1 211 5 223, 227 8 178 10 212 12 212 13 214 17 .... 171, 195 18 220 19 161, 235 20 205 26, 27 122 1 193 3 177, 198 5 245 11 233 12 202 13 244 20 189 21 171, 184 25 216 28—32 81 28 223 2 239 7,8, 19. ...177 8 245 9 108, 214 11 185 13 218 14 38 15 237 16 217 18 237 19 99, 204, 206 27 204 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Genesis 29 216 33 100 34 136 3 218 6 131, 225 7 ..76, 212 bis 9 208 11 206 13 231 16 196 18 204 1, &c 210 3 202 5 227 8 86 12 241 13 230 16 131, 241 24 87 32 233 1 .. .. 211 Ijis 3 202 4 210 12 219, 227 15 196 17 130 1 196 4 87 4, 6 180 6 178 10 219 11 205 13 205, 212, 220 1, 2 210 2 212 3 189 8 210 12 198 23 199 40 206 61 233 63 179 65 67 67 i86 1 .... 225, 226 5 35 7,17 195 19, 20, &C...210 21 87 26 217 27 186 31,33 68 1 211 8 211 13 214 18 225 28 129 29 .... 106, 131 32 199 33 199 1 211, 215 4 209 20 225 21 239 34. 16,] 27. 24 ....238,239 26, 38 29 30 204 33 .. .. 19, 221 34 .... 197, 221 36 199 37 ....223,238 39 232 42 .... 219, 227 43, 44 206 45 .... 216, 223 28. 17 246 19 187 29 206 29. 1 179 6 239 7 186, 215 9 190 10 112 15 206 17 204, 231 21 209 30 24"; 32 99 30. 15 106 29 160 38 80 31. 6 64 8 232 13 186 14 233 15 214 18 160 20 204 24, 31 237 27 106, 226 29 237 30 86, 214 32 .. .. 99, 201 35 204 38 149 40 132 47 2 50 212 32. 6 211 9 233 11 .... 204, 242 12 206, 218 16 179 17 183 18 105 21 .... 40, 209 23 187 27 246 29 246 33. 5 199 7 233 bis 8 199 10 206, 211 11 1-5 13 186, 247 19 186 .34. 7 78 16 84 252 34. 22 27 30 35. 3 7 8 11 21 2G 2 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 11 17 24 4 5 6 9 11 13, 14, 14 18 3 5 10 14 15 18 20 1 12 14 17 21 23 25 26 34 39 40 42 43 49 51 1 G 11 13 18 19 25 28 30 34 35 [Genesis 122 208 178 219 231 90 23' 151 227 — i 210 .... 187, 210 194 219, 225, 226 213, 239 207 146 .... 108, 222 .... 67, 179 224 237 171 214 .... 225, 226 193 .. .. 242 105, 201 . . .. 20I I8» 246 68 15,18,19 211 17 6 105 . ... 216, 217 191 190 181 205 . . 6, 89, 214 186 227 193 6, 190 220 219 . ... 151, 160 . . 218 bis 186, 187, 197 l)i3 , 208 218 193 • 185. 223 214 , . 130, 183 . .. 92 . .. 186 64. 197 ... 195 . . . 212 ... 187 ...183 . . . 224 [82, 229 , . . . 209 . .. 218 34. 22. 42. 38 206, 224, 247 43. 3 213 5 218 7 . . . . 208, 213 14 205 15 193 32 6, 207 33 ...224 44. 4 221 5 241 9, 10 201 14 233 18 .... 208, 243 22 206 33 117 45. 4 200 12 186 12, 13 206 18 212 46. 3 208 4 214 27 184 47. 3 232 4 190 9 189 21 .... 229, 230 48. 6 231 11 129 49. 10 39 11 149, 151,165 12 158 15 211, 233 21 184 23 Ill 25 243 50. 17 177 20 129 EXODUS. 1. 1 84 7 223 10 80 11 192 18, 19 80 20 231 21 198 2. 1 192 3 39 4 117 6 198, 218 10 99 14 216 1" 99 20 79 3. 3 209 18 143 4. 2 69 10 ....158, 179 13 201 5. 5 206 8 244 10 237 16 237 23 214 6. 3 241 6 206 8. 8 210 11 90 INDEX TO TEXTS. 8. 17 237 9. 18 45 27 186 10. 1 187 8 . . . . 199, 227 11 105 15 236 17 .... 122, 210 27 ..225 11. 8 28 12. 5 179 G 195 16 236 48 208 13. 2 88 15 227 18 112 14. 7 157 11 237 13 .... 201, 247 15. 1, 21 39 1 233 4 178 5 .. .. 97, 130 14 81 16 136 20 80, 233 IG. 3 220 4 239 6, 7 206 6 244 14 93 29 202 17. 1 217 3 160 4 206 13 80 18. 20 .. .. 201 bis 21, 25 168 23 76, 225, 229 26 80 19. 8 199 13 117 18 157 25 198 20. 4 236 8 215 9 193 15 208 20 198 25 .... 121, 122 21. 1— 3G 245 28 192 29 231 36 245 37 179, 182 22. 8 231 22 246 23. 20 201 21 87 30 236 31 97 25. 39 224 40 227 26. 3 203 33 84, 91 27. 3 243 18 196 28. 3 223 Deuteronomy 4. 1.] 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. .36. 38, 39 ... 27 ... 29 ... 30 .. . 25 .. . 4 .. . 13 . . . 4,8 . 6 ... 22 .. . 25 .. . 27 .. . 3 .. . 4 .. . 12 .. . 13 ... 11 ... 2 .. . 32 ... 2 .. . 4 .. . 14 .. . 24, 25. 3 .. . 186 181 178 99 223 185 99 231 213 241 97 203 53 231 131 152 219 208 i8< 78 202 224 195 224 LEVITICUS. 1. 2 202 2. 1 233 12 228 4. 2 242 22 245 23, 28 117 5. 1 233 6. 3 198 10. 19 171 11. 43 125 12. 4 125 13. 10 64 19 188 39 188 14. 21 90 15. 24 2IO 16. 27 227 18. 7 .. ., 19. 9 .. ., 20 .... 130, 214 20. 6 233 17 64 131 TOO 23. 32 196 24. 5 223 25. 21 129 26. 15 2i6 33 34 43 44 129 246 245 NUMBERS. 1. 2 183 47 92 2. 33 92 C 24 39 20 3 13 104 186 167 106 240 104 8. 19 9. 6 15 10. 2 4 11. 11 12 25 12. 1 13. 18 69, 14. 2 3 24 206, 37 42 15. 28 35 40 16. 26 17. 5 6, &c 10 20. 3 10 17 20 21. 1 .... 87, 9 30 22. 6 . . . . 200, 14, 16 30 33 .... 198, 23. 2 97, 13 25 24. 3, IS-.i-^o, 9 17 24 26. 10 14 27. 4 19 31. 49 32. 14 15 32 42 35. 19 36. 2 3 173 232 216 78 196 125 117 114 233 239 205 54 236 224 187 237 97 214 206 212 208 122 112 220 212 209 81 129 192 132 226 117 200 235 130 97 236 215 165 121 231 142 6 103 167 106 104 186 41 243 64 45 215 227 106 DEUTERONOMY. 1. 5 17 27 32 44 2. 24 116, 25, 31 27 3. 7 24 ....137, 4. 1, 22 .. 76, 226 81 217 237 112 226 225 209 112 ao8 [Deuteronomy 4. 1. 3 5, 12 24 .... 29, 26 ....Z.7, 6. 17 7. 18 8. 1 3, 16 13 9. 14 26 11. 6 14. 2 17 22 15. 7 14 16. 6 17. 8 12 19. 1 20. 5—8 21. 8 10 22. 7 28 23. 5 25. 13 19 26. 1 12 27. 7 28. 32 43 49 57 59 63 67 29. 12 30. 4 31. 12 16 32. 6 7 8 15,17 17 21 22 26 32 35 36 37 39 33. 11 ....219,. 16 21 23 JOSHUA. 1. 2 2. 5 10 : 17 18 117 218 215 215 215 117 77 130 131 210 245 194 136 228 242 223 243 173 105 117 121 94 233 106 188 242 183 217 117 90 38 233 236 200 125 152 130 220 216 99 225 157 171 183 90 221 201 204 116 96 39 232 77 130 197 224 149 132 n6 216 244 99 99 187 92 4. 226 69 20 .. . 5 .. 14 .. , 16 ... 6,21, 14 ... 6. 13 214 17 7. 7 9 15 8. 4 32 33 186 9. 24 91, 131 10. 12 208, 229 24 ..44, 77, 184 13. 4 149 14 232 14. 8 131 15. 21 149 17. 1 186 .... 131 104, 225 .. .. 131 .... 227 .... 176 .... 80 12 216 19. 51 190 22. 9 .. . 114 192 24. 14 131 19 32 I«2 186 JUDGES. 1. 3 . 7 . 19 . 28 . 2. 2 . 20 . 3. 15 . 4. 20 . .... 84 218 .. .. 216 •■ •• 213 .... 209 .... 208 .... 187 .... 97 .... 69 .... 246 143, 191 .... 121 10 12 15 40, 144, 148 223 229 ... 244 32, 105 206 69 67 .... 123 .... 218 .... 199 ....183 .... 83 .... 167 28, 217 9, 11, 13 .. 204 10 79 .... 242 '99, 212 .... 220 .... 223 230 INDEX TO TEXTS. 11. 5 40 18 Ill 23 238 25 123 26 173 33 195 12. 6 10 13. 3 206 5, 7 161 6 105 8 89 9 218 11 239 23 205 14. 6 185 10 209 16 238 17 196 18 136, 194 15. 1 242 10 230 12 221 13 214 18 221 16. 5,6,15 187 9 185 15 244 16 .. 29, 32, 87 16, 25 211 21 218 28 146 17. 2 64 3 90 18. 22 90 23 no 29 89 19. 4 90 6 225 19 187 20 57 22 222 20. 15, 17 92 16 181 25 167 31 108 21. 9 92 21 232 2 Samuel RUTH. 1. 1 84 8 220 13 237 14 132 19 151 2. 3 190 8 80 8,21 81 9 131 16 215 17 193 21 180, 198 3. 2 151 4,18 81 9 206 15 .... 132, 196 4. 1 122 15 99 1 SAMUEL. 1. 10. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 7 13 14 16 20 24 28 3 8 13 16 26 28 29 33 2 7 6 19 10 12 3 2 6 8 9 11 13 19 24 6 13 23 13 3 15 2-1 1 14 16 22 24 33 36 9 19 20 23 1 16 , 18 , 3 14 17 21 23 25 , 26 32 . 34 , 40 , 44 , 47 , 58 , 29 , 1 , 4 . 209 232 81 179 76 202 105 •226, 237 219 230 44 214 214 211 • 9i»23i 226 209 69 "7 ...112, 217 80, 1 18, 214 210 194 214 206 221 230 81 197 184 131 131 194 . .. 76, 105 186 .... 67 ....194 . . .. 190 .... 90 .... 132 44> '25 112 112, 1! , ... 122 ,...245 ,...211 , . . . 106 . ..226 . . . 190 • • • 243 , ... 194 ,. . . 196 . .. 181 ... 218 . .. 99 67, 188 . . . 206 192 198 212 231 187 219 216 160 185, 253 11. 25.] 19. 13, 16 182 22 .... 187, 220 23 197 20. 6 86, 213 6,28 86 10 245 11 193 16 222 18 206 19 226 22, 37 234 31 179 38 144 21. 2 149 3 93 8 190 14 .... 130, 198 22. 7 183 13 213 23. 3 218 24. 6 192 8 223 9 185 11 220 11, 19 244 12 245 25. 5 105 7 91 8 132 10, 11 206 14 122 15 191 18 46 24 197 26 213 26, 33 222 27 ....230,232 31 236 26. 12 145 27. 1 216 10 238 28. 3 244 7 191 9 217 10 39 14 159 15 82 30. 6 220 31. 2 90 2 SAMUEL. 1. 9 189 23 76 26 131 2. 8 190 3. 1 214 11 217 27 224 34 78 35 . . 246 .4. 6 198 5. 10 214 6. 3 187 7- 5 239 23 231 10. 9 233 11. 11 246 25 . 192 254 12. 13. [2 Samuel 12 10. INDEX TO TEXTS. 15. 16. 12 17 20 31 32 39 4 23 25 33 34 . 5 . 13 . 22 . 14 . If) . 18 . 20 . 23 . 29 . , 130 ■ 131 192 , 244 219 123 i88 220 -31 19. 20. 21. 22. 20 27 19 20 21 9 12 14 20 33 • 130 ■ 230 . 214 • ^Sl . 191 .211 • 43 . 192 • 245 . 212 .238 , 211 217 180 181 246 91 193 132 87 193 122 37, 40, 48 .. 173 23. 24. 41 44 G 8 11 3 21 .230 144 151 144 186 244 214 1 KINGS. l^Kiiigs 84 ... 221 1. 12 27 43 52 31 7 18 24 9 15 25 7 19 , 14 , 37 . 24 , 30 . ....239 • ■ • 235 .... 179 ....236 207, 215 .. .. 199 ....184 ....236 . . . . 