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THE ''' ' ' ''' ' 
 
 DOMINION 
 
 OP 
 
 CANADA; 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PRELIMINARIES AND ORGANI- 
 ZATION OF CONFEDERATION; 
 
 THE VAST IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE AND TRADE, 
 
 MODES OF TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, MINING, AND 
 
 EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS, ETC., ETC. 
 
 rOR THE PAST EIGHTY TEARS UNDER THE PROVINCIAL NAMES. 
 
 WITH A LARGE AMOUNT OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION, 
 
 FROM THB BEST AND LATEST AUTHORITIES. 
 
 H. Y. HIND, M. A., F. R. G. S. 
 
 T. C. KEEFER, CIVIL ENGINEER. 
 
 J. G. HODGINS, LL. B., F. R. G. S. 
 
 CHARLES ROBB, MINING ENGINEER. 
 
 M. H. PERLEY, ESQ. 
 
 REV. WM. MURRAY. 
 
 FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH STEEL AND ELECTROTYPE PLATE ENGRAVINGS, 
 SHOWING THE PROGRESS IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES TREATED OP. 
 
 (FURNISHED TO SUBSCRIBERS ONLY.) 
 
 TORONTO: 
 PUBLISHED BY L. STEBBINS. 
 
 1868. 
 

 
 idui/iii/^u^ 
 
 J./ ^ .XX jTI xl. vJ 
 
 st7j<Tsti^T\?'^^"7-T-T p'^^ 'Ti''* iryft^';^,^^ -rrii | 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 SIX CHAPTERS, mCLUDING EIGHTY SECTIONS. 
 
 Part I. Introductory, (2 sections.) 
 Part II. Period of English and French Discovery and Settlement, 
 
 (10 sections.) 
 Part III. Political and Military History — French Period, (26 sections.) 
 Part IY. Political History of Canada — British Period, (18 sections.) 
 Part V. The Maritime Provinces, (8 sections.) 
 Part VI. Confederation of the Provinces— with Statistical Tables, 
 (16 sections.) 
 
 M23G787 
 
■'^'VIO 
 

 HISTORICAL SKETCH ^' !''.*^ ' 
 
 rh '* OF THE NEW 
 
 CONFEDERATED DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORr. 
 
 The prosperous provinces of British North America, 
 which now constitute the " Dominion of Canada, " were, 
 with the islands of Prince Edward and Newfoundland and 
 the outlying territory of the Hudson Bay company, (and 
 even portions of the United States,) — once known as 
 Nouvelh France, This vast area was two centuries ago held 
 by one people, and ruled by one viceroy — with his subor- 
 dinates as governors of districts. It will be curious and 
 interesting briefly to trace the successive steps which led not 
 only to the rapid expansion of French power and influence 
 on the continent, but also to note the causes, which led to 
 the no less certain decay and extinction of that power as a 
 political entity in America. Equally instructive will it be 
 to take a glance at the successive steps which led to the 
 establishment of that other rival power in the very seat of 
 French dominion on this continent, and caused to be trans- 
 ferred to Great Britain these fine provinces, which after- 
 wards under her beneficial rule grew and prospered as sin- 
 gle communities, and at length confederated together as one 
 Dominion — a Dominion with a population and territory 
 equal to that which formed the United States at the close 
 of its successful revolution, of 1776. 
 
VI mTEODUCTOEY. 
 
 2. Groivth of British North America. — Long after tlie dis- 
 covery of America, Great Britain had no permanent foot- 
 hold in any part of the continent. For many years she 
 maintained but a nominal claim, for fishing purposes, upon 
 the outlying island of Newfoundland — her sovereignty over 
 which was chiefly based upon Cabpt's discovery in 1497, 
 and Sir Humphrey Gilbert's act of possession in 1583. 
 Gradually, however, she advanced her power and increased 
 her influence, until she absorbed nearly the whole of the 
 North American continent. But very soon after the ab- 
 sorption of this vast territory, there arose that restless spirit 
 among her own children, which at length issued in rebel- 
 lion against her authority, and in the end bereft her of 
 more than half of her possessions. Since that event there 
 has again grown up in what was once New France, a pros- 
 perous cluster of colonies, which stretch across the continent 
 from the island of Newfoundland to that of Vancouver. 
 
 PAKT 11. 
 
 PERIOD OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERY AND SETTLE- 
 
 MENT. 
 
 1. CohoHs Discovery of Newfoundland. — Soon after the news 
 of the discovery by Columbus had reached England, John 
 Cabot, a Venetian merchant, resident at Bristol, obtained a 
 Commission from Henry VII., in 1496, to make a voyage 
 to the New World. In June 1497, he left Bristol with his 
 son Sebastian. On the 24th of that month, he reached a 
 point on the Trinity Bay coast, Newfoundland, which he 
 named Prima Vista. On St. John's day he came to an island 
 "which he named St. Jean, (afterwards Prince Edward.) By 
 virtue of these discoveries, the English first laid claim to 
 sovereignty over these islands. 
 
 2. CortereaVs Voyages. — In 1500 Gaspard Cortereal, a 
 
ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT. vii 
 
 Portuguese, made a voyage to Labrador, Newfoundland, 
 and JSTew England. He made a second voyage in 1601, 
 and, having readied Hudson Strait, was never heard of 
 afterwards. 
 
 8. Yerazzani's Voyage. — In 1524, John Yerazzani made 
 a voyage to America, under the patronage of Francis I. 
 In 1525 he made a second voyage, and explored more than 
 2,000 miles of coast. In consequence of his discoveries the 
 French claimed jurisdiction of all places visited by him. 
 
 4. earner's Discovery of Canada, — In 1534 Philip Cabot, 
 admiral of France, urged King Francis I. to establish a 
 colony in the new world. He recommended Jacques Car- 
 tier, a noted navigator of St. Malo, to command an expe- 
 dition of discovery to the New World. In April 1534 
 Cartier left St. Malo, and twenty days after reached a cape 
 on the Newfoundland coast which he named Bona Yista. 
 On the 9th of July he entered a bay (of New Brunswick) 
 in which he experienced such intense heat that he called it 
 the "Baie des Chaleurs." Passing northwards out of this 
 bay he rounded the peninsula, and on the 24th of July 
 landed on the coast since known as " Gasp6," — an Indian 
 name for Land's end. There he erected a cross, on which 
 he placed a shield bearing the fleur-de-lis, as emblematical 
 of the new sovereignty of France in America. He then 
 returned to France. In July, 1535, after a tempestuous voy- 
 age, he again reached Newfoundland. On the 10th of July 
 he anchored in a bay to which he gave the name of St. 
 Lawrence, — having entered it on the festival of that saint. 
 The name thus given to the little bay has since been ap- 
 plied to the vast gulf and noble river which Cartier was 
 the first European to discover and afterwards explore. 
 
 5. Name of Canada. — When Cartier reached Stadacona 
 (Quebec) the Algonquin Indians intimated to him that 
 Kanata, — a collection of wigwams at the native Huron vil- 
 lage of Hochelaga (Montreal) — was farther up the river. 
 
VUl ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT. 
 
 He probably understood them to apply that word to the 
 ■whole country lying beyond him. In this way, it is sup- 
 posed the name Kanata, or Canada, was given to the entire 
 country which Cartier was then engaged in exploring. 
 
 6. Other Futile Expeditions — Feudal System introduced. — 
 During the next fifty years little more was accomplished. 
 But in 1598 the Marquis de la Eoche was constituted lieu- 
 tenant-general of the king, and was invested by him with 
 power to " grant leases of land in New France, in form of 
 fiefs, to men of gentle blood." Thus was the feudal system 
 introduced into Canada. It was modified by Eichelieu 
 into a seigniorial tenure, and was not finally abolished 
 until 1854. 
 
 7. Commercial Efforts. — Not only did the French fisher- 
 men continue to frequent the coast of Newfoundland, but, 
 under the patronage of Henry lY., Dupont Grav6, a mer- 
 chant of St Malo, and Chauvin, a master-marine of Eouen, 
 made several voyages up the St Lawrence to Tadoussac, 
 and brought home cargoes of the rich fars which had been 
 collected from the north at th^ place. De Chattes, the 
 governor of Dieppe, formed a company of Eouen and other 
 merchants, to prosecute the work more vigorously. 
 
 8. Champlaivus Discoveries. — The first expedition to Can- 
 ada projected by this Company was placed under the com- 
 mand of Samuel de Champlain. In company with Dupont 
 Grav6, he, in 1603-7, explored the St Lawrence from 
 Tadoussac to Three Eivers. On the 3d of July, 1608, he 
 founded the city of Quebec. In 1609 he ascended the 
 river Eichelieu, and discovered the beautiful lake since 
 called Champlain. In 1615 he ascended the Ottawa to 
 Lake Nipissing, descended French Eiver to Georgian Bay, 
 and from Lake Simcoe he passed by a long portage to the 
 head- waters of the river Trent, and thence to Lake Ontario. 
 
 9. Reverses — Further Explorations. — The Prince de Cond4 
 having been appointed viceroy, a new and enlarged com- 
 
 y 
 
ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT. ix 
 
 pan J was incorporated under his auspices, and an effort was 
 made to introduce Christianity among the Indians. For 
 this purpose Champlain brought the first missionaries to 
 Canada. These were four EecoUet fathers, who accom- 
 panied him in 1615. ^ 
 
 10. Montreal Founded. — Huron War. — M. De Montmagny 
 followed Champlain. During his administration in 1642, 
 Montreal was founded with religious ceremonies under the 
 name of Villa Maria, (Town of Mary,) and soon after, the 
 long threatened war of extermination against the Huron 
 Indians was commenced by the Iroquois. It was to this 
 governor that the Indians first applied the term Onontio, the 
 great mountain — a literal translation of M.de Montmagny 's 
 name. The term was afterwards applied to each of the 
 French governors of Canada. On-ti-go-a was the Indian 
 name of the king of France. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY— FRENCH PERIOD. 
 
 1. Proposed Union of the English^ French^ and Dutch Colo- 
 nies. — The four New England colonies had, in 1643, 
 formed a union or alliance. It was then proposed that this 
 union should include all the European colonies in Amer- 
 ica — English, French, and Dutch — whose existence should 
 not be imperilled by the politics or wars of Europe. Each 
 colony was to retain its own laws, customs, religion, and 
 language. 
 
 2. Projected Alliance with New England. — ^With a view to 
 carry out this confederation. Governor Winthrop of Massa- 
 chusetts wrote to the governors of New Netherlands and 
 New France, or Canada, in 1647. The Dutch governor 
 responded favorably at once, but the French governor de- 
 layed doing anything until 1650, when he dispatched P^re 
 
X POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY. 
 
 Druilletes to Boston, to propose as an additional article of 
 union, the stipulation that New England should join Can- 
 ada against the Iroquois — the French having suffered so 
 severely from the Iroquois in their prosecution of the pel- 
 try-traffic. This hostile stipulation on the part of the 
 French, although skillfully presented as a righteous league 
 in defense of Christianity against scoffing pagans, broke off 
 the negotiations. When this proposed arrangement be- 
 came known to the Iroquois, it exasperated them still more, 
 and they redoubled their efforts to destroy the French col- 
 onists, so that for several years the French were virtually 
 kept within their inclosures. Trade entirely languished, 
 and the beavers were allowed to build their dams in peace, 
 none of the colonists being able or willing to molest them. 
 
 3. Peaxie and Progress. — At length, however, a treaty was 
 entered into with the five Iroquois tribes in 1654, and for 
 a time war ceased its alarms. Trade revived, and the 
 peltry-traffic was vigorously prosecuted by the French with 
 such of the Iroquois as were near Canada. The others, how- 
 ever, preferred to trade with the English. During the in- 
 tervals of war, explorations were made among the Sioux 
 Indians beyond Lake Superior, and also among the Esqui- 
 maux. The year 1656 was noted for an overland expedi- 
 tion which was sent from Canada to Hudson Bay by way 
 of Labrador, under Louis Jean Bourdon, attorney-general 
 of New France, to take possession of that territory on 
 behalf of the French King. 
 
 4. Royal Government Established. — In 1659, a royal edict 
 was issued regulating the civil government of the colony. 
 The resumption of Koyal authority in Canada was made 
 the occasion of introducing various reforms. A " Sover- 
 eign Council," invested with administrative and judicial 
 functions, somewhat like the "Parlement de Paris," was 
 instituted at Quebec. Legal tribunals were established, 
 and municipal government in a modified form introduced. 
 
 i 
 
FEENCH PEEIOD, 1640— 1763. ,^ xi i 
 
 The right of taxation was, however, reserved to the king. 
 The administration of goverment devolved upon a viceroy 
 (who, as colonial minister, generally resided in France,) a 
 governor, and an intendant, or chief of justice. 
 
 5. Police and Public Works, — West India Company. — 
 With these modifications the king, in 1664, transferred the 
 trading interests of Canada to the West India Company, 
 by whom an ordinance was passed introducing into the col- 
 ony "the law and customs of Paris," (la coutume de 
 Paris.) With a view to insure harmony in this matter 
 throughout Canada, all other French coutumes were declared 
 illegal in it. 
 
 6. Vigorous Administration and Reform. — The new rulers 
 sent out from France in 1665, were men of ability. M. de 
 Tracy was selected by the king as lieutenant-general, M. 
 de Courcelles as governor, and M. Talon as intendant. On 
 their arrival with new emigrants and farming materials, 
 the colony revived. Talon, by authority of the king, car^ 
 ried into effect various useful reforms in the system of 
 government, — especially in regard to the finances, the pun- 
 ishment of peculators, and the reduction of the amount of 
 tithes payable to the clergy. He further sought to encour- 
 age both agriculture and manufactures. During his ad- 
 ministration the restrictions on trade in Canada, as imposed 
 by the West India Company, were greatly relaxed. 
 
 7. Attempted Diversion of the Fur Trade, — The English, 
 having, in 1663, superceded the Dutch in New Amsterdam, 
 (afterwards New York,) pushed their trade northward 
 through the agency of the Iroquois Indians. These allies, 
 anxious to profit by the traffic, sought, in 1670, to obtain 
 furs and skins for the English from the various tribes up 
 the Ottawa, which was then the chief hunting ground of 
 the French Indians. 
 
 8. Form-ation of the Hudson Bay Company, — In the mean- 
 time the English obtained a footing in the Hudson Bay ter- 
 
XU POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY. 
 
 ritories, under the guidance of des Groselli^res, a Frencti 
 pilot, aided by another Franco-Canadian, named Eadisson. 
 An English company was formed to trade for furs, under 
 the patronage of Prince Eupert. Charles I., King of Eng- 
 land, having claimed the Hudson Bay territories, by virtue of 
 Hudson's discoveries in 1610, granted a charter in 1670 to 
 this company, authorizing it to traffic for furs in that region. 
 
 9. Count de Frontenac. — In the year 1672 de Courcelles 
 retired, and Count de Frontenac, a man of great energy 
 and ability arrived. He remained ten years, and was re- 
 called in 1682. In 1672 he built Fort Frontenac (Kings- 
 ton.) It was rebuilt of stone by La Salle in 1678. Fron- 
 tenac was re-appointed governor in 1689, and carried on a 
 vigorous war against the English settlements in New York, 
 and against their Indian allies, the Iroquois. The English 
 retaliated, and the Iroquois made various successful inroads 
 into Canada. In 1690 Frontenac defeated Sir William 
 Phipps and the English fleet, before Quebec. He died 
 greatly regretted in 1698, aged 78 years. Though naturally 
 haughty, he was an able and enterprising man. 
 
 10. Spirit of Discoveiy and Adventure. — ^Nothing was so 
 remarkable, during the early settlement of Canada, as the 
 spirit of adventure and discovery which was then devel- 
 oped. Zeal for the conversion of the Indians seems to 
 have inspired the Jesuit clergy with an unconquerable de- 
 votion to the work of exploration and discovery. Nor 
 were they alone in this respect, for laymen exhibited the 
 same adventurous spirit in encountering peril and hard- 
 ship. From the first settlement of Quebec, in 1608, until 
 its fall in 1759, this spirit of discovery and dominion was 
 actively fostered by each succeeding governor, until there 
 radiated from that city a series of French settlements which 
 stretched from the St. Lawrence to the far West, and from 
 the sources of the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, and 
 even to the shores of South America. 
 
FRENCH PERIOD, 1640 — 1763. xiii 
 
 11. Summary of Discoveries. — After Champlain, otlier ex- 
 plorers extended their researches westward. In 1640 the 
 southern shores of Lake Erie were visited by P^res Chaumonot 
 and Breboeuf In 1647, P^re de Quesne went up the Sague- 
 nay and discovered Lake St. John. In 1651, 1661, and 1671, 
 expeditions were sent northwards towards the Hudson Bay, 
 with more or less success. In 1646, P^re Druilletes ascend- 
 ed the Chaudi^re, and descended the Kennebec to the At- 
 lantic. In 1659, the Sioux were visited by adventurous 
 traders, and in 1660 P^re Mesnard reached Lake Superior. 
 In 1665, P^re Alloiiez coasted the same lake, and formed 
 a mission at the Bay of Che-goi-megon. In 1668, P^res 
 Dablon and Marquette formed a settlement of Sault Ste. 
 Marie. In 1670 and 1672 Alloiiez penetrated, with. Dab- 
 Ion, to the Illinois region, where they first heard of the 
 mysterious Mississippi, — the ** great father of waters." 
 
 12. La Salle's Expeditions to the Mississippi. — Fired with 
 the news of this notable discovery, Sieur de la Salle, a 
 French knight, then at Quebec, determined to complete the 
 discovery. He sought to reach China by the way of Can- 
 ada. His design was frustrated by an accident at a place 
 since called Lachine, or China. He explored the Missis- 
 sippi from its source to its month in 1678-80 ; spent two 
 years between Frontenac (Kingston) and Lake Erie, and 
 constructed the first vessel on Lake Erie (near Cayuga 
 Creek.) He sought to reach the Mississippi by sea, but, 
 having failed, he sought to reach it overland. In doing so 
 he was murdered by his jealous followers who, afterwards, 
 justly suffered great hardships. P^re Hennepin, a Eecollet 
 Franciscan friar emigrated to Canada in 1675. He accom- 
 panied La Salle in his exploration of the Mississippi in 
 1678, and visited the Falls of Niagara, — of which he wrote 
 an interesting account. 
 
 13. Failure to restrict the Peltry Traffic to the Region of the 
 SU Lawrence. — Great efforts were made by the French to 
 
XIV POLITICAL AND MILITAEY HISTORY. 
 
 restrict the traffic in beaver-skins and peltry witliin their 
 own territories. They at one time interdicted trade with 
 the Anglo-Iroquois — then they made them presents; — 
 again they threatened them — made war upon them — invad- 
 ed and desolated their villages ; — they made treaties with 
 them, and urged and entreated the Dutch and English to 
 restrain them, and even sought to make the latter responsi- 
 ble for their acts ; — but all in vain. As the tide rolled 
 slowly in upon them, and the English, (who were always 
 heralded by the Iroquois,) advanced northwards and west- 
 wards to the St. Lawrence and the great lakes, the French 
 still gallantly holding possession of their old trading-forts, 
 also pressed forward before them and occupied new ground. 
 
 14. Armed Trading Posts, — ^With sagacious foresight, the 
 French, in addition to a regular fort at Quebec, erected, 
 from time to time, palisaded inclosures round their trading 
 posts at Tadoussac, at Sorel, and the Falls of Chambly (on 
 the Iroquois, or Eichelieu River) at Three Rivers, Montreal, 
 and Cataraqui (Kingston.) Subsequently, and as a coun- 
 terpoise to the encroachments of the English, they erected 
 palisaded posts at Niagara, Toronto, Detroit, and at Sault 
 Ste. Marie and Mich-il-i-mack-i-nac. Nor were the Eng- 
 lish idle. Creeping gradually up the Hudson river, they 
 erected armed trading-posts at Albany, and at various points 
 along the Mohawk valley, until, at length, in 1727, they fear- 
 lessly threw up a fort at Oswego, on Lake Ontario, midway 
 between the French trading posts of Frontenac and Niagara. 
 
 15. Tlie Cause of ilie Incessant Disputes and Wars must be 
 looked for in the mutual determination of the French and 
 English colonists to secure an exclusive right to carry on a 
 traffic for furs with the Indian tribes. Territorial exten- 
 sion, no less than national resentment between the French 
 and English colonists, gave intensity of feeling to the con- 
 test, and contributed to its duration. In their efforts to 
 force the traffic into unnatural channels, the plans of the 
 
FRENCH PERIOD, 1640 — 1763. XV 
 
 French were not only counteracted bj the energy of the 
 English traders, but they were even thwarted in them by 
 separate classes among themselves — each having different 
 interests to serve, but all united in their secret opposition 
 to the government. 
 
 16. The Three Classes of French Fur Traders were; 1, the 
 Indians; 2, the trading officials; and 8, the coureurs de 
 bois ('.' runners of the wood," or white trappers.) As to 
 the first class, (the Indians of these vast territories,) they 
 were ever proud of their unfettered forest life, and natu- 
 rally disdained to be bound by the artificial trammels of the 
 white man. The second class, (the officials of New France^) 
 were secretly in league with the coureurs de bois against 
 the king's revenue agents — their exaction and their exclu- 
 sive privileges. The third or intermediary class of traders, 
 or factors, (the coureurs de bois,) sought in eyerj way to 
 evade the jurisdiction of the farmers of the revenue at Que- 
 bec. Their own reckless and daring mode of life among the 
 Indians in the woods, far from the seat of official influence 
 and power, gave them peculiar facilities for doing so. 
 
 17. Various ameliorations. — During a peaceful interval, 
 M. de Yaudreuil, the governor, set himself to develop the 
 resources of the country, and to foster education among the 
 people. He subdivided the three governments of Quebec, 
 Three Eivers, and Montreal, into eighty-two parishes, and 
 took a census of the people. 
 
 18. Maritime Defense of New France. — To provide for the 
 maritime defense of Canada, (which, as yet, had no protec- 
 tion to the seaward,) France, in 1718, colonized the island 
 of Cape Breton, and, in 1720, strongly fortified Louisbourg 
 its capital, at great expense. 
 
 19. PepperreWs Expedition from New England. — In 1745 
 war again broke out. From Crown Point, on Lake Cham- 
 plain, the French and their Indian allies successfully at- 
 tacked the English settlements ; and from Louisbourg a host 
 
XVI f OLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORr. 
 
 of Frencli privateers sallied forth to harrass tlie commerce 
 of Nova Scotia and New England. Governor Shirley, of 
 Massachusetts, aided by the other colonies, at once sent an 
 expedition under William Pepperrell for the reduction of 
 this stronghold. It was highly successful, and Pepperrell 
 was rewarded with a baronetcy. Nothing daunted, a fleet, 
 tinder the Duke d' Anvil le, was dispatched from France to 
 recapture Louisbourg. But having been dispersed by a 
 tempest, it never reached its destination. 
 
 20. Proposed Federal Union of the Colonies ^ VI bZ-^. — With 
 a view to concerted action against the French, the lords of 
 trade suggested to the colonies the formation of a league 
 with the Indians, which in its structure should be an enlarge- 
 ment of the Iroquois confederacy. Shirley, the indefatigable 
 governor of Massachusetts, conceived the bolder project of 
 an alliance among the colonies themselves, for the purposes 
 of mutual defense. Neither schemes were, however, 
 adopted, but the germ of such a colonial union was subse- 
 quently developed at the time of the American revolution. 
 
 21. Capture of Quebec. — The incessant trading disputes 
 which had lasted for years between the English and the 
 French ultimately culminated, in 1759, in that decisive 
 contest between them on the Plains of Abraham. And 
 thus, in the memorable fall of Quebec, fell also, in Canada, 
 (although the after-struggle was protracted for a year,) that 
 imperial power which, for more than one hundred and fifty 
 years, had ruled the colonial destinies of New France. 
 
 22. Fall of Prench Power. — Thus, after years of heroic 
 struggle — with scant means of defense against powerful 
 rival colonists and a relentless Indian enemy, — the first 
 promoters of European civilization and enterprise in Can- 
 ada were compelled to give place to a more aggressive race. 
 But they did so with honor. And little did those think 
 who were then the victors over so brave an enemy in Canada, 
 that, within twenty years from that event their own proud 
 
1640—1763. xvii 
 
 flag would be ignominiously lowered at tlie seat of their 
 own power at New York, as well as at every other fort and 
 military post within the thirteen American colonies. 
 
 23. The Treaty of Paris^ 1763.— By this treaty France 
 ceded to England the whole of her possessions in Korth 
 America, with the exception of Louisiana and the small 
 fishing islands of St. Pierre and Micquelon (off the coast of 
 Newfoundland.) 
 
 24. Tlie French and English Colonial Systems Contrasted. — 
 The return to France of the French military officers and 
 troops, as well as of many of the chief inhabitants, was en- 
 couraged by the English, who were anxious thus quietly 
 to rid themselves of a powerful antagonistic element in their 
 newly acquired possession. They well knew that the pro- 
 cess of assimilation between the two races so long arrayed 
 in hostility to each other, would be very slow indeed. 
 
 25. System of Government in the French Colony. — The 
 French colony, in its relations to the Imperial government, 
 was as a child of the State. Every thing in it was subject 
 to political influence or official surveillance, while religious 
 matters were subject to vigorous ecclesiastical control. 
 Two principal objects engrossed the attention of the French 
 colonists, — the extension of the peltry traffic, and the con- 
 version of the Indian tribes. As a means of carrying 
 out these two great projects, exploration and discovery 
 formed a chief feature of French colonial life. 
 
 26. System of Government in the English Colony. — In the 
 English colony, the government, on the contrary, partook 
 rather of the nature of a civil and social bond between the 
 governing and the governed. It interfered as little as pos- 
 sible in matters of trade. Hence exploration and discovery 
 within the colony formed but a subordinate part of the ob- 
 jects and pursuits of the English colonist. When, there- 
 fore, the rival colonists came into contact, it was rather in a 
 struggle for enlarged boundaries for trade, or for dominion 
 
XVm POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY. 
 
 over rival Indian tribes, and for the monopoly of the far 
 trade. That contest, although it was too often utterly self- 
 ish in its objects, nevertheless unconsciously developed in 
 both colonies, in a wonderful degree, a spirit of enterprise 
 and discovery, which has scarcely had a parallel in later 
 times, when steam and electricity have added, as it were, 
 wings to man's locomotive and physical power. 
 
 PAET lY. 
 
 POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA,— BRITISH PERIOD. 
 
 1. British Rule Inaugurated — ^In 1763 General Murray 
 was appointed the first governor of the new British Prov- 
 ince of Quebec, — the boundaries of which were contracted 
 by the separation from it of New Brunswick, Labrador, &c. 
 The old district divisions of Quebec, Montreal, and Three 
 Eivers were, however, retained, and a subordinate governor 
 appointed over the two outlying districts of Montreal and 
 Three Eivers. 
 
 2. State of Canada at this Time. — The population of Can- 
 ada at this time was about 80,000, including nearly 8,000 
 Indians. The country, however, had been exhausted by des- 
 olating wars, and agriculture and other peaceful arts lan- 
 guished. The failure of the French Government to pay 
 its Canadian creditors the sums due to them, (chiefly through 
 the fraud, rapacity, and extravagance of the Intendant 
 Bigot,) involved many of these creditors in misery and ruin. 
 
 3. Ameliorations in the System of Government Discussed. — 
 In 1766 Governor Murray was recalled, and General (Sir 
 Guy) Carleton appointed Governor General. Sir Guy 
 Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) had taken a prom- 
 inent part in the siege and capture of Quebec, under Wolfe, 
 in 1759; and, during Governor Murray's absence in 
 1767 he administered the government. Being in England 
 
1763—1863, xix 
 
 in 1770, he aided in the passage of the first Quebec Act. 
 In 1774 he became Governor-G-eneral, and successfully re- 
 sisted the attack of the Americans upon Quebec in 1776. 
 In 1778 he returned to England and was knighted by the 
 king. In 1782 he succeeded Sir Henry Clinton as com- 
 mander-in chief of the royal forces in America. In 1786 he 
 was created Lord Dorchester for his distinguished services ; 
 and from that time (with the exception of two years) he re- 
 mained in Canada for the long period of thirty-six years. 
 During that time he acquired great distinction as a colonial 
 governor by his prudence, firmness, and sagacity. 
 
 4. The Quebec Act. — In 1774 the Quebec Act was passed 
 as a conciliatory measure by the Imperial Parliament. It 
 provided, among other things, for the "free exercise" of 
 the Eoman Catholic religion — for the establishment of a 
 Legislative Council, and for the introduction of the crim- 
 inal law of England into the province ; but it declared 
 "that in regard to property and civil rights, resort should 
 be had to the laws of Canada as the rule for the decision 
 of the same." Thus, the enjoyment of their religion, and 
 protection under the civil laws of French Canada were con- 
 firmed to the inhabitants by Imperial statute, and a system 
 of local self-government was introduced. The act gave 
 satisfaction to the French Canadians ; and, at a time when 
 the old English colonies were wavering in their attachment 
 to the British crown, it confirmed them in their allegiance 
 to the king. 
 
 5. Efforts of the Disaffected colonists to Detach the Canadians 
 from England. — In 1774, the assembly, from Massachusetts, 
 requested a meeting of representatives from all the colonies 
 to concert measures of resistance to England. Each of the 
 thirteen old colonies, except Georgia, sent delegates. Can- 
 ada declined to take any part in the revolt; and although 
 one of the three addresses issued by the insurgent Congress 
 was especially addressed to the Canadians, they declined 
 
XX POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 to repudiate their formal allegiance to the British Crown, 
 Strong efforts were also made by the Americans to detach 
 the Iroquois (under Brant) from the British standard, but 
 without effect. 
 
 6. Constitutional Changes — Clergy Reserves. — In 1789, the 
 draft of a new constitution for Canada was prepared. It 
 proposed to divide the province of Quebec into Upper and 
 Lower Canada ; to give to each section a Legislative Coun- 
 cil and House of Assembly, with a local government of its 
 own. This celebrated constitutional act was passed in 1791. 
 By it representative government, in a modified form, was 
 for the first time introduced into the two Canadas simulta- 
 neously, and gave very great satisfaction. In the same 
 year the famous Clergy Keserve Act was passed in Eng- 
 land. This act set apart one seventh of the unsurveyed 
 lands of the Province, "for the support of a Protestant 
 Clergy," and authorized the governor of either Province 
 to establish rectories and endow them. This act became 
 afterwards a fruitful source of agitation and discontent in 
 Upper Canada. 
 
 7. Parliamentary Government Inaugurated. — In June, 
 1792, the first parliamentary elections were held in Lower 
 Canada, fifty members were returned. The Legislative 
 Council, appointed by the Crown, consisted of fifteen mem- 
 bers. On the 17th of December the new Legislature was 
 opened by General Alured Clarke, the Lieutenant-Governor. 
 Eight acts were passed by both houses. During the second 
 session five bills were passed. The revenue of Lower Can- 
 ada this year was only $25,000. During the third session, 
 of 1795, accounts of the revenue and expenditure, which had 
 now reached $42,000, were first laid before the Legislature. 
 Of the customs revenue. Upper Canada was only entitled 
 to one eighth. 
 
 8. Settlement of Upper Canada. — As Upper Canada was 
 chiefly settled by United Empire Loyalists (to whom the 
 
BRITISH PERIOD, 1763 — 1863. xxi 
 
 British Grovernment had liberally granted land and subsist- 
 ence for two years,) it was deemed advisable to conYer upon 
 these settlers a form of government, similar to that which 
 they had formerly enjoyed. In 1788 Lord Dorchester di- 
 vided Upper Canada into four districts, viz. : Lunenburg, 
 Mecklenburg, Nassau, and Hesse. In 1792, the Legislature 
 changed these names into Eastern, Midland, Home and 
 Western. These districts were afterwards divided, and 
 their number increased ; but they were abolished in 1849. 
 
 9. The First Upper Canada Parliament was opened at 
 Newark (Niagara) on the 17th of September, 1792, by 
 Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe. The House of Assembly con- 
 sisted of only sixteen members, and the Legislative Coun- 
 cil of seven. Eight bills were passed — one of which pro- 
 vided for the introduction of the English Civil Law. Trial 
 by jury was also specially introduced, by statute, in that 
 year. The' English Criminal Law was also (as it stood in 
 1792) made the law of the land in Upper Canada. 
 
 10. Slavery Abolished. — In 1793, Slavery was abolished in 
 Upper Canada; and in 1803, Chief Justice Osgoode decided 
 that it was incompatible with the laws of Lower Canada. 
 
 11. The Seat of Government in Upper Canada was, in 
 1796, removed from Newark (Niagara,) to York (Toronto) 
 by Governor Simcoe. 
 
 12. Progress of Affairs.— From 1796 to 1810 little of pub- 
 lic or historical interest occurred in Canada. The local dis- 
 cussions related chiefly to abuses in land-granting by the 
 government, the application of the forfeited Jesuit estates 
 to the founding of a Eoyal Institution for the promotion 
 of public education in Lower Canada, and the establish- 
 ment of Grammar Schools in Upper Canada. Efforts were 
 also made to improve the navigation of the lower St. Law- 
 rence, to regulate the currency, extend the postal commu- 
 nication, ameliorate the prison system, promote shipping 
 and commerce. Soon after, the war of 1812 took place. 
 
XXU POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 13. Conditions of the Provinces at the Close of the War. — 
 Although the war of 1812 lasted only three years, it left 
 Upper and Lower Canada very much exhausted. It, how- 
 ever, developed the patriotism and loyalty of the people in 
 the two provinces in a very high degree. 
 
 14. Political Discussions in Upper and Lower Canada. — 
 The distracting influences of the war having gradually 
 ceased, political discussions soon occupied public attention. 
 In Lower Canada, a protracted contest arose between the 
 Legislative asssembly and the Executive Government, 
 chiefly on the subject of the finances and political rights. 
 In Upper Canada an almost similar contest arose between 
 the same parties in the state ; while the abuses arising out 
 of an irresponsible system of government were warmly 
 discussed and denounced. Nevertheless, progress was 
 made in many important directions. Emigration was en- 
 couraged; wild lands surveyed; commercial intercourse 
 with other colonies facilitated ; banking privileges extend- 
 ed ; the system of public improvements (canals, roads, &c.) 
 inaugurated. Steamboats were employed to navigate the 
 inland waters ; primary and higher education encouraged, 
 and religious liberty asserted as the inherent right of all 
 religious persuasions. 
 
 15. Political Crisis. — Remedy. — The political discussions 
 culminated, at length, in 1837, into armed resistance. This 
 however was soon put down ; and Lord Durham was sent 
 out from England to inquire into the grievances complain- 
 ed of. His mission resulted in their removal, and in 1840 
 the two provinces were reunited under one government. 
 
 16. Political Progress. — Lord Sydenham was sent out as 
 Governor General to inaugurate and carry the union into 
 effect. Under his administration the foundation of many 
 of the most important civil institutions were laid, especially 
 those relating to the municipal system, popular education, 
 the customs, currency, &c. 
 
BRITISH PERIOD, 1763—1863. xxiii 
 
 17. Lord Elgin, — From this period until 1847, when the 
 distinguished Lord Elgin became Governor General, the 
 political and material progress of the Province was marked 
 and steady. In the discharge of the duties of his high 
 office Lord Elgin exhibited a comprehensiveness of mind 
 and a singleness of purpose which gave dignity to his ad- 
 ministration, and divested the settlement of the various 
 questions of much party bitterness and strife. Under his 
 auspices, responsible government was fully carried out, and 
 every reasonable cause of complaint removed. The con- 
 sequence was that contentment, peace and prosperity be- 
 came almost universal throughout Canada. During his 
 period of office the Grand Trunk and Great Western Kail- 
 ways were projected, a free banking law was passed, a uni- 
 form letter postage rate of five cents was adopted, and the 
 number of representatives in Parliament increased. He 
 also procured the passage of the Eeciprocity Treaty with 
 the United States, (since abrogated.) He fostered the systems 
 of public instruction in Upper and Lower Canada, and 
 greatly promoted their popularity and success by the aid 
 of his graceful eloquence. 
 
 18. Sir Edmund Head succeeded Lord Elgin in 1854. 
 His administration was noted for the final settlement of the 
 Clergy Reserve question in Upper Canada, and of the Seig- 
 niorial Tenure question in Lower Canada; also for the 
 completion of the Grand Trunk Railway to Riviere du 
 Loup, and of its splendid Victoria Bridge over the St. 
 Lawrence river at Montreal. In 1851, 1861, and 1863 
 Canada distinguished herself in the great International Ex- 
 hibitions held in London, Paris and Dublin. In 1856, the 
 Legislative Council was made elective ; and the laws of the 
 province consolidated. In the same year a Canadian line 
 of ocean steamers was established ; a decimal system of 
 currency, with appropriate coins, was introduced; the 
 handsome Parliament and Toronto University buildings 
 
XXIV POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 were commenced ; in 1860 the memorable visit of the Prince 
 of Wales to British America took place; and in 1864 the 
 project of Confederation was discussed. 
 
 PAKT V. 
 
 THE MARITIME PROVINCES. 
 
 1. Nova . Scotia, formerly called Acadie, was settled by 
 the French under De Monts, in 1604 ; ceded to England in 
 1713 ; colonized in 1748-9 ; a constitution was granted in 
 1758 ; in 1784 it was modified. Cape Breton was taken 
 from France by England in 1758 ; ceded formally to her in 
 1763 ; annexed to Nova Scotia in the same year ; separa- 
 ted from it in 1784, and re-annexed again in 1819. 
 
 2. Political and Cammercial Progress. — In 1820 efforts 
 were first formally made to protect the English fisheries on 
 the Nova Scotia coast. In 1823 the Eoman Catholics were 
 admitted to the full enjoyment of equal civil privileges 
 with other denominations. In 1824-28 the Shubenacadie 
 canal, designed to connect Halifax with Cobequid Bay, 
 was commenced, and a line of stages between Halifax and 
 Annapolis established. 
 
 3. Responsible Government. — In 1838 a deputation from 
 Nova Scotia was sent to confer with Lord Durham, the 
 Grovernor General at Quebec, on a proposed change in the 
 constitution. In 1848 a system of government, responsible 
 to the Legislature, as in Canada, was introduced. In 1851 
 further efforts were made to protect the fisheries ; and, in 
 1852, a Provincial force, auxiliary to the Imperial, was 
 .placed under the direction of the British Admiral for that 
 purpose. Afterwards a fishing and reciprocity treaty was 
 made with the United States, but it was abrogated by that 
 country in 1866. 
 
 4. Confederation in Nova Scotia. — In 1860 His Eoyal 
 Highness, the Prince of Wales, visited Nova Scotia. In 
 
THE MARITIME PEOVINCES. XXV 
 
 addition to the other valuable minerals, gold was discovered 
 in 1861. In 1864 Nova Scotia united with the other col- 
 onies in the consideration of a scheme for the confederation 
 of all the provinces of British North America under one 
 government. With that view a meeting of delegates from 
 each province was held at Charlottetown, Halifax, and 
 Quebec. Kesolutions approving of confederation were 
 passed by the Nova Scotia Legislature in 1866, and a feel- 
 ing in favor of it exists in Nova Scotia, although the scheme 
 is now strongly opposed by many of the people there, 
 headed by the Hon. Joseph Howe, her leading statesman. 
 
 5. New Brunswick. — In 1713, this Province, being part 
 of the French colony of Acadie, was, by treaty, ceded to 
 the British Crown. This transfer was finally confirmed by 
 another treaty in 1763. In 1785, New Brunswick, then 
 the county of Sunbury, (Nova Scotia,) was, by an act of the 
 Imperial Parliament, separated from Nova Scotia, and 
 erected into a distinct Province. It was named New 
 Brunswick, after Brunswick in Lower Saxony, in Germ'any, 
 the place of residence, up to 1714, of the present royal 
 family of England. 
 
 6. Ashhurton Treaty^ &c. — In 1842 a treaty was negoti- 
 ated between Great Britain and the United States by Lord 
 Ashburton. By it the disputed boundary between Maine 
 and New Brunswick was settled. This territory contained 
 12,000 square miles, or 7,700,000 acres. Maine received 
 4,500,000 acres, and New Brunswick 3,200,000. 
 
 7. Responsible Government^ similar to that in the other 
 provinces, was introduced in 1848. Sin9e then the Prov- 
 ince has increased in wealth, population, and importance. 
 
 8. Confederation in New Brunswick. — During 1864-6 the 
 project of confederating the Provinces of British Amer- 
 ica was discussed in New Brunswick, and in each province. 
 The result was that in 1867 a basis of union was formally 
 submitted to the British Parliament and passed into law. 
 
XXVI CONFEDERATION OF THE PROVINCES. 
 
 PAET YI. 
 
 CONFEDERATION OF THE PROVINCES. 
 
 1. History of Confederation. — The germ of confederation, 
 (as we have seen in the rapid glance which we have taken,) 
 may be traced in the efforts which were made from time to 
 time, by the colonies themselves, to overcome the weakness 
 of their isolated position, and to concentrate their energies 
 and resources for the purpose of mutual defense. (1) The 
 first step in this direction was the union of the New Eng- 
 land colonies in 1643, and (2) in the projected league be- 
 tween the Dutch, English, and French Colonies in 1647-60. 
 
 (3) The celebrated confederated league which existed 
 among the Iroquois until 1780 was a remarkable instance 
 of the sagacious instinct of this brave and noble people to 
 maintain their power, and to perpetuate their existence. 
 
 (4) The project of an extension of this league so as to in- 
 clude in it the English Colonies (with the Iroquois) was 
 urged by the Lords of Trade in 1753; (5) Governor 
 Shirley of Massachusetts, however, conceived the bolder 
 plan of a federal union between all the British Colonists 
 themselves for thd purpose of mutual defense. (6) Neither 
 scheme succeeded at that time; but it was afterwards 
 fully developed in the memorable union of the thirteen in- 
 surgent colonies in 1776. (7) In 1784 it was mooted, when 
 New Brunswick was separated from Nova Scotia. (8) In 
 1800, Hon. K. J. Uniacke of Nova Scotia brought the matter 
 under the notice of the Imperial authorities. (9) In 
 1814, Chief Justice Sewell of Quebec wrote a letter to the 
 Duke of Kent, while in Nova Scotia, advocating a union 
 of the provinces. (10) In 1822, Sir J. B. Robinson, of To- 
 ronto, while in England, submitted to the colonial office, by 
 request, a scheme of union. (11) In 1825 the noted Robert 
 
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. XXVU 
 
 Gourley, of Canada, in a letter from London, recom- 
 mended a scheme of confederation. (12) In 1838 a deputa- 
 tion from Nova Scotia brought the matter before the Earl of 
 Durham, Lord High Commissioner, in a conference with them 
 on the political state of that province. (13) In the same 
 year. Bishop Strachan of Toronto also urged the expediency 
 " of consolidating the provinces into one territory or king- 
 dom," on Lord Durham's attention. (14) Lord Durham 
 himself also favored the plan of a single "ruled govern- 
 ment" over that of a "federal union." (15) In 1840 the 
 union of the Canadas too, (16) and in 1843 Elliot Warburton 
 in his " Hochelaga," advocated an extension of the prin- 
 ciple to other colonies. (17) In 1849 the British American 
 Conservative League advocated "colonial union." (18) In 
 1851 Col. Eankin, of the Canadian Parliament, in an address 
 to his constituents, and in 1856 in a speech before the House, 
 urged a " union of colonies." (19) In 1858 the Hon. A. T. 
 Gait, finance minister of Canada, renewed the project; 
 (20) and in the same year the governor-general recom- 
 mended it in a speech from the throne. (21) In 1864-6 
 the present confederate scheme was discussed at meetings 
 of delegates from all the provinces, at Charlottetown, 
 Prince Edward's Island, and at Halifax and Quebec, and 
 finally assented to by the British Parliament in 1867. 
 
 2. Principle of Confederation. — This act of confederation 
 provides for the union of the four provinces of Ontario, 
 (Upper Canada) Quebec, (Lower Canada) Nova Scotia and 
 New Brunswick, into one Dominion, with the seat of gov- 
 ernment at Ottawa. The Executive Government consists 
 of a Governor-general, and a Privy Council of 13 members. 
 The Legislature consists of three branches, viz., the Governor- 
 general, 72 senators, and 181 members of the House of Com- 
 mons. Each Province retains its own Local Government, 
 viz.. Lieutenant-governor, Legislative Council, and House 
 of Assembly. (Ontario alone has no legislative council.) 
 
XXVUl THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. 
 
 3. To the Central Legislature belongs the right to deal with 
 all matters relating to the Public Debt and Property ; the 
 regulation of trade and commerce ; the raising of money by 
 any mode or system of taxation ; the borrowing of money 
 on public credit ; postal service ; the census and statistics ; 
 militia, military and naval service, and defense ; the fixing 
 of and providing for the salaries and allowances of civil 
 and' other officers of the Government of Canada; construc- 
 tion of beacons, buoys, lighthouses, navigation and ship- 
 ping, quarantine, and the establishment and maintenance 
 of marine hospitals ; sea-coast and inland fisheries ; ferries 
 between a Province and a British or foreign country, or 
 between two provinces ; currency and coinage, banking, in- 
 corporation of banks, and the issue of paper money, sav-' 
 ings banks, bills of exchange and promissory notes, interest, 
 legal tender, bankruptcy and insolvency; weights and 
 measures ; patents of invention and discovery ; copyrights ; 
 Indians, and lands reserved for the Indians; naturalization 
 and aliens; marriage and divorce; the criminal law, except 
 the constitution of courts of criminal jurisdiction, but in- 
 cluding the procedure in criminal matters ; the establish- 
 ment, maintenance, and management of penitentiaries ; and 
 such classes of subjects as are expressly excepted in the 
 enumeration of the classes of subjects by the act assigned 
 exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces. 
 
 4. To the Local Legislatures belong matters relating to the 
 provincial government and revenue ; public lands ; edu- 
 cation; reformatories and prisons; municipal institutions; 
 trading licenses ; local public works ; agriculture ; property 
 and civil rights in the province ; marriage; and the adminis- 
 tration of justice ; and "generally all matters of a merely 
 local or private nature in the province." 
 
 6. Financial Arrangements. — The Dominion is made 
 liable for the debts of all the provinces; and these 
 provinces are held liable to the Dominion in the following 
 
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. xxix 
 
 ratio — interest payable at the rate of five per cent, per 
 
 annum. 
 
 Ontario and Quebec for any debt over $62,500,000 
 
 Kova Scotia, ditto, 8,000,000 
 
 New Brunswick, ditto, 7,000,000 
 
 The payments to these provinces from the Dominion 
 government are as follows : — 
 
 Province of Ontario $80,000 per annum. 
 
 Province of Quebec 70,000 do. 
 
 Province of Nova Scotia 60,000 do. 
 
 Province of New Brunswick 50,000— and $63,- 
 
 000 for ten years, (on account of her small debt.) Each 
 province is also entitled to 80 cents per head of the popu- 
 lation as per census of 1861. 
 
 6. Intercolonial Trade and Customs. — All articles of the 
 growth, produce or manufacture of any one of the prov- 
 inces are admitted free into each of the other provinces. 
 Only one tariff of customs and excise shall prevail in all the 
 provinces. 
 
 7. Intercolonial Bailway. — The interest on a loan of 
 £3,000,000 is guaranteed by the British Government. This 
 loan is to be expended in the construction of a railway to 
 connect Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with Quebec and 
 Ontario. 
 
 8. Progress of Population in the Dominion. — The following 
 table exhibits the progress of population in the four prov- 
 inces of the Dominion. 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1800 
 
 1820 
 
 1861 
 
 1861 
 
 1861 
 
 1867 
 
 Ontario 
 
 8,CO0 
 96,000 
 
 j 20,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 225,000 
 
 57,000 
 
 10.000 
 
 158,000 
 
 450.000 
 
 150,000 
 
 75.000 
 
 Males. 
 725,575 
 567,864 
 165,584 
 129,948 
 
 Females. 
 670,516 
 543,702 
 165,273 
 123.099 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,396,091 
 
 1,111.566 
 
 330,857 
 
 252.047 
 
 Estimate. 
 
 1,802,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 370,000 
 
 296,000 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 New Brunswick . 
 
 Totals 
 
 196,000 
 
 342,000 
 
 833,000 
 
 1.588,971 
 
 1,502,590 
 
 3,090,561 
 
 3,768,000 
 
 9. The present Political Divisions of the whole of British 
 North America are as follows : — 
 
r 
 
 XXX 
 
 THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Name of Province. 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Nova Scotia, i . 
 
 Cape Breton. S . 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 DiseoVeier utd Date. 
 
 Jacques Cartier, . .1535 
 
 Champlain, 1615 
 
 Sebastian Cabot,.. 1498 
 
 Sebastian Cabot,.. 1498 
 Jacques Cartier,. . 1535 
 
 Mode of Acqoisitioii and 
 Date. 
 
 Capitulation,.... 1759 
 
 Cession, 1763 
 
 ) Cabot's visit and 
 
 ( treaty of 1713 
 
 Capitulation 1758 
 
 Treaty, 1763 
 
 Government Established. 
 
 French, 1608; English, 
 1764 ; separ. gov'mt, 
 1792; united, ..1840 
 
 Separ. gov't, 1748 ; 
 Sep. gov't, 1784 ; 
 united, 1819 
 
 Separ. governm't, 1784 
 
 THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Name of Province. 
 
 Prince Edward Island.. 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Hudson Bay Territory. 
 
 Red River 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 Vancouver Island. ... 
 
 Discoverer and Date. 
 
 Sebastian Cabot,.. 1498 
 Sir John Cabot,... 1497 
 
 H.Hudson, 1619 & 1794 
 
 Canada Explorers, 
 
 Sir A. Mackenzie, 1793 
 Sir F.Drake 1759 
 
 Mode of Acquisition and 
 Date. 
 
 Treaty, 1763 
 
 Sir H. Gilbert, ...1583 
 Utrecht treaty, . 1713 
 
 Treaty,... 1713 & 1763 
 
 Lord Selkirk's 
 
 settlement, 1811 
 
 Treaty 1793 
 
 V'couver's visit,. .1799 
 
 settled, 1848 
 
 Government Established. 
 
 Separate gov't, . . . 1771 
 By Charles 1., 1663 ; 
 
 separate gov't, .1728 
 Charter, 1670 and li- 
 cense, 1821 and 1842 
 
 Crown Colony, .. .186- 
 
 Actof Parliament, 
 Charter to Hudson 
 Bay Co 1849 
 
 10. The extent, population, and capitals of these divi- 
 sions of British North America are as follows : — 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Name of Provinces. 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Nova Scotia & C. B. 
 New Brunswick. . . . 
 
 Mil 
 
 K.sq, 
 lies. 
 
 210,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 19,6.50 
 
 27,710 
 
 Popula- 
 
 1,111,566 
 
 1,396,09] 
 
 330,857 
 
 252,047 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Q,uebec. 
 Toronto, 
 Halifax. 
 Fredericton. J 
 
 Ottawa. 
 
 Where Situated. 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 Lake Ontario 
 
 S. E. Coast 
 
 River St John 
 
 Popu- 
 lation. 
 
 62,140 
 
 44,425 
 
 26.000 
 
 7,000 
 
 THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Name of Provinces. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Hudson Bay Territory 
 
 Red River 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 Vancouver Island. . . . . 
 
 Area in 
 ^iSffe^- 
 
 Popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Capital. Where Situated. 
 
 2,134 
 
 57,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 80,857 
 124,288 
 175,000 
 
 10,000 
 8,000 
 
 11,463 
 
 Chariottetown INeiir centre of island. . 
 
 St. Johns S. E. Peninsula 
 
 York Factory. . . . Hayes' River. 
 
 
 210,500 
 
 1 Victoria S. of island. 
 
 18,000 
 
 
 Popu- 
 lation. 
 
 "oTtoo 
 
 25,000 
 500 
 
 3,500 
 
 11. The general area of these divisions of British North 
 America is as follows : — 
 
THE CONFEDERATED PBOVINCES. 
 
 XXXI 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 Name. 
 
 "9E» 
 
 Average 
 
 width *iD 
 
 miles. 
 
 Miles of 
 
 Sea-coast 
 
 lines. 
 
 Area in 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres in 
 Cultivation. 
 
 Surveyed 
 Acres uncul- 
 tivated. 
 
 Value of 
 Farms. 
 
 auebec. i 
 
 . . . 1,200 
 
 300 
 
 .....100 
 150 
 
 . . . 1,000 
 ...1,150 
 .... 500 
 
 160,500,000 
 13,534,200 
 17,600,000 
 
 S 4,804,235 
 I 6,051,620 
 
 ..1,028,032 
 . . . 835,108 
 
 . .5,575,000 
 ..7,304,000 
 
 ..1,000,000 
 ..2,905,000 
 
 172,000.000 
 
 Ontario. S 
 
 Nova Scotia. > 
 Cape Breton, i * " 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 .... 330 
 190 
 
 296,000,000 
 40,000,000 
 
 32.000,000 
 
 THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Name, Ac. 
 
 Average 
 length in 
 MTles. 
 
 Average 
 widthin 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles of 
 
 Seacoaat 
 
 lines. 
 
 Area in 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres in 
 
 Cultiva 
 
 tion. 
 
 Surveyed 
 Acres Un- 
 cultivated. 
 
 Value of 
 
 Farms 
 
 in dollars. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 Newfoundland 
 
 .... 130 
 .... 320 
 
 .... 40 
 .... 130 
 
 .... 250 
 .... 55 
 
 .... 350 
 . . . 1,100 
 
 ...1,500 
 
 .... 900 
 .... 850 
 
 ..1.370,000 
 . .2,304,000 
 
 136,640,000 
 ..8,320,000 
 
 . 2tki,J2/ 
 . . 41,108 
 
 .. 26,500 
 
 ..260,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 . . 500,000 
 
 Hudson Bay Ter. > 
 Red River. J * ' * 
 British Columbia 
 
 .... 450 
 
 Vancouver Island. , . . 
 
 .... 278 
 
 . . 17,000 . . . 63,000 
 
 . . 300,000 
 
 12. Value of Products. — The estimated quantity and 
 value of tlie products of the four provinces in the Domin- 
 ion is as follows : — * 
 
 Grain, viz. Wheat, 30,000,000 bushels. 
 
 " " Barley, 8,000,000 " 
 
 " " Oats, 50,000,000 " 
 
 ♦* '• Buckwheat 4,000,000 ♦♦ 
 
 * " Indian Corn 3,000,000 " 
 
 " " Rye, ....2,000,000 " 
 
 97,000,000 bushels, valued at $60,000,000 
 
 Peas, &c 15,000,000 ditto 12,000,000 
 
 Roots, viz. Potatoes 50,000,000 " 
 
 •' " Turnips, &c. ..25,000,000 75.000^000 ditto 25,000,000 
 
 Hay 2,500,000 tons ... ditto 25,000,000 
 
 Butter and Cheese, 75,000,000 lbs ditto 10,000,000 
 
 Meats, viz. Mutton, 250,000,000 lbs. 
 
 " " Beef, 200,000,000 do. 
 
 " " Pork, 150,000,000 do 600,000,000 lbs. .. .ditto 35,000,000 
 
 Fish 80,000,000 do ditto 3,500,000 
 
 Lumber, viz. Oak, 1,500,000 cubic feet, 
 
 " " Elm 1.500,000 " " ^ 
 
 ♦' " White Pine 25.000,000 «« « * 
 
 " " Red Pine 4,000,000 «' «♦ 
 
 " " Tamarack & 
 •' " Spruce, 
 
 Miscellaneous, 1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Wool, 
 
 35,000,000 cubic feet, 30,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 lbs 5,000,000 
 
 Miscellaneous, , 5,000,000 
 
 Grand Total, $210,500,000 
 
 Year Book of Canada for 1868, page 40. 
 
yyyn 
 
 THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. 
 
 13. The Income^ Expenditure dhc, of each province in 
 the Dominion, during the last year of their separate exist- 
 ence, was about as follows : — 
 
 Income 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Debt 
 
 Assets 
 
 Imports 
 
 Exports .... 
 
 Quebec and .Ontario. 
 
 •16,419.000 
 14,727,000 
 62.734,000 
 69,500,000 
 59,100,000 
 48,500,000 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 1,800,000 
 1,900,000 
 5,000,000 
 5,700,000 
 14,400,000 
 8,050,000 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 1,450,000 
 1,350,000 
 5,000,000 
 5,054,000 
 10,000,000 
 8,200,000 
 
 15. Recent Example of Confederation of States. — It is a 
 striking fact that during the last few years a more general 
 and rapid confederation of States has taken place, than had 
 occurred during the whole of the preceding century. Kot 
 to mention the absorption of the native states in India under 
 British rule, we have seen how rapid has been the consoli- 
 dation of Italy into one kingdom. Later, there took place 
 in the United States a memorable contest against a princi- 
 ple of separation of States. Within the last year or two, 
 the fate of one noted battle led to the absorption by Prus- 
 sia of a number of petty States in Germany ; and now 
 guided by an unerring instinct four large provinces of 
 British America have confederated themselves together 
 into one Dominion. 
 
 16. The Objects and Advantages of such a confederation 
 may be stated in a few words : It has long been the desire of 
 the sagacious statesmen of the Dominion to concentrate the 
 resources and energies of the isolated provinces into a pow- 
 erful and prosperous State, and thus to give free scope, on a 
 wider and broader field, for the enterprise and talent of a 
 young and growing people; to enable them to present a 
 bold and united front agiiinst aggression or absorption, by 
 an active and powerful rival ; to develop internal trade and 
 commerce; to bring into settlement and productive life 
 large tracts of outlying territory, now avast uninhabited 
 forest, in the various provinces ; and, as was fitting, at this 
 period in the history of the provinces, to lay broad and deep 
 
THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. XXxiii 
 
 the foundation of a new nationality, whose heritage and 
 birthright are the priceless blessings of civil and religious 
 freedom, as long felt and enjoyed in England and in these 
 provinces. — A nationality whose future should witness the 
 consolidation and growth, on this continent, of those princi- 
 ples of British colonial freedom which are so eminently cal- 
 culated to promote internal peace and prosperity, and, under 
 God's blessing, the enjoyment also of "life and liberty," as 
 well as " the pursuit of happiness/' among all classes of 
 people. 
 

 .Cik[0.3('J 
 
ffff'^IT'^' 
 
 P REF A C E 
 
 The business of the liistoriaii of the earlier ages of the 
 world was to record changes in forms of government, to 
 give accounts of long and bloody wars, and to narrate the 
 rise or fall of dynasties and empires. From the days of 
 Herodotus, to the middle of the last century, the world 
 made little progress. It is true, that great empires rose one 
 after another upon the ruins of their predecessors ; but so far 
 from there being any thing like real progress, the reverse 
 seems to have been the case. It has remained for the pres- 
 ent age to witness a rapid succession of important inven- 
 tions and improvements, by means of which the power of 
 man over nature has been incalculably increased, and re- 
 sulting in an unparalleled progress of the human race. 
 
 But great as has been the movement in the world at 
 large, it is on the North American continent that this has 
 been most remarkable. The rise of the United States, 
 from a few feeble colonies to a high rank among nations, 
 has never ceased to attract the attention of the world ; and 
 their career has been indeed so wonderful, that the quiet 
 but equally rapid growth and development of the Bntioh 
 
PKEFACE. 
 
 iN'orth American provinces has received comparatively- 
 little notice. It will be seen from the following pages that 
 they have at least kept pace with their powerful southern 
 neighbors, and that, though laboring under some disad« 
 vantages, they have in eighty years increased tenfold, not 
 only in population but in wealth ; they have attained to a 
 point of power that more than equals that of the united 
 colonies when they separated from the mother country. 
 They have, by means of canals, made their great rivers and 
 remote inland seas accessible to the shipping of Europe ; 
 they have constructed a system of railroads far surpassing 
 those of some of the European powers ; they have estab- 
 lished an educational system which is behind none in the 
 old or the new world ; they have developed vast agricul- 
 tural and inexhaustible mineral resources ; they have done 
 enough, in short, to indicate a magnificent future — enough 
 to point to a progress which shall place the provinces, with- 
 in the days of many now living, on a level with Great 
 Britain herself, in population, in wealth, and in power. If 
 in the next eighty years the provinces should prosper as 
 they have in the eighty years that are past, which there 
 seems no reason to doubt, a nation of forty millions will 
 have arisen in the Korth. 
 
 To exhibit this progress is the object of the present vol- 
 ume. It will be seen, from the well-known names of the 
 gentlemen who have contributed to its pages, that a high 
 order of talent has been secured to carry out the design of 
 the work. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Physical Featttres op Canada * • • .13 
 
 Agricultural History of Canada • • • 32 
 
 Agricultural Societies in Upper Canada • #39 
 
 Agricultural Productions op Canada • • 52 
 
 Forest Industry • •.• • • • .64 
 
 The North-west Territory • • • • 74 
 
 The New Parliament Buildings at Ottawa • •94 
 
 By Henry Youle Hind, M. A., F. R. G. S., Professor of 
 Chemistry and Geology in Trinity Coll^, Toronto; 
 Author of Narrative of the Canadian Exploring Expedition 
 in North-west British America; Explorations in Labrador? 
 and in the Country of the Montagnaia and Nasquapee 
 Indians; Editor of the British American Magazine, and 
 of the Journal of the Board of Arts for Upper Canada. 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Travel and Transportation 99 
 
 Koads in Lower Canada 104 
 
 Roads in Upper Canada 109 
 
 Bridle and Winter Eoads 116 
 
 Corduroy Roads 119 
 
 Common or Graded Roads i- -f ^^ y ''^, . . 120 
 
 Turnpike and Plank Roads 122 
 
 Macadam Roads . . . . , . . 123 
 
 Water Communications 129 
 
 O^ean Steamers . . . , , . .141 
 
 Early Navigation of the St. Lawrence . Ul/al.iWin-. 146 
 
 Railways in Canada , . . , . .187 
 
 Grand Trunk Railway ,'" , . . • . 197 
 
 Causes of Failure of the Grand Trunk Railway i^sLUJIU 206 
 
 Municipal Railways .214 
 
 ^Railway Morality -i- *—'."- ^ . . .^ .'AK" -^ 22i 
 
 Great Western Railway , , . _,^,^^ .* , 229 
 
 Bufialo, Brantford, and Goderich Railway . . 234 
 
 Orain Portage Railways . . . X^avy-H. . 236 
 
 Inter-Colonial Railway . . , . . ,r . 238 
 
 Railway Policy . , , , , , ^ . 247 
 
 Express Companies ; ^J^Ji,, , . '."'^'V^ 250 
 
 Canadian Gauge TtMytT fl , , * , , , 253 
 
 Horse Railways . 'to^^'^; .... 255 
 
 By Thos. C. Keefbr, Civfl Engineer, Author of " Phi- 
 losophy of Railroads," Prize Essay on the Canals of 
 Canada, &c. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Victoria Bridge 257 
 
 The Electric Telegraph in Canada, Nova Scotia, and 
 
 New Brunswick 266 
 
 Commerce and Trade 268 
 
 Early Trade of Canada . • . . 
 
 Fur Trade 
 
 Ship-Building and Lumber Trade , 
 Produce Trade ..... 
 
 Present Trade of Canada 
 The Reciprocity Treaty . , , , 
 Channels of Trade .... 
 
 Immigration , 
 
 Free Grants of Land and Colonization Roads. 
 
 268 
 275 
 284 
 290 
 292 
 296 
 298 
 301 
 303 
 
 By Henry Youlb Hind, M. A., F. R. G. S., &c 
 
 Mineral Resources of British North America . .308 
 Geological Structure of Canada . , , .310 
 Catalogue of useful Minerals found in Canada . .313 
 Mineral Resources of Nova Scotia .... 350 
 Mineral Resources of New Brunswick .... 360 
 Mineral Resources of Newfoundland , . . 363 
 
 Mineral Resources of British Columbia and Vancouver 
 
 Island , 365 
 
 Mineral Resources of the North-west Territory . , 371 
 
 By Charles Robb, Mining Engineer, Author of **The 
 Metals in Canada,'* (fee. 
 
O CONTENTS. 
 
 Pagb 
 
 Historical Sketch of Education in Upper Canada . .373 
 
 Early Educational Efforts . . . . . 374 
 
 Educational Legislation, 1806-1816 . . . .381 
 
 First Establishment of Common Schools, 1816-1822 . 384 
 
 Fitful Progress from 1822 to 1836 390 
 
 Parliamentary Inquiry and its Results, 1836-1843 . 395 
 Improvement, Change, and Progress, from 1844 to 1853 399 
 Higher and Intermediate Education, &c., 1853-1861 401 
 Summary of each Class of Educational Institutions . 407 
 Public Elementary Schools receiving Legislative Aid . 409 
 Elementary Schools not receiving Legislative Aid .430 
 
 Superior Schools receiving Legislative Aid . , 431 
 
 Superior Schools not receiving Public Aid , 433 
 
 Professional Schools . . . . . .435 
 
 Universities — Supplementary Elementary Educational 
 Agencies ..... . . 467 
 
 Other Supplementary Educational Agencies 468 
 
 Additional Supplementary Aids to Education . 476 
 
 Educational Endowments for Upper Canada . . 477 
 
 Historical Sketch op Education in Lower Canada . .' 485 
 Early Educational Efforts in Lower Canada, 1632-1759 485 
 State of Education from the Conquest, 1759, until 1800 488 
 Unfulfilled Promises and Failures, 1801-1818 . . 491 
 Common School Legislation, 1819-1835 . . .495 
 Final Educational Measures of the Lower Canada Legis- 
 lature 499 
 
 A New Foundation Laid — First Steps onward, 1841-1855 503 
 Normal Schools — Renewed Activity and Progress, 1856 
 
 -1862 506 
 
 Universities 508 
 
 Classical and Industrial Colleges . , , .523 
 
 Academies for Boys and Girls 530 
 
 Normal Schools — Professional or Special Schools , 532 
 Model, Elementary, and Private Schools, &c. . .533 
 Educational Communities, Societies, and School Organ- 
 izations 534 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 Page 
 Supplementary Elementary Educational Agencies 538, 539 
 Educational Statistics and Parliamentary Grants 540, 541 
 
 By J. George Hodgins LL. B., F. R. G. S., Author of the 
 " Geography and History of British North America," 
 " Lo veil's General Geography," &c. 
 
 The Progress of New Brunswick, with a Brief View of 
 ITS Resources, Natural and Industrial . . . 543 
 Sketch of the Early History of New Brunswick . 643 
 Descriptive and Statistical Account . . . .653 
 
 The Forest 562 
 
 The Fisheries 675 
 
 Geology of the Province . . , . . 686 
 
 Mines, Minerals, and Quarries 691 
 
 Ship-Building 698 
 
 Mills and Manufactures 600 
 
 Internal Communication 601 
 
 Railways . 605 
 
 Electric Telegraph Lines 606 
 
 Commerce and Navigation 607 
 
 Form of Government 610 
 
 Judicial Institutions 611 
 
 Tenure of Land and Law of Inheritance . • . 613 
 Religious Worship and Means of Education . .614 
 
 Education ........ 615 
 
 Civil List, Revenue, and Expenditures . . . .618 
 
 Banks for Savings; Value of Coins; Rate of Interest 619 
 General Information for Immigrants . . . .620 
 
 Fruits and Vegetables 624 
 
 Wild Beasts and Game — Aborigines . . , .625 
 
 Natural Resources 627 
 
 Progress of Population — Description by Counties . 628 
 
 By M. H. Perley, Esq., British Commissioner for the 
 North American Fisheries, under the Reciprocity Treaty 
 with the United States. 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 The Progress of Nova Scotia, with a Brief View of its 
 
 Resources, Natural and Industrial .... 655 
 
 Discovery and Early Fortunes of Nova Scotia . . 655 
 
 Situation — Extent — Natural Features — Climate, &c. . 661 
 
 Natural Resources 667 
 
 Population, Statistics, <fec 678 
 
 Industrial Resources 685 
 
 Commercial Industry 691 
 
 Public Works, Revenue, Crown Lands, <fec. • • 696 
 Education and Educational Institutions . . .705 
 Ecclesiastical Condition of the Province . , . 712 
 Political State of the Province . . . . .715 
 General Civilization, Social Progress, Literature, <fec. . 720 
 Sable Island , . . . . . . , . .727 
 
 Prince Edward Isi^and 729 
 
 Situation, Extent, General Features, Early History, &c. 729 
 Natural Resources, Climate, &c. . • . ,735 
 Industrial Resources . . . . . . .737 
 
 Population, E^ucatipn, Civil Institutions, &c., . . 739 
 
 Newfoundland . 745 
 
 Situation, Discovery, and Early History . . . 745 
 Topography, Natural Resources, Climate, &c. . . 748 
 
 Industrial Resources 752 
 
 Population, Civil and Religious Institutions , ,757 
 
 By Rev. William Murray. 
 
T-T] 
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BOUNDARIES. 
 
 Montreal, the commercial capital of Canada, is situated 
 at an equal distance from the extreme western and eastern 
 boundaries of the province. The source of Pigeon River, 
 (long. 90*^ 50^,) one of the foaming tributaries of Lake Su- 
 perior, forty-six miles in a straight line from its mouth, and 
 1,653 feet above the sea, is the point where its western 
 limits touch the boundary between the United States and 
 British America. Blanc Sablon harbor, (long. 67^ 50^,) in 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and close to the western ex- 
 tremity of the Straits of Belle Isle, marks the eastern limits 
 of Canada, touching Labrador, a dreary waste under the 
 jurisdiction of Newfoundland. Draw a line through the 
 dividing ridge which separates the waters flowing into 
 Hudson's Bay from those tributary to the St. Lawrence, and 
 the ill-defined and almost wholly unknown northern limits 
 of the Province are roughly represented. The boundary 
 line between Canada and the United States follows the 
 course of Pigeon River, runs north of Isle Royale, strikes 
 through the center of Lake Superior, the St. Mary's River, 
 Lake Huron, the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, the Detroit 
 River, Lake Erie, the Niagara River, Lake Ontario, and the 
 St. Lawrence as far down as the intersection of the 45th 
 parallel of latitude. It follows this parallel to near the head 
 waters of the Connecticut River, when, striking north-east, it 
 
]4 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 pursues an undulating course rougWy parallel to the St. 
 Lawrence, and from thirty to one hundred miles distant 
 from it, until it reaches the north entrance of the Bay of 
 Chaleurs in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The States of the 
 American Union which abut on this long and sinuous fron- 
 tier, are Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New 
 York, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and the British 
 Province of New Brunswick. 
 
 The vast tract of country called the Province of Canada, 
 has an area of about 340,000 square miles, 140,000 belong- 
 ing to Upper Canada, and 200,000 to the lower division 
 of the province. It lies wholly within the valley of the St. 
 Lawrence, in which are included the most extensive and the 
 grandest system of fresh water lakes in the world. 
 
 THE GREAT LAKES AND THE ST. LAWRENCE. 
 
 The bottom of Lake Superior is 600 feet below the level 
 of the ocean, its mean surface is exactly 600 feet above it. 
 With a length of 800 miles and a breadth of 140 miles, 
 it comprises a water area of 82,000 square miles, and sup- 
 posing its mean depth to be 600 feet, it contains 4,000 
 cubic miles of water. It is the grand head of the St. Law- 
 rence, receiving the waters of many tributaries, and dis- 
 charging them into Lake Huron by the St. Mary's Eiver, 
 with a fall of nearly 20 feet in half a mile, to overcome which, 
 the most magnificent locks in the world have been con- 
 structed on the United States side, thus forming, with the 
 Welland and the St. Lawrence canals, an uninterrupted 
 communication with the sea, and enabling large vessels from 
 any part of the world to penetrate one- third across the con- 
 tinent of America in its broadest part, or about 2,000 miles 
 from its ocean boundary. 
 
 Lake Huron, the next fresh water sea in succession, has 
 an area of 21,000 square miles, and, like its great feeder, 
 Lake Superior, it is very deep, 1,000 feet in some places 
 
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 15 
 
 having been measured. The great Manitoulln Island, 
 (1,500 square miles in area,) with others belonging to the 
 same chain, divide the lake into two portions, the northern 
 part being called Georgian Bay. It receives numerous 
 important tributaries on the north side, among which 
 French Kiver is the most interesting, in consequence of its 
 being on the line of a proposed canal communication be- 
 tween the Ottawa and Lake Huron. The distance between 
 Montreal and the mouth of French River is 480 miles, and 
 of this distance 852 are naturally a good navigation ; of 
 the remaining 78 miles it would be necessary to canal 29 
 miles in order to complete the communication for steam 
 vessels. These data are the result of careful governmental 
 surveys, and are calculated for vessels of one thousand tons 
 burthen. The cost of establishing this important com- 
 munication is estimated at $12,057,680. The distance 
 between Chicago and Montreal by the St. Lawrence is 
 1,848 miles, by the Ottawa and Huron Canal route 1,005 
 miles. 
 
 Lake St. Clair forms the connecting link between Lake 
 Huron and Lake Erie, another magnificent sea of fresh 
 water, 265 miles long and 50 broad on the average, with a 
 depth of 120 feet. Its shores, particularly on the United 
 States side, are the seats of numerous populous cities ; its 
 waves on the north shore wash the garden of Canada — the 
 fertile western peninsula. The last of this great and magnifi- 
 cent chain is Lake Ontario, separated from Lake Erie by the 
 Niagara River, in whose short and tumultuous course oc- 
 curs the most stupendous cataract on the face of the globe. 
 Before reaching Niagara Falls the river descends about 50 
 feet in less than a mile, over limestone rocks, and then 
 plunges 165 feet perpendicularly. For seven miles more 
 the torrent rushes through a narrow gorge, varying from 200 
 to 400 yards in width and 800 feet deep. It then emerges 
 into a flat, open country, at Queenstown, and after a further 
 
16 
 
 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 flow of about twelve miles, glides peacefully into Lake 
 Ontario. 
 
 Lake Ontario is 180 miles long, 50 broad, 600 feet deep, 
 and has an area of 6,300 square miles; it discharges its wa- 
 ters, together with those of the upper lakes, by the River St. 
 Lawrence into the gulf of the same name. A few miles 
 above Montreal, the Ottawa River comes in from the north, 
 draining an area of 80,000 square miles. Below Montreal 
 the St. Maurice debouches into the St. Lawrence at Three 
 Rivers, drawing contributions from 22,000 square miles of 
 timbered country. At Quebec the St. Lawrence is 1,314 
 yards wide, but the basin below the city is two miles 
 across, and three and three-quarters long. From this point 
 the vast river goes on increasing in size as it swells onward 
 toward the gulf, receiving numerous large tributaries, 
 among which is the famous Saguenay, 250 feet deep where 
 it joins the St. Lawrence, and 1,000 feet deep some distance 
 above the point of junction. Below Quebec the St. Law- 
 rence is not frozen over, but the force of the tides inces- 
 santly detaches ice from the shores, and such immense 
 masses are kept in continual agitation by the flux and re- 
 flux, that navigation is totally impracticable during part of 
 the winter season. Vessels from Europe pass up the great 
 system of canals which render the St. Lawrence navigable 
 for 2,030 miles, and land their passengers at Chicago without 
 transshipment. 
 
 The table on the following page shows a profile of this 
 ship route from Anticosti, in the Estuary of the St. Law- 
 rence, to Superior City : 
 
• •• • • 
 
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 19 
 
 'n..r:^ 
 
 Names. 
 