190 . . • . 209 189 . ... 245 i88 .... 151 . ... 247 243 38,43 81 48 77 .... in .... 211 .... 219 180 21 23 26 27 11 12. 13 14. 15. 19. 20. 21. 22. 8 16 21 24 5 15 15 17 21 24 4 . 7 . 30 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 25 . 31 . 10 . 14 . 21 . 32 . 44 . 11 . 20 . 35 .. 36 .. 37 .. 7 .. 10 i; 15 .. 19 .. 10 .. 13 .. 15 .. 25 .. 30 .. 35 .. .. 187 , . 196 • 237 • 231 . 180 • 87 .216 . 211 • 227 . 81 • 217 • 29 . 247 . 64 . 106 , 216 , 196 190 196 J32 228 223 97 .. .. 230 •• 131 ....185 .. .. 214 • . . . 221 176, 210 .... 116 197 227 .... 193 ....238 .. .. 131 .. .. 215 .. .. 118 2 KINGS. 1. 2 .. 7 .. 8 .. 9. 10. 11. . 10 16 21 24 3 16 23 26 27 13 25 41 43 9 13 22 23 26 13 19 21 17 . 21 . 239 69 179 11,13 225 89, 227 245 131 231 183 .... 214 ....232 .... 207 216 .... 67 1 16, 244 .... 215 . . . . 190 ■ . . . 229 . . . 2n ... 211 ....229 . . . . 146 117 .... 85 .... 136 ■ •• 173 13, 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 25. 10 14 21 7 14 18 29 1 11 26 , 30 . 23 . 25 . 20 . 8 . 1 . 5 . 15 . 17 . 29 . . . 196 . 221 . 121 . 186 . X36 .183 . 196 . 130 .6, 8 • 192 • »5i ■ 44 239 216 195 244 112 186 132 21. 23. 26. 27. 28. 32. 35. 17 4 5 7 23 15 32 21 , Job 9. • 195 I . 8i I 216 239 90 I 236 239 197 1 CHRONICLES. 9. 11. 12, 13. 15. 17. 18. 20. 21. 25. 26. 27. 29. 27 18 5 13 10 11- 2 17 28 33 2 12 27 4 . 21 , 5 , 8 . 23 . 5 . 28 . 24 . 30 . 2 . 9 . 17 . ...195 . .. 172 ...183 . .. 189 . . . 190 . .. 144 ...46 . .. 217 . . . 167 ... 183 . .. 226 . . 201 .. 94 ■• 239 .. 231 . . 167 .. 67 .. 40 [95 bis .. 184 .. 228 .. 85 .. 187 184 2 CHRONICLES, 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 15. 16. 19. 20. 3 .. . 11 .. . 29,33. 40 ... 3 .. . 15 .. . 18 .. . 20 .. . 7 .. . 4 .. . 1 ., . ■ 195 . 200 . 81 ■ 232 ■ 217 • 232 . 180 • 237 . 68 , 81 218 92 92 216 91 193 EZRA. 1. 1 2. 55 3. 6 . 10 . 12 . 10. 8— b, 18 ..., 11 .. ., 12—26 24 . . . . 23 . . . . 25 . . . . 3 8 .. . 13 .. .. 18 . 84 . 180 . 241 . 146 • "7 • 17 I , 182 ; 197 I 182 87 184 83 218 228 NEHEMIAH. Nehemiah 5 1- 7 215 187 226 203 237 243 180 9 197 231 192 187 184 ^^3 12 6 20 2- 5 8 2 57 8 6, 18 , 32 . 35 , 38 , 21 , 44. 23,24 10 24 6 ESTHER. Esther g .... 84 .... 88 ....183 .... Ill 1 1 •1 13 14 16 2 5 6 11 15 1 23 8 27, 50 ...239 ...236. . . . 210 •••75 225 bis ...III . . . 189 . . . 202 ... 232 24,] JOB. Job. . . . 14 15 16 17 19 3 4 10 11 3 4 4,6,7 5 .... 5, 6, 8 6 .... 1/9, 21 •••• 33 iOi, 204 166 193, 209 -. .. 207 231 9 10 11 13 16 218 2l8 180 238 207 • • • . 204, 238 184 56, 114, 201 bis, 206, 209 178 208 99 208 129 225 208 237 209 205 209 17, IS 204 .. 46 26 3,4 6 12, 13 17 . 19 . 20 . 1 . 7 . 8 . 12 . 16 . IS . 19 . 2 ., 3 . 5, (i 9 .. 10 .. 12 .. 14 .. 20 ., 21 .. 26 .. 15, 16 3 9 13. 20 3 8 18 21 2 15 21 24 . 211 230 209 .... 78 207, 239 . . .. 221 . . .. no •••• 35 . ... 244 . . . 209 ... 130 ... 136 • •• 131 ... 244 • •• 214 57, 183 • •• 239 . .. 208 ■ ••233 28, 239 . . . 209 ■ •• 233 . . 221 . . 106 .. 242 -21, 2z: 211 204 • 242, 247 239 44 105 44, 131 ....204 93, 246 202, 209 .... 235 10, 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. [Job 3 239 4, 5 239 8 232 8, 9, 13.... 238 10, 11 209 11 99 13 204 IG 210 18 209 19 205 20 209 2,7 239 17 .... 194, 210 7 231 11 24+ 12 243 24 189 5 210 7 239 13 200 25 192 28 221 2 211 3 238 9 90 10 80, 211, 238 14 239 16 238 19 231 7,8 239 13 143 22 130 27' : .. ^q ■ 31 ....... 210 35 215 3 239 4 222 5 99 6 210, 239 7 90 9 222 10 222 12 133 14 185 17 246 19 182 1 183 2 . . . . 39, 210 12 ...221 15 239 16 80 2 191 7 198 21 191 2 .. .. 99, 131 3 226 5 242 15 99 16 222 23 •. .. 112 4 239 5—20 174 10 .... 121, 232 17 210 19 244 23 . . 1 74 26 233 4 239 16 205 10. 3. 21. 23 202 32 183 22. 2 174, 242 4 .. .; 239 6, 7, 8 .... 209 7 229 18 205 20 ........ 151 21 90, 212 23 239 28 56, 122, 210 30 237 23. 2 .. .. 178, 194 3 . . . . 2io, 225 12 230 13 241 24. 1 227 9 201 19 .... 201, 247 21 118 22 143 24 in 25. 5 230 26. 5 241 9 9+ 13 178 27. 3 ....189, 235 4 ziz 23 174 28. 4 227 5 194 17 237 29. 2 220 10 76 12 201 12, 13 209 14 99 21 39, 46 30. 14 194 20 237 31. 1 239 5 122 10 143 18 .... 198, 245 21 121 22 32, 4'^ 32. 6, 10 117 7 233 11 114 15 221 18 .... 44, 125 22 226 33. 4 131 5 103 13 12^ 23 242 25 94 34. 3 244 5 204 10 243 13 149 • 17 239 20 221 22 217 23 229 27 24"; 35. 10 160 11 114 36. 26 230 INDEX TO TEXTS. 36. 32 i8i 37. 3 87 6 131 14 222 38. 3 103 4 .... 117, 245 5 245 7 .... .... in 12 242 14 194 18 245 20 245 21 233 30 ... . 92, 194 32 233 39. 9 225 15 231 24 131 40. 2 215 8,9 239 22 112 23 242 41. 7 187 15 76 17 142 22 187 25 46, 130, 184 42. 2 77 10 152 16 145 PSALMS. Psalais 33 1. 1 . . . . 204, 246 2 246 4 .... 185, 246 6 114 2. 2 184 3 . . . . 82, 209 6 .... 198, 221 7 .. . . 76, 117 10 244 3. 2 112 3 136 5 222 8 224 4. 2, 4 .. 38, 217 3 8i 4 244 8 201 5. 5 -:! 9 118 10 180 12 244 13 223 6. 2 229 4 64 10 230 7. 4—6 246 8 121 10 188, 208 12 187 16 201 8. 2 212 5 211 6 223 9. 7 197, 230 14 38 12. 32. 33. 34. 35. Psalm 18 149 19 114, 237 21 247 3 204 15 176 1 190 2 81 4 230 5 230 3 . . . . 183, 222 4 . . . . 90, 180 8 287 5 76, 99 1 190 4 247 5 221 3 230 5 27,85 6 136 3 247 10 .... 183, 222 13, 14 222 13 228 3 201 4 187, 218 17 222 28 188, 232 30 242 31 230 33 184, 219, 223 34 229 37, 40, 48 .. 173 40, 49 219 41 230 44 144 48 184 10 184 11 184 4 . . 54, 82 bis 8 199 9 199 2 .... 56, 184 2 99 8 222 9 212 16 181 22 .... 206, 224 27 212 4 209 4 i88 1—22 14 9 210 7 91 8 174 1 183 4 178 8 198 6 205 7 294 8 290 15 204 24 103 1 .. .. 131, 219 2 201 4 290 7 185 1—22 .... 14 13 219 6 68. 178 255 73. 14.] 35. 14 158 16 222 23 198 37. 1—40 .... 14 3 212 20 57 23 227 27 212 31 231 38. 11 ... . 93, 232 40. 6 225 13 204 15 41 42. 2 iSo 5 209 7 245 44. 3 222 5 197 20 130 21 246 27 136 45. 3 245 7 228 8 223 9 .... 114, 244 10 39 12 .... 130, 210 13 180 46. 3 217 48. 6 246 49. 6 H2 13,21 2oi 15 185 50. 3 220 6 211 10 150 12 246 21 2i<; 23 97 51. 4 131 7 105 19 189 55. 7 220 19,22 27 56. 1 2i8 57. 2 .... I ^o, 232 58. 2 .\. 171 5 191 8 152 12 231 60. 4 131 7 222 13 1^6 62. 4 187 63. 2 188 65. 5 201 10 99 14 223 66. 17 222 67. 2 112 68. 3 112 22 189 69. 4 112 10 99 36 117 72. 15 97 20 89 73. 10 174 14 ........ 202 256 [Psalm 73. 15 246 20 242 74. 2 199 17 230 21 121 76. 3 146 8 218 10 217 78.17 91 44 130 79. 2 150 12 168 80. 1 89 11 z^^ 14 9+ 81. 201 14 220 84. 5 219 87. 5 184, 202 88.19 178 89. 2 222 40 224 51 187 90. 15 191 91. 4 112 6 193 92.16 136 94. 1 90 102. 4 112 5 53 103. 3—5 152 4 151 104. 1 204 2 223 3 184 7 122 8 199 11, 20 150 17 230 18 187 20 210 24 112 29 114 105.24 130 109. 2 222 13 130 29 223 30 222 110. 3 178 4 149 112. 7 85 113. 5—9 150 114. 8 150 116. 6 91 12 152 15 136 118.11 .... 112 bis 18 89 119. 1—176.... 14 22 Ill 30, 40 204 101 131 137 232 155 232 120, &c 9 1 211 5 223 124. 4 136 127. 2 .... 45, 136 73. 15. 128. 3 130 5 212 129. 6 245 132. 12 152 133. 1 217 134. 2 193 137. 1-9 9 3 105 5 246 6 97, 194 138. 6 118 139. 1—24 .... 9 1 99 2 .. .. 123, 221 5 151 8 .. .. 210, 246 11 173, 211 19 220 20 114 140. 10 131 13 77 141. 5 132 8 130 144. 2 144 3 . . . . 21 1 bis 8 183 14 180 145. 7 187 149. 2 181 150. 2 159 PROVERBS. Proverbs 33 1. 5 117 10 131 22 204 28 99 2. 11 97 3. 10 223 18 231 4. 21 122 25 118 5. 22 198 6. 17 188 7. 2 212 13 112 8. 27 Ill 30 180 9. 6 212 10 182 10. 4 .. . . 44, 222 11. 3 .... 38, III 16 244 26 230 12. 21 236 26 122 13. 4 150 5 228 21 192 14. 3 80 10 43 20 227 15. 20 207 16. 20 316 17. 3 244 4 114 8 178 INDEX TO TEXTS. 19. 8 216 26 219 20. 2 189 9 208 13 212 16 103 21. 15 216 22. 19 197 21 30, 188 23 223 24 130 23. 15 197 24 .... 123, 230 24. 5 179 27 244 31 222 25. 3,25 244 27. 9 233 16 231 28. 1 .. ..228, 231 29. 6 112 12 186 30. 3 182 6 55 30 236 31 68 31. 3 143 4 176 27 130 ECCLESIASTES. 1. 4 218 9 . . . . 202, 236 12 184 16 221 17 17 2. 7 233 11, 12, 13, 15, 20.... 221 13 46, 194 19 239 22 69 3. 15 . . .. 202, 216 17 184 18 (><) 48 57 4. 1,7 225 9, 12 196 5. 7 218 15 246 18 197 6. 1 201 8, 9 117 7. 14 241 16 91. 92 26 184 8. 12 131 15 221 9. 12 89 15 .... 88, 184 18 131 10. 5 .... 131-, 201 10 229 17 152 11. 3 130 12. 5 124 y 88, 2^1 Isaiah CANTICLES. Canticles 195 1. 1 190 6 . . . . 99, 198 7 69 15 228 2. 3 225 5 246 7 . . . . 220, 246 11 244 11 160 17 243 3. 7 198 8 85 4. 1 234 9 99 16 183 5. 5 213 6 244 9 99 7. 13 239 8. 1 125 4 239 5 99 bis 7 202 10 12'; 19. 18.] 5. 17 19 20 24 30 6. 1 2 3 4 7 ISAIAH. 1. 4 ..-. . 158, 247 9 . . . . 205 bis 10 189 13 207 14 .... 225, 242 15 232 16 91 18 .... 185, 246 20 228 21 149 22 185 25 .... 183, 194 26 194 29,30 245 29 221 31 159 2. 4 40, 231 7,8 211 9 211 20 198 3. 1 219 8 25 15 38, 69 16 84, 88 17 151 4. 4 205, 245 5 205 2 223 3 212 5 . . . . 2 1 8 bis 6 222 8 219 9 237 11 191 11, 23 219 12 178, 204 13 205 14,17,25,26 205 15, 16 211 193 10. .... 186 216, 218 .. .. 199 .... 210 .... 146 .... 183 84. 233 .... 206 99. 182 212, 214 206, 212 205 .... 181 125, 161, 202, 219 .... 213 17,18,19.. 83 18, 20 199 18 25 . 9 . 10 . 12 . 13 . 23 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 11 . 12^. 13 . 2 . 6 . 12 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 22 . 30 . 193; 206 220 .. .. 21Z . . .. 212 81 .. .. 229 .. .. 149 .... 205 . . .. 190 ... 194 .... 211 .. .. 186 . . . . *ii .. ..216 .... 209 .... 189 185 bis ....■'217 .. .. 116 221, 246 .... 212 11. 1,2,4,6,10 205 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 9 6 9 18 19 22 3 9 11 17 19 25 2 2 10 1 4 5 10 6 3 4 9 10 18 217 .... 212 .... 216 88, 230 .... 217 .. .. 229 .. .. 227 • •• 233 .... 160 219, 224 .... 91 .... 216 .. .. 118 ....185 .... 221 .... 219 ....178 181 ....223 .. .. 234 229. 232 .. .. 123 .... 112 i*J2, i88 . . 144 188 6 [Isaiah 20. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 27. 28. 1 4 1 2 5 12 14 17 1 7 7, 13 14 16 17 18 1 2, 11 15 3 9 12 13 20 1 6 7 10 26. 11 17 5 10 1 3 - 4, 4 6 7, 9 12 16 21 1 4 5 7 9 13 14 16 19 21 23 1 9 11 12 18 20 23 26 28 1 2 4 7 1 29. 30. 2l8 . . .. 144, 148 216 .. .. 181, 227 ii5 130 114. 13: 179. 189 239 123, 178 8 211 16 15 213. 215 .... 246 .. .. 149 .... 214 ....185 .... 212 .... 212 91 194 . . .. IT2 .. .. Ill .. .. 112 245 .... 185 99 .. .. 160 .. .. 121 . . .. 122 81, 227 .... 244 .... '245 r...i85 . 80 . 191 . 221 • Hi .142 191 44 85 .... 187, 193 191 31. 32. 229 185 194 185 212 217 85 239 187 ^ 185 218 243 225 175 . 100, 216 191 • 191. 232 . 160, 223 216 217 219 228 , 24') 23'^ 33, 34. 35. 36, 37. 38. 40. 41. 42. 43. 8 44. 8 45. 46. 47. 48. 8 1. 1 226 6 191 9 233 10 91 12 39 16 223 20 212 4 112, 185 5, 7 88 10 173 11 136 2 191 3 188 7 .. .. 121, 231 9 187 11,13 6 11 8 15 192 16 ....186, 212 16 197 18 210 22 191 24 ....151, 178 26 44 30 212 5 85 9 216 16 189 20 216 1—31 .... 183 10 241 12 123 20 88 22, 23 184 25 130 30 117 1 . . . . 199, 224 2 130 7 56,85 8 200 23 130 25 132 21 226 22 .... 57,183 24 213, 225, 230 .... 90 12 244 28 84 .... 117 12 118 15 174 18 122 11 212 20 199 21 212 22 212 4 204 6 184 11 204 1—15 .... 181 1 226 2 103 9 217 10 151 11 232 12 .... 201, 212 14 99 88, 247 14 2^3 INDEX TO TEXTS. 48. 18, 19 211 49. 6 112, 230 M 122 21 88 50. 1 181 2 210 4 192 51. 9 194 12 211 21 191 52. 1 226 14 159 14, 15 246 15 200 53. 3 90 6 185 8 174 10 131, 226 11 187, 227 54. 1, seq 181 55. 5 97 9 246 56. 9 i<;o 10 191 57. 4 158 5 112 6—58. 3 .. 39 8 220 59. 3 86 4 215 5 .. .. 54, 136 16 84 20 .... 219 60. 2 185 7,10 99 11 88 14 215 61. 7 . . .. 221, 243 11 . . .'. 210, 247 62. 2 40 63. 2 229 3, 5, 6 84 3 91 65. 14 118 17 86 18 212 23 H7 66. 3 186 11 227 20 241 JEREMIAH. Jeremiah 6 1. 5 .... 1 18, 209 2. 19 99 35 215 36 114 3. 5 108 6 131 12 121 25 210 4. 5 227 11 42 19, 21 210 5. 6 .. .. 38, 112 22 97,99 26 in 6. 10 210 10. 12. 13. 14. 20. 23. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 36. 37. 38. 40. 41. 43. 44. 19 29 18 19 14 2 4 17 23 3 5 7 11 5 9 17 3 17 19 5 6 17 10 2 11 17 2 3 13 6 10 14 15 20 24 29 4 14 17 39 3 13 15 f) 16 4 6 9 8 15 16 34 21 33 4 11 12 33 35 44 22 2 23 9 26 5 12 6 17 Ezeljiel ■ 230 . 112 • 213 . 202 . 112 . 90 • 213 . 221 . 221 . 232 . 81 . 220 2 • 93 . 68 , 196 117 129 214 232 191 • 99 54 247 '31 . 106, 149 Ill .... 229 .. .. 214 144, 146 ■••• 93 .... 29 .... 97 ....183 , ... 23 ,. .. 237 ,... 214 45, 201 .... 90 ... 222 . ..186 ...13^ . .. 149 210 186 90 149 III 210 77 99 86 186 186 .. 125 ..214 .. 191 .. 201 .. 166 . . 202 .. 216 . . 121 •• 243 3'5, 64 .. 213 257 13. 11.] 44. 18 172 19 97 25 121 29 121 46. 8 114 16 187 20 4^ 48. 2 Hi 31 1,8 32 186 36 201 49. 3 91 8 78 11 99 17 181 24 231 50. 9 229 34 123 51. 9 131 34 131 35 198 50 117 56 88 LAMENTATIONS. 1. 1—4 14 1 H9 1—22 .... 181 3 181 4 143 8 122 14 201 17 222 20 93 3. 12 136 14 144 36, 38 238 48 221 58 123 4. 1 132 5 243 14 .. .. 86, 226 EZEKIEL. 1. 6 . . . . i4<;, 146 11 '.. 152 14 ... . 215 ijis 3. 15 112 5. 12 ... . 131, 151 6. 10 236 7. 2 166 17 146 27 92 8. 17 223 9. 2 219 11 219 10. 3 198 15 241 11. 13 222 17 122 12. 12 208 19 189 13. 7 193 10 223 11,20 64 11,13 68 11 106 258 INDEX TO TEXTS. 13. 14. 16. CEzekiel 13. 17. .. 15+ 34. 2, 8, 10. • '44. i4'5 I<2 27 31 33 50 55 57 6') 86, 87 63 .... 181 4 43. 91 .... 78 17. 18. 10 32 20. 18 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 31. 32. 33. 34, 41, 43 15 10 20 5 15 20 48 • '34 • 39 . 80 . 121 . 121 -3 87 198 -42 -44 53 122 131 196 108 10+ t8i .... 94 48, 49 i£;i 49 3 3 13 18 1!» 31 1;? 15 16 17 24, 3 9 .... 220 116 .... 112 .. .. 149 .. .. 143 .... 59 .... 136 '-5. 136 .. .. 197 .... 131 .. .. 129 . . . . 121 .. .. 198 4 19 20 30 32 4 12 30 .78, 91 • •• 79 91 87 164 35. 36. 37. 17 .. 31 .. 6 .. 35 .. 5, 6 38. 39. 40. 41. 43. 44. 45. 47. 48. 13 22 27 16 19 43 15 10 8 30 14 2 4 7 15 17- 21 1 , 64 64 -9 67 104 99 217 -19 187, 206 152 ....136 41, 146 . . . . 112 96, 152 .... 192 .... 83 .. .. 216 186 .. . . 112 .... 191 .. .. 217 .. .. 186 . . . . 192 .. .. 192 .. .. 18^ DANIEL. 1. 12 . 13 . 15 . 2. 4— 7, 28 6—8, 10 30 130 131 160 230 241 182 61 3 .. . 18 ... 13 .. . 22 .. .. 80, 211 27 .. . 2 .. . 5 .. . 13 .. . 24 .. . 25 .. . 26 .. . 10. 11. 203 .. .. 123 .... 214 .... 192 ... 227 .... 225 • •• 195 11, 13 ii4 6, 8 203 15 183 20 .57 11. 31 187 12. 11 187 .... 143 13 HOSEA. 1. 2 .. 6,8 6 .. 9. 10. 12. 13. 14. 11 17 1 2 10 1 2 9 4 12 14 2 7 9 12 6 12 14 1 10 2 14 3 4 JOEL. 1. 20 AMOS. I. 11 , 3. II . 12 . 4. 1 . 158, 201 126, bis , .. 194 , . . 225 , .. 194 215 226 . . . . . 210 Hi 45. 131 .... 136 .... 46 .. .. 118 .... 106 90 .. .. 194 .... 246 227 21 1, 212 44. 121 182 .. .. 194 .... 187 . . . . i8g .... 159 189 4, 7, 9 .... 122 18,19 211 22 zzo 23 211 14 183 18 -1 216 244 146 220 3 .. 10 .. 4, 6 15 .. 6 .. 1 Corinthians 1. 18.] 77 244 212 1 12 211 8 .. .. 90, 213 11 OBADIAH. 10 .. 11 .. 12 .. 15 .. 194 100 90 246 JONAH. I- 5 204 3. 5 195 4. 11 .. .. 238 bis MICAH. 1. 2 .... 199 8 117 11, 12 180 15 1,2 3 6 13 3 221 232 21 1 11 .... 114 .... 232 8 121 3 245 8, 10 180 10 .....30,232 14 149 NAHUM. 1. 4 .. .. 1 17, 211 2. 4 .. 89 8 .. IC4 14 .. 151 3. / . . •• 89, 132 17 .. 144 HABAKKUK. I. 13 106 15 104 3 17 8 9 11 15 ZEPHANIAH. 2. 2 14 3. 3 9 HAGGAL 1. 4 . 2. 17 . ZECHAKIAH. 1. 14 2. 17 3. 8 4. 10 122, 181 5. 4 6. 7 7. 5 14 8. 6 9. 5 10. 5 11. 7 9 17 12. 10 14. 10 MALACHI. 1. 8 ... 14 214 40 239 106 149 243 237 150 145 193 197 192 122 186 92 54 121 191 218 149 201 187 loy 77 APOCRYPHA. 1 MACCABEES. 10. 19 182 11. 31 182 MATTHEW. LUKE. 8. 34 ,87 ^2. 25 187 I £8. 13 NEW TESTAMENT. 22.6 JOHN. 5. 2 6 10. 12 185 19. 13, 17, 20 .. 6 ACTS. 16. 16 19, 21. 40 6 22. 2 6 26. 14 6 1 CORINTHIANS. 1. 18 li HEBREW READING BOOK: BY BENJAMIN DAYIES, Ph. D., D.D. HEBREW READING BOOK. PREFACE. This Reading Book is designed as an introduc- tion to the translation of Hebrew, and based upon special and constant references to tlie forms and rules of Gesenius's Grammar. It is well known that by such a plan the difficulty of learning the inflexions and constructions of a language may be effectually lessened. This advantage is here in- tended to be secured to the Hebrew beginner. In selecting and arranging the portions for trans- lation, great pains have been taken to make them progressive (from short and easy to more difficult), and also as diversified as the limited space would allow, — so covering nearly the whole ground of the Grammar with the references. In the Notes, the main object has been to furnish the learner with those references to the Grammar, by which he will be able to understand the forms and the constructions, and so to make himself master of its principal contents. Other help is given where needful, especially in the first exer- cises ; but care has been taken to leave suitable scope for the skill and research of the student, lest he should become too dependent on such assistance. The experienced teacher, also, will find sufficient scope for his vivd voce