 Anticosti 
 
 Quebec... 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Lachine Canal. . . 
 Beauharnois do... 
 Cornwall do... 
 Farren's Point do., 
 Rapid Flat do., 
 
 Pt. Iroquois Canal... 
 Galops do 
 
 Lake Ontario... 
 Welland Canal. 
 
 Lake Erie 
 
 Detroit River... 
 Lake St. Clair.. 
 River St. Clair. 
 
 Lake Huron 
 
 River Ste. Marie,. 
 Sault Ste. Marie Canal 
 
 Lake Superior , 
 Fort William.. 
 Superior City.. 
 
 «c: 
 
 410 
 
 590 
 
 598i 
 
 614 
 
 662i 
 
 673i 
 
 714i 
 
 1016 
 
 1041 
 1280 
 
 1355 
 1580 
 1650 
 
 1650 
 1910 
 2030 
 
 ;ai!.£ 
 
 V o as 
 
 W eStC 
 
 o 
 
 14 
 14-58 
 58.5-141.3 
 142.6-185.6 
 190.5-195 
 195.3-207 
 
 207-213 
 213-225 
 
 234 
 234-564 
 
 564 
 564 
 
 573 
 573-582.5 
 582.5-6C0 
 
 27 
 
 150 
 
 550 
 
 
 26i 
 
 75 
 
 
 330 
 
 1>1 
 
 The entire area of the great lakes is about 91,0U0 square 
 miles. They are remarkable for the purity of their waters, 
 which do not contain more than eight grains of solid matter 
 to the gallon of 70,000 grains. The variations to which 
 their level is subjected are common to all, and may be gen- 
 erally stated to be as follows : 
 
 1. The mean minimum level is attained in January or 
 February. 
 
 2. The mean maximum leveLis in June. 
 
 8. The mean annual variation is twenty -eight inches. 
 
 4. The maximum variation in twelve years has been four 
 feet and six inches. 
 
 5. There is no periodicity observable in the variations of 
 their levels, and there is no flux and reflux dependent 
 upon lunar influence. 
 
 The St. Lawrence carries past the city of Montreal 50,- 
 000,000 cubic feet of water in a minute, and in the course 
 
20 tHB PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 of one year bears 143,000,000 tons of solid materials held 
 in solution, to the sea. All the phenomena of a mighty 
 river may here be witnessed on a stupendous scale, its 
 irresistible ice masses, crushing and grinding one another 
 in the depth of winter, its wide-spreading and devasta- 
 ting floods in spring, its swelling volume stealing on wdth 
 irresistible power in summer, broken here and there by 
 tumultuous and surging rapids or by swift and treacherous 
 currents, or by vast and inexhaustible lakes. As it ap- 
 proaches the ocean it rolls on between iron-bound coasts, 
 bearing the tributary waters of a region equal to half Europe 
 in area, and subject to a climate which vainly endeavors to 
 hold it frost-bound for fully one-third of the year. The 
 whole valley of the St. Lawrence is a magnificent example 
 of the power of water in motion, and the great lakes them- 
 selves are splendid illustrations of the "dependence of the 
 geographical features of a country upon its geological 
 structure." 
 
 The following table shows the relative magnitude of the 
 great lakes of the St. Lawrence valley : 
 
 Area in Elevation Mean 
 
 Names of Lakes. Square Miles, above the Sea. Depth. 
 
 Lake Superior 32,000 600 1,000 
 
 Green Bay 2,000 51S 500 
 
 Lake Michigan... 22,400 578 1,000 
 
 Lake Huron 19,200 578 1,000 
 
 Lake St. Clair 360 570 120 
 
 Lake Erie 9,600 565 84 
 
 Lake Ontario 6,300 232 600 
 
 Total area, ... . '^60 ' "^'^'^^ ^^^ ^"^^'^ '^ 
 
 The greatest known depth of Lake Ontario is 780 feet ; in 
 Lake Superior, however, a line 1,200 feet long has, in some 
 parts, failed in reaching the bottom. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SURFACE OF CANADA. 
 
 The western peninsula, comprehending the rich tract of 
 country west of an undulating escarpment or ancient sea 
 
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 21 
 
 margin, reachingfromQueenstown on the Niagara, round the 
 head of Lake Ontario, and thence north to Georgian Bay, 
 Lake Huron, is a gently sloping plain, deeply covered 
 with drift clays ; the highest part of this plain is at the 
 Blue Mountains, abutting on Georgian Bay, where their 
 northwestern escarpment is about 1,000 feet above Lake 
 Huron. From the central townships of Proton and Luther, 
 a low axis or water parting causes the rivers to discharge 
 west into Lake Huron and east into Lake Erie, as far south 
 as the head- waters of the Thames, which flows in a south- 
 westerly direction to Lake St. Clair. Joining the ancient 
 sea margin about half way between Lake Ontario and 
 Nottawasaga Bay, Lake Huron, a ridge ftf drift, about 700 
 feet above where the Northern Kailway crosses it, pursues 
 a course roughly parallel to Lake Ontario, but with gradu- 
 ally diminishing altitude, and terminates near the Bay of 
 Quints. This ridge of drift blocks up a communication 
 which once existed between Georgian Bay and Lake On- 
 tario. There is strong evidence to prove that another 
 * Niagara' formerly existed somewhere between Lake Hu- 
 ron and Ontario, probably in the neighborhood of the line 
 of the Northern Eailway. A direct artificial water com- 
 munication between these lakes is now advocated. In the 
 rear of these subordinate elevations, which only slightly 
 diversify the great plain of western Canada, the Lauren- 
 tide mountains, stretching from Lake Superior to Labrador, 
 separate the valley of the St. Lawrence from the region 
 tributary to Hudson's Bay. The Laurentides approach or 
 form the north shores of the Gulf and Eiver St. Lawrence 
 from Labrador to near Quebec ; they then retire from the 
 river by degrees, and at Montreal are thirty miles from 
 the St. Lawrence. They cross the Ottawa one hundred and 
 fifty miles from Montreal, and, bending round, approach the 
 St. Lawrence again in the direction of Kingston. From 
 this point they run in a north-westerly direction, and form 
 
22 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 the rougli country in the rear of Lakes Huron and Su« 
 perior, and the water parting between the St. Lawrence val- 
 ley and Hudson's Bay. The height of land is really a table- 
 land, diversified with innumerable lakes, large and small, 
 but west of the Saguenay Kiver, not distinguished by moun- 
 tains possessing any considerable altitude. In the rear of 
 the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, detached peaks of the 
 Laurentides attain an elevation of 2,000, and even 3,000 feet. 
 Forty miles from the coast, opposite Anticosti, they have an 
 elevation of 8,200 feet, and on the great table land of the 
 Labrador Peninsula there are isolated peaks at least 5,000 
 feet above the sea level. On the south of the St. Lawrence, 
 the level valley of .the river is from thirty to forty miles 
 broad as far as the base of the prolongation of the Green 
 Mountains of Vermont, in which range detached peaks at- 
 tain an elevation of about 4,000 feet. The Notre Dame moun- 
 tains in the District of Gasp6 are very imposing ; they vary 
 in width from two to six miles, and in height from 2,000 to 
 8,778 feet. Viewed as a whole, the entire valley of the St. 
 Lawrence from Lake Superior to Quebec, may be regarded as 
 occupying part of the north-eastern rim of the immense basin 
 of sedimentary rocks which form the United States, a portion 
 of Mexico and British America west of Lake Winnipeg. 
 The broad and low Laurentides stretching from Labrador 
 to the Arctic sea separate this basin from the northern one, 
 in part occupied by Hu^§,gin's. JRay. ,.-^,;, 
 
 '.i>'!,W/'ii 
 
 iU 
 
 , , THE SOILS OF CANADA. , ,., . .,„^,,.,.,^. 
 
 The geoldgical structure of different parts of this vast 
 extent of country determines, to a considerable degree, the 
 character of the soils which form the surface. The soils in 
 the western part of the province are derived from the 'drift,* 
 which is made up of the ruins of the crystalline rocks of the 
 Laurentides and of the sedimentary rocks lying to the north 
 of any particular locality or in its immediate neighborhood 
 
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 23 
 
 In the extreme western peninsula the rich clays consist of 
 remodeled ' drift,' and are of lacustrine origin. In the 
 valley of the St. Lawrence below Montreal, the clays are 
 marine, and not unfrequently contain a considerable pro- 
 portion of calcareous matter. Below Quebec, on the south 
 shores, the soils are derived from the disintegration of the 
 red slates found in that region, while in the eastern town- 
 ships the drift and debris of the altered rocks, which distin- 
 guish that part of the country, form 'the surface covering. 
 In the region of the Laurentides, the fertile belts or strips 
 consist either of 'drift' or of the ruins of crystalHne lime- 
 stone, and soda and lime feldspars, but the area covered by 
 arable soil in the rocky region of the Laurentides is com- 
 paratively very small, and necessarily limits the progress 
 of settlement north of the St. Lawrence and great lakes. 
 The area in Canada occupied by sedimentary rocks, where 
 in general rich and fertile soils abound, is about 80,000 square 
 miles ; the region embraced by the crystalline rocks is about 
 240,000 square miles in extent, five-sixths of which may 
 be said to be wholly incapable of cultivation. 
 
 ROCK FORMATIONS. 
 
 The whole of the peninsula of Western Canada, the val- 
 ley of the St. Lawrence south of the Laurentides, the val- 
 leys and depressions in the peninsula of Gasp4, are more 
 or less deeply covered with clays interstratified with sand 
 and gravel, which belong to quarternary deposits, and in 
 some parts are overlaid by alluvium. The region of the 
 Laurentides alone exposes over the greater part of its vast 
 extent, bare crystalline sedimentary rocks, the oldest, as far 
 as is known, in the world, and named after the great river 
 where they are developed on such a stupendous scale, the 
 ' Laurentian Series.' 
 
 Between the Post Tertiary and the base of the Carbonif- 
 erous, the entire series of sedimentary rocks is wanting in 
 
24 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OP CANADA. 
 
 Canada, with the exception of small patches of Tertiary 
 Formations which have escaped denudation. 
 
 THE QUARTERNARY DEPOSITS. 
 
 The stratified clays, sands and gravels contain the remains 
 of many species of marine animals, identical with those now 
 found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, often at an altitude of 
 500 feet above the level of the sea. Sixty-three species of 
 marine invertebrates *from the Post-Pliocene or Pleistocene 
 clays of the St. Lawrence valley have been disinterred. The 
 quarternary deposits form the soil of a large portion of the 
 country. They contain clays suitable for the fabrication of 
 red, white and yellow bricks; molding sands, tripoli, shell 
 marl, bog iron ore, ochre, and in the eastern part of Canada 
 they are overlaid by peat, which occupies depressions. 
 
 THE PALiEOZOIC ROCKS. 
 
 If we suppose that the quarternary deposits were swept 
 away, and the whole of the underlying rocks laid bare, the 
 formations of Canada older than the post tertiary would be 
 found to consist of the following series : 
 
 1. A small area of the Carboniferous. 
 
 2. The Devonian SeriesT 
 
 3. The Silurian Series. 
 
 4. The Huronian or Cambrian Series. 
 
 5. The Laurentian Series. 
 
 These rocks form part of the Great Southern Basin of 
 North America ; the geographical limits of Canada, while 
 embracing a large portion of its northern rim, penetrate 
 like a wedge towards its center, by means of the peninsular 
 portion of the western part of the province. An anticlinal 
 axis separates this basin into two subordinate divisions, the 
 line of demarkation running from the valley of the Hudson 
 towards Quebec. The western subordinate basin contains 
 the great coal fields of the United States, the eastern portion 
 
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 25 
 
 embraces those of New Brunswick and Massachusetts. 
 " The rocks of these two basins present remarkable differ- 
 ences in their chemical and physical conditions. The for- 
 mations of the western basin are nearly horizontal, and offer 
 a perfect conformity, while in those of the east there is 
 discordance between the upper and lower Silurian, and be- 
 tween the Devonian and Carboniferous formations. The 
 strata of the eastern basin are moreover very much folded 
 and contorted, and have in some parts undergone profound 
 chemical and mineralogical changes."* 
 
 The highest formation in Western Canada is the Portage 
 and Chemung group, or the upper portion of the Devonian 
 Series, which includes the Hamilton group, the Cornifer- 
 ous limestone, the Oriskany sandstone, &c., of the New 
 York geologists. In the extreme west of the province, where 
 patches of the Portage group occur, extraordinary springs 
 of petroleum have been tapped by boring to the depth of 
 from 200 to 300 feet, on the summit of an anticlinal axis. 
 The source of the petroleum is probably the underlying 
 Corniferous limestone. The yield from four springs, which 
 send pure petroleum about thirty feet above the surface of 
 the ground, is estimated at fifteen thousand barrels a day. 
 Lying beneath the Devonian Series are the Onondaga Salt 
 Group, the Niagara limestone and the Medina sandstone of 
 the Upper Silurian Series. Next follow the Middle Silurian 
 rocks, represented by the Hudson Eiver Group and Utica 
 Slate, the Oneida Conglomerates not having been found 
 in Western Canada. The Lower Silurian Series is repre- 
 sented in ]*egular sequence by the Trenton, Black Eiver, 
 Birds-eye and Chazy limestones, succeeded by the Calcifer- 
 ous sand-rock and the Potsdam sandstone which rests upon 
 the ancient crystalline rocks of Huronian or Laurentian 
 
 * Sketch of the Geology of Canada, by Sir W. E. Logan, F. R. S., and T. 
 Sterry Hunt, R G. S. 
 
26 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 age. Tracks of a large crustacean are numerous in the Pots- 
 dam sandstone, coprolites occur in abundance at the sum- 
 mit of the Calciferous sand-rock, the succeeding limestones 
 are very rich in fossils, and the Utica slate is distinguished by 
 abundance of bitumen, which has been used as a source of 
 oil derive(? from its destructive distillation, but not, com- 
 mercially, v/ith success. The Onondaga salt group furnishes 
 gypsum and brine springs. The marbles of the lower lime- 
 stones are susceptible of a fine polish, and hydraulic cement 
 of the best quality occurs in many parts of the province. 
 
 The highest rock in the eastern basin is a millstone grit, 
 which forms the base of the New Brunswick coal field. It 
 occurs in the Peninsula of Gasp^, and is underlaid by De- 
 vonian sandstone of great thickness, (7,000 feet,) which re- 
 poses on limestone and shales of the Upper Silurian Series, 
 resting upon rock of Middle Silurian age. Some members 
 of the Lower Silurian Series are highly metamorphosed and 
 developed to an extraordinary extent in the vicinity of Que- 
 bec and elsewhere, showing a thickness of 7,000 feet, and 
 distinguished by metaliferous veins; hence, although of 
 the age of the Potsdam sandstone and the Calciferous sand- 
 rock, they have been named the Quebec Group, also the 
 Taconic system, and the Upper Copper-bearing rocks of 
 Lake Superior. They are of vast economic importance, in- 
 asmuch as they form the great metaliferous formation of 
 North America, containing gold, lead, copper, zinc, silver, 
 cobalt, nickel, chromium and titanium. They are traceable 
 from Gasp6 to Alabama, under various designations, and 
 thence to the west side of the Mississippi, through Kansas 
 to Lake Superior, without suffering any diminution in 
 volume. The copper ores in Eastern Tennessee and those 
 of Acton in Lower Canada, belong to this important group, 
 as well as the lead, copper, zinc, &;c., of Missouri, and the 
 copper of Lake Superior. 
 
 On the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, the Quebec 
 
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 27 
 
 gi-oup rests unconformably on the Huronian Series, wliich 
 reposes also unconformably upon the Laurentian Series. 
 The Huronian Series is 18,000 feet thick, and consists of 
 quartzites, thin limestone bands, slate rocks and diorite. 
 It is the lower copper-bearing rock of America. The im- 
 mense beds of iron ore at Marquette also belong to this 
 series. It is traversed by a vast number of trappean dykes. 
 The Laurentian system is the oldest known system of rocks, 
 and is composed of gneiss, crystalline limestone and Labra- 
 dorite. This series is of enormous thickness, one band of 
 limestone being 1,000 feet thick, and the entire mass of 
 altered sediments composing the vast Laurentian series 
 probably exceeds 20,000 feet. Traces of fossils have been 
 found in several localities ; beds of iron ore hundreds of feet 
 thick, great veins of metallic sulphurets with widely dis- 
 tributed crystalline limestone bands, give great economic 
 importance to the series. The geographical surface of 
 Canada contains about 80,000 square miles of unaltered 
 fossiliferous rocks, and probably 230,000 square miles of the 
 Laurentian Series. Where the Laurentian Series is not cov- 
 ered with quart ernary deposits, the belts of crystalline lime- 
 stones, and soda and lime feldspars, produce upon disinte- 
 gration a fertile soil, so that the cultivable area in the Lau- 
 rentian country is much greater than would be inferred 
 from the gneissoid character of the formation in many 
 districts. 
 
 THE CLIMATE OF CANADA. 
 
 The geographical position of Canada has necessarily a 
 remarkable influence upon the climates of different parts of 
 the country. The western peninsula has its climate greatly 
 modified by the vast lakes which almost encircle it. The 
 valley of the St. Lawrence below Kingston, as far as tide 
 water, is removed from this ameliorating influence, and the 
 country below Quebec is subject to many of those vicissi- 
 tudes which belong to great estuaries and the sea-coast. The 
 
28 THB PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 nortli shores of Lake Huron and Superior, and the back 
 country north of a line extending from Lake Huron to 
 Ottawa, and removed from the influence of the great lakes, 
 possess a very rigorous climate, in which intense winter cold, 
 prolonged through many weeks, is followed by a short but 
 hot summer, succeeded by genial autumnal months. 
 
 Meteorological observations have been carried on for 
 many years, at three separate points, which may represent 
 the centers of the different climates of Canada in the settled 
 parts of the country. At Toronto, (1862,) the mean an- 
 nual temperature for a period of 22 years, has been 44°.12, 
 the warmest month, July, has a mean of 66°.85 ; the coldest 
 month on the average of 22 years is February, which has a 
 mean temperature of 22°.98. The highest temperature re- 
 corded was 99°.2, the lowest, — 26°.5. The average range of 
 temperature during the same period amounts to 102°.7. The 
 average fall of rain during 21 years was 30.32 inches. The 
 greatest rain-fall in one month was 9.76 inches, the greatest 
 in one day, 3.36 inches ; but the average for 21 years of the 
 greatest rain-fall in one day is 2.14 inches. The average fall 
 of snow for 21 years is 61.6 inches, and the number of days 
 on which snow falls is 57. The total average depth of snow 
 and rain during 21 years is 36.49 inches. The average 
 number of days on which rain or snow falls is 163. Sep- 
 tember is the most humid month. The resultant direction 
 of the wind during a period of 14 years is N. 60 W. The 
 mean velocity per hour being 1.85 miles ; but without re- 
 gard to direction, the mean velocity is 6.78 on an average 
 of 14 years. The mean humidity of May, June and July, 
 deduced from a period of 21 years, is 74. 
 
 At Montreal, (1856,) the mean temperature of the air 
 for a period of 7 years, was 41°.56. Tlie absolute mean 
 range for the same period has been from 90°.9 to 27°.4 be- 
 low zero. The highest temperature in the shade recorded 
 was 100°.l, the lowest 36°.2 below zero, giving a climatic 
 
THJJ PHYSICAL TEATURES OF CANADA. 29 
 
 range of 136°.3. The degree of humidity is represented by 
 .84. The average number of days on which rain fell was 
 73 per annum, and of days on which snow fell 43 ; or in all, 
 116 days on which precipitation took place. The rain-fall 
 amounted to 43.004 inches ; the depth of snow to 95.76 
 inches, or 52,380 inches of precipitation reduced to the form 
 of rain. The mean of evaporation from the surface is nearly 
 21 inches during the spring, summer and autumn. The 
 most prevailing wind is the westerly. The snow storms are 
 from the K E. by E., on the average. 
 
 The following table shows the monthly mean temperature 
 at four different stations between the head of Lake Ontario 
 and Quebec inclusive. From it an idea of the difference in 
 climate between those far separated points may be inferred. 
 The period over which the observations extend is the year 
 1855, but it is probable that the means of a large number of 
 years would produce slight but comparatively unimportant 
 changes in the observed temperatures. From this table the 
 chief differences in the climates of the districts of which they 
 are centers may be deduced. 
 
 TABLE ' 
 
 Of the Mean Monthly Temperatures at Hamilton and Toronto, (Upper Cana- 
 da,) and Montreal and Quebec, (Lower Canada,) for the year 1855. 
 
 Hamilton. Toronto. Montrbal. Qcebeo. 
 
 (Lut. 43° 16') (Lat. 43° SO*) .^ . .-o -m'x n » aro Anf\ 
 
 Head of Lake Ontario. 341 ft. above the .ea. <^^- ^^ ^ > (^'- ^^ ^^ > 
 1855. 1855. 18S5. 1855. 
 
 Months, Months. Months. Months. Months. 
 
 January, 29.87 29.95 17.88 16.70 
 
 February, 19.14 15.41 11.23 10.55 
 
 March,.... 32.11 28.46 24.08 21.06 
 
 April, 45.48 42.43 40.15 34.14 
 
 May, 56.95 53.07 56.85 49.03 
 
 June, 62.63 59.93 62.39 58.34 
 
 July 71.65 67.95 72.73 68.86 
 
 August, 68.08 64.06 64.94 61 .54 
 
 September, 64.02 59.49 58.55 55.16 
 
 October, 47.89 45.39 46.35 45.43 
 
 November, 41.08 38.58 31.58 28.75 
 
 December, 29.21 26.99 20.84 18.09 
 
 \le^u \ 10 yeai-8, 48.73 16 years, 44.27 3 years, 42.24 1855, 38.09 
 
 Min. 1855 —20.00 —25.00 -33.09 —29.05 
 
 Max. " 96.00 92.08 97.00 90.00 
 
 The year 1855 was distinguished by the extreme and prolonged cold of February 
 
30 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 TABLE, 
 
 Showing the average Temperature, kumidity, Wind, Rain and Snow at Toronto, 
 108 feet above Lake Ontario, or 341 feet above the sea^ for a period of 22 
 
 years: . 
 
 (Observatory^ Toronto, professoe Kingston, dirbctob.) 
 
 TEMPERATURE. 
 
 Average Extremes in 22 years, 
 
 of 22 years. 
 
 Highest. Lowest. 
 
 Mean temneratnre of the vear 44© .12 46° .36 420 .16 
 
 Mean temperature ot tne year ^.^ ^^^^^ ^.^ ^^^^^ 
 
 Warmestmonth July. July, 1854. Aug. 1860. 
 
 when the mean temperature of the month ^ „^^ ,« cAn Ati 
 
 vpT. 660.85 720.47 640 .46 
 
 ColdWt mVnth.;::;'.;::V.*.:V. February Jan. 1857. Feb. 1848. 
 
 w^en the mean temperature of the month ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ 
 
 Difference between the warmest and coldest 
 
 months ^^O .87 
 
 Hi™e*temp;;atu;;::.:.: 900 .4 990 2 820.4 
 
 ^hicbocoLedon My 22 Aug.24. A„,.19. 
 
 Ix>west temperature P „-^ "f ° of li° 9 
 
 whichoccurred on Ja». 25. Jan.J6. Jan^2. 
 
 K^-g-f'-^^- ^»^^- lL'°rsl) i^imi 
 
 HUMIDITT. 
 
 Average Extremes in 20 years. 
 
 of 20 years. 
 
 Mean humidity of the year 78 82, im851. 73 in 1858. 
 
 Month of greatest humidity January. Jan. l8o7. Dec. 1»J)». 
 
 when the mean humidity of the 
 
 MoT^re^rwidKy: :::::::: May. Feb^mS. Apn. im 
 
 when the mean of the month was 72 oo 'O 
 
 CLOUDS. 
 
 Average Extremes in 9 years. 
 
 of 9 years. _ 
 
 Highest, Lowest. 
 
 Mean cloudiness of the year 60 62^ in 1861 57, in '53 '56 
 
 ( Dec. '58. 1 
 Most cloudy month December. | ^^««- I^J- ^ Dec. 1857. 
 
 when the mean of the month was 75 ^ i ®^qko T«„J^iftfi1 
 
 Least cloudy month July and Aug. July 1853. June 1861. 
 
 when the mean of the month was 45 d4 *» 
 
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 
 
 31 
 
 
 WIND. 
 
 
 
 
 Result 
 of 14 years. 
 
 Extremes 
 
 n 14 year*. 
 
 
 N. 60O w. 
 1.82 
 
 6.78 
 
 8.55 in 1860. 
 
 5. 10 in 1853 
 
 Mean resultant velocity in miles. . . 
 
 Mean velocity, without regard to 
 
 direction 
 
 
 RAIN. 
 
 
 
 Total depth in the year in inches. . 
 
 No. of days on which rain fell 
 
 Greatest depth in one month fell in 
 when it amounted to 
 
 Average 
 of 21 years. 
 
 30 . 324 
 
 106 
 
 September. 
 
 3.973 
 
 Jnne 
 
 12 
 2.138 
 
 Extremes in 21 years. 
 
 < 43 . 555 > i 21 . 505 ) 
 
 ' in 1843. \ } in 1856. ( 
 
 136 in 1861. 80 in 1841. 
 
 Sept. 1843. Sept. 1848. 
 
 9.760 3.115 
 June, 1857. May, 1841. 
 21 11 
 3 . 360 
 Oct. 6, 1849. 
 
 Rainy days were most frequent in . 
 
 when their number was 
 
 Greatest depth of rain on one day. 
 
 which fell on 
 
 Greatest depth in one hour 
 
 
 SNOW. 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 Average of 
 19 yrs. & 22 yrs. 
 
 Extremes tn 19 
 
 years*; 22 years. 
 
 Total depth in the year 
 
 61.6 
 
 57 
 
 February. 
 
 18.0 
 
 December. 
 
 j 99.0 ) (38.4 ) 
 > in 1855. f ) in 1851. f 
 87 in 18.59. 33 in 1848. 
 Feb. 1846. Dec. 1851. 
 46.1 10.07 
 
 No. of days on which snow fell. . . 
 
 Greatest depth in one month fell in 
 
 when it amounted to 
 
 Days of snow were most frequent in 
 
 when their number was 
 
 13.0 
 
 23.0 
 
 8 
 
 RAIN AND SNOW, (COMBINED.) 
 
 
 WHEBE 10 INCHES OF SNOW ARE CONSIDERED AS EQUIVALENT TO 1 
 
 INOfl or RAIN. 
 
 Total depth in the year , . , . 
 
 
 
 Average of 
 19 yrs. & 22 yrs. 
 
 36 . 488 
 
 160* 
 
 September. 
 
 3.973 
 
 December. 
 
 18 
 
 Number of days in which rain or s 
 Greatest depth in one month fell in 
 when it amounted to 
 
 now fell 
 
 
 
 
 Days of aqueous precipitation most 
 when tl^eir number was....,,. 
 
 frequent in . . 
 
 
 v^or^ oysid voiOT ,8«©x{txibioi irjiii 
 
 io a^^iiau 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF- CANADA. 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Eighty years ago Upper Canada was a wilderness from 
 the Ottawa to the St. Clair. The first British settlements 
 were made after the year of peace 1783, but previously to 
 that date only a few insignificant and drooping French 
 colonies lay scattered on the banks of the St. Lawrence, 
 or grouped in remote isolation on the river Detroit. Lower 
 Canada at that time contained 113,000 people, although in 
 1676, or more than a century before, its population amount- 
 ed to nearly nine thousand souls. So languid and slug- 
 gish was the progress of Canada under French rule, that 
 a century scarcely swelled the number of its inhabitants to 
 that of its commercial capital, Montreal, at the present day. 
 
 Eighty years ago the province, which now claims 2,506,- 
 755 inhabitants, was just emerging from the gloom of its 
 forests. Over the whole of the most fertile and now most 
 densely peopled western half, forest silence reigned, reigned 
 undisturbed and supreme. 
 
 The agricultural history of Lower Canada — where the 
 population is of French origin in the proportion of 76.29 
 per cent, to the whole number of inhabitants — ^is essentially 
 distinct from that of Upper Canada, whose people are al- 
 most exclusively of British descent. The Lower Canadian 
 French are natives of the country, sons of the soil, honest, 
 light-hearted, and pre-eminently faithful to the religion, tra- 
 ditions and usages of their forefathers. They have grown 
 to be almost a distinct people, under the old feudal system, 
 and have always looked with characteristic reverence on 
 their seigneurs, their pastors and the notary of their village. 
 They have received no fresh blood by immigration for 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 33 
 
 generations, and have clung witli remarkable tenacity to 
 the customs of their ancestors, repelling innovation and dis- 
 carding all change not especially sanctioned by their spirit- 
 ual advisers. Hence their agriculture is still to a consider- 
 able extent in a primitive condition, and requires a brief 
 historical notice separate from that of the people of Upper 
 Canada, who have been continually supplied with an in- 
 fusion of fresh blood from Europe, are eager to grasp at 
 every improvement which may better their condition, and 
 who live less with a careless indifference to the future, or a 
 happy enjoyment of the present, than with continual efforts 
 to secure independence, often merging into a feverish anxiety 
 to become rich, and surround themselves with the luxuries 
 which the well-to-do in the world are supposed to enjoy. 
 
 LOWER CANADA. 
 
 FRENCH CANADIAN FARMS. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the wretched mode of subdi- 
 viding land and laying out farms which formerly prevailed 
 in Lower Canada, has been instrumental in retarding the 
 progress of husbandry in that part of the province. Yery 
 generally the farms in the old settled parts originally con- 
 sisted of narrow strips whose lengths and breadths were 
 in the ratio of ten to one ; three arpents wide by thirty 
 arpents in depth being the form of the ]ong rectangle ex- 
 hibited by a French Canadian farm when first surveyed. 
 This is the same as if the farms were 200 yards broad by 
 2,000 yards long, a form inconvenient for practical agri- 
 culture, involving a yearly increasing expenditure of time 
 and labor in its cultivation as the cleared portions become 
 more remote from the homestead, for which no advantages 
 of river or road frontage could compensate as the country 
 became cleared. But when the seigneuries were surveyed, 
 
34 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 steamboats, railroads, and even macadamized roads were not 
 thought of, and people did not then indulge in the habit 
 of looking far into the future, or those of later date care 
 to contemplate the condition to which they were drifting by 
 continuing the mode of subdividing the soil which their 
 fathers had inaugurated. With the increase of population, 
 and the love for the paternal roof, which distinguishes the 
 hahitans of Lower Canada, their farms have been again sub- 
 divided longitudinally, sometimes into three parts, or one 
 arpent in breadth by thirty in depth, or in the proportion 
 of 66f yards broad to 2,000 long; and in the older seigneu- 
 ries the ratio of breadth to length is not unfrequently as 
 one is to sixty or 83i yards broad to 2,000 yards long. 
 These are some of the heirlooms of that old feudal system 
 which sat like a huge incubus on Low6r Canada, and whose 
 depressing influence will long leave its mark on the energies 
 and character of its people. 
 
 FARM PRACTICE. 
 
 We do not require to go far back ihto the history of that 
 part of the province to find husbandry in all its branches in 
 a very primitive condition. Thirty years ago, rotation of 
 crops was wholly unknown, and no rules of art were prac- 
 ticed by the happy, light-hearted French Canadian, who with 
 rigid steps pursued the systems handed down to him by his 
 ancestors, and strictly adhered to usages which generations 
 had sanctioned. In addition to the entire absence of rota- 
 tion of crops, the practice of carting manure on to the ice 
 of a neighboring river, in order that it might be washed 
 away in the spring, was generally practiced, and even now 
 prevails to a considerable extent. Barns were removed 
 when the accumulations before the door impeded entrance 
 or exit, and th^ old primitive forms of plows, harrows and 
 all other farming implements and vehicles, were retained, 
 with a wholesome horror of innovation in form or material. 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 35 
 
 Nor need we travel far to find them still flourishing in all 
 their original imperfections and want of adaptation to the 
 end in view. 
 
 The narrowness of the French Canadian farms has led 
 to those seemingly interminable lines of neat whitewashed 
 cottages which border the main roads, or fringe the river 
 St. Lawrence, wearing the aspect of a continuous village. 
 A stranger, steaming, down the noble river, sees with ad- 
 miration and delight an uninterrupted thread of white cot- 
 tages, fronting the water, with here and there the broad, 
 glittering tinned roof of the parish church, and in the back- 
 ground the primeval forest; he gazes upon a beautiful 
 picture, suggesting pleasing associations, and thoughts of 
 rural contentment and prosperity, susceptible of increase 
 as elsewhere in the world. Such is the outward show, but 
 let him take a nearer view and examine in detail. He will 
 find little or no change save in increase of numbers, be- 
 tween what he now surveys and what he might have seen 
 one generation or even two generations ago. Improvement 
 is progressing, but with snail-like progress, where ancient 
 habits and customs are preserved, and where families cling 
 to the soil on which they were born, and divide and sub- 
 divide their farms until they become narrow strips not 
 much wider than a modern highway, with the house front- 
 ing the river, and " the land all longitude." 
 
 The following table will show the progress made in 
 Lower Canada between 1827 and 1852, a period of twenty- 
 five years, and it will strikingly illustrate the fact that, ten 
 years since, real improvement was scarcely visible in aggre- 
 gate results, while in some instances a retrograde movement 
 seems plainly discernible.— .^ g^ Y^^mup • • . 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 Wheat. 
 Bushels. 
 
 Oata 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Barley. 
 Bushels. 
 
 1827, 
 
 471,876 
 
 2,931,240 
 
 2,341,529 
 
 363,117 
 
 1852, 
 
 890,261 
 
 3,073,943 
 
 8,977,380 
 
 494,766 
 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Indian Corn. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 1827, 
 
 832,318 
 
 217,543 
 
 333,1.50 
 
 6,796,310 
 
 1852, 
 3 
 
 1,415,806 
 
 325,422 
 
 401,284 
 
 442,016 
 
36 ^HB AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 Tones'. vluu6s. Worses. Oxen. 
 
 1827, 1,228,067 731,696 140,432 145,012 
 1852, 755,579 1,189,018 184,620 112,128 
 
 Cows. Sheep. Swine. f/d'-AcrlT 
 
 1827, 260,015 829,122 241,735 2,946,565 
 1852, 295,552* 647,465 257,794 3,605,167 
 
 • 183,972 calves or heifers not included under the head 'cows.' 
 
 The diminution of oxen and sheep is remarkable ; the 
 small increase in the production of wheat is probably owing 
 to the "fly." In two articles only do we recognize any 
 advance commensurate with the increase of population in 
 twenty-five years, viz., in oats and flax. The area under 
 crop in 1827 was 1,002,198 acres, in 1852, 2,072,341 acres, 
 or more than double, yet while the area under crop had 
 doubled, the yield appears to have uniformly diminished, a 
 fact strongly shown in the subjoined comparative table of 
 average produce per acre in Upper and Lower Canada in 
 1852, according to the census of 1851 — 2 : 
 
 Upper Canada. Lower Canada. 
 
 Bushels per acre. Bushels per acre. 
 
 Wheat, 16^4 9U 
 
 Indian Corn, 24^ I8J4 
 
 Rye, ini 10 
 
 Peas, 14^^ 9|^ 
 
 Oats, 26^1 20|| 
 
 In 1851 — 2, each person in Lower Canada cultivated 4 
 acres, roods, 8 poles ; in Upper Canada, 3 acres, 3 roods, 
 20 poles ; and while each family in either section of the 
 province had on an average 2 cows, in Upper Canada 53 1 
 pounds of butter per cow was produced, and in Lower 
 Canada the quantity was only 33 pounds. With respect to 
 cheese, the proportion was as 7i is to If, or about 4 to 1 
 in favor of Upper Canada. 
 
 While the stagnation, or rather retrograde movement, in 
 the farming industry of the habitans in Lower Canada was 
 taking place during the twenty-five years under review, the 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 37 
 
 most striking proofs were simultaneously afforded at tlie 
 different agricultural exhibitions at Quebec and Montreal, of 
 the fitness of the soil and climate of the country for agricul- 
 ture in its broadest acceptation. Scattered throughout 
 Lower Canada there are numbers of excellent farmers whose 
 practi3e can not be surpassed. In the results they have 
 produced, and the example they have shown, they have 
 proved beyond doubt what can be accomplished through- 
 out the length and breadth of settled Lower Canada, from 
 the Bay of Chaleurs to Montreal, and redeemed it from 
 those unfavorable impressions which a survey of the culti- 
 vated productions of its soil under the hands of the habit- 
 ans of the old school is adapted to create. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 In April, 1862, there were no less than seventy-two of 
 these useful associations in the Lower Division of the pro- 
 vince. The progress which might fairly have been antici- 
 pated from such a large number of distinct bodies, organized 
 for the purpose of mutual assistance and encouragement, 
 has not been satisfactory. This state of things has arisen 
 in many instances from a most unusual and novel mode of 
 distributing the annual government grant. We can not do 
 better than transcribe the description of this singular disposal 
 of public money, given in a recent number of the Lower 
 Canada Agricultural Keview, written by the editor on the 
 occasion of a visit to different parts of Lower Canada to col- 
 lect the best specimens of agricultural productions for trans- 
 mission to the International Exhibition at London. " In 
 many counties the societies have only distributed the funds 
 among the local farmers^ and this has been the case year 
 after year, and we have often raised our voice against this 
 sort of family compact. We need not here repeat our 
 arguments, for wherever we have suggested the employment 
 of the funds for any other purpose, we have generally met 
 
38 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 with the entire approbation of the enlightened farmer ; and 
 we have often met conscientious and intelligent men whose 
 only aim is the advancement of agriculture. But these 
 men are often bound hand -and foot in their actions, being 
 opposed by a majority who have no reason, and are only 
 guided by their own narrow notions and the following of 
 old customs ; happily this majority is day by day losing 
 their strength and influence, and we predict a triumph, at 
 no distant day, of progressive and improved agriculture." 
 
 The Board of Agriculture for Lower Canada have taken 
 decisive steps during the present year, (1862,) to secure the 
 proper disbursements of the provincial grant, and to devote 
 liberal awards of public money to the promotion of agri- 
 cultural industry in all its important branches. The Lower 
 Canadian Provincial Shows have partaken more of the 
 character of an agricultural festival, hitherto, than of a meet- 
 ing for the purpose of securing the progress of the Science 
 and Art of Agriculture by fair and open competition and 
 peaceful rivalry. In this respect they have differed materi- 
 ally from the same annual expositions in Upper Canada, 
 where astonishing advances in the proper direction have 
 been made. The Board has now taken steps to establish an 
 Agricultural Museum, and to give assistance to county socie- 
 ties towards the importation of improved breeds of horses, 
 cattle and sheep. The Board is willing to advance to any 
 society funds for the purchase of stock, retaining one-third 
 of the annual government allowance for three successive 
 years to discharge the debt thus incurred. If this new 
 spirit of enterprise continues, the progress of agriculture in 
 Lower Canada will be much more rapid than it has been of 
 late years, although it must be acknowledged that in the face 
 of many difficulties, national prejudices and peculiarities of 
 character, a very marked improvement has taken place in 
 many departments of husbandry, and in many parts of the 
 Lower Province, but much, very much remains to be done 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 39 
 
 The influence exercised by the Agricultural School at St. 
 Anne is already favorably felt, and as this establishment 
 appears likely to work a beneficial change in Lower Cana- 
 dian husbandry, a few details respecting it may be both ap- 
 propriate and acceptable. 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT ST. ANNE. 
 
 At this establishment there are two departments, one de- 
 voted to theoretical training, the other to the cultivation, 
 upon the most approved principles, of a tract of land, to 
 serve as a model farm, and a nursery for stock. The bene- 
 ficial effect of the model farm is already felt in the neigh- 
 borhood, farmers having generally adopted the cultivation 
 of root crops, and sought with avidity for the improved 
 breeds of animals which have been reared by the College. 
 During the year 1860 there were eight pupils attending the 
 school. In 1861, there were only four ; but as this depart- 
 ment is yet in its infancy, there is good ground for the ex- 
 pectation that it will receive increased encouragement, as 
 the influence of the College becomes more widely felt. 
 
 The steps taken by the provincial government for the en- 
 couragement of agriculture in the Province at large, will 
 be described in the narrative of the progress made in Cana- 
 dian husbandry in Upper Canada, to which we now turn 
 with more encouraging results before us. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 UPPER CANADA. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 We have already stated that eighty years ago that part 
 of the province of Canada which is now most densely peo- 
 pled, was a forest wild. Upper Canada dates its existence 
 as a distinct Province previously to the Union from the 
 
40 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 year 1791. Before that period it formed part of the Pro- 
 vince of Quebec ; as soon, however, as it had acquired a 
 separate political status, it was divided into four districts, 
 the Eastern, Midland, Home and Western, each of which, 
 in course of time, established agricultural societies. In 1782^ 
 or exactly eighty years ago. Upper Canada had barely 10,- 
 000 inhabitants. In 1824, the numbers had increased to 
 152,000, and in 1829 to 225,000 ; but it was not until the 
 year 1830 that the government of the province took any 
 decisive step to foster the agriculture of the country by 
 " An Act to encourage the establishment of Agricultural 
 Societies in the several Districts of the Province." As early 
 as the year 1825, agricultural societies, it is believed, ex- 
 isted in two or three districts, but no records have been 
 handed down to show the condition of husbandry at that 
 period. 
 
 The indirect assistance given by the Imperial Govern- 
 ment to Agriculture in Upper Canada, dates from a much 
 earlier period than the encouragement given to Agricultural 
 Societies by the Provincial Government ; for we find among 
 the donations of George III. to the U. E. Loyalists the old 
 English plow. It consisted of a small piece of iron fixed 
 to the colter, having the shape of the letter L, the shank of 
 which went through the" wooden beam, the foot forming the 
 point, which was sharpened for use. One handle and a 
 plank split from a curved piece of timber, which did the 
 duty of a mold board, completed the rude iinplement. At 
 that time the traces and leading lines were made of the 
 bark of the elm or bass-wood, which was manufactured by 
 the early settlers into a strong rope. About the year 1808 
 the "hog-plow" was imported from the United States; 
 and in 1815 a plow with a cast iron share and mold-board 
 all in one piece, was one of the first implements requiring 
 more than ordinary degree of mechanical skill, which was 
 manufactured in the province. The seeds of improvement 
 
IT 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA, 41 
 
 were then sown, and while in the address of the President 
 at the Fron.tenac Cattle Show in 1838, we observe atten- 
 tion called to the necessity for further improvement in the 
 plows common throughout the country, we witness, in 1855, 
 splendid fruit at the Paris Exhibition. In a notice of the 
 trial of plows at Trappes, the Journal of Agriculture Practique 
 makes the following reference to a Canadian plow : " The 
 plowing tests were brought to a close by a trial of two 
 plows equally remarkable — to wit, the plow of Eanson & 
 Simms, of Suffolk, England, and that of Bingham, of Nor- 
 wich, Upper Canada. The first is of wood and iron, like 
 all the English plows, and the results which it produced 
 seemed most satisfactory, but it appeared to require a little 
 more draught than the Howard plow. Bingham's plow very 
 much resembles the English plow ; it is very fine and light 
 in its build ; the handles are longer than ordinary, which 
 makes the plow much more easy to manage. The opinion 
 of the French laborers and workmen who were there, ap- 
 peared on the whole very favorable to this plow. 
 
 In 1828, when the whole population of Upper Canada 
 amounted to 185,500 inhabitants, the number of acres un- 
 der agricultural improvement was 570,000, or about 3i^ 
 for each individual ; in 1851 the average for each inhabitant 
 was very nearly four acres. The comparative progress of 
 Upper and Lower Canada, in bringing the forest-clad wil- 
 derness into cultivation, may be inferred from the following 
 table : 
 
 LOWBR CANADA. UPPER CANADA.. 
 
 Year. No. acres cultivated. No. acres cultivated. 
 1831, 2,065,913 818,432 
 
 1844, 2.802,317 2,16^,101 
 
 1851, 3,605,076 3,702,783 
 
 1861, 4,678,900 e,051,^19 
 
 Hence, in a period of twenty years. Lower Canada increased 
 her cultivated acres by 1.9 and Upper Canada by 4.5. 
 
 Before proceeding to describe in detail the progress of 
 Agriculture in Upper Canada, it will be advisable to glance 
 
9 
 
 42 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 at the efforts made by societies and the Government of the 
 Province to elevate the condition of husbandry in all its 
 departments, and to induce the people at large to join hand 
 in hand in the march of improvement. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATIVE ENCOURAGEMENT. 
 
 The first public Act for the encouragement of Agricul- 
 ture in Canada, which came into operation in 1830, author- 
 ized the governor to pay one hundred pounds to any District 
 Agricultural Society which raised the sum of £50 by sub- 
 scription, for the purpose of importing valuable live stock, 
 grain, useful implements, &c. 
 
 Several acts were passed in subsequent years, being modi- 
 fications of that of 1^30, all of them having for their object 
 the encouragement of Agricultural Societies and Agricul- 
 ture. In 1847 an additional step was taken, fraught with 
 very important consequences to the interests of husbandry 
 in Canada. An Act for the incorporation of the Provin- 
 cial Agricultural Associations came into operation; and 
 in 1850, Boards of Agriculture for Upper and Lower 
 Canada were established by law. In 1851, an Act was 
 passed to provide for the better organization of Agricul- 
 tural Societies, and finally, in 1852, the most important step 
 of all was taken, and " An Act to provide for the estab- 
 lishment of a Bureau of Agriculture, and to amend and con- 
 solidate the laws relating to Agriculture," came into 
 operation. 
 
 The District Societies, which, in 1830, drew their annual 
 pittance from Government, and represented the agricultural 
 interests of the country, have thus grown, in twenty-two 
 years, to a comprehensive and centralized organization, con- 
 sisting of, 1st, the Bureau ; 2d, the Boards of Agriculture 
 for Upper and Lower Canada ; 8d, the Agricultural Asso 
 ciations for Upper and Lower Canada ; 4th, County Socie- 
 ties ; 6th, Township Societies. 
 
^ _ — 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 43 
 
 In 1857, another change took place, being also a step in 
 advance; an Act was passed "to make better provision 
 for the encouragement of Agriculture, and also to provide 
 for the promotion of Mechanical Science." The head of 
 the Bureau of Agriculture received the title of ' Minister of 
 Agriculture,' with very extensive powers for obtaining and 
 distributing information respecting the condition of Hus- 
 bandry and the Progress of Arts and Manufactures in the 
 Province. By this act Boards of Arts and Manufactures 
 were created, and Horticultural Societies incorporated. 
 
 The Boards of Agriculture distribute the annual gov- 
 ernment grant to the County Societies, upon duly certified 
 statements from the Treasurers of the different Societies. 
 The progress of these excellent adjuncts to agricultural im- 
 provement is shown in the following table : 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of So- Amount of Amount of 
 
 cieties. Subscription. Grant. 
 
 1852, 22 $13,531.00 $21,557.00 
 
 1853, 41 17,109.00 25,930.00 
 
 1854, 41 23,409.00 .32,792.00 
 
 1855, 41 23,119.00 32,574.00 
 
 1856, 41 23.654.00 33,614.00 
 
 1857, 41 24,957.00 34,075.00 
 
 1858, 42 15,675.96 34,275.00 
 
 1859,* 61 24,221.00 23,836.00 
 
 "With the means at the disposal of the County Societies, a 
 valuable impulse has no doubt been given to agriculture in 
 all its branches ; chiefly by encouraging the introduction of 
 a superior breed of animals and of improved implements. 
 Several societies have devoted a considerable portion of 
 their funds to the importation of improved breeds of cattle 
 and horses. The awarding of premiums for stock, imple- 
 
 * This year, in consequence of the financial condition of the country, the 
 legislative grant was limited to a certain amount for the entire Province, and a 
 uniform deduction was made from the amount which each society would have 
 been entitled to under the act. The sum due, according to the act, being 
 $i47,950, of which only $32,836 was furnished by the Governmept. 
 
44 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 merits and farm productions generally, has encouraged pri- 
 vate enterprise and awakened a spirit of emulation which 
 has been most successful in promoting progress and im- 
 provement, and the rank which Upper Canada now oc- 
 cupies as an agricultural country is mainly due to the excel- 
 lent organization and energetic spirit which has always 
 distinguished the county societies since their first establish- 
 ment.* 
 
 THE PROVINCIAL AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. 
 
 As a necessary result of the successful working of the 
 county and township Agricultural Societies, a growing de- 
 sire began to be felt, now nearly twenty years ago, for the 
 organization of a Provincial Society which would bring the 
 farmers and manufacturers from all parts of the Province 
 together, and, by friendly rivalry and competition at an an- 
 nual exhibition, present at one view the best results of the 
 agricultural and mechanical industry of the country. Af- 
 ter several ineffectual attempts to obtain general and united 
 action, a meeting of delegates from county societies was 
 held at Hamilton in August, 1846, and an Association 
 formed, entitled the "Provincial Agricultural Association 
 and Board of Agriculture for Canada West." 
 
 The first Exhibition of the Association was held at Toronto 
 in October, 1846. The amount of prizes offered in money 
 reached $1,112, besides books, making the total prize list to 
 have a money value of about $1,600. The result of the Ex- 
 hibition surpassed the most sanguine anticipations of its pro- 
 motors, and excited the astonishment of many who were not 
 familiar with the progress already made by the County Socie- 
 ties, at the display of stock, implements, grain, fruit, and veg- 
 etables. Thorough-bred Durham cattle were exhibited, and 
 
 * For an excellent summary of legislative enactments in favor of agricul- 
 ture in Canada, see the first volume of the Transactions of the Board of Agri- 
 culture for Upper Canada. 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 45 
 
 eagerly bouglit up at the close of the show. In the ad- 
 dress delivered at the first meeting of the Association, we 
 find the following paragraph, which illustrates the condition 
 of husbandry in relation to stock which prevailed through- 
 out the province : " The rough condition of our farmers, 
 with various concurring circumstances, have in times past 
 precluded any due attention to the important department of 
 live stock. We find every where a mongrel mixture of 
 Devons, Herefords, Lancashires, and Normans, frequently, 
 indeed, producing good milkers, and useful cattle for the 
 yoke, but entirely devoid of any established qualities upon 
 which the breeder can rely, or feel any confidcDce that 
 " like will beget like." We must admit, however, that 
 some improvement has taken place, and that the well- 
 defined breeds of England are beginning to be sought after 
 with some care." 
 
 The Provincial Association commenced its operations 
 without any well-established means of support, trusting to 
 members' fees and contributions from county societies. 
 Its first exhibition was so far successful that a balance of 
 $408.25 remained in the treasurer's hands after all expenses 
 were paid. In 1847 the association was incorporated by 
 act of Parliament, under the title of " The Agricultural 
 Association of Upper Canada." Since that time it has in- 
 creased in influence and usefulness year by year, as the fol- 
 lowing brief synopsis of the results of the different exhi- 
 bitions held under its auspices amply proves : 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT 
 
 Showing the amount of competition at all the Exhibitions held by the Asso- 
 ciation, between 1846 and 1860, inclusive: 
 
 B-rnTHTTrnvs Amount of Total No. Amount of 
 
 HXHiBirxoNB. Prizes offered. Entries. Prizes Awarded. 
 
 Toronto, 1846, £400 1,150 £275 
 
 Hamilton, 1847, 750 1,600 600 
 
 Cobourg, 1848 775 1,500 575 
 
 Kingston, 1849, 1,400 1,429 700 
 
 Niagara, 1850, 1,276 11 9 1,638 950 
 
i6 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 «-rT»inTTTn«a Amount of Total No. Amount' (if 
 
 BXHiBiTioNs. Vhzts Offered. Entries. Prizes Awarded. 
 
 Brockville, 1851,.... £1,254 9 3 1,466 £805 18 9 
 
 Toronto, 1852, 1,470 9 9 3,048 1,228 5 
 
 Hamilton, 1853, 1,602 10 9 2,820 1,323 6 3 
 
 London, 1854, 1,794 6 2,933 1,356 17 6 
 
 Cobourg, 1855, 2,304 1 6 3,077 1,735 8 6 
 
 Kingston, 1856, 2,309 12 6 3,791 1,699 17 6 
 
 Brantford, 1857, 2,517 17 4,337 2,046 10 
 
 Toronto, 1858, 2,675 2 6 5;572 2,303 15 
 
 Kingston, 1859, 2,628 5 4,830 2,016 15 
 
 Hamilton, 1860, 3,753 17 6 7,532 3,235 
 
 The following table exhibits, in a condensed form, the 
 general results of two exhibitions, at an interval of 11 
 years. The remarkable change, both in number and kind 
 of stock, and implements exhibited, shows how rapid the 
 progress of improvement has been during that period. 
 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE ENTRIES AT THE PROVINCIAL EXHIBITION OF 
 
 1849 AND 1860. 
 
 r>r.oe>. No. of Entries, No. of Entries, Amount 
 
 ^^*^^^*- 1849. 186p. Awarded. 
 
 Blood Horses 16 26 $305 00 
 
 Agricultural Horses, 97 128 418 00 
 
 Road or Carriage Horses, 188 422 00 
 
 Heavy Draught Horses, 49 330 00 
 
 Horses of all Classes, 52 100 00 
 
 Durham Cattle,. 54 143 632 00 
 
 Devon Cattle, 10 172 603 00 
 
 Hereford Cattle, 19 329 00 
 
 Ayrshire Cattle, 12 63 558 00 
 
 Galloway Cattle, 56 532 00 
 
 Bulls of any Breed, 21 80 00 
 
 Grade Cattle, 51 73 199 00 
 
 Fat and Working Cottle, 20 38 227 00 
 
 Leicester Sheep, 79 176 162 00 
 
 Cotswold Sheep, 68 178 00 
 
 Cheviot Sheep, 41 159 00 
 
 Other Long Wooled Sheep, 121 162 00 
 
 Southdown Sheep, 16 118 162 00 
 
 Merino and Saxon Sheep, 11 52 202 00 
 
 Rams of all Breeds, 40 20 00 
 
 FatSheep, 5 23 54 00 
 
 Yorkshire Pigs, 
 
 Large Berkshire Pigs, 
 
 Other large Breeds, 
 
 Suffolk Pigs 
 
 Improved Berkshire Pigs,. 
 
 Other Small Breeds, 
 
 Pigs all Breeds, 
 
 45 82 00 
 
 19 80 00 
 
 16 64 00 
 
 59 28 105 00 
 
 45 95 00 
 
 23 66 00 
 
 11 20 00 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF 
 
 (Tablb Contincbd.) 
 Classes. ^^- "/"^j;""'^' 
 
 Poultry, 22 
 
 Foreign Stock, 
 
 CANADA. 47 
 
 No. of Entries, Amount 
 1860. Awarded. 
 
 297 191 00 
 
 1 1.5 00 
 
 Gniins, Seeds, &e., ^ 
 
 Roots, &c., 
 
 Fruit, 1 224 
 
 ....764. 
 
 ....546.. 
 
 ....690.. 
 
 ....644.. 
 
 ....142.. 
 
 ....201.. 
 
 ....226.. 
 
 153.. 
 
 .... 6.. 
 .... 2.. 
 
 ....822 00 
 ....254 00 
 ....270 50 
 ....269 50 
 ....228 50 
 ....210 00 
 
 771 00 
 
 ....204 50 
 
 15 00 
 
 .... 10 00 
 160 00 
 
 Garden Vegetables, 
 
 Plants and Flowers, J 
 
 Dairy Products, 63 
 
 Agricultural Implements, (Power,).. . K^, 
 
 Agricultural Implements, (Hand,). . , ^ 
 
 Artificial Cattle Food, Manures, &o., . 
 
 Foreign Agricultural Implements, 39 
 
 Arts Department, (in Medals,) 
 
 Architectural and Miscellaneous use- 
 ful Arts, 
 
 70.. 
 
 .,..159 00 
 
 Cabinet Ware and other Wood Manu- 
 factures, 18 , . . . . 
 
 ....120.. 
 
 ....236 00 
 .... 88 00 
 .... 25 00 
 ....291 00 
 ....182 00 
 6 00 
 
 ♦Carriages, Sleighs, &c., 40 
 
 Furs and Wearing Apparel, 
 
 Fine Arts, 78 
 
 Groceries, Provisions, &Q 
 
 Indian Work, 3 
 
 47.. 
 
 ..: 28.. 
 
 ...262.. 
 
 194.. 
 
 .... 4.. 
 ....535.. 
 ....140.. 
 .... 89.. 
 
 ... 24 . 
 
 Ladies' Department, 165 
 
 227 00 
 
 ....377 00 
 .... 87 00 
 .... 54 00 
 .... 95 00 
 ....274 00 
 .... 91 00 
 . ...137 00 
 
 Machinery, Castings, <fec., ) oq 
 
 Metal Work, Plain and Ornamental,. . j ^^ 
 
 Miscellaneous, 
 
 Musical Instruments, 
 
 .... 26.. 
 .... 50.. 
 .... 61.. 
 .... 53.. 
 
 .... 72.. 
 .... 67.. 
 ....159.. 
 .... 21.. 
 . ... 3 . 
 
 Natural History, 
 
 Paper, Printing, Bookbinding, &c., 7 
 
 Pottery, 3 
 
 ♦Saddlery, Harness. Leather, &c., 
 
 ♦Shoe and Boot Work and Leather, 
 
 Woolen, Flax, and Cotton Goods, 99 
 
 Foreign Manufactures, 
 
 ....148 00 
 .... 99 00 
 ....272 00 
 
 !!*.!325 00 
 
 Totals, 1,429 7,532 
 
 Note.— Tlie Medals and copies of Transactions of the Board are incl 
 statement ; the gold Medals being valued at $40 each, the silver Med 
 and the transactions at $1 per volume. Where the amount of prizes 
 that offered, the excess is caused by extra prizes, or, in the case of live s 
 tlonal amount for imported animals. 
 
 * In 1849 included under the head of Carriages and Sleighs, and Leath 
 and Furs. 
 
 Some permanent buildings are now erected 
 Hamilton, London, and Kingston, respectively, 
 press purposes of Ijolding annual exhibitions 
 the annual meeting was held at Toronto, and 
 
 $12,940 00 
 
 uded in the above 
 lis at $10 each ; 
 awarded exceeds 
 tock, by the addi- 
 
 er manufactures 
 
 at Toronto, 
 
 for the ex- 
 
 In 1862, 
 
 permanent 
 
48 THE AGRICULllJivAi. HISTORY OJf CANADA. 
 
 provision made for stabling 198 horses and 485 head of cat- 
 tle. The amount of prizes offered exceeded 1,600 dollars. 
 
 Such is the progress which has been made during fifteen 
 years, in bringing together the different industries of Up- 
 per Canada, and teaching her people those lessons which 
 can only be learned by friendly competition in an arena 
 open to all, without distinction, prejudice, or favor. The 
 cause of this rapid improvement is no doubt in great part 
 due to the immigration of scientific agriculturists, as well 
 as practical farmers, who have learned and studied hus- 
 bandry in all its branches in the best districts of England 
 and Scotland. Any improvement which takes place, either in 
 stock, implements, or farming practice, either in Europe or 
 the United States, is immediately imported, and, if satisfac- 
 tory, adopted in Upper Canada. By means of the differ- 
 ent agricultural societies, all needful information respecting 
 the results attained are speedily made known, and ther^ is 
 now no lack of enterprising and energetic men who gladly 
 embrace every opportunity of improving the farming prac- 
 tice. The financial condition of the Association and the 
 Board of Agriculture, afford incontestible proof of the 
 deep root which these institutions have taken in Canada. 
 It will be remembered that in 1846 they commenced their 
 operations without funds, relying solely on subscriptions. 
 In 1859, the large sum of $110,908.78 passed through the 
 hands of the treasurer. Out of the surplus funds a hand- 
 some and commodious brick building has been erected in 
 Toronto for the purposes of the Board, amply provided with 
 space for museum, library, reading-room, large hall for pub- 
 lic meetings, and a capacious seed-store. 
 
 THE FRUIT-GROWERS* ASSOCIATION FOR UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Intimately connected with agriculture, in the common ac- 
 ceptation of the term, fruit-growing is now an accepted de- 
 partment of husbandry. Canada imports an immense quan- 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 49 
 
 titj of fruit from the United States. In 1859-1861, in- 
 clusive, the value of the importation of green and dried 
 fruit from the United States amounted to the following - 
 
 1859. I860. 1861. 
 
 Fruit— Green, 216,592 241,912 245,259 
 
 " Dried, 35,414 43,192 64,932 
 
 Total, $252,006 $285,104 $310,191 
 
 The fruit crop of the state of New York is estimated 
 as being worth annually $6,000,000 ; that of Canada may 
 reach $500,000. The objects contemplated by the Fruit- 
 Growers' Association for Upper Canada : 
 
 First. — The discussion by members of the society of the 
 relative merits of the different kinds and varieties of fruit, 
 the determination and selection of the best varieties suita- 
 ble for cultivation in Canada West, and the publication of 
 the list of fruits so selected and recommended. 
 
 Second. — The revision from time to time, as occasion may 
 require, of the catalogue of fruits, and the addition thereto 
 of such new varieties as may after a suflScient trial be 
 deemed worthy of general cultivation, and striking out the 
 names of any that may on further trial be found unworthy 
 of cultivation, either from being deficient in flavor or not 
 sufficiently hardy to stand the severity of our climate. 
 
 Third. — The promotion by the society of the cultivation 
 and improvement of native and indigenous fruits, the 
 testing of all new varieties of fruit, the discussion of their 
 merits or defects, and making known the result of such 
 trials. 
 
 Fourth. — The determination of the names of fruits ; and 
 the identification of fruits having different names in differ- 
 ent localities, or which, having received new names through 
 the ignorance or fraud of cultivators, have been distributed 
 as new varieties. 
 
 Fifth.— The discussion of all questions relative to fruit 
 
60 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 culture, and disseminating information respecting the same, 
 such as the most proper or most advantageous modes of 
 cultivation ; the soils and exposures most suitable for the 
 different kinds of fruit ; the manures most beneficial, and 
 the best modes of applying the same ; the diseases to which 
 the various fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants are liable, 
 with the remedies for such diseases ; the insects injurious 
 to the different kinds of fruit, and the best means of pre- 
 venting or restraining their ravages; the best modes of 
 ripening, gathering, and preserving fruits ; and any other 
 subject bearing upon fruit culture. 
 
 This association was reorganized in 1861, the Constitu- 
 tion and By-Laws having been framed and adopted in Jan- 
 uary, 1862. It already numbers most of the fruit-growers 
 in the province among its members, and it will no doubt 
 ere long take an important position. 
 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. 
 
 These are established in most of the chief towns : To- 
 ronto, Hamilton, Kingston, Peterborough, St. Catharines, 
 Niagara, Cobourg, and Paris. In the bill now before Par- 
 liament it is proposed that " every horticultural society in 
 any city, town or incorporated village, incorporated under 
 this act, or which may have been incorporated under any 
 other act of the Provincial Legislature, shall be entitled to 
 a public grant equal to the amount subscribed by the mem- 
 bers of such society, and certified by their treasurer to have 
 been paid into his hands in the manner provided by the 
 sections of the act relating to Agricultural Societies, provi- 
 ded that the whole amount granted to any such society shall 
 not exceed one hundred pounds in any year." 
 
 The progress of horticulture in Canada may be inferred 
 from what has taken place at and near Toronto since 1836. 
 In that year, with a population of about 6,000, there were 
 two small green-houses in the town, where common plants 
 
> -> > > 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 61 
 
 only were cultivated. In 1862, there exist many thousand 
 square feet of glass-roofed structures, most of them built 
 upon the most approved modern principles, and adapted to 
 the growth of foreign grapes, green-house and exotic plants. 
 Orchard houses are already numerous, and a taste for the 
 delightful pursuit of horticulture is rapidly spreading. 
 Some of the private green and hothouses are constructed on 
 a very substantial and extensive scale ; several thousand 
 feet of pipes for the supply of hot water being used. The 
 grounds of the horticultural society occupy five acres, in a 
 most valuable part of the city, and are the gift of a zealous 
 horticulturist and warm and generous supporter of what- 
 ever tends to improve and elevate his fellow-countrymen. 
 Five acres adjoining have been purchased from the corpo- 
 ration, so that there is now in the midst, as it were, of the 
 city of Toronto, a horticultural garden containing ten acres. 
 In Hamilton the number of entries at the annual shows 
 was 393 in 1851 ; in 1859 it rose to 1,418, or nearly four 
 times as many. 
 
 THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. 
 
 Organized in 1860, and having for its object the introduc- 
 tion and distribution of new plants and seeds adapted to 
 the wants of the country ; experiments on the indigenous 
 and domestic plants of Canada ; the encouragement of ar- 
 boriculture, forest-conservation, and the culture of fibre dye, 
 oil, food and medicinal plants, together with the publication 
 of papers embodying the results arrived at, and the in- 
 formation brought together by the above means, with the 
 ultimate establishment of a Botanical and Experimental 
 Garden. 
 
 CHAIR OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Among other important adjuncts to the progress of agri- 
 culture in Upper Canada, there is a Chair of Agriculture in 
 the University of Toronto, and a Veterinary School in con- 
 nection with Board of Agriculture. 
 
52 THE AGEICULTtJRAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTEK ly. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONa 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Among farm products, wheat takes the first rank in the 
 husbandry of Upper Canada. Formerly it occupied an 
 equally prominent position in Lower Canada, but for many 
 years this cereal has not been successfully cultivated in the 
 eastern part of the province, in consequence of the Hessian- 
 fly, wheat midge, and an exhausting system of culture ; it 
 is now, however, slowly regaining its position in Lower 
 Canada. 
 
 The following table shows the amount of wheat produced 
 in Lower and Upper Canada in different years : 
 
 LowKR Canada. Uppkr Canada. 
 
 Year. Bushels of Wheat Year. Bushels of Wheat, 
 
 1827, 2,931.240 1842, .3,221,991 
 
 1831, 3,404,756 1848, 7,558,773 
 
 1844 942,835 1851, 12,674,503 
 
 1851, 3,045,600 1861, 24,620,425 
 
 1861, 
 
 Long before Upper Canada was invaded by the whites, 
 Lower Canada was a wheat exporting country ; but the re- 
 turns show a gradual falling off from about the year 1819. 
 In 1790 the valley of the Richelieu produced 40 bushels to 
 the acre 
 
 EXPORTS OP BREADSTUFTS FROM THE PORT OP QUEBEC, FROM 1793 TO 180^ 
 AND PROM 1816 TO 1822, INOLUSIVE.* 
 Year. Wheat. Flour— (bbU.) 
 
 1793, , 487,000 10,900 
 
 1794, 414,000 13,700 
 
 1795, 395,000 18,000 
 
 1796, 3,106 4,300 
 
 1797, 31,000 14,000 
 
 1798, 92,000 9,500 
 
 1799,. 129,000 14,400 
 
 ♦ It is probable that a considerable portion of the exports from Quebett 
 between 1816 and 1822 came from Upper Canada. 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 63 
 
 Year. Wheat Flour— (bblt.) 
 
 1800, 217,000 20,000 
 
 1801, 473,000 38,000 
 
 1802, 1,010,033 28,300 
 
 « « aic * * *** 
 
 1816,.'*.*.*.'.'.**.*.*.*.* .............. 1,137 
 
 1817, 1818, 546,500 69,100 
 
 1819, 37,800 12,100 
 
 1820, 320,000 45,000 
 
 1821, 318,400 22,600 \ 
 
 1822, 145,000 47,700 
 
 An inspection of the foregoing table will show that the 
 cultivation of wheat in Lower Canada has long since been 
 of a precarious character ; two instances are known, namely, 
 in 1796 and 1819, when the exports became merely nominal, 
 while in 1802, before Upper Canada could contribute any 
 proportion of exports, the amount of wheat and flour sent 
 from Quebec reached 1,010,033 bushels, and 28,300 barrels 
 respectively. Even when Upper and Lower Canada are 
 taken together in relation to the export of wheat, the pro- 
 gress is shown to be far from uniform. 
 
 STATEMENT OP THE NET EXPORTS OF WHEAT, FLOUR, AND BRAN, FROM THE 
 
 PROVINCB. 
 
 Quantity 
 Year. Value. Rate per BuBhcl. Bushels. 
 
 1853, $7,322,324 $1 15 6,267,628 
 
 1854, 6,742,200 1 31 5,146,795 
 
 1855,.^ 11,750,020 1 85 6,351,362 
 
 1856, 10,476,327 1 39 7,536,925 
 
 1857, 3,690,428 1 06 3,841,536 
 
 1858, 2,763,509 97 2,848,977 * 
 
 1859, 1,097,742 1 06 1,035,606 
 
 I860, 6,367,061 1 13 5,637,222 
 
 1861, 9,299,351 1 08 8,613,195 
 
 WHEAT CULTURE, 
 
 Until recently, with few exceptions, wheat has been cul- 
 tivated without regard to rotation of crops, both in Upper 
 and Lower Canada. Several reasons have led to this very 
 improvident system of farming practice, independently of 
 a general want of knowledge regarding the first principles 
 of husbandry. Por a long time wheat was the only pro- 
 
54 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 duct of the farm upon which reliance could be placed as a 
 mean of obtaining readj money. Wheat has always been a 
 cash article; other farm products have often sought a mar- 
 ket in vain, and were consequently given by the farmer in 
 barter or exchange for many of the necessaries he required. 
 Since the construction of railways, things have changed ; a 
 market has been found for almost every production of the 
 farm, and with a more general spread of agricultural know- 
 ledge, a better farming practice has been established, and 
 the value of rotation of crops acknowledged. Both in 
 Upper and Lower Canada, vast areas of most fertile land 
 have been rendered absolutely unproductive by continual 
 wheat cropping. Portions of the valley of the Eichelieu in 
 Lower Canada and of the Thames in Upper Canada afford 
 striking proofs of this deterioration in the fruitfulness of 
 the soil. Forty bushels to the acre was by no means an 
 uncommon yield when the land was first cleared of its for- 
 est, as it now is in the valley of the Saugeen and Haitian d. 
 Rest for a few years, or deep plowing, restores the soil 
 nearly to its original fertility, and where the last artifice is 
 adopted, even on what are called worn-out farms, it is 
 found that fair and sometimes excellent crops can be ob- 
 tained. This is particularly the case in Lower Canada, where 
 for centuries the soil has been merely skimmed, and the 
 cultivation of wheat abandoned on account of the wretched 
 yield obtained. By deep plowing these " worn-out lands" 
 have been restored, and there is no doubt that the same 
 artifice, if thoroughly carried out, would bring many a 
 wheat field of by-gone celebrity back to its original produo- 
 tiveness, if a judicious rotation of crops were adopted. 
 
 THE DESTROYERS OF WHEAT IN CANADA. 
 
 Insects here as elsewhere on this continent have been the 
 great enemies of the wheat crops, before which the best 
 practice has failed. The wheat midge, the Hessian-fly, and 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 55 
 
 that destructive fangus, "rust," have in raany instances 
 ruined the productive capabilities of whole counties, and in 
 one instance the greater part of a province, for a term of 
 years. A glance at the tables of annual exportation, given 
 on a preceding page, will show how terrible has been the 
 effect of insect destroyers. In 1856, the exportation of 
 wheat rose to 9,391,531 bushels ; in 1857 it fell to 6,482,199, 
 and 1859 to 4,032,627 bushels, or less than one half the ex- 
 portation of 1856. This diminution must be attributed in 
 great part to the wheat midge, of which a short account is 
 given in subsequent paragraphs. 
 
 The first recorded appearance of the wheat midge in 
 Lower Canada took place in 1829. In 1834 it appeared in 
 vast numbers near Montreal, and in the following year, and 
 in 1836, it destroyed a great quantity of the wheat crops in 
 the valley of the St. Lawrence. In the year 1849 it ap- 
 peared in the eastern counties of Upper Canada, but previ- 
 ously to this date the production of wheat in Lower Canada 
 had fallen from 5,404,756 bushels in 1831 to 942,835 in 
 1844. In 1851 the average production of some of tlpie best 
 wheat-growing counties of Upper Canada fell from twenty- 
 two to six bushels to the acre in consequence of this pest. 
 Its progress westward in Upper Canada during the years 
 1851 and 1852 was very marked. In 1854 this insect 
 caused a loss in the wheat crop of the state of New York 
 exceeding fifteen million dollars, and in some counties in 
 Canada, its destructive influence was felt in the same pro- 
 portion. In the region of the Lower St. Lawrence it was 
 very destructive in 1855, although not generally prevalent 
 in the United States, although very abundant and destruct- 
 ive in the previous year. In 1856 this insect had pro- 
 gressed as far westward as the Niagara counties, and on the 
 lake shore west of Toronto. Its ravages in Canada during 
 this year were estimated at $2,500,000. It appeared on the 
 Thames in 1856, and throughout a large part of the western 
 peninsula its depredations were felt. 
 
56 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 There are several species of tlie wheat-midge, but the 
 differences are so small as not readily to strike the eye of 
 the unpracticed or unscientific observer. The most com- 
 mon species is a small orange-colored fly with delicate, trans- 
 parent, viridescent wings, and long, slender legs. The 
 length of this insect is about the tenth of an inch, the 
 breadth of its expanded wings slightly exceeds the tenth of 
 an inch. It appears in Canada during the latter part of 
 June, and remains until the middle of August. The eggs 
 are deposited in the germ of the still undeveloped grain, 
 through its chaff or sheath. The number of eggs rarely ex- 
 ceeds ten, but as several insects lay their eggs in the same 
 floret, from ten to forty larvae have been counted in one 
 floret. The young maggots feed upon the juices of the 
 grain, and dry it up. It appears to be most destructive 
 during dry summers, like other insect pests. 
 
 In 1859 this midge was destructive in the county of Wel- 
 land, but in other parts of Canada it appears to have ex- 
 hausted itself. The remedy universally adopted or recom- 
 mended is to sow early kinds of winter wheat very early in 
 the season, and the Fife spring wheat either very early or 
 not until after the 20th of May. 
 
 THB HESSIAN FLY. 
 
 Between the years 1805 and 1816, the Hessian-fly was 
 very destructive in some parts of Lower Canada. In 1819 
 the importations of wheat fell to 37,800 bushels, having in 
 1802 exceeded one million bushels. This diminution is in 
 great part attributed to the Hessian-fly. In 1830 it began 
 to disappear in Lower Canada, and in 1836 it was no longer 
 to be found. In 1846 it appeared in Upper Canada, hav- 
 ing been very destructive during the previous year in 
 western New York, Ohio, Michigan, and the western states 
 generally. In 1847 it was common about Toronto, and 
 strange to say, although great fears were entertained for the 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 57 
 
 safety of tlie harvest of 1848 in the United States on ac- 
 count of the remarkable prevalence of the insect in the 
 previous year, the crop of 1848 proved to be one of the 
 best ever grown, so remarkable and mysterious are the laws 
 which govern the increase and decrease of insects destruct- 
 ive to vegetation. 
 
 Other wheat insect depredators are comparatively harm- 
 less with the exception of the wire-worm. Upwards of sixty 
 species of the larvae of beetles belonging to the genus Elater 
 are known to entomologists. They feed upon the roots and 
 underground stems of wheat, Indian corn, and the grasses 
 generally. Sometimes the wire-worm is found in such de- 
 structive abundance that it cuts off the young crops as fast 
 as they appear two or three inches above the surface. 
 