instruction, while conducting the student through the portions. In order to avoid a mechanical committing to memory, the teacher should go over each new Paradigm with the scholar, and orally explain the deviations from the Regular Verb, and the normal forms indicated by the asterisk. In this way the memory will be greatly assisted by a perception of the analogy and structure of the language. Thus, for example, if the scholar perceives in Parad. G. how the 3rd pers. Pret. 3p, n|ip is a model for the 3rd Pret. plur. -130, and how rilSD is a model for all the remaining forms of the first and second person, he then has in reality but three new forms to learn for the whole Preterite. If he further perceives how all these verbs fundamentally follow the same analogy, he is less deterred by the multiplicity of the Paradigms, which he can thus reduce, in effect, to but one, greatly to the assistance of the memory and the facility of finding out doubtful forms. In connexion, however, with the foregoing les- sons, and during the first weeks of instruction, some- thing should be read and translated (such as the Scripture Phrases in this Reading Book), to afford the teacher the opportunity to explain the Article and Particles, the construct state, etc., of Nouns, and to exercise the student in the inflexion of Verbs. The teacher should take care that in these exer- cises the pupil reads xoith fluency , without stumbling and stammering. For this end, it is best to read aloud and repeatedly what one already understands. Besides the readiness in reading, there ought to be expertness in writing the characters, so that they may be distinctly legible to others. As a further exercise in the Irregular Verbs, it is especially recommended to write out the inflexions 262 PREFACE, of a few others, after the model of the Paradigms, and then to do the same wholly from recollection. Then the student may begin to inflect in writing .such verbs as partly follow more than one Para- digm, e.g. * or by one of the regular accents (§ 15). :in^p-^y '?>'yi. nTV^y nion nS|n 28 : :r)p\ n^^ n^p"? hmn tn 29 tTjn-lpS -I'^'X 3'p-^33 30 i^)) np iy^-]r;i\ c^ssn >h-\n 31 : ^ron'ps "pp.s-x^ ^a-iyyn-QX 32 t nycnsi. nin> ^^ri^'in 33 :n""i ynb'-i q^p; ivp nt;'5<5 n-i^^. onx 34 : nipnri;'';! y^ri iK'x-n. n>"is n-yo Dj'd n3ni 35 :^ip ninnn '•p-byi risiiJi. riDin ^p-ns 36 :pin?o s>'j rypi Sdko xy^ ':'5i5 nx '•riypt?' 49 : innxi. inx •isni?'^. Ci'x3 50 M'rSy '•3!?p nx-''3^ 51 Mj-in; it^'x -"lanirnx nbyj nb'y 52 :Dnvp n^p °?ri? ''^I'-^yp 'p^'? 53 : □"'psn ''.yy iiy*. in^'n ''3 nnii' npn-x'^ 54 n3 npu nnx x'x^ ^^n!?x "ri^Jtj'j-^x 55 : nmhy nnB •ijJ'' -lari 56 :-i3nx '^nn3 i3n"^x 57 : vrin? q?^ i3 D3^n ?13 v^r\ iL:''i^ aipp-^s 58 :^x-ib:3 nvi'p^ nin: ^nn onn D''D!3 59 264 II. EXTRACTS IN PROSE. : D^pys -int^pa y^ln-nx ^»i iT-ns n;:'o dti 63 :i:'nhx nn^ ^."pn^ viixa ^''^ 1^2: -^3| n^HLs "-pna nc'n n-^p^ ri'j'^V-i cr d'-^^-l?' ee :pnni5 »o* I 11. EXTRACTS IN PROSE. 1. The Priests' Benediction. Num. vi. 22—26. iiD,5<"^wS* nan 23 Jibx.^ n^'f^"^*-! 'ri\p\ -\2T\ 22 :an) li^px Sxx-^ ^J3-nx -iDian na nbx^ vaa-'pxi \7X r^;s I n^n^. liv;; 25 : "ito^i. n\n^ jipni/. 24 : D'l^E^ ^^ Db'M Tj^^x vjs I nin"' m'^ 26 : "nsn-i 2. Jotham's Parable. Judges ix. 6 — 15. •n^jn 7 : Q3Lj'3 nrx 3-:»m3 pSx-ny ^b^^h ^^D>3x-nx J^;]!??! i?ip ^>b'»i D^n.pn t>'x"i3 nby».i -if?]) anvS : D^n'^x n3;.^x^ vpf^.\ cr^' ;;b3 ^l^x -ij/pt;' nnS ipxM "pp^-nx 'ripnnn n^-rn on^ -ipxh 9 I'iyby n-^h^ ta^yyn-b yij^ ''^?^,';'i. ci\^J^,l Q^n^x •"in??': ^a-Tj'x Tpxni 1 1 : -ij^.b ''3po nx-''3^ njxn"^ n^vyn -Tipx'M 1 niiisn '•nn-ipj^nxi^ 'pri^frix '^ri^inn njxnn onj? -^3^ ]p6 D^^*yn .inpxfi 12 :D^>-.vn-^y y\i^ ^risSm -nx '^ri^nnn ;r;|n onj) ipxrii 13 :.i:>Sy ^3i|?o rix -Sy yia^ ^ria^ni cv^^f,! cn^r^W npb'pn ^L'^'n^n vs. 8 and 12. y^p ro'^O ^^'^ ■^). ^px^-'7X D-'Vi^n-Sa •npx'i i4 'C2'yvr) nox3 D^ □''vyn'Sx ipxn npx>i 15 : -lySpy-ribp -axi. 'W3 -iDq -ixs D5\^y ^^p^ ^nx D^ni-'o nrix :p:3^ri ).n^"rix !?3xni '^!i!^5^-;p c'x x>;n i:x 3. Elijah's Ascension. 2 Kings ii. 1—12. pvx'n n"^ye? -injipx-r-ix nin^. n'l^yn? \n';i i "Sx -"inj^x ipx"! 2 :S|^Jin-}p rp.%1 -in^^x "^.^»1 -ipxn. Sx-n^3-ny "ipn^L;' nin^ '3 rts j^5"3;" y^'^S^' ♦ '^x-n^s -n-i*."! ^3Tyx-ax ^V"Dr''n'! ni^.'''"'0 J'"^^^'? •npx»i yK'i^x-'^x ^x-n"'3-n;^'X n^x^ssn-jn •ixv'i 3 \V.'»i 5 tinn^ •'ix3»i ^3Tj;x-dx ^l*'S5 ai»n ^3 nyTH vi^x ■•nox'i y::'^^x-^x "'iniT3 "ik'x nin*. *3 ns ^<^"3K' -in^vX p ipx'i 6 J-it."nn ;;i3Tyx-ax ^t^'Q3■''n1 nin*-"-!! ipx'i nnn>n ''^rh'J T, 1 • vop icni "on III. EXTRACTS IN POETRY. 265 ■n^n a^x^3|in ^520 cj-^x ctj'pq,! 7 : an\:^ -n^M jd j(p->r\\ r^nm n\^h ^ni< rtxin-ns hSfc^b r^'^'pn nin -ivn".! Dy^^-^-l^? n3»i a^jM. iri-i-^x-nsi -in'^x •in^^x'). CD"i3y3 ^n."! 9 J'"'?,')"! °T-^"^' ■''■]?^-l '~'?nj ■nrsyo np^x cnoB •n'?-nl"yx nro hk^ ytJ'^^s-'pN nos '^T • I" j-T V vvV ; 'T V v:lv Jr - ; t ■ v; v <- y ION"! 10 J''"^^* "^n-na o^^e'-'S sr^n^i yt^^'-Ss' -ijdn-''1 •"inj'px SVm. Dn;yj' |^3 -nns^i t^'x ^p-ipi. i^s-35;] nani I ^3x pj;vo ^5-ini nxn yti'^^xi. 12 tD^OK^n nn]^p3 :D''y"ip niph w^i?\\ III. EXTRACTS IN POETRY. CHARACTERISTICS OF HEBREW POETRY. Before the student begins to translate tlie follow- ing Extracts, it is proper in a few brief statements to call his attention to the subject of Hebrew Poetr^'. Those who may desire fuller instruction are referred to Lowth's Lectures on Hehreiv Poetry, especially Lecture xix. ; Herder's Geist der Hehr. Poesie ; De Wette's Einleitiincj in die Pscdinen ; Ewald's Poe- tische Bilcher, I. ; and Nordheimer's Hehreio Gram- mar. %% 1120—1130. The greater part of the Old Testament is poetical in its composition, though only the Psalms, Job, and Proverbs (technically called ^^5?, from the first letter in the Hebrew name of each) are generally termed poetical books. The style of these writings is, however, very unlike what is called poetry in most other languages. It does not consist in metre, like the versification of the Greeks, the Romans, and nearly all other nations : and much less does it ex- hibit rhyme (see below), like most of the poetry of modern Europe and Asia. In its form or structure, the poetry of the ancient Hebrews was distinguished from prose, chiefly if not solely, by brevity of expres- sion, and by impressing the sentiments in tlie way of repetition, comparison, or contrast. Hence, it has some characteristics of langtiage, viz., the use of peculiar words, forms of words, etc., as explained in the Grammar, § 2, 4. But the grand characteristic, which in fact constitutes its rhythm, is a proportion or correspondence in thought and expression* be- tween the clauses of a sentence, which accordingly, in its simplest form, consists of only two members {hiCTTt^Ov). Hence the poetry or rhythm of the Hebrews is generally termed parallelis77i,\ as consisting in a mutual correspondence between the members of a period. And the difi'erent modes of exhibiting this * Sometimes the proportion or correspondence appears only in expression, while the thought runs on in the common way of prose, as in Job ix. 2, 3, 4. t It is very often of essential service to the interpreter of Scripture to notice this parallelism. There are numerous ex- pressions and i)assages to the meaning of which a clue may thus be obtained. For example, in Ps. Ixxvi. 3 {his tabernacle is cbffi?, a7id his dwelling place in Zion) it has been doubted whether dVo3 means in peace or in Salem ; but the doubt can scarcely remain when one considers the corresponding clause, where in Zion stands parallel to the term in question, and determines it to mean in Salem. 266 III. EXTRACTS IN POETRY. parallelism mainly constitute the varieties of the poetic style, of which these are the principal : — 1 . Lyric Poetry, consisting chiefly of such compositions as the Psalms, distinguished by the effusion of pious sentiments. 2. Epic Poetry, as in Job — at least the style of this book resembles the epic more than any other production of the classic muse. 3. Didactic Poetry, as in the Proverbs. 4. Pastoral Poetry or Idyls, such as the Canticles. 5. Prophetic Poetry, which is best exemplified in the earlier prophetic books (Joel, Isaiah, Habakkuk, etc.), for in the later (e. g. Ezekiel, Haggai, Zechariah), it scarcely differs from prose. Parallelism is generally distinguished into three sorts, according to the relation in sense between the corresponding members, wliich relation may be synonymous, antithetic, or synthetic. 1. Synonymous Parallelism. — In this the second member is more or less a repetition of the first. These examples may serve to illustrate the cor- re.spondence : — Prov. vi. 2. Thou ait snared in the words of thy mouth ; Thou art taken in the Avords of thy moutli. Job V. 6. '■•"AT 'I IT T - : ■ T T -; •• For affliction comes not forth from the dust ; And trouble springs not forth from the ground. Sometimes each member of the parallelism consists of two parts, so that we have four clauses, as in Gen. iv. 23.-' * This passage strikingly exhibits rhyme as well as paral- lelism. The same is found in many other poetic sentences; e. g. ill .lob vi we find it six times, viz , in vs 4, 7, 9, 13, 22, iyV2^ "-riJin i^^ii •'S t-'p-ian^ lb;.! Adah and Zillah, hear my voice, Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech ; For I have slain a man to my wounding, And a youth to my hurt. As another instructive example of this parallelism with four clauses, we may adduce Ps. xlx. 8 r\J2'm n)n\ m.ipi : •'Jisi n»"'3no The law of Jehovah is perfect, Reviving the spirit ; The testimony of Jehovah is sure, Making wise the simple. It may be remarked in general, that under this synonymous parallelism, which is the most frequent form of the HebreAV rhythm, we find an exceedingly great variety of constructions. 2. Antithetic Parallelism. — In this the idea of the second member stands in opposition or contrast to 29. But there is no satisfactory proof that in these or other cases the rhyme was (as De Wette, etc., suppose) designed by the poet. On the contrary, it is almost certain that the poet had no such design. For, if he had, he might with perfect ease have given in Job vi. ten more rhymes, e. g. in vs. 8 there might be as good a rhyme as we find in vs. 9, by a very simple change in the arrangement of the words ; thus, instead of the present order — he might, without affecting the sense, have written — : »nii:n rn^« ^ri>i As another proof that rhymes in Hebrew Poetry are un- designed, we may point out the fact, that they consist in the recurrence of like suffixes or terminations in the inflexions of nouns and verbs, so that they actually often appear also in the plainest prose, e. g. Josh, xxiii. 1 1 — xyyrbii rnrr-n^ n^n^'j ni. EXTRACTS IN POETRY. 2G7 that of the first. This construction is specially fre- quent in the book of Proverbs, where very many of the sentiments are thus illustrated or impi-esscd by antithesis ; e. g. Prov. x. 1 : :\m Dj-in b^ps jn-i A wise son maketh a glad father ; But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. For other examples, see Ps. i. 6 ; cii. 27, 28 ; cxlvii. 6 ; Is. i. 3. 3. Synthetic Parallelism. — In this the idea of the first member is enforced not so much by repetition or antithesis in what follows, as by expansion and modification ; e. g. Ps. xxvii. 4 : One thing I ask from Jehovah, It will I seek after, — My dwelling in the house of Jehovah all the days of my life. To behold the beauty of Jehovah, And to inquire in his temple. %* In most editions of the Hebrew Bible, the poetry is not given (as in the above examples) in lines according to the parallelism, but appears in the same form as the prose (except in Ex. xv., Deut. xxxii., Judges v., and 2 Sam. xxii). The accents, however, serve to indicate the divisions or lines. Thus, a simple parallelism is divided into two members by Athnach {~) or Merha with Mahpalih (7-^); and in a compound one the sub- divisions of the members are usually made by Za- qepli-qaton (i.) and Rebhia (_l). 1. Part of the Song of Moses. Deut. xxxii. 1 — 4. AT : • V.T T : T 1- :«-in "it^^i p'-iv mmxi D'-nt^'n -irTKn i TA .1- •i.-T - >■-:,- •'pipb "iDr^B f\yi 2 xnps nin* Dti> •'3 3 i'pys D'-nn Sivn 4 t:it a- t •* - 2 Parable of the degenerate Vineyard. Isaiah v. 1 — 7. •p^jp |i»l p-p \T\vm -in^pp^i in^.-Ty^i 2 : IPf^l? D"!? : u't'^n b'l?"') cn^y n'lb'y^ ipM in nvn 3p''-Dji iDinn pn-i \r3 i^sr-iODt;' ""p-i^"! t:"'^5"i. D?J^'•1■)^ y^/v nnyi. 3 y-nrp i3 •'n'-b-y n'Jpi npi?^ niy niby^-n?; 4 i^pna Nrnynix nnyi 5 :d''2^X3 b'yi D''33y niby^ '•rr'-ip V. 5. ^1313 "3n xSi. npr ^'^ nriD •inJT't^si 6 : Donn^ n^ni 'mn ps J . T. ■« TT J" • -: ,- IT : • : ^tt: v; I ^t v^y T-Dono n-ivx n^nyn ^yi jt'L'-i -^^d^ rhvi niy nn-in>_ k^'-xi bx-;^'; n^3 mxny rr\n\ d^d >3 7 now : Hipyv 3. Praise of a good Wife. Prov. xxxi. 10—31. nn2 11 :m3D n-'jijao pnii xvo^ •'lo ^Nn-ntJ'X 10 JT f J' • : ■ ' V t: at : • j- ■ -\ v i- "^ yjx'^i nitp •inn'??p5 12 npm xj? '?5jt^'i n'py? 3!? -3 268 III. EXTRACTS IN POETRY. iriprh t^''3n piin^p nnio rinxs '~iri''n 14 : n-'ss ♦ Cpiy,?^ p'ni '"^O"?^ n"!}p"i?iiril Ji^'-^ "iiy^iDi^rii 15 nnjn 17 :d'i3 ^d: h^sd nap -innfjni nnb npoT le nnnp 319-^3 n^y;i 18 : n"'nynr )*^xrii n\3nD riya •i3Qri ri*|3i liK''?? nnV^ C'T. 19 -^i^P.^? ^.^^r'^^ -x^ 21 Jp^???!', -^P^!^ O'l'i x!V'^ ^'^'1^ ^?3 20 :'qi?3 D^mo 22 : D''3K' irn^ nn''i-^3 ^2 jSu'd pin^nS xi^n T. 15, n'lya ^-'j ini-ni ><": v. le. np nym v. is. np^^^ ",^5 T. 18. .-ip nWa n^y? Dny-^2 ynb 23 inm^b jcnxi k'^;;^ '^^'^nb'y n^rij liim -ibpni nnb;^ r^?24 J nx-^^rrny irinp'i ri>2 26 n'nnx D'r^ pnb'rii n^-n^ "','^C?"^'iy 25 i^iyp.?^ nb^°^n n»3iv 27 : n5■"l:^'.^-^y npn-niini nDpna nnns Cn"T,V'?^n ?'.??. •''^?r 28 :^3Nn N^ n-i'pvy cnh nri>2 XM nin;-nx-)^. hb'N ^Q»n !?nni |nn ij^k^ 30 : n:^3 •p'fj'^j? Q^w? Cl'^/'i^\"'. C\X ^?-?^ n^"i3ri 31 r^^nnri V. 25. f^ f<"3 V. 27. ^p niD>bn 2G9 NOTES. I. SCRIPTURE PHRASES AND SENTENCES. N. B. For the derivation of Nouns, the Lexicon must be consulted ; but this necessity can occasion no difficulty, even to the beginner, now that he can have Gesenius's, with the words in alphabetical order. 1. P'rl' gho-dhel le-bha'bh.* Fruit-of great- ness-of heart, i. e., boasting. P'rl is a nouii masc. sing, in the constr. state (see § 89), and belongs to Class or Parad. VI. i. (§ 92): the S has Daghesh lene (see § 6, 3, § 13, 1, § 21, 1). Ghodhel noun masc. sing, constr. st., Parad. VI. c : the 3 without Dagesh lene (§ 6, 3) because preceded by a word ending with a vowel and closely connected (see § 21, 1, at the end). Lebhd'bh, noun masc. sing, absol. st. (see § 89, 1, at the close), Parad. IV. a. This example shows, a) that the relation of the genitive case, or what is called the constr. state in Hebrew, is indicated essentially by mere closeness of connexion between words as uttered, for there is no change whatever in the form of jfri and ghodhel though each is in constr. state (see § 89, 1, and Note f); b) that there may be several suc- cessive nouns in the constr. state depending on each other (see § 114, 1): see also below, in No. 3. * For the sounds of the consonants and vowels, as here employed to express the Hebrew pronunciation, see § 6 with Notes* on pages 17 and 20, also § 10. — On Hebrew syllables, see § 26. — The sign (♦) at the end is Soph-pdsuq, which is always preceded by the accent Silluq (§ 15). 2. D^bha'r ham-ma'-lekh hag-ga-dhol. Word-of the great king. lybha'r, noun masc. sing, constr. st. of "t?"^, Parad. IV. — Here notice how the close con- nexion in utterance, or the constr. state, occasions a change of the vowels (see § 89, 1). Hammd'lekh noun masc. sing, absol. st., Parad. VI. a; with the article ("D) prefixed (see § 35). Hdggddhol, adj. masc. sing, with article ; on 3 with Dagh. forte, see § 13, 3.— Observe how the adj. stands after the noun, and agrees with it in gender and number (see § 112, 1), and in taking the article (see § 111, 2). 3. Y*me' sh^ne' chay-ye' *bho-tha'i. The daxjs-of the years-of the Ufe-of my fathers. Y'me, noun masc. plural, constr. state; the sing. Q"l\ irregularly in- flected (§ 96). Sh'n/, noun fem. pi. constr. state ; sing. n3^ (§ 95, Parad. B. a) but here with masc. plural (see § 87, 4). Chdyye, noun masc. pi. constr. St.; sing. ^0, Parad. VIII. — the plural form used with sing, sense (see § 108, 2, a). *P^2^ noun m. pi. (but with feminine form, § 87, 4), with smSl. 1 pars. sing. (^7 for *t because of pause, Silluq, § 29, 270 NOTES. 4, a): sing, ^i}, ineg. inflexion (§ 96).— Observe here the succession of three nouns in constr. st. (§ 114, 1), and the effect of the close connexion in utterance not only changing the vowels (as in No. 2), but also eliding or slurring over the consonant D ('p*. for D'PJ, etc., according to § 89, 2, a).