 Rust is justly considered one of the greatest enemies to 
 the wheat crops of this continent. Its attacks are often so 
 unexpected and universal that it has been likened to a 
 whirlwind of blight, which sweeps over thousands and tens 
 of thousands of square miles in the short space of a single 
 night. In 1837, 1840 to 1846, 1849, 1850 and 1855, this 
 fungus was very destructive in many states of the Union 
 and in different parts of Canada. Draining, and early sow- 
 ing with properly prepared seed, are the best preventives 
 of rust. As, in most other cases, good husbandry is the 
 surest mode of withstanding the attacks of this minute ve- 
 getable organism, whose seeds or sporulcs are always float- 
 ing in the air during the summer season and instantly vege- 
 tate when those climatic conditions occur favorable to 
 " rust." The only plan is to have the wheat plant strong 
 enough to bear its attack when it comes, and the soil in 
 such a state that it will not foster its growth by an un- 
 healthy condition of the plant. 
 
 Averages per Acre. — According to returns to circulars 
 sent by the Bureau of Agriculture in 1860 to the Presi- 
 dents of the different Agricultural Societies in the Province, 
 
68 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 the following data with reference to the yield of wheat has 
 been collected: 
 
 PRODUCE PER ACRE IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Winter wheat. Spring Wheat. 
 
 No of bushels per acre. No. of bushels per acre 
 
 County of Carlton 28{ 22f 
 
 " " Northumberland . . . .27^ 19 
 
 " Simcoe 26 » 23^ 
 
 " York 27 20 
 
 " Bruce 25 20 
 
 " Leeds 25 16^ 
 
 " Peel 24| isf 
 
 " Ontario 22^ 23^ 
 
 The total average for the Province is 21 bushels of win- 
 ter wheat to the acre, and 18 1 bushels of spring wheat. The 
 number of acres of winter wheat now cultivated in Upper 
 Canada is only about one-third of the whole cropped with 
 wheat. Five years ago there was not one acre of spring 
 wheat for every ten of winter wheat. This change has 
 been brought about by the ravages of the wheat midge. 
 No doubt when draining becomes more generally adopted, 
 farmers will return to the cultivation of winter wheat. 
 
 In Lower Canada the county of Laval returned 18 
 bushels to the acre of winter wheat, Ottawa 15, Pontiac 20 
 and 15 bushels. Of spring wheat in Terrebonne the av- 
 erage is stated to be 20, Megantic 18, Grantham 17, Leeds 
 16|. The total average of spring wheat for Lower Canada 
 being 13 bushels to the acre. The midge was destructive 
 in several counties in Lower Canada in 1859, destroying 
 from 25 to 50 per cent, of the crop. 
 
 The wheat crop of 1858 was very deficient; it averaged 
 for winter wheat not more than 12 bushels to the acre, or 
 about 33i per cent, less than the general yield of 18 bushels 
 to the acre. The yield of spring wheat in 1858 was 13^ 
 or 15 per cent, below the general annual average. The 
 wheat midge was found to prevail in every county on the 
 lake shores of Upper Canada. Rust was this year about as 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 59 
 
 destructive as the midge, altbougli the Fife wheat was stated 
 not to be injured by rust. Generally the wheat crop of 
 1858 was about 25 per cent, below the average. The pea 
 crop was beyond the average, the potato crop 25 per cent, 
 below. 
 
 In 1857 the wheat crop was 81 per cent, below the gen- 
 eral annual average. These deficient crops will explain 
 without further comment the small exportations of wheat 
 from Canada during 1858 and 1859 ; they will also show 
 that the western peninsula, although nearly surrounded by 
 vast bodies of fresh water which exercise a marked and 
 beneficial influence upon its climate, is scarcely less liable to 
 the terrible visitations of the midge, the Hessian fly and 
 rust, than those parts of the United States, where wheat 
 has been partially abandoned as a farm crop in consequence, 
 of these destroyers. In good husbandry only can we hope 
 for a remedy against the attacks of insects and of rust, but 
 there is no doubt that by draining, the selection of early 
 varieties of wheat, and sowing very early or late, the wheat 
 destroyers can be overcome. The lessons taught in 1858 
 and 1859, have been productive of great good to the coun- 
 try; they have opened the eyes of a great number of farm- 
 ers to the necessity of due attention to the first and lead- 
 ing principles of good husbandry, namely, draining and 
 rotation of crops. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 The total average of oats in Upper Canada was 84^ 
 bushels per acre in 1859 ; in 1858 the average was only 82 
 bushels. In Lower Canada the returns show an average of 
 22 i bushels per acre. 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 The average return of this grain in Upper Canada is 27^ 
 bushels to the acre; in Lower Canada it is 23 bushels. 
 
60 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 The growtli of barley is very much on the increase in 
 Lower Canada. Winter barley is coming into extensive 
 use ; as much as 60 bushels to the acre have been produced 
 in the county of Maitland. 
 
 RYE.* 
 
 The average return in Upper Canada is 18 bushels to the 
 acre ; in Lower Canada 13 bushels. 
 
 INDIAN CORN. 
 
 Thirty bushels to the acre is the average for Upper Can- 
 ada in 1859. In Lower Canada, Indian corn, peas, and buck- 
 wheat seem to be very little cultivated, and with indifferent 
 success. 
 
 PEAS. 
 
 The average for Upper Canada is 23 1 bushels per acre ; 
 the curculio, which for many years had been very destruc- 
 tive in the Province previous to 1858, appears to have 
 disappeared in 1859, affording another instance of the vi- 
 cissitudes of insect life. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 In Upper Canada the average was 125 bushels to the acre 
 in 1858; in 1859 it rose to 176 bushels. In Lower Canada 
 the average was 175 bushels in 1859, about 50 per cent, 
 greater than in 1858. 
 
 HAT, 
 
 Hay is a better crop in Lower than in Upper Canada, 
 the averages for the eastern half of the Province being 
 about 2 tons to the acre, whereas in the western division it 
 is not more than IJ tons. 
 
 TURNIPS. 
 
 The cultivation of this valuable vegetable is increasing 
 in Canada, and some magnificent crops are produced in 
 both sections of the Province. 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 61 
 
 INVASION OF THE WILDERNESS. 
 
 A sketch of the progress of agriculture in Canada would 
 be incomplete if the manner in which the vast wilderness 
 in the rear of the thickly settled parts of the country is 
 yearly invaded by thousands of hardy and industrious set- 
 tlers. In Upper Canada the country between Lake Huron 
 and the upper waters of the Ottawa Kiver has been pene- 
 trated by colonization roads, on the line of which free 
 grants of land are made to actual settlers. In Lower Can- 
 ada, the valley of Lake St. John and the St. Maurice, the 
 peninsula of Gasp6, and the shores of the estuary of the 
 St. Lawrence below Quebec, are intersected by roads cut by 
 government through the wilderness, and free grants made 
 to actual settlers, as in Upper Canada. In illustration of what 
 has been done on these colonization roads, two examples 
 are selected, one from each division of the Province. 
 
 On the Ottawa and the Opeongo colonization road in 
 Upper Canada, 1,090 acres of free grants were allotted in 
 1859 ; in 1860 the area amounted to 1,468 acres. The num- 
 ber of acres cleared up to the 81st of December, 1859, was 
 2,016; in 1860 it reached 2,623, showing that on one road 
 alone 607 acres of forest fell before the settler's ax in one 
 year. Upon 1,468 acres actually cropped in 1860, there 
 were raised: 
 
 12,723 bushels of wheat, at $1 .00 a bushel, 812,723.00 
 
 12,711 " " oats, " 50...." 6,355.50 
 
 904 " " barley, " 60 " 542.40 
 
 268 " " Indian corn, 1.00...." 268.00 
 
 580 " " peas, « 1.00 " 580.00 
 
 22,620 " " potatoes. " 40 " 9,048.00 
 
 11,502 " " tui-n;>, " 10 . . . ." 1,150.20 
 
 312 tons of. . . hay, « 14.00 oer ton, 4,368.00 
 
 570 " "...straw, " 3.00 " " 1,710.00 
 
 5,192 lbs. "... sugar, " 12 "lb 614.64 
 
 544 gals. "... molasses, " 1.00 " gal., 544.00 
 
 209 bbls. "... pork, " 16.00 " bbl., 3,344.00 
 
 95 " "... potash, " 20.00 " " ] ,900.00 
 
 4,467 lbs. ". . soap, " 10 " lb 446.70 
 
 1,877 bu. ". .ashes, « 5 " bu., 908.80 
 
 Total, $44,503.24 
 
62 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 
 
 — whicli sum shows the average value of the produce of 
 each acre to be $30.32. 
 
 On the Elgin road in Lower Canada, below Quebec, 23,507 
 acres have been allotted, of which 1,457^ acres were under 
 improvement ; 238 souls were residing on the road, and 54 
 houses and 41 barns and stables erected. Grain and pota- 
 toes to the value of $3,291.30 were raised in 1860, and the 
 actual amount of the settlers' labor on this colonization road 
 was equal to $26,194 in 1860. The total length of coloniz- 
 ation roads opened in the province in 1860 amounted to 
 483 i miles. This invasion of the wilderness bj means of 
 free grants of land to actual settlers, on lines of road cut 
 out by the government, is fast peopling that vast region 
 north of the immediate valley of the St. Lawrence and the 
 great lakes, and must soon exercise a very important influ- 
 ence upon the wealth, power, and political influence of the 
 country. 
 
 CENSUS OF 1851 AND 1861. 
 
 The following comparative tables will show the increase 
 which has taken place in various agricultural productions 
 in Upper Canada since 1851. The census tables for Lower 
 Canada were not published at the time of going to press, 
 and therefore the data for that part of the province is not so 
 complete as for the sister half. 
 
 A comparison between the census reports of 1851 and 
 1861 will show in a very striking manner the progress 
 which has been made in Agricultural Industry during the 
 last ten years in Upper Canada. 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE 
 
 Of the Agricultural Products, &c., of Upper Canada in the years 1851 and 1861 . 
 
 1851. 1861. 
 
 Population of Upper Canada, 
 
 Occupiers of land, 
 
 Wheat, bushels. 
 
 Barley, do. . 
 
 Rye, , do. . 
 
 952,004 1,396,091 
 
 90,906 131,983 
 
 12,682,550 24,620,425 
 
 625,452 2,821,962 
 
 318,429 974,181 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. C3 
 
 (table concluded.) 
 
 1351. 1861. 
 
 Peas, bushels.... 3,127,681 9,601,496 
 
 Oats, do 11,391,867 21,220,874 
 
 Buckwheat, do 579,935 1,248,637 
 
 Indian Com, do 1,688,805 2,256,290 
 
 Potatoes, do 4,982,186 15,325,920 
 
 Turnips, do 3,1 10,318 18,206,959 
 
 Carrots, do 174,686 1,905,598 
 
 Manael Wurzel, do 54,206 546,971 
 
 Hay, tons .... 693,727 861,844 
 
 Flax or Hemp, pounds 59,680 1,225,934 
 
 Tobacco, do 777,426 
 
 Maple Sugar, do ' 3,669.874 6,970,605 
 
 Cider, gallons. . . . 742,840 1,567,831 
 
 It will be observed upon inspection of the foregoing 
 table tliat in every item enumerated an increase has taken 
 place, in some instances of a very favorable character, indi- 
 cating progress in the true principles of farming practice. 
 
 The cultivation of root crops is progressing with extra- 
 ordinary rapidity, as shown by the production of 18,000,000 
 bushels of turnips in 1861 against a little over 3,000,000 
 bushels in 1851. The production of mangel wurzel has in- 
 creased tenfold; wheat has doubled itself; barley shows 
 more than a fourfold increase; peas, threefold; and the 
 production of flax and hemp in 1861 is twenty times 
 greater than in 1851. The cash value of the farms of 
 Upper Canada reaches the enormous sum of $295,000,000. 
 
 We now turn to the live stock as shown in the following 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE 
 
 Of Live Stock in Upper Canada in the years 1851 and 1861. 
 
 1851. 1861. 
 
 Bulls, Oxen, and Steers, 1 92,1 40 99,605 
 
 Milch Cows 297,070 451,640 
 
 Calves and Heifers, 255,249 464,083 
 
 Horses,* 201,670 377,681 
 
 Sheep, '. 1,050,168 1,170,225 
 
 Pigs, 571,496 776,001 
 
 Total value of Live Stock, $43,227,486 
 
 ' '■' ' '" ' ""^ *r v^ ;T^ Including eolts and fillies. 
 
ei 
 
 FOREST INDUSTRY. 
 
 The remarkable diminution in the numbers of bulls and 
 oxen arises, probably, from the more general use of horses 
 for farm work. The small increase in the number of sheej) 
 is surprising; but from the wool returns the fleece must be 
 much heavier than formerly ; for, while the increase of the 
 number of sheep is only 120,057, the excess of the wool 
 crop of 1861 over that of 1851 exceeds 1,000,000 pounds. 
 
 The third comparative table to which we now turn relates 
 rather to manufactures than to agriculture: it exhibits the 
 mode in which the raw material was utilized, and the 
 progress made in domestic manufactures : — 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE 
 
 Showing the Number of Yards of Fulled Cloth, Flannel, and Linen Manu- 
 factured in Upper Canada in 1851 and 1861, respectively. 
 
 1861. 1861. 
 
 Fulled Cloth, yards .... 63 1 ,560 497,520 
 
 Linen, do 14,711 37,055 
 
 Flannel, do 1,157,221 1,595,514 
 
 In the manufacture of fulled cloth a marked diminution 
 is perceptible; but a considerable increase has taken place 
 in the production of linen and flannel, — yet far from being 
 so large as might reasonably have been anticipated from 
 the remarkable progress of the country in Agricultural In- 
 dustry. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 FOREST INDUSTRY. 
 The Canadian forests are great but far from inexhaustible 
 sources of national wealth. The circumstances attending 
 the first settlement of a new country necessarily involved an 
 enormous destruction of valuable trees, which at the time 
 of the invasion of the wilderness by the pioneer of civiliza- 
 tion were hewn down, cut into lengths, piled into heaps and 
 consumed by fire as fiast as possible, in order to admit the 
 
FOREST INDUSTRY. 65 
 
 warm sunliglit to tlie earth, and fit it for the plow. Millions 
 of magnificent trees which would now command a fabulous 
 price have been destroyed in this way, so that the lumber- 
 man is compelled year by year to retreat farther into the 
 wilderness, and this will continue until the inferior quality 
 of the timber arising from a too rigorous climate arrests 
 his operations. The products of the Canadian forest consist 
 chiefly of timber in all its forms, from the massive square 
 timber to the crooked "knees" for ship-building, together 
 with ashes, both pot and pearl. 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 The following table will show the kinds of Canadian 
 woods now brought into the markets, with the average 
 prices : 
 
 cts. ots. 
 
 Oak, per cubic foot, according to average 30 to 40 
 
 Elm, do., do. 25 "30 
 
 White Pine, square, do. do. and quality. 10 " 18 
 
 White Pine, Waney, do. according to average 18 "25 
 
 Red Pine, do. do 18 " 25 
 
 Ash, do. 14 inches and upwards 15 "20 
 
 Birch, do. 16 inches average 17 "20 
 
 Tamarac, do. according to average 17^" 24 
 
 Walnut, do. " " 45 " 50 
 
 Cherry, do. " " 45 " 50 
 
 Basswood, per cubic foot, according to average 12 " 15 
 
 Spruce, do do 8 " 12 
 
 Hickory, do do 35 "40 
 
 White Wood, do do 27 " 32 
 
 Maple, hard, do do 22 "25 
 
 Maple, bird-eye, do do 22 "25 
 
 Red Oak, 'do do 30 " 35 
 
 Iron Wood, do do — " — 
 
 Hemlock, do do 12 "15 
 
 Beech, do do 17 "20 
 
 White Cedar, do do 15 " 20 
 
 Deals, Pine, Bright: 1 ql. St. Psbg std. $48 00 to $50 00 
 
 2 do 34 00 " 42 00 
 
 3 do 26 00 " 30 GO 
 
 Floated are usually $2 per std. less. 
 
 Spruce : 1 quality, St. Petersburg std $26 to $28 
 
 2 do do 20 " 24 
 
 3 do do 16 « 20 
 
 Boards, per 1000 feet, 12 " 16 
 
66 FOREST INDUSTRY. 
 
 Staves : all pipes, per mille, $200 tc $220 
 
 assorted, standard, per mille, 190 " 210 
 
 West India, 55 " 65 
 
 Railway Sleepers, 9x8x6, per 100 pieces, 26 " 28 
 
 Ash Oars, manufactured, per pair, according to 
 
 length $1 20 to $2 40 
 
 Ash Oars, rough, 55 " 1 00 
 
 White Pine masts, $4 per inch, to say 20 Inches j $6 to say 
 30 inches. 
 
 Red Pine spars, say 15 inches, $14 to $16. 
 
 The following table shows the export of timber during 
 the year 1861: 
 
 Quantity. VrAae. 
 
 Ash, 2,422 tons." $12,708 
 
 Birch, 8,397 " 60,585 
 
 Elm, 32,610 " 265,562 
 
 Maple, 127 " 1,014 
 
 Oak, 55,970 " 526,997 
 
 White Pine, 523,112 " 2,594,388 
 
 Red Pine, 71,381 '♦ 508,609 
 
 Tamarao, 1,802 " 11,116 
 
 Walnut, 948 M. feet 22,094 
 
 Basswood, Butternut, and Hick- 
 ory, 1,786 « 18,524 
 
 Standard Staves, 1.765 mille 248,653 
 
 Other Staves, 4,989 " 167,385 
 
 Knees, 5,833 pieces 5,294 
 
 Scantling and Treenails, 1 8,585 
 
 Deals, 67,333 S. han 2,189,792 
 
 Deal ends, 1,929 " 49.750 
 
 Planks and Boards, 165,583 M. feet 1,570,381 
 
 Spars, 5,511 pieces 29,818 
 
 Masts,..: ....,.,. 774 " 38,101 
 
 Other woods, railroad ties, &o.,. 390,484 
 
 Total, $8,693,638 
 
 One hundred years' ago (1759) the exports of lumber 
 amounted to $31,250; about half a century since (1808) 
 the value of the exports of lumber did not exceed $400,000, 
 so that within the memory of many who can recollect lum- 
 bering operations at the commencement of the present 
 century, the foreign trade has increased twenty-fold, be- 
 sides the enormous quantities which have been consumed 
 by a population growing from 300,000 to nearly 3,000,000 
 souls. The value of the imports of lumber in 1860 ex- 
 ceeded $10,000,000. 
 
FOREST INDUSTRY. 67 
 
 The most important and extensive timber territories of 
 Canada are subjoined : 
 
 1st. The country drained by the Ottawa, containing an 
 area of 75,000 square miles. The white pine, red pine, and 
 ash are chiefly obtained from this region. 
 
 2nd. The St. Maurice and its tributaries, draining an area 
 of 22,000 square miles. Contains large quantities of white, 
 yellow and red pine, spruce, birch, maple, and elm. 
 
 8rd. The Saugenay country, area 21,000 square miles. 
 Kich in white and red pine, spruce, birch, and tamarac. 
 
 4th. The north shore of Lake Huron. White and red 
 pine, spruce, cedar, birch, and maple. 
 
 5th. The extensive Gasp4 Peninsula. White and red 
 pine, spruce, tamarac, and birch. 
 
 6th. The Peninsula of Canada West contains oak, elm, 
 and walnut. 
 
 7th. The Ontario territory, north of Lake Ontario, still 
 contains a large amount of white pine, elm, maple, &c. 
 
 THE LUMBER TRADE. 
 
 ISTot less than twenty -five thousand persons are directly 
 engaged in lumbering operations. Government works, 
 technically called slides, have been constructed on the sides 
 of the falls on the great rivers down which the lumber is 
 floated from the interior. Farmers have followed the lum- 
 berers far beyond the frontiers of the settlements, in order 
 to supply them with oats, potatoes, peas and hay ; the lum- 
 berers are essentially the pioneers of civilization, and 
 although they leave the marks of desolation behind them 
 in their progress through the wilderness, these soon become 
 obliterated, and the snug farm-house in the course of a few 
 years occupies the site of the lumberer's rude log shanty, 
 being the second stage of the transformation of the forest 
 wilds into fruitful farms. 
 
 The amount of revenue accruing from timber dues and 
 5 
 
68 FOREST INDUSTRY. 
 
 ground rent in 1861 was $327,503, and from slide dues 
 $55,546, or a total of $383,050. 
 
 British American lumber is chiefly exported to the United 
 Kingdom, but there can be no doubt that the trade is di- 
 minishing, while there is every prospect of an increased 
 trade taking place between continental European ports and 
 British America. Thirty years ago, one-third of all the 
 British tonnage trading beyond the seas, or about 300,000 
 tons, navigated by 16,000 seamen, was engaged in the colo- 
 nial timber trade. During the year 1830 out of 40,000 
 emigrants which arrived from Europe, more than 30,000 
 were carried out by the timber ships. During the four 
 years between 1857 and 1860, both inclusive, the propor- 
 tion of British North American lumber imported into the 
 United Kingdom was in 
 
 1857 50 per cent, of the whole. 
 
 1858 48" " " " " 
 
 1859 44" " « " " 
 
 1860 45 " " " " " 
 
 Hence it appears that the average decrease in the imports of 
 lumber from British North America to the United King- 
 dom, during the above period, is about 11 1 per cent., while 
 the increase on the imports of foreign lumber is nearly 10 
 per cent. During 1861 about twenty cargoes of Canadian 
 lumber were exported to the continent of Europe, and nu- 
 merous inquiries continue to be made respecting the timber 
 resources of the country. So rapidly is the price of timber 
 increasing in France that standing timber worth 50 francs 
 per 35 cubic feet in 1852 was worth 100 francs five years 
 later. 
 
 The industry to which the manufacture of the different 
 products of the forest gives rise is very extensive. In 1851 
 there were 1,567 saw-mills in Upper Canada, and 1,065 in 
 Lower Canada. The number of feet manufactured during 
 the year amounted to 391,051,820 and 381,560,950 respect- 
 
FOREST INDUSTRY. 69 
 
 ively. Since 1851 tlie quantity manufactured has no doubt 
 increased enormously, but no data are at present published 
 from which satisfactory conclusions can be drawn, although 
 some conception of the magnitude of tjie trade may be 
 formed from the fact that planks and boards to the value 
 of $1,507,546 were exported to the United States in 1861, 
 being not far from half the total production of Upper Can- 
 ada ten years previously, although the trade had suffered to 
 a remarkable extent in consequence of the calamitous civil 
 war which is now wasting the energies of our brethren 
 across the international boundary. 
 
 The exportation of planks and boards to the United 
 States is one of the most important Canadian sources of 
 prosperity as may be inferred from the following table. 
 
 Value of Exports of Planks and Boards to the United States from 1857 to 
 
 1861 inclusive. 
 
 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 
 
 $2,558,206 $2,890,319 $2,676,447 $3,027,730 $1,507,546. 
 
 The sudden diminution from more than 8,000,000 in 1860 
 to 1,500,000 in 1861 results from a temporary depression 
 occasioned by the civil war in which the United States are 
 unhappily engaged. 
 
 The year 1845 was a most prosperous one for the lumber 
 trade. The quantity of square timber brought to market 
 that season amounted to 27,704,344 feet, and the quantity 
 exported was 24,228,000 feet. In 1846 the quantity brought 
 to the Quebec market rose to 87,800,648 feet, but only 24,- 
 242,689 feet were exposed. Hence prices fell to a ruinous 
 degree and a great blow was given to the trade during that 
 year. In 1847 there was a stock supply of more than 44,- 
 000,000 feet to meet a demand for 19,000,000 and in 
 1848 a total supply of 89,000,000 to meet a demand for 
 17,000,000. Under such circumstances it is not to be won- 
 dered at that the timber trade became exceedingly depressed. 
 The excitement of high prices has fostered over-production, 
 
YO FOREST INDUSTRY. 
 
 and the diminislied consumption of Canadian timber in 
 Great Britain brought prices down to the lowest ebb. 
 When the trade is in a prosperous condition the profits are 
 sometimes excessive, speculation then ensues and ruin fre- 
 quently follows. The character of the trade is changing 
 as the timber groves become more remote, more capital be- 
 ing required to carry on lumbering operations on a profit- 
 able scale. Many lumberers now invest a considerable 
 portion of their capital in clearing and cultivating farms in 
 connection with their timber limits for the purpose of rais* 
 ing provender for their stock and food for their hands. 
 
 A glance at forest industry would be incomplete if we 
 were not to note a contingency to which the timber trade 
 is becoming more and more liable each year. One of the 
 most destructive agents in the vast pine forests north of the 
 St. Lawrence, is fire. Thousands of square miles of the 
 forest timber have been ruined by this ruthless destroyer. 
 Fires in the woods do not generally extend so far as one 
 at the first blush supposes; they rarely go beyond thirty 
 miles in length by ten in breadth, but it is the frequent 
 occurrence of these fires which in the long run of years 
 lays waste so much valuable property; and with the pro- 
 gress of the lumberers in the wilderness the chances of 
 fresh conflagrations yearly become more imminent. 
 
 The produce of the forest of most importance next to 
 lumber has always been pot and pearl ashes. Potashes 
 are made from the crude ashes by dissolving the soluble 
 salts with water, evaporating to dryness and fusing at a red 
 heat into a compact mass, which although grey on the out- 
 side is pink colored within. Pearlash is made by calcining 
 potashes upon a reverberatory hearth until the carbon and 
 much of the sulphur is dissipated. Water is then added, 
 and a lye formed, which, when evaporated to dryness, 
 yields the pearlash of commerce. Canadian potashes con- 
 tain on an average about 60 per cent, of carbonate of 
 
FOREST INDUSTRY. 71 
 
 potassa. ' Pearlasli contains generally about 50 per cent, of 
 caustic potassa. The quantity of potashes obtained from the 
 combustion of the trees or vegetables on a given area of 
 ground depends altogether upon the species. Thus, while 
 the pine yields only 0.45 per mille, the oak gives 1.53, the 
 willow 2.85, elm and maple 3.90 per mille, or 39 per cent. 
 The value of ashes, both pot and pearl, exported from Can- 
 ada during the years 1859 to 1861 inclusive, was as follows 
 —three-fourths going to the United Kingdom: 
 
 1859. I860. 1861. 
 
 Potashes $769,512 $741,473 $705,228 
 
 Pearlashes 337,759 219.633 173,779 
 
 Total, $1,107,271 S961,106 $879,007 
 
 In addition to these staple productions of our forests, we 
 have a growing trade in Canada balsam, turpentine, pitch, 
 spruce gum, oil of spruce, oil of hemlock, hemlock bark, 
 maple sugar, bark of the basswood, bark of the butternut, 
 and of the hickory, sassafras, sumach, bark of the white 
 oak, and of the slippery elm, besides the medicinal plants 
 common to Canada and the northern States of the Ameri- 
 can Union. 
 
 GENERAL RESULTS. 
 
 Comparative Statement of the Produce of the Forest, from 1853 to 1861, 
 
 inclusive : 
 
 1853, $9,421,010 1858,... $9,284,514 
 
 1854, 9,981,367 1859, 9,663,962 
 
 1855, 7,947,923 1860, 11,012,253 
 
 1856, 10,019,883 1861, 9,572,645 
 
 1857, 11,575,508 
 
 Yery few years have elapsed since the produce of the 
 forest formed the most important of Canadian exports, as the 
 following comparison will show. Of late years, agriculture 
 has asserted a superior claim and will no doubt maintain it: 
 
72 FOREST INDUSTRY. 
 
 I&i9. 1850. 1851. 
 Value of the Products of the Forest ex- 
 ported, $5,310,148 $5,442,936 $6,038,180 
 
 Value of all other productions, 4,000,108 5,237,056 6,260,340 
 
 Balance in favor of Forests, $1,310,040 $205,880 $777,840 
 
 1859. 1860. 1861. 
 
 Value of Agricultural Productions ex- 
 ported, $7,339,798 $14,259,225 $18,244,631 
 
 Value of the Products of the Forest ex- 
 ported, 9,663,962 11,012,253 9,572,645 
 
 Balance in favor of Forests, $2,324,164 
 
 Balance in favor of Agriculture, $3,247,972 $8,671,986 
 
 THE LUMBERERS. 
 
 A lumberer's life is full of that half-wild excitement 
 which belongs to the wilderness, and few who have en- 
 gaged in this apparently laborious and at times dangerous 
 industry are willing to relinquish it for the tamer pursuits 
 of the farm. When any one intends to " make timber," as 
 it is technically called, — that is, to cut and bring lumber to 
 market, — the first operation is to take a "limit," and having 
 thoroughly explored it and laid out roads to the most con- 
 venient water-course or " drivable " creek, he engages his 
 men, either for cutting the timber, or for cutting the timber 
 and the " drive " (or from the time of commencing opera- 
 tions to the period when it is brought to Quebec or any 
 other convenient port.) A " grove of pine " having been 
 found and rough roads cut or laid out if necessary, the op- 
 eration of making the timber commences. The hands are 
 divided into gangs, which generally consist of four or more 
 cutters who fell the trees and bark them for the liner. The 
 liner marks the tree for the " scorers," who block it off, — 
 that is, cut off branches, knots, &c. The broad-ax man 
 follows, who squares and finishes the "pieces." During 
 the winter, when the snow lies sufficiently deep on the ground, 
 each piece is hauled by a yoke of oxen or a pair of horses 
 to the bank of the drive, where the timber is piled on 
 or near the roll-way until the return of spring melts the 
 
FOREST liVDUSTRY. 
 
 VS 
 
 frozen creek and the waters nse to a convenient " drivinsr 
 condition." A lumber "shanty" generally contains three 
 or four gangs, headed by a foreman whose duty it is to call 
 the men up in the morning, lay off their work, take their 
 time, and superintend operations generally. The broad-ax 
 man makes each night a return of the quantity of timber 
 made during the day. When the rivers are in suitajple 
 driving condition, the most perilous and laborious part of 
 lumbering operations begins. The pieces are pushed into 
 the stream and floated down to its junction with the main 
 river, where they are retained by a temporary boom. When 
 the tributary streams on which the lumber is made are nar- 
 row, it is a matter of some difficulty to accomplish the 
 drive, and the men are often exposed for weeks together to 
 all the inconveniencies and dangers which attend frequent 
 wading through in cold water. Jams not unfrequently 
 occur at the bends of the stream or above falls, and the 
 utmost caution is necessary in removing the obstruction 
 which retains the confused mass of pieces, apparently in- 
 volved in inextricable confusion. The cutting away of a 
 single stick or piece is often sufficient to set the accumulated 
 mass in motion, and accidents of a fatal description are not 
 unfrequent in endeavoring to loosen a *' jam." The main 
 river once reached, a number of pieces are fastened together 
 by means of withes, and formed into a raft, which slowly 
 floats down the river towards a sea or lake port. The great 
 distance up the tributaries of the large rivers draining a 
 timber territory to which the lumberers have penetrated, 
 often causes the drive to occupy from two to three months. 
 An idea of the immense distance from which lumber is now 
 brought may be obtained when it is known that the lum- 
 berers traveling up the tributaries of the Ottawa are now 
 meeting those who have ascended the rivers flowing into 
 Lake Huron; and the broad height of land which sends 
 waters to the St. Lawrence by the tributaries of the Ottawa, 
 
74 
 
 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 to Lake Ontario by the Trent, and to Lake Huron by tbe 
 Muskoka and other rivers, resounds with the ax and shout 
 of lumbermen who have reached the same spot by travers- 
 ing the rivers draining three different water-sheds, after 
 clearing the country of all timber groves conveniently situ- 
 ated for driving. 
 
 CHAPTER Yl. 
 
 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 Beyond the dividing ridge which^ separates the waters 
 flowing into Lake Superior from those which take a north- 
 westerly and then northerly direction towards Hudson's 
 Bay, lies the Great Inland Basin of Lake Winnipeg, occu- 
 pying a very considerable extent of the North American 
 continent, and forming part of the British possessions known 
 as the North- West Territory, or Rupert's Land. 
 
 The Basin of Lake Winnipeg extends from the 90th to 
 the 118th meridian. Its most easterly margin lies on the 
 boundary of Canada, west of Lake Superior, in long. 90^ 
 14, lat. 48° 53, being the head waters of Savanne River, a 
 remote tributary of the Winnipeg. The most westerly limit 
 of this vast basin is the Glacier, near Howse' Pass, in long. 
 117° 35, lat. 51° 52', from which a branch of the Saskatchewan 
 takes its rise. The southern extension of its boundary is 
 Lake Traverse, in Dakotah territory, long. 96° 43, lat. 45® 
 58. It stretches north as far as Frog Portage, long. 103° 
 30, lat 55° 26. This Basin consequently extends over 28 
 degrees of longitude and 10 degrees of latitude. The eleva- 
 tion of its eastern boundary is 1,485 feet above the ocean, 
 and the height of land near the sources of the tributary 
 which rises farthest to the west is 6,347 feet above the same 
 level. Its northern boundary is separated from the valley 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 75 
 
 of the Mississippi by alow portage over which waters flow 
 during floods, while towards the south, Lake Traverse, 
 which also sends water into the Mississippi during spring 
 freshets, is only 820 feet above the sea. The outlet of Lake 
 Winnipeg is through the contracted and rocky channel of 
 Nelson Eiver, which flows into Hudson's Bay. The mean 
 breadth of the Basin of Lake Winnipeg is about 380 
 English miles, and its mean length 920 miles, hence its area 
 is approximately 360,000 square miles, or about as large as 
 the Province of Canada. 
 
 Lake Winnipeg is 628 feet above the sea, and, with Lakes 
 Manitobah, Winnipegosis, and Dauphin, covers an area 
 exceeding 13,000 square miles, or about half as much as 
 Ireland. The country possessing a mean elevation of one 
 hundred feet above Lake Winnipeg is well marked by an 
 ancient lake ridge called Pembina Mountain, and may con- 
 tain 70,000 square miles, nine-tenths of which are lake, 
 marsh or surface rock of Silurian or Devonian age, and 
 generally so thinly covered with soil, with the exception of 
 that part of the valleys of Ked Kiver and the Assiniboine 
 which lie within it, a'S to be unfit for cultivation, except in 
 small detached areas. 
 
 Succeeding the low regions there are the narrow terraces 
 of the Pembina Mountain, which rise in abrupt steps, ex- 
 cept where cut by the broad valleys of rivers, to the level 
 of a higher plateau, whose eastern limit is formed by the 
 precipitous escarpments of the Eiding, Duck, and Porcupine 
 Mountains, with detached outlines, Turtle, Thunder, and 
 Pasquia Mountains. This is the great Prairie Plateau 
 of Rupert's Land ; it is bounded towards the south-west 
 and west by the Grand Coteau du Missouri, which forms 
 the north-eastern limit of the Plains of the north-west. 
 The area of the Prairie Plateau is about 120,000 square 
 miles; it possesses a mean elevation of 1,100 feet above the 
 sea, and consists of cretaceous rocks, overlaid in some parts 
 
76 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 witli tertiary formations. The Riding and Duck Moun- 
 tains, 1,600 feet above the ocean, no doubt once formed part 
 of an unbroken level to the Grand Coteau, the intervening 
 depression having been the result of denudation. The is- 
 olated range of hills, such as the Touchwood Hills, the File 
 Hill, the Pleasant Hill, the Birch Hill, &c., are parts of this 
 former elevated table-land, and would assume the character 
 of islands in a sea washing the base of the Grand Coteau 
 du Missouri. The Great Plains rise gently as the Rocky 
 Mountains are approached, and at their western limit have 
 an altitude of 4,000 feet above the sea level. With only a 
 very narrow belt of intervening country, the mountains rise 
 abruptly from the Plains, and present lofty precipices, frown- 
 ing like battlements over the level country to the eastward 
 and separating the rich golden treasures of British Colum- 
 bia from the. wide sterile wastes of the South Saskatchewan 
 or the long and narrow fertile belt through which the North 
 Saskatchewan pursues its winding course of nearly one 
 thousand miles. The average altitude of the highest part 
 of the Rocky Mountains is 12,000 feet ; in lat. 51°, the forest 
 extends to the altitude of 7,000 feetj or 2,000 feet above 
 the Yermilion Pafes. The "Fertile Belt" of the ISTorth- 
 West consists of the richest arable soil, partly in the form 
 of open prairie, partly covered with groves of aspen; 
 it stretches from the Lake of the Woods to the foot 
 of the Rocky Mountains, about 800 miles, and aver- 
 ages from 80 to 100 miles in breadth. The North Sas- 
 katchewan flows through this Fertile Belt, in a valley 
 varying from one-fourth of ^ mile to one mile in breadth, 
 and excavated to the depth of 200 to 800 feet below the 
 level of the plains or prairie through which it flows, until 
 it reaches the low country some miles east of Fort a la 
 Corne. The area of this remarkable strip of rich soil and 
 pasturage is about 40,000,000 acres. It was formerly a 
 wooded country, but by successive fires it has been par- 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 77 
 
 tially cleared of its forest growth., but abounds with, the 
 most luxuriant herbage, and generally possesses a deep, 
 rich soil of vegetable mould. The winter of this region is 
 not more severe than that of Lower Canada. The snow is 
 never very deep, and in the wildest tracts the natural pas- 
 ture is so abundant that horses and cattle may be left to 
 obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter. 
 This perennial supply of food for cattle might have been 
 predicted from the fact that the North Saskatchewan west 
 of Carlton supports vast herds of buffalo during the winter 
 season, and formerly the whole of the fertile belt used to be 
 the favorite winter quarters of countless herds who fattened 
 on the rich abundance of the natural grasses, scraping the 
 snow away with their feet, and never failing to obtain 
 abundance of well preserved hay beneath. The Fertile 
 Belt of the North Saskatchewan valley does not derive its 
 importance from the bare fact that it contains 64,000 square 
 miles of country immediately available for agricultural pur- 
 poses in one continuous strip, 800 miles long and 80 broad, 
 stretching across the continent ; it is rather by contrast with 
 an immense sub- arctic area to the north and a vast desert 
 area to the south that this favored "Edge of the Woods'* 
 country acquires political and commercial importance. A 
 broad agricultural region, capable of sustaining many mil- 
 lions of people, and abundantly supplied with iron ore and 
 an inferior variety of coal, and spanning the eight hundred 
 miles which, separate Lake Winnipeg from the Kocky 
 Mountains, more than compensates for the rocky character 
 of the timbered desert between the Lake of the Woods and 
 Lake Superior. The South Saskatchewan flows through an 
 and district which reaches as far north as lat. 52. The stiff 
 clays of the cretaceous and tertiary deposits, often highly 
 impregnated with salts, bakes into a hard and cracked sur- 
 face during the summer. The characteristic plants of the 
 arid region are the pretty prairie apples {Opuntia) and the 
 
78 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 shrub sage {Artemisia.) Within the fertile belt the alluvial 
 flats of the river valleys are clothed with the balsam poplar 
 and a dense thicket of willows, dogwood, amelanchier, and 
 red willow, together with Shepherdia argentea. On the 
 prairies of the Belt the aspen occurs in groves, and dense 
 thickets of willows surround marshes and swamps. On the 
 sides of the rising grounds the Ekmgnus argentea forms a low 
 silvery copse, affording food to large coveys of prairie 
 grouse. On high ground, with a sandy soil, the bear-berry 
 or kin-i-kinic forms a close matting. Towards the Rocky 
 Mountains large expanses of plain are covered with a low 
 birch or alder six to eight inches high, which in winter 
 gives the appearance of a heather-covered moorland to 
 these prairies. In June and July the prairies are covered 
 with brightly colored flowers, or completely clothed with a 
 dense copse of rose bushes and in many places of snow- 
 berry. As the country towards the south merges into open 
 prairies, the clumps of copse and young poplars are found 
 only on northern exposures. The last outliers of the woods 
 to the south form "Islands*" which make a great show in 
 the distance, but when approached are found to consist of a 
 small species of willow, that will yield neither fire-wood 
 nor shelter.* The whole of the Fertile Belt is well fitted 
 for settlement and agricultural colonization. All common 
 cereals and green crops have been grown successfully at 
 the different posts of the Hudson Bay Company within this 
 district. 
 
 The recent discoveries of gold in British Columbia have 
 given extraordinary importance to that colony, and to the 
 great Fertile Belt of the Saskatchewan valley in view of a 
 high road across the continent. During the season of nav- 
 igation the facilities for reaching any part of Lake Superior 
 are such that a vessel from Liverpool, of a capacity fitted 
 
 * See Dr. James Hector on the Physical Features of the central part of 
 British North America. 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 79 
 
 to go througb. the locks of the "Welland Canal, may dis- 
 charge her cargo at Fort William or any port on this vast 
 inland sea without breaking bulk. The next step in an 
 overland communication to British Columbia is from Lake 
 Superior to the settlement on Red River. The water part- 
 ing is not more than 890 feet above Lake Superior, and the 
 country is thickly wooded with valuable trees as far as the 
 Lake of the Woods. There does not exist any difficulty 
 in the construction of a road between Thunder Bay and 
 the most easterly indent of Rainy Lake, a distance of 200 
 miles. Between Rainy Lake and the north-west angle of 
 the Lake of the Woods, the country in rear of Rainy river, 
 a distance of 120 miles, is unexplored, and its facilities for 
 a direct land communication unknown. From the north- 
 west angle of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry, 90 
 miles, is a level country, which has already been traveled 
 by horses, although the swamps near Lac Plat are formida- 
 ble. The third step is the valley of the Saskatchewan, 
 already described, which, even in its present state is con- 
 stantly traversed with horses and carts from Red River to 
 the Rocky Mountains. The following are the altitudes of 
 the principal passes in the mountains above the sea level : 
 
 Altitude in Feet. 
 
 Kicking Horse Pass, lat. 51o 25', 5,420 
 
 Vermilion Pass, lat. 51© 10', 4,944 
 
 Kananaski Pass, lat. 50O 40', .*. 5,985 
 
 Kootanie Pass, lat. 490 25', 6,000 
 
 The height of land not 5,000 feet above the sea on the line 
 of the Yermilion Pass once crossed, the auriferoi;s ter- 
 races of British Columbia come into view. The Cariboo 
 and Kootanie diggings are both on the immediate west flank 
 of the Rocky Mountain range, or between 400 and 500 miles 
 from the Pacific coast. The whole valley of the upper 
 Columbia is auriferous, and gold has been found on the 
 eastern slope, two hundred miles from the mountains, in 
 
80 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY, 
 
 the bed of the Saskatchewan, but it is not probable that 
 the auriferous region on the east of the mountain is of great 
 extent, as the ancient rocks from which the gold must have 
 been derived have not been observed on that side. A great 
 future lies before the valley of the Saskatchewan ; it will 
 become the granary of British Columbia, the vast pasture 
 field by which the mining industry of the Eocky Moun- 
 tains will be fed. British Columbia is rich in the precious 
 metals, but poor in arable land ; the Fertile Belt of the 
 Saskatchewan is marvelously fruitful in forage plants, 
 possesses an admirable soil, and embraces besides an im- 
 mense supply of coal and iron ore of the best quality. 
 With these conditions, added to a very healthy climate, it 
 is not too much to expect that the Basin of Lake Winnipeg 
 will one day become the seat of an industrious, prosperous, 
 and powerful people, who, in these days of steam, will 
 always be able to communicate with the outer world for 
 two months in the year, at least, by way of Hudson Bay, 
 even if other outlets should be closed against them through 
 unhappy international troubles.* 
 
 THE LABRADOR PENINSULA. 
 
 The vast peninsula which commonly bears the name of 
 Labrador, a term more correctly applied to the north-eastern 
 portion, occupies an area between the Atlantic and Hudson's 
 Bay, lying within the forty-ninth and sixty-third parallels, 
 and between the fifty-fifth and seventy-ninth meridians. 
 The Gulf of St. Lawrence, the North Atlantic, Hudson's 
 Straits and Hudson's Bay are its boundaries on three sides ; 
 Kupert's River, the Mistassinni and the Bersiamits rivers 
 may be considered as forming the approximate south-western 
 limits of this peninsula. From the mouth of Eupert's 
 Eiver on Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Bersiamits on 
 
 * See "Narrative of the Canadian Expeditions in Rupert's Land," by the 
 author of this article. 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 81 
 
 the St. Lawrence, the distance is about 470 miles, and from 
 Cape Wolstenliolme, the most northern point of the country 
 to the Straits of Belle Isle, it is 1,100 miles. Traveling 
 northward from the Hudson Bay Company's post at Ber- 
 siamits, in a direct line to Ungava Bay, the distance would 
 be about 650 miles, while to Cape Wolstenholme to the 
 west, not less than one thousand. The area of the Labrador 
 Peninsula is approximately 42,000 square miles, or equal 
 to the British Isles, France, and Prussia combined, and the 
 greater portion of it lies between the same parallels of lat- 
 itude as Great Britain. 
 
 The whole of this immense country is uninhabited by 
 civilized man, with the exception of a few settlements on 
 the St. Lawrence and the Atlantic coast, and some widely 
 separated posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. It is very 
 thinly peopled by nomadic bands of Montagnais, Nasqua- 
 pee and Mistassinni Indians, and the northern coast by 
 wandering Esquimaux. Taken as a whole it is a region 
 altogether unfit for the abode of civilized man, and although 
 once rich in fur-bearing animals, and in cariboo or reindeer, 
 it is now almost a desert. 
 
 In the absence of any definite boundaries, the entire 
 peninsula is divided into three parts, supposed to be sep- 
 arate water-sheds, to which special names have been given. 
 The area draining into the River and Grulf of St. Lawrence, 
 belongs to Canada, whose eastern boundary is at Blanc 
 Sablon, near the mouth of the North- West River. The 
 country supposed to be drained by rivers which flow 
 into the Atlantic is called Labrador, and is under the 
 jurisdiction of Newfoundland. The remaining part of 
 the peninsula, which is drained by rivers flowing into 
 Hudson's Bay has received the designation of the East 
 Main. The names and position of the mouths only 
 of the numerous rivers which flow into the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, from the Bay of Seven Islands to the Straits 
 
82 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 of Belle Isle, are correctly given in published maps of the 
 country, and nearly the whole of our present knowledge of 
 the east side of the Labrador Peninsula is derived from 
 Capt. Bayfield's surveys, which are limited to the coast, 
 and no map yet published exhibits a correct geographical 
 picture of the interior of the country. 
 
 The Moisic or Miste-shipu Eiver, the "Great River" of 
 the Montagnais Indians, enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
 in longitude 66^ 10 , and has its sources in some of the 
 lakes and swamps of the high table-lands of Eastern Can- 
 ada. For centuries it has been one of the leading lines of 
 communication from the interior to the coast, traveled by 
 the Montagnais during the time when they were a numerous 
 and powerful people, capable of congregating upwards of a 
 thousand warriors to repel the invasion of the Esquimaux, 
 who were accustomed to hunt for a few weeks during the 
 summer months a short distance up the rivers east of the 
 Moisic, as they do now on the Coppermine, Anderson's and 
 Mackenzie's rivers in the country of the Hare Indians, and 
 the Loucheux. The old and well-worn portage paths round 
 falls and rapids and over precipitous mountains on the up- 
 per Moisic, testify to the antiquity of the route, independ- 
 ently of the traditions of the Indians who now hunt on the 
 river and on the table-land to which it is the highway. 
 
 The Montagnais Indians have for centuries had a water 
 communication between Seven Islands on the Gulf and 
 Hamilton Inlet on the Atlantic Ocean, via the Moisic, the 
 Ash-wa-nipi to a great lake on the table-land in the interior 
 called Petshikupan, thence by the Hamilton River to the 
 Inlet of the same name. The whole river may be known 
 by the name of the Ashwanipi, which takes its rise near 
 the head waters of ihe Moisic, and from which it is separ- 
 ated by a low an(T narrow water parting. The Ashwanipi 
 flows through five degrees of longitude, and little more 
 than two degrees of latitude, traversing the elevated table 
 
'^7^^^''^.' i ' 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 83 
 
 land of the Peninsula in a direction roughly parallel to the 
 Gulf coast. The table-land is 2,240 feet above the ocean 
 at the sources of the east branch of the Moisic. It is pre- 
 en^inently sterile, and where the country is not burned, 
 cariboo moss covers the rocks, with stunted spruce, birch 
 and aspen in the hollows and deep ravines. The whole of 
 the table-land is strewed with an infinite number of boul- 
 ders, sometimes three and four deep ; these singular errat- 
 ices are perched on the summit of every mountain and hill, 
 often on the edges of cliffs, and they vary in size from one 
 foot to twenty feet in diameter. Language fails to paint 
 the awful desolation of the table-land of the Labrador 
 Peninsula.* 
 
 INDIAN SALMON-SPEARING IN LABRADOR. 
 
 All tribes of Indians from the Eed River of the Korth 
 to the Atlantic coast of Labrador, draw a considerable share 
 of their support from the lakes and rivers, by means of 
 the fish-spear or " negog " of the Montagnais of the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence. But spearing any kind of fish during the 
 daytime is a tame and monotonous occupation compared 
 with the irrepressible excitement which attends spearing 
 salmon by torch-light, with Indians who understand their 
 work. It unfolds the real character of the Indian race in 
 its most striking peculiarities ; it displays untutored man 
 in the full strength of his natural gifts, expresses his capa- 
 bilities for intense enjoyment, and shows how he may be 
 roused to exert for hours together the utmost activity of 
 body and the greatest presence of mind. 
 
 See how gently they step into their canoe in the gloom 
 of the evening just passing into night. They whisper to 
 one another, although there is no fear of the sound of their 
 voices disturbing the prey of which they are in search. 
 
 * See "Explorations in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula" by the au- 
 thor of this article. 
 
84 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 Watcli the one in the bow trying the flexible clasping tines 
 of his " negog " or salmon-spear, springing them backward 
 to see if they have lost their elasticity, or if they can be 
 trusted to hold a powerful fish in their grasp; how he 
 straightens the long and slender shaft and lays it tenderly 
 under the bars of the canoe within reach of his hand. He 
 next examines the rolls of birch-bark which he will use for 
 torches, and fastens a cleft stick to the bow of his canoe, 
 in which he will insert one extremity of the flaming roll. 
 Turning round to ask his companion if he has "fire," he re- 
 ceives a low grunt in reply, which is followed by a subdued 
 howhl howh! and both grasping their paddles, away the 
 canoe glides towards the foot of the rapids, to a well known 
 shallow, or close to the tumbling waters of a cataract where 
 the fish are known to lie. 
 
 The torch is lit, and the spearman relinquishing his pad- 
 dle stands in the bow of the canoe, glancing eagerly from 
 side to side. Suddenly he pushes his spear in a slanting 
 direction, and quickly draws it back, lifting a salmon into 
 the canoe ; a second push and another victim ; now he at- 
 taches a thin line of sinew to his spear and twines it round 
 his arm. Like an arrow he darts his spear ; it is whirled 
 away with a sudden jerk, and trembles in the stream ; he 
 gently but steadily draws it towards him with the line of 
 sinew, and grasping it when within reach, lifts his quarry 
 into the canoe. Look over the side of the little craft, the 
 salmon are seen coming to the light, they gaze for a moment 
 and glide away like spectres into the black waters ; some 
 of them swim round the canoe, and come to look again and 
 again, pausing but for a moment to speculate upon its 
 * brightness, and the next lie quivering at the bottom of the 
 canoe. 
 
 Both Indians at the same moment see a fish of unusual 
 size approach the light, gaze without stopping and quickly 
 move oflF, hover about at some little distance, suspicious 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 85 
 
 and distrustful, but still attracted by the light. Gently and 
 noiselessly the canoe is urged toward him by the Indian in 
 the stern, no words pass between him and his companion, 
 both saw the fish at the same moment and both know that 
 they will take him. But look at the Indian with the spear, 
 look at his face illumined by the red flare of the burning 
 torch ; his mouth is half open with suspense, but he does 
 not breathe through it, his dilated eyes are flashing intent, 
 he stands so motionless, with uplifted spear ready to strike, 
 that he looks like a statue of bronze. But there is life in 
 that expanding and contracting nostril, life in the two thin 
 streams of vapor which puff from his nostrils into the 
 keen night air ; and is there not sudden and vigorous life 
 in that swift dart of the spear, those parting lips closing 
 together in unison with the fling of his arm? is there not 
 intelligent life in that momentary light which flashes from 
 his eyes, red like the gleams which they reflect, and in that 
 smile, triumphant and assured, which he throws at his com- 
 panion, as, without uttering a word or sound, he lifts witu 
 both hands the heavy fish straight from the water, holds it 
 struggling over the canoe, and shakes it from his spear ? 
 Is this the languid, drowsy savage which you have often 
 seen slouching through the day, indolent and listless, a 
 sluggard and a drone? 
 
 They go to the foot of the cataract ; the largest fish lie 
 there in little eddies close to the rocks, waiting for an oppor- 
 tunity to take their leap up the tumbling waters, to shel- 
 tered parts above, where they may rest in their difi&cult 
 ascent. Now is the full measure of the Indian's skill re- 
 quired ; the broken water at the edge of the main rapid at 
 the foot of the cataract rocks the canoe, and would seem 
 to destroy the spearer's aim; the water is deep, and he 
 must throw his weapon, he cannot push it as in the shallows 
 or a quiet stream. The Indian who is steering and paddling 
 must beware of st'-ong eddies, of whirlpools, of getting 
 
86 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITTORY. 
 
 under tlie cataract, or of sidling into the rapid below. He 
 must have his eye on the canoe, the water, and the salmon, 
 and his hand ready at any moment to edge off from danger 
 and never give way to momentary excitement, even when 
 the spear is thrown, and a heavy fish struck, — the rocks, 
 the impetuous torrent, the tumbling waters at his bow, the 
 flickering light not always to be relied on, must be watched, 
 for a slight change in an eddy may swamp the fragile craft, 
 or break it on a rock. 
 
 There is indescribable excitement in the dancing motion 
 at the foot of a cataract, in a tiny birch-bark canoe, by the 
 red light of a torch during a night without a moon. You 
 see before you a wall of water, red, green and white tum- 
 bling incessantly at your feet, on either hand you gaze on 
 a wall of rock, rising so high as to be lost in the gloom and 
 apparently blending with the sky. You look behind and 
 there is a foaming torrent rushing into the blackness of 
 night, sweeping past the eddy in which your birch craft is 
 lightly dancing to the loud music of a water-fall. No sound 
 but its never-ceasing din can reach you; no near object 
 meets your eye which does not reflect a red glare and assume 
 an unaccustomed character which the warm and cheery color 
 imparts. Suddenly the torch falls and is instantly extin- 
 guished in the rushing waters; absolute darkness envelopes 
 you, the white foam, the changing green of the falling wa- 
 ter, the red reflected light of the broken waves, all be- 
 come uniformly and absolutely black. Nothing what- 
 ever is discernible to the eye, but perhaps another sense 
 tells of swift undulating motion, a rolling ride over stormy 
 waves, with lessening roar. Your eyes gradually recover 
 their power of vision, and you find yourself either swaying 
 up and down in the same eddy or far away from the fall on 
 the main channel of the river, secure against whirlpools 
 and rocks, with the Indians quietly paddling the canoe 
 and about to turn again to resume their savage sport. The 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 87 
 
 moment the light fell into the water, an event which often 
 occurs with birch-bark torches, the Indian at the stern de- 
 cided whether to remain in the eddy, or to enter the rapid 
 and descend it until his power of vision was restored. 
 This is a contingency for which all salmon-spearers in such 
 situations must be prepared. Indecision might prove fatal; 
 for if the eddy were safe in absolute darkness for a quarter 
 of a minute, it would be wise to remain ; if there is danger 
 of being sucked under the fall, it would be well to seek 
 refuge from a sudden deluge, or from rocks and whirlpools 
 in the swift but tumultuous rapid. This can only occur on 
 a large river, and at the foot of a fall. Water in rapid 
 motion is a terrible power, and none know how to take ad- 
 vantage of its humors better than the wild Indian salmon- 
 spearer, who avoids its dangers with matchless skill and 
 self-possession, and who seeks the excitement it offers as if 
 it were the mainspring of his life, or the aim of his ex- 
 istence. 
 
 LIFE IN THE WILDERNESS. 
 
 From the earliest period when the fur trade was prose- 
 cuted with vigor in British America, those wanderers 
 through the woods, the Coureurs du Bois, with their descend- 
 ants, the Bois brules, or Half-breeds, have' always occupied 
 a prominent position on the frontiers of civilization, and 
 latterly among many of the nomadic Indian tribes which 
 peopled and still occupy the vast north-west territory. 
 Life in the wilderness has not only peculiar charms to these 
 children of the forest and the prairies, but it annually wins 
 for months or for years many who have been brought up and 
 educated in all the refinements of civilized society. It is 
 difficult to say wherein lies the greatest charm of the wil- 
 derness of British America, within the limits of the valley 
 of the St. Lawrence, or the valley of the Saskatchewan. 
 Rocks, mounta'^s, foaming torrents, magnificent cataracts^ 
 
88 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 and endless forests distinguisli the St. Lawrence. Bound- 
 less prairies, sweet-scented breezes, and gorgeous sunsets are 
 the characteristics of the Saskatchewan. In summer the 
 prairies are perhaps to be preferred, in winter the woods. 
 The falls and rapids of the rivers flowing into the St. Law- 
 rence to the east, or ultimately into Lake Winnipeg on the 
 west, often present the wildest and most picturesque scenery, 
 displaying every variety of tumultuous cascade, precipitous 
 cliffs, deep gorges, treacherous and sullen eddies, huge 
 swelling waves, rising massive and green over hidden 
 rocks, or quiet and tranquil rivers gliding into lakes. 
 Viewed under different aspects they convey all variety of 
 impressions to the mind, cold and cheerless in the gray dawn 
 of morning, pleasing and encouraging as they flash in the 
 brightness of noonday, or melancholy and depressing as 
 they silently glitter in the silver light of the moon. Few 
 enjoyments can equal a bright camp-fire after a hard day's 
 work in canoes, and no sleep is like the sleep of the toil- 
 worn voyager, on the pine or spruce branches he spreads 
 for his couch, beneath the cold, clear sky of autumn in the 
 gloom of Lawrentian forests. 
 
 A DAY IN THE WILDERNESS. 
 
 The dawn of morning when journeying through the 
 wide and wild rocky ridge which separates the valley of 
 the St. Lawrence from that of the Winnipeg, possesses 
 scenes and associations which belong to itself. Eising from 
 a bed on the hard rock, softened by a few spruce boughs 
 and a north blanket, the paling stars and the cold, yellow 
 light in the east first tell that the night is passed. On the 
 lake a river by which the camp is made a dense screen of 
 fog rests like a pall. A sudden rush through the under- 
 brush tells of a poor mink or martin prowling close by, 
 probably attracted by the fragments of last night's meal. 
 From the dying camp-fires a thin column of smoke rises 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 89 
 
 higli above the trees or spreads lake wards to join tlie damp, 
 misty veil whicli hides the waters from view. Around the 
 fires are silent forms, stretched like shrouded corpses at full 
 length on the bare earth, or on spruce branches neatly laid. 
 These are Indians ; they lie motionless on their backs 
 completely enveloped in their blankets. Beneath upturned 
 canoes, or lying like the Indians with their feet to the fire, 
 the half-breeds, or the French Canadian voyageurs, lay in 
 wild disarray. All is repose ; the silence is almost oppres- 
 sive, broken at intervals only by the dull noise of a water- 
 fall borne on the gentle breath which springs up imperceptibly 
 with the rising sun. As the morning advances an Indian 
 awakes, uncovers his face, sits on his haunches, and loQks 
 around from beneath the folds of his blanket which he has 
 drawn over his head. After a few minutes have thus 
 passed, not observing his companions show any signs of 
 waking or any disposition to rise, he utters a low "waugh;" 
 slowly other forms unroll themselves, sit on their haunches 
 and look around in silence. Soon the half-breeds or voy- 
 ageurs are aroused, the dying embers of the fire blown into 
 a flame, a few sticks of fresh wood added, pipes lit, and the 
 day's work begins. The canoes are soon launched and the 
 baggage stowed away ; the party embark and plunge into 
 the mist, while no sound but the measured stroke of the 
 paddle meets the ear. The sun begins to glimmer above 
 the horizon, the fog clears slowly away, a loon or a flock 
 of ducks fly wildly across the bow of the cande, the Indians 
 shout at the frightened birds, or imitate their cry with won- 
 derful accuracy, the guide calls a halt, pipes are replenished, 
 and the cheerful sunlight gilding the top of distant trees 
 brightens, warms, and enlivens all animate and inanimate 
 things. The day wears on and the breakfast hour arrives, 
 a short hunt in the woods for rabbits, or in a neighboring 
 lake or marsh for ducks, rapidly passes the time. As soon 
 as the meal is finished, all embark again. The voyageurs 
 
90 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 and half-breeds sing their merry French songs, or the In- 
 dians chant the war-songs of their forefathers, keeping time 
 to the regular stroke of the paddles. The banks of the 
 river are closely scanned in search of game, and the fresh 
 track of a bear, a moose, a cariboo, or a deer awakens all 
 the hunter's sympathies, as with suppressed voices they dis- 
 cuss the number of hours which have elapsed since the 
 track was made. Supper is the time for enjoyment, as 
 lazily lolling round the camp-fires the men, pipe in mouth, 
 listen to tales of forest life, incident of the chase, hair- 
 breadth escapes, and distant Indian wars. 
 
 A WINTER JOURNEY ON THE PRAIRIES. 
 
 Dogs, carioles, sledges and snow-shoes, are required for a 
 winter journey in the prairies as well as in the woods, but 
 in consequence of the greater degree of cold in an . open 
 expanse of country, the difficulty of procuring fire- wood 
 and the scarcity of game, winter traveling in the prairies 
 is far from being so pleasant as in thick woods where a good 
 track can be made. Each dog requires daily about two 
 pounds of pemmican or three pounds of white-fish, so that 
 the provisions for a train of carioles employing thirty dogs 
 would involve the carriage of 600 pounds of pemmican or 
 900 pounds of white-fish for a ten days' journey. A train 
 of three dogs will draw 300 pounds forty miles a day for 
 ten or twelve days in succession, if well fed, and the road 
 is tolerably good over a level country. A winter road, it 
 may be here remarked, is nothing more than a cariole or 
 sledge track caused by the passage of this primitive kind 
 of vehicle over the snow, and is liable to be obliterated by 
 every fresh fall. . A cariole is constructed of a very thin 
 board ten feet long and twelve or fourteen inches broad, 
 turned up at one end in the form of half a circle, like the 
 bow of an Ojibway canoe. To this board a high cradle, 
 lite the body of a small carriage, is attached, about eighteen 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 91 
 
 inclies from the end of the board or floor. The framework 
 is covered with buffalo skin parchment, and painted or de- 
 corated according to taste. The inside is lined with a 
 blanket or buffalo robe, and when the traveler is seated in 
 his cariole, with outstretched legs, he is only separated from 
 the snow by the thin plank which forms the floor. A 
 sledge is nothing more than a thin board ten or twelve feet 
 long, twelve inches broad, and turned up at one end. The 
 baggage is attached to it by means of buffalo thongs, and 
 two or three dogs are harnessed to this simple vehicle with 
 the same materials. The dogs attached to a cariole are 
 generally decorated with collars, from which beadwork and 
 tassels are suspended together with a string of small bells. 
 When a train is in motion the driver runs behind the cariole 
 or sledge, guiding it by means of a loop fastened to each 
 corner of the floor; when tired or anxious to ride he sits 
 on the small box containing the traveler's baggage, which 
 is fastened to the projecting board. 
 
 A camp is always made in "woods," if possible, for the 
 sake of fuel and shelter. The first operation is to sweep 
 the snow from the ground, and prepare a place for the fire 
 and blankets. This is easily accomplished with snow-shoes, 
 and as soon as an area proportioned to the size of the party 
 is prepared, a fire is made sufficiently long to admit of each 
 man lying for the night with his feet towards it. No tent 
 or covering of any description beyond a blanket stretched 
 on poles is admissible, as it would scarcely be possible to 
 fold canvas in the morning, and time does not generally 
 allow of the erection of a hut, nor are the materials always 
 at hand. When pine or spruce is accessible, a very com- 
 fortable floor can be made from the boughs, but in the 
 prairie country or on its borders these useful trees are rarely 
 to be seen. 
 
 The appearance of the camp during the night, when all 
 are buried in profound slumber, is very wild and savage. 
 
92 THE JSrORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 
 
 Throwing a few dry sticks into the fire to light up the 
 scene, the. silent, slumbering forms of the travelers are seen 
 stretched in two parallel rows with their feet to the fire ; 
 between the men, one, two, and sometimes three huge dogs 
 have crept ; some are lying on the legs of the half-breeds 
 for the sake of warmth, others have found a snug berth 
 close to the fire but in imminent danger of burning their 
 fur, a few lie coiled outside of the circle half- buried in the 
 snow. The cold is so intense that their faces are white 
 with frozen breath, and scarcely distinguishable. The fire, 
 even when in full glow, has not power to melt the snow 
 more than a few inches from it,- without it is exposed to 
 direct and prolonged radiation. Now and then a watchful 
 dog raises his head, probably disturbed by some slight 
 movement of the sleepers ; he looks once round and buries 
 his face again. Sometimes a dog will utter a low warning 
 growl, when three or four other dogs, probably old stagers, 
 will rouse themselves for an instant, listen and growl, gen- 
 erally all looking in one direction and snuffing the air. A 
 half-breed sits up, looks at the dogs, observes their mien 
 and actions, and after a moment's pause, uttering the word 
 '^ wolves," he quickly coils himself under his blanket again. 
 The most disagreeable part of the daily routine of a 
 long winter's journey is the catching and harnessing of the 
 dogs. Some of these animals at the beginning of winter, 
 when fresh at their work for the season, are exceedingly 
 restive under coercion of any description, and not unfre- 
 quently snap at their masters, who invariably arm them- 
 selves with very strong mittens of bufialo or deer hide 
 when harnessing a savage and powerful animal^ They re- 
 quire long-continued and most severe punishment to make 
 them obedient to the word of command. An Esquimaux 
 whip is the instrument which every driver should be com- 
 pelled to use, but the half-breeds trust to sticks and stones, 
 or any object within reach on the road, which is picked up 
 
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. -.^^v 93 
 
 as they pass and thrown at the dogs. It is painful to wit- 
 ness the sudden start of terror with which each animal, 
 looking over his shoulder as he trots along, watches the 
 mien and motions of the driver as he poises the stick, 
 which he knows how to throw with certain dexterity at the 
 terrified animals. All the dogs give a simultaneous jump 
 on one side as the missile flies past them, when directed to 
 the leader of the train ; and not unfrequently would the 
 cariole be overturned if it were not for the strength and the 
 skill of the driver in holding the loop with which he steers 
 it. When this occurrence takes place and the dogs are at 
 full speed, the only plan left for the helpless traveler is to 
 draw his arms close to his sides, and wait until the cariole 
 is righted by the driver; but any attempt to right the cariole 
 by putting out an arm is a dangerous operation, which 
 might occasion a broken limb. In descending steep hills, 
 it is always advisable to walk or run, which all would pre- 
 fer for the sake of exercise, except when the road is very 
 good, and the trains can proceed for many miles at a gallop 
 without fatigue. 
 
 A heavy snow-storm is a serious matter in the prairie. 
 It is then absolutely necessary for all the trains to keep 
 close together; the drifting snow soon obliterates the tracks ; 
 and, although the dogs with their exquisite noses will fol- 
 low the tracks of the leading cariole even when completely* 
 hidden from view by a light fall, yet when drifts accumu- 
 late they are at fault. 
 
 Preparing to camp in a snow-storm is not an agreeable 
 operation, or suggestive of that comfort and safety which a 
 camp almost always presents. When the fire is well lighted, 
 supper cooked and eaten, and the party "turned in," then 
 it does not matter much how heavily it snows, the trouble 
 being reserved for the following day. After a heavy fall 
 during the night, men, dogs, carioles, and sledges are all 
 covered with a thick mantle of pure white; a sudden shout 
 
94 THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 
 
 from the guide enlivens many of the apparently lifeless 
 forms, recognized only by their ontline ; but some of the 
 sagacious dogs take advantage of the concealment afforded 
 by the snow, and, quite neglectful of the whistles and 
 shouts of their masters, *'lie close." 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 
 
 Canada has hitherto been signally unfortunate in her 
 different seats of government, in the buildings appropriated 
 to public departments, and in the residences of her gov- 
 ernors. Quebec, Montreal, Kingston, and Toronto have 
 each in turn been the capital of the province. Ottawa has 
 not yet been tried ; but there is good ground for the expec- 
 tation and hope that the selection of Her Majesty the Queen 
 will be found conducive to the best interests of the province, 
 whatever may be the disappointment felt by cities which 
 had a history before Ottawa was in existence or even the 
 great river from which it derives its name thoroughly ex- 
 plored. 
 
 THE OTTAWA RIVER AND VALLEY. 
 
 The Ottawa rises near the forty-ninth parallel of latitude 
 *in longitude 76° W. It is about 780 miles long, and 300 
 miles from its source it passes through Lake Temiscaming, 
 67 miles long. Above this lake the country drained by the 
 Ottawa is little known ; but below it, for a distance of 430 
 miles, the river has been surveyed. Montreal River, the 
 canoe route to Hudson Bay, comes in from the north-west, 
 84 miles down Lake Temiscaming, and, six miles lower 
 down, the great and almost unknown river Keepawa 
 plunges into the lake in a magnificent cascade 120 feet in 
 height. From the long sault at the foot of Lake Temiscam- 
 ing, 233 miles above the city of Ottawa, the river is not 
 
THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 95 
 
 navigable for a distance of 89 miles, except for canoes. Be- 
 tween the last-named point and Ottawa, a distance of 197 
 miles, numerous tributaries swell its waters, and one of 
 these, the Matawan, coming from the west, is of especial 
 interest at the present time, in consequence of its being on 
 the line of the proposed ship-canal route between the Ottawa 
 River and Lake Huron. Above the Upper Allumette Lake 
 there is a navigable reach of water 43 miles in length. 
 The mountains above Allumette Lake are upward of 1,000 
 feet in height, and the scenery is magnificent. The moun- 
 tains on the north side of Colongue Lake are 1,600 feet 
 high, and the scenery grand and beautiful. The Petewawa, 
 one of the largest tributaries, 140 miles long, drains an area 
 of 2,200 square miles; the Black River drains 1,120 square 
 miles; and, 39 miles above Ottawa City, the Madawaska, 
 one of its greatest feeders, and 210 miles long, drains 4,100 
 square miles. Six miles above Ottawa the rapids begin 
 which terminate in the celebrated Chaudi^re Falls, whose 
 tumultuous waters plunge 40 feet and partly disappear in 
 the " Lost Chaudi^re " by an underground passage whose 
 subsequent outlet is unknown. At Ottawa the great river 
 receives the Rideau, distinguished on account of its canal 
 which connects the city of Ottawa with Lake Ontario at 
 Kingston. Its largest tributary, the Gatineau, with a course 
 of 420 miles, comes in from the north, and drains 12,000 
 square miles of territory. Eighteen miles below Ottawa is 
 the Riviere du Li^vre, draining an area of 4,100 square 
 miles ; below this river there are numerous tributaries vary- 
 ing from 90 to 160 miles in length. The rapids below 
 Ottawa are avoided by a succession of canals. One hundred 
 and thirty miles below the future capital of the province the 
 Ottawa's waters mingle with those of the St. Lawrence, and 
 for many miles their yellow, turbid stream can be seen quietly 
 gliding by the side of the blue waters of the St. Lawrence, 
 soon to become blended in their onward course to the sea. 
 
96 THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 
 
 The vallej drained by the Ottawa is 80,000 square miles 
 in area, for the most part covered with valuable woods, par- 
 ticularly red and white pine; it is abundantly intersected 
 with large rivers, and contains a very considerable area of 
 the best soil. The country is generally beautiful and undu- 
 lating behind what has been called the red-pine region, and 
 sustains a growth of maple, beech, birch, and elm. No re- 
 gion of equal extent enjoys so much excellent water-power 
 with such ample supplies of timber and minerals to work 
 up, or to apply to any kind of manufacture" to which water- 
 power is applicable. It is a region rich in iron, lead, plum- 
 bago, marbles, ochres, and copper. The valley of the 
 beautiful and bountiful river is capable of maintaining 
 without difficulty twice the entire present population of 
 Canada, or more than 6,000,000 souls. Sucb is the region 
 in which the future capital of this vast province is situated, 
 and where its government will be established. The city of 
 Ottawa was founded by Colonel By, in 1827, at the time 
 of the construction of the Kideau Canal. It is situated a 
 little below the beautiful and curious falls of the Chaudi^re, 
 and stands upon a high and bold eminence surrounding a 
 deep bay. Lord Sydenham recommended Bytown (now 
 Ottawa) as a very favorable situation for the seat of Gov- 
 ernment of Canada. In 1850 the population was 6,016; 
 but, in consequence of its being the seat of the lumber 
 trade, its inhabitants have always been of a very transient 
 description, spending the summer in the town and in fall 
 hastening far away to the great lumber districts, north, 
 west, and east, to spend the winter in the glorious forests 
 which still cover the Upper Country. The present popula- 
 tion of Ottawa is 15,000. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS. 
 
 These are three in number, — the parliament-house and 
 two departmental buildings. They occupy an elevated 
 
THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 97 
 
 piece of ground, about 25 acres in extent and 150 feet 
 above the river, known by the name of " Barrack Hill." 
 The view from this natural terrace is superb. The great 
 river, with its moving rafts, steamers, barges, and canoes 
 rolls swiftly on through splendid hill ranges towards the 
 south. In the distance the succession of bridges which 
 span the majestic river just above the Chaudi^re Falls, 
 attracts the eye, even though it be tempted to rest upon the 
 wild beauty of the cascade sweeping by craggy rocks, be- 
 tween abrupt islands, and plunging into the basin below, 
 where part of its waters disappear in the Lost Chaudi^re. 
 Far beyond the beautiful cascade, glitters the broad river, 
 swiftly rushing down the rapid Des Chenes; and in the re- 
 mote background* rise towering hills and mountains, often 
 brilliant with purple and gold when the sun dips from view 
 and gilds their lonely summits with his parting beams. 
 
 The buildings are constructed of a light-colored sand- 
 stone found in the township of Nepean in the valley of the 
 Ottawa. This material is geologically interesting, as it 
 comes from the most ancient fossiliferous unaltered rock in 
 the world, — the Potsdam sandstone. At Lyn, where some 
 of the stone is obtained, the massive sandstone beds are seen 
 resting on Laurentian gneiss. The walls are relieved with 
 cut-stone dressings of Devonian sandstone from Ohio, and 
 by red sandstone relieving arches from Potsdam in the state 
 of New York. The roofs are slated with purple and green, 
 and the pinnacles ornamented with wrought-iron cresting. 
 The style of architecture is the Italian-Gothic, and the 
 south front of the quadrangle is formed by the parliament 
 building, 500 feet in length. The two departmental struc- 
 tures are 875 feet long. The rear is open and will be railed 
 off with a suitable ornamental screen. The committee 
 rooms occupy the front of the building. The library, a 
 beautiful detached circular building, with a dome 90 feet 
 high, is in the rear of the central tower, 250 high. The 
 
98 THB NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 
 
 two legislative halls are on each side of tlie library, but in 
 the main building. The dimensions of these halls are the 
 same of those of the House of Lords, — namely, 80 feet by 
 45 ; they are situated on the ground floor and lighted from 
 above. The library is constructed after the plan of the new 
 library of the British Museum, and will hold 300,000 vol- 
 umes. The speaker's rooms, and all other offices and con- 
 veniences required, are judiciously arranged within easy 
 reach of the legislative halls. The speaker's and librarian's 
 residences are detached buildings and do not necessarily 
 form part of the main structure. 
 
 The two departmental buildings contain in the aggregate 
 300 rooms, and are intended to accommodate all the depart- 
 ments of tht government of the province j and are so con- 
 structed as to be capable of extension at any future time 
 without injuring the general architectural effect. The 
 buildings cover nearly four acres, and some idea of their 
 magnitude may be inferred from the following brief statis- 
 tics. The plastering when completed will exceed ten acres 
 in extent. The number of windows and doors is about 
 1,200; the length of the cornices, 12 miles; the number of 
 bricks used, 12,000,000; together with many thousand yards 
 of masonry, cut-stone work, and much carving and decora- 
 tions of a similar character. 
 
 The architeclfj for the parliament buildings are Messrs. 
 Fuller and Jones, of Toronto; Mr. Thomas McGreevy, of 
 Quebec, is the contractor. The architects for the depart- 
 mental buildings are Messrs. Stent and Laver; the con- 
 tractors, Messrs. Haycock and Jones. It is quite impossible 
 to state the cost of these buildings when finished: it is 
 sufficient to say that up to the present moment, upward of 
 a million dollars has been expended on them, and they are 
 still far from being completed. 
 
*«»i?Sa!v;i,tWK-: 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOK 
 
 The true appreciation of the progress of any country in 
 any l)ranch of its industry depends upon the conditions un 
 der whicli that progress has been made: a glance, the-refore, 
 at physical, social, and political elements becomes a neces- 
 sary introduction even to the limited field of its Travel and 
 Transportation. The progress of Canada during the cen- 
 tury which has elapsed since it became a British colony 
 practically commenced about eighty years ago, or after the 
 close of the contest between Great Britain and her revolting 
 North- American colonies. Out of these eighty years, fifty 
 at least, embrace the history of two provinces of unequal 
 age, and two races, under different laws, language, religion, 
 and (to a great degree) climates. These provinces have 
 been hampered by a vacillating Imperial policy, while 
 struggling for a commercial independence involving compe- 
 tition along a thousand miles of frontier with one of the 
 foremost nations of the earth ; — with a people tenfold their 
 superiors in numbers and wealth, in quantity and variety of 
 productions, and in the possession of their " treaty-making 
 power" on their own continent---w hereby they have de- 
 rived manifest advantages in the settlement of every bound- 
 ary question. 
 
 The province of Canada, or of Quebec, by which names the 
 whole of Canada was called after its seizure by the English, 
 contained a French population between 60,000 and 70,000 in 
 number, which, with two exceptions and the few settlements 
 along the Detroit River, was confined within the bounds of 
 Eastern or Lower Canada. At Frontenac (Kingston,) and 
 at the outlet of Lake Erie, the old French forts were garri- 
 
100 TRAVBL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 soned within the boundaries of Upper Canada; but those 
 "which commanded the Niagara and Detroit Eivers were 
 upon the southern shore. As a colony of France, Canada 
 "was a semi-military organization, "without any other exports 
 than peltries. By becoming English, a privileged market 
 for lumber and breadstuff's was opened to her in the British 
 West-India Islands, — particularly valuable during and after 
 the war of the Revolution, when the Atlantic colonies 
 were excluded. In 1777 a British officer wrote that " there 
 are saw-mills and grist-mills all over the province, and the 
 Canadians are enriching themselves by exporting lumber 
 and grain to the West Indies."* This referred, of course, 
 to Lower Canada ; for, though Montreal fell, and a daring 
 attempt was made at the outset of the Revolution to seize 
 upon Quebec, the posts upon the lakes, although then one 
 hundred years old, were surrounded by savages hostile to 
 the cause of the insurgents. Upper Canada was at that pe- 
 riod in the possession of the Northern Iroquois, a confeder- 
 ation of the most warlike of the native tribes ; and there 
 are those yet living who remember when, — save the few 
 families around the precincts of the old French forts, — not 
 a white man could be found over all the vast area of 
 Canada West. Toronto was then an Indian village whose 
 warriors speared the salt-water salmon in her harbor, or 
 chased the deer through the county of York, and their 
 squaws then paddled among the rice-beds of the smaller 
 lakes, and threshed out the wild grain over the gunwales 
 of their canoes.f In the Western Peninsula the noble elk 
 herded upon the prairies of St. Clair, or roamed over the 
 oak forests, untroubled by the sound of the settler's axe, and 
 swam the waters where paddle and screw barque and brig 
 now plow their busy way. Myriads of wild pigeons from 
 
 * In 1787, over 200,000 bushels of wheat were exported from Quebec, 
 t In 1795, 400 to 500 pounds of wild rioe were sold by the Indians in 
 Kingston market. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 101 
 
 the South annually invaded the beech woods and bore down 
 the branches by their weight; thousands of black squirrels 
 from the East swam the broad Niagara, and marched west- 
 ward in extended line; while flocks of gorgeously clad 
 turkeys and plump-breasted quails stalked solemnly along 
 the wild pathways of the forest, undisturbed by the hoarse 
 roar of the locomotive or the rush of the railway train. In 
 every narrow valley and upon every living streamlet, the 
 laborious beaver arrested the rich alluvion and prepared 
 broad meadows for the flocks and herds of the red man's 
 successors. The hunter and the hunted have exterminated 
 each other. 
 
 The achievement of their independence by the revolted 
 colonies expatriated all those whom loyalty to their king 
 had placed upon the losing side ; and fortunate it was for 
 these villified and plundered fugitives that there yet re- 
 mained for them upon this continent an asylum to which 
 they could retire from the fierce persecution of the success- 
 ful democrats. The impregnable fortress of Quebec on the 
 east maintained communication with the mother country, 
 while the forts of Oswego and Niagara — separated from the 
 Atlantic settlements by vast forests — were cities of refuge 
 to which the adherents of the king might flee under the 
 guidance and protection of the friendly Mohawk. This 
 northward emigration penetrated Canada by Lake Cham- 
 plain on the east, by Oswego and Frontenac (Kingston) in 
 the center, and by Niagara on the west. They came from 
 as far south as the Carolinas, and their wagon-boxes, made 
 water-tight, floated the wheels across rivers where no ferries 
 were yet established. Many of those who entered by the 
 eastern route moved westward to a milder climate, and to 
 join those of their own language, faith, and municipal 
 customs. This sudden influx of a British population into 
 the province of Quebec — French in all but its allegiance, — 
 brought about the division into Upper and Lower Canada, 
 
« C «. 9 
 
 o c « c > o 
 -> V e « *• >■ <j 
 
 102 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, 
 
 - ■-» -» ^* ,— 
 
 in each of wliicli the laws were to be made by the inhabit- 
 ants thereof. The separation took place in 1.791, at which 
 time the population of Upper Canada was about 20,000 
 souls; that of Lower Canada a little over 100,000. The 
 province of Quebec had been governed by the ordinances 
 of a governor and council ; but, from 1791, both provinces 
 were equally endowed with a local legislature, although in 
 both, the governors selected and maintained their councils 
 without the acknowledgment that the confidence of the 
 house of assembly was a constitutional necessity, until their 
 reunion in 1841. 
 
 ROADS. 
 
 The development of the Transportation service in any 
 new country is not more dependent upon the advance in 
 civilization of its colonists than upon its physical geography 
 and climate. The possession of capital and a knowledge of 
 the arts, are, for a time at least, often valueless in the face 
 of obstacles presented by rapid rivers, mountain ranges, 
 trackless forests, or quantities of snow. Time is as neces- 
 sary as money to prepare the way for the superior vessel or 
 vehicle; and thus, to the European in America, the simple 
 expedients of the savage indigene are as applicable as the 
 camel to the desert, the dog-sledge for the Esquimaux, or 
 the ironless carts of the " Bois Brules " in Kupert's Land. 
 
 Although the existence of roads for the passage of 
 wheeled vehicles dates from the most remote history, it would 
 seem that their early construction was for warlike or for 
 state rather than for commercial purposes — for chariots and 
 trophies and engines of war; perhaps, also, for the transport 
 of materials for monuments, temples, &c. The Assyrian 
 sculptures show that wagons and carts, drawn by mules and 
 oxen, were used; but their land trade, we know, was prin- 
 cipally carried on by caravans of loaded camels, horses, 
 mules, and o^ses. Wagons were used to bring down the 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 103 
 
 aged patriarcli, " tlie wives, and the little ones " into the 
 land of Goshen, but their supplies were borne upon the 
 backs of animals. Egypt and Assyria were rainless coun- 
 tries, traversed by great rivers, watered by irrigation, and 
 supplied with numerous canals giving water transportation 
 for internal traffic. Separated by the mountainous regions 
 of the Holy Land, their interchange of commerce was best 
 conducted by the "ships of the desert;" for movable 
 sand has ever been one of the greatest impediments to road- 
 making. 
 
 The wonderful roads of the Romans, carried straight 
 over hill and dale in such a manner as to be of little service 
 for wheels, were more military than commercial. Inasmuch 
 as the Roman knowledge of road-making was derived from 
 the Carthaginians, ancient colonists from Tyre, it is probable 
 that, notwithstanding the obstacles which the rugged land- 
 scape of Canaan opposed to commercial highways, we may 
 trace the origin of paved roads to the land where Pharaoh's 
 wagons were sent when Israel went down into Egypt. In- 
 deed, it is difficult to conceive how the cedars of Lebanon 
 could be transported from Joppa to Jerusalem without a 
 graded road. Two thousand years have not effaced those 
 adamantine lines which the Romans engraved and inlaid 
 upon the face of three continents, for some of them are in 
 use to this day ; and, until the discovery of America, it was 
 supposed that as road-makers they had no superiors. A 
 Roman road was often three feet thick, consisting of three 
 courses, of about one foot in thickness each, of coarse con- 
 crete masonry, gravel, and cut-stone paving: — sometimes 
 their roads were wholly formed by a species of " macadam- 
 izing " with the addition of a cement forming a very hard 
 concrete. Of such roads there were about fifty distinct 
 ones with an aggregate length of 14,000 miles in Italy 
 alone, besides those in the provinces. 
 
 In point of magnificence, however, the Incas of Peru 
 
104 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOK. 
 
 surpassed even the Emperors of Kome. That narrow 
 fringe of sea-coast was traversed from north to south bj two 
 great roads, — one in the interior, the other along the Pacific 
 sea-board. The first extended 1,500 to 2,000 miles, having 
 stone pillars set up at intervals of little more than a league, 
 and hostelries or caravansaries at suitable distances — in 
 which respect it was similar to the Babylonian royal road 
 fix)m Sardis to Susa, as described by Herodotus, which 
 it exceeded in length. This road, says Prescott, was car- 
 ried over pathless sierras covered with snow; through 
 galleries cut for leagues in the living rock; upon suspension 
 bridges, swayed to and fro over raging torrents, by cables 
 of native osier thick as the body of a man ; and was con- 
 ducted across ravines of hideous depth filled up with solid 
 masonry. The coast road, about 300 leagues in length, 
 was carried on an embankment twenty-five yards wide, 
 with a parapet of clay. Trees and odoriferous shrubs were 
 planted along the margin, and streams of water were^con- 
 ducted through aqueducts along its side, to slake the trav- 
 eler's thirst. Both roads were paved with heavy flags of 
 freestone, some ten feet square, and in some places with 
 pebbles imbedded in a bituminous cement which made a 
 road-bed hard and smooth. It was an evidence of their 
 advanced civilization that persons were stationed at the 
 Incas' " swing " bridges to collect toll from all passers-by, 
 for the maintenance of these the only perishable portions of 
 the work. 
 
 ROADS LOWER CANADA. 
 
 The roads of the province of Quebec and of Lower 
 Canada, until 1882, were placed under an officer appointed 
 by tlie crown called a grand voyer, a sort of surveyor- 
 general, who had deputies {sousvoyers) and surveyors under 
 him.* The roads were divided into three classes. 
 
 * Tlu8 office was filled as early as 1689 by the Sieur De Beccanoourt, as 
 •ucoessor to his father who was probably the first grand voyer of New France. 
 
 ±i 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 105 
 
 1. Chemins royaux — Post roads or "front" roads, the 
 soil of which belonged to the crown ; these generally trav- 
 ersed the '* front " of the seignenries. 
 
 2. Chemins de ceinture et de traverse — or baxjk roads, the 
 soil of which belonged to the seigneurs ; these ran in the 
 rear and parallel with the royal roads. 
 
 3. Chemins de sortie et de communications — called, also, 
 " routes " and by-roads. These were cross-roads, connect- 
 ing those in front and rear. Also, banal roads, which were 
 those leading to the seigneury mill. '' 
 
 All proprietors and holders {seigneurs and censitaires) 
 were oblige'd to open, make, maintain, and repair, as well 
 in winter as in summer, their " front " roads, across the 
 land held by them. All bridges under four (or six) feet 
 span were to be made by the occupant; but larger ones by 
 the joint labor of the parties interested, — the timber being 
 demanded from the nearest property. By joint labor, also, 
 the cross or by-roads and mill-roads were made. In the case 
 of the front roads, ownership or occupancy was considered 
 a sufficient reason for making the unlucky holder construct 
 and maintain the road; but in the case of side roads and 
 others made by joint labor, this proprietorship exempted 
 him from all other contribution, because he furnished the 
 right of way. The grand voyer made semi-annual inspec 
 tions, and by proces verbal^ if confirmed by the quarter 
 sessions, determined the dimensions, ditches, &c., and the 
 ^'■repartition'''' or apportionment of labor on bridges and 
 routes. He seems to have been a magnificent personage, 
 with the powers almost of a provost-marshal, who literally 
 drove the Habitants to the improvement of their ways. 
 
 Winter roads in the climate of Lower Canada require 
 special provisions, some of which are demanded by the ab- 
 surd tenacity with which the habitant clings to a vicious 
 system. Instead of profiting by the example of the town- 
 ship people beside him, he attaches the shafts of his cariole, 
 
106 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 oerline, or traiiieau^ the running gear of which is a low 
 sledge, by a chain in such a manner that when the draught 
 slackens the shafts fall on the snow. The runner likewise 
 does not follow the horses' feet, so that the road is not 
 beaten for two horses abreast, — and thus must forever 
 remain an inferior or " one-horse " affair. The action of 
 the loose shaft is similar to a horse-rake, and the snow is 
 rolled into " winrows," giving the road a corrugated pro- 
 file, forming what are called cahots by the French, and 
 "cowholes" by the English; the crater between the oppo- 
 site peaks being large enough to contain one of those 
 animals. As a penance for thus destroying the road, the 
 law required the habitant to carry shovel, pick, and hoe, 
 and to level the track behind him. It is also obligatory to 
 have the track over ice or open country marked out by 
 ever^een bushes called halises^ so that the traveler may not 
 lose his way. Besides the ordinary provisions fbr " break- 
 ing" the winter roads, it is required that on the 1st of 
 December all fences along and abutting the roadside within 
 twenty-five feet, be taken down within two feet of the 
 ground, and kept down until the 1st of April, the posts 
 only left standing; and, when required, halises are to be 
 planted every thirty-six feet. 
 
 The road question appears to have early engaged the 
 attention of the Governor and Council of the province of 
 Quebec, and an attempt was made to establish the statute 
 labor system of the English colonies by Governor-General 
 Murray in 1766. His ordinance authorized the surveyor 
 of highways to summon the parishoners with their carts, 
 horses, &c., to work collectively on the roads, which were 
 then specified to be at least fourteen feet wide. In 1777 
 Guy Carleton passed an ordinance establishing the French 
 system of individual responsibility on the part of each 
 owner and occupier to keep ih repair the king's road^ then 
 specified at thirty feet wide. By-roads twenty feet wide 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 107 
 
 were to be made by joint labor, and hanal or mill roads 
 "according to ancient usage." In tl^at early day, hogs, 
 less favored than they since have been, were not allowed to 
 run in any highway. In the ordinance of 1777 the value 
 of our white cedar was recognized by enacting that all 
 bridge sleepers should be made of it ; and grand voyers and 
 sousvoyers v^ere appointed for each district, the latter to be 
 the captains and senior officers of militia. In these partic- 
 ulars the old French system was followed. In 1788, Lord 
 Dorchester made a bold attempt to abolish cahots by an or- 
 dinance "to alter the method of drawing sleighs," &c.; 
 but this led to rioting, and the hahitants, by stopping the 
 supplies from country to town, forced the repeal of the ob- 
 noxious ordinance the following year. No further attempt 
 was made to interfere with the cahots^ and the habitants 
 were left in undisturbed possession of an institution, guar- 
 anteed to them by the articles of capitulation, until 1840, 
 when Lord Sydenham took advantage of the suspension of 
 the constitution of Lower Canada, caused by the rebellion 
 of 1837, to pass two sleigh ordinances; but immediately 
 after the union, the right of self-government was asserted, 
 and one was repealed ; but the other was confined to the 
 district of Montreal, where the turnpike trust commission^ 
 ers have hitherto successfully resisted the traineau. 
 
 In 1832, the despotic powers of the grand voyer were 
 transferred to road commissioners; and in 1841 the 
 roads came under the control of the municipalities, by whom 
 the labor has been more equalized, and who have the power 
 of apportioning it upon all roads. In the absence of any 
 by-law of the municipality or unrepealed proces verbal, 
 " front " roads are still to be made and maintained by the 
 occupant; but a special superintendent, appointed by the 
 Council, may, by proper proces verbal^ relieve any owner or 
 Qccupant from any excessive portion of work required 
 under that provision. All the main roads, made by the 
 
108 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 government and transferred to the municipalities, are to be 
 maintained by the latter. Front roads must (since 1855) 
 be at least tbirtj-six feet French (nearly thirty -eight and a 
 half feet English), and routes twenty-six feet French (about 
 twenty -seven feet nine inches English,) between the fences. 
 This is an increase of fifty per cent, over the width estab- 
 lished before the conquest. 
 
 The old French laws governing the roads were practica- 
 ble in the level seigneuries, with their peculiar subdivisions 
 caused by the laws of descent, as well as from their quon- 
 dam semi-military organization. The holdings are narrow 
 strips of one or two hundred yards, or less, fronting on the 
 St. Lawrence, and extending back a mile or more. The 
 front road is near the river, and on it are the houses, giving 
 the river bank the appearance of a continuous street. 
 These laws were, however, wholly inapplicable to the 
 townships with their hills, and lakes, and heavy timber, 
 where the " front " road would run a mile or more along 
 one property, and where the cost of making the road would 
 be far greater than the value of the land; where, also, 
 there were crown reserves and long distances without an oc- 
 cupant. The seigneuries having their roads formed, for 
 perhaps a century, and conducting their light traffic on the 
 snow in winter and on the river in summer, were not 
 urgent for road grants ; and the townships thus had no op- 
 portunity for " log-rolling," and were too weak politically 
 to extort relief It was therefore not until 1815-17 that 
 any effort was made to apply a portion of their abundant 
 revenue to the roads and bridges of the lower province. 
 The sum of £63,600 (or $254,400) was. voted in these two 
 years, which was expended chiefly in the seigneuries. In 
 1829, however, the legislature seems to have commenced in 
 earnest, about £120,000 (or $480,000) having been voted 
 in that and the two succeeding years; and then the town- 
 «ihips, after forty years of suffering, obtained some assistance 
 
TRAVEL AND TEANaPORTATION. 
 
 109 
 
 ROADS, UPPER CANADA. 
 
 In tlie first parliament of Upper Canada, held at Newark 
 in 1793, an act was passed bj which the roads were placed 
 under overseers to be appointed by the rate-paying inhab- 
 itant householders at their annual town meetings. Every 
 person was required to bring tools and work three to twelve 
 days; and owners of carts and teams at least six days. At 
 first rich and poor were treated alike (for all were alike 
 poor,) and the number of days' work exacted from each, 
 which was in the discretion of the overseer and depended 
 on his energy and the wants of the road, was fixed at ten ; 
 but when large blocks of land, granted to favorites or held 
 by speculators, stood in the way of improvement, dissatis- 
 faction was created at the unequal road law which exacted 
 no more from the great land-owner than from the tenant or 
 laborer, and it was altered; the number of days' labor 
 being determined according to the assessment roll. 
 
 The power of altering or opening new roads was vested 
 in the quarter sessions by whom a surveyor was appointed 
 to report upon any application for such alteration or new 
 road if signed by twelve freeholders. 
 
 In its infancy this province had neither revenue nor 
 taxes, the civil list being at first wholly and afterwards par- 
 tially sustained by the military chest of the Imperial gov- 
 ernment. In 1795, the revenue was £900 sterling, and the 
 only tax 4d per gallon on wine; and it was not till 1804 
 that there appeared any surplus for roads. In that year an 
 appropriation of £1,000 (or $4,000) was made for this pur- 
 pose, which proved premature and was repealed in 1806, 
 when £1,600 (or $6,400) was granted; and this road grant, 
 increased to £2,000 (or $8,000) and £3,000 (or $12,000,) 
 was annually maintained till 1812, when it rose to £6,000 
 (or $24,000.) Interrupted two years by the war, it in- 
 creased in 1815 to £20,000 (or $80,000,) and in 1816 to 
 £21,000 (or $84,000,) aftei which little was done until 
 
 I 
 
110 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 1830, when, between that date and 1838, £128,000 (or 
 $512,000) were granted. Between 1836 and 1840 over 
 £100,000 (or $400,000) more was granted, the whole of 
 which was not expended until after the union. 
 
 The roads of Upper Canada, by the municipal act, are 
 wholly under local control ; and the assessment act provides 
 that every male between sixteen and sixty years is liable to 
 statute labor to the extent of two days as a minimum. If 
 assessed at a total valuation of £50 (or $200,) two days are 
 required, and more in proportion up to £1,000 (or $4,000,) 
 which gives twelve days; and one day for every £200 (or 
 $800) over that sum, subject to a pro rata reduction by the 
 council. Where there is no by-law, 2^. 6d (or 50 cents) 
 per day is the rate of commutation. When there is no 
 property delinquents may be imprisoned six days if they do 
 not work their two days or pay their two dollars. The 
 roads must not be less than thirty feet or more than ninety 
 feet wide; and local rates may be levied for local roads, on 
 a petition of two-thirds of the resident rate-payers repre- 
 senting one-half the assessed value. Councils can not close 
 a road to the prejudice of any person, nor encroach on 
 gardens, orchards, pleasure-grounds, or buildings ; but they 
 may order the removal of trees, not being ornamental or 
 plantations, within twenty-five feet of the highway, and 
 must compensate for all real damage. 
 
 PROGRESS OF TRAVEL. 
 
 In the province of Quebec, the European system of 
 traveling by post was in force and regulated by law. The 
 distance between Quebec and Montreal, commonly called 
 sixty leagues was divided into twenty-four stages. The 
 maitres de poste were obliged to keep four cakches and four 
 carioles, and to be ready at a quarter of an hour's notice to 
 forward the traveler, who was usually received with much 
 ceremony, on alighting after each stage, by the lady of the 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. HI 
 
 house."'^ They had the exclusive right of passenger trans- 
 port by land, the charge being fixed at twenty to twenty-five 
 cents per league, — twelve to fifteen dollars for the journey 
 between Quebec and Montreal, which occupied three days. 
 The caleche is a gig upon grasshopper springs with a seat for 
 two passengers; the driver occupies the site of the dash- 
 board, with his feet on the shafts and in close proximity to 
 the horse with which he maintains a confidential conversa- 
 tion throughout the journey, alternately complimenting 
 and upbraiding him, and not failing to impress him with the 
 many virtues of his master. 
 
 A public mail-stage was established between St. John's 
 and Quebec before the expiration of the last century ; but 
 although facilities existed for land travel before the era of 
 steamboats, the water route, where it was down stream or slack* 
 water, was generally preferred. "Water carriage along the 
 whole frontier from Quebec to Lake Huron, and abundance 
 of snow (east of Kingston) while the navigation was closed, 
 checked the early establishment of a good road throughout. 
 Before the w^ar of 1812, the land route from Montreal west- 
 ward was broken, not only by the necessary ferries across the 
 Ottawa at Isle Perrot, but by the long ferrj^ in Lake St. Fran- 
 cis, where a horse-boat traversed the slack water, because of 
 the wet land route along the front of Glengary. In 1796, with 
 the exception of about fifty miles, a road had been opened 
 from Montreal to Kingston, and the journey could be made 
 by land from Montreal to Lake St. Francis, and from Corn- 
 wall to Prescott, along which latter route the United Empire 
 loyalists, who came in in 1784, had established themselves. 
 The intermediate portions, having slack water or nearly 
 so opposite them, were not completed until the necessity for 
 them was demonstrated by the war of 1812-15. 
 
 * The maitres deposte were first recognized by law in 1780, and some half a 
 dozen ordinances and acts were passed in their favor or to control them be' 
 tween that dat« and 1819, when their privileges ceased. 
 
112 TRAVBL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 During the infancy of Upper Canada the road extension 
 from Prescott to Burlington, — with the exception of those 
 portions where the loyalists were settled, which extended as 
 high as the Bay of Quinte, — was retarded by the slack-water 
 navigation between these points ; but to avoid the detour by 
 Queenston, Fort Erie, and Lake St. Clair, a road was opened 
 as early as 1794 from Ancaster (the point to which the loy- 
 alists had extended their settlements from Niagara, and 
 made their road by private subscription) to the Mohawk 
 village on the Grand Eiver, to which place Brant had 
 removed his Six Nations. From Brantford it was carried 
 through to a point (London), on the river La Trenche (now 
 called the Thames,) from whence a boat navigation existed 
 to Lake St. Clair. Thus, from the French seigneuries on 
 her eastern boundary to the American border on the west. 
 Upper Canada sought first to connect the natural navigation 
 by what may* be called portage roads of greater or less 
 length ; and so to diminish the time, cost, and fatigue of 
 land transport. 
 
 Governor Simcoe, who seems to have been fully impressed 
 with the importance of his mission as the founder of a na- 
 tion, also opened out, in 1794, by the labor of the Queen's 
 Kangers, the portage of thirty-three miles from Toronto to 
 Lake Simcoe, called Yonge Street, which shortened and 
 cheapened the route to Mackinaw, then the great d^pot of 
 the fur-trade. On the opening of this route the North- 
 West Fur Company, which was established by Frobisher 
 and McTavish, of Montreal, in 1782, and which in 1796 
 employed 2,000 men, instead of sending their supplies up 
 the Ottawa by canoes, sent batteaux up the St. Lawrence, 
 which were carted across the portages at the Carrying Place 
 and Yonge Street, and delivered their cargoes in Mackinaw 
 at a saving of £10 (or $40) to £15 (or $60) per ton. Even 
 the Spanish settlements down the Mississippi were supplied 
 by British goods thus taken to the great peltry fair at Mack- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 113 
 
 inaw. Dundas Street, as the main post-road traversing the 
 province was called, was also established by Governor Sim- 
 coe, lots being granted along it on condition of building 
 and improving in one year; and so provision was made for 
 a continuous land communication throughout the province : 
 but it was not until after the war of 1812 that any portion 
 of it was so far improved and bridged as to become a stage 
 route. 
 
 The first stage in Upper Canada was established by Mr. 
 Macklem, of Chippewa, in 1798, between Queenstown and 
 Fort Erie, running every other day at the moderate fare of 
 one dollar; distance about twenty-five miles. On the 1st 
 of January, 1816, the first stage between Montreal and 
 Kingston was established by Barnabas Dickinson. Covered 
 sleighs left Samuel Hedge's, in St. Paul Street, Montreal, 
 and Robert Walker's Hotel, Kingston, every Monday and 
 Thursday, and arrived every Wednesday and Saturday. In 
 January, 1817, Samuel Purdy established the first stage be- 
 tween Kingston and York. It left Daniel Brown's inn, 
 Kingston, every Monday morning, and York every Thurs- 
 day morning, stopping at Spaulding's inn, Grafton, as a 
 half-way house. The fare was eighteen dollars with twenty- 
 eight pounds of baggage allowed. The next winter Purdy 
 reduced the fare to ten dollars, three dollars to Belleville, 
 and six dollars to Spaulding's inn. On the opening of nav 
 igation the stages between Prescott and York were discon 
 tinned, as a steamboat was then on this route. The mail 
 which as late as 1807 was so light as to be carried by pedes 
 trian white men between Montreal and Toronto, and by an 
 Indian between Toronto and Niagara, all of whom carried 
 axes to aid them in crossing streams, went by the king's 
 vessels in summer, and after 1817 by the steamers, which 
 also took the local traffic between the frontier towns; so that 
 there was no travel to maintain a summer stage except on 
 the portages below Prescott. The first steamers were placed 
 
114 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 on Lake St. Francis and Lake St. Louis, in 1826, when four- 
 horse covered coaches were put on the road between Mon- 
 treal and Lachine, and stages were run from the Cascades to 
 Coteau Landing, and from Cornwall to Prescott, no steam- 
 boat having yet ventured below the latter point. In 1832, 
 a stern-wheel steamer, the Iroquois, was built to overcome 
 the rapids between the Longue Sault and Prescott. At 
 first she required the aid of horses and oxen at Eapide 
 Platte; but further experience in pilots and an improvement 
 in the boilers enabled her to ascend by steam power alone ; 
 and thereafter the stages retired to the twelve miles of por- 
 tage passing the Longue Sault between Dickinson's Landing 
 and Cornwall. 
 
 Between Kingston and Cobourg, and other points where 
 the steamers did not call, at first a horse, and then the one- 
 horse wagon delivered the local mail; and, as local travel 
 increased, two and four horses were put on, the vehicles 
 generally being open stage- wagons, the covered coaches be- 
 ing kept in the vicinity of the larger towns where the roads 
 were better and where it was worth an effort to " take in " 
 the unwary. As late as 1834, passengers in stages from the 
 west could avoid " sea " sickness on Lake Ontario by con- 
 necting with steamers at the " Carrying Place," at the head of 
 the Bay of Quinte, from whence there is river navigation to 
 Montreal. 
 
 In 1826, the first stage was established between Niagara 
 and York, — time, seventeen hours; fare, five dollars. In 
 1827, the exclusive right to run a stage for twenty-one 
 years from Ancaster, through Brantford, Burford, " the 
 Long Woods," and Delaware, to Detroit Kiver, was ob- 
 tained, after two years' effort, by a public-spirited physician 
 of St. Catherine's, for the purpose of inducing other parties 
 to pro\nde this much-needed accommodation. Under this 
 Btimulus, a line of four-horse coaches was started in 1828, 
 which not paying it was reduced to an uncovered wagon, 
 
CAEIOLE. 
 
 HABITANT, LOWER CANADA, DEIVING A CAL^CHEl 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 115 
 
 and after a time even that was abandoned. It was some 
 years after this before a stage was established betweeA Lake 
 Ontario and the Detroit Eiver, and not until 1842 that a daily 
 line was established throughout the province, which was 
 done in consequence of Deputy Postmaster-General Stay- 
 ner's requirements with regard to the mails. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, Deputy Postmaster-Greneral of North 
 America in 1766, stated before a committee of the House 
 of Commons that the only post-road then in Canada was be- 
 tween Montreal and Quebec. In 1791 the post-road ex- 
 tended eastward to New Brunswick, and westward as far as 
 Kingston. As late as 1807, the mail to Amherstburgh was 
 only quarterly, a Canadian once in three months appearing 
 with a mail-bag on his shoulder. 
 
 Our progress, as gathered from the number of miles of 
 established post-roads, is as follows: — 
 
 Number Miles of Miles of 
 
 Dates. of Established Annual 
 
 Post-offices. Post-Roads. Mall Travel. 
 
 1766, 3 170 
 
 1791, 10 600 
 
 1817, 25 1.200 
 
 1824, 69 1,992 369,616 
 
 1828, 101 2,368 455,936 
 
 1831, 151 2,896 713,076 
 
 1832, 227 3,460 787,472 
 
 1836, 289 4,377 1,005,524 
 
 1837, 375 5,370 1,176,70^ 
 
 1840, 405 5,736 1,473,264 
 
 1851, 601 7,595 2,487,000' 
 
 1852, 840 8,618 2,930,000 
 
 1854, 1 166 10.027 4,000,000 
 
 1857, 1,506 13.253 5,383,000' 
 
 1860, 1,698 14,202 5,712,000^ 
 
 In 1852, the number of letters per annum was 3^700, OOt); 
 the revenue, $230,629; expenditure, $276,191. In 1860, 
 the number of letters per annum was 9, 000, 000 f the reve- 
 nue, $658,451; expenditure, $534,681. This expenditure 
 is exclusive of railway and steamship subsidies. The former 
 
 costs $110,000 and the latter $416,000 per annum. 
 8 
 
116 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 PROGRESS OF ROADS. 
 
 The land communications of the copper-colored nomads, 
 eastward of the prairies, were natural routes subordinate to 
 their water ones, being mere portages from one stream or 
 lake to another ; and in this respect they differed essentially 
 from those of a fixed population. But, as with the savage, 
 the track of the wild animals, — the deer, moose, elk, or 
 cariboo, — indicated the hardest ground or lowest pass for 
 the war-path, so with the colonist the same guides — or the 
 instincts of domestic animals turned loose in the forest, — 
 often marked out the "bridle-road," the pioneer route of land 
 transport from point to point. In later times, since the sur- 
 veyor has preceded the settler, the roads have been either 
 arbitrarily determined for a country presenting no special 
 obstacles, or carefully explored as a basis of settlement. 
 But as, until a comparatively recent period, the squatter 
 preceded the surveyor, the original roads have been estab- 
 lished either by the accidental conditions noted above, or 
 by the more extensive and careful explorations of the lum- 
 berman, who has been the pioneer of the agriculturist over 
 the greater portion of cultivated America. 
 
 The progressive stages of improvement, from the track 
 of the wild animal to the metalled road, are, — 
 
 1. The Bridle Koad; 
 
 2. The Winter Eoad; 
 
 3. The Corduroy Koad; 
 
 4. The Common or Graded Eoad; 
 
 5. The Turnpike; Macadam, Gravel, and Plank Eoads. 
 
 BRIDLE AND WINTER ROADS. 
 
 Before the era of wheeled vehicles, communication be- 
 tween back settlements, save in winter, is restricted to 
 " bridle roads," by which men and women on horseback 
 may assemble for worship, visit their neighbors, and attend 
 upon all those occasions of births, marriages, and deaths so 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 117 
 
 mucli noticed in tlie forest and so little in town. On pack- 
 horses, also, grain is taken to and from the mill, and other 
 movables transported. These roads are formed simply by 
 clearing away the branches and logs, so that a man on 
 horseback may ride, and are most frequently old lumber- 
 men's roads, which have become impassable from fallen 
 timber, and the growth of underbrush. In winter, how- 
 ever, the snow and ice, the great democratic elements in the 
 physical constitution of Canada, make all roads alike, and 
 the humblest settler in the most remote back-township has not 
 only an excellent road, but can make himself a vehicle capable 
 of transporting the largest loads; and, sheltered by the forest, 
 the once broken track is protected from those drifts which 
 are the only drawbacks to the snow-roads in the clearings. 
 
 It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of the 
 frost and snow to the people of Canada, or to place any 
 money value upon them. That which most Europeans 
 have deplored as the only drawback to this country is 
 in truth the source of its rapid prosperity. The operations 
 of agriculture and commerce do not necessarily require 
 perennial communication with a market. As there is but 
 one crop of grain and lumber in the year, it is suffi- 
 cient if once in the year an opportunity is afforded 
 to transport it, and this Canada possesses in a higher 
 degree than any other " more favored clime." In the 
 dead of winter, when all agricultural out-door operations 
 have ceased, the farmer, after having threshed his grain, 
 can sally forth to any market he may select, even if distant 
 one hundred miles or more, and combine other business or 
 pleasure in the town with that of the sale of his products. 
 He can go any where while the snow lasts, for all roads are 
 alike ; and he can take as large a load as can be transported 
 by the same power on the best wheel roads in Europe. 
 For domestic purposes the ice and snow are equally valuble 
 to him; for, while unable to cultivate the fields, he can make 
 
118 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 the forest resound witli his axe, and every swamp is accessible 
 to his horses and his sledges; thus securing his annual sup- 
 ply of fuel without the necessity of money or barter. If 
 he has a family of grown-up sons, he may cut the timber 
 and fuel and transport it to the market, because there is not 
 a week in the whole winter in which out-door work is un- 
 pleasant; and there is, therefore, less loss of time than in 
 milder and more rainy climates. The presence of the ice 
 and snow at the season when horses and cattle and their 
 owners can not be employed in field operations, and its cer- 
 tain continuance over the greater part of the country for 
 several months, define the mode of conducting the business 
 without inconvenience and to the best advantage. What- 
 ever is intended for export is, where good summer roads are 
 wanting, hauled down to the shipping ports while the snow 
 lasts; and if a house is to be built, the stone is quarried 
 and hauled wnen little else can be done, and all preparations 
 are made before the season for building commences. The 
 statistics of shipments show that only about one-third of the 
 crop is sent forward in the year in which it is grown ; and 
 although in many instances the produce can not be brought 
 out until the snow falls, it is evident that from choice the 
 greater part will be held back until that season. The 
 autumnal plowing and sowing after harvest, ditching, fenc- 
 ing, and other duties, often make it inconvenient to com- 
 mence threshing before the winter : moreover, there is also 
 the hope that better prices, when western exports are 
 suspended, and cheaper transportation on the snow, will 
 more than compensate for any loss of interest. 
 
 The frost which bridges every river and makes a hard 
 and level causeway of every swamp, with the snow, which 
 fills every rut and cavity and buries boulders, logs, and 
 stumps, enable the lumberman to send supplies for a whole 
 year to his shanties ; and, in like manner, the pioneer settler 
 takes advantage of this season, to prepare for his summer's 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 119 
 
 work of establishing a hoine in the heart of the forest. It 
 is only by contrasting this state of things with India, the 
 Turkish Empire, or other snowless and roadless countries 
 of the world, that we can determine what it is worth to 
 have, as Canada has for months in every year, the best pos- 
 sible road, not only on all main lines, but to every man's 
 door and to every corner of his property. 
 
 The winter road is too narrow for wheeled vehicles; in 
 summer it is but a bridle road on the hard ground, and im- 
 passable through the swamps. 
 
 CORDUROY ROADS. 
 
 In forming a road for wheeled vehicles or in convertmg a 
 winter road into a summer one, there are necessarily as 
 many degrees of excellence (or rather badness) as are 
 afforded by the character of the route, — the number, wealth, 
 and intelligence of the settlers. But, whatever the means 
 at their disposal, there seems to be a universal resort to the 
 axe and log-chain, where the pick and shovel should be used. 
 This wide-spread error is the result of habit: axes are in 
 the hands of all, and familiar to all ; the pick and shovel 
 are regarded as only fit for " canallers " and railway 
 " navvies." Not only in the case of swamps (in many of 
 which the corduroy system is indispensable), but wherever 
 water at stated seasons collects on the surface, so as to soften 
 the soil and cause the wheels to sink, whole hecatombs of 
 trees are sacrificed to form a corrugated causeway of their 
 round trunks, laid side by side, over which wagons can be 
 slowly dragged or bumped, any attempt at speed being 
 checked by immediate symptoms of approaching dissolution 
 in the vehicle. When the country becomes cleared most 
 of these vegetable causeways remain high and dry through- 
 out the year, from the mere admission of sun and wind; 
 but though no longer of any service, the logs are too often 
 permitted to remain, because, half-buried as they are, the 
 
120 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 laborious and plebeian occupation of digging is required to 
 extract them. It must, however, in justice, be admitted 
 that in many cases where simple ditching would be better 
 and cheaper than the corduroy, the latter can be done while 
 the former can not, for want of tools or of time, at the pro- 
 per season of the year. Where the foundation is a morass 
 the corduroy is a ready and efficient mode of constructing 
 a road; and, though most disagreeable to the traveler, and 
 perhaps destructive to his vehicle, it is often impossible for 
 the scattered settlers to do more. The captious visitor from 
 older districts may grumble at the roads over which he is 
 obliged to travel, but a liberal mind will acknowledge the 
 formidable obstacles which the early settler must contend 
 with, and not expect that, in addition to the war waged on 
 the wilderness to obtain bread for his family, he can devote 
 much of his labor to the common benefit. If, therefore, 
 perhaps after years without any summer road at all, he can 
 procure a passable one only, it is natural he should wait for 
 assistance before attempting more. The great objection to 
 the indiscriminate resort to corduroy is that many roads are 
 kept in the worst state many years longer than they would 
 be had they been left without this questionable improve- 
 ment. As the settlement increases in numbers and wealth, 
 and the evils of corduroy are appreciated, an attempt is 
 made to cover the logs with earth, by ditching from the 
 sides when practicable, or by the more expensive process of 
 hauling the material from the extreme ends. But where 
 there is not a morass beneath the logs, the frost penetrates 
 and throws them up through their scanty covering, and 
 there can be no rest for these ghosts of the murdered trees 
 until they are wholly removed or buried the " full fathom " 
 deep. 
 
 THE COMMON OR GRADED ROAD. • 
 
 This is that stage which has emerged from the bridle, 
 winter, or corduroy to the condition of a highway marked 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 121 
 
 out by fences in tlie clearings or by wide openings tbrougb 
 the woodland, — formed, drained, and bridged, with logs ex- 
 tracted or effectually buried, and hills graded down within 
 reasonable limits; but without any other road-bed than that 
 afforded by the underlying or adjacent soil. These roads 
 are excellent in midsummer and midwinter, and (except 
 when broken up by frost in spring and autumn) are seldom 
 surpassed, even by the turnpike, except for the heaviest 
 traffic. The common road as it becomes consolidated is 
 better for the horse and more agreeable to the traveler than 
 any other, and, except where in loose sand, affords facilities 
 for travel and transport during the summer months only 
 inferior to those of the winter ones. Their chief defect is 
 in their Eoman straightness, following the concessions or 
 side-lines of the original survey arbitrarily, and encounter- 
 ing obstacles which might easily be avoided. Land-owners 
 attach importance to straight and rectangular boundaries as 
 more easily ascertained and maintained, and therefore op- 
 pose propositions to have their fields encroached upon to 
 improve the road. Although the bail of the pot is no longer 
 when on the fire than when off — when upright than when 
 horizontal, — it does not seem to be conceded that it may 
 often be as short to go around the hill, upon the level, as to 
 climb over it. The value of level roads is demonstrated in 
 the highest degree by the locomotive, which, upon an ascent 
 of only one in one hundred, can not draw more than one 
 fourth the load which can be taken on the level. The act 
 of parliament only requires hills to be reduced to one in 
 twenty on toll roads and railway crossings, and we often see 
 them one in ten or less on other roads. If the principles 
 of transportation were more thoroughly appreciated, all our 
 main routes would be improved by abandoning locations 
 which can never give a good road, and by avoiding, as far 
 as possible, all hills, particularly those which are to be 
 ascended in the direction of the heaviest traffic, thus making 
 
122 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 the road towards the market as far as possible, down hill. 
 The reflection that millions in number and in value must, 
 until the end of time, travel over the roads, perhaps as we lay 
 them out, should secure the utmost carefulness and consci- 
 entiousness in the location of all our highways, railways in- 
 cluded, so as to avoid the unnecessary loss of time and 
 waste of horse-power and steam-power now going on daily 
 over all this continent. 
 
 TURNPIKE ROADS. 
 
 Oravel Roads. — The existence of large deposits of gravel 
 at many points, and the fact that the natural roads upon a 
 gravel formation were the best, led to its being used exten- 
 sively for metalling graded roads. For light traffic it makes 
 a smooth and hard road; but it is not, as usually applied, 
 capable of resisting the heaviest traffic. If sufficiently clean, 
 and laid on to a proper depth, it will form a road fit for any 
 purpose; but so formed, it, in the majority of cases, will be 
 more expensive than broken stone. 
 
 Plank Roads. — These were introduced after the union, 
 and were extensively used at first; but as a class they may 
 be said to have proved failures, except as a temporary ex- 
 pedient. In many districts where there is neither stone nor 
 gravel, and where plank abounds, they have been the only 
 means of accommodating a heavy traffic, and are particu- 
 larly valuable where the natural road-bed is sand. Sand, 
 except when frozen or covered with snow, is almost as 
 great an obstacle to traffic as swamps; and plank, although 
 a perishable, is an expeditious and generally economical 
 mode of overcoming it. In many cases it will pay to lay 
 down plank in order to cheapen the cost of putting metal 
 on the same road; and, as the plank will last several years, 
 the tolls collected in that time may reimburse the cost. 
 Where lumber is cheap and where stone can not be obtained 
 near the road, it will be policy to make the first covering 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 123 
 
 of the graded turnpike with planks. Many plans have 
 been devised for laying the planks, but it is unnecessary to 
 notice these, as their duration does not depend on this. If 
 there is little traffic they warp and rot without reference to 
 their form; and if there is much traffic the horses' feet 
 wear them down : and when thus weakened they are broken 
 through and soon become a nuisance. When stone or 
 gravel is within reach, plank should never be laid the 
 second time, unless the tolls replace them as fast as worn 
 out, and unless there be a lack of means to make the more 
 durable road. 
 
 Macadam Roads. — This system, after about forty years' 
 experience in Europe and America, has proved its superiority 
 over any other ; but its value in this country has been very 
 much impaired by inattention to details in construction and 
 repairs, and by the want of a sufficiently heavy traffic rap- 
 idly to consolidate the new road. The metal, often of im- 
 proper size and inferior quality, unless " blinded " with 
 sand (and thereby deteriorated) or covered with snow, is 
 avoided except for a short time in spring and autumn; and 
 thus two or more seasons are passed before it becomes 
 " bound." The repairs are then postponed until the road is 
 worn out, when it is again renewed en masse; and thus 
 years are consumed in the infancy and old age of this sys- 
 tem, with scarcely an intermediate period of efficiency. 
 The only properly constructed and managed macadamized 
 roads in the province, with perhaps one or two exceptions, 
 are the turnpike trusts outside of Montreal and Quebec. 
 These roads are in the hands of commissioners, and as the 
 tolls are freely expended on them, they are never allowed 
 to wear out, but by constant repairs with clean metal are 
 kept in good order. In Upper Canada, on the other hand, 
 the roads are generally in the hands of lessees or stock 
 companies whose practice it is to lay out nothing upon them 
 
124 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 whicli can be avoided. There is no stronger instance of 
 the patience and law-abiding disposition of the people than 
 in their toleration of so great an imposition as most of the 
 toll-roads of Upper Canada. It matters not whether a com- 
 pany has purchased the right of way, cleared the forest, 
 fenced, " graveled," and bridged a road, or whether it has 
 thrown down stones or plank upon an old highway made 
 ready for them at the cost of the public, — the traveler (who 
 has perhaps exerted all his skill in driving between the 
 loose stones and broken planks and the ditches, or in 
 " straddling " the ruts) is arrested every four or five miles 
 by a toll-gate. In winter toll is exacted even if sleighs 
 are used, which can only be defended on the ground that 
 some revenue must be had; but in summer there is not this 
 relief, although it would be safe to say that, for the greater 
 part of that season at least, the roads would be much more 
 efiicient in their natural state than they are as " improved." 
 Such roads have no resemblance to the turnpike trusts of 
 Lower Canada, except at the toll-gates ; and the continuance 
 of so great a nuisance as barriers on even the best of roads 
 must be regarded as evidences of a preference on the part of 
 the most intelligent population of Upper Canada for direct 
 taxation. It may be argued that those who wear out the 
 road should pay for keeping it in order; but this might be 
 met by an annual assessment on hoofs and wheels without 
 the intervention of toll-gates. If the cities and market- 
 towns assumed the tolled roads, they have it in their power, 
 by fees, market-rates, &c., to levy the amount required; 
 and there would thus be bodies interested by their mutual 
 competition in keeping the roads permanently in good 
 order. This, however, is one of those reforms which we 
 can not hope to attain until we are far enough advanced 
 to thick of fencing our animals in instead of fencing them 
 out 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 125 
 
 [ &dj.') ROAD POLICY. 
 
 The provisioii Ibf roads in many of tlie townsliips of 
 Upper Canada is excessive. The usual dimensions of the 
 lots are a quarter of a mile in width and a mile and a quar- 
 ter in length, containing two hundred acres; and in some 
 townships, in order to give every lot frontage on a highway, 
 road allowances sixty -six feet wide, running from front to 
 rear, have been reserved every half-mile. The concessions 
 (which are reserves of a similar width) divide each tier of 
 lots so that they occur at intervals of every mile and a 
 quarter; thus the lots may be halved, and each hundred 
 acres, front and rear, will have a road allowance upon two 
 sides of the property. In townships of unbroken, and dry 
 land the roads become established upon those allowances; 
 but in many cases, intervening obstacles force the road 
 through private property, where it remains on sufferance 
 until (from the permanent character of the obstacle) it is 
 duly established by authority, when it is enlarged to 
 the regulated width and the " statute labor " expended on 
 it. 
 
 Before the union of the provinces, and the establishment 
 of municipal institutions in 1841, considerable amounts 
 were annually granted by the Legislature for roads and 
 bridges. These were in fact almost the only public works 
 prior to the era of canals and railways and public debt, and 
 absorbed the greater part of the net revenues. This system 
 still obtains in the lower colonies, and their main roads are 
 unsurpassed, as a class, by those of any other government 
 on this continent. Aid from the public chest was generally 
 restricted to trunk lines and bridges beyond the means of 
 local taxation or "statute labor; " but, by judicious "log- 
 rolling," as the barter of vote for vote between members is 
 called, this aid became so widely distributed and the num- 
 ber of claimants so increased as to force the leaving of 
 
126 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 road-making wholly in the hands of the localities, except 
 in the case of new roads for settlement, or where large 
 areas of public land remained unsold. The dissatisfaction 
 created by the apportionment of the road moneys was one 
 of the arguments in favor of municipal institutions which 
 have since relieved parliament of applications on account 
 of what may be called local roads. While there is little 
 doubt that it was high time the old, rich, and populous 
 districts should no longer abuse their greater political 
 strength to secure for their own doors the lion's share of the 
 road moneys, it is equally clear that, in being thrown upon 
 their own resources, a load has been imposed upon many of 
 the back counties which they are unable to bear. It may 
 cost one county, by reason of numerous large rivers, deep 
 ravines, swamps, &c., ten times as much to make its roads 
 as it costs another more favorably situated ; and the more 
 broken the country the less good land and the fewer the in- 
 habitants, so that the tenfold expenditure falls upon a pop- 
 ulation only one-tenth of that in the older front counties. 
 Again, the back counties contribute so much to the wealth 
 of the front ones, that the latter may with justice be asked 
 to share a burden from which, by the natural formation 
 of the district, the labors of their fathers, or from past 
 government aid, they are comparatively exempt. Honest- 
 ly administered, the system which prevails in the low- 
 er colonies, and which once existed here, is at least the 
 most equitable; and it can only be decried by the con- 
 fession that there is not public virtue enough to sustain 
 it. 
 
 The proceeds from sales of the crown lands and the rev- 
 enues derived from the valuable timber thereon, do not ac- 
 crue to the municipalities in which these may be situated, 
 and as there seems to be a natural claim upon this fund for 
 roads in the same district, the provincial treasury which re- 
 ceives may with reasonableness be asked to give. This 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORT ATIO>. 
 
 127 
 
 principle has been recognized by the government of the 
 United States, which, in organizing new states, made pro- 
 vision for roads out of the proceeds of the public lands sold 
 in each state ; and is acknowledged bj us as respects what 
 are called Colonization Eoads. 
 
 STATEMENT 
 
 Showing the amount expended by the Legislature of Upper and Lower Can- 
 ada, respectively, from 1791 to 1861, for Roads and Bridges; also, the 
 amount expended since the Union by Municipalities and Road Companies, 
 in the construction of Turnpike Roads : 
 
 ExPBNDBtt BT Upper Canada 
 
 General grants for roads 
 and bridges., 
 
 Special n|)proprintions 
 for roads 
 
 Special appropriations 
 for bridges, (50) . . 
 
 Grants for colonization 
 roads 
 
 Roads built by munici- 
 palities and joint stock 
 companies, 
 
 Common Macadam 
 RoaJi. 
 
 .714 
 
 .137 
 
 Plaiik 
 Reads. 
 Miles. 
 
 ,125 
 
 283 194 
 
 Cost 
 Before Union, 
 
 ^762,200.00 
 ..753,466.65 
 ....13,456.00 
 
 1,529,122.65 
 
 General grant for roads 
 and bridges, 
 
 Special appropriations 
 for roads 
 
 Total, Upper Canada,. 
 
 EXPSNDBD BY LoWER CANADA 
 
 782,240,00 
 ..22 
 
 Cost 
 Since Union 
 
 $1,392,707.00 
 ....91,537.75 
 ..528.739.21 
 
 4.366,.522.00 
 
 6,379,505.96, 
 
 .8762,200.00 
 2,146,173.65 
 .. 104,993.75 
 ,. 528,739.21 
 
 4,366,522.00 
 
 7.908,628.61 
 
 Special appropriations 
 for bridges, (32) 
 
 Grants for colonization 
 roads 
 
 Turnpike trusts, 
 
 Roads built by munici- 
 palities and joint stock 
 companies, (no return; 
 
 1,537 
 
 .93^ 
 
 37 
 
 .19i 
 
 Total, Lower Canada, 
 
 Grand Total, Upper and Lowar Canada,.... 
 
 . 230,380.00 
 . .21.500.00 
 
 1,034120.00 
 
 2.563,242.65 
 
 .. 780,711.19 
 .. 2] 8,909.00 
 
 446,786.32 
 425,265.72 
 
 20,000.00 
 
 1,891,672.23 
 
 .. 782,240.00 
 
 1,011,091.19 
 
 .. 240,409.00 
 
 .. 446,786.32 
 . . 425,265.72 
 
 .. 20.000.00 
 
 2,925,792.23 
 
 8,271,178.191 10.834.420.84 
 
 Graveled roads only, on nearly all ot which tolls are collected. 
 
128 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 The Plank, Gravel, and Macadam roads of Lower Can- 
 ada were nearly all constructed by Parliamentary grants. 
 
 This road expenditure of $10,834,420.84 excludes those 
 made by statute labor or commutation money ; and all mu- 
 nicipal outlay on common roads. 
 
 The colonization road expenditure in Upper Canada in- 
 cludes that from the Improvement Fund, — applicable to 
 new townships. 
 
 Of Plank, Gravel, and Macadam Roads constructed by municipalities and 
 Joint Stock Companies in Upper Canada, since the Union. 
 
 Countiet. 
 
 PUnk 
 
 Road. 
 
 No. MUet. 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Road, 
 
 No. Miiet. 
 
 Macadam 
 
 Road. 
 No. Miles. 
 
 ToUl 
 
 No. Miles. 
 
 Total Cost. 
 
 Brant (no return,) ... ..... 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 37 
 
 .. $37,000.00 
 ... 12.000.00 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Elgin, 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 42 
 
 ... 84,000.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Frontenac, Lennox, and Addington, 
 
 
 
 iee 
 
 iee .. 318.000.66 
 
 Grey 
 
 
 177 
 
 
 177 
 
 .. 200,000.00 
 
 !'.*i66,bbb' 66 
 
 .. 191,300.00 
 ..462,400.00 
 ... 66,000.00 
 . . . 42,000.00 
 
 Haldimand 
 
 
 
 
 none. 
 60 
 
 Halton, 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 Hastings, (no return,) ,,..., ... .. 
 
 9 
 
 94 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 
 177 
 
 
 177 
 
 Kent, 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 
 33 
 
 Lambton, . ... 
 
 18 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leeds and Grenville 
 
 
 
 
 148* 
 
 .. 227,*848 66 
 .. 127,500.00 
 .. 600,000.00. 
 ,. 140,000.00 
 . . 492,000.00 
 ... 12,000.00 
 .. 255,500.00 
 ..209,457.00 
 ... 12,000.00 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 20 
 
 ::::.. 52 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 ii 
 
 142 
 
 
 153 
 
 Norfolk, (Plank and Gravel,) 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 
 
 229 
 
 Ontario, 
 
 Oxford, 
 
 Perth 
 
 V/.'.'.Vii 
 
 8 
 
 112 
 
 101 
 
 :::::i3i 
 
 8 
 
 ....136i 
 .'.... 101 
 
 
 
 :::::..6 
 
 
 6 
 
 Prescott and Russell, 
 
 
 
 
 none. 
 200 
 
 
 
 Prince Edward, 
 
 
 ...300 
 
 
 Statute laboT. 
 ... 22,000.00 
 . . . 60,000.00 
 
 2,000 00 
 
 .. 114,877:00 
 .. 162.640.90 
 .. 194.000.00 
 .. 222,000.00 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 11 
 
 Stormont, Dundas, and Glengary, 
 
 Waterloo, 
 
 Welland 
 
 *.!!!r.*.i 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 !!!!.'.*28 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 82i 
 
 Wellington 
 
 
 82* 
 
 
 Wentworth 
 
 13 
 
 !!!!!mI 
 
 46 
 
 714 
 
 Ill 
 
 York and Peel, (no return,) 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals, 
 
 194 
 
 1,302 
 
 2,83i 
 
 2,277 i 4,366,522.00 
 
 NoTC— Cost it estimated where not given, and known roads are inserted in cases where ne 
 return was made. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 129 
 
 WATER COMMUNICATIONS. 
 
 The pliysical geograpliy of Canada, presents a marked 
 contrast with, respect to rivers and water communica- 
 tions, to that of the States of the Union. The Mississippi 
 and its numerous tributaries are navigable, at some seasons 
 of the year, from their mouths almost to their sources ; but 
 the St. Lawrence and its branches are beset, a little beyond 
 tide- water, with rocky barriers to navigation which are re- 
 peated at varying distances — generally with lakes or long 
 deep reaches intervening. The proportion of water navi- 
 gable in both directions to that of rapids, chutes, and cata- 
 racts is, however, so great, that for purposes of transporta- 
 tion the St. Lawrence presented to the early explorer less 
 obstacles than the Mississippi, — the upper waters of which 
 were first reached through the great lakes, by Jolliette and 
 Marquette in 1673, and by Hennepin in 1680. Between 
 Quebec and Chicago — a fresh-water navigation of 1,450 
 miles, — the total length of canal is only sixty-eight and a 
 half miles : and in the proposed improvement of the Ottawa 
 navigation, out of a total of four hundred miles between 
 Montreal and Lake Huron the length of canal is only 
 thirty miles, about one-third of which is upon the Island of 
 Montreal itself On this latter route, — ^by which the Algon- 
 quins avoided the Iroquois, and which afterward became 
 the highway of the voyageurs of the fur companies, — a few 
 miles of portages constituted all the land carriage required 
 between Montreal and the centre of the continent. In the 
 later operations of the lumberman the long reaches of 
 level road upon the ice of the Ottawa, and of its lakes and 
 tributaries, have carried the supplies into the inmost recesses 
 of the forest. 
 
 This terracelike profile of the northern rivers is not with- 
 out its ameliorating influence upon the temperature during 
 the two or three short periods of intense cold which occur 
 
130 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 in a Canadian winter. While a thick covering of snow re- 
 tains heat in the earth for the protection of vegetation, and 
 when the fish retire to the shelter of the deep water in 
 the ice-covered lakes, the open area at the rapids affords the 
 principal outlet for radiation, — which increases with the in- 
 tensity of the frost — and at these points an almost constant 
 congelation in the form of " anchor ice " upon the bed of 
 the stream, sets free an additional supply of latent heat. 
 
 Another peculiarity of the Canadian navigation is its 
 great directness. From the Straits of Belle Isle to the head 
 of Lake Erie, the St. Lawrence affords a navigation almost 
 upon an air-line; and from Montreal to the western extrem- 
 ity of Lake Superior, the Ottawa gives a route nearly 
 direct. The Mississippi and many of its tributaries, on the 
 other hand, double the air-line distance between their cities, 
 and oppose an almost uniform current to ascending craft. 
 While baiieaux could be dragged up the rapids and sail up 
 the St. Lawrence in ten or twelve days from Montreal to 
 Lake Ontario, and there transfer their cargoes to schooners, 
 ' it required four months to pole a keel-boat up the Mississippi 
 from New Orleans to St. Louis; and it was not until the 
 successful invention of the steamboat that the western 
 rivers could be commercially navigated, and thus have 
 their fertile valleys opened to the immigrant. 
 
 The river St. Lawrence — that great aorta of the province 
 of Canada, which drains an area of half a million of square 
 miles, and opens a highway for ocean borne vessels from 
 the Atlantic fully two thousand miles into the interior, or 
 more than half-way across the continent, — has ever been a 
 base-line of operations in those struggles, both military and 
 commercial, which have taken place between the rival races 
 and rival oflfehoots from the same race in the New World. 
 Its two most important branches, the Ottawa and the 
 Kichelieu, were, on account of their great directness towards 
 the West and South, their slack-water, and the greater de- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 131 
 
 pression in their valleys, favorite tLorouglifares of the 
 Algonquin and the Iroquois, and these characteristics are 
 none the less important to the commercial requirements of 
 our own time. The Appalachian chain of mountains, 
 sweeping the curve of a great circle of the earth from the 
 Gulf of Mexico to the St. Lawrence, is cleft to the ocean 
 level at the Hudson River, and only there. Almost in 
 a direct line north of this river, and apparently a continua- 
 tion of the same fissure in the chain. Lake Champlain dis- 
 charges in an opposite direction, into the St. Lawrence, 
 by means of the river Eichelieu. This lake is only eighty 
 feet above tide water, and the summit level of the canal 
 connecting it with the Hudson is only fifty -five feet higher. 
 A subsidence, therefore, of only one hundred and fifty feet, 
 along the line of this valley, would open salt-water naviga- 
 tion between Montreal and New York, and make an island 
 of New England and the Lower Colonies. 
 
 PROGRESS OF NAVIGATION. 
 
 The progressive stages in the navigation of the northern 
 rivers are — 
 
 The Bark Canoe; 
 
 The Batteau ; 
 
 The Barge or Durham Boat; 
 
 The Horse-boat ; 
 
 The Steamboat ; 
 To which— for the lakes — may be added every description 
 sail-craft required in ocean navigation. 
 
 The Bark Canoe. — This primitive vessel of the northern 
 aborigines is one of the most useful and economical vehicles 
 for travel and light traffic upon a broken and sheltered nav- 
 igation which can possibly be devised. Every attempt to 
 improve upon it, by substitution of tin or otherwise, has 
 failed, and it is to this day the favorite craft of the lumber- 
 man for ascending or descending the tributaries of the Ot- 
 9 
 
132 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION". 
 
 tawa, where no summer roads are found. In size they range 
 between nine and thirty feet — one and a half to five fathoms, 
 as the measurement is usually given. The smaller size will 
 only carry one person, with a small stock of food or neces- 
 saries to trim the ship; and as one person can easily carry 
 it, a considerable journey 'with numerous portages may be 
 made solibs wherever there is a foot of water in the stream. 
 The larger canoes will carry twenty-five to thirty men, or a 
 cargo of three tons, and when loaded draw two feet of water. 
 The frame- work consists of numerous single ribs or laths, 
 bent like an ox^bow, and terminating in the gunwales ; all 
 which, with the bow and stern-post^ are made of white 
 cedar {Thuya occidentalism) the lightest and most durable 
 wood our forest affords. The few bars which maintain the 
 opposite gunwales in situ are of maple, elm, or ash — cedar 
 not being strong enough — but they are attached, through 
 holes bored in their ends, by a seizing of young roots, (in- 
 stead of being framed in,) so that they can readily be 
 replaced. The sheathing is the bark of the white birch 
 (Betulu papyracea^) more durable than the cedar itself, (al- 
 though that lasts as long as the owner,) sewed together and 
 lashed to the gunwale with the fine, tough, and durable 
 filaments which form the young roots of the spruce, and 
 which are prepared by boiling. The seams are payed with 
 a pitch composed of resin and tallow, which makes them 
 water-tight; but often the raw gum of the forest tree is 
 used. Thus it will be seen that with the exception of the 
 cross-bars, so easily replaced, there is no perishable wood in 
 the bark canoe ; and they are lighter for their tonnage than 
 any other craft of equal strength. Being very elastic they 
 will stand a good deal of rubbing on boulders or water- 
 worn rocks not sharp enough to cut them through ; and if 
 damaged the adjoining forest affords the means of repair. 
 The largest canoe requires a crew of six to eight men, but 
 can be carried by one-half this number; and it is only with 
 
IRAVEL AND iKANSPOETATION. 133 
 
 tte larger sizes that more than one of the crew is needed to 
 carry the vessel over the portages. At night the canoe in- 
 verted affords shelter from rain and dew. 
 
 The bark of the birch-tree forms the covering for the 
 wigwam or hunters' camp — gives utensils in which flour is 
 kneaded and water boiled — ^is the papyrus on which the 
 Indian pioneer sketches with native plumbago hieroglyphics 
 (which are left in cleft sticks at the portage landing) for the 
 guidance of his following tribe — and makes the resinous 
 torch for lighting the portage, the camp, or the night-fisher's 
 spear; while the green wood from which it is stripped 
 burns as readily on the camp-fire as the dry of any other 
 tree. 
 
 The Batteau. — When the extent and regularity of the 
 traffic called for some more improved means of transport, 
 the batteau — a large, flat-bottomed skiff, sharp at both ends, 
 about forty feet long and six to eight feet wide in the mid- 
 dle, and capable of carrying about five tons — was substi- 
 tuted. Sometimes they were confined to a particular reach 
 of water; in other places they were, with the aid of ropes 
 and windlasses, men and oxen, dragged up the shallow 
 rapids ; or were unloaded and carted across the portages, 
 They were provided with masts and ' lug-sails with about 
 fifteen feet hoist, an anchor, four oars, and six setting-poles 
 shod with iron, and a crew of four men and a pilot. With 
 forty barrels of flour on board they drew only twenty 
 inches of water. Their great merit was in their entire 
 adaptation to th^ work and to all conditions of the route. 
 They could not be capsized in the excitement of a rapid, 
 while their light draft enabled them to creep up along 
 shore; nor could the flat bottoms be easily damaged on the 
 water- worn rocks. When coasting along the shore of the 
 great lake^, if the sea became too rough they could be 
 hauled up and inverted to afford shelter like a canoe. 
 Though by no means models their light draft and displace- 
 
134: TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 ment and their sharp bows made them tolerable sailers and 
 not difficult to row. 
 
 In the last century the batteau was used, almost exclusive- 
 ly, on the inland waters. Although ships of four hundred 
 tons then came up once a year to Montreal, and although 
 there were, as early as 1795, three merchant vessels on Lake 
 Ontario of from sixty to one hundred tons, which made 
 eleven voyages in the year, (besides the six king's vessels 
 which carried the mails, troops, and passengers,) the batteau 
 was still used for purposes of travel and light transport 
 from Quebec to York. Passengers from Montreal went 
 down with the current to Quebec in a batteau having a sec- 
 tion covered with cloth stretched over hoops, forming a sort 
 of cabin ; but came up by land to save time. From Mon- 
 treal westward there was no choice; the passengers were 
 obliged to camp on shore at night, and shot over the adjoin- 
 ing woods while the crew were toiling up the rapids. This 
 state of things continued until the introduction of the steam- 
 boat and the completion of the land road. 
 
 The Durham Boat was introduced after the war of 1812 
 by the Americans, and adopted to a considerable extent by 
 the Canadians, the object being to combine the light draft 
 of the batteau with better sailing qualities and greater ton- 
 nage capacity. They were flat-bottomed barges with keel 
 and center-board, and with rounded bows; eighty to ninety 
 feet long and nine to ten feet beam, with a capacity about 
 ten times that of a batteau, or about 850 barrels of flour, 
 down ; but, in consequence of the rapids and want of back 
 freight, they brought only about eight tons up, on the aver- 
 age. The commencement of agricultural exports and con- 
 sequent increase in the downward tonnage, after the war, 
 called these boats into existence; for, though unable to 
 carry a full load up the stream, they could bring up enough 
 to meet the demands of the route, — the proportions between 
 the down and up freights having materially changed from 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 135 
 
 those in 1795-1800, when the batteaux bringing np pro- 
 visions from below for the new settlers and taking down 
 peltries as the only export, were equally loaded both ways. 
 
 Sail Vessels. — The French traversed Lake Ontario in sail 
 vessels two hundred years ago, and in 1679 La Salle 
 launched the Grriffin, above Niagara Falls, in which he 
 sailed to Lake Michigan; but nothing more pretentious 
 than a batteau or open boat was constructed, for commercial 
 purposes only, previous to 1790. It was not until 1796 
 that any vessel bearing the American flag was afloat above 
 Niagara Falls. She was a British built, 75-ton sloop, pur- 
 chased from the North- West Fur Company. The Simcoe 
 was the first commercial schooner on Lake Ontario. She 
 was built at Simcoe Island about 1793, by the North West 
 Fur Company, and was commanded by Henry Murney, who 
 built the second vessel, the Prince Edward, in 1798, at the 
 Stone Mills on the Bay of Quinte. In 1795, three merchant 
 vessels were engaged between Kingston and Queenston. 
 Merchandise was taken up and furs and skins brought down, 
 and this trade then employed as many as fifty to sixty 
 wagons daily on the portage around Niagara Falls. Still, 
 however, the batteau coasted along the north shore, and it 
 was not till after the war of 1812 that the Carrying Place 
 was abandoned — because communication was maintained 
 by the Bay of Quinte while Lake Ontario was in possession 
 of the enemy. Government schooners first commenced 
 carrying passengers through Lake Ontario in 1791 : the 
 fare was only two guineas, wines included, which, as the 
 voyage might last a week, was very moderate. 
 
 The Cherokee, a Canadian vessel, built and sailed by Cap- 
 tain Gaskin, was the first lake craft which crossed the 
 Atlantic ; and the Dean Richmond, from Chicago, in 1855, 
 was the first American vessel which entered into the direct 
 trade with Europe. A Lake Erie vessel, from Cleveland, 
 in 1849, went out of the St. Lawrence and around Cape 
 
136 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Horn, with passengers, &c., for California. The first Eng- 
 lish vessel which reached Chicago from Liverpool was the 
 Madeira Pet, in 1856. 
 
 The following table shows the fluctuations in the Cana- 
 dian lake marine in the last ten years. The decrease since 
 1857 is owing to the insane eflPorts of the Grand Trunk 
 Railway to rival the water route, the only result of which 
 has been to ruin the boat owners and exhaust the road. 
 The vessels are, however, in existence, and their highway 
 needs no repairs or renewals. They are, therefore, re-ap- 
 pearing on the scene, no longer in danger from their worn- 
 out and exhausted antagonist. 
 
 STATEMENT 
 
 Of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels built in Canada from 1850 to 1861 ; 
 distinguishing those at Quebec and Gaspe, which are chiefly sea-going, from 
 those at inland ports. 
 
 Year. 
 
 , Sailino Vessels » , Stbambrs » 
 
 Quebec and Gaspe. Inland Ports. Quebec. Inland Ports. 
 
 
 No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage, No. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. 
 
 1850,.. 
 
 .. 65 .. 31,204 ... 11 .. 876 
 
 , 8 . . 839 . . . 3 . . 
 
 1851,.. 
 
 .. 65 .. 41,505 ... 12 .. 1,144 .. 
 
 
 . 3 .. 150 ... 1 .. 300 
 
 1852,.. 
 
 .. 48 .. 28,003 ... 14 .. 1,403 ,. 
 
 
 . 4 .. 572 ... 5 .. l,139i 
 
 1853,.. 
 
 .. 80 .. 51,124 ... 56 .. 7,272 .. 
 
 
 2.. 674* 
 
 1854,.. 
 
 . . 72 . . 46,993 . . . 32 . . 4,829 . . 
 
 
 . 8 .. 518 ... 8 .. 1,715 
 
 1855,.. 
 
 . . 73 . . 32,001 . . . 40 . . 7,702 . . 
 
 
 . 6 . . 933 . . . 18 . . 2,335 
 
 1856,. . 
 
 .. 80 .. 36,765 ... 46 .. 4,819 .. 
 
 
 . 8 . . 485 . . . 14 . . 3,270 
 
 1857,.. 
 
 . . 65 . . 38,592 . . . 45 . . 5,788 . . 
 
 
 . 3 .. 173 ... 13 .. 2,383 
 
 1858,.. 
 
 . . . 50 . . 20,326 ... 35 . . 4,234 . . 
 
 
 . 8 .. 697 ... 9 .. 1,980 
 
 1859,., 
 
 .. 43 .. 14,997 ... 20 .. 1,579 ., 
 
 
 . 3 ,. 285 ... 3 ., 175 
 
 I860,.. 
 
 ,, 55 .. 22,426 . . . 14 . . 1,102 . . 
 
 
 . 3 .. 354 ... 2 ., Ill 
 
 1861,.. 
 
 . . . 53 , . 26,737 , , . 32 . . 5,295 . , 
 
 
 . 2 . . 223 . . . 9 . . 932 
 
 The Horse-Boai. — This vessel, adapted only to short and 
 sheltered ferries, may be considered the true forerunner of 
 the steamboat — which latter is an extension of the system 
 on a larger scale and with a vastly superior power, but in* 
 volving a different mechanical arrangement between the en- 
 gine and the paddle-wheels both of which were compara- 
 tively old — the engine having been in u§e efficiently for ovef 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 137 
 
 thirty years on land, and tlie wheels on tlie horse-boat, be- 
 fore they were brought together in the steamboat. 
 
 Boats of this description, worked by four horses, were 
 established on the Niagara Kiver in 1793, at Fort Erie, 
 Queenston, and Niagara ; and, even as late as 1834, one was 
 put on the ferry across Toronto Harbor. But now steam has 
 almost every where relieved the noblest of animals from the 
 worst of the many forms in which he has been doomed to 
 suffer in the service of man. 
 
 The Skamhoat. — It is generally conceded that the steam- 
 engine was first invented by the Marquis of Worcester, in 
 1663; but it was an atmospheric engine, usually more 
 costly than horse-power, until taken in hand by Watt in 
 1765. William Symington succeeded in applying an engine 
 to a boat, so as to obtain a speed of five miles per hour, in 
 1788, and seven miles per hour, in 1789 ; but, neither of 
 these proving serviceable, he built the first practicable 
 steamer, the Charlotte Dundas, in 1801, and set her at work 
 on the Forth and Clyde Canal ; but the swell caused by her 
 paddles proving injurious to the canal banks, she was laid 
 up. Fulton visited Symington, who *' fired up" the Char- 
 lotte Dundas and gave him a trip at the rate of six miles 
 per hour. He requested and obtained permission to take 
 notes — Symington, who was protected in Great Britain, ap- 
 pearing indifierent to any use which might be made in 
 America of his labors. Fulton thereafter proceeded to the 
 United States, and, securing a patent, launched the Clermont 
 in 1807, having wisely taken the precaution to import the 
 engine from Boulton and Watt in England. The Clermont 
 commenced her trips regularly in 1808, and was the first 
 steamer applied to any regular purposes of transport. 
 