— Observe also the absence of the art. before the nouns, owing to their being in the constr. st., and as such not needing the art. (see § 110, 2); comp. our expression God's ioord for the word of God (see Note* p. 185). 4. Ze'-kher tsad-di'q libh-ra-kha . The memorij- of a ri(/hteous (man) for a hlessiny, i. e., is blessed. ZekhSr, Parad. VI. b; article omitted (§ 110, 2); constr. state without any change (see above. No. 1). Tsaddiq, adj. masc. sing., agreeing with ^1^ man, which is understood. Libhrukhu , noun fern. sing, ubsol. state, Parad. B. c ; with prep. ? to prefixed (§ 102, 2), here with short Chireq (p) according to § 28, 1. — Observe the ellipsis of the copula (i. e., the verb to he), according to § 144. 5. At-ta Y''h6-va' tobh v^sal-la'cli. Thou, Je- hovah (art) (jood and foryicing. Attu, pronoun personal or separate, 2 pers. sing. masc. (see § 32). Y^hovu, pr. name : for the signification and the pro- nunciation of this word, see Lexicon. Tobh, adj. masc. sing., agreeing with nni«. V'sdlluch, adj. masc. sing., with conj. 1 and prefixed (§ 104, 2). — Obs. ellipsis of copula {art) according to § 144. 6. Tiq-to'l ^o'"!! ra-sha'. Thou ivilt slay, God, the tvicked. I'iqto'l, verb 2 pers. sing. masc. fut. Kal; root ^Pi^, Parad. B. "Ti^^?, noun masc. sing., Parad. I.; the "il with Muppiq (§ 14) and Fathach furtive (see § 8, 2). liushu (on omission of V , see p. 16) adj. masc. sing., agreeing with D^^^ under- stood; art. omitted in poetic style (see p. 184). — Observe the arrangement of the words (§ 145, 1). 7. Mi yish-liu'n Vha'r qodh-she'-kha. Who shall dwell in the mou)itai)i-of tJiy holiness? i.e., in thy holy mount. Ml, pron. interrog. (§ 37) used of persons. Yhhkon, r. 1?^', Parad. B. B'har, noun masc. sing, constr. st., Parad. VIII. a; pi. D^")n for D^"^n because 1 excludes Dughesh forte (see S 22, 5). Q6dhshekha, noun (KHp, Parad. VI. c) with suff. 2 pers. sing. masc. (§ 91, 1), joined by means of {—) because of the pause, Silluq (§ 29, 4, h). — Obs. subst. used to express adj. (see § 106, 1); and for the position of the suff. ^— , see § 121, 6. 8. Ka-bhe'dh ha-ra-a'b ba-a'rets. Heavy teas the famine in the land. T??, verb 3 pers. sing. masc. pret. Kal (see Parad. B.), agreeing in gend., numb., and pers. with its nominative (§ 146 at beginning). 3V"3'}, noun (Parad. IV.) with art. n (see § 35, 1). ^vi??) noun (Parad. VI. a) with prep. 3 prefixed with Qamets because it displaces the art. and takes its pointing (3 for H?, see § 102, 2, h, and § 23, 5); see also § 29, 4, a, § 93, Rem. 1, for the (7) instead of (t) under >5. The arrangement is the same as in No. 6. 9. Ay-ye' s6-phe'r eth-ham-migh-da-li'm. IVhere (is one) counting the towers? Sopher, act. part. masc. sing. Kal; r. "i?p. Paradigm B. "^X, sign of the definite accusative (see § 117, 2, and Note*), here followed by Maqqeph (§ 16, 1) and hence with (r) shortened to (7), see § 27, 1. D7'=Jjl»n, noun masc. pi. absol. st., Parad. II., with art. prefixed (§ 35); in accus. case, governed by sopher (see § 135 and § 138). 10. Tse'-dheq mish-slia-ma'-yim nisli-qa'ph. Righteousness from heaven looked doivn. DVp^'p, noun masc. plur, but seemingly dual (see § 88, 1, Rem. 2), with prep. V? jirefixed (§ 102, 1); on plur. form in this noun, see § 108, 2. ^j^P^, verb 3 pers. m. sing. pret. Niphal, r. ^li?^, Parad. B. ; here with (7) for (t), because of the Silluq (§ 29, 4). — Observe, the proper sense of this verb in Niph. is reflexive, viz., to bend one's self forward (see § 51, 2, and the Lexicon under *\\1^). 11. The iniquity of his fathers shall be retnem- bered. ">3)^_ [y'iz-zu-kher verb (r. 13T) 3 pers. sing, masc. fut. of Niphal, which has liere a passive force (see § 51, 2, d). Paradigm B. PJ? {"vo'n, not "on, because the cholem requires a consonant before it, whicli must be tlic "I, and not the V which has the Chatcph-Pathach, see § 26, 1) noun in constr. state (Paradigm 111.), governing the verb in gend.. NOTES. 271 numb., and pers. (see § 146). '''''j'^^. {"b/td-tM'v, see § 8, 5) compare on No. 3 ; there scriptio plena, here scriptio defectiva (§ 8, 4). — The arrangement is according to § 145, 1, a. 12. Who hath tried the spirit of Jehovah f *P (see § 37, 1). 13n {thtk-ken, n without Daghesh lenc, because the preceding word ends with a vowel and is in close connexion, § 21, 1) verb (r. |?i^) in Fiel, wliich has here intensive force (§ 52, 2, a), Parad. B. "nx sign of accusative here before a noun made definite by the constr. state (see on No. 9). ni") {rWch, with Pathach furtive, § 22, 2, h), noun in constr. st. (Parad. I.). 13. Honour thy father and thj mot] ler. "133, verb (r. ^33, see on No. 8) 2 pers. sing. masc. unper. of Piel (here causative of Kal, § 52, 2, h), agreeing with nnx thou (see No. 5) understood ; Parad B. 'J^? (twice) before a noun made definite by the suffix, (see on No. 9). T'3X {CL-hhi-hha), noun irre- gular (3X,§ 96, 2) with suffix 2 pers. sing. masc. (§ 91, 1, Rem. 1). \ copulative conj. prefixed with Skva (§ 104, 2). ^rsx noun (DX, Parad. VIII.) sing. fem. with suffix, here appended by Seghol instead of Sli'va, on account of the pause accent SiUuq (see § 29, 4, h). 14. His blood from thij hand will I require. Tl'J? 'jniii-iju-dli''khu , second syllable with Metlieyh (§ 16, 2), to show that the vowel-sign ~ stands for a not 6, see § 9, 12, Rem. 1, rt) noun fem. singular ("I* Parad. II.), with prep. IP prefixed (§ 102, 1) and suffix appended, t^'j23, Parad. B. On tlie arrange- ment, see § 145, 1, c. 15. / was stolen from the land of the Hebrews. '''Pl'l^ verb (r. 335, Parad. B.) 1 pers. sing, com., pret. of Pual (the passive of Piel, § 52, 2). P, prep. (IP) prefixed according to § 102, 1. H ai-t. (see No. 8). 16. lie has made heavy my chain. "t^3pn, 3 pers. sing, masc, pret. of Hiphil (causative of Kal, § 53, 2); r. 133. N'ch6sh-ti (JV^>, § 95, Parad. 1). b). 17. Upon Jehovah I xvas cast from the womb. "'^ilV'^ {Ji6$lt-lah]t-tl) 1 pers. sing, com., pret. ol' Hophal (passive of Hiphil, § 53, 2); r. ^f^ Parad. B. Dni, noun, Parad. VI. (here with — on account of the pause accent, § 29, 4, a, and § 27, Rem. 2, c). 18. I will keep myself from my iniquity. ipriC^N, 1 pers. sing. c. fut. of Hithpael (with reflexive force, and here with transposition of n, see § 54, 2, a, and 3); r. TO, Parad. B. WP (see No. 11, and No. 15). 19. And mnv let your hands be strong (lit. shall be strong. ) njipmF) {te-ch'zaq-na, 7\ has Daghesh lone, because a distinctive accent, P'siq (i), precedes, § 21, 1), 3 pers. pL fem. fut. Kal, r. pTPI, Parad. D. (or verb I'e Guttural) ; — fut. used for imper. accord- ing to § 127, 3, c. n3n>, dual of l^ (nnj, see § 88) with suflf. 2 pers. pi. masc. — On the use of a plur. verb with a dual noun, see § 146, 5. 20. The generation of the upright shall be blessed. in, noun constr. st. Parad. I. D''"!^'! adj. pi. masc. (agreeing with D^tJ'JN! men understood), Parad. IV. ■^13';, 3 pers. sing. m. fut. Pual (see Parad. E., but liere with ~ because of Silhiq), agreeing in gend., numb., and pers. with the subject. 21. Because thou hast forgotten the God of thy sal- vation. JpDpK', [sha-kha-chdt, see § 28, 4, Note %), 2 pers. sing. fem. pret. Kal of n3^ (verb Lamedh Guttural, Parad. F.). 'rh^, constr. st. pi. of m'^X (the n loses both Mappiq and PatJiach furtive, be- cause it ceases to be final, § 22, 2, /;) : on the plural use of this word {pluralis excellentice) see § 108, 2, b. "^V)., noun, Parad. VI. e, with suffix 2 pers. sing, fem. 22. A wise son ivill gladden his father. On posi- tion and agreement of adj. and subst., see No. 2. V3X, see § 96, 2. 23. Jehovah will keep thee from all evil (lit. all (f evil.) V!W- {yiiih-vidr'-kha, § 9, 12, 1, a; § 10, 1, at end; § 21, 2, c) 3 pers. sing. masc. fut. Kal with suffix, 2 pers. sing, masc, see Parad. C, and § 60. ?3 (here "''3 kdl, because followed by 3Iaqqeph, wliich takes away the tone of the word and so makes a closed unaccented syllable, which cannot liavc a long vowel, see § 20, 5), prop, a noun 272 NOTES. (but commonly rendered as an adj.) in constr. state, (treated as a verb jQ, Parad. G., and partly after Farad. VIII. c. V^, with 7 for t according to § 29, ' Parad. F. ; see § 66, Rem. 2). J^ for ^? on ac- 4, a. 24. Cause me to toalk in thy truth cmd teach me. count oi pause, § 103, 2, a. 32. Judges xiii. 16. "'ilVVn, 2 pers. sing. masc. ''}TV.'