 As soon as this demonstration was made on the Hudson, 
 the first Hon. John Molson, of Montreal, determined to in 
 troduce steam upon the route between Quebec and that city. 
 A small experimental boat was built at Montreal called the 
 
138 TRAVEL AND TEAN8POETATION. 
 
 Accommodation, said to have been only about forty tons, 
 with seventy-five feet keel and eighty-five feet length on 
 deck, the engine of which was made at the ancient works 
 at Three Rivers. After various alterations in the boilers, 
 she set out, on Wednesday, the 1st day of November, 1809, 
 at 2 P. M., for Quebec, which she reached on Saturday 
 morning, the 4th, at 8 A. M., — having been thirty hours at 
 anchor. Her running time, with the current, therefore, was 
 thirty-six hours, and her average speed under five miles per 
 hour; but it is stated that her time to Three Rivers was 
 twenty -four hours. She had berths for twenty passengers, 
 at that time, but brought only ten to Quebec ; the passage- 
 money down was eight dollars, and up, nine dollars. She 
 was propelled by " open double -spoked perpendicular 
 wheels, without any circular band or rim." Her return to 
 Montreal occupied a week or more ; and, although she was 
 kept on the route in 1810, the adventure was a serious loss 
 to Mr. Molson, who determined nevertheless to persevere. 
 In 1811, he proceeded to England and ordered an engine 
 from Messrs. Boulton and Watt, and commenced the hull of 
 the Swiftsure for its reception. This boat was completed, 
 late in the season of 1812, in time to be of much service 
 during the war which commenced in that year. The first 
 passenger steamer in Britain was only established in that 
 year, so that, in employing steam navigation, the colony was 
 not behind the mother country. 
 
 Immediately after the peace of 1815, several gentlemen 
 of Kingston determined to introduce steam navigation upon 
 Lake Ontario; and on the 7th of September, 1816, the 
 steamer Frontenac was launched at the village of Ernest- 
 town. She was one hundred and fifty feet keel, one hundred 
 and seventy feet over all, thirty feet beam, and twelve feet 
 depth of hold ; her wheels were thirteen feet in diameter, 
 her draft of water when loaded eight feet, and she was 
 rated at 742 tons. The machinery was imported from Eng- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 139 
 
 land, and the contract price for tlie hull was £7,000 (or 
 $28,000.) The Frontenac was pronounced " the best speci- 
 men of naval architecture yet produced in America," and 
 was owned by respectable merchants and other inhabitants 
 of the Count y. She was commanded by Captain Macken- 
 zie, and, after making her trial trip, on the 30th of May, 
 1817, went on her route in June from Prescott to Burling- 
 ton, for which distance the fare was eighteen dollars; but 
 from Kingston to York it was only twelve dollars. Her 
 route was advertised from Prescott, touching at the river 
 ports, to Kingston, Ernesttown, Newcastle, and York; 
 thence, via Burlington Beach, to Niagara, returning over 
 the same route, — the round trip requiring about nine days. 
 Steerage passengers paid three dollars and ''found" them- 
 selves. Cabin passengers paid extra baggage over sixty 
 pounds. Having touched, it is said not unwillingly, a rock 
 in the river on her first attempt to go to Prescott, her own- 
 ers, who were interested in maintaining transhipment at 
 Kingston, withdrew from the river navigation and kept her 
 on the lake. 
 
 In August, 1816, a small steamer of two hundred tons, 
 called the Ontario, owned by Mr. Charles Smith and asso- 
 ciates, of Albany, was launched at Sackett's Harbor. Her 
 trial trip is said to have been made in April, 1817 ; but 
 whether she traversed the lake before the Frontenac or not 
 has not been established. These were the first steamboats 
 which were tried, out of river navigation, and the attempt 
 to navigate the lakes by them was then looked upon as an 
 interesting experiment. 
 
 The Kew York Legislature refused, in March, 1816, to 
 incorporate a steamboat company for Lake Ontario, by a 
 vote of 75 to 49, on the ground, as was stated at the time, 
 that it would facilitate trade down the St. Lawrence ; but, 
 if Fulton's right extended to the lakes, that fact may have 
 had something to do with the defeat of the measure. 
 
 I 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORT ATIOJT. 141 
 
 In 1818, tlie Charlotte, a river steamer, was launched 
 from the same yard where the Frontenac was built, to ply 
 between Prescott and Carrying Place. She was the first 
 river boat in Upper Canada, and was built by Henry Gil- 
 dersleeve (who was also the assistant builder of the Fronte- 
 nac) for a committee consisting of Smith Bartlett, Solomon 
 Johns, Daniel Washburn, and Peter Hetsel. Although 
 these two boats held almost a monopoly of lake and river 
 transportation, the future was so doubtful to the editor of 
 the Kingston Gazette^ that he consoled himself with the re- 
 flection that " whether they prove profitable or not, they 
 are calculated to promote the public good." It was said 
 that the proprietors not only sought government aid, but the 
 exclusive right of steam navigation,^ — a right which the 
 legislature of Lower Canada had more than once declined 
 to grant to Mr. Molson. The fate of the Frontenac in a 
 measure warranted these fears; for, although she cost about 
 £17,000, she was sold in 1825, at auction, for £1,550, to the 
 Hon. Jno. Hamilton, of Kingston, whose whole life has been 
 spent in developing steamboat transportation on the lake 
 and river. 
 
 The celebrated Swedish engineer, Ericsson, while in Eng- 
 land in 1837, successfully applied the screw to the pro- 
 pulsion of vessels. In 1841, the Yandalia, the first of a 
 class now numbering over one hundred and twenty on the 
 lakes, was built at Oswego, and afterwards sold to Cana- 
 dians. 
 
 The whole number of steamers, propellers, and tugs 
 now upon the lakes is 863, with an aggregate tonnage of 
 182,327 tons, and a valuation of $5,576,000. Of these, 100 
 are Canadian, having a tonnage of 80,511 tons, and a val- 
 uation of $1,897,000. 
 
 OCEAN STEAMERS. 
 
 The magnificent subsidy awarded by the British govern- 
 ment to the Canard line had the effect of diverting Canadian 
 
142 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 traffic with Europe from the St. Lawrence river through the 
 ports of Boston and New York. The policy of the Imperial 
 government, which tended to build up American seaports at 
 the expense of Canadian, left the colony no other resource 
 than competition. On the 13th of August, 1852, a contract 
 was entered into between the commissioner of public works 
 of Canada, and Messrs. McKean, McLarty & Co., a Liver- 
 pool firm, for the term of seven years, by which a line of 
 screw steamers of not less than 1,200 tons carpenters' meas- 
 urement, 300 horse-power, and capable of carrying 1,000 
 tons of cargo besides coal for twenty-four days, were to 
 commence running between Liverpool, Quebec, and Mon- 
 treal, in the spring of 1853, once every fortnight during the 
 season of navigation, and to Portland once a month; the 
 outward passage not to exceed fourteen days, and the 
 homeward passage thirteen days. The maximum rate of 
 freight to be charged was QOs. per ton. Fourteen trips 
 were to be made from Liverpool to the St. Lawrence and 
 back, for which at least five steamers were to be provided; 
 and five trips to Portland and back, for which three steamers 
 were required. The vessels were all to be ready and to 
 commence their fortnightly service on or before the 1st of 
 May, 1854; and a sufficient number to be ready and to com- 
 mence the monthly trips in the spring of 1853. The price 
 to be paid by the province was, for fourteen fortnightly 
 trips to the St. Lawrence, £1,238 Is. lid. sterling per trip. 
 The Grand Trunk Eailway was to pay £336 66-. 8c?. sterling 
 for each monthly trip to Portland. 
 
 In October, 1852, Messrs. McKean, McLarty & Co. formed 
 a provisional company under the title of the " Liverpool 
 and North American Screw Steam-Ship Company," and pe- 
 titioned the board of trade for a royal charter, with limited 
 liability. In this they were vigorously and successfully op- 
 posed by the Cunard company, and generally by British 
 ship-owners not protected by limited liability, and were 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 143 
 
 compelled to attempt the formation of their company under 
 a Canadian charter. 
 
 Under this contract, the Genova, a small steamer of 700 
 tons and 160 horse-power, was sent out in 1853, — the first 
 transatlantic screw steamer which entered the St. Lawrence. 
 The Lady Eglinton, 600 tons and 160 horse-power, and the 
 Sarah Sands, 1,200 tons and 150 horse-power, followed; 
 these boats made fiye trips only in 1853. The average 
 voyage out was fourteen to twenty-two days, and home 
 twelve to eighteen days; and 8O5. freight, instead of 60s., 
 was charged. In consequence of this total failure on the 
 part of the contractors, the government of Canada annulled 
 the contract, and on the 28th of September, 1855, a new 
 one was entered into with Hugh Allan, of Montreal, to 
 commence in April, 1856, and give the same time and num- 
 ber of trips as before, but with vessels not less than 1,750 
 tons builders' measurement, and not less than 350 horse- 
 power. The subsidy was £24,000 sterling per annum, and 
 a penalty of £1,000 for every trip lost was provided for, 
 besides the deduction of a pro-rata amount of the subsidy. 
 The contract was terminable by the contractor, at the end 
 of any year, by giving six months' previous notice. Al- 
 though the line was not remunerative in its first season, 
 
 1856, the contract was fulfilled in the most satisfactory 
 manner, the outward passage being under thirteen days, 
 and the homeward a little over eleven days. 
 
 The inefficiency of a semi-monthly line, especially for 
 postal purposes, in competition with the subsidized line to 
 Boston and New York, led to a revision of the contract in 
 
 1857, by which a weekly service to the St. Lawrence com- 
 menced in May, 1859, at a subsidy of $220,000 per annum. 
 In April, 1860, a new contract was entered into with Mr. 
 Allan, to continue in force until the 1st of January, 1867, 
 for a weekly line between Liverpool and the St. Lawrence, 
 and in winter Portland. All the vessels, except the Anglo- 
 
144: 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Saxon, Canadian, and North American, to be not less tlian 
 2,300 tons builders' measurement, with, not less than 500 
 horse-power. Under this arrangement the ships must call 
 at any port in Ireland which may be selected. The average 
 passages in 1860 were twelve and eleven days, instead of 
 fourteen and thirteen, the contract time. The subsidy is 
 $416,000 per annum; the penalty for every trip not per- 
 formed is $5,000, besides the contract value thereof; and the 
 contract is terminable by the contractor on giving six 
 months' notice, but by the government only in case of de- 
 fault. The doubling of the subsidy was in consequence of 
 the losses of the company in the first year of the weekly 
 line, in which two of their steamers, the Indian and the 
 Hungarian, were lost in the Atlantic, en route for Portland, 
 while off the coast of Nova Scotia. 
 
 In the winter of 1859, the Canadian steamships for 
 Portland commenced to call at Cork, receiving supplemen- 
 tary mails, with letters written in London after the steamer 
 had left Liverpool ; but as Cork was not suited to the St. 
 Lawrence route, Londonderry was selected for the Irish 
 port of call, and the first voyage, stopping there, was made 
 from Liverpool on the 30th of May, 1860. The day of de- 
 parture from Liverpool was also changed, in July, 1860, 
 from Wednesday to Thursday, taking an extra day from the 
 Cunard line, which leaves on Saturday. 
 
 The Canadian line, in 1860, carried 620,000 letters be- 
 .tween the United States and Europe, and received $104, 
 641.68, from the United States' post-office, for this service. 
 Previous to the arrangement of 1859 and 1860 the claims 
 of the British and American post-offices, for packet and 
 transit charges on Canadian correspondence with Europe, 
 averaged $165,000 per annum; but, after 1860, they were 
 reduced to $50,000 — the difference of $115,000 per annum 
 being the amount accruing to Canada from the transport of 
 her own European correspondence. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 145 
 
 This line bas been unfortunate, in the loss of not less than 
 five of its steamers in four years, — the Canadian in 1857, 
 Indian in 1859, Hungarian in 1860, and Canadian and North 
 Briton in 1861. Of these losses, two were in the St. Law- 
 rence and three in the Atlantic, and of the former only one 
 can be laid to the dangers of the navigation, as the first 
 steamer lost was run ashore almost under the lamps of a 
 lighthouse in full view, and on a bright, calm evening, by 
 an incompetent pilot, who had assumed the control on her 
 arrival. 
 
 The following table shows the principal dimensions, ca- 
 pacity, &c., of the Canadian ocean steamers : — 
 
 MONTREAL OCEAN STEAMSHIP COMPANY. 
 
 
 s 
 
 ? 
 
 Draft of 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 •«] 
 
 o 
 
 _ p: 05 
 
 « § wig 
 
 z 
 
 li 
 
 J 
 
 LIVERPOOL 
 
 2. 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Measure't. 
 
 
 
 rl 
 
 • f 
 
 ^2. 
 
 It 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 AND 
 
 LONDONDERRY 
 
 f 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 f 
 
 LINE. 
 
 Itg 
 
 IT 
 
 11 
 
 -^ 
 
 i 
 
 : 
 
 1-000 
 
 250 
 
 M1 
 
 75 
 
 s 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 North American, 
 
 1-784 1137 
 
 45 
 
 11 
 
 250 
 
 Anglo Saxon, 
 
 276 
 
 35 
 
 11 
 
 19* 
 
 1-784 M65 
 
 I-OOO 
 
 250 
 
 45 
 
 11 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 250 
 
 Nova Scotian, 
 
 292 
 
 38^ 
 
 13 
 
 m 
 
 2-250 1-487 
 
 1-2.50 
 
 300 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 350 
 
 
 292 
 29fi 
 
 38^ 
 38 
 
 13 
 13 
 
 21^ 
 2U 
 
 2-250 1-488 
 
 1-2.W 
 
 300 
 300 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 90 
 
 120 
 120 
 
 350 
 
 Hibernian, 
 
 2 334 1-888 1150 
 
 48 I 11 
 
 3.'i0 
 
 
 296 
 305 
 300 
 
 38 
 
 13 
 
 21i 
 22 
 22 
 
 2-334 1-888 1150 
 2-246 1-06711.200 
 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 
 48 11 
 60 12 
 
 90 
 90 
 110 
 
 120 
 60 
 120 
 
 •^50 
 
 
 350 
 
 New ship, building,... 
 
 2-350 
 
 
 1-250 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 350 
 
 The nominal horse-power, speed and ship's company are 
 approximate ; the actual horse-power exerted is nearly four 
 times the nominal. The Hibernian and Norwegian show 
 a marked advantage in the net tonnage as compared with 
 the gross. 
 
 There are two regular Lines of Screw Steamers sailing 
 to Glasgow, and the pioneer vessel of one to London has 
 visited Montreal. 
 
 The St. Lawrence route to Liverpool as a steam one has 
 the very great advantage of sheltered and therefore compa- 
 
 tively smooth water from Cape Kace to Quebec. The Can- 
 
14:6 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 adian steamers have 1,000 miles less of open ocean to con- 
 tend with than those plying to New York. Our mail 
 steamers should therefore regularly make shorter time than 
 the Cunard line, but for want of sufficient power they do 
 not do so : and from over loading since the grain trade at 
 Montreal has increased, their average voyages are longer 
 now than they were before 1860. The contract for fixing 
 a maximum for the outward and homeward passage neces- 
 sarily allows a margin for bad weather, and thus this pro- 
 vision fkils to secure that speed which alone can establish 
 the route. The subsidy should not be renewed unless the 
 utmost efficiency of which a screw line is capable of, is se- 
 cured; for this is precisely one of those things which should 
 be thoroughly "done or not attempted at all. It is the 
 height of folly to continue to pay a large subsidy to *a line 
 just fast enough to be beaten. The fastest line will take 
 the mails, — the most profitable traffic ; and a larger subsidy 
 even than that now paid might prove remunerative if these 
 can be secured. A subsidy is no longer needed to open the 
 route, — ^it should now only be employed to demonstrate its 
 superiority to all others. 
 
 EARLY NAVIGATION OF THE ST. LAWRENCE. 
 
 During the first quarter of the present century, — ^before 
 the state of New York had availed herself of that remark- 
 able pass through the Alleghany range, which is afford- 
 ed by the Hudson Eiver, and had tapped Lakes Champlain, 
 Ontario, and Erie by means of her grand canals, — exports 
 from Northern Vermont and New York, via Lake Cham- 
 plain (or Corlaer's Lake, as the Dutch had named it,) as well 
 as from those tributaries of the St. Lawrence which take 
 their rise in the " Empire State," sought an outlet at Quebec 
 and Montreal. Previous to the year 1822, American lum- 
 ber, grain, &c., were admitted into Canada, duty free, and 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. I4.7 
 
 exported, with all the privileges afforded to Canadian pro- 
 ducts, to the British West-Indian colonies. While New 
 York was pressing forward her canals (commenced in 1817 
 and completed in 1824,) the Imperial authorities, in 1822, 
 prepared the way for the complete diversion of American 
 exports from the St. Lawrence to those canals, by imposing 
 a duty upon such exports to Canada. Sir J. B. Eobinson, 
 in 1822, as the agent of Upper Canada in London, very 
 properly suggested that the propriety, or otherwise, of such 
 a duty might safely be left to the Canadians ; but the defense 
 to the measure was that, as Canadian products were admitted 
 into the British West-India colonies free of duty, while 
 American were taxed, the free admission of the latter into 
 Canada would be a discrimination in favor of British bot- 
 toms, via the St. Lawrence, against American bottoms, via 
 the Mississippi, of which the Americans would complain as 
 an evasion " of the relaxation professed to be made in the 
 navigation laws for the benefit of a reciprocal commerce." 
 This blunder was, however, acknowledged, in 1831, by the 
 re-admission of American exports, as before, free of duty. 
 Long before the commencement of any regular system of 
 improvement, by means of continuous canals overcoming 
 the whole of any rapid, small locks for batteaux had been 
 constructed by the French at the Cascades, the Coteau, and 
 the Longue Sault rapids. In 1804, these were reconstructed 
 of larger size and in improved positions, by the royal engi • 
 neers, as military works. While furs were the only exports 
 the batteau was suited to the trade in both directions; but 
 when agricultural export commenced, grain was first sent 
 down (before 1800) on the rafts, and in scows or " arks/' 
 which were broken up and sold as lumber in Montreal 
 Some slight improvements were made by Lower Canada in 
 1805 and 1806 in the boat channel of the rapids. Mer- 
 chandise was at that time carted to Lachine, from whence 
 
 the batteaux and Durham boats took their departure (in 
 10 
 
 r 
 
148 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 " brigades " of five or more boats, that their united crews 
 might aid each other at the rapids,) and sailed through Lake 
 St. Louis. At the Cascades, three-fourths of the cargo was 
 discharged and carted to the head of the Cedars — ^the boat, 
 with the remaining fourth, being locked past the Cascades, 
 dragged up the " Split Rock " and Cedars, and re-loaded— 
 passing the Coteau bj a lock into Lake St. Francis. Above 
 Cornwall, there were two locks in Longue Sault, one of 
 which was a private speculation; and between Mille Roches 
 and the head of the Longue Sault, as between the Cascades 
 and the Oedars, lighterage was necessary, three-fourths of 
 the cargo being discharged and hauled over land. From 
 Prescott the boats sailed up to Kingston, or (after 1818) 
 were towed b j steamer. The average time required for the 
 voyage was twelve days, and the actual expenses of a Dur- 
 ham boat with an average cargo of eight tons, from Lachine 
 to Kingston, were as follows: — 
 
 Tolls at the Cascades and Coteau, £2 10- 
 
 Towing at different Rapids, 5 10- 
 
 Land carriage of 6 tons from Cascades to the Cedars, 3 
 
 Land carriage of 6 tons from Mille Roches, 3 
 
 Towing by steamboat from Prescott to Kingston, 3 15- 
 
 "Wages, &;c., 6 men, 12 days, at 38. 6d. per day, 12 12 - 
 
 £30 7 
 
 $121 40 cents. 
 
 Salt, which was taken at the lowest rates, was charged Ss, 
 9c?. per cwt., in 1825, from Lachine to Kingston ; the aver- 
 age rate on merchandise being 4s. 6d. per cwt., or eighteen 
 dollars per ton. The number of boats which paid toll at 
 the Coteau locks were — 
 
 Tear. Durham boati. Batteaux. 
 
 1818, 315 679 
 
 1819 339 573 
 
 1820, 561 430 
 
 1821, 342 634 
 
 1824, 268 596 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 149 
 
 An addition of about twelve per cent, should be made, 
 to the above because one boat out of eight or nine sailed 
 up the rapids, and did not pay toll. Of the Durham boats 
 about one-half were American. 
 
 For downward cargo a Durham boat had a capacity of 
 three hundred and fifty barrels of flour, and a batteau thirty 
 to forty ; but in their latter days these were made nearly as 
 large as the former. Upward, the former averaged eight 
 tons, and the latter four to five. The transportation of 
 1824 was diminished by a failure of the harvest in 1823, as 
 well as by the operations of the Imperial trade act of 1822. 
 
 The average passage of a boat from Kingston to Lachine 
 was four days, and the expense as follows: — 
 
 Six men, four days, at 3s. 6d., £4 4 - 
 
 Pilotage at the rapids, 1 17 6 
 
 £6 1 6 
 
 $24 30 
 
 The downward trade in 1818 to 1825 averaged about 
 150,000 to 175,000 barrels per annum, say 15,000 tons; 
 and the upward trade about 5,000 tons, or about one to 
 three. In 1882, the trade had increased so as to give six to 
 eight hundred Durham boats and twelve to fifteen hundred 
 batteaux, passing the locks, the down trade being 66,000 
 tons and the up trade 21,000 tons — the proportions of about 
 three to one still holding good. 
 
 As the trade increased, passenger steamboats were placed 
 on Lakes St. Francis and St. Louis, and four-horse coaches 
 upon the portage roads. Improvements in the steamboats, 
 in 1833, enabled them to overcome the smaller rapids be- 
 tween the Longue Sault and Prescott; and from that date 
 they descended as far as Dickinson's Landing. 
 
 The agitation of the Erie and Champlain canals early 
 drew the attention of the Canadians to the competition 
 with which they were threatened. It was a renewal of that 
 
150 TRAVEL AND TRAXSPORTATION. 
 
 strife, for tlie commerce of civilization, which had existed 
 for the fur-trade, between the English colonies on the At- 
 lantic and the French at Montreal and Quebec, before the 
 conquest. A short portage divided Fort Stanwix, on the 
 Mohawk (a principal branch of the Hudson,) from Wood 
 Creek, which flowed into Oneida Lake, and thence, by the 
 Onondaga Eiver, into Lake Ontario, at Oswego, which 
 latter place was the scene of more than one conflict between 
 French and English and their savage allies, over one hun- 
 dred years ago. 
 
 In 1817, the same year in which the canal bill passed at 
 Albany, and a month earlier, the government of Upper 
 Canada advertised for tenders for the improvement of the 
 navigation between Lachine and Kingston, by the course 
 of the river Kideau. The project of connecting Lakes Erie 
 and Ontario, by the Welland Canal, first appears in print, 
 November 29th, 1817, in a paper prepared by William 
 Hamilton Merritt for Eobert Gourlay. In 1818, a company 
 was incorporated to construct the Lachine Canal, a project 
 which had been mooted as early as 1795 ; and another, in 
 1819, for the construction of the canal at Chambly. 
 
 Thus, movements were on foot, in the center and at the 
 two extremes, ^-to compass the objects aimed at by the 
 state of New York, — ^before the completion of her canals 
 had demonstrated their success; but, from various causes, at 
 the head of which, no doubt, the separation of the provinces 
 stood first, no actual commencement was made except with 
 the Lachine Canal upon the Island of Montreal, and the 
 Grenville Canal (by the Imperial government) on the Otta- 
 wa, until long after the completion of the Erie and Cham- 
 plain canals. 
 
 The military canals, having been conceded to the province 
 in 1853, and happily never having been required for other 
 than commercial purposes, will be noticed under the head 
 of the Ottawa River improvements. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 151 
 
 Taking the three great routes of Canadian navigation in 
 the order of their extent, we begin with the shortest. 
 
 LAKE CHAMPLAIN ROUTE. 
 
 The Eichelieu or Iroquois Kiver has a length of eighty 
 miles between Sorel, on the St. Lawrence, and Eouse's Point, 
 on Lake Champlain, with two obstructions to navigation in 
 this distance. The first is overcome at St. Ours, about four- 
 teen miles from Sorel, by a dam which deepens the water 
 between this point and Chambly, and a lock — two hundred 
 feet in length between the gates, and forty -five feet wide be- 
 tween the walls, with six feet depth of water — begun in 
 1844, and completed in 1849, at an outlay of $153,117.65. 
 The second is the rapids above Chambly, which are passed 
 by a canal eleven and a half miles in length, with nine 
 stone locks, each one hundred and twenty -four by twtntj^- 
 four feet, and six feet of water; commenced in 1831, sus- 
 pended in 1835, resumed in 1840, and completed in 1843, 
 at a cost of $480,000. By means of these improvements, 
 boats can pass from any part of the St. Lawrence into Lake 
 Champlain, and thence, by the Northern Canal and the 
 Hudson Kiver, to the city of New York. Large quantities 
 of lumber are transported by this route from thb city of 
 Ottawa to the Hudson Eiver without transhipment. 
 
 Lake Champlain navigation extends into Canada aj far as 
 St. John's, at which point the river Eichelieu is 29 feet 
 higher than the St. Lawrence at Lachine, or 74 feet higher 
 than the river at Montreal. The distance between Caugh- 
 nawaga (opposite Lachine) and St. John's is about 25 miles 
 in a direct line; but if Lake Champlain be made the feeder, 
 a canal must make a detour to avoid high ground, which 
 will give a length of 32i miles, and a cost of about two 
 millions of dollars. Another plan is, to carry a feeder, 16 
 miles in length, from the Beauharnois Canal, on a level 37^ 
 feet higher than Lake Champlain, down to a point opposite 
 
152 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOK. 
 
 Ca.uglinawaga, and feed a direct line of canal between this 
 point and St. John's, whicli would be about eight miles 
 shorter than the canal fed from the Champlain level ; but as 
 it would have 87 feet more lockage, this would nearly 
 equalize the two routes, in point of time. This scheme, 
 with the feeder made navigable, would cost about double 
 the other, say four millions of dollars ; and, with a feeder 
 only, about three millions of dollars. The first scheme 
 gives the minimum amount of lockage to the Ottawa lum- 
 ber trade ; the second, to the through trade from the West, 
 unless the rapids are navigated by the freight boats, in 
 which case these will not leave the St. Lawrence until they 
 reach Caughnawaga; but the question of cost is conclusive 
 between these two plans. Montreal claims that the terminus 
 of the canal should be opposite that city: this has been 
 objected to as causing the Ottawa and western trade to de- 
 scend 45 feet, only to ascend the same again — ^besides add- 
 ing to the length of the route. 
 
 OTTAWA ROUTE. 
 
 The Ottawa River, where it joins the St. Lawrence, divides 
 so as to form the Island of Montreal, and about one-third 
 of its volume, flowing by St. Anne's and Vaudreuil, (where 
 it forms a large island called Isle Perrot;) enters Lake 
 St. Louis, and passes over the Lachine Rapids — ^its dark 
 waters taking the Montreal side and forcing the blue St. 
 Lawrence into mid-channel. The other two-thirds flows to 
 the rear of Montreal Island, forming Little River, in which 
 is another large island. Isle Jesus, and discharges into the 
 St. Lawrence about fifteen miles below Montreal. 
 
 In connecting tide-water with the interior, the Lachine 
 Canal is common to both the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa 
 routes. Lachine, at the head of the first rapids on the St. 
 Lawrence, may, therefore, be considered the starting point 
 of this route ; and the first place where the navigation has 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANaPORTATIOU. 153 
 
 been improved, is at St. Anne's, near tlie entrance to the 
 Lake of Two Mountains. The rapid here is navigable at 
 high water only ; the opposite one of Yaudreuil, though 
 affording a more circuitous route, was passable at all stages, 
 and was, moreover, after 1832, aided by a lock for batteaux, 
 built by a private company. In this way navigation was 
 maintained until 1843, when the provincial government 
 completed the lock at St. Anne's, which was commenced in 
 1839, — is two hundred feet long by forty-five feet wide, 
 and, with the wing dam, cost $111,796. By means of this 
 lock, a large passenger steamer is enabled to run from La- 
 chine to Carillon at the foot of the Longue Sault of the Ot- 
 tawa, a distance of forty -five miles. The Longue Sault and 
 other rapids between Grenville and Carillon, a distance of 
 twelve miles, are passed by three detached canals with locks, 
 the upper and older of which was commenced, in 1819, by 
 the Imperial government, upon the same dimensions as the 
 old Lachine Canal, and remains unaltered to this day. The 
 others were not so far advanced in 1828, when the enlarge- 
 ment of the Eideau Canal was decided on, and therefore 
 have locks one hundred and twenty-eight to one hundred 
 and thirty-four feet long, and thirty -three feet wide ; and 
 also extra lockage, because the lowest one is fed from 
 the North Eiver, a branch of the Ottawa. From Grenville 
 to Ottawa the river is navigable, and a passenger steamer, 
 (confined to the reach by being too large for the locks of 
 the Grenville or Eideau canals,) runs in connection with 
 portage railway between Grenville and Carillon, the steamer 
 between Carillon and Lachine, and the railway thence to 
 Montreal; thus making two railways and two steamers ne- 
 cessary to convey a passenger from Montreal to the city of 
 Ottawa. 
 
 Above this city, the Chaudiere Falls and the rapids near 
 them obstruct the navigation for several miles; but a Mac- 
 adam road connects with an iron steamer on the Chaudiere 
 
154 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Lake. No attempt, beyond surveys, has been made to 
 overcome the obstructions to ascending navigation immedi- 
 ately above Ottawa; but at the next point higher up (the 
 Chats,) an abortive attempt to connect the Chaudi^re and 
 Chats Lakes, which are three miles apart and have fifty feet 
 difference of level, has been made. The obstructions at the 
 Chats are at present surmounted by a horse railway, three 
 miles in length, which conveys passengers and freight be- 
 tween the iron steamers which are running upon the two 
 lakes. Two other steamers are plying still higher up, on 
 reaches divided by rapids but connected by good portage 
 roads; and by this means transportation is effected as far as 
 the head of the Deep River, or to the foot of the rapids of the 
 Deux Joachims, a point nearly three hundred miles from 
 the mouth of the Ottawa. From this point upward the 
 swift current and numerous rapids force a transfer from the 
 steamboat to the bark canoe — from the highest to the lowest 
 order of vessels for water transport. 
 
 THE RIDEAU CANAL. 
 
 The agitation of the canal question so soon after the 
 peace of 1815, naturally gave military considerations a 
 prominence in the discussion of the route; and thus we 
 have seen that, in 1817, the first action taken by Upper 
 Canada was with reference to this route.' In 1824, the Im- 
 perial government offered to aid the upper province by a 
 grant of £70,000 sterling, towards the construction of this 
 canal; but the joint committee on internal navigation, in 
 1825, while admitting that this offer " ought to determine 
 us to apply our first exertions to the communication between 
 Kingston and Ottawa," was of opinion that, " regarding 
 only the commercial interests of the province, in time of 
 peace with the United States, the improvement of the river 
 St. Lawrence would naturally first engage attention, because 
 a much less expenditure would render this direct and nat 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 155 
 
 ural cliannel more convenient for all purposes of trade." 
 The estimate by the St. Lawrence route, for locks one hun- 
 dred and thirty-two feet by forty feet, with eight feet of 
 water, was only £176,378 (or $705,512;) while that for the 
 Eideau, with locks only one hundred by twenty -two feet, 
 and seven feet of water, was £230,785 (or $923,140.) 
 
 The Imperial government had turned their attention to 
 this route immediately after the war; and, early in 1815, 
 Colonel Nicolls, commanding royal engineer, sent Lieutenant 
 Jebb to explore the direct route by Irish Creek. In 1825, 
 a committee of royal engineers, sent out to Canada, were 
 instructed to bring home an estimate for the cost of a canal 
 by this route, based upon the dimensions of the Lachine 
 Canal, then completed. This was found to be £169,000 
 (or $676,000) — whereupon the Imperial government, desir- 
 ous of retaining the complete control of the canal in case 
 of another war, determined on its construction; and, in 
 May, 1826, sent out Lieutenant-Colonel John By, E. E., who 
 commenced it on the 21st of September, 1826, and passed 
 the first steamer through on the 29th of May, 1832 ; but 
 the works were not completed until 1834. This route is 
 one hundred and twenty-six and one-quarter miles long, of 
 which only sixteen and a half are canal. From Ottawa, it 
 ascends two hundred and ninety-two feet by thirty-four 
 locks, in a distance of eighty-seven and a half miles, to the 
 summit level of the Eideau Lakes; and then descends 
 one hundred and sixty-five feet by thirteen locks, in a dis- 
 tance of thirty-eight and three-quarters miles; giving a 
 total of forty-seven locks with four hundred and fifty-seven 
 feet lockage. The navigation is formed by twenty-four 
 dams, six of which range from twenty -five to sixty feet in 
 height. Most of these dams are of stone, — a questionable 
 policy, as timber ones are as reliable and very much 
 cheaper. The original canal was intended to have a towing 
 path ; but, in 1828, another committee of royal engineers. 
 
156 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 witli Sir James Kempt at their head, authorized its enlarge- 
 ment for steam navigation, the locks to be one hundred 
 and thirtj-four by thirty -three feet; the towing-path was, 
 therefore, unfortunately omitted. 
 
 The canal drops into the Ottawa by a flight of eight com- 
 bined locks, having a lift of eighty-two feet ; and as it was 
 necessary, on leaving the Ottawa, at once to rise above the 
 level of the Chaudi^re Lake, the navigation would have 
 been extended without additional lockage, nearly forty 
 miles higher up the river, had the canal been kept in it 
 until that lake was reached. 
 
 TIMBER SLIDES ON THE OTTAWA. 
 
 The Ottawa, above the point where the Imperial canal 
 joined it, has been, with several of its large tributaries, the 
 subject of improvement, for downward transportation only 
 — for the purpose of bringing out timber and lumber with 
 greater expedition, greater safety, and greater economy. 
 These works are peculiar to Canada and deserve more than 
 a passing notice. 
 
 The . heavy timber, hauled out by the aid of the snow 
 which gives access to every tree, is deposited on the ice in 
 the several streams and lakes, and is there left to be borne 
 down by the spring freshets, either in single sticks or 
 in rafts manned by men, according to the size of the stream. 
 If not rafted, it goes off with the water, followed by the 
 men in canoes, whose duty it is to look after the stragglers 
 grounded on a shoal or detained in an eddy, and shove 
 them out into the main stream. This mode of bringing 
 out the timber, which is called " driving," is practicable 
 upon almost all streams when in freshet; but, on many, 
 there are a few places where the obstructions are so great as 
 to call for artificial aid, to prevent detention of the timber 
 until too late for that tide which, if not taken at the flood, 
 too often leads to misfortune. In some rivers, precipitous 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 157 
 
 cataracts and jagged rocks are so destructive to timber that 
 the virgin groves have remained almost untouched, until, 
 by means of slides and dams, it could be profitably brought 
 down. In others, the delays in passing certain points were 
 so great that the freshet passed off before the timber could 
 be got into the main river, and it was left behind for the 
 next year. 
 
 The slides are artificial ^^ chutes ^^ formed by inclined 
 troughs of timber and plank, open at both ends, through 
 which a portion of the stream is diverted, and the timber 
 thereby carried past chutes and places where it would either 
 stick fast or be torn to splinters. For " driving," the slides 
 are narrow, and similar to the flumes or raceways supplying 
 a water-wheel ; but when designed for the passage of rafted 
 timber they are twenty-five feet wide; and down one of 
 them a crib, containing fifteen hundred cubic feet or nearly 
 forty tons of timber, will be carried, with the men aboard 
 and the cookhouse undisturbed, and in a few moments be 
 fifty feet below its former level. 
 
 Dams are resorted to to flood back the water on shoals 
 and rocks which retain and damage the timber; to stop up 
 high water channels — so as to keep it from straying or to 
 strengthen the main current; and also at the head of chutes^ 
 to govern and regulate the mouth of slides. 
 
 The Ottawa and the Bay of Quinte, the latter as being 
 the outlet of the inland waters, are the chief sources from 
 whence Quebec is supplied with timber; to these may now be 
 added the St. Maurice or Three Rivers. Recently, rafts 
 have been towed through some of the great lakes, but 
 at much risk and some loss. The first raft from the Bay 
 of Quinte was got out by Samuel Sherwood, in 1790. It 
 was composed of masts cut upon the north shore of the bay, 
 three miles east of Trenton; and there being then no cattle 
 in the country, Sherwood used tackle to haul the timber to 
 the water. In 1806, Philemon Wright took the first raft 
 
158 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 down the Ottawa. It was obtained from tlie Gatineau, a 
 large tributary entering near Ottawa City. 
 
 PROPOSED OTTAWA AND LAKE HURON CANALS. 
 
 In 1853, an appropriation of $200,000 was obtained, 
 without previous survey or estimate, for the purpose of 
 connecting the Chats and Chaudi^re Lakes by means of a 
 canal with fifty feet lockage. The idea of the projectors 
 was to commence on a magnificent scale at a point where 
 the very uselessness of the expenditure would be an argu- 
 ment in favor of its extension, east and west, to Montreal 
 and Lake Huron. They did not, therefore, court any ana- 
 lyzation of the scheme. The government of that day, on 
 the other hand, obtained the support of the Ottawa constit- 
 uencies for their railway policy along the St. Lawrence, and 
 were thus induced to grant the sum required to commence 
 operations. The simultaneous failure of the contractor and 
 the appropriation afibrded a decent pretext for suspension 
 in 1856, which ended in abandonment: in the meantime 
 the projectors were amused with a series of extensive sur- 
 veys of the whole route, between Montreal and Lake Huron, 
 — of over four hundred miles, and with estimates for canals 
 for Atlantic vessels. 
 
 The result of these surveys shows that the abandoned 
 canal on which $378,191 has been expended was in the 
 wrong place ; that to have completed it on the scale pro- 
 posed would have cost $1,465,439, whereas the same result 
 can be produced in the right place for $681,932 — in other 
 words, that the opportune abandonment of the work will 
 effect a saving of $410,316. It is gratifying to know that 
 if the commencement has involved a loss of $373,191, the 
 abandonment has saved a greater sum, and that there is 
 still a handsome balance to the credit of the latter. The 
 summit level of the proposed Ottawa route at Lake Nipis- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 159 
 
 sing would be six hundred and fifty-one feet above tide- 
 water; and the total rise and fall from tide- water to Lake 
 Iluron, by this route, is seven hundred and twenty-eight 
 feet, the fall from Lake Nipissing to Lake Huron being 
 seventy-seven feet. 
 
 The general results of the Ottawa survey, as made by 
 Mr. T. C. Clark, C. E., are embraced in the following table 
 extracted from his report: — 
 
 OTTAWA AND FRENCH RIVER NAVIGATION. 
 
 
 -DrSTANCES 
 
 , iniles-> 
 
 , 
 
 Levels « 
 
 
 Sections. Rivers and 
 
 Canals. 
 
 No.o 
 
 Lockage, 
 
 Cost. 
 
 
 Lakes. 
 
 Locks 
 
 feet. 
 
 
 Lachine Canal,. . . . 
 
 
 8-50 . 
 
 ... 5 
 
 . . 43-75 . . 
 
 . .not estimated. 
 
 J^ake St. Louis, 
 
 13 31 ... 
 
 
 
 
 do. 
 
 Saint Aiine's, 
 
 
 119 . 
 
 ... 1 . 
 
 . . 100 . . 
 
 $469,672 
 
 Lake of Two Mts.,. 
 
 24 70 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carillon to Gr'nv'le,. 
 
 7 73 . . . 
 
 5 00 . 
 
 ... 7 . 
 
 . . 58 50 . . 
 
 1,649,909 
 
 Green Shoals, 
 
 
 •10 . 
 
 
 
 136,105 
 
 Ottawa River, 
 
 55.97 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 ChauHiere and Des 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chenes, 
 
 3-75 ... 
 
 2-61 . 
 
 ... 6. 
 
 . . 6300 . . 
 
 816.733 
 
 Des Chenes Lake,.. 
 
 26-69 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chats, 
 
 1-70 ... 
 
 •60 . 
 
 ... 5 . 
 
 . . 50 00 . . 
 
 681,932 
 
 Chats Lake, 
 
 19 28 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Snows to Black falls, 
 
 18 32 ... 
 
 1-05 . 
 
 ... 11 . 
 
 . . 104 00 . . 
 
 1,256,840 
 
 River and Lake Cou- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 longe, 
 
 24-93 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 262,514 
 
 Chapeau and L'Islet, 
 
 4-85 . . . 
 
 •14 . 
 
 ... 2 . 
 
 .. 1800.. 
 
 243,507 
 
 Deep River, 
 
 33-58 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Joachim's to Mat- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tavvan, 
 
 51-74 ... 
 
 2-26 . 
 
 ... 14 . 
 
 . . 148-20 . . 
 
 1,757,653 
 
 River Mattawan, . . 
 
 16-22 ... 
 
 108 . 
 
 ... 11 . 
 
 . . 14400 . . 
 
 1,162,154 
 
 Summit level and cut 
 
 , 51-15 ... 
 
 6 97 . 
 
 
 
 2,160,369 
 
 French River, 
 
 47-52 . . . 
 
 •82 . 
 
 ... 7 . 
 
 . . 77 00 . . 
 
 886,117 
 
 Add Engineering & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Superintendence, 
 
 ... 
 
 29-32 . 
 
 .. 64 . 
 
 
 574,175 
 
 Totals, 
 
 401-44 ... 
 
 . . 665 70 . . 
 
 .. $12,057,680 
 
 The scale of navigation proposed is for vessels of one 
 thousand tons. Locks two hundred and fifty feet long by 
 forty-five feet wide, with twelve feet depth of water on the 
 mitre sills. 
 
 These figures are conclusive; — a canal scheme, under- 
 taken on such a scale, and upon such a route, with all the 
 
160 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION 
 
 changes and additions which would follow, would result in 
 an expenditure of at least twenty millions of dollars; but 
 if it could be done for ten, it would be equally impracticable 
 as a provincial undertaking. The region traversed does 
 not possess sufficient political influence to carry the appro- 
 priations for a tithe of the sum required ; and as a commer- 
 cial speculation no case could be made out for it. Although 
 it would shorten the distance between Montreal and Lake 
 Huron by three hundred miles over the present route, via 
 the lakes and the Welland Canal, there would be no saving 
 of time on the round trip, on account of the extra lockage 
 and river navigation; and it would be exclusively a route 
 for steamers, whereas the greater part of the present route 
 is available for sail craft. On the St. Lawrence route the 
 extra three hundred miles would be overcome by a propeller 
 in the open lakes with an unvarying speed, night and day, 
 of ten miles per hour; while the ten extra locks of the Ot- 
 tawa route, and the more intricate river navigation worked 
 at half-speed, would demand at least an equal loss of time. 
 For the downward commerce only, which gives at least 
 three tons to one of the upward, the difference is vastly in 
 favor of the St. Lawrence, in those boats which descend 
 the rapids, as there is in this case only the Welland Canal 
 with twenty-seven locks against the Ottawa canals with 
 fifty-nine. On the St. Lawrence route there is a local as well 
 as a through business, and a choice of markets while in 
 transitu^ as well as the proximity of railways in case of in- 
 terruption to the navigation. On the Ottawa there is at 
 present only sawn lumber to fill out a cargo. But while 
 so great an undertaking is, on the part of Canada, financially 
 impracticable and commercially unwarrantable, the opening 
 of this route is, as an imperial and military work, most de- 
 sirable. From the remote position of the greater part, the 
 expense of cut-stone locks of the size proposed, would 
 make it advisable to reduce the scale and also the character 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. X61 
 
 of the work. Cedar cribwork is nearly as durable as or- 
 dinary masonry in this climate; and by substituting it, 
 filled with stones and planked water-tight, for stone-work, 
 the Ottawa route would supply the materials and the kind 
 of labor required. The laying of masonry can only be ad- 
 vantageously done for a few months in the year, and a por- 
 tion of this time would be lost by high water. In some 
 sections it would probably be found cheaper to build 
 timber locks, if only for the purpose of reducing the cost 
 of the future stone ones. Any increased cost of mainte- 
 nance would be far less than the interest saved, and the 
 amount so saved in interest would be an ample renewal 
 fund. The fact that scarcely one of the hundreds of stone 
 locks in America have proved after ten years' experience, 
 to be properly proportioned, for the wants of commerce, 
 would suggest the propriety of substituting timber for stone 
 for the peculiar conditions of the Ottawa route — especially 
 as there seems no hope for the work being carried out upon 
 any more expensive basis. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE. 
 
 The early and efficient commencement of this work was 
 very much retarded by the fact that the obstructions were 
 under separate jurisdictions, and nearly equally divided be- 
 tween the two provinces ; and that the action of one would 
 be of little value unless imitated by the other. Lower 
 Canada, having control of the seaports, helped herself to the 
 lion's share of the import duties, the only fund upon which 
 either province could rely for internal improvements. The 
 division of these duties was a constant source of contention 
 between them. From 1792 to 1818, Lower Canada col- 
 lected a net revenue of £642,000 sterling, of which she 
 kept £600,000 and gave the odd numbers to her younger 
 sister. From 1813 to 1818, Upper Canada received less 
 than twenty-five per cent, of the net revenue collected by 
 
162 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Lower Canada, — and in 1820 and 1821, nothing at all; 
 whereupon she carried her complaints to the foot of the 
 throne, and thereafter the Imperial government assumed the 
 collection and distribution of these reyenues. The net 
 amount received by the two provinces, in the half-century 
 between their separation in 1791 and their re-union in 1841, 
 was. Lower Canada, £3,445,140 sterling (or $17,225,700;) 
 and Upper Canada, £731,834 sterling (or $3,659,173,) 
 which may be considered the measure of the ability of the 
 two, respectively, in carrying on their public works. Both 
 provinces had a gradually increasing but comparatively un- 
 important revenue collected at their inland ports; and 
 Lower Canada, under cover of inspection, levied a toll on 
 scows and rafts passing Chateauguay, which, between 1808 
 and 1831, yielded about £6,500 (or $31,633.33.) She 
 also claimed the excess, not only by virtue of her superior 
 population, but on the ground that rum, the article on which 
 the bulk of the duty was collected, was almost exclusively 
 consumed by her; and Upper Canada was charged with 
 having descended to whisky. Per contra, it may be stated 
 that the quantity of rum which passed above Coteau du 
 Lac in 1799 was about sixty thousand gallons, (which prob- 
 ably went to the United States as well as to Upper Canada;) 
 and the still harder fact that a barrel of rum, the freight on 
 which was three to three and a half dollars from Lachine to 
 Kingston, was the well-known standard of up freight for 
 merchandise by batteaux and Durham boats. 
 
 The action taken by the two provinces, respectively, be- 
 fore the Union with reference to the improvement of the 
 St. Lawrence was as follows. As early as the session of 
 1795-96, a bill was introduced for the construction of both 
 a canal and a turnpike to Lachine, by the late Hon. John 
 Richardson, who lived to carry out those schemes at a later 
 day. In 1805, the Legislature of. Lower Canada appropri- 
 ated £1,000 (or $4,000) to clear the channel of the Lachine 
 
PORTAGE. 
 
 See Page 132 
 
 TIMBER SLIDE. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 163 
 
 Kapids. Batteaux, whicli ran down loaded, were dragged 
 up light and took in their up cargo at Lachine, to which 
 point it was carted from Montreal. The result of this first 
 expenditure proving satisfactory, a similar sum was given 
 the following year for the rapids between Montreal and 
 Lake St. Francis. Nothing further was done until 1818, 
 when commissioners were appointed to meet those from 
 Upper Canada about the improvement of the water com- 
 munication between the provinces, both by the St. Lawrence 
 and Ottawa routes. In that year, also, a company was in- 
 corporated to construct the Lachine Canal within three 
 years, and another for the Chambly Canal, to be completed 
 in seven years. In 1821, the Lachine Canal was assumed 
 by the province, the company having failed to act; and in 
 1823 a similar course was taken, for the same reason, with 
 the Chambly Canal, coupled with the proviso that it should 
 not be commenced until the Lachine was completed. In 
 1831 an appropriation was made for ascertaining if loaded 
 batteaux could be taken up the rapids between Lakes St. 
 Francis and St. Louis, and whether steamers, about the ulti- 
 mate power of which great expectations had been formed, 
 could not ascend the cascades to Prescott. This was a 
 scheme for " reducing the grade " of the river at the rapids, 
 by which it was hoped currents of twelve or fourteen miles 
 per hour could be reduced one-half Cuts forming inclined 
 planes were made at Mill Point below the Cedars, at Point 
 au Liable, the Eigolet, and French's Eun; but nothing be- 
 yond the expenditure of the money resulted from this 
 movement, — with which the action of Lower Canada in re- 
 spect to the improvement of the St. Lawrence terminated. 
 
 The first movement of Upper Canada was an advertise- 
 ment dated 19th February, 1817, in which the lieutenant- 
 governor invited tenders for the work of rendering the 
 whole or any portion of the water communication between 
 Lachine and Kingston, by the course of the river Eideau, 
 11 
 
164: TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 navigable for boats drawing two feet of water and ten feet 
 in width, and also for boats drawing three feet of water and 
 twelve feet in width. The route defined wag by Irish 
 Creek and Eideau and Mud Lakes; the number and posi- 
 tion of the locks were to be specified, and " the number of 
 flood-gates in each lock." The next year £2,000 (or $8,000) 
 was granted for a survey of the St. Lawrence, and in 1821 
 commissioners were appointed. In 1823 and 1824, £2,000 
 (or $8,000) more were granted to this commission of which 
 Eobert Nichol was vice-president, and JameS Gordon and 
 Charles Jones, members. On the death of Colonel Nichol, 
 his place was filled by John Macaulay. As the views of 
 the country with respect to the scale of the proposed navi- 
 gation became enlarged each successive year, the magnitude 
 of the undertaking evidently alarmed the Legislature. 
 Even the offer of £70,000 stg. ($350,000) by the Imperial 
 government towards opening the Eideau route, failed to 
 elicit more than an expression of gratitude and a promise 
 of early consideration. The Legislature leaned to the St. 
 Lawrence as the natural commercial route, having only 
 about one-half of the lockage of the Eideau route; and 
 were, moreover, convinced that it would be the cheaper of 
 the two. The Imperial government, desiring the control 
 of the work for military purposes, set about the Eideau 
 Canal themselves, in 1826, on an estimate of £169,000 stg. 
 ($845,000,) and completed it in 1832 at a cost of £900,000 
 stg. ($4,500,000) — a result which may fully account for the 
 hesitation of the Legislature, in 1825, in accepting the 
 £70,000 ($350,000) and undertaking the work. 
 
 The opening of the Eideau route failed to satisfy the 
 wants of the trade. The lock at Yaudreuil was in the 
 hands of a private company ; those at Grenville were much 
 less in size than the ones above and below them; fixed 
 bridges prevented masted vessels from going through ; and 
 the absence of a towing-path made forwarding a monopoly, 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Ig5 
 
 and ' caused the delay and expense of locking a steam-tug 
 througli with every freight. Moreover, the canal was 
 managed as a military rather than commercial undertaking 
 — ^the parties in charge being beyond the reach of authority 
 or opinion in the colony. Ko sooner had it been tried, 
 therefore, than the improvement of the St. Lawrence was 
 set about; a grant being made for the Cornwall Canal in 
 1833, and this work was commenced in 1834. 
 
 In describing the several works embraced in the improv- 
 ment of the St. Lawrence, we commence at tide- water with 
 
 LAKE ST. PETER. 
 
 About fifty miles below Montreal, at the lowest point un- 
 influenced by tide, the St. Lawrence spreads out into a 
 broad and shallow expanse called Lake St. Peter. The 
 depth at low- water upon these flats was only eleven feet, 
 and sea-going vessels were consequently obliged to lighten 
 in entering and leaving Montreal, which city, notwith- 
 standing this disadvantage, maintained her position as the 
 emporium for the import trade, and of all exports except 
 timber, in which latter trade the tidal harbor and roomy 
 coves of Quebec defy competition. As there were only two 
 or three comparatively insignificant bars above Lake St. 
 Peter, and none below, and as the bed of the lake was soft, 
 it was proposed to deepen the channel by dredging, so that 
 sixteen feet draft of water might be carried up to Montreal. 
 This was first attempted by the government in 1844, when 
 the engineers endeavored to induce old Father St. Lawrence 
 to leave the bed in which he had lain since first he emerged 
 from the ocean, and follow a "straight cut," to be dredged 
 to the required depth. The work was so managed that, 
 after expending $295,619, it was suspended in 1847, and 
 the Legislature, after investigation, abandoned it in disgust; 
 whereupon the Hon. John Young, on behalf of the harbor 
 
166 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 commissioners of Montreal, after four years had elapsed, 
 obtained permission to try again, and tlie work was recom- 
 menced in 1851. By following the natural channel, com- 
 plete success has been obtained, with much less time and 
 money, and a vessel drawing not sixteen but eighteen feet 
 of water can now come up. It is intended to continue op- 
 erations until twenty feet at low-water is obtained ; and as 
 the government, having had its practicability demonstrated, 
 has assumed the expense, it is to be hoped this work will 
 be carried out. 
 
 THE LACHINK CANAL'; 
 
 The original canal between Montreal and Lachine, com- 
 menced in 1821 and completed in 1825 at a cost of 
 £110,000 (or $440,000,) was an admirably constructed 
 work, with cut-stone locks, one hundred and eight feet 
 long between the gates, and twenty feet wide, with fix- 
 ed bridges of the same class of masonry. In these, as in 
 the locks of the Kideau and St. Lawrence canals, the upper 
 gates were placed upon breast walls, which reduced the 
 effective length of the lock. On the Welland Canal, the 
 upper gates being carried down to the level of the lower 
 ones, the whole length between the gates is available. 
 
 The enlargement of the old Lachine boat canal, in con- ^ 
 nection with the construction and completion of the re- 
 mainder of the St. Lawrence ship canals, was one of the im- 
 mediate consequences of the reunion in 1841, thus confirm- 
 ing the views of Mr. Macaulay, in 1825, as to the impolicy of 
 its substantial stone locks of boat size only. The enlarge- 
 ment, begun in 1813, was sufficiently advanced in 1848 for 
 the passage of large vessels, and was completed in 1849, 
 except the widening of a portion of the rock-cut near La- 
 chine which is now in progress. This canal, eight and 
 a half miles long with forty -four feet lockage, surmounts 
 the obstacles presented by the Lachine Kapids, and con- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. -j^Q^^ 
 
 nects Lake St. Louis, an enlargement of the St. Lawrence, 
 with the harbor of Montreal. 
 
 THE BEAUHARNOIS CANAL. 
 
 The next ill order is the Beanharnois Canal on the oppo- 
 site or south bank of the St. Lawrence, and the only one 
 upon that side, eleven miles long with eighty feet lockage, 
 commenced in "1842 and completed in 1849. Et connects 
 Lake St. Louis with Lake St. Francis, overcoming three 
 considerable rapids, united together by a swift current, and 
 known as the Coteau, the Cedars, and the Cascades. 
 
 THE CORNWALL CANAL. 
 
 At the upper end of Lake St. Francis, the Cornwall 
 Canal, twelve miles long with fifty feet lockage, reaches the 
 head of the Longue Sault Kapids. This work was under- 
 taken by Upper Canada alone in 1834, and carried on until 
 1838, by which time £440,000 (or $1,760,000) had been 
 expended. It was completed after the union, at an addi- 
 tional cost of £75,000 (or $300,000,) and opened for traffic 
 in 1843. 
 
 THE WILLIAMSBURG CANALS. 
 
 From the Cornwall Canal to Prescott, a distance of thirty - 
 eight miles, there are four minor rapids, — Farrans Point, 
 Eapid Plat, Point Iroquois, and Les Gallopes, — with a 
 united lockage of twenty -two and a half feet, at which four 
 separate canals were first constructed, the two upper of 
 which have since been united by the Junction Canal. These 
 canals were commenced in 1843; the upper one was opened 
 to the trade in 1846 and the remainder in 1847. 
 
 The notable feature of the St. Lawrence navigation is, 
 that although between Prescott and Montreal, a distance of 
 one hundred and fifteen miles, there are forty and one-half 
 miles of canal, and twenty-seven locks with two hundred 
 
i6a 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 and four and three-quarters feet lockage, steamers of five 
 hundred tons burthen daily descend from the level ac Pres- 
 cott to that at Montreal (the fall being two hundred and 
 twenty-five feet) without using a lock or canal. The rapids 
 of the St. Lawrence, though some have a fall of over forty 
 feet in a mile, are navigable for descending boats with a 
 draught of six to eight feet according to the extremes of 
 low and high water. Freight boats drawing more than 
 this descend the canals; but the mixed freight and passen- 
 ger steamers, which the rapidity, comfort, and excitement 
 of the trip sustain in spite of the railway, all run the 
 rapids, making the passage between Prescott and Montreal 
 in nine to ten hours. The improvement of the rapids so as 
 to turn the whole descending trade down the river, thereby 
 shortening the time of transit and practically doubling the 
 capacity of the canals, has been mooted for the last ten 
 years. Two modes have been proposed; one to raise the 
 water surfkce by dams and piers, the other to lower the 
 bottom by submarine blasting, — both having the same ob- 
 ject in view, viz., the increase of depth at two or three 
 points, where alone there is any deficiency. The former 
 plan has been successfully adopted for the purposes of the 
 timber navigation on the Ottawa; the latter, which has 
 been also tried there, has not only done no good but positive 
 harm, because it has substituted a torn and jagged bed of 
 rock for one worn smooth by the flow of ages. Moreover, 
 a rapid being an inclined trough, if the bottom is lowered 
 the water surface descends with it more or less, and any at- 
 tempt to increase the depth, beyond the removal of an 
 isolated boulder, &c., by submarine blasting, except in 
 slack water, seems hopeless. Lastly, the effect of submarine 
 blasting against Potsdam sandstone in shoal water would 
 scarcely be perceptible, while the cost, if persisted in, would 
 be overwhelming. An appropriation of £25,000 (or 
 $100,000) as an experiment would settle the question 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 169 
 
 of the practicability of flooding the shoals by dams, &c., 
 and would be a mere trifle, even to throw away in pursuit 
 of an object of so much importance. The indifference dis- 
 played towards this subject, as well as toward the equally 
 important one of an enlarged direct canal between the St. 
 Lawrence (near Montreal) and Lake Champlain is due to 
 the demands created by our railway policy, and the mis- 
 taken assumption that railways would in a great measure 
 supersede the canals. Improvements in the navigation do 
 not now come home to any particular locality, or enlist the 
 active co-operation of any party. Moreover, they offer no 
 inducement to speculators to undertake them by corporate 
 companies ; for, the expenditure being necessarily made 
 under public competition, in which the work goes to the 
 lowest bidder, such works do not afford any of those inci- 
 dental advantages by which fortunes are made and party 
 support obtained, and which are so conspicuous in a subsi- 
 dized railway. When the public funds can be dispensed 
 through the medium of an irresponsible corporation, the left 
 hand is not ignorant of what the right is doing ; it is not 
 surprising, therefore, that the indirect system of aiding rail- 
 ways and municipalities has been more popular for the 
 time than the direct application of the money, under proper 
 safeguards, to works of general utility only. 
 
 From Prescott upward, navigation is unrestricted for 
 craft of any dimensions to the llead of Lake Ontario, a dis- 
 tance of two hundred and fifty miles. Here a canal, or 
 rather a passage without locks, is opened across a sand bar, 
 called the Beach, into Burlington Bay, by which means 
 Hamilton is made a lake port. The Desjardins Canal, also 
 without locks, extends lake navigation to Dundas, five 
 miles above Hamilton ; these canals are, however, local 
 works, off the line of the St. Lawrence and Lake routes, and 
 more properly come under the head of Hai4)or Works. 
 
^}^2=^^^^^3 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. lYl 
 
 THE WELLAND CANAL. 
 
 The Falls of Niagara, with the rapids above and below 
 them, offer by far the most formidable obstruction to naviga- 
 tion of any upon the line of the St. Lawrence. The lockage 
 required to connect that short distance of twenty -eight miles, 
 between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, is greater than the 
 aggregate of all other obstructions in the thousand miles 
 between Lake Superior and tide water. 
 
 Although a canal to unite the two lakes was projected at 
 Niagara as early as 1798, and an exploration of the ridge 
 which bounds the Welland River, on the north, was made 
 twenty years later, (in 1818, the year after the scheme was 
 proposed by Mr. Merritt to Gourlay,) the first active move- 
 ment was made in 1823, by obtaining a line of levels be- 
 tween this river, called also the Chippewa, and Lake Onta- 
 rio, — which were run by Hiram Tibbets, engineer. On the 
 19th May, 1824, the legislature incorporated George Keefer, 
 Thomas Merritt, George Adams, William Chisholm, Jo- 
 seph Smith, Paul Shipman, John Decou, and William 
 Hamilton Merritt, as the "Welland Canal Company," with 
 a capital of £37,500, ($150,000,) divided into 3,000 shares 
 of £12,10s., ($50.00,) each. Over one-fourth of the stock was 
 subscribed, and the work was commenced on the 30th No- 
 vember, 1824, and it is worthy of remark; that "its prose- 
 cution was not discontinued a single day until two vessels 
 passed from lake to lake, five years later ;" although in the 
 meantime the expenditure was more than six times the 
 original capital. The first project contemplated a boat canal 
 only, up the vajley of the Twelve Mile Creek to the foot 
 of the mountain ridge, ascending from thence by a railway 
 to the Beaver dams, and thence to the Welland River by a 
 boat canal tunneled through the Ridge: but power was ob- 
 tained also to connect the Welland River with Lake Erie at 
 the mouth of the Grand River. In 1825, a ship canal was 
 determined on, and the capital stock was increased to 
 
172 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 £200,000, ($800,000.) In 1826, tlie legislature loaned the 
 company £25,000, ($100,000,) and the Imperial govern- 
 ment, the same year, gave £16,300, sterling, ($81,500,) one- 
 ninth of the estimated cost, in consideration of the free pas- 
 sage of government stores, troops, and vessels. In 1827^ 
 the legislature took £50,000, ($200,000) stock, the com- 
 pany to pay interest until one year after completion ; and 
 also granted 13,400 acres of marsh land. The legislature 
 of Lower Canada also took £25,000 stg., (or $100,000) stock. 
 In 1828 the whole amount of stock was paid up, and the 
 company succeeded in borrowing £50,000 (or $250,000) 
 from the Imperial government on condition of surrendering 
 the grant of one-ninth the cost. The work had so pro- 
 gressed that it was fully anticipated the water would have 
 been let in early in Noveniber, 1828 ; but, when within ten 
 days of this estimated result, slips of so formidable a char- 
 acter took place in the *' Deep Cut," which was seventy 
 feet in depth, that it became indispensable to abandon the 
 original plan of making a feeder of the Welland River, the 
 level of which is ten feet lower than Lake Erie, and to bring 
 a supply of water on a higher level from the Grand River, 
 in order to pass over the quicksands which caused the slides. 
 Up to this period the whole pressure had been borne by 
 the shareholders; no aid had been granted by the govern- 
 ment except that for which the interest had been punctually 
 paid by the company ; but now the funds were almost ex- 
 hausted, and they dared not appeal to the legislature while 
 prophecies of the inevitable failure of all attempts to get a 
 navigation through the Deep Cut met them at every point. 
 It was now necessary to throw a dam across the Grand 
 River by which its waters were raised about seven feet above 
 the level of Lake Erie, and to cut a feeder, twenty-seven 
 miles in length, to be carried by an aqueduct over the Wel- 
 land River; by which means, after allowing for the fall in 
 the feeder, a level sixteen feet higher than the Welland 
 River was obtained, and thus the necessity of carrying the 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOlf. 173 
 
 Deep Cut down into those treacherous quicksands was 
 avoided. It was necessary to do all this chiefly on credit, 
 and a covenant was inserted in each contract that a percent- 
 age only was to be paid in cash, the balance " after the 
 company obtained the means from the legislature; " so con- 
 fident were the directors that parliament, like Jupiter, would 
 help those who help themselves. 
 
 Although the frost did not leave the ground until the 
 15th of April, 1829, the dam across the Grand River, the 
 aqueduct over the Welland, four locks at the Deep Cut, the 
 cut at the mouth of the Welland, and twenty -seven miles 
 of canal, were so far completed on the 9th day of October 
 as to admit the passing of a vessel down the feeder ; and on 
 the 30th of November (the anniversary of its commence- 
 ment five years before,) two schooners, one British and the 
 other American, the "Ann and Jane" of York (Toronto,) 
 and the " R. H. Boughton" of Youngstown, N. Y., passed 
 up from Lake Ontario into Lake Erie. 
 
 The confidence displayed by the contractors, without 
 which the works must have been suspended altogether, was 
 a natural result of the vigor, ability, and integrity displayed 
 by the projector of the work, — the Hon. William Hamilton 
 Merritt,* — ^by whose extraordinary energy, perseverance 
 and discretion all difficulties were surmounted. Of those 
 out of the province, John B. Yates of New York, the 
 largest private shareholder, who in 1827 became liable for 
 a large amount in aid of the company, was its greatest 
 benefactor. To show upon how few the labor fell, only eight 
 Upper Canadians, viz., William Hamilton Merritt of St. 
 Catherines, George Keefer of Thorold (who was the first 
 president of the company,) John Henry Dunn, John Bev- 
 
 * Since tb§se lines were written, death has removed a man, who, with un- 
 flagging energy, ever pursued his object in the spirit of peace ; — a politician 
 who was not an oflice-seeker, and who loved his country more than self or 
 party, — a statesman often in advance of his countrymen — but not of his coun- 
 try — and a loyalist who so valued truth that he sought it even from the enemy — 
 preferring to be misunderstood rather than to remain unarmed. 
 
174 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 erl J Eobinson, William Allan, Henry John Boulton, D' Arcy 
 Boulton, and Colonel Joseph Wells, of Toronto, — held 
 sufficient stock to qualify them to become directors; and for 
 these services they never received, or looked for, any com- 
 pensation. 
 
 Parliament in 1830, by a majority of two, granted a loan 
 of £25,000 (or $100,000,) which enabled the company to 
 pay the debts incurred during the previous year. The 
 whole expenditure to this period had been £272,795 (or 
 $1,091,180.) To avoid the circuitous route by the Weiland 
 and Niagara Eivers, and the strong current in the latter, it 
 was proposed to enlarge the feeder, as far as its course was 
 directed toward Lake Erie, and cut a new channel, only 
 seven miles long, to join that lake at Gravelly Bay; and 
 for this purpose the aqueduct over the Weiland had been 
 made twenty-four feet wide. In 1831, £50,000 (or $200,000) 
 was loaned by the legislature on condition that this amount 
 would complete the canal and harbors, and that the com- 
 pany should pay the interest of the loan and one-half the 
 principal; and John B. Yates, William H. Merritt, and 
 Alexander Yates McDonell became sureties for these con- 
 ditions. The work was retarded by fearful ravages of the 
 cholera in 1832, but in 1833 the new outlet at Gravelly 
 Bay (Port Colborne,) was brought into use. After this 
 date the control of the work was in a great measure assumed 
 by commissioners appointed by government to look 
 after the large interest the province now had in the under- 
 taking. In 1834, the capital was increased to £250,000 (or 
 $1,000,000,)— the government subscribing for £50,000 (or 
 $200,000,) stock by the casting vote of Mr. Speaker McLean, 
 ever a friend to the work. In 1836, a committee of the 
 house recommended the assumption of the work by the 
 province, and ultimate indemnification of the shareholders, 
 as an act of justice to the latter, who had been the means 
 of conferring so great a boon upon the province ; and in 
 1837 all government loans were converted into stock, and 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 175 
 
 a furtlier appropriation of £245,000 (or $980,000,) to com- 
 plete the canal in a durable manner, ^ith stone locks, was 
 authorized. In 1839, the purchase of the private stock 
 was authorized by an act to which the royal assent was 
 withheld ; but, on the unanimous petition of the legislature, 
 this was given in 1840; and the legislature authorized a 
 grant of £500,000 (or $2,000,000,) to complete the work,— 
 only two members out of eighty opposing the grant, — a 
 striking contrast to the state of feeling in 1834, when the 
 company were saved from ruin only by the casting vote of 
 Speaker McLean. Doctor Strachan, archdeacon of York, 
 and member of the legislative council, the present bishop 
 of Toronto, was always a firm supporter of the work, and 
 by his vigorous pen contributed in no small degree, sus early 
 as 1825, in putting the true scope and bearing of this 
 important enterprise before the country. Hon. W. B. Kob- 
 inson, now a commissioner of the Canada Company, as gov- 
 ernment commissioner and superintendent of the canal, and 
 subsequently as chief commissioner of public works for the 
 province, was ever a fast friend to this great work. 
 
 The old Welland Canal had forty wooden locks, one hun- 
 dred feet in length between the gates, and twenty-two feet 
 wide between the walls, with seven feet water on the sills; 
 and these endured from 1829 until 1845, by which time they 
 were fully worn out. The section of the canal was twenty- 
 six feet wide at bottom, fifty-six feet on water-line, and eight 
 feet depth of water. The cost of stone locks would alone 
 have consumed all the company's resources, leaving nothing 
 for excavations, dams, harbors, aqueducts, and bridges; and 
 any attempt on that basis would have ruined the enterprise. 
 By taking a vessel, of over one hundred tons, from lake to 
 lake, in 1829, at an outlay of a little over one million of dol- 
 lars, the company were sustained by the legislature — which 
 up to that period had never given them more than £50,000 
 (or $200,000,) at a time, but which, ten years later, voted ten 
 times as much for stone locks. 
 
176 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 It is impossible, at this day, fully to appreciate tlie vicis* 
 situdes of such an undertaking by corporate enterprise in 
 Upper Canada more than thirty years ago. We have only 
 the successes before us; — the refusals, disappointments, 
 sneers, and raillery suffered by the directors and their 
 supporters are forgotten ; but, so long as the St. Lawrence 
 flows to the sea. Upper Canada will remember with pride 
 and affection the men who could, at so early a day, carry 
 such a vast enterprise to successful completion. Projects 
 for organizing joint-stock companies in Montreal, the com- 
 mercial metropolis of British North America, before 1820, 
 for the comparatively insignificant Lachine and Chambly 
 Canals, fell stillborn ; and when the latter work was com- 
 menced by Lower Canada in 1831, with three-fourths of 
 the import duties levied on the consumption of the two 
 provinces in her treasury, it was suspended in 1885, and 
 only completed in 1848, — requiring more than twice the 
 time taken to open the Welland Canal. The Cornwall 
 Canal, commenced by Upper Canada in 1884, was suspended 
 in 1888 and not completed till 1848. If the provincial 
 governments, with all the increase in wealth and population, 
 of 1886 over 1825, found such difficulties, we may infer 
 what the Welland Canal Company encountered and sur- 
 mounted, and thus more truly appreciate the result. . 
 
 The enlargement and reconstruction commenced immedi- 
 ately after the union, and the new stone locks were ready for 
 passing vessels of the larger size, by way of the feeder, in 1845, 
 and the main route was opened through in 1850. Doubts 
 respecting the capacity of the Grand Kiver as a reservoir 
 have led to the lowering of the section between the Deep 
 Cut and Port Colborne, so as to make Lake Erie (which is 
 ten feet higher than the Welland River) the feeder. This 
 lowering of the bottom, which is still in progress, is effected 
 by dredges, the water not being removed; and, therefore, 
 no farther slides are anticipated. 
 
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178 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 The magnitude of the work undertaken in Lake St. Peter, 
 by the Harbor Commissioners of Montreal, may be esti- 
 mated from the fact that 3,000,000 cubic yards have already 
 been removed by dredging, and that another million yards 
 must yet be dredged to give the intended depth of twenty 
 feet at low water, and a width of channel of 300 feet. 
 
 It is an incident not generally known, and worthy of 
 record, that the foundation stone of the Locks at Ottawa, 
 for the Eideau Canal, was laid by the celebrated, but un- 
 fortunate arctic voyager, Sir John Franklin. 
 
 STATEMENT 
 
 Showing the amounts expended from 1791 to 1861, in other public works con- 
 nected with the Navigation. 
 
 DESCRIPTION. Beforetnion. Since Union. Total Cost. 
 
 Lighthouses, — Upper and Lower 
 
 Canada, $10,000.00.. $788,223.11.. $798,223.11 
 
 Ottawa slides, etc., 8697,877.61.. $697,877.61 
 
 St. Maurice slides, etc., 242,584.51.. 242,584.51 
 
 Saguenay, 40,865.07.. 40.865.07 
 
 Trent and Newcastle slides, 352,113.80.. 352,113.80 
 
 $1,333,440.99. .$1,333,440.99 
 
 Local Works — Upper Canada : 
 
 Harbors, $42,000 00. . $641,360.79. . $683,360.76 
 
 Burlington Bay Canal 124,356.00. . 158,326.00. . 282,682.00 
 
 Desjardins Canal, (estimated,).. 100,000.00 100,000.00 
 
 Trent Inland Navigation, 165,180.05.. 103,809.61.. 268,989.66 
 
 $431,536.05. . $903,496.37. .$1,335,032.43 
 
 Local Works — Lower Canada : 
 Harbors and Piers, $315,900.00. .$1,388,460.85. .$1,704,368.85 
 
 Grand Total, $5,171,065.37 
 
 Summing up the provincial, municipal, and corporate ex- 
 penditure of Canada, under the three heads of Roads, 
 Navigation, and Railway; we find that in round num- 
 bers the first have cost $11,000,000 ; the second, $21,000,- 
 000; and the Canadian interest in the last, is at least $30,- 
 000,000; or a total of over $60,000,000. This sum also, is 
 about the measure of the public debt of the Province, — so 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 179 
 
 that, setting off wliat has been expended on public works, 
 out of revenue, against what has been borrowed for other 
 purposes, — we can not lay claim to the possession of any 
 which have yet been paid for. 
 
 SCALE OF NAVIGATION. 
 
 In commencing the Lachine Canal, in 1821, on a larger 
 scale than those in progress by New York, Lower Canada 
 no doubt supposed she was undertaking all which the 
 circumstances of the case required. In fact, both Upper 
 and Lower Canada were under the delusion that equal 
 facilities in the shape of artificial navigation would give the 
 St. Lawrence with its short canals the advantage over the 
 Hudson with its long ones. They afterwards discovered 
 that it was to be a competition between the attractions 
 offered by rival seaports and tJieir ocean aspect, rather than 
 between the inland routes by which these were reached; 
 that when the Canada route would have the patronage of 
 one hundred thousand, the American would have that 
 of one million ; in short, that it would require the develop- 
 ment of all the superiority of which the St. Lawrence 
 route was capable, to counterbalance its political and geo- 
 graphical disadvantages. 
 
 In comparing Montreal with New York, the great superi- 
 ority of the latter in shipping accommodation, in cheap 
 export rates, ready sale of large quantities, and especially 
 in the supply of back freights to the inland craft, as well 
 as in the control which the capital of the Atlantic States 
 exercises over the exports of the Western ones — are reasons 
 sufficient to account for the preference which has been 
 given to the latter. But another reason for the slight effect 
 hitherto produced by our canal expenditure, is that all the 
 great American public works were prospectively constructed 
 in advance of the demands of the country ; that they have 
 
 hitherto been more useful for the purpose of expediting the 
 12 
 
180 TRAVEL AND TRANSPdRTAT^ON. 
 
 settlement of the interior tlian as affording an outlet for an 
 existing commerce ; and that, until 1860, the carrying ca- 
 pacity of the canals and railways has generally exceeded 
 the wants of the country. With this condition of affairs, 
 railways, supported by a passenger traffic, and desirous of 
 raising their stock quotations by swelling their gross re- 
 ceipts at any cost, have worn out their iron in carrying 
 freights at non-paying rates. While the stream of com- 
 merce is weak it can easily be diverted ; but when it over- 
 flows, capacity must exert its influence so long as there is 
 intelligence and ability to make the proper use of it. If 
 the competition had been confined to the water routes, that 
 by the St. Lawrence would ere this, from sheer necessity, 
 have been better patronized ; but the premature birth of a 
 railway system before the existence of a legitimate railway 
 business — a system which was hungering for the coarse 
 staples of export — dissipated the traffic, before even the 
 Erie Canal was overtaxed, by offering facilities which could 
 not be equaled on the water, and rates which could 
 not be afforded on the land. Moreover, a legitimate winter 
 traffic — in exports to which an extra price obtained, or 
 interest saved, counterbalanced extra freight — has enabled 
 the railways to remove, during that season, much of the 
 produce on which the canals relied. 
 
 The further enlargement of the Welland Canal has been 
 agitated for several years, but as the question has presented 
 itself as one of convenience and economy of transport, rather 
 than of insufficiency for tonnage, — it has made little pro- 
 gress. Larger locks would admit the larger class of vessels 
 now excluded, and thereby somewhat cheapen freights; but 
 until the capacity of the present canal is exhausted, and a 
 better return on the investment guaranteed, it is not proba- 
 ble that any determined action will be taken. This ques- 
 tion must be, moreover, mainly influenced by international 
 relations; and by the probability of the St. Lawrence be- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 181 
 
 coming a route for western imports as well as exports. If 
 Chicago outgrows her commercial vassalage to New York, 
 so that the "West is permitted to buy as well as sell in Mon- 
 treal, Canada can afford to enlarge her avenues to the sea- 
 board. Hitherto we have reaped little but a barren reputa- 
 tion for all our cosmopolitan exertions in delivering the 
 West from the monopoly of the New York canals. Up to 
 1845, and before our St. Lawrence canals were opened, 
 foreign salt was excluded from western packing-houses, by 
 a toll, on the Erie Canal, of nearly three dollars per barrel, 
 and Nova Scotia plaster from Western canals by a toll of 
 over three dollars per ton. Even now, New York, in order 
 to protect her own products, charges foreign salt five times, 
 and foreign gypsum three times as much as the domestic 
 article. Millions of dollars have been saved to the Western 
 country by the reduction of tolls on the Erie Canal since 
 1845, and though some of this is due to railway competi- 
 tion, — ^yet, on the quantity of wheat alone, which was ship- 
 ped by canal from Buffalo in 1861, the reduction in tolls 
 over those of 1845, amounts to nearly a million of dollars. 
 The down toll upon a barrel of flour, is now 15 cents, and 
 the up toll on 100 lbs. maide, 26 cents, — less than in 1845. 
 The St. Lawrence canals were designed for side-wheel 
 steamers; the Welland Canal for sail- vessels and screw 
 steamers. The number of sail-craft employed on the lakes, 
 American and Canadian, is one thousand two hundred, and 
 the whole number of steamers is three hundred and seventy, 
 of which about one hundred are tugs, and which may, 
 therefore, properly be assigned to the sail fleet. Of the re- 
 maining two hundred and seventy, one hundred and fifty 
 only are side- wheel boats, including ferryboats, and river and 
 lake steamers which do not navigate canals. This proves 
 that in a short canal connecting long lines of deep water and sail 
 navigation, and with the great amount of lockage of the Wel- 
 hnd Canal, provision for side- wheel steamers is as unneces- 
 
182 TRAVEL AK-D TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 sarj as it would be inconvenient. The mammotli side- wheel 
 steamers can not pay ; they were the creation of rival rail- 
 way routes as an attraction for paswsengers, — were sustained 
 as long as possible by railway capital or railway receipts; 
 but now they are, with two exceptions, either rotting at the 
 railway docks or have gone to sea. Any attempt to accom- 
 modate such experimental or exceptional craft, either in the 
 St. Lawrence or Welland canals, would be as impracticable 
 as absurd. They can not carry freight profitably; and, 
 while railways are in existence, they could not retain their 
 passengers in a canal. If our canals were enlarged for such 
 boats they would not use them, except to shift their routes, 
 or in case of a sale. It is desirable for the strength, safety, 
 and facility of handling the gates, that the width of the 
 locks should not be unnecessarily increased ; and there is a 
 great waste of time, as well as of water, in filling a large 
 lock in order to pass a small vessel. Moreover, if the 
 width of the lock is increased, the whole trunk of the canal 
 should be widened proportionally. 
 
 Whatever may prove to be the ultimate demands of the 
 trade, the dimensions of the locks will be governed by sail 
 and screw vessels, and the preposterous dimensions required 
 to enable one of the obsolete railway steamers to surmount 
 the three hundred and thirty feet lockage of the Welland 
 Canal must be abandoned. 
 
 The St. Lawrence, from its strong current, is a steam 
 navigation, and the peculiar facilities afibrded for passengers 
 and freight going down by the rapids, require that its locks 
 should pass side-wheel steamers of moderate dimensions. 
 Any future enlargement here will be to provide for increase 
 in the length, and draft of water of the boats. A diminu- 
 tion of ten feet in the width from that of the Cornwall 
 Canal has already been made, and the locks are now wide 
 enough for such side-wheel steamers as the route requires, 
 and wider than is needed for screws ; but if increased depth 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 183 
 
 be afforded, an increase in the length for screw steamers or 
 sailing crj^t may be in the future. There remains, however, 
 to be first determined the important question whether the 
 inland business is to be done by through-boats, or by tran- 
 shipment at Kingston. It is probable that river craft may, 
 with less time and outlay of capital, receive the grain from 
 the sail- vessel whose proper sphere is the lakes. 
 
 Ten years ago the tonnage of flour going to the seaboard 
 was three times as great as that of wheat — now the propor- 
 tions are reversed — and in addition to this, the largely in- 
 creasing quantities of corn gives such a preponderance to 
 the grain trade that elevaters and portage railways are 
 called into play and transhipment is no longer the un 
 mixed evil it was considered to be. 
 
 The Civil War has turned Western Canadian exports 
 down the St. Lawrence — more grain having reached Mon- 
 treal in 1861 and 1862, than in all the previous years since 
 the opening of the canals — but these have not benefited by 
 this diversion in consequence of the abolition of the tolls, 
 in May, 1860, whereby about $645,000 has been transferred 
 from the Provincial treasury to the forwarders — doubtless 
 to compensate them for the injury which the Grand Trunk 
 railway inflicted on them when carrying produce with the 
 aid of provincial funds. 
 
 The Welland Canal locks pass a sail-vessel registered as 
 high as four hundred tons, with a carrying capacity of 
 17,500 bushels of wheat. The St. Lawrence locks pass a 
 side-wheel steamer about seven hundred tons register, with 
 a carrying capacity of about four thousand barrels of 
 flour. 
 
 The canal system of Canada may be said to embrace four 
 distinct routes; but, as all are connected, any number of 
 them may be combined. They are, — 
 
 1. The St. Lawrence route; 
 
 2. The Ottawa route ; 
 
184: TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 3. The Champlain route; 
 
 4. The Lake route, or Welland Canal. 
 
 The first three terminate at tide-water; the last may be 
 said to terminate in Lake Ontario, or its extension to Fres- 
 co tt, because the great majority of the vessels which pass 
 the Welland Canal do not also pass the St. Lawrence. A 
 vessel with twenty -six feet beam may proceed to sea, from 
 any of the upper lakes, by the route of the Welland and 
 St. Lawrence canals; but she can not enter Lake Champlain 
 with more than twenty -three feet, or pass down the Ottawa 
 route with more than eighteen feet beam. She may carry 
 ten feet draft into Lake Ontario, but must lighten to nine in 
 descending the St. Lawrence; and, if her other dimensions 
 were reduced, she could carry five feet down the Ottawa, 
 and six feet into Lake Champlain. From Lake Ontario, a 
 vessel of forty-four feet beam may proceed to sea. The Cham- 
 bly Canal will not admit deep vessels from the lakes, but it 
 is more than sufiicient for boats from the Ottawa, and larger 
 than the canal which connects Lake Champlain with the 
 Hudson. The St. Ours lock has been constructed on the 
 scale of the St. Lawrence canals; but the enlargement of 
 the Chambly Canal has not been undertaken, — partly be- 
 cause it has been proposed to supersede it, for western trade, 
 by a canal from some point near Montreal to St. Johns, on the 
 Kichelieu, in order to save the detour of one hundred miles via 
 Sorel; and partly because any enlargement would not pro- 
 duce its full effect until it was carried through to the Hud- 
 son, which can only be done by the state of New York. A 
 canal which would admit the craft of the upper lakes into 
 Champlain by the shortest and cheapest route, would place 
 Boston (via Burlington) and New York (via Whitehall) in 
 the same relation to the West which they now enjoy through 
 the more distant ports of Ogdensburg and Oswego, re- 
 spectively, and thus add to the St. Lawrence canals that 
 portion of American traffic now given only to the Welland 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 185 
 
 Whether it forced or invited a passage through to the 
 Hudson or not, it could not fail to aid the canals above it, 
 and is a necessary corollary to the system — unless it be de- 
 termined to exclude the St. Lawrence canals from the 
 benefit of that American transit trade which is the chief 
 support of the Well and. So long and as often as New 
 York and New England are better markets for western ex- 
 ports than other countries, these exports will go there; and, 
 of course, by American if they can not by Canadian routes. 
 For transatlantic trade, our canals offer a communication 
 with the lakes, the inland portion of which is superior 
 to that via New York ; but the sea portion, inferior in rates 
 of freight and insurance. Increased capital, by increasing 
 trade, alone will equalize the routes. Political considera- 
 tions may, however, exert an influence which can not be 
 foreseen ; but the route exists, and, if required, can be made 
 use of to any extent by the application of that capita] 
 which now sustains its rivals. 
 
TEAVEL AUB TEANBPOETATION. 187 
 
 EAILWAYS. 
 
 More than two hundred years ago, or about a.d. 1630, 
 one Master Beaumont ruined himself in coal mining, but 
 has been immortalized by the biographer of George 
 Stephenson as the first man that formed a railway ; for 
 although his rails were of wood, and the wheeled vehicles 
 were drawn by horses, yet the principle of the railway was 
 there. These tramways were in use a century before iron 
 was employed in them, which event is supposed to have 
 taken place about 1738. 
 
 The birth of the Steam Engine was naturally followed 
 by propositions to convert it into a locomotive for com- 
 mon roads ; and between 1763 and 1800, Cugnot in France, 
 Evans in*the United States, Symington in Scotland, and 
 Murdoch and Trevethick in England, experimented with 
 steam carriages. The latter, in 1804, was the first to put 
 the locomotive where it properly belongs, on the railway, 
 but the wheels being '' roughed" in order to " bite" the 
 rail, they fairly devoured it ; and though possessing some 
 speed and a power to draw, this arrangement was almost 
 immediately abandoned. Blenkinsop, in 1812, successfully 
 introduced a locomotive with pinion wheels working into 
 a racked rail, which drew thirty coal wagons at three 
 and a quarter miles per hour. In 1813, Blackett, a col 
 liery owner, discovered (by simply trying the experiment) 
 that the adhesion of a smooth wheel on the plain rail was 
 Bufiicient for traction, and thus the first great step toward 
 efficiency was gained. The locomotive, notwithstanding 
 these strides, was still a crude and almost useless machine 
 until George Stephenson, at this stage, applied his emi- 
 nently practical mind to the subject. His first engine, 
 however, though the most successful that had yet been 
 constructed, showed at the end of a year's work an economy 
 only equal to that of horsepower, and then it was, in 1815, 
 that Stephenson applied the exhaust steam to the chimney, 
 and by one stroke more than doubled the powei of the 
 
188 TRAVEL AND TKANSPOETATION. 
 
 engine. The discovery of the steam-blast was the second 
 and most important stride in the railway system. The 
 waste steam instead of, as before, puffing into the air, 
 after having done its work, was turned up the smoke-stack, 
 immensely increasing the draught, and therefore the pro- 
 duction of steam in proportion to the speed, so that— 
 
 The faster she goes 
 The harder she blows— 
 
 and vice versa. Persevering in his determination to over- 
 come all obstacles, Stephenson got rid of the superfluous 
 machinery of his predecessors, and made his engines direct 
 acting, while he increased the adhesion by connecting the 
 other wheels with the driving ones ; — and thus, as early as 
 1816, constructed engines which, strange as it may appear, 
 were "in regular and useful work, in 1858, conveying 
 heavy coal trains at the speed of five or six miles the hour, 
 probably as economically as any of the more perfect locomo- 
 tives now in use." Notwithstanding this early demon- 
 stration of its practicability, it was not until the opening 
 of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, in 1830, that the 
 success of the locomotive was admitted. So long as rail- 
 ways were restricted to short lines in the colliery districts, 
 power was more important than speed ; but when for the 
 first time about to be applied on an extensive scale to 
 general traffic, so little impression had fifteen years of con- 
 stant use at the Killingworth colliery made upon the 
 public mind, that the Directors of the Liverpool and Man- 
 chester Railway were unable to decide whether their line 
 should be worked by fixed or locomotive power. They 
 had indeed allowed Stephenson to place one of his engines 
 on the line, in 1829, to assist in its construction ; but 
 though this was working under their eyes, and though 
 more than one deputation had visited the colliery railways, 
 on which locomotives had been successfully at work for 
 years, it was evident that the machine of that day was 
 more valuable for what it promised to those who could see, 
 
TKAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION. 189 
 
 than for what it was. Tredgold declared in favor of 
 fixed engines. Telford could not say whether even these 
 would succeed, or that horses should not be used. In 
 this dilemma the directors commissioned Messrs. Walker 
 and Rastrick to visit the collieries and report on the 
 question. They recommended the stationary reciprocat- 
 ing system as the best ! Against all this array of talent 
 George Stephenson, the fireman, at a shilling a day — the 
 mender of clocks and of his sweetheart's shoes, the em- 
 broiderer of pitmen's button-holes — alone stood firm. He 
 knew he was right, and would not be silenced; for though 
 officially worsted, he, aided by his illustrious son Robert, 
 successfully exposed the fallacy of the arguments used 
 against the locomotive, and induced the directors to take 
 the sensible course of offering a premium of £500 for a 
 machine which should travel ten miles the hour, be safe, 
 and unobjectionable as to weight, cost, &c. 
 
 The locomotive had been condemned on the assumption 
 tha^ the speed could not be increased without a loss of 
 power — Stephenson asserted that by the action of the 
 steam-blast the power increased with the speed ; that in 
 fact all that was necessary to make the slow colliery 
 engines fast ones, was to have a boiler capable of generat- 
 ing steam as rapidly as the increase of speed required. 
 
 On the day appointed, the 6th October, 1830, four 
 engines entered the list, two only of which, Ericsson's 
 "Novelty," and Stephenson's "Rocket," distinguished 
 themselves. The former ran at the rate of twenty-four 
 miles an hour, but depending on a blower to keep up 
 the draught, this gave out and she failed. The Rocket, 
 which was the first ready, ran at the then astonishing rate 
 of thirty and thirty-five miles the hour, — had no break- 
 down, and carried off the prize, as well as effectually dis- 
 posed of the twenty-one fixed engines, with the engine- 
 houses, ropes, &c., which the eminent engineers had de- 
 clared indispensable to the forking of the line. This 
 result was accomplished, by adopting the multitubular 
 
190 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 boiler for the locomotive, which is the third and last great 
 principle in the progress of the railway. 
 
 Since that memorable day when the father of rail- 
 ways *' delivered himself" (as one of his opponents on the 
 board exclaimed, with hands upraised in astonishment), 
 the present generation has seen over 50,000 miles of rail- 
 way constructed, at a cost of about four thousand millions 
 of dollars, the greater portion of this mileage being upon 
 this continent. 
 
 CANADIAN EAILWAYS. 
 
 Canada, owes her first railway as well as her first steam- 
 boat to Montreal. In 1831, when the news of the success of 
 the Liverpool and Manchester road came across the water, 
 measures were taken to obtain a charter, which was grant- 
 ed on 25th February, 1832, for the construction of a rail- 
 way from Laprairie on the St. Lawrence to St. John's, a 
 village above the rapids of the Richelieu River, the outlet 
 for the waters of Lake Champlain. The length was six- 
 teen miles, and the capital £50,000, in 1,000 shares of 
 £50 each, or a little over £3,000 per mile. The work was 
 commenced in 1835, opened with horses in July, 1836, and 
 first worked with locomotives in 1837. It was a '^ strap- 
 rail" road until 1847, when the heavy T iron was laid. 
 
 The next movement was a premature one, in Upper 
 Canada. A charter was obtained, 6th March, 1834, for a 
 Railway from Cobourg to any point on Rice Lake ; and 
 though the distance is no greater than that between La- 
 prairie and St. John's, no less than £400,000 capital was 
 provided. In the same year a charter was granted to the 
 London and Gore Railway Company, for a road from 
 London to Burlington Bay, to be extended to the naviga- 
 ble waters of the Thames and Lake Huron. This was the 
 legislative beginning of that important line the Great 
 "Western Railway. 
 
 The first railway actually constructed in Upper Canada 
 was by the old " Erie and Ontario Company," and was 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 191 
 
 designed to restore the ancient portage route around 
 the Falls of Niagara, between Queenstown and Chippewa, 
 which had been superseded by the Welland Canal. This 
 line was chartered in 1835, and was opened in 1839, as a 
 horse railway, the steepness of the grades near Queens- 
 town being beyond the capacity of locomotive power of 
 that day ; and as it stopped at the bank of the Niagara, over 
 one hundred feet above the water level, it fell into disuse. 
 In 1852 the charter was amended, and the line altered so 
 as to run from Lake Ontario at Niagara, to Suspension 
 Bridge and the Falls of Niagara. 
 
 Between 1832 and 1845 over a dozen charters were 
 granted in the two provinces, none of which, except the 
 horse railway just mentioned, were followed up ; and the 
 Laprairie road continued the sole representative of the 
 system, using locomotives for ten years, or until 1847. In 
 
 1845 the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway Company 
 was chartered, to connect with the " Atlantic and St. Law- 
 rence," an American company from Portland. This road, 
 though an international rather than a Canadian one, be- 
 came, by subsequent amalgamation, part of the Grand 
 Trunk ; and is, therefore, the beginning of that extensive 
 line. It is worthy of remark, that up to this time the railway 
 efforts of Montreal had been directed to divert the trade of 
 Canada to American cities, her rivals as seaports. In 
 
 1846 the first look westward was made in the commence- 
 ment of the Lachine Railway, but this was undertaken 
 rather as a suburban portage road than as part of the 
 main western line. Although some thirty charters had 
 been granted up to 1850, the only roads on which any 
 work had been done were the Laprairie, St. Lawrence and 
 Atlantic, Lachine, St. Lawrence and Industry, in Lower 
 Canada ; and the Erie and Ontario m Upper Canada. 
 Many of these charters have been allowed to drop ; and, 
 with the exception of the corporations named, nearly all 
 those relating to roads since built, were extended and 
 amended before any work was commenced. In 1850 the 
 
192 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Ottawa and Prescott Eailway was authorized, and the 
 line was opened in December, 1854. 
 
 The first railway in Upper Canada on which locomotives 
 were used was the Northern, from Toronto to Bradford, 
 opened in June, 1853 ; yet in 1860, only seven years from 
 that date, about three hundred locomotives were thunder- 
 ing and bellowing over the upper province, between the 
 Ottawa and Lake Huron. 
 
 Of the fifty-six charters granted up to June, 1853, only 
 twenty-seven were acted upon, and in twenty-five cases the 
 roads have been completed ; the other two (the Woodstock 
 and Lake Erie and the Hamilton and Port Dover) are yet 
 unfinished. By amalgamation or leasing, the Grand Trunk 
 and Great Western have swallowed up nine out of these 
 twenty-five chartered and completed roads, there being 
 now only sixteen distinct railways in the whole province. 
 Since 1853 only three new charters have been acted upon, 
 viz., Preston and Berlin, Three Rivers and Arthabaska, 
 and Peterboro' and Chemung Lake. The last is com- 
 pleted ; the first was completed and opened for a time, 
 but is not now in use, and the second is nearly completed. 
 
 The province has now 1,906 miles of railway, 1,800 of 
 which have been opened within the last ten years, under 
 the impetus given by the railway legislation of 1849-1852. 
 Of these 1,906 miles, the Grand Trunk Company alone 
 have 872 miles within the province, leaving 1,034 miles in 
 all the other companies. Of these last, however, sixty 
 miles, owned by four companies, are not now in operation. 
 Canada has more miles of railway than Scotland or Ireland, 
 or any of the New England States, and is only exceeded 
 in this respect by five States in America, viz., New York, 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Of her total 
 railway expenditure, which exceeds one hundred millions 
 of dollars, about thirty millions have been supplied by the 
 government and municipalities. The following tables will 
 show the leading statistics of Canadian railways, from offi- 
 cial sources, as far as returns have been made. 
 
RAILWAYS OF CANADA. 
 
 193 
 
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194 
 
 EAILWATS OF CANADA. 
 
 
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BAILWAT8 OF CANADA. 
 
 195 
 
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 11 
 
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 T-H O -^ 0> 
 
 cc eooj t- 
 
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 QO <M 
 
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 CONOCO 
 
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 t> s > *r 
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 5-2- ^ 
 
 t si-si 
 
 
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 ^^-^iss 
 
 M^ g 
 
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 e 2 IP'S £«^ 
 
 ^ j5 _ to _J3 P ^ 
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 ■^ an s a 9-: o 
 
 13 
 
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 S o 8 ID'S 
 
lU 
 
 EAILWAY8 OF CANADA. 
 
 ^ 
 
 « »«5 
 
 ^\ -s 
 
 
 o ® ® 
 
 Ml. 
 
 Igg! 
 
 SS 
 
 
 ,0010 "^l 
 
 11^ 
 
 looooooo-* 
 
 roo" 
 
 
 
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 aj fct »* 
 
 «0 OS CD CO ■^ •* 1-1 t- 
 
 i 0> <H' T-I CD 0» 
 
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 Ss* 
 
 Hi 
 
 3|g 
 
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 S^'^ft^S 
 
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 -<lOlMOc5 
 
 
 CJ^ «0 CS^ »-_. TO 0__ 
 
 k-^ Oi of urS Oi "^ 
 efeo 
 
 I 
 
 
 Is 
 
 !3l 
 
 SIS 
 
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 © od th od e« 
 
 sss* 
 
 Ot^o. coo 
 
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 13 
 
 ^ts° goes © ^> S « § S ^ i 2 
 
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 $2,266,684 
 
 8,517,829 
 
 414,100 
 
 
 t 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 : 
 : 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 197 
 
 GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY. 
 
 Canada had scarcely completed her magnificent system 
 of canals when the rapid extension of the American rail- 
 ways, projected in all directions over the great grain re- 
 gion lying between the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the 
 lakes, warned her that a new and formidable rival had 
 appeared ; and that further and greater exertions would 
 be required — not merely to enable her to continue a com 
 petitor for western trade with the whole Union, but to • 
 maintain her own proper status in comparison with the 
 individual commonwealths of the North. Stretching for 
 nearly one thousand miles along the frontier of a nation 
 ten times more numerous — ^herself the chief representative 
 on this continent of the first empire in the world — this 
 province has had imposed upon her duties and tempta- 
 tions, far greater in proportion than those of the most im- 
 portant of the associated States commercially opposed to 
 her. Without a perennial seaport, and with her early 
 trade restricted by imperial navigation-laws and custom 
 regulations, she had no foreign commerce accumulating 
 capital ; and wanting this commerce and this capital, and 
 confined to her own market, as well as discouraged by the 
 traditionary colonial policy of the mother country, be- 
 sides being always overstocked with the products of 
 cheaper labor and capital, she could have no manufac- 
 tures, and consequently no capital for investment in rail- 
 ways. Moreover, she did not possess that trade and travel 
 which could make railways profitable, and thus invite ex- 
 ternal aid. But, noblesse oblige — the force of position 
 made railways a necessity, if their construction could in 
 any legitimate way be brought about ; the more so, be- 
 cause it would have been impossible without them to have 
 kept at home her most ^valuable population — ^the young, 
 vigorous, and ambitious natives, " to the manner born," 
 while in sight of a people speaking the same language, 
 
198 
 
 TEAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION'. 
 
 and having abundant facilities for developing an almost 
 unbounded fertility, open to all comers. 
 
 When Montreal, therefore, was arrested half-way in her 
 single-handed attempt to push a railway to Portland, and 
 even the Great Western, which had been years under con- 
 tract, could not move, the legislature, on the 30th of May, 
 1849, passed an act by which the province guaranteed 
 (as a loan) the interest only, on l^e sum required to com- 
 plete any railroad of seventy-five miles or more in length, 
 of which one-half had been already made by the pro- 
 prietors.* This act, which was of material service to the 
 Portland and Great Western railways in their preliminary 
 stages, was insufficient, and did not produce any com- 
 mencement of the intermediate sections of the Trunk 
 line between Montreal and Hamilton. In 1851 a bill 
 was passed, providing for the construction of a main 
 trunk line, and restricting provincial aid to the same. 
 This act of 1851 looked to possible aid from the imperial 
 government, in the form of a guaranteed loan — an offer 
 having previously been made by Earl Grey to assist the 
 colonies in that manner, to the extent required to con- 
 struct a military line between Halifax and Quebec. A 
 proposition was to be made to extend this boon to the con- 
 tinuation between Quebec and Hamilton, in order that 
 Canada as well as the lower colonies might be traversed 
 by the road built with Irhperial aid ; and in this event the 
 trunk line was to be undertaken by the province as a 
 public work — or so much of it as the Imperial guarantee 
 might be obtained for. The bill provided, in the second 
 place, that if this guarantee were not obtained, the prov- 
 ince would undertake the work on her own credit, pro- 
 vided the municipalities would bear half the expense ; and 
 
 ♦ This step was a repetition of the legislation of Upper Canada in 1837, 
 before the Union — that province having voted the Great Western Railway 
 £3 for every £1 of private stock subscribed, to the extent of £200,000. 
 In default of repayment, the receiver-general could levy on the Gore and 
 "Western Districts. 
 
TRAVEL AND TEANSPOKTATION. 199 
 
 as a last resource, if both these plans failed, the local com- 
 panies, which had been formed on the strength of the 
 guarantee to attempt the different sections, were to be al- 
 lowed to try their hand. This bill also extended the pro- 
 vincial gu^arantee to the principal as well as the interest 
 on one-half the cost, and to this extent substituted provin- 
 cial debentures for railway bonds, while it allowed the aid 
 to be issued when companies had expended half of the 
 cost, including land, instead of corrvpletrng half the length 
 of their lines. 
 
 The imperial government having declined to aid the 
 particular route demanded by the colonists, no attempt 
 was made by the Canadian envoy to carry 'out the second 
 plan of the bill of 1850 — that is, to construct the Grand 
 Trunk as a public work, in connection with the munici- 
 palities. 
 
 This change of programme was in consequence of prop- 
 ositions made to him while in London by English con- 
 tractors of great wealth and influence.* It may be said 
 in defence of this step, that the municipalities were not, 
 like the province, irrevocably committed ; that uncertainty 
 existed as to the co-operation of some of them, and that, in 
 any event, tinie would be required fully to embark them 
 in the scheme. On the other hand, it was charged that 
 the Canadian envoy broke off negotiations with the impe- 
 rial government at the instigation of the contractors — who 
 had already been at the colonial office in the position of 
 competitors with the colonies for the privilege of control- 
 ling an expenditure of such magnitude, to be guaranteed 
 by the British treasury. It was also believed that a pow- 
 erful though indirect influence, wielded by these contract - 
 ors, materially contributed to the adverse position assumed 
 
 * It is important to note, that if Canada did not construct her Trunk Rail- 
 way without involving Englishmen (and women) in ruin, it was because 
 Englishmen would have it so. Moreover, the'demand came from such a quar- 
 ter, that to those familiar with the resources of these " operators," it miglit 
 have heen extremely diflficult for her to have gone into the iponey market op 
 her own account, against their opposition. 
 
200 TEAVEL AND TBAN8P0ETATI0N. 
 
 by the new colonial minister on a question to which the 
 imperial government had, by his predecessor, been so far 
 committed. The course of the Canadian envoy can only 
 be defended on the assumption that a refusal was inevita- 
 ble, and that a proper appreciation of his position led him 
 to anticipate it. No more unfavorable impression would 
 probably have remained, had not his name subsequently 
 appeared as the proposed recipient of a douceur from the 
 contractors, in the shape of £50,000 of paid-up stock in the 
 capital of the company, which, however, he repudiated 
 when it was announced. 
 
 Previous to 1851, Canadian securities had no status of 
 their own in England, the canal loans having been ne- 
 gotiated under an imperial guarantee. When provincial 
 bonds had no regular quotations, it is not surprising (how- 
 ever much so it may now appear), that as late as 1851, the 
 bonds of the city of Montreal were sold in London at thirty 
 per cent, discount. At the great exhibition of 1851, Can- 
 ada made her debut so favorably, that the keen frequent- 
 ers of 'Change Alley consented to chaperon the interesting 
 stranger — confident that a good thing could be made out 
 of so virgin a reputation — especially after the imperial 
 government had a second time proposed to indorse for 
 her. 
 
 No machinery could be better devised for launching a 
 doubtful project, such as was the Grand Trunk Kailway 
 of Canada, viewed as a commercial undertaking, than that 
 possessed by the colossal railway contractors, the modern 
 and unique results of the railway era. Extensive opera- 
 tions, involviflg purchases of land from the nobility and 
 gentry, and weekly payments of wages to the middle and 
 lower classes, over hundreds of miles of country ; large or- 
 ders to iron masters, wood merchants, and engine and car- 
 riage builders, in all parts of the kingdom ; with banking 
 transactions, and sales of securities of the heaviest descrip- 
 tion in the capital itself, gather round the eminent con- 
 tractors a host of dependents and expectants, in and out of 
 
 =LI 
 
TKAVEL Ajny TEANSPOEIATION. 201 
 
 Parliament, by a skilful, and, it is to be feared, sometimes 
 unscrupulous use of whom, fortunes are made, and ap- 
 pointments, and titles even conferred. It does not follow 
 that all, or even the majority of those who are thus made 
 use of, are in any degree culpable. Setting aside the 
 effect of pressure from constituents, many an honest man 
 is moved by an unseen lever ; and none know better than 
 railway practitioners the value of a man qui facit per 
 alium where he cannot per se. 
 
 Although some opposition was experienced from the 
 promoters of the local Canadian companies — who had 
 borne the burden of the project hitherto, and now saw 
 another about to reap its benefits ; and from the few who 
 clearly foresaw the cruel injury which would be inflicted 
 on the innocent, and the consequent responsibility of Can- 
 ada, there was little difiiculty in reconciling the provincial 
 legislature and the municipalities to the abandonment of 
 the joint provincial and municipal plan of constructing 
 the road. The latter were shown that they could now de- 
 vote their means to local improvements ; and to those re- 
 quired members of the legislature who failed at once to 
 perceive the great advantages to the country at large at- 
 tendant upon the importation of so much English capital, 
 the question was brought home individually in such a 
 way that all scruples were removed. To prepare the 
 scheme for the larger appetite of the London market, its 
 proportions were extended from the 500 miles between 
 Quebec and Hamilton, to upwards of 1000 miles, extend- 
 ing from Lake Huron to the Atlantic ; although provis- 
 ion had already been made for the former by the Great 
 Western, and for the latter by the !N'ew York and Boston 
 lines approaching Montreal. Amalgamations with existing 
 lines in Canada, and the lease of a foreign one, were made 
 upon the most reckless and extravagant terms ; and lastly, 
 having whipped in the requisite financial indorsation in 
 London, the scheme was successfully launched by the con- 
 tractors most opportunely, just before the Crimean war. 
 
202 TRAVEL A2TO TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 -'Jill a jii 
 
 As flife prospectus showed a probable dividend of eleven 
 and a half per cent., the stock rose to a premium 1 For 
 this premium a discount was substituted, as soon as exer- 
 tion was slackened bj success, which rapidly increased on 
 the breaking out of the war, and became hopelessly con- 
 firmed as soon as the London, Liverpool, Manchester, and 
 Glasgow merchants read the postscripts of their Canadian 
 mercantile correspondents ; nor could any subsequent ef- 
 fort of the company, with the aid of all the great names 
 now fairly harnessed in, drag the unwieldy vehicle out of 
 the slough into which, apparently by its own dead weight, 
 it so rapidly sank, ^his sudden depression, before any 
 trial of the scheme had been made, was the natural result 
 of that reflection which ought to have preceded its recep- 
 tion ; and is important in itself, as proving that the English 
 shareholders were either self-deceived or deceived by their 
 own countrymen, the promoters in London, rather than by 
 any importance which they attached to the action of Can- 
 ada ; because no practical demonstration was waited for 
 to prove the real value of the stock. The fact that they 
 did not wait for this, proves by their own act that they 
 were not warranted in believing the prospectus, although 
 they have since founded a claim against Canada upon the 
 faith they put in it.* A little reflection was all that was 
 required to make that preposterous document harmless ; 
 and we can hardly be held responsible for their exercise 
 of that reflection a few weeks after, instead of at the time 
 of its publication. 
 
 Notwithstanding this early disrepute of the stock, the 
 character of the subscription list and wealth of the con- 
 tractors carried on the work until 1855, when the com- 
 pany came before the Canadian Parliament "m formd 
 pcmperisy This was repeated in 1856, when for the first 
 time their contracts were submitted to public inspection. 
 
 * They really believed in men of their own country who did not believe in 
 the prospectus, but who had other reasons for indorsing it; and this explains 
 why their fai^h was of such short duration. 
 
TRAVEL AND TEAN8P0KTATI0N. 2l)3 
 
 A grant of £900,000 sterling was voted in 1855, to enable 
 them to go on ; and in 1856 the province, which had hither- 
 to stood in the position of a first mortgagee, to the extent 
 of its advances to the company, gave up this position and 
 went behind the shareholders, in order that the latter 
 might issue preference bonds to fill the vacated space; 
 and because they complained that Canada ought not to 
 exact her rights to their prejudice. The ordinary bond- 
 holders, — who, though they ranked after the provincial 
 mortgage, no doubt counted upon similar forbearance 
 when the proper time arrived, and therefore felt them- 
 selves virtually first mortgagees, — were effectually floored 
 by this preference coup d)etat / nor can one fail to ad- 
 mire that lucky accident, or judicious foresight, which 
 made one dollar of the original provincial aid, practically 
 count as two to the future wants of the company : for the 
 provincial lien could only have been considered as of pros- 
 pective value by all parties, especially after the company, 
 which had paid the interest upon it out of capital un- 
 til 1857, formally declared their inability to continue to 
 do so. This was caused not only by want of receipts, but 
 by their having bound themselves to pay greater rents for 
 leased lines than they could earn from them, so that the 
 productive sections could not certainly do more than pay 
 this deficiency, and complete, equip, and maintain the 
 road. When thus virtually making the company a present 
 of over £3,000,000 sterling, the legislature required them 
 to expend £225,000 (or seven and a half per cent, of this 
 amount) upon branch lines connecting with the main 
 Trunk, a stipulation which the company have described 
 as one of the injuries infiicted upon them by the Canadians. 
 As section after section was opened, and no. indications 
 of the eleven and a half per cent, presented themselves, the 
 difficulty was accounted for, first, by the want of western 
 connections, then by the non-completion of the Victoria 
 Bridge, and lastly,, the want of rolling stock. The western 
 connections were obtained by promoting a company to con- 
 
204 TEAVEL AKD TRANSPOETATION. 
 
 struct a line in Michigan, at a cost at least one-third more 
 than was necessary, and then leasingit at eight per cent, upon 
 this extravagant cost, after it had been demonstrated that it 
 could not earn its own working expenses. The only pos- 
 sible explanation of such an extraordinary proceeding, at 
 so late a date in the history of the company, is, that the 
 parties wlio furnished the money did so in good faith, for 
 the benefit of the whole enterprise, and that the work be- 
 ing situated in a foreign country, and constructed wholly 
 on Grand Trunk account, they were entitled to protection. 
 Also, that as this last and indispensable link was the gol- 
 den gate through which the treasures of the boundless west 
 were to pour over the Grand Trunk, and produce eleven 
 and a half per cent, dividends, eight percent, on their out- 
 lay was but moderate compensation to the corporate bene- 
 factors. The Victoria Bridge was completed, and then 
 the want of rolling stock was the only reason assigned 
 for the want of success ; but when it was remembered 
 that, by the Act of 1857, the conditions on which the prov- 
 ince surrendered her lien only remain in force while the 
 company " supply the said railway with sufficient plant, 
 rolling stock, and appliances to work the same efficiently," 
 and " so long as they maintain and work the same reg- 
 ularly," it was discovered that no more rolling stock was 
 necessary at present ; and at the same time the rumored 
 threats of stopping the road, unless the postal subsidy 
 were increased and capitalized, suddenly ceased alto- 
 gether. When at last all ejfforts failed, the conviction 
 forced itself on the hitherto infatuated proprietors, that 
 the anticipated traffic was not to be had upon any Cana- 
 dian route, except as a water-borne one which this rail 
 way was unable to divert. 
 
 A failure so magnificent, complete, and disastrous has 
 naturally led to recriminations ; and forgetting the part 
 played by Englishmen in the inception, and their almost 
 exclusive execution and management of the undertaking, 
 its British victims have attempted reclamations on the 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 205 
 
 province, on the ground of the " moral responsibility" in- 
 curred in accepting the tempting offers made her. A very 
 large proportion of such claimants are effectually disposed 
 of by the fact that, having acquired their stock at some- 
 thing like one-fifth its cost to the real victims, and other 
 securities at proportionate discounts, long after the fallacy 
 of the prospectus was admitted, they can have had no im- 
 plied contract with Canada, "moral" or otherwise. If we 
 are bound to compensate, it can only be those who really 
 put faith in us, and gave the first impulse to our railway, 
 and not the bulls and bears of the stock exchange, — per- 
 haps the men who, having deceived and plundered their 
 own countrymen, have bought back the depreciated securi 
 ties, and now stand in dead men's shoes to intimidate and 
 revile Canadians — every one of whom bears by taxation 
 something more than a moral responsibility on account 
 of the Grand Trunk. Canadians did not originate this 
 scheme, and, left alone, they would have closed the gap in 
 their Trunk line between Montreal and Hamilton without 
 greater cost than they have contributed to the Grand Trunk, 
 and with^out loss to any but themselves. This section was 
 all that was necessary, in a national point of view, as it 
 would have secured the connection of our chief seaports 
 with the remote west. But a member of the British Parlia- 
 ment, representing the wealthiest firm of contractors in 
 the world, crossed the Atlantic, applied to the Canadian 
 legislature for the necessary powers to bring out the gi- 
 gantic scheme on the London market, and taught the inex- 
 perienced colonists how to take advantage of their position. 
 The governor-general, either to immortalize his adminis- 
 tration, or acted upon, however innocently, by those influ- 
 ences in London which control appointments and peerages, 
 publicly implored the legislature not to shut the door in 
 the face of such proffered relief; and prepared an elaborate 
 statistical report, to accompany the prospectus, showing 
 the progress and resources of the colony. It was not pos- 
 sible that a people ignorant of railways could resist such 
 
206 TRAVEL AND TEANSPOBTATION, 
 
 arguments or sucli temptations ; nor is it remarkable that, 
 knowing the marvellous effects of railways elsewhere, they 
 should be unable to discriminate between the profitable 
 and the unprofitable routes, especially when they were 
 assured of success from such experienced and influential 
 sources. Though they had just incurred a debt of millions 
 for canals, which were not directly remunerative, they 
 embarked in railways to a much greater extent, assuming 
 obligations which, could they have foreseen the results, 
 they would not have done, even though English capitalists 
 had offered to invest two dollars to their one. 
 
 CAUSES OF FAILUEB. 
 
 The Grand Trunk scheme embraces so large a propor- 
 tion of the railway system of Canada, that its failure de- 
 serves investigation, and may be found in the following 
 considerations : 
 
 1. We have seen that while private enterprise had taken 
 np as intrinsically valuable, or supposed to be so, the rail- 
 ways leading from Montreal to Portland, Boston, and New 
 York, and from Toronto and Niagara westward — the sec- 
 tions between Quebec and Toronto — the most prominent 
 portions of the Grand Trunk, as prepared for the English 
 market, were, though backed by a provincial guarantee, 
 left by the Canadians until the last, because it was felt that 
 no railway could successfully compete with such a naviga- 
 tion. The English projectors thought otherwise, because 
 their railways had beaten their canals ; but no analogy 
 exists in the case of either system in the two countries. 
 Their railways have a different traffic and climate, are 
 better made and cheaper worked, while their canals are 
 but enlarged ditches compared with ours. The original 
 Canadian railway companies were organized on the basis 
 of portage roads working in connection with the naviga- 
 tion, besides forming a through line for general purposes ; 
 but the Grand Trunk vainly essayed competition with the 
 
TRAVEL AND TEANSPGRTATION. 
 
 207 
 
 water, and disdained all connection with it between Mon- 
 treal and Lake Huron. 
 
 2. While the Canadian envoy in May, 1852, looked only 
 to a line between Montreal and Hamilton, the English 
 scheme provided for an extension of both ends of a cen- 
 tral line, itself never regarded as a promising one — the ex- 
 tensions, as a whole, being still more unpromising intrin- 
 sically than the centre ; evidently counting upon a through 
 traffic which should be more valuable than the local one. 
 The weak point in the scheme was, that these extensions 
 connected points already connected by better routes, and 
 between which no regular traffic existed, or was likely to 
 arise. The Canadian railway route between Detroit and 
 Boston, as compared with that via Albany, was an attempt 
 to travel the arc of a circle (and a more arctic one at 
 that) in competition with its chord. The scheme did not 
 possess the elements of success, either as a whole or in its 
 parts ; the failure was, therefore, inevitable, and in pro- 
 portion to the extension. The following statements which 
 show the receipts and exrports by sea, via the St. Lawrence, 
 and the Grand Trunk Railway respectively, prove the 
 hopelessness of the contest between the rail and the river ; 
 and the insignificance of the winter operations of the 
 former, via Portland and Boston, in diverting exports from 
 the latter : 
 
 EECEIPTS OF WESTERN GRAIN AND FLOUR AT MONTREAL, 1862. 
 
 
 By water. By G. T. Railway. 
 
 Total. Pr cent, by G.T. R, 
 
 Grain, hus. 
 Flour, blls. 
 
 11,867,710 S02.128 
 772.881 1 402,221 
 
 12.169,888 6.59 
 1,174,602 34.25 
 
 EXPORTS SEAWARD OF GRAIN AND FLOUR FEOM MONTREAL, 1862. 
 
 
 By River St. Law- 
 rence. 
 
 ByG, T.R'lw'yvia 
 Portland A Boston. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent, by G.T. 
 Railway. 
 
 Grain, bys. 
 Flour, blls. 
 
 9,015,874 
 
 597,477 
 
 478,695 
 66,128 
 
 9,493,969 
 663,600 
 
 5.3 
 9.96 
 
 3. The enterprise, unpromising as it always was to com- 
 
208 TEAVBL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 petent and disinterested observers, was loaded down with 
 improvident leases of foreign lines. The Portland rail- 
 way was leased at six per cent, upon its cost, and required 
 the expenditure of over a million and a half of dollars to 
 make it workable ; yet with all the advantages of the Vic- 
 toria Bridge and western connections, the company have 
 not been able to earn more than two-thirds of the rent they 
 agreed to pay. Nothing but the greatest infatuation could 
 have led to the belief that such a road, with its heavy grades 
 and curves, and a scanty local traffic, could, amid winter 
 snows, do a through business, to warrant the price paid 
 for it. The lease of the Michigan line we have already 
 noticed : this was so much the worse, in that the company 
 have not only been unable to earn any portion of the eight 
 per cent, rent, but have lost money in working it. 
 
 4. The purchase of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic line 
 at cost, though the stock had been sold at fifty per cent, 
 discount, was made on the assumption that it was com- 
 plete as far as it went ; but, like the Portland end of the 
 same line, another million of dollars or more was re- 
 quired to put it in efficient order. Besides this unexpect- 
 ed outlay on the existing road between Montreal and 
 Portland, about six millions of dollars were subsequently 
 required, to make up deficiencies in the contract provision 
 for those portions of the line constructed under the com- 
 pany's own auspices. Whatever allowance may be made 
 for heated imaginations, when estimating the prospective 
 business of the road, and deluding themselves with 
 the notion that it would, as a whole, earn dividends of 
 eleven and a half per cent., when none of its parts had 
 previously been considered as practicable without sub- 
 sidies, the railway «ien of the prospectus must have 
 known that this could not be done with three-per-cent. of 
 sidings, and the limited number of loQpmotives and car- 
 riages provided by the contracts ; and that the working 
 expenses could not be kept down to forty per cent, of all 
 the receipts which could be earned by such an eqnipment. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 209 
 
 The prospectus assured subscribers that the cost of the 
 railway was defined by contracts, whereby " any appre- 
 hension of the capital being found insufficient is removed," 
 and which " secured a first-class railway, including sidings, 
 ample rolling stock, and every requisite essential to its per- 
 fect completion ;" and that, *' for the capital stated, the 
 proprietors are assured of a railway fully equipped and 
 complete in every respect, and free from any furtlier 
 charges whatever !" The capital estimated by the pros- 
 pectus was $47,500,000 ; the company, in 1860, showed 
 a balance sheet of $70,000,000 ; of this amount, about 
 $56,000,000 is charged to capital account as the " cost of 
 construction," the remainder is interest, rent, loss in work- 
 ing, &c., although eighty-five miles of the original road 
 have not been constructed : and after expending millions 
 in supplying omissions in the contracts and estimates, the 
 working expenses instead of forty, have exceeded eighty 
 per cent, of the gross receipts. 
 
 5. Not only did the contracts fail to provide " every es- 
 sential to the perfect completion of the road," but the pro- 
 visions they did contain were either not enforced or so 
 loosely complied with, that the efficiency of the road has 
 been impaired, its working expenses increased, and all the 
 available resources of the company have been required to 
 supply deficiencies, and to repair damages consequent 
 upon this state of things. The bad quality of rails east of 
 Toronto, with the deficiency of ballast and sleepers under 
 them, have led to a destruction of rolling stock and prop- 
 erty (fortunately hitherto unaccompanied by loss of life) 
 which is unprecedented in the history of railways. No 
 doubt the force of circumstances, in a great measure, com- 
 pelled the company to accept a road very much inferior 
 to that originally intended. The English contractors had 
 agreed to take two-thirds of their pay in stock and bonds, 
 and when these became depreciated by the discredit of the 
 company, they were in for a loss in discounts, which was 
 largely increased by the inexperience of some of their 
 
210 TEAVEL AND TRANSPOKTATION. 
 
 agents, who, conducting large expenditures in a country new 
 to them, and having it in their power to place the company 
 in default and suspend the work, were masters of the situa- 
 tion, and naturally desirous, while carrying through their 
 enterprise, to diminish their loss as much as possible. 
 
 The system under which the road was constructed was a 
 vicious and illegitimate one, the order of things being 
 reversed from that in well-regulated corporate enterprises. 
 The only way in which an honest and efficient construction 
 of any railway can be guaranteed, is that where hona' 
 fide shareholders elect their directors, who appoint the 
 engineer and solicitors, and invite competition before 
 the contract is given out. Thus those who expect to 
 become the owners of the property have some control over 
 its formation. But in the case of the Grand Trunk, the 
 contractors assumed the risk of floating off the shares 
 and bonds in consideration of getting a contract upon their 
 own terms, with a board of directors, and an engineer 
 and solicitor, of their own selection (and deriving their 
 fees and salaries through them), to carry them through 
 those all-important preliminary stages when the future 
 shareholders are irrevocably bound, and in too many cases 
 have their interests sacrificed, to those of the contractor. 
 And here there was the additional evil of a political 
 element. The contractors wielding a gigantic scheme which 
 traversed almost every county in the province, virtually 
 controlled the government and the legislature while the 
 expenditure continued. The only supervision under the 
 contract which would have affected their interests, was that 
 which the government and their majority in the legislature 
 could have insisted on. It was the interest of the com- 
 pany that in level country the road should be raised so as 
 to keep it out of water and snow ; that in hilly country it 
 should be carried as high over the valleys and as deep into 
 the hills as was prudent, in order to diminish the gradients 
 and therefore the cost of working ; and that the stations 
 should be as near the business centre of the towns as pos- 
 
TKAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 21 
 
 sible, particularly in places on or near the competing 
 navigation. But it was the interest of the contractors to 
 keep the road as near the surface everywhere as the con- 
 tract permitted, no matter how much it might be smothered 
 in winter an d flooded in spring, — how undulating it was, 
 or how frequent and severe the gradients became ; and to 
 place the stations where land was cheapest, or, so as to 
 purchase political support thereby, or obtain a specu- 
 lation in building lots. It is in vain that magnilicent 
 tubular bridges and way-stations of stone are pointed to as 
 evidences of superiority, when the very backbone of the 
 railway, the track on which its receipts are to be earned, 
 is defective in location and construction. Better that the 
 stations had been but temporary sheds, and that their cost 
 had been put into the road-bed, for these can be rebuilt at 
 any time ; but the latter must lie as it is, with all its im- 
 perfections on its head. 
 
 It does not rest with the English public to charge upon 
 Canada all the disastrous results of the Grand Trunk. Tne 
 prospectus was not prepared in the province, nor did any 
 member of her government see it until it was issued- 
 Canada was not a stockholder in the company ; but as the 
 indorser for it, not of it, put four of her ministers on a 
 board, composed of eighteen directors, of whom six were in 
 London and twelve in Canada, eight of the latter being 
 really nominees of the English contractors. The Cana- 
 dians, as novices in railway matters, could not be censured 
 if they even believed all they were told by the promoters 
 of the railway ; nor could they be worse than other people 
 if they gave it a trial without believing in it ; but there 
 must have been many men, and many editors in London 
 well versed in railways, not only English but American^ who 
 thoroughly appreciated the scheme, as one originated and 
 promoted for the money which could be made out of it by 
 men whose mission it is to prey upon their fellows. If these 
 were silent. Englishmen must blame their own watchmen 
 for not warning them ; besides, had they sought the real 
 U 
 
212 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 merits of the scheme, they would have found them in the 
 discussions of the Canadian press and Parliament. These 
 were of such a character as to relieve Canada of any " moral 
 responsibility," and contrast favorably with the intelligence 
 or candor of the English press on the same subject. A 
 proposition to attach the contracts to the prospectus was 
 made, but voted down by the contractors' majority in the 
 Canadian legislature. Why, when this was seen, did not 
 the English press call for the contracts when the prospec- 
 tus appeared, and tell their readers whether the capital 
 would be sufficient, and analyze the scheme from American 
 data? and why did they not show that the contractors 
 could, through their appointment of the company's engi- 
 neer, solicitors, and directors, give the subscribers any 
 road they pleased, instead of the one described in the 
 prospectus ? 
 
 Among the minor causes which heightened the failure 
 of the Grand Trunk, and deprived it of much of that sym- 
 pathy of which it stands so much in need, have been the 
 general extravagance and blundering in its management, 
 and the ridiculous presumption of some of the officials, in 
 a community in which there is so little of a real aristo- 
 cratic element and so little room for a sham one. In an 
 enterprise of such magnitude, the salaries of its higher offi- 
 cials, no matter how liberal they were, would seem to have 
 little influence on results ; and if these results were confined 
 to the mere question of the difference in salaries they 
 would be unimportant, particularly where the incumbents 
 are worth what they cost. But, in the case under notice, 
 the effect of princely salaries to chief officers was to 
 establish a general scale of extravagance, and a delegation 
 of duties and responsibilities, so as to turn the head of the 
 recipients, and involve the company in needless outlays, and 
 losses greater than all the salaries paid upon the line. The 
 railway satrap sent out by the London Board, whose salary 
 is only exceeded by that of the governor-general, naturally 
 considers himself the second person in tlie province; and, 
 
TRAVEL AND TKANSPORTATION. 213 
 
 as. a consequence, the special commissioner sent out from 
 the same source, with the salary of the President of the 
 United States, to obtain more money from the province 
 under the veil of a postal subsidy, would deem himself the 
 second person on the continent, and therefore assume a 
 position commensurate with his importance, and indulge in 
 threats of destroying the credit of the province. The 
 salary of this commissioner is reported at $25,000, his 
 charge for expenses $12,000, and the cost of his special 
 trains at $6,000, making a total of $43,000 on account of 
 one year. If only half of this be true, it is sufficient to pre- 
 vent Canadians increasing their own taxes in order to 
 afford the company the means of continuing such extrava- 
 gance. Men. so much better paid than their confreres nat- 
 urally value themselves much higher; can only be ap- 
 proached through successive doors, or be communicated 
 with through successive deputies, in a diminishing scale, 
 until the man who does the work is reached ; and can only 
 travel by special trains or in exclusive carriages, provided 
 with every luxury on an imperial scale, and with equal in- 
 difference to detail. Perhaps no circumstance has tended 
 more to make the management unpopular, and the liber- 
 ality sought for on account of postal subsidy impossible, 
 than this abuse of special trains and carriages by officials 
 of the company intoxicated with the novelty of their posi- 
 tion. The bishops, and the judges of assize ; the most ven- 
 erable and respectable inhabitants of the country, as well 
 as tourists of the highest rank, are content to travel by 
 ordinary trains and in the usual carriages ; but the upper 
 servants of the railway company have burned the fuel, worn 
 the rails and rolling-stock, deprived their fellow employes 
 of the needed Sunday's rest, and thrown the whole freight 
 traffic of a single line out of time (thus jeopardizing life and 
 property), in order that they may show their little brief 
 authority. Passengers have been turned out of a sleeping- 
 car in the dead of the night by the breaking of a wheel, and 
 crowded into the only remaining carriage of the train ex- 
 
214 
 
 TBAVEL AND TBANSPOKTATIOir. 
 
 cept one, which, though large enough for fifty, was sacred 
 to a few railway magnates whose duty it was — and pleasure 
 it should have been — ^to treat the ejected passengers as their 
 guests, but who resolutely kept out the vulgar herd. It 
 seems absurd in such nabobs to plead poverty before our 
 legislature, or expect the men whose wives and daughters 
 have been so treated to support their petitions. 
 
 MUNICIPAL RAILWAYS. 
 
 The municipalities, relieved from contributing to the 
 Trunk Railway, were thus at liberty to embark in branch 
 lines, and some rushed headlong in, seduced by men who 
 saw how the thing was done in the Grand Trunk. Contrac- 
 tors controlled the board of directors and appointed the 
 engineer; a scamped road, barely practicable for traffic, 
 was made, on which the whole receipts for the present 
 generation must be applied before it can be considered 
 completed. To enable the municipalities to carry out their 
 local improvements, the province virtually indorsed their 
 bonds by exchanging them for others, in which it acted 
 as a broker, undertaking to collect from the borrower and 
 pay over to the lender. The by-laws by which counties, 
 cities, and townships voted their loans or subscriptions to 
 public works, required the approval of the governor in 
 council before they could take the benefit of the Municipal 
 Loan Fund Act. This provision was intended as a check 
 upon extravagance, but the practical effect of it was to 
 place the members from every county and city, seeking to 
 avail themselves of the provisions of the act, at the mercy 
 of the ministry of the day. Those who were most subser- 
 vient obtained most money, and one village was allowed 
 to borrow three hundred dollars per head for every soul 
 of the population. Of course default was made in the in- 
 terest on such loans, and one delinquent produced others ; 
 the province as indorser in the mean time paying for them, 
 and in the end accepting, in lieu of the dues, an annual as- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 215 
 
 Bessment of Q.Ye per cent. Although loans of this doubt- 
 ful character have been thus compromised, a rigid neu- 
 trality has been maintained toward those municipalities 
 which, like Hamilton, embarked in good faith in similarly 
 unfortunate enterprises upon their own unaided credit. 
 
 The following tables show that about six and a half mil- 
 lions of dollars have been contributed to railways by the 
 municipalities in Upper and Lower Canada, out of the 
 loan fund. Some three millions or more have been con- 
 tributed by municipalities which did not borrow from the 
 fund, so that the total investment by these bodies in rail- 
 ways cannot be far from ten millions of dol) ars. * 
 
 * Unfortunately, the municipalities do not make any return to Parliament 
 of their investments in public works. This is the case also with road com- 
 panies and several other joint-stock corporations. No good reasons are 
 advanced why these bodies should be more favored than banks and rail- 
 

 - 
 
 216 TRAVEL AND 
 
 TRANSPORTATION, 
 
 
 
 TABLE SHOWnrO THE AMOXTNTS TAKEN FROM THE MUNICIPAL 
 
 LOAN FUND BY 
 
 
 MUNICIPALITIBS IN UPPER CANADA FOR RAILWAY PURPOSES ONLY. 
 
 
 
 Population Population 
 
 Arrears of interest 
 
 
 Municipalities. 
 
 inl861. 
 
 in 1861. 
 
 Amount of loan, due Dec. 81, 1861. 
 
 
 Town of Port Hope... 
 
 .. 2,476 
 
 4,161 
 
 $740,000.00 
 
 $312,303.31 
 
 
 Township of Hope. . . . 
 
 .. 5,299 
 
 5,883 
 
 60,000.00 
 
 25,862.56 
 
 
 Town of Niagara. 
 
 .. 3,340 
 
 2,070 
 
 280,000.00 
 
 148,974.02 
 
 
 " " Cobourg 
 
 .. 3,871 
 
 4,975 
 
 500,000.00 
 
 313,426.61 
 
 
 Village of Chippewa. . . 
 
 .. 1,193 
 
 1,095 
 
 20,000.00 
 
 7,109.71 
 
 
 Township of Bertie 
 
 .. 2,737 
 
 3,379 
 
 40,000.00 
 
 8,873.36 
 
 
 '* " Brantford. 
 
 .. 6,410 
 
 6,904 
 
 60,000.00 
 
 2,428.11 
 
 
 Townof Brantford.... 
 
 .. 3,877 
 
 6,251 
 
 500,000.00 
 
 186,754.87 
 
 
 Township of Wainfleet. 
 
 .. 1,841 
 
 2,316 
 
 20,000.00 
 
 1,446.37 
 
 
 •' Canboro.. 
 
 .. 1,151 
 
 1,252 
 
 8,000.00 
 
 330.80 
 
 
 Counties of Huron and 
 Bruce 
 
 20,706 
 
 76,226 
 
 125,000.00 
 
 
 
 Townships of Moulton 
 and Sherbrooke 
 
 . 2,318 
 
 3,059 
 
 20,000.00 
 
 
 
 ViUage of Paris 
 
 .. 1,890 
 
 2,373 
 
 40,000.00 
 
 172.23 
 
 
 City of Ottawa 
 
 . . 7,760 
 
 14,669 
 2,591 
 
 200,000.00 
 100,000.00 
 
 113,411.37 
 62,625.53 
 
 
 Town of Prescott 
 
 .. 2,156 
 
 
 " " Wooastock. . . . 
 
 .. 2,112 
 
 3,353 
 
 100,000.00 
 
 47,324.29 
 
 
 " " St Catharine's 
 
 .. 4,368 
 
 6,284 
 
 100,000.00 
 
 47,748.27 
 
 
 Township of "Woodhouse. 2,894 
 
 3,703 
 
 10,000.00 
 
 31.04 
 
 
 " Norwich.. 
 
 .. 5,239 
 
 6,383 
 
 200,000.00 
 
 101,508.96 
 
 
 " " Ops 
 
 .. 2,512 
 
 2,872 
 
 80,000.00 
 
 39,897.36 
 
 
 County of Elgin 
 
 . .25,418 
 
 32,050 
 
 80,000.00 
 
 35.95 
 
 
 City of London 
 
 . . 7,035 
 
 11,555 
 4,095 
 
 375,400.00 
 100,000.00 
 
 155,412.56 
 50,251.66 
 
 
 Township of Windham 
 
 .. 2,900 
 
 
 Town of Simcoe 
 
 .. 1,452 
 
 1,858 
 51,964 
 
 100,000.00 
 
 52,276.99 
 306,189.16 
 
 
 Counties of Lanark and 
 Renfrew 
 
 36,732 
 
 800,000.00 
 
 
 Town of Brockville... . 
 
 .. 3,246 
 
 4,112 
 
 400,000.00 
 
 187,432.01 
 
 
 Township of Elizabeth- 
 town 
 
 I 5,208 
 
 6,101 
 
 154,000.00 
 
 51,794.00 
 
 
 Village of Stratford 
 
 2,809 
 
 100,000.00 
 
 56,871.79 
 
 
 Town of Goderich 
 
 . . 1,329 
 
 3,227 
 
 100,000.00 
 
 35,174.92 
 
 
 " " Barrie 
 
 .. 1,007 
 
 2,134 
 
 12,000.00 
 
 2,564.69 
 
 
 " " Guelph 
 
 . . 1,860 
 
 5,076 
 
 80,000.00 
 
 13,400.12 
 
 
 « " Peterboro 
 
 .. 2,191 
 
 • 
 
 3,979 
 Total, i 
 
 100,000.00 
 
 27,274.12 
 2,359,406.74 
 
 
 ^5,594,400.00$ 
 
 
TRAVEL AND TKANSPOETATION. 217 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNTS TAKEN FROM THE MUNICIPAL LOAN FUND BY 
 MUNICIPALITIES IN LOWER CANADA FOR RAILWAY PURPOSES ONLY. 
 
 Population Population Arrears of interest 
 
 Municipalities. in 1851. in 1861. Amount of loan, due Dec. 31, 1861. 
 
 County of Ottawa 22,903 27,757 $131,600.00 $84,740.19 
 
 " " Terrebonne.. 26,791 19,460* 94,000.00 60,498.17 
 
 " " Shefford 16,482 17,779 216,000.00 63,340.53 
 
 " " Stanstead...l3,898 12,258 71,000.00 17,581.02 
 
 " " Megantic... 13,835 17,889 5,840.00 3,580.57 
 
 St. Romuald de Farnhamf 30,000.00 11,423.68 
 
 Township of Sheffordf... 2,512 3,712 57,500.00 21,895.59 
 
 Town of Three Riversf.. 4,835 6,058 220,000.00 53,855.61 
 
 Township of Granbyf ... 2,392 3,271 30,000.00 10,938.37 
 
 " Boltonf 1,936 2,526 13,000.00 2,834.39 
 
 ofStukelyNth+)2i94 2 820 ^ 
 ofStukelySthfJ ' ' i 
 
 Tillage of Fermontf 32,000.00 6,393.00 
 
 16,000.00 3,763.29 
 
 10,000.00 2.364.00 
 
 Total, $925,940.00 $343,208.41 
 
 This flagrant disregard of obligations, by so manj mu- 
 nicipalities, is not to be ascribed wholly to the inability 
 of some, and the example of such upon others ; nor to 
 any proneness to repudiation ; for these bodies have made, 
 great and successful efforts to keep faith with other credi- 
 tors, and have only failed in cases where the debt was 
 overwhelming. Little effort was made to pay the loan 
 fund, even during the most prosperous days of the corpo- 
 rations, chiefly because no attempt was made to collect : — 
 the example of the government in conniving at the default 
 being the prime cause of its present magnitude. To press 
 a municipality was to drive it into opposition ; and rail- 
 way corruption had so thoroughly emasculated the leaders 
 of the people, that they had not virtue enough left to do 
 their duty. Moreover, at the time the money was borrowed 
 supporters of the government had industriously sowed the 
 impression that repayment would not be exacted, and 
 this view gained ground after the lien on the Grand 
 Trunk was abandoned. They could not see why the law 
 of 1849, which treated all districts alike, should have been 
 repealed for the benefit of the wealthier localities; and 
 
 * BoundarieB changed since 1851. 
 
 f Object of loan not stated ; supposed to be for railways. 
 
218 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 looked upon this mo'/e as an abuse of their political power 
 by the majority. To these considerations, as well as to 
 the feeling that the debt is due, in a great measure, by 
 the people in one capacity to themselves in another, and not 
 to individuals or a foreign government—and has more- 
 over been pretty generally distributed over the province- 
 may be traced this otherwise disgraceful exhibit. The 
 dimensions of many of the loans, as compared with the 
 borrowers, go to show that the latter did not expect and 
 were not expected to repay;— nor could many of them 
 have been sanctioned by tbe papular approval, had they 
 been considered as honafide debts. The manner in which 
 the guarantee has been distributed, as shown in the fol- 
 lowinor table, has likewise tended to foster this feelin":. 
 
 Great "Western. Grand Trunk. Northern. 
 
 ^Ifst cLfmb^^^^ [ • $23,000,104.00.$55,690,039.92.. .$3,890,778.68 
 
 Total amount received ) 
 
 from the province in [• . .$3,755,555.18.$15,142,633.33.. .$2,311,666.6t 
 
 debentures ) 
 
 Total miles built 345 872 95 
 
 Mileage entitled to guar- ) ^ .^^^ . . 680 95 
 
 antee f 
 
 Amount received per mile 
 
 of whole road in deben- }- $10,800.00 $17,365.00 $24,333.00 
 
 tures , 
 Amount received per mile ) 
 
 entitled to guarantee in V $14,000.00 $22,200.00 $24,333.00 
 
 debentures ) 
 
 Per cent, of cost supplied [ , - ,„ n^ , ^ sq , , 
 
 by the province f ^^'^^ ^^'^^ ^^'^^ 
 
 The debentures were sold at about twelve and a half 
 per cent, premium, which would increase these amounts 
 one-eighth. The province has abandoned its claim on the 
 last two roads; the Great Western has ceased paying 
 principal or interest, — the former from inability ; the 
 latter on the ground that its mail service has not been 
 settled. 
 
 The Northern was Aot a part of the main trunk, but ob- 
 tained provincial aid because it had been put under con- 
 tract in view of the guarantee, before the repeal of the law 
 
TRAVEL AND TKANSPORTATION. 
 
 219 
 
 of 1849 ; — a privilege which the Prescott and Ottawa 
 as well as other companies might have obtained, had 
 the J added twenty-five miles or more in any direction to 
 the length of their line (so as to make up the seventy-five 
 miles required to secure them the guarantee), and con- 
 tracted for the whole. 
 
 When the advance to the Grand Trunk was fixed at 
 £3,000 sterling per mile, the railway commissioners es- 
 tablished a similar limit for the Northern, or a total of 
 £275,000 sterling, which was more than that company then 
 hoped for from the province. On the twenty-first of June, 
 1854, after two-thirds of the line had been in operation 
 eight months, the engineer of the company reported that 
 the remaining third was rapidly approaching completion, 
 grading and bridging finished, — ties distributed and iron 
 delivered, and one-half of the track laid ; — that he expected 
 to open the whole length in August, when the harbor at 
 Collingwood would be sufficiently advanced to be used ; 
 and showed the expenditure, including road, harbor, station 
 and depot services and equipments, to be £698,810 6s. Od. 
 sterling. He also rendered an account as follows : 
 
 Provincial guarantee, £275,000 8tg.=currency at 9^ per cent. £334,583 6 8 
 
 Received by company, to date v 284,166 13 4 
 
 Balance currency £50,416 13 4 
 
 In the same month, the railway commissioners reported 
 that the total amount to complete the works, including 
 the rolling stock, was £716,530, of which the sum of 
 £682,961 5^. Od. had been expended, and recommended the 
 advance of this balance, subject to the report of one of 
 their own body, who was an engineer. This report was made 
 on the twenty-seventh of September following, and it not 
 only confirmed the advance, but declared that the road — 
 which was so nearly completed, and which had been esti- 
 mated by the board of which he was a member, three months 
 before, at £716,530— would now cost £1,156,592 7s. 7d. 
 (or $4,626,369.52), the moiety of which, or full amount of 
 
220 TRAVEL AND TKANSPOKTATION. 
 
 guarantee by the provisions of the act, will be £578,296 
 Ss. 9d, of which the company has received (including the 
 sum above recommended) £834,583 4^. Sd. leaving to be 
 ultimately provided by the province the sum of £243,712, 
 17^. Id. The company was paid the whole of this extra 
 amount, £200,000 sterling, in debentures (over $1,000,000), 
 within four months after this report was made. It is not 
 often that a railway, or any public work, proves to have 
 cost less than was estimated for it, seven years before, but 
 the Northern is an honorable exception to the rule. The 
 fiscal returns published by the inspector of railways, which 
 are the company's own statements, show that the cost of 
 this road and its equipments, up to the thirty-first of De- 
 cember, 1860, insteadof $4,626,369.52, was $3,890,778.68, 
 or $735,590.84 less. 
 
 The company has received $2,311,666.67 
 
 One-half the cost as returned by them is 1,945,389.34 
 
 So it would appear they were overpaid $366, 27 7. 33 
 
 Ottawa, Prescott, Brockville, Cobourg, Peterboro', Port 
 Hope, Niagara, Brantford, St. Catherine's, Paris, London, 
 Barrie, Guelph, Stratford, Goderich, and the counties and 
 townships adjpining them, which have not displayed much 
 alacrity in repaying the municipal loan fund, will doubtless 
 claim that the railways which they have interested them- 
 selves in should receive some of that consideration which 
 has been so liberally bestowed on the Northern. 
 
 The guarantee law of 1849 was very unguarded ; so 
 much so that contractors, by tendering at double the value, 
 could make the half contributed by the province pay the 
 whole cash outlay, and could thus afibrd to take payment 
 in stock and bonds : this has been the result in the case 
 of the Northern Railway. It became necessary, therefore, 
 as we have seen, to restrict it to the main trunk line, and 
 to provide not only for the approval of all contracts by the 
 government, but that the estimates of work done and to 
 
TRAVEL AND TKANSPOETATION. 
 
 221 
 
 be done should be submitted to it — well-meant but ineffec» 
 tual provisos, as we bave also seen. So, also, the manner in 
 which the municipalities voted away their bonds, forced, 
 after some three years' experience, a limitation of the 
 amount for which the province would act as a broker. 
 Some of the wealthier counties, careful of their credit, de- 
 clined to pay eight per cent, for money, and thus derived 
 no benefit from the municipal loan fund (if benefit it can 
 be considered), while they contribute through the consoli- 
 dated fund to pay its losses. 
 
 During the Grand Trunk era of construction, from 1853 
 to 1859, the first Canadian age of iron, and of brass — the 
 utmost activity was displayed in running into debt. The 
 great success which attended the early years of the Great 
 Western assisted every other Canadian road, and was 
 doubtless the main instrument in preventing the Grand 
 Trunk from being prematurely abandoned. Whatever 
 loss of prestige or character the province may suffer from 
 the almost universal failure of her railways, as investments, 
 it is clear that in a material sense she has been benefited 
 immensely by the early luck of the Great Western, and by 
 the English infatuation about Grand Trunk ; for without 
 these the means for the construction of many miles now in 
 use would not have been raised. The construction of the 
 other lines simultaneously with Grand Trunk was equally 
 opportune, because there would have been little prospect 
 of getting them done after the bankruptcy of that road. 
 
 KAILWAT MORMJTT. 
 
 So much recklessness was displayed, in sanctioning by- 
 laws, and in exchanging what were really provincial for niu- 
 nicipal debentures, as to give color to the charge that con- 
 tractors were not the only ones personally interested in 
 these issues. The years 1852 to 1857 will ever be remem- 
 bered as those of financial plenty, and the saturnalia of 
 nearly all classes connected with railways. Before the 
 invasion of the province at the east by a deputation from 
 
222 TEAYEL AND TBANSPOKTATION. 
 
 the most experienced railway men of England, bringing 
 with them all the knowledge and appliances of that con- 
 servative country, it had been penetrated on the west by 
 some contractors from the United States, bred in that school 
 of politics and public works which brought 'New York 
 to a dead stand and Pennsylvania to the goal of repudia- 
 tion. These " practical men" had built State canals with 
 senators and even governors as silent partners, and were 
 versed in all the resources peculiar to a democratic com- 
 munity. The convergence of these two systems on the 
 poor but virgin soil of Canada, brought about an education 
 of the people and their representatives more rapid than the 
 most sanguine among them could have hoped for. One 
 bold operator organized a system which virtually made 
 him ruler of the province for several years. In person or 
 by agents he kept "open house," where the choicest brands 
 of champagne and cigars were free to all the peoples' rep- 
 resentatives, from the town councillor to the cabinet 
 minister ; and it was the boast of one of these agents that 
 when the speaker's bell rang for a division, more M. P. P.s 
 were to be found in his apartments than in the library or 
 any other single resort ! By extensive operations he held 
 the prosperity of so many places, as well as the success of 
 BO many schemes and individuals in his grasp, that he ex- 
 ercised a qitcm legitimate influence over many who could 
 not be directly seduced ; or made friends of those he could 
 not otherwise approach, by liberal purchases of their prop, 
 erty, and thus, insensibly to them, involved their interests 
 with his own. So he ruled boards of directors — suggest- 
 ing, as the officers who should supervise his work, creatures 
 of his own — and thus the companies found themselves, on 
 settlement-day, committed by the acts of their own ser- 
 vants. Companies about to build a railway, and depend- 
 ing on the municipal loan fund, were led to believe that, 
 if he were the contractor, there would be no difficulty in 
 obtaining the government sanction of the by-laws to any 
 extent, and therefore the exchange of bonds ; or, if their 
 
TRAVEL AND TEANSPOKTATION. 223 
 
 charter were opposed, the great contractor only could set 
 it all right. A few anecdotes will illustrate the impar- 
 tiality of his levies. 
 
 An English contractor was, without competition, about 
 to pounce quietly upon the contract for the Toronto and 
 Hamilton Railway, when his American ''brother" de- 
 manded and received a royalty of £1.0,000 sterling, before 
 he would allow a corporation to be so imposed upon : he 
 was, however, subsequently obliged to disgorge this black 
 mail, when seeking the co-operation of the same contractor 
 in Enffland for the celebrated but abortive Southern Rail- 
 way scheme. The English contractors for Grand Trunk 
 also were compelled, before they could risk the ordeal of 
 the legislature, to promise the ever-present and never-to- 
 be-avoided American one-third interest in their contract. 
 This, considering the kind of payments and their prospec- 
 tive losses, the latter took the earliest opportunity to com- 
 promise for the consideration of £12,000 sterling. 
 