^ (r. Tt^,, Parad. E.), 2 pers. sing. m. imper. i fut. Kal of ^VV (Parad. D.) with suffix, 1 pers. sing. Hiphil, with suffix 1 pers. sing, com., see Parad. C. com. (§ 60) On the position of the negative, see and § 61. ^n'?^?? (nps*, see Lexicon), noun fem. | § H5, L bx, 1 pers. sing. com. fut. Kal of ^?N sing. (Parad. D.) with prep. ? (here with t accord ing to § 102, 2, a) and with suffix, 2 pers. sing, masc. 25 When rjou hear (lit. according to your hearing) the voice of the trumpet. QpyP'^l {k''shdm-''khem), inf. Kal of V^^ (Parad. F.) with prep. ? (§ 102, 2) and suffix 2 pers. plur. masc, see § 61, 1, and § 65, 2. — On the use of ? before infinitive, see § 132, 2. 26. This (has been) thy ivay from thy youth, for thou hast not hearkened to my voice. HJ, see § 34. ■^311, noun sing, masc, Parad. VI. a, with suffix, 2 pers. sing. fem. ^niV^ , see § 91 , 2, and § 108, 2, a. Observe the effect of prep. ^ on the sense of VP^, which here means to hearken =:^ obey , but without the 2 (as in No. 25) it means simply to hear ^per- ceive sound. 27. They encompassed me like lees, they ivere ex- tinguished like fire of thorns. See § 67, Parad. H. ; with suffix, 1 pers. sing. •"13^"'l. Pual, Parad. E. 28. The door tvill turn on its hinge, and a slug- gard on his bed. 31Dn, 3 pers. sing. fem. fut. Kal of 3?D (verb VV, Paradigm H.), agreeing in gend., numb., and pers. with nj^.. inK)Q, see § 91, 4 29. Theti they began (lit. it was begun) to call on the name of Jehovah. ^nin, 3 pers. sing. masc. pret. Hophal of '?.^n (Paradigm H.) : see § 137, 3. 3 with Daghesh le7ie, because of the distinctive accent [Tiphcha 7) under the preceding word, see §21,1. 30. Ps. cxix. 69. See on No. 23. 1'S^J, 1 pers. sing. com. fut. Kal of 1>V (verb p, Parad. G.). 31. Gen. xiv. 21. \^, 2 pers. sing. masc. imper. Kal of ID? (Parad. G., and § 66, 1). '^, § 103, 2, a. K'Q3, noun singular, but here with collective force, § 108, 1. Hi?, 2 pers. sing. masc. imper. Kal of Hp^ (verb t«S, Parad. I., see § 68, 2); here with instead of ~ on account of the conjunctive accent, Miinach (7), § 68, 1. See on No. 7. 33. Jer. xvii. 14. '?r^in, imper. Hiphil of Vt) (verb ^S, Parad. K.). ny^1J>5, 1 pers. sing. fut. Niphal of V'^\, with lie paragogic (§ 48, 3): see also § 29, 4, b. 34. Job xiv. 1. "11^^., pass. part. sing. masc. Kal ofiPJ, in constr. state, according to § 135, 1. On the construct state of the adjectives "l>*ip and V7^, see § 112, 2. Conjunction \ prefixed with Shureq, before simple Sh^va, according to § 104, 2, b. 35. Genesis xxviii. 12. 2J»P, part. sing. masc. Hophal of 3?) (verb ^Q of 3rd class, § 71) or nV3 (verb |3, Parad. G.). nj,ns, fix with He para- gogic or ancient case-ending for the accusative, § 90, 2: so also in last word. Vl'Q ■, part. sing. masc. Hiphil of y;j (after Parad. G. and F.). 36. Is. xxxvii. 23. Pip^n, Piel, Parad. E. On the next word tlie accent (j_) Zaqeph-qaton, § 15. OiO'iq, Hiphil of D-n (verb IV, Paradigm M.). 'p , with Daghesh forte conjunctive, § 20, 2, a. 37. Judges xiv. 14. /^i^np, part. sing. masc. Kal of ^?^, with article H (§ 35, 1) and preposi- tion P (§ 102, 1). N*V:, verb ^S and A'?, Paradigms K. and O. 38. 1 Sam. ii. 27. ^^})^ infin. absol. Niphal of TDl (verb n?, Parad. P.), with He interrogative pre- fixed, according to § 100, 4 (see its use in § 153, 2): this infin. stands before the finite verb to make it emphatic, according to § 131, 3, «. ri''3, constr. st. of n:? (Parad. VI. h.). 39. Ps. xxxi. 14. T\rpb infin. Kal of Hj?^ (Para- digm H., § 66, Rem. 2), with preposition / pre- fixed according to § 102, 2, c, and § 142, 2. lO^?! NOTES. 278 verb yy (Paradigm H.) inflected here as regular (after Paradigm B., see § 67, Rem. 10, also § 29, 4, 5). 40. Num. X. 30. ^^I?"'^'^ noun fern. sing, (seg- holate, Parad. D.) with suffix, i?.^ (Parad. K.) from "^PJ or '=1?^', see § 69, Rem. 8. 41. Prov. vii. 1. 'niyp-l (^n-nuts-vo-thai, see on No. 11) noun fern. plur. (Paradigm A.) with suffix appended (§91) and conj. \ prefixed with Shureq before the labial » (§ 104, 3, h.) '^pi? for ^ri5< (prep, nx § 103, 1, Rem. 1), see on No. 31. 42. Jer. xliii. 9. ri|5 see on No. 31. D''??^ noun common gender (§ 107, 1, c) plural (19^ Paradigm VI.), governing Ti'hhJ^ in fern. pi. (§ 112, 1) but the suffix of the next word in the muse. Q|JI?^P"I (lit. and thou hast hid them) pret. for imjjer. accord- ing to § 126, 6, c. 43. Ps. civ. 24. no prop, interrog. pron., but here an adverb of interrog. (lit. as to what? then hoiof see § 100, 2, e, and Lexicon suh voce). -131 (Parad. H.) pret. for present, according to § 126, 3. Under T^V^ (Parad. IX.) Methegh and the accent Athiach - (§ 15). N^9, Parad. O., § 74, Rem. 1 ; see also § 138, 3, h. \'W) , always so for ^§^' for the sake of euphony with the art. (§ 35, 1, and § 93, Rem. 1). 44. Judges xiv. 18. See § 37, 1, Rem. for "HD and no. trn-np noun m. (Parad. VI., § 93, Rem. 4) with prep. IP (§ 102, 1) which here denotes the comparative (see § 119, 1). 45. Gen. ix. 20. ^n*1 3 pers. sing. m. fut. apoc. Hiphil of ^?n (Parad. H.), with Vav conversive (see § 48, 2) giving to the fut. the sense of the pret. (see § 129). V^'\ from V^} (Parad. H. and F.). 46. Ps. xxxvii. 8. Pl"in (r. HST, Parad. P.) imper. Hiphil shortened from HS'in (see § 75, Rem. 15, and § 48, 5). Conj. 1 with Pathach, according to § 28, 2. 47. Ex. xxi. 12. nsp part. Hiphil (r. n33, Para- digms G. and P.) in constr. state, according to § 135, 1. T\ty\ (lit. and he has died=.so that, etc., see § 155, 1, e) pret. Kal of HID (Parad. M., § 72, Rem. 1) with J, according to § 104, 1, d. rii?D inf. absol. put for emphasis (§ 131, 3, a) before HDIi 3 pers. sing. masc. fut. Hophal. 48. Gen. iii. 13. See on No. 45. \3NVn, Hiph., Parad. G. and O. ^,5^J (see on No. 32) fut. with Vav. C071V. (§ 48, 2) : observe distinction between Methegh and Silluq, according to Note f on p. 34. 49. 1 Kings v. 8. Di? sign of def. accusative in Its separate or absol. form (§ 117, 2). 1??'^> rel. pronoun (§ 36) here implying the demonstrative = lohat (§ 123, 2). 'h^ (§ 103, 3, and § 29, 4, a). 50. Lev. XX. 14. K'SS for t;'Xn|, § 35, Rem. 2.— Obs. the two forms of riX with suffixes (§ 103, Rem. 1). |n fern. sufF. 3 pers. plur. 51. Judges ix. 10. '•3^' 2 pers. sing. fem. imper Kal of ^^\ (Parad. K., see on No. 40). Jpi? pro- noun, 2 pers. sing. fem. (§ 32, 2), here expressed with the verb for emphasis (see § 137, Rem. 2). ^P/D {mdl'-khi), see § 46, Rem. 2 ; and for the absence oi Dughesh le^ie in 3, see § 21, 2, a. See § 103, 3. 52. Jer. xliv. 25. nb'j; [a-so, § 8, 2, Rem.) infin. absolute for emphasis (see on No. 38). '"I^I^t? ('*"- dhd'r-nu) 1 pers. plur. pret. Kal, with — for t on account of /Silluq. 53. Amos ii. 10. See § 137, Rem. 2. rhy (Para- digms D. and P.). 54. Deut. xvi. 19. i6 (§ 100, 1) before fut. n|"?ri C^P/? Parad. G.) to ex^i^-ess prohibition (see § 127, 3, c). "I;W* {g'dv-ver, see Note f on page 30), Piel of 11V (not Parad. M., see § 72, Rem. 10). '^V dual constr. state of T.V (Parad. VI. h). 55. Is. xxxvii. 10. ^N* (§ 100, 1) before fut. to ex- press dissuasion (§ 127, 3, c) ; distinction between 7ii and i6, see in § 152, Rem. "^Vifl fut. Hiphil (see on No. 48) with suff., according to § 65, 2, Rem. '^'Q^.^?, see on No. 21, also § 146, 2. i3_T^'« (lit. who — in him=in ivhom, § 123, 1). See § 134, 2, a. 56. Ex. xvii. 2. See on No. 31. D?» dual in appearance but 2>^ur. in fact (see § 88, 1, Rem. 2). nriL'Ol 1 pers. pi. com. fut. Kal (Parad. P.); \ and = that, § 128, 1, c. 57. Jer. xiv. 21. 12n, Hiphil of 112 (Parad. G.), see § 127, 3, c. -IJ^iN', prep, with sufF. (see § 91, 1, Rem. 2). 19 274 NOTES. 58. Josh. i. 3. See on No. 55. l^^n;! (/ have given it), |n3 (§ 66, Rem. 3), suff. 3 pers. sing. — On the arrangement of this sentence, see § 145, 2. 59. 2 Kings x. 32. Dnn D^p^*3 (compare vulgar English, in them days), § 122, 1. ^nn, Parad. H. nv:>*pS, Piel, Parad. P. ; see § 142, 2. 60. 2 Chron. x. 10. ^^^V , noun (Parad. VIII. c), accent Zaqeph-qaton. ?i?n, imper. Hiphil of ''.-i^. 61. Prov. vi. 6. 62. 2 Chron. xi. 4. 63. Num. XX. 11. Dll, see on No. 45. "^.1 (n33, verb |2 and nV), Hiphil fut. apoc. (for n3?^, § 66, 2, and § 75, 5, with Rem. 14). -intSD, noun (Para- digm IX.) with sufF. 3 pers. sing. masc. (-in-i. for the usual i, Vu)0) : distinctive accent Tiphcha (§ 15). See§ 120, 5. 64. Job xl. 4. 'n^'b, Paradigm H. ,\3T"^?, fut. Hiphil of 2'ltJ', with suffix with Nwi epenthetic (see § 58, 4). *np'^, Paradigm M. ID^, see § 103, 2, Rem. 65. Mai. ii. 10. Ellipsis, § 144. ^3 (Paradigm VIII. c.) with suffix (§ 91, 1, Rem. 2). Expression for reciprocal pronoun, § 124, Rem. 4. /jn, reg. inf. constr. Piel, see § 67, Rem. 10. 66. Lev. xii. 4. On the construction of the numerals, see § 120, 1 and 3. 2K'ri, Paradigm K. V»7\ (r. V})) with — for T on account of the pause accent R'bhia (§ 15). riS'^0, § 74, Rem. 2. n"inp {td-h'rah, see p. 28, No. 2, a, and § 14, 1), inB (Parad. VI. f.) with sufF. 3 pers. sing, fem,, distin- guished by the Mappiq from the ending of the fem. noun (nnntp to-h'rd). II. EXTRACTS IN PROSE. 1. The Priests' Benediction. Num. vi. 22—26. V. 22. Vav conv. prefixed without Daghesh forte (§ 49, 2, and § 20, 3, b, Rem.). "lbx|? [Dagh. forte conjunctive, § 20, 2, a), inf. with prep. (lit. to sag) for ibX*?., according to § 23, 2, and § 68, 1, Rem. V. 23. ■13'D3 0, Parad. E., see § 10, 2, Rem. IIDX, inf. absol. standing for fut. or imper., according to § 131, 4, b. V. 25. 1t<:, Hiphil of nix (Paradigm U., jussive form, § 128, 2). ^Sn^ (r. |3n, Parad. H.) 3 pers. sing. masc. fut. Kal with suffix with N'un epenthetic (I 58, 4), and 1. prefixed according to § 104, 2, c. *^^* In reading these Extracts, it may be well to learn more of the names and uses of the Accents (§ 15). 2. Jotham's Parable. Judges ix. 6 — 15. V. 6. -iSipX'l fut. Niphal (Parad. D.). DV prep. at or bg, see Lex. B, 2. V. 7. -"n^JM (r. ^2J) 3 pers. plur., used according to § 137, 3, b. V. 8. See § 131, 3, o.— Obs. HJI^D ^vith small circle referring to the margin, where a difi'erent form of the word is given (see § 17). Both the KHhibh ^360 and the Q'ri n3^D have the same sense, and stand for 2 pers. sing. masc. imper. Kal, with He paragogic (§ 48, 5). This K'thibh form of the imper. is not recognised in the grammars, but it occurs also in Ps. xxvi. 2; comp. verse 12 below. V. 9. ■'Jyi^ini] pi'et. Kal (the Chateph-Qamets irre- gular for Qamets, with He interrog. § 100, 4, Rem.), used ioT fut., according to § 126, 4. '131* ^3-)^'»it tohich in mc God and men honour (see § 127, 2). ■•np^ni pret. with Vav. conv. (see § 48, 3, and § 126, 6, a), y-l^p (inf. with prep.) to icave. V. 10. See on No. 51 above. V. 11. ^?J;^0 (Pp'^, Parad. VI. e). nnit^n adj. * See § .5, Rem. 4. NOTES. 275 fern. sing, with the art., because its noun has a sufF. (see § 111, 2, and § 112, 1). V. 12. KHhibh ^?i^P but Q^ri *?^0, see on verse 8. V. 13. niS^pn part, with art. (prefixed according to § 20, 3, V), answering to our relative pron. with the indicative, ivhich cheers. V. 15. -IDn from Hpn. fun^H, see § 109, 3. 3. Elijah's Ascension. 2 Kings ii. 1—12. V. 1. ^n;i fut. apoc. § 75, Rem. 3, e) with Vav conv. (§ 49, 2), used for tense of narration (§ 129, 2). ni^.yn3 Hiphil of rh)i (see § 132, 2, and also § 133, 3). n-iyD3 (§ 10, 2, Rem.— comp. nnyM in verse 11) with Chateph-Qamets irreg., which is noticed in the margin X^^ ^113113 'DH, i. e., the D nnth Chateph-Qamets. ^V^^^ (No. 10, p. 270; §118, 1). V. 2. ^yy^', see § 130, 1, Rem. ^^S5 '^\ T'O (lit. living is Jehovah and the life of thy soul) as Jehovah liveth and hij the life of thy soid, a form of oath : *n const, st. § 89, 2, c. Q^5 if^not, see Lex. C. 1, c. /i:>"ri''3 (also in the next verse) in the ad- verbial accusative, § 118, 1. V. 3. DVn prop, the day=this day, see § 109, at beginning. '^^5"'^5 j^lur. excel. (§ 108, 2, b). ^E^'^. V. 5. in''')''3, prep. 3 prefixed, according to § 102, 2, a. J?V1;l1, pret. for pros. (§ 126, 3); see § 153,2. V. 6. n^i^^ri, § 109, 3, and § 90, 2. Dn\r^ their tu;n=.hofh of them, § 97, Rem. 2. V. 7. Construction of the numeral, § 120, 2. V. 8. n|27, see above on No. 54. ^I'^X noun fem. (Parad. D.). HDJ, see above on No. 63. ) conj. with Qamets, see above on No. 47. 3 prep, with art. (§ 35, 2, B. b, and Rem. 2). V. 9. Dn^Vi" inf- with suff. and prep. § 132, 2, (see also above on No. 25). ] and= that after ^^!l. ')i) ^2 xr^Xl then {] inferential, % 155, 1, d) shall be, pray, a portion of two in thy spirit to me, i. e. may I have a double portion (twice as much as any one else) of thy spirit (comp. Deut. xxi. 17): HQ, see § 96. V. 10. VlX'i?'^ n^K'pn lit. thou hast made hard to ask, i. e. thou hast asked a hard thing, see § 142, 4, Rem. 1. n^h for n\hjD^ see § 52, Rem. 5. V. 11. Lit. and it was, they loalking to ivulk and to speak, that lo! a chariot, etc. : see § 134, 2, a or c, and § 131, 3, b. hvi\ fut. Kal of rh)) . U)'gfr\ adverbial accus. (§ 118, 1). V. 12. \ according to § 28, 2. PJ^V^ part. Piel, § 64, 3. V^")D1 ^N-lK't 3DT Israel's chariot and his horsemen. — Observe, that in Hebrew two or more nouns cannot be in the construct state before the same genitive (see Note '^' on § 114, 1): e. g. 331 ^^^^t ''W^^'^ would be scarcely admissible in this place, and hence the language required either the expression of the genitive after each noun (SDT ^^^I'f! *V'!^^ '"^^iT-^ as in verse 11, \p1D1 K'K-33T ^^) or the use of the possessive pronoun after the second noun (as exhibited in this verse), or the pe- riphrastic construction (see § 115) which expresses the genitive in the manner of the dative (35in -'^'J^.f ^''^"J^D'l the chariot and the horsemen to Israel). — There are some apparent exceptions, as in Jer. xxvi. 9, where we find flK'i") ''3"]"'^ ''^Qh handlers of — benders of — the botv ; but the two nouns in the construct state are here in apposition, just like D)^VP'ri3 n>in3 virgin daughter of Egypt, in verse 11 of the same chapter (see § 116, 5). * -t-G has both vowels unchangeable (see page 157, No. 4, Rem.)" 276 NOTES. III. EXTRACTS IN POETRY. 1. Part of the Song of Moses. Deut. xxxii. 1 — 4. *^* In this Extract, the parallel members are clearly ex- hibited in separate lines. V. 1. Article before vocative, § 110, Rem. 2. n"l31Nl, ^ 128, 1; § 29, 4, b. V. 2. ^m, verb IS. r*?!?, § 103, 3. V. 3. -lan, verb ^2. !? prep. (§ 102, 2, a). V. 4. llj^D the rock, i. e. Jehovah, case absol. (§ 145, 2). — Large v (so the marginal notice calls it) to mark out the v?ord as having a peculiar use or mystic sense attached to it by the Masoretic authors (see § 3, 2). 2. Parable of the Degenerate Vinetard. Isaiah v. 1 — 7. V. 1. X3 r\y^^ (§128, 1, a), 'y'rh concerning my beloved, i. e. Jehovah. V. 2. y03 with double accus. (§ 139, 2). n33, § 75, Rem. 3. r\)p^, § 75, Rem. 9. V. 3. SK'V and tr^J^ collectives (§ 108, 1, c) and hence with verb plur. (§ 146, 1). V. 4. See § 132, Rem. 1, 2. V. 5. yX with two accus. (§ 139, 1). nb'y part, for fut. (§ 134, 2, h). "ipn and p?, § 131, 1, Rem. ly?? lit. yb;- to eat up=-to be eaten up. V. 6. "121 rh^) (§ 126, 6) and it shall go up (i. e. grow) briar and thorn (§ 138, 1, Rem. 2). "I^POH^ lit..yrom to rain (§ 132, 2). V, 7. Observe the striking paronomasia or alli- teration between tSS'J'D and HQIIJ'O, and between "^i^iy and '^iJVV* which we can partly copy in translation, thus, — he looked for right, and behold might! for tveal, and behold woe! 3. Praise of a Good Wife. Prov. xxxi. 10 — 31. *iif* This piece is alphabetical, a sort of Hebrew Acrostick (§ 6, Rem. 2). V. 10. riK'K, § 96, 2. V. 11. Pret. for present (§ 126, 3). V. 12. -inn^a (§ 59, 1, a, and Rem. 3). V. 14. nV3X3 {kd-'nty.goth, see page 28, No. 2, Rem.). V. 15. *ny?, either as noun {i?i cotitimtance of) or as infinitive {in continuing of, § 132, 2), while it is yet night. Fut. with Vav convers. for present (§ 128, 3, a). V. 16. npOT, see above, on No. 39. Q'n n;?t33 referring to the wife ; but K'thibh either yt?3 re- ferring to the husband, or yp? (Niphal, is planted), agreeing with D^S as subject. V. 18. Sense of Q'ri and K'thibh is here the same. V. 20. VJ^^, § 102, 2, i. V. 21. ^2h, pass. part, with accus., § 143, 1. V. 27. n»siv, § 75, Rem. 5. Qri nb^^ri, but K'thibh (with the same sense) niziv''n; the latter probably derived from ^?J, but the former from V. 29. JTiaT, adj. put before the noun either for emjjhasis, many loomen, etc., (see § 112, 1, Rem. 1), or as predicate, maiiy are the women who, etc. (see § 145, 1, b). n3^3 for the usual lS'2i, see § 91, 1, Rem. 2. V. 30. ^\ ^^y. ^^'^ a woman fearing Jehovah. put prominently in nom. case absol. (§ 145, 2). — Observe, the crowning praise of a good wife is the fear of the Lord or piety. 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