 The Toronto J^orthern road was let to a company of 
 American contractors at a price per mile, payment bemg 
 made chiefly in the company's stock and bonds, and the 
 government guarantee debentures. It was necessary, in 
 order to secure any portion of this latter item, that one- 
 half of the work upon seventy-five miles should first be 
 completed by the contractors. Having exhausted their 
 means in reaching, as they hoped, this position, the con- 
 tractors, through the company, called on the government for 
 the advance ; but, upon an inspection by the government 
 engineer, the road was found to have been so " scamped," 
 under the American engineer (who subsequently openly 
 became a partner with the contractors), that the commis- 
 sioner of public works refused to recommend the issue of 
 the provincial bonds. Here was a fix ! But the con- 
 tractors sent for their American brother, who, for a bro- 
 kerage of $100,000 of the first mortgage bonds of the 
 company, undertook to obtain the guarantee. He went to 
 his colleague in the government ; the commissioner of 
 
224 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 public works was shunted out of office on a suddenly 
 raised issue (which immediately thereafter was dropped), 
 and just one week afterward the guarantee bonds were 
 forthcoming. In connection with this incident, it is wor- 
 thy of remark, that a member of the government shortly 
 afterward paid away nearly £10,000 of the first mortgage 
 bonds of the same company in the purchase of real estate. 
 
 The Great Western Railway, finding their traffic on the 
 first opening of the road to exceed their expectations, 
 sought, among other legislation, the power to lay a double 
 track from Hamilton to London, and on applying to the gov- 
 ernment to promote their bill — instead of meeting with that 
 encouragement which the proposal to expend so much addi- 
 tional English capital led them to expect — they were grave- 
 ly assured that the government was powerless to give them 
 their bill, in consequence of the influence of the enter- 
 prising Pennsylvanian in the house. The contractor's 
 price for permitting the bill to pass was — the contract for 
 the work to be done ; and to this the company, seeing no 
 escape, consented conditionally ; that is, if the work were 
 undertaken during the ensuing five years. Fortunately 
 for them, before a commencement could be made, the 
 double track was found to be unnecessary. Among other 
 favors obtained by the legislation thus bartered for, was 
 the power to disregard that provision of the railway act 
 which requires trains to stop before crossing the draw- 
 bridge over the Desjardin's Canal. In less than two years 
 thereafter, a train which did not stop plunged through this 
 very bridge, and among the first recovered of the sixty 
 victims to that " accident," was the dead body of the great 
 contractor himself. 
 
 Lest it should be considered that there is any thing pe- 
 culiar to Canada in these transactions, it may be mentioned 
 that about the same period a Congressman was convicted 
 at Washington of voting for a " consideration," and was 
 expelled from the House of Representatives. This man 
 was declared to be the spokesman of a band, irreverently 
 
TRAVEL AND TEAJi^^SPOETATION. 225 
 
 styled " the forty thieves," by whom he was authorized to 
 negotiate for their votes with the highest bidder. The 
 canal frauds of New York and Pennsylvania are matters 
 of history. Yenality and corruption in high places, mainly 
 engendered in the contracts and expenditure for public 
 works, have done, perhaps, as much as slavery, and that 
 territorial covetousness which amounted to idolatry in the 
 Union, to bring down the vengeance of Heaven upon oui 
 unhappy neighbors. Nor is this, what may be called, 
 railway morality peculiar to this side of the Atlantic. 
 The following extracts from Smiles' Life of George Ste- 
 phenson reveal a similar history in English railways : — 
 
 " Folly and knavery were, for a time, completely in the 
 ascendant. The sharpers of society were let loose, and 
 jobbers and schemers became more and more plentiful. 
 They threw out railway schemes as mere lures to catch the 
 unwary. They fed the mania with a constant succession 
 of new projects. The railway papers became loaded with 
 their advertisements. The post-office was scarcely able to 
 distribute the multitude of prospectuses and circulars 
 which they issued. For a time their popularity was im- 
 mense. They rose like froth into the upper height of 
 society, and the flunky Fitz Plushe, by virtue of his sup- 
 posed wealth, sat among peers and was idolized. Then 
 was the harvest-time for scheming lawyers, parliamentary 
 agents, engineers, surveyors, and traffic-takers, who were 
 alike ready to take up any railway scheme, however des- 
 perate, and to prove any amount of traffic even where 
 none existed. The traffic in the credulity of their dupes 
 was, however, the great fact that mainly ooncerned them, 
 and of the profitable character of which there could be no 
 doubt. Many of them saw well enough the crash that 
 was coming, and diligently made use of the madness while 
 it served their turn. 
 
 " The projectors of new lines even came to boast of their 
 parliamentary strength, and of the number of votes which 
 they could command in the * House.' 
 
226 TRAVEL AND TEANSPOKTATION. 
 
 " Amongst the many ill effects of the mania, one of the 
 worst was that it introduced a low tone of morality into 
 railway transactions. Those who had suddenly gained 
 large sums of money without labor, and also without 
 honor, were too ready to enter upon courses of the wildest 
 extravagance ; and a false style of living shortly arose, 
 the poisonous influence of which extended through all 
 classes. Men began to look upon railways as instruments 
 to job with ; and they soon became as overrun with job- 
 bers as London charities. Persons, sometimes possessing 
 information respecting railways, but more frequently pos- 
 sessing none, got upon boards for the purpose of promoting 
 their individual objects, often in a very unscrupulous man- 
 ner ; landowners, to promote branch lines through their 
 property ; speculators in shares, to trade upon the exclusive 
 information which they obtained ; whilst some directors 
 were appointed through the influence mainly of solicitors, 
 contractors, or engineers, who used them as tools to serve 
 their own ends. In this way the unfortunate proprietors 
 were, in many cases, betrayed, and their property was 
 shamefully squandered, to the further discredit of the rail- 
 way system. 
 
 " Among the characters brought prominently into notice 
 by the mania was the railway navvy. The navvy was 
 now a great man. He had grown rich, was a landowner, 
 a railway shareholder, sometimes even a member of Par- 
 liament ; but he was a navvy still. The navvy contractor 
 was greatly given to ' scamping.' He was up to all sorts 
 of disreputable tricks of the trade ; but he was greatest of 
 all, perhaps, in the * scamping' of ballast. The conse- 
 quences were such as might have been anticipated. More 
 bad and dishonest work was executed on the railways 
 constructed in any single year subsequent to the mania, 
 than was found on all the Stephenson lines during the 
 preceding twenty years. 
 
 " The navvy's great object was to execute the work so 
 that it should pass muster and be well paid for. The con- 
 
TKAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 227 
 
 tractor in such cases was generally a large capitalist : a 
 man looked np to even by the chief engineer himself. But 
 the worst feature of this system was, that the principal 
 engineer himself was occasionally interested as a partner, 
 and shared in the profits of the contract. In passing the 
 contractor's work he was virtually passing his own ; and 
 in certifying the monthly pay-bills, he was a party to pay- 
 ing himself. What security was there, under such a system, 
 for either honest work or honest accounts ? The conse- 
 quence was, that a great deal of slop-work was thus execu- 
 ted, the results of which, to some extent, have already 
 appeared in the falling in of tunnels, and the premature 
 decay and failure of viaducts and bridges." 
 
 Canadians, indeed, have had cause to blush at the spec- 
 tacle of men filling the highest ofiices in their province, 
 with a seat at the council-board of their sovereign, accept- 
 ins: fees and favors from contractors and ofiicials of a rail- 
 way company (between whom and them there should 
 have been a gulf as wide as that which separates the 
 judges of assize from the suitors before them), and laying 
 the honor of their country in the dust, often at the feet of 
 boorish and uneducated men, whose only recommenda- 
 tions were — the material one of ill-gotten wealth, and the 
 immoral one of unscrupulousness in the use of ii. May 
 they never again see a member of their government wend- 
 ing his way to the wharf, after a Tnatinee of champagne, 
 supported by contractors and their suite, and departing 
 amid the tipsy cheers of his associates ; — or have to com- 
 plain that ministers of the crown again have made men 
 seeking favors from it their most intimate companions,, 
 their hosts and guests, their patrons and their proteges^. 
 
 The evil effects of the past ascendency of railway infiuence 
 is visible in the disregard paid by many of the companies- 
 to the law of the land. Every company chartered after the 
 passing of the Kailway Act of 30th August, 1851, is re- 
 quired to show a printed tariff in every passenger-car, and 
 15 
 
228 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 to submit all by-laws changing this tariff for the approval 
 of the governor in council, and to publish the by-law and the 
 order in council approving the same at least twice in the 
 Canada Gazette before putting the same into operation ; 
 also to file in the registry office of each county traversed 
 by the railway, a map and profile of the portion within 
 that county ; and one of the whole railway, in the office 
 of the commissioner of public works ; and to submit 
 annually to the legislature ddssified statements of the 
 passengers and goods transported by them. These pro- 
 visions should either be enforced or expunged from the 
 Statute-Book ; for nothing can be more demoralizing in 
 its example than long-continued disobedience by such 
 conspicuous law-breakers. An unnecessary tenderness has 
 also been displayed toward companies which are exempt 
 by the date of their charter from the wholesome provisions 
 of the Railway Act. Almost all the early charters contain 
 a clause declaring that subsequent enactments by the 
 legislature in the public interest shall not be considered 
 a breach of the privileges granted ; and therefore those 
 railways which, like the Great Western, do not exhibit 
 notice-boards at level crossings, and do not remove timber 
 which may fall across the track, should be required to do so 
 as much as those chartered a few years later. The number of 
 level crossings (at every one of which, sooner or later, loss 
 of life may be counted on) has been reduced on the Great 
 Western by the fact, that the contractors were paid in 
 proportion to the work done, and not by the mile, and 
 because frequent crossings of this description would in- 
 crease the danger to the trains^ with the high speed aimed 
 at in the location of that work. On other roads, where 
 the contractor's interest was supreme, or where the com- 
 panies were very poor, these crossings are more numerous, 
 as being the least expensive. 
 
TB^VEL ASfl) TEANSPOKTATION. 
 
 229 
 
 THE GREAT "WESTERN RAILWAY. 
 
 This important road, second to the Grand Trunk only 
 in its length, was first chartered sixteen years before it 
 was commenced. The fine agricultural district between 
 London and Woodstock is nearly equidistant from the 
 three lakes, Huron, Erie, and Ontario ; and as produce 
 afloat on the latter is most valuable, being nearer its mar- 
 ket, the original road of 1834 was one commencing at 
 London and terminating on Burlington Bay ; though pow- 
 er was also obtained to extend westward to the navigable 
 waters of the Thames and to Lake Huron. Before the 
 work was commenced, however, in 1850, the New York 
 railways had reached the Niagara frontier, and the Michi- 
 gan Central road connected Detroit with Chicago. The 
 Great Western thereupon changed its character from that 
 of a Canadian local and portage railway only, debouching 
 on Lake Ontario (which was but a reproduction in iron 
 of Governor Simcoe's road of the last century), to that also 
 of an important section of the main line leading from 
 Boston and Albany to Chicago, the shortest route for 
 which is through the peninsula of Western Canada. The 
 eastern terminus was therefore extended to Niagara, where 
 a magnificent suspension bridge, worthy of the site, united 
 it to the New York roads ; and the western one was di- 
 verted from Lake Huron to Detroit, where a short ferry 
 maintains uninterrupted communication throughout the 
 year. 
 
 The estimate was made in 1847, by an American en- 
 gineer, and was (exclusive of the Gait branch) only 
 $4,954,080, which, however, did not include the important 
 items of right of way and land damages or rolling stock. 
 The following exhibit shows the expenditure of the com- 
 pany, and how it is made up, with the excess in the cost 
 of the main line over the original estimate of 1847 : 
 
230 
 
 TEAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 Cost of main line and Gait Branch ) c,<-«,i; j;o /ski ko/i to h 
 
 (with sidings fifty mUes) [ * * * -'^^'^^^^ £3,651,524 19 1 
 
 Cost of Sarnia Branch 46T,636 2 2 
 
 " Gait and Guelph line 76,183 7 5 
 
 " Hamilton and Toronto line 394,456 10 3 
 
 " Steamboats Detroit Ferry 39.332 12 10 
 
 " " Canada and America 48,820 5 6 
 
 Detroit and Milwaukee Loan 250,000 
 
 Total Expenditure in sterling £4,927,953 17 10 
 
 Cost of main lino and Gait Branch (not separated) £3,651,524 19 7 
 
 Stuart's estimate, 1847 £990,816 
 
 Cost of Gait Branch (estimated) 60,000 
 
 " Right of way " 188,3710 
 
 " Rolling stock " 645,774 1,884,961 
 
 Excess of exp, on main lino over original estimate £1,766,563 19 7 
 
 This increased cost of track and buildings only, on the 
 main line amounting to nearly $9,000,000, makes this part 
 of the work cost nearly three times the original estimate, 
 and is due to several causes ; 
 
 1st. It appears that millions of dollars were expended 
 on these items after the line was opened for traffic. Until 
 February, 1852, the expenditure was confined to the Cen- 
 tral Division, between London and Hamilton (the original 
 Great Western of 1834), and it was only then the com- 
 pany felt itself in a position to strike out for the larger 
 scheme of the through line. E'ot withstanding this tardy 
 action, it was expected that the whole line would be open- 
 ed in August, 1853. In November, 1852, there was a 
 change of engineers, when it was found that the estimates 
 of the previous June would be exceeded by £621,295 cur- 
 rency, and the new engineer protested against any attempt 
 to open, in 1853, a line on which not a mile of track had 
 been laid before the month of May in that year. Not- 
 withstanding this opinion, so great was the pressure to 
 bring about an opening at the earliest moment, that large 
 sums were ofiered the contractors if they succeeded in 
 passing a train by November 1st, 1853. One of the con- 
 tractors, by laying the track in unfinished cuttings, at ele- 
 vations varying from five to twelve feet above the perma- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOETATION. 231 
 
 nent grade, succeeded in passing a train on the lOtli of 
 November, for which performance he received a bonus of 
 $50,000. The whole line was opened in January, 1854, 
 but on the 1st of August of that year the engineer showed 
 work yet to be done to the amount of $1,436,435. Of 
 course the unfinished cuttings had to be lowered between 
 the transits of trains ; the ballasting was chiefly done un- 
 der a similar disadvantage, and thus much of the work 
 cost many times more than it could have been done for in 
 the ordinary way. In this course the company exceeded 
 the usual practice of American roads, where, for want of 
 capital, the object is to expend only so much as is neces- 
 sary to open a line, in order that the company may cease 
 paying interest out of capital — have the means of paying 
 the interest on further loans, and get these loans on better 
 terms. It does not appear that the pressure for sucli pre- 
 mature opening arose from great difficulty in raising the 
 amount required to cover the deficiency of original esti- 
 mates, or that the earnings of the road were needed to 
 meet the interest account. The company, which had then 
 only received £200,000 sterling from the province, could 
 have claimed millions of dollars as a six per cent, loan on 
 account of the guarantee. 
 
 2d. The traveller, in riding over a perishable wooden 
 bridge, nearly a quarter of a mile long and fifty feet high, 
 which traverses an inlet near the shore of Ontario, sees the 
 termination of it only a few rods from the line, where a 
 better and cheaper crossing could have been obtained, and 
 naturally wonders why the road was not placed there. At 
 the western end he remarks that the track for miles runs 
 in the water, with dry land everywhere parallel to the line 
 and but a few yards from it, and is again nonplussed. The 
 engineer who located the road had a weakness for straight 
 lines ; and from the manner in which the work was driven, 
 it is probable that sufficient time was not given to amend 
 the location of these long straight lines. Kather than sacri- 
 fice them, therefore, if a wide gulf or miles of water inter- 
 
232 TRAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION. 
 
 vened, it was plunged into ; or if a house stood in the line 
 it must be removed, and the owner indemnified, couU que^ 
 coute. Of course, the preliminary surveys in 1847 did not 
 provide for such freaks of j;he location one, which was made 
 some years afterward, and thus increased cost rolled up. 
 An enormous amount has been expended in the location 
 through Hamilton, and the 500 feet ascent westward from 
 Lake Ontario (which is continuous for eleven miles), where 
 the road first worked itself, in the course of years, into a 
 quiet bed through many fathoms of mud and ooze ; then 
 clings to the face of cliffs, or the rapid slopes formed by 
 the shedding of their exposed faces ; and, lastly, at the 
 summit encounters a quicksand, at the. bottom of deep 
 and extensive cuttings. This location, which must have 
 greatly increased- the cost, was rather in the interest of the 
 contractors than of the shareholders, and does not appear 
 to have been contemplated in the original estimate of 1847. 
 The contracts, some of which had been entered into four 
 years before work was commenced, were item ones, and if 
 at all profitable, this would be in proportion to the amount 
 of work done. There is much reason to bolieve that alter- 
 ations and additions to the plans, and also extra works, 
 were ordered without the sanction or knowledge of the 
 directors, more for the chief contractor's benefit than for 
 that of the work ; and to such an extent was this carried, 
 that this road was styled his " milch cow," to be drawn 
 upon at will. 
 
 In England capitalists object to item contracts because, 
 under these, the final cost is not fixed ; and, therefore, in 
 preparing the Grand Trunk for that market, a price per 
 mile was agreed upon ; which, as we have seen, did not 
 save that company from the necessity of adding many 
 millions of dollars to its capital. The difference between 
 an item contract and a per mile one, as usually carried 
 out on this side of the water, is this. In the former there 
 is always the temptation, by increasing the quantity and 
 altering the quality of the work, to make a first-class road : 
 
TRAVEL AND TBANSPOETATlON. 233 
 
 in the latter it is just the reverse ; every thing which is not 
 in the bond (and sometimes much that is) is omitted. As 
 to the two systems, it is but Scylla or Charybdis to a- rail- 
 way company, in the hands of dishonest men ; and, like 
 forms of government, 
 
 " Whate'er is best administered is best." 
 
 The original estimate was, no doubt, most insufficient in 
 many respects — but there is very little reason to doubt that 
 the greater part of the excess of £1,766,564 sterling, is 
 due to the causes we have mentioned. 
 
 This company was induced, by the example of Ameri- 
 can lines terminating on Lake Erie, to embark in the 
 steamboat business ; a disastrous experiment, as it has 
 proved even on Lake Erie, where its chances were always 
 best. Before so many through railway lines were estab- 
 lished between the East and the West, passenger-steamers 
 could be patronized ; but the division of the business, and 
 the dread of sea-sickness, no longer make it practicable to 
 sustain such expensive boats as those floating-palaces, 
 once the pride of the lakes. A much more serious un- 
 dertaking into which the company has been led, was the 
 subsidizing of the Detroit and Milwaukee railway. 
 Wliether this was a legitimate attempt to protect itself 
 from the encroachments of the Grand Trunk, and to be 
 able to avoid its proffered embraces, or whether (as is too 
 often the case) the company was forced into it by con 
 trolling spirits, who had speculated in the securities of the 
 subsidized road, and used their temporary power to give 
 value to their major interest at the expense of a minor 
 one, cannot yet be determined. Railway companies will 
 always be exposed to such hazards, so long as their di- 
 rectors are permitted to hold a greater interest in any 
 other company. 
 
 The Great Western is one of the best equipped and best 
 managed railways on this continent, and traversing a rich 
 and populous district, to which it offers a choice of market, 
 

 234 TRAVEL AND TRANSPOETATION. 
 
 will always have the best local as well as the best through 
 business of any Canadian railway. 
 
 BUFFALO, BRANTFORD, AND GODERICH RAILWAY. 
 "While the Great Western was busily engaged in watch- 
 ing the proposed invasion of their territory on the north, 
 by the Toronto and Guelph road and its extensions, they 
 were assailed in the rear, and startled by the announce- 
 ment that a company was formed, and had secured 
 " vested rights," for a railway between Buffalo and Brant- 
 ford. The general act, authorizing the formation of road 
 Companies, had been amended in 1850, so as to extend to 
 railways — a provision which, it appears, had escaped the 
 notice of many railway companies. This virtually gave 
 us the Kew York system of a General Railroad Law, un- 
 der which any company may make a railway anywhere, 
 by complying with certain conditions. This democratic 
 measure is the Jiorror of all orthodox existing companies ; 
 but while, in New York, the impossibility of getting cap- 
 italists to invest in competing lines has been ample pro- 
 tection, conservative legislation in Canada has entirely 
 failed to produce the same result. The people of New 
 York passed their General Railroad Law not only as a 
 measure of justice to all districts, and a protection against 
 monopolies, but chiefly in order to extinguish that corrupt 
 trading in charters which has obtained in Canada, and 
 which induced the legislature to repeal our General Rail- 
 road Law, immediately after the Buffalo and Brantford 
 Company had been organized under it — saving those rights, 
 of course. The mischief having been done in 1851, the 
 Brantford Company, in 1852, was allowed to produce its 
 line to Goderich, on Lake Huron. 
 
 This road originated in a desire, on the part of the popu- 
 lous city of Buffalo, to render tributary to herself the rich 
 l^eninsula of Canada West ; and also to divert the stream 
 of eastern and western travel and freight away from tho 
 suspension-bridge route to her own hotels and stations. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRAN8P0ETATI0N. 
 
 235 
 
 If the Great "Western had not committed the mistake of 
 giving Brantford the go-by, it is extremely doubtful 
 whether Buffalo could have organized a Canadian interest 
 strong enough to have carried out this measure. This 
 road, which has an admirable track, and is splendidly- 
 equipped in stations and rolling stock, deserves a better 
 traffic. Yirtually connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie, 
 it can have, on this route, no through traffic — because this 
 could only be supplied during the season of navigation, 
 when there is slack water of unlimited capacity between 
 its termini, with which it is impossible it can compete. Its 
 local traffic, also, may be limited to that between way sta- 
 tions, since its principal terminus is in a foreign country, 
 and liable to exclusion from Canadian traffic by inter- 
 national trade regulations and currency distinctions. The 
 great want of this road is a terminus on Lake Ontario, in 
 which case it would become available for the grain traffic 
 from Chicago and Milwaukee, or Cleveland and Toledo, 
 to Oswego, Ogdensburgh, ]^ew York, or Montreal. ^N'ow 
 that the Grand Trunk is hors du combat, and better coun- 
 sels prevail, the railways of the western peninsula will see 
 that their great aim should be to build up the shipping 
 interest on Lake Ontario. This lake is open by water 
 communication both to New York and Montreal, and by 
 the aid of water communication alone can our railways 
 hope to deliver that back freight at their termini on Lakes 
 Erie and Huron, which will induce vessels to bring grain 
 to them instead of taking it on to Buffalo, where return 
 cargoes always await them. 
 
 This railway has a value in its power of mischief, for it 
 furnishes, in connection with the Grand Trunk, via 
 Stratford and Sarnia, an opposition to the Great Western ; 
 and as it has at present no legitimate orbit, it may become 
 merged in one of these larger bodies. The Grand Trunk, 
 which has so long unsuccessfully wooed the Great Western, 
 might hope to have in this an engine of coercion ; while 
 the latter may take it up as a means of self-defence, or to 
 
236 TEAVEL AND TEANSPOKTATION. 
 
 prevent the Trunk from establishing one leg on the Ni- 
 agara frontier. It is, perhaps, superfluous to say, the 
 Brantford road could be happy with either ; but the legis- 
 lature has fortunately been aroused to the danger of these 
 amalgamations, and it is to be hoped we have seen the end 
 of them. From Hamilton to Quebec, railway monopoly 
 is shorn of its power by the water route, but a general 
 amalgamation on the western peninsula would place the 
 people there under a tyranny which could not and would 
 not be endured. 
 
 GRAIN PORTAGE RAILWAYS. 
 
 The ^Niagara peninsula separates the open stretch of in- 
 land navigation afforded by Lakes Erie, Huron, and Mi- 
 chigan, from Lake Ontario (which is 330 feet lower), by a 
 distance of only thirty to forty miles. Although "the 
 Well and canal connects these waters by a fixed scale of 
 navigation, it is found that the longer voyage on the upper 
 lakes is most profitable when with a size of vessel too large 
 for this canal ; and that the saving in freight on grain from 
 Chicago to this peninsula, in the larger vessel, is more 
 than sufficient to cover the cost of elevating it by steam 
 power and machinery, transporting it across by rail, and 
 discharging it into the vessel on Lake Ontario. Time is 
 saved, so that the w^heat reaches the seaboard before the 
 drafts by which it was purchased mature ; the grain is im- 
 proved and prevented from heating by the aeration it re- 
 ceives in passing through the elevators ; and, most import- 
 ant of all, every craft afloat on and above Lake Erie is availa- 
 ble to carry grain destined for Lake Ontario, instead of the 
 limited number adapted to the locks of the Welland Canal. 
 
 The Welland Kail way, which runs parallel with the Wel- 
 land Canal, and thus takes advantage of its harbors, has 
 demonstrated the importance of this traffic, having trans- 
 ferred upwards of eleven millions of bushels of grain from 
 the upper to the lower lake since its opening in June, 
 1859. Instead of being a competitor with the canal, it has 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOKTATION. 2oT 
 
 proved an auxiliary to it, as a lighter to grain vessels too 
 deeply laden to pass the canal. Over half a million of 
 bushels were thus " lightered" from one end of the canal 
 to the other in 1862 ; the total quantity transferred from 
 Lake Erie to Ontario in this year, was 4,111,640 bushels. 
 
 This work, originally projected to connect a steamboat 
 route between Port Dalhousie and Toronto with Thorold 
 and the Great Western Railway, unites the two railways 
 which skirt the opposite shores ^of the peninsula, and the 
 numerous villages created by the water power of the canal, 
 and thus has a self-sustaining local traffic as well as its 
 through business. It has been successfully carried to com- 
 pletion by the same mind and will which produced the 
 Welland Canal, and amid the same general predictions of 
 failure. Following this lead, the Erie and Ontario road, 
 which is now valueless, is to be extended to Lake Erie, 
 and become a grain portage railway, besides forming part 
 of the line between Buffalo and Toronto. 
 
 The Buffalo and Lake Huron Company also pro- 
 pose to acquire the half-completed Hamilton and Port 
 Dover Railway, between their line and Burlington Bay. 
 If a connection is made with Lake Erie at Dunville or Port 
 Maitland, another grain portage railway is established for 
 Lake Erie, in addition to their route from Lake Huron. 
 All three of these roads will avoid the expense of harbor 
 protection works, as all have the advantage of terminating 
 in the best natural or artificial harbors to be found on these 
 lakes. The difficulty which all, however, have to contend 
 against, is the securing of a regular supply of tonnage 
 working in connection with them, without which they are 
 helpless, especially while the supply of routes to the sea- 
 board exceeds the demand for them. Iron, from its clean- 
 liness and greater carrying capacity in proportion to beam 
 and draught, would make the best grain craft, but there 
 is not capital here to supply them. 
 
 These, together with the larger portage roads, offer an 
 opportunity for a legitimate and extensive increase of 
 
238 TEAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 British commercial tonnage on the lakes, an object of vital 
 importance in the defence of the province on its weakest 
 side ; and in this view, instead of mere private speculations, 
 thej become works of national importance. 
 
 THE INTER-COLONIAL RAILWAY. 
 The proposal to unite the British North American Col- 
 onies by a railway was the suggestion of Lord Durham, 
 the imperial commissioner sent out in 1838, to inquire 
 into the Canadian Rebellion.* The initiative was taken 
 by a proposition from Nova Scotia to have a survey made, 
 at the joint expense of the three provinces ; and this was 
 undertaken under imperial direction, by Major Eobinson 
 and Captain Henderson, of the Eoyal Engineers, in 1846, 
 and completed in 1848. In 1849, the colonies passed acts, 
 guaranteeing to acquire the right of way through private 
 property for this railway, and granting ten miles in width 
 on either side of the road, wherever it traversed the pub- 
 lic domain. They also pledged themselves to contribute 
 £20,000 sterling each, per annum, toward making up 
 any deficiencies of revenue. It was proposed to raise the 
 capital on the security of a duty of seven shillings and six- 
 pence per load (fifty cubic feet) to be levied on timber, 
 the produce of the British North American colonies, then 
 enjoying a protection in Great Britain. In May, 1850, 
 Sir John Harvey, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, 
 made this proposition to Earl Grey, the colonial secretary, 
 who promptly replied that her majesty's government 
 were " not prepared to submit to Parliament any measure 
 for raising the funds necessary for the construction" of 
 this railway. In July, 1850, a convention was held at 
 Portland, Maine, for the purpose of pushing the American 
 railway system eastward, through Maine, to Halifax, as 
 the ultimate port of debarcation of mails and passengers 
 for Europe. Nova Scotia, desirous of making her portion 
 of this railway, like her electric telegraph — a public 
 
 * In a dispatch which arrived after the High Corar. had left tlie province, 
 Lord Glenelg had suggested an inter-colonial road, and Lord Durham, instead 
 of this, proposed the railway. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPOKTATION. 239 
 
 worl^ — once more appealed (in August, 1850) to Earl 
 Grey, to aid her with the imperial guarantee or indor- 
 sation, and offered to assume the whole burden of its 
 cost. This application, with reference to a section of only 
 provincial and not imperial importance, receive^ no 
 encouragement; whereupon the persevering little prov- 
 ince, determining to make a final effort, dispatched a 
 delegate, who arrived in England in IS^ovember, 1850, and 
 immediately opened his batteries on the colonial office, 
 Tvith such effect, that on the 10th of March, 1851, Earl 
 Grey surrendered ; agreeing to guarantee the interest on 
 the cost of the Kova Scotia Trunk linCj but only on con- 
 dition that the other colonies, Canada and j^ew Bruns- 
 wick, should place themselves in tlie same position. Of 
 course the line was to go to Quebec or Montreal, in- 
 stead of Portland. It was stipulated that the line should 
 pass wholly through British territory, and should be ap- 
 proved of by the imperial government ; but it was not 
 required that it should necessarily be the one recom- 
 mended by Major Robinson and Captain Henderson. 
 
 In announcing this decision to the delegate,, the under 
 secretary wrote, that " Her Majesty's Government would 
 by no means object to its forming part of the plan w^hich 
 may be determined on, that it should include a provision 
 for establishing a communication between the projected 
 railway and the railways of the United States." The 
 delegate read this to mean, that the guarantee would be 
 extended to two lines through 'Nqw Brunswick, the one to 
 Quebec, and the other to Portland ; thus connecting the 
 maritime colonies both with Canada and the United 
 States. On March 14th, 1851, dispatches were sent to all 
 the governments, suggesting a conference at Toronto. 
 'New Brunswick, which had, in mean time, become ex- 
 cited on the question of the railway to Portland, passed 
 resolutions, before her legislature adjourned, rejecting any 
 proposition based on the conditions laid down by Earl 
 Grey ; evidently not feeling certain that the interpretation 
 I 
 
2.40 TRAVEL AJiTD TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 of the 'Nova. Scotian delegate was to be relied upon. 
 Delegates, however, from N"ova Scotia and !N'ew Bruns- 
 wick came to Toronto, in June, 1851, according to the 
 suggestion of Earl Grey, when it was agreed that a line 
 fi'om Halifax to Quebec should be undertaken on joint- 
 account. Crown lands on each side of it were to be con- 
 ceded for the benefit of the road ; the receipts to be com 
 mon property until payment of cost and interest ; after 
 which each province should own the portion within her 
 own territory. The legislature of Canada, then in ses- 
 sion, at once adopted this agreement. The government 
 of New Brunswick favorably received it, but in conse- 
 quence of a change of ministry, no legislative action was 
 then had. At the very time, however, when ]^ova Scotia 
 was rejoicing over the acceptance, by her legislature, of 
 the imperial oflfer, a dispatch was on its way out, which 
 upset all that had been done. On the 27th of November, 
 Earl Grey called the attention of the lieutenant-governor 
 of Nova Scotia to an error into which he had fallen, in 
 his speech when opening the extra session, by assuming 
 that the imperial government intended to guarantee the 
 amount necessary to construct the Portland line through 
 New Brunswick, as well as that leading to Quebec. Earl 
 Grey explained, that the passage which had led Nova 
 Scotia's delegate astray, only meant that the imperial 
 government would sanction, but not aid, the Southern, 
 or European and North American lines, through New 
 Brunswick — which, he was quite aware, was preferred by 
 that province to the Northern, or Quebec and Halifax 
 line. 
 
 The great preponderance of population, wealth, and po- 
 litical influence in New Brunswick, lies upon the Bay of 
 Fundy and the river St. John, while Major Kobinson's line 
 ran along the Gulf of St. Lawrence. For this reason. 
 New Brunswick would not contribute to the Halifax and 
 Quebec line, unless she in turn was aided to make the line 
 she preferred ; and she saw clearly that the military con- 
 
TRAVEL KKD TRANSPORTATION. 241 
 
 siderations, set forth in Mr. Hawe's letter of the 10th of 
 March, 1851, would keep the line either on the eastern 
 coast or in the wilderness between it and St. John. 
 
 Canada, on receiving the interpretation of the original 
 dispatch, and knowing that New Brunswick would now 
 abandon the Quebec line, sent off three of her ministers 
 to Fredericton to console her distressed sister, and at the 
 same time to feel her pulse. As Earl Grey had not insisted 
 on Major Robinson's eastern-shore line, although reserving 
 the right of approval of the route, New Brunswick assented 
 to " try on" a Halifax and Quebec line which should fol- 
 low the Southern or European and North American one 
 as far as the city of St. John, and then ascend the valley 
 of that river to Lake Temiscouata. Re-enforced by a dele- 
 gate from the New Brunswick cabinet, the Canadians 
 journeyed on to Halifax, where they found a new difficulty. 
 Nova Scotia had no idea of standing a third of the cost, 
 if the road should first dehouche on the Atlantic Ocean at 
 St. John, instead of at its rival, Halifax. Canada, acting 
 as mediator and umpire, finally proposed that as New 
 Brunswick would decidedly gain by the adoption of the 
 southern instead of the northern route, — getting her con- 
 nection with Quebec and Portland where she wanted it, 
 and with 100 miles less of her chosen railway to make at 
 her own cost, — she should assume five-twelfths and Nova 
 Scotia one-fourth, Canada taking her old proportion of one 
 third. At this stage the New Brunswick delegate put the 
 question to his Canadian fellow-travellers, whether a pro- 
 posal from English contractors to construct both roads, on 
 receiving £90,000 to £100,000 per annum for twenty years 
 from the colonies, besides a grant of 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 
 acres of land, would be entertained? The answer was, 
 " not for a moment ;" whereupon New Brunswick, with 
 dignified resignation, agreed to the new subdivision on Jan. 
 31, 1852. On Feb. 5, one of the Canadian delegates wrote 
 from Halifax to Earl Grey, detailing the scheme as amended, 
 and announcing that delegates from the three provinces 
 
242 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 would wait on him in London. To this, on Feb. 20, Earl 
 Grey replied, declining to commit himself to the new route 
 without more specific information, but expressing solicitude 
 for a successful issue, and approving of the intended dele- 
 gation to London. The Canadian delegate proceeded to 
 Loadon in advance of his colleagues, where he found Earl 
 Grej out of office, and Sir John Packington as his suc- 
 cessor. Sir John, on May 20, 1852, notified him that as 
 all previous negotiations had been based on Major Eobin- 
 son's line, or something near it, the route by the valley of 
 the St. John was out of the question ; and as the delegates 
 were authorized to treat only for the latter, he must ter- 
 minate the question by declining, &c. The provinces 
 were thus left to carry out their own railways in their own 
 way; they had, however, gained by the discussion. The 
 mere proposal on the part of the British government to 
 indorse their bonds, raised these in a market where they 
 were not known ; and before the adverse decision had been 
 announced it had been anticipated, and Canada had thrown 
 herself into the open arms of Messrs. Jackson, Peto, Bras- 
 sey, and Betts, the great railway contractors. 
 
 Viewing the question as an imperial as well as an inter- 
 colonial one, it is evident that the first blunder committed 
 by the colonies was in agreeing to pay the whole expenses 
 of a railway survey which was to be made solely under 
 imperial and military control. They thereby, at the out- 
 set, assented to the position that the imperial government 
 had no substantial interest in the question, and at the same 
 time they failed to ascertain the facilities for other routes, 
 if such exist, than those recommended. Without impugn- 
 ing the ability of the royal engineers who conducted the 
 exploration, there is little doubt that a more satisfactory 
 survey could have been made by civil engineers, accustomed 
 to similar surveys in the forests of this continent ; and the 
 want of some reliable knowledge of the practicability of 
 other lines besides that recommended by Major Robinson, 
 has been a stumbling-block in the way of every subsequent 
 
TRAVEL AND TEANSPOETATION. 243 
 
 movement down to the present hour. It must also be 
 admitted that the mother country drove a hard bargain 
 with her offspring. Her own colonial secretary, Lord 
 Glenelg, suggested the communication to her own high 
 commissioner, Lord Durliam, not as a military road solely, 
 but as a political measure. When the colonies took up 
 the idea, the mother country steadily refused all aid' ex- 
 cept that which, as had been proved to her in the case of 
 Canada, was but nominal ; while she exacted for this 
 nominal aid sacrifices from the colonies which were real 
 and important. She would not build the road, nor aid in 
 building it, because it would not pay ; and she would not 
 permit the colonies to build it where they believed it would 
 pay, at least, its working expenses. She had already 
 guaranteed a loan for the cost of the canals of Canada, 
 which were constructed wholly on commercial principles, 
 and with the route of which she did not interfere, though 
 military considerations were wholly disregarded in the case 
 of the Beauharnois Canal. She acknowledged an imperial 
 interest to which she attached but a nominal value ; she felt 
 for the colonies, but would not feel in her pockets for them. 
 
 Ten years have elapsed, and in the interim sections of 
 the proposed Halifax and Quebec, and European and Il^ortli 
 American Roads have been constructed, the former by 
 Canada and Nova Scotia, the latter by I^ew Brunswick — - 
 and again the project is revived, by the renewed assent of 
 the imperial government, to guarantee the funds for the 
 construction of the diminished distance (reduced from 635 
 to 370 or 470 miles, according to the route to be selected) ; 
 and as military considerations are now predominant, it ia 
 understood the selection of the route will be left to- the 
 imperial government. 
 
 For the revival of this project we are no doubt indebt- 
 ed to the exigencies of the Grand Tnink Company, aided 
 by the re-establishment of the entente cordiale between 
 the Colonies and the Colonial Office, consequent upon the 
 visit of H. R. H. the Prince of Wales ; by the subsequent 
 13 
 
244 
 
 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 civil war in the United States, and especially by the Trent 
 affair. The Grand Trunk, at its wit's end to raise more 
 money, and seeing the capitalization of a postal subsidy 
 yet remote, sought to revive the intercolonial project in 
 order to transfer to it as much of the unproductive sections 
 east of Montreal as possible — no doubt at a bargain — and 
 therefore the influential owners of this road brought about 
 another Colonial conference. Some years back the Com- 
 pany, during one of its numerous and successful applica- 
 tions for relief, generously proffered their 118 miles east 
 of Quebec as a gift to the Province (in consideration of 
 the relief granted), to enable her, hereafter, to turn it in 
 as a part of her contribution towards the future Inter- 
 colonial Railway. As the Company were then subsidiz- 
 ing contractors to work this section, by paying them a 
 handsome bonus in addition to all the receipts, the gift 
 was not accepted. What it would now be valued at, it is 
 difficult to imagine ; but it is evident that the first pre 
 liminary toward the intercolonial project should be to 
 establish its future relations with the Grand Trunk, and 
 thus confine the expenditure of the capital to be raised 
 wholly to the new road to be built, eastward of Riviere du 
 Loup. 
 
 The provinces will, doubtless, build the road, at their 
 own expense, on whatever route the mother country wishes 
 it built, if solicited to do so by her — the loans being guar- 
 anteed, so that the money can be raised on terms not 
 oppressive — ^because there will then be an implied pledge 
 on the part of the empire, that if built as a military work, 
 it will be used as such whenever occasion may require. 
 In other respects its value to Canada will be more 
 political and commercial than military, because, unless 
 extended, with the same avoidance of the frontier, far be- 
 yond Quebec, it will be of little value in the defence of the 
 province at large. Though it might bring men and mu- 
 nitions of war without interruption (except from snow) to 
 Quebec, a fortress which does not require this protection, 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 24:5 
 
 these could not reach Montreal or Western Canada by 
 rail, unless the Grand Trunk Kailway were maintained for 
 a distance of nearly 400 miles between St. Hyacinthe and 
 Toronto, every portion of which, except, perhaps, a few 
 miles on the Island of Montreal, would be exposed to a 
 sudden raid or a superior force. 
 
 In order to preserve the granaries of the province in 
 case of threatened invasion, and supply the comparatively 
 dense population of Western Canada with arms and mu- 
 nitions of war, as well as to enable us to contend for the 
 superiority of the lakes, a railway from Quebec to Lake 
 Huron, by way of Montreal and Ottawa, is required. If 
 the latter city were made (as is practicable) a second 
 Quebec, the water communication could always be kept 
 open between them, thus reducing the imperative railway 
 distance, in mean time, to less than half. Such a road 
 would be a base line of operations for the defence of 
 Western Canada ; and by means of the present railways 
 debouching at Prescott, Brockville, Cobourg, Port Hope, 
 and Toronto, would serve to communicate with the fron- 
 tier, while it would be, in its entire length, beyond the 
 reach of an enemy. If now laid out as a railway, it could 
 be used as a highway, on which the snow would seldom 
 be wanting in winter, until time and money could be had 
 for the better road. As it would pass almost wholly through 
 the public domain and the best timber districts of Canada, 
 it would pay indirectly, as a colonization road, creating 
 wealth by rendering valuable timber which is now beyond 
 reach, and is being annually diminished by fire ; and giving 
 increased value to the lands on both sides of it. In timber 
 and lumber it would have a profitable local traffic in both 
 directions, to the markets of Chicago and the Hudson river ; 
 and in spring and autumn, if extended to Montreal, a 
 through grain trafiic would arise, in which, the St. Clair 
 flats being avoided, the largest class of vessels which can 
 enter Chicago would be employed, and grain could be 
 delivered at tide-water from Lake Huron, with one hundred 
 
216 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 miles less of railway carriage than by any other mixed 
 route having but one transshipment. 
 
 Large sums of money have been annually expended 
 without much system, and with comparatively partial re- 
 sults, on what are called colonization roads, whicli it would 
 be wiser to concentrate on such a truly national object as 
 the above, — one which would promote immigration, develop 
 the resources, and provide for the defence of the country 
 That such a road would yield the country a return com- 
 mensurate with its cost there can be no doubt, and that it 
 woCild be at least self-sustaining there is a certainty. The 
 only thing therefore which should prevent its execution, is 
 the burden of its cost nntil it has produced its fruit. To this 
 it may be said, that more money would be spent and lost for 
 the want of it, in one year of war, than would construct it ; 
 and that there is no way in which the colony could so power- 
 fully contribute to her own defence, and to the integrity of 
 the empire, without ultimate loss, and while pursuing the 
 legitimate mission of peace. As a necessary extension 
 and corollary to the intercolonial railway, the mother 
 country might fairly be requested to promote such a work 
 by similar assistance ; and the province could have in her 
 unsold provincial domain, thus rendered valuable, a relia- 
 ble basis for a sinking fund to meet the interest, and to 
 provide for the extinction of the principal, of the loan. 
 
 The importance of opening up this domain has been recog- 
 nized in the charter of a company for the construction of 
 a railway from Quebec to Lake Huron, and the endow- 
 ment of the same by a grant of 4,000,000 acres of the 
 public lands. The demonstration of the failure of Canadian 
 railways as investments, and the extent to which the 
 provincial revenue is burdened by guarantees, left no 
 other means of raising or attempting to raise the capital 
 required, but that of a corporation based upon land 
 grants ; and if, as appears to be the case, large endow- 
 ments of land will not secure the construction of the road, 
 the project must either be abandoned or be taken up as a 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 24:7 
 
 public work. However unpropitious the time may be 
 considered for such a suggestion, it may be asserted that 
 no public work already executed, or proposed, can surpass 
 in importance that of a railway from Quebec to Lake Hu- 
 ron, as a national road. "With such a base, and with our 
 back to the unopened north, our flank could not be turned, 
 nor our communication with the sea be cut off. Without 
 it, the attempt to hold "Western Canada against an invading 
 force five times our superiors in numbers, and command- 
 ing, as they then could, the lakes, would be almost hope- 
 less. If 4,000,000 acres is not sufficient appropriation 
 for such a work, we can increase the quantity. The prin- 
 ciple that the public lands are of little value until salable 
 is self-evident ; and it is equally true, as admitted by our 
 free grant system, that a settler as a consumer, and subject 
 of taxation, is more remunerative to the province than the 
 unoccupied acres he would require. The interest question 
 and municipal taxation will force the earliest practicable 
 settlement of the lands, no matter into what hands they 
 may fall. The United States Congress has granted no 
 less than 25,000,000 acres to railways, besides 10,000,000 
 acres for other public improvements. 
 
 If the Intercolonial Railway be entered upon as a 
 political and social measure only, it may terminate at 
 Quebec ; but if designed as a military one, it should be 
 pushed to its legitimate conclusion, and that will not be 
 found short of Lake Huron. 
 
 RAILWAY POLICY. 
 
 The great want of the Canadian railways is a paying 
 traffic. The Grand Trunk, in tapping the Western reser- 
 voirs, may feed itself under an almost constant head, and 
 maintain an almost continuous descending stream, though 
 this may not often be a paying one ; but as the Western 
 States do not import through Canada, there is no return 
 traffic. The procession of empties, from the Atlantic 
 to the St. Clair, is " a drawback" which will always be 
 
24:8 TRAVEL AND TKANSPORTATION. 
 
 difficult to get round, and must have suggested melan- 
 choly trains of reflection in the mind of each sucessive 
 manager. No price obtainable in competition with the 
 water, or with the shorter lines and better gradients and 
 lighter frosts and snows of the American routes, can com- 
 pete with the latter, while these monopolize the carriage 
 of the up freight, the merchandise and manufactures, on 
 which the most profitable rates are collected. The through 
 downward freight to the Atlantic, consisting chiefly of the 
 cheap cereals, the flour and the lumber of the north, 
 does not average more than about one-tenth of the value 
 per pound of the cotton, tobacco, and sugar, the agricul- 
 tural products of the south ; and it is questionable whether 
 on the whole of a year's business it has ever paid the rail- 
 ways more than the cost of carrying it. The downward 
 or export tonnage, is usually three to one, as compared 
 with the up or import freight ; and to that extent the local 
 business also involves a return of empties which has here- 
 tofore, to a considerable extent, been avoided on the 
 American lines by the westward excess of the immigrant 
 travel. The dream of a great railway traffic through Canada, 
 between the Atlantic and the west, except on the portage 
 lines terminating on Lake Ontario and the Magara fron- 
 tier, must therefore be abandoned ; and we must turn our 
 attention to the development of the local traffic of the 
 country, and bring down our establishments from those of 
 a foreign war of aggression on the more favored routes, 
 with all its consequent extravagances and losses, to that 
 of a peace and home establishment. 
 
 With regard to the passenger traffic, there yet remains 
 the experiment of cheaper rates of fare, to test whether 
 any increase of travel will produce a greater aggregate 
 from this source, at the same cost to the companies. The 
 rates charged are, when and where practicable, the maxi- 
 mum which the law allows, and are about fifty per cent, 
 higher than those on leading United States' lines. No 
 doubt they are at this excess much less profitable, in con- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORT^Tlcy. 249 
 
 sequence of tlie paucity of travel ; but it is equally certain 
 that the lower rates of the American routes have developed 
 a much greater tendency to travel there than htye. The 
 manufactures of New England are the main source of the 
 profitable local traffic of her railways, and this r»j6ource 
 our roads do not possess. Besides the immigration kind 
 great business travel between the east and the west^ one 
 of their profitable items is in the large amount of female 
 travel between New England and her western colonies. 
 The young adventurer returns from the prairies to take 
 back a wife from his native hills ; perhaps a sister accom- 
 panies them " on speculation." In the course of eventt 
 the wife returns to her mother, or the mother goes to her 
 daughter, and a third passenger appears on the stage. 
 
 On the one hand it is argued by the companies, that 
 fifty passengers at ten dollars each, are more profitable 
 than sixty at eight dollars ; but if the number increase to 
 seventy-five the reduction would pay. The increase would 
 be the work of a little lime, and might then possibly be 
 attributed to the progress of the country, and not to the 
 policy of lower fares. Such a bold experiment probably 
 requires more faith and patience than our railways, in 
 thMr present distressed state, can be expected to exercise. 
 On the other hand it may be said that the trains must and 
 do go, whether full or not ; that even if no more money 
 were received, they cost the company scarcely any more 
 when full than empty ; and that increased facilities beget 
 both trade and travel, to the ultimate gain of the railway. 
 The position assumed by the companies is, that there exists 
 a certain amount of travel which must go, and that any 
 reduction to this would be so much loss. Perhaps a com- 
 promise might be arrived at, and the experiment tried by 
 a wise and gallant discrimination in favor of women and 
 children. At present, a respectable woman in Montreal 
 cannot pass her Christmas with relatives or friends in 
 Toronto short of an outlay of twenty dollars. The fatigue 
 of a sixteen hours' journey, and the risk of a broken rail 
 
250 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 (and neck), are sucli as to require decided temptations to 
 travel ; and it would be sound policy in railway companies 
 to encourage a spirit of locomotion in that sex which is 
 supposed to be attracted by every reduction in price, and 
 which has both the leisure to travel, and the power of 
 obtaining the ways and means from those who must re- 
 main at home. In their freight traffic the companies dis- 
 criminate in favor of the long haul, and it is only in their 
 passenger rates that the pro rata system is maintained. 
 The principle that a half fare is better than none, is also 
 admitted, whei«e competition exists, in their through 
 rates, between Chicago and Boston. It might be found 
 equally wise to establish special through rates between 
 distant cities in Canada, instead of treating them wholly 
 as local points, and thus create a travel which does not 
 now exist. 
 
 As to freight traffic, the rates must vary with the exist- 
 ence or otherwise of water competition, which is the only 
 protection to the producer against excessive cliarges, tliere 
 being no limitation by law to the freight tariff except the 
 neglected sanction of the government. The greatest de- 
 velopment of a legitimate and profitable freight traffic will 
 be that which will arise from an abandonment of the at- 
 tempt to compete with the water route, and the adoption 
 of this as an auxiliary, particularly in the carriage of grain 
 in bulk ; which, from its mobility, can be shipped and trans- 
 shipped by machinery, and with benefit instead of de- 
 terioration. 
 
 EXPRESS COMPANIES. 
 The public does not derive the full benefit from the rail 
 ways which these great improvements on all previous means 
 of communication are capable of giving, and the railways 
 do not earn all they are capable of earning, in consequence 
 of the monopoly accorded to a peculiarly American institu- 
 tion — the Express Company ; a sort of imperium in imperio^ 
 enjoying the benefit of the franchise of the corporation, 
 
TRAVEL AND TEANSPOETATION. 251 
 
 Without assuming its liabilities toward tlie public. The 
 necessity for the rapid conveyance of very valuable small 
 or perishable articles, a business of great importance and 
 profit, which is conducted by the parcels delivery depart- 
 ment of the English railways, was soon perceived ; but in 
 America, instead of this being done by the railways, inde- 
 pendent companies were formed in which railway directors, 
 superintendents, &c., became interested, contracting with 
 themselves for the transport of the most paying freight, 
 and flourishing as an Express Company while languishing 
 as a Railway. The importance of the institution was greatly 
 enhanced by the necessity which existed for some wealthy 
 and responsible association, to whom could be committed 
 the transport of specie, bills, and negotiable security, which 
 either could not be intrusted to, or could not be transported 
 by, the United States post-oflSce. The railway companies 
 confined themselves to the transport of passengers, and 
 of freight by freight trains only ; and in some cases they 
 have entered into covenants with the express companies, 
 that no passenger should be allowed to carry any thing 
 but personal luggage with him, even by paying the extra 
 baggage rate for the same. Under this system passengers 
 on the Grand Trunk Railway have unexpectedly had small 
 articles taken forcible possession of and handed over to the 
 express ; the owner going home without them, and receiving 
 them some time next day, with charges several times greater 
 than the extra baggage rate, and in some cases more than 
 the value of the article. Fruit, w^hich the passenger hoped 
 to enjoy with his family while it was fresh, was depreciated 
 one-half and charged more than its worth. 
 
 The impolicy of this system, besides the ill-feeling it 
 engenders, is, that it discourages the passenger traffic, the 
 most profitable of all. A country resident goes into the 
 city expressly to make purchases, and naturally wishes, if 
 their bulk permits, to take them with him in order to save 
 time and cartage. The company's regulations would allow 
 eighty or one hundred pounds of shirts, &c., in a trunk, but 
 
252 TRAVEL AND TBAN8P0RTATI0N. 
 
 not one-half tliat weight or bulk of any thing else ; and 
 when the purchaser once experiences the annoyance and 
 the extortion, he will not a second time submit himself to 
 it. But there is a still greater evil in the system. The 
 company runs with the passenger train one car, about 
 equally divided among the post-office, baggage, and ex- 
 press. The latter, with a limited space, and dealing only 
 in the more valuable articles, keeps up its charges so as to 
 exclude a largp amount of articles requiring either quick 
 transport or prompt delivery, and jet not possessing suffi- 
 cient value to afford express rates ; while, where it has the 
 power by the bond, it plays the part of the dog in the 
 manger, and will not let the railway company carry these 
 ia the half- empty compartment accorded to baggage. 
 The express charges are arbitrary, irregular, and often pro- 
 hibitory. The public have no remedy, because the rail- 
 way company says : " We are not compelled to carry by 
 passenger trains any thing but passengers and their lug- 
 gage. If you do not like express charges you must wait 
 for the freight trains." These are irregular, and no facili- 
 ties are offered for, or proper care taken of, light articles, 
 so that the freight trains are not available for these, even 
 if time be unimportant. But perishable articles, such as 
 fruit, fish, vegetables, require quick transport, and space 
 and rates which the express cannot afford or will not ac- 
 cept ; and the railway is thus confined to the limited 
 amount of these, with many other articles of traffic, which 
 the rich only can afford to consume. 
 
 It is a question whether the railway and post-office de- 
 partments should not do the whole of the business now 
 done by the express. It is certain that the revenue of both 
 the former are materially reduced by the existence of the 
 latter. But if the express be an institution as indispensable 
 as either of the others, then it should be treated as such, 
 and be put under similar regulations and restrictions. 
 Above all, some provision should be made for a parcel and 
 fast freight traffic, especially for articles which will not go 
 
IKAVEL AND TKANSPOKTATION . 253 
 
 either bj express or upon freight trains, and at rates suffi- 
 cient to pay one profit direct to the railway, instead of two 
 to the express. As to the vahie of the express traffic to the 
 railway, it appears that the whole amount received by the 
 Grand Trunk Company from express companies in i860, 
 over 970 miles of road, was $27,600, or less than twenty- 
 nine dollars per mile per annum. Tnis company com- 
 plains that seventy dollars per mile is wholly insufficient 
 remuneration for the carriage of the mails, which do not 
 equal the express goods in weight, travel at the same speed, 
 occupy the same car, and have, like the express, only one 
 conductor ; they must, therefore, be greater losers propor- 
 tionally by the rates they have fixed for themselves, than 
 by those which the post-office has fixed for them. Assum- 
 ing that the way mail on accommodation trains together 
 with extra mails per ocean steamers, make the total mail 
 service double in value that of the express, it would seem 
 that the company, by their own showing, either get too 
 much for the mails or too little for the express. 
 
 CANADIAN GAUGE. 
 
 The gauge of the Canadian railways is five feet six 
 inches, although this is not the exclusive one in use. The 
 St. Lawrence and Champlain ; Stanstead, Shefford, and 
 Chambly ; the Prescott and Ottawa ; and the St. Lawrence 
 and Industry roads, in all 147 miles, are of the American 
 gauge of four feet eight and one-half inches. 
 
 Some energetic gentlemen in the city of Portland, am- 
 bitious of obtaining something of that railway aid which 
 had contributed so much to the success of Boston, con- 
 ceived the bold idea of tapping the St. Lawrence at Mon- 
 treal by a railway over the route of the White Mountains, 
 through the vast forests of Maine, New Hampshire, Yer- 
 mont, and Canada. The distance is nearly three hundred 
 miles, with an intervening summit of about one-third of a 
 mile in height above the termini, the line having besides 
 the frequent and severe curves and gradients usual to such 
 
254 TRAVEL AND TRANSPOETATION. 
 
 a route. Having enlisted Montreal in the project, they 
 took the precaution to bind the Canadians, under seals and 
 penalties, to adopt the peculiar and exceptional gauge of 
 live feet six inches ; and an elaborate and sententious report 
 was prepared, which proved to the unsophisticated Cana- 
 dians, that by the simple adoption of this great improve- 
 ment in gauge, Boston and l^ew York would be distanced. 
 When the Grand Trunk bill was passed, Lower Canada 
 being in the ascendant, the Portland gauge, was forced 
 upon the province, the Lower Canadians being unanimous 
 in its favor, because they had been led to believe that it 
 would divert western trade from the "New York route and 
 send it down to Montreal. 
 
 The Great Western Railway, which was not restricted 
 to a particular gauge by its charter, had decided on 
 the American one, but was compelled to change it by 
 threats from the government, both to withhold the guar- 
 antee, and also to charter a continuation of the Grand 
 Trunk, on the Canadian gauge, from Toronto to Sarnia. 
 To the latter intimation the company yielded, vainly sup- 
 posing that they thereby acquired a right of protection from 
 a competing line, especially as they formed a portion of 
 
 the Trunk railwav. But as soon as Grand Trunk became 
 
 t/ 
 
 supreme in the provincial cabinet, the unfortunate Great 
 Western had the disagreeable alternative of amalgamation 
 or competition presented to them, and of the two evils 
 they naturally chose the least. The Grand Trunk went to 
 Sarnia, the guarantee following it, to the great benefit of 
 the intervening counties, and of the contractors; and as it 
 went to Sarnia, so it must also go to Riviere da Loup, in 
 order that there might not be an undue preponderance of 
 mileage in Upper Canada ; and this is where the contractors 
 and the counties got the better of the shareholders. The 
 latter have, however, no cause of complaint against the 
 province on this score, for, by their prospectus, they un- 
 dertook to go to Sarnia, and not only to Riviere du Loup, 
 but thirty-five miles beyond, besides constructing the 
 
TRAVEL AND TKANSPOKTATION. 255 
 
 Grand Junction, a work wliich Las not been, and is not 
 likely to be, commenced. 
 
 It has long since been demonstrated, that what is called 
 the narrow or Stephenson gauge, of four feet eight and 
 one-half inches, is wide enough for all practical purposes ; 
 and that any increased width is an unnecessary expense 
 in first cost, and an increase of dead weight, and of re- 
 sistance at curves in working. 
 
 In case of invasion, however, there would be this ad- 
 vantage in the Canadian gauge, that on all approaches — • 
 excepting that from Portland — the enemy must relay to 
 his own gauge nearly the whole of our railways, before 
 his own rolling stock could be used — unless indeed we 
 should so blunder as to let ours fall into his hands. 
 
 HORSE EAILWATS. 
 
 The first street railway company in Canada was or- 
 ganized the 29th of May, 1861, for the city of Toronto ; 
 and the materials being prepared, the Yonge street line 
 was commenced on the 26th of August, and opened to 
 the public on the 11th of September in the same year. 
 The Queen street line was also commenced 0!i the 16th 
 of October, and opened the 2d of December. This com- 
 pany claim six miles of single track, eleven cars, and 
 seventy horses ; — which, with stables, car-houses, &c., are 
 put down at a cost of $175,000 in stock and bonds. The 
 cash outlay has probably been something under half of 
 these figures. 
 
 The Montreal street railway was likewise commenced 
 in September, 1861, and opened in the following Novem- 
 ber. The total length of track is six miles and a quarter ; 
 the cost of which, including eight cars, brick stable, forty 
 stalls, and car-house, was $89,263.13 ; of which $42,500 
 was paid the contractor in stock. The company have be- 
 sides, four one-horse cars convertible into close sleighs, 
 three covered sleighs, five open sleighs, and sixty-three 
 
256 TKAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 horses, with harness and other equipments, costing, together 
 er, $10,164.52 :— making the total cost almost $100,000. 
 
 The street railway is an institution for the benefit of 
 those who ride at the expense of those who drive ; and is 
 a flagrant violation of the rights of the minority, if not of 
 the majority. The rights of a single owner are considered 
 sufficient to prevent the closing or alienation of a high- 
 way ; gas and water companies are only permitted tempo- 
 rarily to obstruct a street ; but the horse railway is a 
 permanent obstruction — practically dividing a wide street 
 into two narrow ones, and a narrow one into two lanes. 
 
 These railways are a great relief to commercial cities, 
 where the business centre is ever extending, and pushing 
 the population into the suburbs; — and they therefore 
 much increase the value of suburban property ; — but it is 
 'questionable whether they will be found profitable as in- 
 vestments in Canada. It will be only occasionally that 
 they can be worked in winter — and then only in Western 
 Canada, so that during this period their permanent way 
 is of no value ; and the traffic by sleighs, always open to 
 competition, will be barely sufficient to cover expenses 
 Where, however, they do not pay as investments they are 
 often warranted, provided the traffic is sufficient to cover 
 the working expenses, if laid down in connection with, 
 and by the owners of real estate, in the suburbs. Still 
 there should be some limit to the extent to which the 
 streets of a town may be cut up for such partial and selfish 
 purposes ; as there is a tendency to obstruct streets with 
 them where there is no plea of necessity, but chiefly to se- 
 cure the franchise for the future. If proper discrimination 
 were used, a few leading arteries could be laid down, in 
 streets which are not thoroughfares, without much incon- 
 venience to the public, and with nearly equal advantage to 
 those who use them — a precaution which has not been 
 taken either in Toronto or Montreal. 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, 257 
 
 YICTOEIA BKIDGE. 
 
 This structure, the design of which originated with a 
 Canadian engineer, Mr. Thomas Keefer, is beyond dis- 
 pute, the most costly and magnificent bridge ever erected.* 
 The following extract is from a report of proceedings in 
 the Parliament of Canada : 
 
 " Hon. Mr. Allan said that before the orders of the day 
 were called, there was a subject to which he desired to 
 call the attention of the House, and which he desired the 
 Government to hear. It was true that one of England's 
 greatest engineers had given the sanction of his name to 
 the Yictoria Bridge. But it was also true that that great 
 work was indebted in the first place for its conception to 
 Canadian skill. To a Canadian engineer was due the first 
 enunciation of the scheme of laying down the present 
 bridge in the place where it now stands. In 1847, Hon. 
 Mr. Young, of Montreal, and the finance minister, ob- 
 tained a survey of the St. Lawrence, in order to see if it 
 were possible to erect the bridge. The survey was carried 
 on by an engineer of experience, but this gentleman re- 
 ported that the scheme of bridging at Point St. Charles 
 was impracticable. At the same time he reported the 
 feasibility of building a bridge over Nun's Island. In 
 1851, Hon. Mr. Young obtained another survey of the St. 
 Lawrence, for the same purpose, conducted by Mr. Thos. 
 C. Keefer, an engineer whose talents were well known in 
 the province. The result of this survey was given in a 
 report published immediately afterwards. In this report 
 Mr. Keefer demonstrated the practicability of erecting the 
 bridge in the place where it now stands. The plans on 
 which the bridge should be constructed were also laid 
 down. It was recommended that it should be a solid rail- 
 road bridge, that it should be erected high over naviga- 
 
 * Mr. Keefer having from a natural delicacy declined to write an account 
 • of a work with which his name is so intimately associated, the following ex- 
 tracts must suffice. — Ed. 
 
258 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 tion, instead of having drawbridges in it. A certain dis- 
 tance was to intervene between the piers. It was to be 
 for raih'oad traffic alone; and lastly, and what was of 
 greatest importance, solid approaches should be con- 
 structed to diminish the waterway, instead of enlarging it 
 as might have been proposed, and to guard against the 
 crush of ice. It was worthy of remark, that the present 
 bridge was constructed precisely as this report recom- 
 mended. (Hear.) In consequence of the changes which 
 afterwards took place in the management of the Grand 
 Trunk Railway, the undertaking was transferred to English 
 hands, and the work in question was constructed by other 
 persons. The bridge, however, was built in accordance 
 with Mr. Keefer's report. (Hear.) All the leading prin- 
 ciples set forth in his report were adopted by the English 
 engineers. This being the case, he (Mr. Allan) claimed 
 that Mr. Keefer should not be overlooked ; that the English 
 engineer should not receive the whole of that credit, an 
 equal portion of which was due to the Canadian. He 
 claimed for Mr. Keefer that his name should be engraved 
 on the Victoria Bridge beside the names of Stephenson, 
 Ross, and the other engineers connected with that work, 
 whose names were already cut upon it. He made this 
 proposition with the greater confidence, because on many 
 occasions the celebrated Stephenson had acknowledged 
 Mr. Keefer's claims with regard to the originating of the 
 work. (Hear.) The Grand Trunk Railway Company 
 had also acknowledged Mr. Keefer's claims, for they had 
 been compelled to pay him a certain sum for his report, 
 and also for his services ; and not only had justice been 
 done to Mr. Keefer by Stephenson and the Grand Trunk 
 Company, but even in the American railroad journals 
 credit was given to him — not once but on several occasions." 
 
 The following description of the Bridge is extracted 
 from " A Glance at Victoria Bridge^ and the Men wJw 
 huilt it,^^ by Mr. Charles Legge, C. E., Montreal. 
 
 "The superstructure, as designed by Mr. Stephenson, con- 
 
TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 259 
 
 sists of twenty-five tubes, or rather, as one continuous tube 
 extends over two spans, of twelve double tubes, and the 
 large central one over the channel. They are of the uni- 
 form width of sixteen feet throughout, for the accommo- 
 dation of a single line of railway, but differing in height 
 as they approach the centre. Thus, the depth of the tubes 
 over the first two spans is eighteen feet six, the next two 
 nineteen feet, and so on, every coupled pair gaining an 
 additional six inches, to the centre one, which is estab- 
 lished at twenty-two feet in depth, as the proper propor- 
 tion obtaining lor a beam 330 feet long. These side-spans 
 being all the same length, the increase in height does not 
 arise from any requirement of additional strength, but 
 simply to prevent the appearance of too great a break 
 being visible in the top line of the tubes, and, by graduat- 
 ing the difference in height between the ends and centre, 
 to give greater facilities for the roof required in the pro- 
 tection of the tubes from moisture and consequent oxida- 
 tion, and presenting at the same time a straight and con- 
 tinuous outline on the top. 
 
 " The tubes, being detached, are not designed upon the 
 principle of continuous beams, for practical reasons, in- 
 cluding the circumstance of the steep gradient on each 
 side of the central span, and the great disturbance which 
 would be caused by the accumulated expansion and con- 
 traction of such a continuous system of iron work, in a 
 climate where the extremes of temperature are so widely 
 apart. The arrangement introduced of coupling but two 
 together, with an intermediate space of eight inches be- 
 tween them and the neighboring tubes, divides this move- 
 ment and retains it within certain specified limits. 
 
 " A double tube, covering two openings, is securely bolted 
 to the masonry of the pier in the centre, on which it has a 
 solid bearing of sixteen feet by nineteen feet, and provided 
 with a free bearing on each of the two contiguous piers of 
 seven and a half feet, resting at each end on fourteen ex 
 pansion rollers six inches in diameter and three feet in 
 17 
 
260 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 length, seven on each side of the tube, retained in place 
 by a wrought-iron frame, allowing the rollers to traverse 
 on a planed cast-iron bed-plate seven and a half feet long, 
 three and a half feet wide, and three inches thick, bolted 
 to the masonry. A similar plate covers the rollers, and is 
 secured to the bottom of the tube. The tube is thus free 
 to expand or contract each way from the bearing-pier in 
 the centre. 
 
 " Creosoted tamarack timber, covered with felt, is intro- 
 duced between the iron and the stone, in every case, to 
 give the junction of these hard materials a certain amount 
 of elasticity. 
 
 " The tube proper is composed entirely of wrought-iron, 
 in the form of boiler-plate, ranging from four-sixteenths to 
 twelve-sixteenths of an inch in thickness, with the joints 
 and angles stiffened and strengthened by the addition of 
 Tee and Angle irons. The secret of success in this mode of 
 construction, lies in arranging those different thicknesses 
 where the strains or weights call for additional strength 
 or otherwise. 
 
 " The following table will show the general distribution 
 of material in the different parts of the tube, as arranged 
 by Mr. Stephenson, starting in all cases from the centre of 
 the spans : — 
 
 nn T il-llwnl'rT l-fHI' 
 

 TRAYEL AND TRANSPOETATION. 
 
 261 
 
 
 v 
 
 
 Top Plates. 
 
 
 
 
 From 
 
 Length of 
 
 Sectional Area. 
 
 
 Thickness of 1 
 
 
 
 Strips, Tee 
 
 
 Centre. 
 
 Division. 
 
 Plates. 
 
 and Angle 
 Irons. 
 
 Total Area. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 11.00 
 
 125 
 
 92Je 
 
 SlVl'e 
 
 i 
 
 f" 
 
 
 2 
 
 11.00 
 
 125 
 
 86tV 
 
 2II1V 
 
 f" 
 
 
 3 
 
 11.00 
 
 114f 
 
 86t^ 
 
 200i| 
 
 A 
 
 
 4 
 
 11.00 
 
 IOVtV 
 
 ^m 
 
 191if 
 
 * 
 
 
 5 
 
 11.00 
 
 87i 
 
 84U 
 
 1^2yV 
 
 w 
 
 
 6 
 
 11.00 
 
 15 
 
 '^^tV 
 
 152A 
 
 A 
 
 
 7 
 
 11.00 
 
 56U 
 
 VV. 
 
 134 
 
 A 
 
 
 8 
 
 11.00 
 
 531 
 
 551 
 
 1081 
 
 tV 
 
 
 9 
 
 11.00 
 
 60 
 
 651 
 
 1051 
 
 a 
 
 
 10 
 
 11.00 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 98 
 
 « 
 
 
 11 
 
 11.00 
 
 1 
 
 « 
 
 it 
 
 ti 
 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 8.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 129.00 
 
 
 Bottom Plates. 
 
 
 From 
 
 Length of 
 
 Sectional Area 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 
 
 Strips, Tee 
 
 
 Centre. 
 
 Division. 
 
 Plates. 
 
 and Angle 
 Irons. 
 
 Total Area. 
 
 Plate. 
 
 
 1 
 
 19.6 
 
 137.60 
 
 63.75 
 
 201.25 
 
 f-Al 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 14.0 
 
 137.50 
 
 67.75 
 
 195.25 
 
 *' a 
 
 qJ 
 
 
 3 
 
 14.0 
 
 125.00 
 
 57.75 
 
 182.75 
 
 (( (( 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 14.0 
 
 112.50 
 
 54.25 
 
 166.75 
 
 A— tV 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 14.0 
 
 87.50 
 
 57.50 
 
 145 
 
 A-tVJ 
 
 
 6 
 
 14.0 
 
 85.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 118 
 
 tV 1 
 
 
 T 
 
 14.0 
 
 50.00 
 
 42.00 
 
 92 
 
 tV ' 
 
 
 8 
 
 17.6 
 
 50.00 
 
 42.00 
 
 92 
 
 tV 
 
 
 B«jaring. 
 
 8 
 129.0 
 
 50.00 
 
 42.00 
 
 92 
 
 iV 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
262 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 SIDE iPLA^ES. 
 
 Beginning at the centre, and strengthened by Tee bars 
 inside and out, placed at distances of 3', Q^\ — 
 
 The first space of 35 feet from the centre is formed of ^ inch plate. 
 The second space of 45^ feet " " " Ji- " " 
 
 The third " 35 " " " " fc. » " 
 
 The remaining space " " " ^8_. «« « 
 
 The following analysis is made of the arrangement 
 proposed for distribution : 
 
 Top of tube .ie Tons. 
 
 Bottom of do 82 " 158 
 
 Sides 84 
 
 Total 242 Tons. 
 
 Keelsons, 10 inches in depth, are placed transversely at 
 distances of 7 feet, and secured to the side Tee bars by 
 gussets, for the support of the longitudinal timbers carry- 
 ing the rail. 
 
 The top of the tube is also stipported by keelsons at the 
 same distances apart, and the whole tube rendered rigid, 
 by stiffening gussets and double covers over every joint. 
 
 The wrought iron in a single tube 258 feet in length, 
 including its bearings over the piers, weighs about a ton 
 to the running foot, or 258 tons in all. 
 
 The central tube, in consequence of its increased length, 
 is somewhat different indts arrangement; the bottom and 
 top being proportionally stronger, — the first with an addi- 
 tional thickness of plates, and the last, with longitudinal 
 keelsons 10'' high, taking the place of the ordinary longi- 
 tudinal Tee bars, as existing on the side tubes ; the side 
 plates are 2^ feet, instead of 3i feet wide, with a propor- 
 tionately larger number of side Tee bars. The whole tube 
 is disconnected from the others, being bolted to pier No. 
 12, and resting on rollers on No. 13 pier. -< 
 
 Windows are introduced into the sides of the tubes 
 near the line of neutral axis, and serve to light up the in- 
 Bide. Iron brackets are placed on the piers where not 
 
TRAVEL AND TRAHSPOKTATION. 263 
 
 occupied by tlie tubes, and slope back to the top of the 
 tubes, but are entirely disconnected from it. They serve to 
 give a finished appearance, and likewise prevent the snow 
 and rain blowing in through the openings left for expan- 
 sion and contraction. 
 
 It was originally intended to cover the top of the tubes 
 with a curved corrugated iron roof, to protect them from 
 the weather. This design was subsequently abandoned 
 and the present sloping angular one substituted, composed 
 of grooved and tongued boards, covered with the best 
 quality of tin. This tin is not put on in the usual manner, 
 but, by an ingenious arrangement, each sheet is allowed 
 to expand and contract at pleasure, without the danger 
 of destroying the fastenings which attach it to the timber 
 underneath, as in the ordinary method made use of, and 
 thus insures its continual efficiency. 
 
 A foot-walk 26 inches in width extends along the top 
 of the roof, the whole length of the tubes, for the conve- 
 nience of the employes connected with the work ; a track 
 is also provided for the pain ting- travellers. 
 
 The contract price may be put down under the heads of, 
 
 First — ^The approaches and abutments, which together extend 
 
 to 3,000 feet in length, amount in the estimate to $1,000,000 
 
 Second. — The masonry forming the piers, which occupy the inter- 
 vening space of "7,000 feet between the abutments, including 
 aU dams and appliances for their erection 4,000,000 
 
 Thvrd. — The wrought-iron tubular superstructure, 1,000 feet in 
 length, which amounts to 2,000,000 
 
 (About $285.70 per lineal foot), malring a total of $7,000,000 
 
 The following interesting details are annexed by Mr. 
 Legge : 
 
 First stone, No. 1 Pier, laid 20th July, 1854. 
 
 First passenger train passed 17th December, 1859. 
 
 Total length of Bridge, 9,184 feet hneal. 
 
 Number of spans, 25 ; 24 of 242 feet ; one of 330 feet. 
 
 Height from surface of water to under side of centre tube, 60 feet 
 
 Height from bed of river to top of centre tube, 108 feet. 
 
 Greatest depth of water, 22 feet. 
 
 General rapidity of current, 7 miles an hour. 
 
 Cubic feet of masonry, 3,000,000. 
 
264: TRAVEL AND TKANSPOBTATIOIT. 
 
 Cubic feet of timber, in temporary work, 2,250,000. 
 Cubic yards of clay used in puddling dams, 146,000. 
 Tons of iron in tubes, say, 8,250. 
 Number of rivets, 2,500,000. 
 
 Acres of painting on tubes, one coat, 30; or for the four coats, 120 acres. 
 Length of abutments, 242 feet each. 
 '* of north approach, 1,344 feet. 
 " of south approaoh, 1,033, 
 Force employed in construction during summer of 1858, the working season 
 extending from the middle of May to the middle of November : 
 
 Steamboats, 6 ; horse power, 450 ) , „ -,^- , 
 
 Barges, 72.... ......[ ^2,000 tons. 
 
 Manned by 500 sailors. 
 
 In stone quarries 450 men. 
 
 On works, artisans, &c 2,090 men. 
 
 Total 3,040 men. 
 
 Horses, 142. LocomotiYeai 4. 
 
TBAVEL AKD TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 265 
 
 JO ;jgoo p»:)Buii;83 
 
 -jadns JO q:jSuan[ 
 
 •qoBOjddB 
 
 PI109 JO H^UB'J 
 
 •BUBdg 
 SuraiBoiaj JO q^Saai 
 
 •^anireqo 
 J9A0 UBds JO q^^^uai 
 
 •SUBds JO '0^ 
 
 eAogg ift?Mptiaq '\evd'j 
 
 
 •qtjSuai iB?ox 
 
 '■IS S 
 
 t "S 1 
 8 is 
 
 
 ft -3 
 
 «a 
 
 =3 « 
 
 s s 
 
 5 2 
 
 ;t ;g :§' ii 
 
 s ^ 
 
 <2 -25 
 
 o so 
 
 o ^o 
 
 CO eScf 
 
 i 1 
 
 1 
 
266 THE ELECTEIO TELEGRAPH. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 The whole of the telegraphic system of Canada (except 
 the private lines belonging to railway companies) is in the 
 hands of one company. 
 
 The Montreal Telegraph Company was organized in 
 1847, and first opened between Quebec and Toronto. The 
 following figures show the progress of this company : 
 
 In 184T. In 1861. 
 
 The capital stock £15,000 £100,000 
 
 Length of line 540 miles. 3,422 mUes. 
 
 Number of stations 9 150 
 
 Persons employed 35 400 
 
 Number of messages transmitted 33,000 300,000 
 
 MUes. 
 The main line extends from "Woodstock in New Brunswick 
 
 to Detroit in Michigan 1,050 
 
 And from Quebec C. E. to Bufifalo, N. Y 650 
 
 With the following branches : 
 
 River du Loup to Father Point TO 
 
 Quebec to Richmond, on Grand Trunk R. R 96 
 
 Montreal to Portland, Maine, on do ^ 292 
 
 " Troy, New York 250 
 
 "' Waterloo, C. E 60 
 
 Prescott to Ottawa City 54 
 
 " Oswego, New York 120 
 
 BolleviUo to Stirling 15 
 
 Trenton to Pictou 30 
 
 Port Hope to Peterboro' and Lindsay 55 
 
 Toronto to CoUingwood, on Northern Railway 97 
 
 Toronto to Sarnia, on Grand Trunk R. R 170 
 
 Goderich to Buffalo 160 
 
 St. Mary's to Port Stanley 50 
 
 Brantford to Port Dover 32 
 
 Windsor to Amherstburg 18 
 
 Yarious branches to small towns and villages 153 
 
 3,422 
 
 The lines enumerated above embrace all the important 
 towns and villages in both provinces. 
 There are thirty-two poles to the mile, and the wire is 
 
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 267 
 
 number eiglit and nine, galvanized. The line is worked 
 on the Morse principle, and nearly every thing is taken by 
 sound. The business, after the crisis of 1857, fell off to a 
 considerable extent, but during the last two years it has 
 gradually increased, and the number of messages passing 
 over the line in 1861, amounted to 300,000. 
 
 NOYA SCOTIAN TELEaRAPH. 
 
 Miles. Built. 
 
 Halifax to New Brunswick line 130 1849 
 
 Truro to Pictou 40 1850 
 
 Halifax to Liverpool 102 1851 
 
 " Yarmouth (via Windsor) 224 1852 
 
 Pictou to Sydney, C. B 195 1852 
 
 " Amherst, (wa Pugwash) 80 1853 
 
 Liverpool to Barrington 62 1853 
 
 Halifax to Truro (second wire) 64 1853 
 
 Barrington to Yarmouth 45 1854 
 
 Antigonishe to Cape Canso 67 1854 
 
 St. Peters, C. B., to Arichbat, C. B. (about) 20 1854 
 
 Plaister Cove to Port Hood 28 1855 
 
 WolfviUe to Canning 9 1858 
 
 Total miles, 1,066 
 
 All except the second wire between Halifax and Truro, 
 are of number nine ungalvanized wire ; the poles are spruce 
 and tamarack, from thirty-five to forty to the mile. The 
 second wire, from Truro to Halifax, is number nine gal- 
 vanized wire. 
 
 The telegraph in !N"ova Scotia was constructed by the 
 provincial government. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK TELEGRAPH 
 
 Miles. Built. 
 
 Calais to St. John 90 1848 
 
 St. John to Nova Scotia boundary 140 1849 
 
 " Predericton 64 1850 
 
 Fredericton to Woodstock 64 1851 
 
 Monckton to Chatham ..100 1851 
 
 Newcastle to Bathurst 55 1858 
 
 Bathurst to Campbelltown 68 1860 
 
 Salesbury to Hillsboro' 22 1856 
 
 Total miles, 603 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 
 
 Three hundred and twenty-seven years ago, Jacques 
 Cartier, of St. Malo, discovered the St. Lawrence,* sailed 
 up its mighty stream for several hundred miles, formed 
 alliances with the Indians, huilt a fort, and wintered in the 
 country. In 1549, the colonization of the newly dis- 
 covered *' Canada" was commenced, under the auspices 
 of Roberval, the first viceroy, and an attempt made to 
 establish a traffic in furs with the natives ; but, in conse- 
 quence of the loss of Roberval and some of his com- 
 panions," at sea, in 1549, and European distractions arising 
 from the wars between France, Spain, and Austria, no 
 further effort was made for nearly half a century to 
 colonize the valley of the St. Lawrence. In 1581, a trade 
 with Canada began to spring into activity, and in 1591 a 
 fleet of ships was fitted out by the adventurous inhabitants 
 of St. Malo, to engage in the Canada trade, and, chiefly, 
 to procure the teeth of the walrus, which at that time was 
 common in the gulf and estuary of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 In 1603, a company of adventurers, headed by M. de 
 Chauviu, lieutenant-general of Canada and Acadia, re- 
 ceived a royal charter from Henry lY., of France, and 
 established a regular system of trade in the colony. Ten 
 years later, Champlain obtained a commission authorizing 
 him to seize every vessel, not holding a license, he should 
 find trafficking in furs between Quebec and the upper part 
 
 * In 1508, one Thomas Aubert made a voyage from Dieppe to Newfound- 
 land, and sailed up the estuary of the St. Lawrence. 
 
EAKLT TKADE OF CANADA. 269 
 
 of the St. Lawrence. In 1628, the celebrated but unscru- 
 pulous Cardinal de Richelieu organized the " Company of 
 One Hundred Partners," and conceded to its members in 
 perpetuity the viceroyalty of New France and Florida, 
 thus establishing a commercial regime in Canada, whose 
 influence soon extended far and wide among the Indian 
 races of the valley of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 The "Company of One Hundred Partners" was dis- 
 solved by Louis XIY., in 1663, who resumed the juris- 
 diction over the country, which for thirty-five years had 
 been under the rule of a trading association. 
 
 Scarcely, however, had a year elapsed, when, by a royal 
 edict dated 1664, Canada was once more handed over to 
 the short-lived commercial bondage of the " West India 
 Company," but, in 1666, free trade with the aborigines 
 was again declared, subject to certain restrictions and 
 reservations. The company was permitted to retain the 
 right to one-fourth of all the beaver-skins, and one-tenth 
 of all the elk-hides exported, besides the traffic which 
 belonged to Tadoussac at the mouth of the Sauguenay. 
 For these privileges, the company paid 48,950 livres, or 
 about $10,000, a livre being worth, at that period, about 
 one English shilling. 
 
 Thus far, the efforts made by the French to colonize 
 Canada, and open a trade with the different nations inhab- 
 iting the vast extent of country drained by the St. Law- 
 rence, had not been productive of much public and private 
 good, and was marked by a succession of individual dis- 
 asters which damped the ardor even of the most courageous 
 and enterprising merchants of that day. 
 
 Lake Superior was visited, in 1659, by two traders, who 
 joined some roving bands of Algonquins, and passed the 
 winter in tliat region. In 1660, they returned to Quebec, 
 escorted by sixty Algonquin canoes laden with furs. 
 
 In the autumn of 1678, La Salle, armed with a royal 
 commission, commenced the construction of a fort at 
 I^iagara; and during the winter he laid the keel of a ves- 
 
270 EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 
 
 eel intended for the navigation of the upper lakes, about 
 ftix miles above the stupendous cataract. The first Upper 
 Canadian ship (for in those days it was worthy of that des- 
 ignation) was launched in the summer of the following year, 
 and, to the unbounded astonishment and alarm of the savage 
 Iroquois and Eries who peopled either shore, it sailed 
 through Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and finally reached Lake 
 Michigan. The " Griffon," as the vessel was called, met 
 with an untimely fate on her return ; she was wrecked 
 before she reached the Niagara river, and, with her rich 
 cargo of furs, sank beneath the waves of the inland sea 
 whose solitudes she was the first to invade. Not two 
 centuries (183 years) after the lonely " Griffon" had pene- 
 trated through the Upper Canadian lakes, the commerce 
 of the region tributary to them was more than sufficient 
 to employ nearly two thousand steamers and sailing ves- 
 sels, exceeding half a million tons burden, and costing 
 fifteen millions of dollars.* 
 
 Subsequently to the extinction of the West India 
 Company, the trade in peltries was free for a time, with 
 the exception of beaver and elk skins, for which monopoly 
 70,000 francs a year was paid by the lessees, until it became 
 the property of a French society, called the " Company of 
 Canada." After an unprosperous existence for a few years, 
 this trading association, like its predecessors, expired deep- 
 ly in debt, in 1706. In a report on the condition of Can- 
 ada in 1715, contained in the ^'Documents de Pcms^'^ 
 there is an interesting account of colonial affairs, which 
 throws some light on the state of Canada at that period. 
 The report is by M. d'Auteuil, who remarks that trade 
 with the savages, once considerable, had even at that early 
 date greatly fallen off. Ship-building was brisk even 150 
 
 * The Marquis de Denonvillo, in a proclamation respecting the taking of 
 
 the post Niagara, in 1687, states that the stocks on which La Salle built his 
 
 ."bark" were still seen above the great lake, and that his "quarters" were 
 
 burned in 1675 by the Senecas. He also states that the Sieur de la Salle 
 
 navigated Lakes Erie, Huron, ard Illinois (Michigan), for several years. 
 
EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 271 
 
 years ago ; hemp for cordage and flax for linen were ad- 
 vantageously grown ; but France did not import Canadian 
 timber, or continue to work the copper mines on Lake 
 Huron. The French, at the close of the 17th century, 
 must have been familiar with the copper treasures of the 
 shores of Lake Huron, and perhaps even of Superior, or M. 
 d'Auteuil would not have regretted their neglect of them. 
 In 1687, M. de Denonville writes to the French ministry :* 
 " The copper, of which I sent a sample to M. Arnon, is 
 found at the head of Lake Superior. The body of the mine 
 is not yet discovered. I have seen one of our voyageurs^ 
 who assures me that he saw, fifteen months ago, a lump 
 of 200 lbs. weight, as yellow as gold, in a river which falls 
 into Lake Superior. When heated, it is cut with an axe ; 
 but the superstitious Indians, regarding this piece as a good 
 spirit, would never permit him to take any of it." The 
 estimate formed by M. d'Auteuil of the annual value of 
 the peltries exported from Canada in 1677, was 550,000 
 francs, and in 1715, two million francs. Thomas Dongan, 
 governor of the province of New York, in 1687, complains 
 bitterly of the difficulties he had to encounter in finding, 
 on his arrival in the colony, " such a contest between the 
 government of Canada and this (New York) about the 
 beaver trade, the inland country, and the Indians." The 
 Eno-lish found their way to Lakes Ontario and Erie with 
 merchandise, for barter with the Ottawa Indians, as early 
 as 1686, much to the disgust of M. de Denonville, who 
 writes to his government that he is going to intercept ten 
 English canoes, laden with merchandise, that have ap- 
 peared on Lakes Ontario and Erie. 
 
 " I regard, my lord," he says, " as of primary impor- 
 tance the prohibition of the trade to the English, who, 
 without doubt, would entirely ruin ours, both by the 
 cheaper bargains they could give the Indians, and by at- 
 tracting to them the Frenchmen of our colony, who are 
 
 * Paris Doc, 1686. 
 
272 EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 
 
 accustomed to go to the woods."* The " merchandise" 
 largely employed in those days, and continued up to the 
 present time, both by British and French, has proved the 
 ruin of the Indian race of this continent. M. de Denon- 
 ville writes to Governor Denon : " Think you, sir, that re- 
 ligion will progress whilst your merchants supply, as they 
 do, eau de vie VOL abundance, which converts the savages, 
 as you ought to know, into demons, and their cabins into 
 counterparts and theatres of hell ?" But what was the 
 religion spoken of by Denonville ? Here is a description 
 of it : " The presentis to inform Y. R. of our return from 
 the Iroquois mission, loaded with some spoils rescued from 
 hell. We bear in our hands more than ^yq hundred chil- 
 dren, and a number of adults, the most part of whom died 
 in baptism. We have re-established faith and piety in the 
 heart of a poor captive church, the first foundations of 
 which we laid in the Huron country. We have proclaim- 
 ed the gospel unto all the Iroquois nations, so that they 
 are henceforth without excuse, and God will be fully justi- 
 fied against them at the great day of judgment."f 
 
 In a memoir addressed to the Marquis of Seignelay, 
 dated 1687 (Paris Doc), the trade of Canada is described 
 as being very precarious. " Canada is encompassed by 
 many powerful English colonies, who labor incessantly to 
 ruin it by exciting all our savages and drawing them away 
 with their peltries, for which the English give them a great 
 deal more merchandise than the French, because they pay 
 no duty to the king of England.''^ 
 
 * Paris Doc., 168T. 
 
 f Father Paul Ragueneau. 
 
 \ Governor Dongan's reply to M. de Denonville is characteristic of that 
 oflBcer. " The missionary fathers, if they please but do me justice, can give 
 you an account how careful I have been to preserve them; I have ordered 
 our Indians strictly not to exercise any cruelty or insolence against them, and 
 have written to the king, my master, who has as much zeal as any prince 
 living, to propagate the Christian faith, and assured him how necessary it is 
 to send to them some fathers to preach the gospel to the natives allied to us, 
 and care would then be taken to dissuade them from their drimken debauch* 
 
EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 273 
 
 In 1Y54, only ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons, 
 were built in Canada. The trade with France employed 
 about thirty ships, belonging to merchants of La Rochelle. 
 During the administration of French rule, previously to 
 the year of peace 1760, when Montreal and all the French 
 fortresses in Canada were surrendered to Great Britain, 
 the balance of trade was always against the colony. 
 
 The exports, previous to 1759, are stated in a prosperous 
 year to have been as follows : 
 
 Furs to the value of. £88,333 sterling. 
 
 Seal Oil 10,416 " 
 
 FlourandPeas 10,416 " 
 
 Timber 6,250 " 
 
 Total £115,415 « 
 
 In 1729, the annual expenditure of the government of 
 Canada was £16,166 13^. 4d ; in 1759, the disastrous 
 year which witnessed the fall of Quebec, the expenditure 
 rose to £1,083,330 6^. 8^?. sterling; but this vast outlay 
 did not increase the trade of the country. Military oper- 
 ations, glory, and extravagance consuming it all. In 1754, 
 the number of vessels engaged in foreign trade with the 
 colony only amounted to fifty-three, leaving a total im- 
 portation valued at £216,769, and an exportation valued 
 at £75,560, leaving a balance against the colony of £141,- 
 209 sterling. 
 
 After the fall of Quebec, trade increased and assumed a 
 healthy tone ; the imports no longer exceeded the exports ; 
 another race, less addicted to military glory, acquired a 
 standing in Canada, and began to develop its long neg- 
 lected resources. But the country people, of French ori- 
 gin, had received an indelible impress of character and 
 
 es ; though certainly our rum doth as little hurt as your brandy, and in the 
 opinion of Christians is much more wholesome. However, to keep the Indians 
 temperate and sober, is a very good and Christian performance, but to pro- 
 hibit them all strong liquors, seems a little hard, and very Turkish." — Parii 
 Doc, III. 
 
274: 
 
 EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 
 
 disposition, which they have retained in many particulars 
 up to the present day. 
 
 The following table shows the number of vessels and 
 their aggregate tonnage which have arrived at Quebec 
 from sea, at decennial periods between 1764 and 1861 : * 
 
 
 No. of vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1T64 
 
 67 
 
 5,496 
 
 568 
 
 1769 
 
 82 
 
 7,411 ^ 
 
 587 
 
 1771 
 
 77 
 
 6,584 
 
 597 
 
 1780* 
 
 69 
 
 8,792 
 
 724 
 
 1791 
 
 81 
 
 14,760 
 
 826 
 
 1801 
 
 175 
 
 20,517 
 
 1,564 
 
 1811 
 
 582 
 
 116,687 
 
 5,553 
 
 1821 
 
 434 
 
 102,786 
 
 4,645 
 
 
 No; of sailing vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1831 
 
 1,026 
 
 263,160 
 
 13,329 
 
 1841 
 
 1,221 
 
 425,118 
 
 16,443 
 
 1851 
 
 1,300 
 
 633,427 
 
 17,753 
 
 1861 
 
 1,277 
 
 703,908 
 
 19,339 
 
 
 No. of steamers. 
 
 'Jons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1831 
 
 1 
 
 363 
 
 21 
 
 1841 
 
 13 
 
 5,057 
 
 221 
 
 1851 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 1861 
 
 67 
 
 laui fii 71,894 4,335 
 
 The following table represents the coasting trade, below 
 Quebec, for the last five years : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1857 
 
 1.30 
 
 6,265 
 
 495 
 
 1858 
 
 146 
 
 9,372 
 
 866 
 
 1859 
 
 160 
 
 11,454 
 
 1,070 
 
 1860 
 
 177 
 
 12,934 
 
 1,160 
 
 1861 
 
 277 
 
 15,910 
 
 1,536 
 
 This table shows how rapidly the country below Quebec 
 is settling, and what an impulse has been given, during 
 the short period of five years, to the commerce of that 
 region. 
 
 The earliest period recorded, of the dates of the open- 
 ing of navigation at Quebec, is the 12th April, in 1828; 
 the latest period was the 11th May, 1847 ; a difierence of 
 one month. 
 
 The latest date of the closing of navigation occurred on 
 the 21st December, 1826 ; the earliest date was the 25th 
 November, 1833 ; also a period of about one month. 
 *No returns for 1781. 
 
A 
 
 1 
 
 V 
 
 ' , ,>> 
 
 » » * .» » 
 
\ 
 
THE FUB TKADE. 275 
 
 With respect to the period of navigation between Mont- 
 real and Quebec, the longest duration was in 1830, when 
 the number of days between the first arrival and the last 
 sailing was 223 days, or from April 26th to December 
 4th. The shortest period occurred in 1836, from May 11th 
 to November 25th; 199 days. The average period of 
 navigation is about seven months. 
 
 CHAPTEE n. 
 
 THE PUR TRADE. 
 
 Whosoever chooses to wade through the voluminous 
 documentary history of the early British colonies in Amer- 
 ica, will find that the fur trade was the all-absorbing 
 interest, for more than one hundred and fifty years, in the 
 valley of the St. Lawrence and the vast region tributary 
 to Hudson's Bay, previous to the second conquest, in 
 1759.* 
 
 The beaver, the present symbol of Canada, was early a 
 source of considerable revenue to the colonies, and has far 
 surpassed in importance all other fur-bearing animals ; 
 although now it is comparatively valueless, the tax on 
 beaver-skins alone, in early times, being more than the 
 present worth of the pelt, when the difference in the value 
 of money is taken into consideration. In 1678, Sir E. 
 Andros, governor of New York, reports, that " the rates 
 or duties upon goods exported are, 2*. for each hogshead 
 of tobacco, and 1^. Sd. on a beaver skin, and othei peltry 
 proportionally." 
 
 * Quebec was taken by the British in 1629. Champlain and most of the 
 Jesuits returned under free passes to France. In 1632, Charies I, by the 
 treaty of St. Germain, resigned to Louis XIII., of France, aU his title to 
 Canada and Nova Scotia, and Champlain returned to Quebec, aa viceroy of 
 Canada. 
 
 18 
 
ZiO THE FUR TRADE. 
 
 Governor Dongan, under date 1687, in a report on the 
 Province of New York, writes: *'It will be very neces- 
 sary for us to encourage our young men to goe a beaver 
 hunting as the French doe." " I send a map by Mr. 
 Spragg, whereby your Lop* may see the several go verm*®, 
 tfec, how they lye where the beaver hunting is, & where 
 it will bee necessary to erect our Country Forts for the 
 securing of the beaver trade, & keeping the Indians in 
 community with us."* In the same report. Governor 
 Dongan notices " the custom or duty upon every beaver 
 skin commonly called a whole beaver, ninepence." "And 
 that all other fur and peltry be valued accordingly, that 
 is, for two half beavers ninepence ; for four lapps nine- 
 pence; three drillings one shilling and sixpence; ten 
 ratoons ninepence ; four foxes ninepence ; four and twenty 
 meescats ninepence; ten mallar ninepence; twenty-four 
 pounds of moose and deer skin ninepence. And all other 
 peltry to be valued equivalent to the whole beaver export- 
 ed out of the province (bull and cow hides excepted)." 
 Father de Lamberville, a cunning, zealous, but not over- 
 scrupulous missionary, wrote to M. de Denonville, gov- 
 ernor of Canada, in 1684, that " the envoy of the governor 
 of l^ew York, who is here, promises the Iroquois goods at 
 a considerable reduction ; 7 & 8 lbs. of powder for a bea- 
 ver ; as much lead as a man can carry for a beaver, and so 
 with the rest." It must not be supposed that this was the 
 actual price paid for a beaver-skin at that time. Father 
 de Lamberville merely mentions these items to show that 
 the English were bribing the Iroquois to adopt their side, 
 in the event of war with the French, or in future exten- 
 sion of trade. It was a system of presents which gave 
 rise to the Indian expression, " underground" or secret 
 presents, in order to avoid the appearance of bribery. 
 The word " underground" has recently acquired a differ- 
 ent application, familiar to every ear. The fugitives from ' 
 the slaveholder reach Canada by the " underground rail- 
 * Documentary History of New York. 
 
THE FUR TRADE. 277 
 
 way." The Confederates obtain information of the move- 
 ments of the Federalists bj the " underground telegraph," 
 and the late rush across the Canadian frontier, from the 
 drafting in the United States, was chiefly by the " under- 
 ground line." 
 
 Father de Lamberville defeated Colonel Dongan's at- 
 tempts to draw the Hurons and Ottawas to his side, by 
 " underground presents," although Dongan offered seven 
 pounds of powder for a beaver, or as much lead as a man 
 could carry. 
 
 The mission and the beaver were too frequently associa- 
 ted by the- early French missionaries. They made the fur- 
 trader and the proselytizer one. There is no doubt that 
 wherever the fur trade extended, there was but too much 
 need of the humanizing influence of Christianity, but as 
 long as the missionaries traded in furs, the gentle influ- 
 ences of religion were not felt. The condition of the 
 colony in Denonville's time was deplorable. He himself 
 writes, " I receive letters from the most distant quarters, 
 from the head of River Mississippi, from the head of Lake 
 Superior, from Lake des Lenemyngon (Lake St. Anne, 
 north of Lake Superior), where they propose wonders to 
 me by establishing posts for 'the missions, and for the 
 beavers which abound there. But in truth, so long as the 
 interior of the colony is not consolidated and secured, 
 nothing certain can be expected from all those distant 
 posts, where hitherto people have lived in great disorder, 
 and in a manner to convert our best Canadians intc> 
 banditti."* 
 
 The failure on the part of the different French compa- 
 nies to establish successful monopolies, arose in great part, 
 from a spirit of personal aggrandizement, which influenced 
 men in power, and the excellent opportunities which the 
 form of government then prevailing in the colony secured 
 to them. In 1731 the administration of M. de Beauhar- 
 
 * DenonTille's Expedition, Paris, Doc. HE. 
 
278 THE FUR TRADE, 
 
 nois was marked by continued erection of new forts, and 
 displays of military force, for the purpose of keeping the 
 English traders within proper limits. Soon after the 
 whole valley of the St. Lawrence came under British 
 sway, the merchants of Montreal, among whom were many 
 Scotchmen, seeing the advantage of united action, formed 
 themselves into a company in 1784, and assumed the title 
 of the Korth-West Company of Montreal. The stock of 
 this company was at first divided into sixteen shares with- 
 out any capital being deposited, each shareholder furnish- 
 ing a proportion of such articles as were necessary to carry 
 on the fur trade. It was soon found, however, that some 
 of the traders in the Indian country were adverse to this 
 union of interests, and a few of them joined together and 
 established a rival company. As might have been ex- 
 pected, a collision between the two companies soon took 
 place, murder was committed,* and many of the injuries 
 which rivalry and jealousy could engender, were inflicted 
 by both sides, far beyond the reach of retributive justice. 
 
 At length, in 1787, the discontented traders and the 
 North- West Company came to an understanding, united 
 their interests, and founded a commercial establishment 
 on a sound basis, divided into twenty shares, a certain por- 
 tion being held by the merchants in Montreal, the remain- 
 der by the traders in the Indian country. The adventure 
 for the year amounted to £40,000, but in eleven years 
 from that date, or in 1789, it reached treble that sum, 
 yielding large profits to the company. In 1798 the num- 
 ber of shares was increased to forty-six, and so rapid was 
 the increase in power and wealth of the corporation, that 
 the army of employes enlisted in its service rose to up- 
 wards of four thousand. 
 
 The agents of the North-West Company came into fre- 
 quent collision with the servants of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 pany, which not only led to a spirit of rivalry in trade, 
 
 ♦ Sir Alexander Mackenzie— A General History of the Tur Trade. 
 
THE FUR TRADE. 279 
 
 baffling description, but also to numerous encounters, in 
 which much blood was shed and many lives lost. Wearied 
 of this ruinous competition, and harassed by the threat- 
 ened difficulties, which the continuance of so much 
 crime and bloodshed amongst their half-wild subordi- 
 nates were drawing upon them, the two companies agreed 
 to unite, and in 1821 an end was put to contention and 
 rivalry, by the amalgamation of the two bodies, under the 
 title of the Hudson's Bay Company. From the date of 
 the union a new era in the fur trade began, which will be 
 better described after a brief history has been given of one 
 of the most successful and flourishing monopolies the 
 world has ever seen. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company was incorporated in the 
 year 1670, under a royal charter of Charles the Second, 
 which granted them certain territories in North America, 
 together with exclusive privileges of trade and other rights 
 and advantages. During the first twenty years of their 
 existence the profits of the company were so great* that, 
 notwithstanding considerable losses sustained by the cap- 
 ture of their establishments by the French, amounting in 
 value to £118,014, they were enabled to make a payment 
 to the proprietors, in 1684, of fifty per cent., and a further 
 payment in 1689 of twenty-five per cent. 
 
 In 1690 the stock was trebled without any call being 
 made, besides affording a payment to the proprietors of 
 twenty-five per cent, on the increased or newly created 
 stock. From 1692 to 1697 the company incurred loss and 
 damage to the amount of £97,500 sterling, from the French. 
 In 1720 their circumstances were so far improved that they 
 again trebled their capital stock, with only a call of ten 
 per cent, from the proprietors, on which they paid divi- 
 dends averaging nine per cent, for many years, showing 
 profits on the originally subscribed capital stock actually 
 
 * See letter from the Grovornor of the Hudson's Bay Compafty to the Lords 
 of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, February 7th, 1838. 
 
280 THE FUR TRADE. 
 
 paid up, of between sixty and seventy per cent, "per an- 
 num, from the year 1690 to 1800, or during a period of 
 110 years. 
 
 Up to this time the Hudson's Bay Company enjoyed a 
 monopoly of the far trade, and reaped a rich harvest of 
 wealth and influence. 
 
 In 1783 the I^orth-West Company was formed, having 
 its head-quarters at Montreal. The IS^orth-West Company 
 soon rose to the position of a formidable rival to the Hud- 
 son's Bay Company, and the territory the two companies 
 traded in became the scene of animosities, feuds, and blood- 
 shed, involving the destruction of property, the demoraliza- 
 tion of the Indians, and the ruin of the fur trade. Owing to 
 this opposition, the interests of the Hudson's Bay Company 
 suffered to such an extent, that between 1800 and 1821, a 
 period of twenty-two years, their dividends were, for the 
 first eight years reduced to four per cent. During the next 
 six years they could pay no dividend at all, and for the re- 
 maining eight they could pay only four per cent. 
 
 In the year 1821 a union between the Korth-West and 
 Hudson's Bay Companies took place, under the title of the 
 last named. The proprietary were called upon to pay £100 
 per cent, upon their capital, which, with the stock in trade 
 of both parties in the country, formed a capital stock of 
 £400,000, on which four per cent, was paid in the years 
 1821 to 1824, and from that time half-yearly dividends of 
 ^ve per cent, to 1828 ; from 1828 to 1832 a dividend of five 
 per cent., with a bonus of ten per cent., was paid, and from 
 1832 to 1837 a dividend of five per cent., with an average 
 bonus of six per cent. The distribution of profits to the 
 shareholders for the years 1847 to 1856 both inclusive, was 
 as follows : 
 
 1847 to 1849, ten per cent, per annum ; 1850, twenty 
 per cent, per annum, of which ten per cent, was added to 
 stock ; 1851, ten per cent. ; 1852, fifteen per cent., of which 
 ^ve per cent, was added to stock ; 1853, £18 4^. 6d., of 
 which £8 45. 6d. was added to stock; 1854 to 1856, ten 
 
THE FUK TRADE. 281 
 
 per cent, per annum dividend.* Of 268 proprietors in 
 July 1856, 196 have purchased their stock at from 220 to 
 240 per cent.f 
 
 The affairs of the Hudson's Bay Company are managed 
 by a governor-in-chief, sixteen chief-factors, twenty -nine 
 chief-traders, five surgeons, eighty-seven clerks, sixty- 
 seven post-masters, tvrelve hundred permanent servants, 
 and five hundred voyageurs, besides temporary employes of 
 difierent ranks, chiefly consisting of voyageurs and servants. 
 The total number of persons in the employ of the Hudson's 
 Bay Company is about 3,000. 
 
 The late Sir George Simpson was governor of the Hud- 
 son's Bay Company for forty years. He exercised a gen- 
 eral supervision over the company's affairs, presided at 
 their councils in the country, and had the principal direction 
 of the whole interior management in North America. The 
 
 * Letter from R. Gr. Smith, Esq., Secretary to the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 to H. Merivale, Esq. — Appendix to Report from the Select Committee on the 
 Hudson's Bay Company. 
 
 f The capital employed by the Hudson's Bay Company was as follows: — 
 June 1st, 1856 :— 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Amount of assets 1,468,301 16 3 
 
 Amount of habilities, 203,233 i6 11 
 
 Capital 1,265,065 19 4 
 
 Consisting of stock, standing in the name of the proprietors, 500,000 
 
 Valuation of the Company's lands and buildings, exclusive 
 
 of Vancouver's Island and Oregon 318,884 12 8 
 
 Amount expended up to IGth September, 1856, in sending 
 miners and laborers to Vancouver's Island, in the coal 
 mines, and other objects of colonization exclusive of 
 the trading establishments of the company, and which 
 amount will be repayable by government if possession 
 of the island is resumed 8Y,0Tl 8 3 
 
 Amount invested in Eort Victoria, and other establish- 
 ments and posts on Vancouver's Island, estimated at ^5,000 
 
 Amount paid to the Earl of Selkirk for Red River Settle- 
 ment 84,111 18 5 
 
 Property and investments in the territory of Oregon, 
 ceded to the United States by the treaty of 1846, and 
 which are secured to the Company as possessing rights 
 under that treaty— $1,000,000 200,000 
 
 Total £1,265,067 19 4 
 
282 THE FUR TRADE. 
 
 governor is assisted by a council for each of the two de- 
 partments into which the territory is divided. 
 
 The seat of council for the northern department is at 
 Norway House, on Lake Winnipeg ; for the southern de- 
 partment at Michipicoten, Lake Superior, or Moose Fac- 
 tory, on James's Bay. The council consists of the chief 
 officers of the company, the chief factors being ex-officio 
 members of council. Their deliberations are conducted in 
 private. The sixteen chief factors are in charge of differ- 
 ent districts in the territory, and a certain number of them 
 assemble every year at Korway House, for the northern 
 department, generally about the middle of June, to meet 
 the governor and transact business. Seven chief factors, 
 with the governor, form a quorum, but if a sufficient num- 
 ber of the higher rank of officers are not present, a quorum 
 is established by the admission of chief traders. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company's operations extend not 
 only over that part of IS"orth • America called Rupert's 
 Land and the Indian territory, but also over part of Can- 
 ada, Newfoundland, Oregon, Russian America, and the 
 Sandwich Isles. 
 
 The operations of the Hudson's Bay Company extend 
 over territories whose inhabitants owe allegiance to three 
 different and independent governments, British, Russian, 
 and the United States. These immense territories, exceed- 
 ing 4,500,000 square miles in area, are divided, for the 
 exclusive purposes of the fur trade, into four departments 
 and thirty-three districts, in which are included one hun- 
 dred and fifty-two posts, commanding the services of three 
 thousand agents, traders, voyageurs, and servants, besides 
 giving occasional' or constant employment to about one 
 hundred thousand savage Indian hunters. Armed vessels, 
 both sailing and steam, are employed on the north-west 
 coast to carry on the fur trade with the warlike natives of 
 that distant region. More than twenty years ago the trade 
 of the north-west coast gave employment to about one 
 thousand men, occupying twenty -one permanent- estnblish- 
 
THE FUK TRADE. 283 
 
 ments, or engaged in navigating five armed sailing vessels, 
 and one armed steamer, varying from one hundred to 
 three hundred tons in burden. History does not furnish 
 another example of an association of private individuals 
 exerting so powerful an influence over so large an extent 
 of the earth's surface, and administering their aftairs with 
 such consummate skill, and unwavering devotion to the 
 original objects of their incorporation. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company, even when they relinquish 
 the valley of the Saskatchewan, and confine their opera- 
 tions to the region north of the 56th parallel of latitude, 
 will still hold much of the fur trade in their grasp. But 
 they will do so as an independent company, engaged in 
 open competitive rivalry with all who choose to engage in 
 that difficult and precarious traffic. The organization ex- 
 isting among the officers and servants of this company ; 
 their acquaintance with the habits, language, and hunt- 
 in2:-crrounds of the Indians of the North American conti- 
 nent ; and, more especially, the fact that they are not only 
 personally acquainted with almost every Indian in North 
 America, but have the means, if it suit the purposes of 
 trade, of communicating with them and supplying their 
 wants, will secure to this admirably organized association 
 the command of the most lucrative branches of the fur 
 trade, for many years to come. If the history of any fur- 
 trading company in America were faithfully written, it 
 would exhibit to the world a systematic course of action 
 as surely destructive to the Indian race of this continent, 
 within the limits of the law, as if it had been a predeter- 
 mined object from the beginning of their operations to the 
 close. The history, indeed, of almost any one abandoned 
 fort or post, during the prosperous existence of a company, 
 would be a type of the history of the entire trade, and its 
 prejudicial influences on the Indian races. An abandoned 
 post implies, in general, the utter destruction of the fur- 
 bearing animals, or of the sources of food upon which the 
 Indian hunters formerly subsisted. It is an acknowledg- 
 
284: SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. 
 
 ment that the country which once served the post has been 
 converted into an inhospitable desert, wholly incapable, in 
 its wild and uncultivated state, of supplying the small de- 
 mands of the former inhabitants of the district it served. 
 
 TABLE SHO^yING THE ANXTJAL EXPORTATION OF FURS AND SKINS FROM CANADA, 
 EXCLUSIVE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY'S EXPORTS: 
 
 1853, 
 
 $127,694 
 
 1858, 
 
 $163,213 
 
 1854, 
 
 69,357 
 
 1859, 
 
 229,147 
 
 1855, 
 
 115,260 
 
 1860, 
 
 227,115 
 
 1856, 
 
 207,753 
 
 1861, 
 
 230,596 
 
 1857, 
 
 154j879 
 
 
 
 All of the furs collected by the Hudson's Bay Company 
 go to England. The Canadian fur trade is very limited in 
 comparison with that of the giant monopolist. The total 
 value of the export of furs amounted, in 1861, to $228,918 ; 
 $84,661 worth going to the United States, the remain- 
 der to Great Britain. The monopoly enjoyed by the 
 Hudson's Bay Company is now extinguished by the expi- 
 ration of their charter, and, as soon as ready communica- 
 tion between Canada and the valley of the Saskatchewan 
 is established, tlie Canadian fur trade will revive again, 
 although it will never attain a tithe of the importance it 
 possessed during the palmy days of the North- West Com- 
 pany. 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. 
 
 Ship-building was one of the earliest branches of indus- 
 try cultivated in Canada. The memorials contained in the 
 " Documents de Paris''^ inform us, that as early as 1715, 
 ship-building at Quebec was pretty brisk, although there 
 was great reason for complaint that the French would not 
 import the fine timber of the country. The fur trade ap- 
 peared to monopolize all the attention of the French rulers ; 
 
BHIP-BUILDINa AND THE LUMBER TRADE. 285 
 
 and although the British drew large supplies of lumber 
 from the Atlantic. provinces, l^ew France contributed no 
 part of her immense forest treasures to increase the naval 
 resources of the great rival of England on the seas. M. de 
 Maurepas, the French minister of marine in 1731, was 
 fully alive to the importance of ship-building, for he wrote 
 some strong dispatches to the governor, urging the stimu- 
 lation of this branch of industry, and promised that ships 
 of war should be constructed in Canada, if some good 
 merchant vessels were turned out. He offered a premium 
 of 500 francs for every vessel gauging 200 tons or over of 
 colonial build, and sold in France or the Antilles, and 150 
 francs premium for each barge of thirty or forty tons, if 
 similarly disposed of. 
 
 In 1752, ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons, were 
 built in Canada, but the materials were badly chosen, and 
 the price high. It is remarkable, that even at that early 
 period of the history of French Canadian industry, a num- 
 ber of vessels, used in the trade of Canada, were purchased 
 from the enterprising ISTew Englanders With the finest 
 forests in the world for ship-building, unequalled facilities 
 for bringing lumber to the seaboard, and the encourage- 
 ment of a liberal bounty, French enterprise in Canada, to- 
 ward the middle of the last century, was not equal to the 
 task of seizing upon the only industry which would tend 
 to secure to them the peaceable possession of the colony 
 in the event of a war with their great and industrious rival, 
 Britain, besides encouraging immigration, amassing wealth, 
 and establishing a political importance. 
 
 In 1734 there were fifty -two saw-mills in that part of 
 this province which lies east of the Ottawa ; the popula- 
 tion of the country being 37,252 souls. In 1827, or nearly 
 one hundred years later, the number of saw-mills had in- 
 creased to 565, with a population of 471,876. 
 
 The following table shows the number and tonnage of 
 the sea-going vessels built at Queuec during decennial 
 periods, between 1791 and 1861 ; 
 
286 SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. 
 
 Tear. No. of ships. Toni. 
 
 1791 12 574 
 
 1801 24 3,404 
 
 1811 54 13,691 
 
 1821 22 2,254 
 
 1831 38 6,170 
 
 1841 64 23,122 
 
 1851 66 41,605 
 
 1861 51 25,546* 
 
 Since 1787, there have been 2,939 ships built at Quebec, 
 being in the aggregate 890,201 tons burden. The largest 
 ship ever constructed on this continent was built in Que- 
 bec, in 1825. It was called the Baron of Eenfrew, and 
 measured 5,294 tons. Another large wooden ship was 
 built in 1824, measuring 3,690 tons: but these huge wood- 
 en vessels were not successful. 
 
 This enumeration does not include other vessels which 
 were constructed at the different ports of the valley of the 
 St. Lawrence, and sometimes sent across the Atlantic for 
 sale. Such vessels have been recently built on Lake Hu- 
 ron, at Toronto, &c., &c., but in consequence of the general 
 depression in trade, since the year 1857, little has been 
 done in ship-building in the lake districts, although there 
 is every prospect that it will become an important indus- 
 try now that ship communication with Europe and Lake 
 Superior, by means of the Canadian canals, without break- 
 ing bulk, is easily and profitably accomplished. 
 
 The lumber trade was long in growing to importance du- 
 ring the early history of Canada. In 1723 nineteen vessels 
 cleared from Quebec, containing cargoes of peltries, lum- 
 ber, and provisions ; but there does not appear to have been 
 any considerable trade in lumber between Europe and 
 Canada until the close of the eighteenth century. 
 
 In 1786, the exports of fish, lumber^ &c., from Labrador 
 and Gaspe were returned at £45,000 sterling, and furs and 
 other colonial produce from Quebec at £445,116 sterling ; 
 but lumber is not specially included as an article of com- 
 
 *Tho average value of ships built at Quebec is taken at $40 a ton; the ton. 
 nage can be obtained at once by dividing the value by 40. 
 
SHIP-BUILDESTG AND THE LUMBER TRADE. 28Y 
 
 merce. In 1808, the products of the forest became a sepa- 
 rate item, and we find oak and pine timber, staves, masts, 
 &c., exported, to the value of £157,360 sterling ; but from 
 the United States the imports of lumber were to the amount 
 of £70,000 sterling, the greater part of which would be in- 
 cluded in the amount specified above. The different arti- 
 cles which make up Canadian lumber exports have been 
 enumerated in the chapter on '* Forest Industry." It will 
 suffice for present purposes to state the condition of the 
 export trade during the years 1824 to 1829 inclusive, with 
 the statistical data of the trade from 1853 to 1861 inclu- 
 sive. 
 
 Exports of lumber from Quebec during the years 1824, 
 1825, 1826, 1827, and 1829 : 
 
 1S24. 1825. 1826. 182T. 1829. 
 
 Masts 1,132 988 751 983 973 
 
 Spars 1,289 1,799 2,892 1,999 1,679 
 
 Oak timber, planks .. . 19,994 33,152 
 
 " tons 23,822 21,763 24,411 
 
 Pine " planks... 96,026 128,078 .... 
 
 " " tons 129,151 86,090 123,510 
 
 Staves 3,657,188 3,934,410 4,164,688 5,476,548 ) . .„^ ^.,„ 
 
 Stave ends 30,416 19,295 61,191 68,612)*'^'^''"^'' 
 
 Deals and boards 1,052,147 1,479,565 823,922 1,621,658 9,543,645 
 
 Hoops 147,800 125,536 98,888 34 
 
 Ashes, barrels 55,108 65,502 39,589 27,303 30,425 
 
 Comparative statement of the value of the products of the 
 forest, during the yeare 1853 to 1861 inclusive :* 
 
 1853, 
 
 $9,293,338 
 
 1858, 
 
 $9,284,514 
 
 1854, 
 
 9,912,008 
 
 1859, 
 
 9,603,962 
 
 1855, 
 
 7,832,660 
 
 1860, 
 
 11,012,253 
 
 1856, 
 
 9,802,130 
 
 1861, 
 
 9,572,645 
 
 1857, 
 
 11,575,508 
 
 
 
 The annual exportation may be stated at 30,000,000 
 cubic feet of timber in the rough state, and about 400,- 
 000,000 feet, board measure, of sawed lumber. The reven ue 
 derived from timber cut in the public forests was $383,150, 
 in 1861. There is very good ground for the expectation 
 
 * Furs are not included in this estimate. 
 
288 SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. 
 
 that new markets in continental Europe will soon be opened 
 for Canadian timber. Already the beginning of this trade 
 has been made, by the dispatch of twenty cargoes to France, 
 Spain, and Germany, in 1861. The products of the forest 
 hitherto exported have been confined tg a few species of 
 timber trees, not exceeding a dozen at the most. When 
 it is known that there are upwards of thirty kinds of forest 
 trees, out of some sixty or seventy species with which our 
 forests are filled, well adapted to the wants of European 
 manufactures, it is confidently anticipated that a new im- 
 pulse will soon be given to the lumber trade of the Province, 
 in a different direction to that which it has hitherto taken. 
 Prior to 1858, England imported more timber from the 
 British American Provinces than from all other countries. 
 This predominance ceased in the next succeeding year, 
 when the British importations stood thus : 
 
 1859. 
 
 Prom British America 1,301,248 loads. 
 
 " Foreign countries 1,655,232 " 
 
 1860. 
 
 From British America 1,264,360 loads. 
 
 " Foreign countries 1,537,920 " 
 
 In the present year (1862), eight vessels have already 
 sailed for German ports, their destination and cargoes 
 being as follows : 
 
 Name of Port No. of Vessels. Cai^o. 
 
 Stettin 1 Oak. 
 
 Hamburg 3 Oak and pine. 
 
 Bremen 4 Red and white pine, walnut, &c 
 
 This trade promises to be of the greatest value to Canada, 
 and if the government adopt wise and liberal measures to 
 secure a foreign European market, the gain which will re- 
 sult to Canada, in many ways, is incalculable. Immigra- 
 tion from those countries can be fostered in no better way 
 than by a growing trade in the forest productions of the 
 British Provinces. 
 
 The shipments of timber from Quebec, for the year end- 
 ing December 1st, 1862, as compared with those of 1860 
 and 1861, were as follows : 
 
SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LIJMBEK TRADE. 289 
 
 1860. 1861. 1862. 
 
 Oak 1,485,400 ft. 1,725,160 ft. 1,463,680 ft. 
 
 Elm 1,021,560" 1,269,329" 1,099,200" 
 
 Ash 88.440" 96,560" 99,840" 
 
 Birch. 462,160" 255,320" 165,480" 
 
 Tamarac 58,240" 50,240" 57,120" 
 
 White pine, square ) jg 252,600 " 19,447,920 " 15,493,080 " 
 
 and wany ) 
 
 Red pme 2,502,880 " 2,855,240 " 2,491,120 " 
 
 The export of the leading items for 1862, falls slightly 
 below the average shipments of the five years, from 1853 
 to 1857; but the stock at Quebec considerably exceeds 
 that of any previous season, being 19,000,000 feet of pine 
 against 10,000,000, the average stock between 1853 and 
 1857. 
 
 The prices current for the leading descriptions of timber 
 in the raft, in Quebec, on the 1st December, compare as 
 follows during the years 1858, 1859, 1860, and 1861. 
 
 White p'ine. Red pine. Oak. Elm. 
 
 1862. 
 3id ijo 6d l^d. to lOd Is. 2d. to O5. Od. 9^^ to Is. Id. 
 
 1861. 
 5id. to 6id. 8id. to lid Is. 3d. to 1*. 5d 9d. to Is. Id. 
 
 1860. 
 b^d. to 6id. 8d. to lid. Is. 2d. to Is. 3d. I^d. to Is. Id. 
 
 1859. 
 4Jd to Qd. 8d. to Is. Is. to Is. 3d. I^d. to Is. 2d. 
 
 1858. 
 4:d. to 6id. 9d. to Is. Is. 4:d. to Is. 5c?. 10c?. to Is. Od. 
 
 The remarkable increase in the grain trade of Montreal, 
 is seriously affecting the shipments of lumber at Quebec. 
 Fully one-half of the vessels which formerly took in car- 
 goes of lumber at Quebec, now go to Montreal for grain. 
 This withdrawal of 400 or 500 large sea-going vessels, is 
 diminishing the industry of the port of Quebec, while 
 Montreal is becoming the great seat of foreign commerce. 
 
290 THE PBODUCE TBADE. 
 
 CHAPTEE TV. 
 
 THE PKODUCE TRADE. 
 
 In 1734, when Lower Canada had a population of 
 37,252, the lands occupied and in tillage amounted to 
 163,111 arpents, and there were produced 737,892 minots 
 of wheat, 163,988 minots of oats, 166,054 lbs. of tobacco, 
 and 92,246 lbs. of flax. The following table shows the ex- 
 port of wheat which took place from the port of Quebec, 
 from 1793 to 1802, inclusive. ITearly the whole of this ex- 
 portation must have been the growth of Lower Canada, for 
 tlie upper division of the province did not contain more 
 than 50,000 inhabitants, at the beginning of the 19th 
 century. 
 
 Years. Wheat (bush.) 
 
 Flour (bbls.) 
 
 Biscuit (cwt) 
 
 1793, 487,000 
 
 10,900 
 
 9,800 
 
 1794, 414,000 
 
 13,700 
 
 15,000 
 
 1795, 395,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 1796,* 3,106 
 
 4,300 
 
 3,800 
 
 1797, 31,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 1798, 92,000 
 
 9,500 
 
 12,000 
 
 1799, 129,000 
 
 14,400 
 
 21,500 
 
 1800, 217,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 1801, 473,000 
 
 38,000 
 
 32,300 
 
 1802, 1,010,033 
 
 28,300 
 
 22,051 
 
 Total, 3,251,139 
 
 171,100 
 
 169,451 
 
 Annual average, 325,114 
 
 17,100 
 
 16,945 
 
 During the years 1816 to 1822, inclusive, the exporta 
 of wheat averaged 195,386 bushels; of barrels of flour, 
 28,323 ; and of hundred weights of biscuit, 9,694, annually. 
 In 1824, 25, 26, 27, 29, and 30, the export of wheat and 
 flour amounted to ; 
 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Flour. 
 
 1824, 
 
 5,396 minots. 
 
 41,001 barrels. 
 
 1825, 
 
 718,019 " 
 
 40,003 " 
 
 1826, 
 
 228,635 " 
 
 33,671 " 
 
 1827, 
 
 391,420 •' 
 
 53,839 " 
 
 1829, 
 
 40,462 " 
 
 2,859 " 
 
 1830, 
 
 590,081 " 
 
 35,836 " 
 
 * In consequence of the failure of the crops in 1795, the governor in council 
 proclaimed an embargo, prohibiting the exportation of wheat 
 
THE" PRODUCE TRADE. 
 
 291 
 
 These fluctuating exports show the precariousness of the 
 wheat crop in Lower Cana/ia — which is still further ex- 
 emplified by the following table. 
 
 Produce of wheat in Lower Canada, during the years 
 1831, 1844, and 1851 : 
 
 Year. Bushels. 
 
 1831 3,404,756 
 
 1844 942,835 
 
 1851 3,045,600 
 
 There can be no doubt, however, that importations from 
 the United States, especially of flour, enabled larger ex- 
 ports to be made from Quebec than would otherwise have 
 taken place, for in 1830 we find 10,633 barrels of flour im- 
 ported into Montreal, and 103 barrels of wheat. 
 
 The rise and progress of the grain trade of Canada are 
 well shown by the following table of exports :* 
 
 TABLE OF "WHEAT EXPORTS. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Bushels of wheat.* 
 
 Year. 
 
 Bushels of wheat. 
 
 1838, 
 
 -.296,020 
 
 1850, 
 
 4,547,224 
 
 1839, 
 
 249,471 
 
 1851, 
 
 4,275,896 
 
 1840, 
 
 1,739,119 
 
 1852, 
 
 5,496,718 
 
 1841, 
 
 2,313,836 
 
 1853, 
 
 6,597,193 
 
 1842, 
 
 1,678,102 
 
 1854, 
 
 3,781,534 
 
 1843, 
 
 1,193,918 
 
 1855, 
 
 6,413,428 
 
 1844, 
 
 2.350,018 
 
 1856, 
 
 9,391,531 
 
 1845, 
 
 2,507,392 
 
 1857, 
 
 6,482,199 
 
 1846, 
 
 3,312,757 
 
 1858, 
 
 5,610,559 
 
 1847, 
 
 3,883,156 
 
 1859, 
 
 4,032,627 
 
 1848, 
 
 2,248,016 
 
 1860, 
 
 8,431,253 
 
 1849, 
 
 3,645,320 
 
 1861, 
 
 13,369,727 
 
 The total amount of spring and fall wheat grown in 
 Upper Canada, in 1861, exceeded 24,500,000 bushels. 
 
 The absolute value of all agricultural products exported, 
 of home and foreign production, for the years 1853 to 
 1861, inclusive, is given in the following table of home 
 and foreign production : 
 
 Year. Amount. 
 
 $8,032,535 
 7,316,160 
 13,130,399 
 
 1853, 
 1854, 
 1855, 
 1856, 
 1857, 
 
 14,972,276 
 8,882,825 
 
 Year. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 1858, 
 
 $7,904,400 
 
 1859, 
 
 7,339,798 
 
 1860, 
 
 14,259,225 
 
 1861, 
 
 18,244,631 
 
 * One barrel of flour is estimated equal to five bushels of wheat 
 19 
 
 \ 
 
2^^ PEESENT TRADE. 
 
 CHAPTEK y. 
 
 PEESENT TRADE. 
 
 In tte year 1808, the trade of the Province of Canada 
 assumed proportions which entitled it to the serious atten- 
 tion of the mother country ; for although the population 
 •of Upper and Lower Canada did not exceed 300,000 in 
 that year, the entire trade of the colony, including exports 
 and imports, amounted to £1,776,060 sterling, or about 
 $8,400,000. This trade was made up of the following 
 items : — 
 
 1808. 
 No. of vessels engaged in the trade 334 
 
 Extorts From Quebec. 
 
 Furs and other colonial produce £350,000 
 
 Wheat, biscuit, flour 171,200 
 
 Oak and pine tirnber, staves, masts, &c 157,360 
 
 Pot and pearl ashes 290,000 
 
 New ships — 3,760 tons, at £10 sterling per ton 37,500 
 
 Fish, lumber, oil, &c., from Labrador and Gaspe 120,000 
 
 Exports to the United States, sundries, about 30,000 
 
 Total exports £1,156,060 
 
 Imports from England : — 
 
 Manufactured goods £200,000 
 
 West India produce 130,000 
 
 Imports from United States : — 
 
 Merchandise, tea, provisions, tobacco 100,000 
 
 Oats, pine, masts, &c 70,000 
 
 Pot and pearl ashes 110,000 
 
 Total imports £610,000 
 
 Balance in favor of the colony £546,060 
 
 The exports of 1830 show a remarkable increase in the 
 trade of the colony, as will be seen by the following table : 
 
 1830. 
 
 Yessela. Tona. 
 
 To Great Britain from Quebec 571 169,046 
 
 " " " Ireland. 214 57,233 
 
 " " " Jersey. 1 113 
 
PEESENT TRADE. 293 
 
 Vessels. Tons. 
 
 To Great Britain from Gibraltar 2 226 
 
 " " " Spain 1 105 
 
 " " " Portugal 1 146 
 
 " " " British North America 130 9,153 
 
 " " " " West Indies... 57 8,113 
 
 " " " United States 4 432 
 
 " • " " Gaspe 43 6,711 
 
 Total vessels 1,024 Tons, 251,278 ( 
 
 Comparative statement of imports, exhibiting the value 
 of goods entered for consumption in Canada during the 
 years 1852 to 1861, inclusive: 
 
 
 
 North American 
 
 
 
 other Foreign 
 
 Year. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 West Indies. United States. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1852, 
 
 $9,671,132 
 
 $480,954 
 
 $5,115 
 
 $8,477,693 
 
 $651,598 
 
 1853, 
 
 18,489,120 
 
 632,660 
 
 3,479 
 
 11,782,147 
 
 1,074,030 
 
 1854, 
 
 22,963,331 
 
 675,115 
 
 2,673 
 
 15,533,098 
 
 1,355,110 
 
 1855, 
 
 13,303,460 
 
 865,988 
 
 14,135 
 
 20,828,676 
 
 1,073,909 
 
 1856, 
 
 18,212,934 
 
 1,032,595 
 
 17,613 
 
 22,704,509 
 
 1,616,736 
 
 1857, 
 
 17,559,025 
 
 751,888 
 
 26,823 
 
 20,224,651 
 
 868,211 
 
 1858, 
 
 12,287,053 
 
 423,826 
 
 
 15,635,565 
 
 732,083 
 
 1859, 
 
 14,786,084 
 
 381,755 
 
 533 
 
 17,592,916 
 
 793,873 
 
 1860, 
 
 15,859,980 
 
 393,864 
 
 15,802 
 
 17,273,029 
 
 905,260 
 
 1861, 20,386,937 499,177 371 21,069,388 1,098,963 
 
 From the foregoing tables it will be seen that the im- 
 ports from Great Britain have more than doubled in ten 
 years. The trade with the sister colonies is about the 
 same in value as it was ten years ago. The West India 
 import trade has almost ceased to exist. The imports 
 from the United States have increased from eight millions 
 to twenty-one millions, and the trade with all other for- 
 eign countries is now about the same in value as it was in 
 1853. 
 
 The value of the total imports of goods entered for con- 
 sumption in Canada during the same years is as follows : 
 
 1852, 
 
 $20,286,493 
 
 1857, 
 
 $39,430,598 
 
 1853, 
 
 31,981,436 
 
 1858, 
 
 29,078,527 
 
 1854, 
 
 40,529,325 
 
 1859, 
 
 33,555,161 
 
 1855, 
 
 36,086,169 
 
 1860, 
 
 34,447,935 
 
 1856, 
 
 43,584,387 
 
 1861. 
 
 43,054,836 
 
 The years 1854, '5, and '6, were distinguished by unusual 
 
294 
 
 PRESENT TRADE. 
 
 commercial excitement, followed bj a corresponding de- 
 pression — the imports in 1861 not equalling those of 
 1856, while those of 1858 fell short to the extent of nearly 
 $3,000,000 of the value of imports in 1853. 
 
 Table showing the total value of exports and imports, 
 and the aggregate value of the foreign trade of the prov- 
 ince, from 1852 to 1861 : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total value of Trade. 
 
 1852, 
 
 $14,055,973 
 
 $20,286,493 
 
 $34,342,466 
 
 1853, 
 
 22,012,230 
 
 31,981,436 
 
 53,993,666 
 
 1854, 
 
 21,249,319 
 
 40,529,325 
 
 61,778,644 
 
 1855, 
 
 28,188,461 
 
 36,086,169 
 
 64,274,630 
 
 1856, 
 
 32,047,017 
 
 43,584,387 
 
 75,631,404 
 
 1857, 
 
 27,006,624 
 
 39,430,598 
 
 66,437,222 
 
 1858, 
 
 23,472,609 
 
 29,078,527 
 
 52,551,136 
 
 1859, 
 
 24,766,981 
 
 33,555,161 
 
 58,322,142 
 
 1860, 
 
 34,631,890 
 
 34,441,621 
 
 69,073,511 
 
 1861, 
 
 36,614,195 
 
 43,046,823 
 
 79,661,018 
 
 The total value of Canadian foreign trade has more than 
 doubled within ten years, and last year it reached the im- 
 posing value of nearly $80,000,000. 
 
 It now remains to exhibit the manner in which this 
 enormous trade is carried on, by a statement showing — 
 
 First: the number of vessels entered inward and outward, 
 from and for sea, during the years 1853 to 1861, inclusive : 
 
 Vessels Inward from Sea. 
 
 Vessels Outward for Sea. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Total Number. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Total Number. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1853, 
 
 1,798 
 
 622,579 
 
 1,821 
 
 658,853 
 
 1854, 
 
 1,890 
 
 705,342 
 
 2,018 
 
 781,755 
 
 1855, 
 
 1,168 
 
 419,552 
 
 1,219 
 
 451,241 
 
 1856, 
 
 1,494 
 
 550,573 
 
 1,532 
 
 573,648 
 
 1857, 
 
 2,047 
 
 748,425 
 
 1,848 
 
 731,367 
 
 1858, 
 
 1,657 
 
 613,813 
 
 1,662 
 
 623,046 
 
 1859, 
 
 1,715 
 
 641,662 
 
 1,618 
 
 640,571 
 
 1860, 
 
 1,992 
 
 831,434 
 
 1,923 
 
 821,791 
 
 1861, 
 
 2,442 
 
 1,077,128 
 
 2,389 
 
 1,059,667 
 
 Second: the amount of Canadian and American ton- 
 nage, inward and oufward, with the intercourse by inland 
 navigation between Canada and the United States : 
 
PEESENT TRADE. 295 
 
 1858. 
 
 Tons, Tons. 
 
 Canadian Bteam 3,014,123 ) oh a a oQ»r 
 
 sail. 730,174 j" • • • -^.'^^.jyT 
 
 American steam 3,038,672) oKic^nn 
 
 saU 477,728f ••• -3,51^,400 
 
 Total inwards and outwards 7,260,697 
 
 Add sea-going vessels, as above 1,236,859 
 
 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,497,556 
 
 1859. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 Canadian steam 1,552,711 ) „ ^p.^ q^c 
 
 sail 801,225 p ' * '^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 American steam 4,096,690 } . ^q„ qq^ 
 
 " sail 685,704 ]•" •^'''^^'^y* 
 
 Total inwards and outwards 7,036,330 
 
 Add sea-going vessels, as above 1,282,233 
 
 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,318,563 
 
 1861. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 Canadian steam. 1,841,640 ) „ f.-. g^-j 
 
 saU 913,398 ] •" • A^&^»^^» 
 
 American steam 2,422,514? oaq-tiq, 
 
 sail 674,673 \ '" •'^^^^^i^^^ 
 
 Total inwards and outwards 5,852,525 
 
 Add sea-going vessels, as above 2,149,360 
 
 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,001,885 
 
 The year 1859 was one of great depression in Canada ; 
 the decrease in 1861 was probably due to the railways, 
 which now afford an excellent means of communication 
 between the two countries, to the detriment of lake and 
 river navigation. 
 
 CANADIAN STEAMERS AND SAILINQ VESSELS REGISTERED IN 1861. 
 
 Vessels Built. Tonnage. 
 
 Steam 11 1^155 
 
 Sailing 85 32,032 
 
 Total 96 33.187 
 
2^6 PBESENT TKADE. 
 
 VESSELS KSGISTEBED. 
 
 No. Tonnage. 
 
 Steam 23 9,616 
 
 Sail 150 34,749 
 
 173 44,365 
 
 THE RECIPROCITY TREATY. 
 
 The reciprocity treaty between the United States and 
 Great Britain, has been the subject of prolonged discus- 
 sion on the part of a few interests among those mercantile 
 communities of the United States and Canada, which are 
 not advantageously affected by the conditions of the treaty. 
 The weight of evidence, as deduced from statistical returns, 
 goes to establish the fact that the advantages derived by 
 both countries are very considerable, and will far outweigh 
 the complaints of sectional interests which have attempted 
 its destruction. 
 
 The following are the leading points of the treaty : 
 
 I. Tlie inhabitants of the United States possess, under 
 the reciprocity treaty, the right to take fish of any kind, 
 except shell-fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, in the bays, 
 harbors, and creeks, of any of the British provinces, with- 
 out being restricted to any distance from the shore ; with 
 permission to land upon the coasts and shores of those 
 provinces, for the purpose of drying their nets and curing 
 fish. 
 
 II. British subjects possess, in common with the citizens 
 of the United States, the liberty to take fish of any kind, 
 except shell-fish, on the eastern sea-coasts and shores of 
 the United States, north of the thirty-sixth parallel of 
 north latitude ; with the same privileges as to landing on 
 the sea-coast as are enjoyed by American citizens in the 
 British Provinces. 
 
 in. Certain articles, being the growth and produce of 
 the British colonies, or of the United States, are admitted 
 into each country free of duty, respectively. (The most 
 important of these articles are grain, fiour, breadstuffs, 
 
PRESENT TRADE. 297 
 
 animals, fresh, smoked, and salted meats, fish, lumber of 
 all kinds, poultry, cotton wool, hides, ores of metals, pitch 
 tar, ashes, flax, hemp, unmanufactured tobacco, rice, &c.) 
 
 lY. The right to navigate the Kiver St. Lawrence, and 
 the canals of Canada, is equally enjoyed by the citizens 
 of the United States and of the British Provinces. This 
 right extends also to Lake Michigan ; and no export duty 
 on lumber cut in Maine, and passing through New Bruns- 
 wick to the sea, can be levied. 
 
 The treaty was signed June 5th, 1854, and may termi- 
 nate after the expiration of ten years. 
 
 STATEMENT SHOWING THE WHOLE TRADE IN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BETWEEN 
 CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES, DURING ELEVEN YEARS. 
 
 
 Imports from United 
 
 Exports from Canada 
 
 Amount of the 
 
 Years. 
 
 States into Canada. 
 
 to United States. 
 
 whole trade. 
 
 1851, 
 
 $8,365,764 
 
 $4,071,544 
 
 $12,437,308 
 
 1852, 
 
 8,477,693 
 
 6,284,520 
 
 14,762,213 
 
 1853, 
 
 11,782,144 
 
 8,936,380 
 
 20,718,524 
 
 1854,* 
 
 15,533,096 
 
 8,649,000 
 
 24,182,096 
 
 1855, 
 
 20,828,676 
 
 16,737,276 
 
 37,565,952 
 
 1856, 
 
 22,704,508 
 
 17,979,752 
 
 40,684,260 
 
 1857, 
 
 20,224,648 
 
 13,206,436 
 
 33,431,084 
 
 1858, 
 
 15,635,565 
 
 11,930,094 
 
 27,565,659 
 
 1859, 
 
 17,592,916 
 
 13,922,314 
 
 31,515,23«* 
 
 1860, 
 
 17,273,029 
 
 18,427,968 
 
 35,700,997 
 
 1861, 
 
 21,069,388 
 
 14,386,427 
 
 35,455,815 
 
 In ten years the amount of the trade between the United 
 States and Canada has nearly trebled itself, and risen 
 from twelve millions to thirty-five millions of dollars, with- 
 out including those articles which are free under the treaty. 
 
 STATEMENT SHOWING THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BETWEEN CANADA AND THE 
 UNITED STATES, OP ARTICLES FREE UNDER THE TREATY, TO JANUARY 1, 1861. 
 
 
 Imports into the 
 
 Imports into Canada 
 
 Excess of Imports 
 
 
 United States 
 
 from the 
 
 free under the treaty 
 
 Tear. 
 
 from Canada. 
 
 United States. 
 
 in favor of Canada. 
 
 1855, 
 
 $16,476,093 
 
 $7,725,561 
 
 $8,750,532 
 
 1856, 
 
 17,810,684 
 
 . 7,909,554 
 
 9,901,130 
 
 1857, 
 
 17,812,308 
 
 8,642,030 
 
 4,170,278 
 
 1858, 
 
 11,514,364 
 
 5,564,615 
 
 5,949,749 
 
 1859, 
 
 15,289,070 
 
 7,106,116 
 
 8,182,954 
 
 1860, 
 
 20,365,829 
 
 7,069,689 
 
 13,296,140 
 
 Totals, $94,268,348 $44,017,565 $50,250,783 
 
 * Epoch of the Reciprocity Treaty. 
 
298 THE CHANNELS OF TRADE. 
 
 THE CHANNELS OF TRADE. 
 
 The successive governments of Canada have always 
 kept in view the importance of attracting the trade of the 
 country, and of the Western States of the American Union, 
 to the St. Lawrence. This route is beginning to engage 
 increased attention from both importers and exporters. 
 The following tables show the value of the St. Lawrence 
 traffic, for 1857 to 1861, inclusive : 
 
 STATEMENT OF TRE VALUE OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS Via THE ST. LAWRENCE, 
 WITH THE TONNAGE OF VESSELS, INWARDS AND OUTWARDS, DURING THE 
 TEARS 1857 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 Tonnage of vessels. 
 
 Total trade Tia 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Value of exports. 
 
 Value of imports. 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 St Lawrence. 
 
 1857, 
 
 $13,756,787 
 
 $14,561,884 
 
 748,425 
 
 731,367 
 
 $28,318,671* 
 
 1858, 
 
 9,727,413 
 
 10,795,077 
 
 613,813 
 
 632,046 
 
 20,522,490 
 
 1859, 
 
 8,821,662 
 
 11,549,068 
 
 641,662 
 
 640,571 
 
 20,370,730 
 
 1860, 
 
 14,037,403 
 
 13,548,665 
 
 831,434 
 
 821,791 
 
 27,586,068 
 
 1861, 
 
 22,524,735 
 
 17,249,055 
 
 1,087,128 
 
 1,059,667 
 
 39,773,790 
 
 Hence it appears that the St. Lawrence trade has risen 
 in value, during a period of five years, from twenty-eight 
 millions to thirty-nine millions of dollars. But the grand 
 system of internal navigation which this river aifords, with 
 its magnificent canals, will eventually become of great im- 
 portance to the " Far West." The prospective value of the 
 St. Lawrence route to Canada may be best shown by the 
 following table : 
 
 VALUE OF GOODS IN TRANSITU FOR THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Tear. Imports. Exports. Total 
 
 1857 $183,790 .... $183,790 
 
 1858 26,916 26,916 
 
 1859 76,314 .... 76,314 
 
 1860 21,505 21,506 
 
 1861 522,514 $3,505,511 4,028,025 
 
 The increase in the trade wa the St. Lawrence in 1861, 
 as compared with the previous year, exceeds twelve mil- 
 lions of dollars. - 
 
 * Value of ships built at Quebec included. 
 
FKEE POETS. 
 
 299 
 
 TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The reciprocity treaty, to which reference has already 
 been made, resulted beneficially to both countries, although 
 there is no doubt that much local ill-feeling has been en- 
 gendered in particular States, and at those lake ports which 
 have not been benefited by the treaty to the extent antici- 
 pated, when the subject was under discussion, and whose 
 local trades have been materially influenced by the high 
 tariffs on certain articles recently imposed by the govern- 
 ment of Canada. 
 
 The following presents a comparative view of all the 
 imports and exports, to and from the United States and 
 Canada, from December 31, 1849, to January 1, 1861 : 
 
 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS BETWEEN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 
 Imports 
 
 Excess of 
 
 
 Imports 
 
 into the 
 
 Imports 
 
 
 into 
 
 United 
 
 into 
 
 Tear, 
 
 Canada. 
 
 states. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 1850, 
 
 $6,594,860 
 
 $4,951,159 
 
 $1,643,701 
 
 1851, 
 
 8,36.0,765 
 
 4,071,544 
 
 4,294,221 
 
 1852, 
 
 8.477,693 
 
 6,2&4,521 
 
 2.193,172 
 
 1858, 
 
 11,782,147 
 
 8,936,882 
 
 2,845,765 
 
 1854, 
 
 15,58^3,097 
 
 8,649,002 
 
 6,884,095 
 
 1855, 
 
 20,828,676 
 
 16.737,277 
 
 4.091, .399 
 
 185(i, 
 
 22,704,509 
 
 17,979,753 
 
 4,724,756 
 
 1857, 
 
 20,224,6.50 
 
 13,206,436 
 
 7,018,214 
 
 1858, 
 
 15,685,565 
 
 11,930,094 
 
 8,706,471 
 
 1859, 
 
 17.592,916 
 
 13,922,314 
 
 8,670,602 
 
 1860, 
 
 17,273,029 
 
 18,427,968 
 
 
 other Imports 
 
 into 
 
 United 
 
 States.* 
 $982,083 
 
 845,833 
 1.251,6.32 
 1,789,073 
 1,769,880 
 3,265.013 
 2,2:58,900 
 1,556,205 
 1.448,044 
 1,664,603 
 2,270,480 
 
 Estimated excess of Imports 
 into Canada from tbeUnited 
 States above Canadian Im- 
 ports into the U. States. 
 
 $P61,618 
 
 8,448,388 
 941,540 
 
 1,056,692 
 
 6,114,215 
 826,885 
 
 2,485,856 
 
 5,462,009 
 
 2,262,427 
 
 2,005,999 
 
 1,115,491 
 
 FREE PORTS. 
 
 In November, 1860, the harbor of Gaspe Basin, in the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, was constituted a free port, where 
 goods, wares, and merchandise of every description may be 
 imported, either for consumption or exportation, without 
 customs duty. The liarbor of Sault Ste. Marie, between 
 Lakes Superior and Huron, was also made a free port at 
 the same period, the chief objects being to encourage the 
 fisheries in the one case, and immigration in the other. 
 
 The imports at Gaspe, and the out-ports within the 
 limits of the "free port," were, in value, $286,558 in 1860, 
 and $392,068 in 1861. The imports at Sault Ste. Marie 
 
 * These amounts are named, in the statistics published under the sanction 
 of the Canadian government, as returned not reported at inland ports in Can- 
 ada, and it may be inferred were chiefly sent to the United States. 
 
300 REVENUE. 
 
 were valued at $54,421 in 1860, and at $92,704 in 1861, 
 showing an increase over the imports of 1860, amounting 
 to $38,283. 
 
 CANADIAN TARIFFS. 
 The expenses of the government of the country are pro- 
 vided for chiefly by the tariff on imported articles. The 
 principal articles contributing to the revenue are enumer- 
 ated in the following table, with the different tariffs in the 
 years 1855 to 1859, inclusive : 
 
 Articles. 1865. 
 
 Molasses, percent 16 
 
 Sugar, refined, " , 
 
 Sugar, other, 
 Boots and shoes. 
 Harness, 
 Cotton goods, 
 Iron goods. 
 Silk goods, 
 Wool goods, 
 
 865. 
 
 1856. 
 
 185T. 
 
 1868. 
 
 1859 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 26+ 
 
 40 
 
 2H 
 
 20 
 
 IH 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 12i 
 
 14+ 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 12+ 
 
 n 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 12i 
 
 13+ 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 12+ 
 
 18+ 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 12+ 
 
 13+ 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 12+ 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 REVENUE. 
 
 The net revenue from customs during the past ten years 
 has been as follows : — 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Net rev. from Customs. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Net rev. from Customs. 
 
 1851, 
 
 $2,808,831 
 
 1857, 
 
 $3,595,754 . 
 
 1852, 
 
 2,822,491 
 
 1858, 
 
 3,026,294 
 
 1853, 
 
 3,946,391 
 
 1859, 
 
 4,123,511 
 
 1854, 
 
 4,672,074 
 
 1860, 
 
 4,405,104 
 
 1855, 
 
 3,255,278 
 
 1861, 
 
 4,411,160 
 
 1856, 
 
 4,115,621 
 
 
 
 The amount paid yearly, by each individual of the 
 population of Canada, is one dollar and sixty cents, — as- 
 suming the population to be 2,506,755, and the calculation 
 to be made for the years 1857 to 1861, inclusive, on the 
 gross revenue from customs. 
 
 REVENUE or 1861. 
 
 Ordinary $9,31 8,180 
 
 Seignorial indemnity. 224,000 
 
 Public works 906,000 
 
 Advances 218,000 
 
 Repayment sums due on open accoimt. . . 520,000 
 
 Special funds 751,000 
 
 Redemption of the public debt 2,738,000 
 
 Redemption Lake St. Peter bonds 65 000 
 
 Total $14,740,180 
 
IMMIGRATION. 30J 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 Ordinarj, including municipal loan fund 
 
 and railway interest $7,841,311 
 
 Investment realized and advances repaid. 1,116,000 
 
 Special funds 934,000 
 
 Debentures issued 2,764,000 
 
 $12,655,511 
 Deficiency 2,085,869 
 
 CHAPTEK YII. 
 
 IMMICrRATION. 
 
 The largest number of immigrants arrived at the port of 
 Quebec since 1829 has been 53,180. The following table 
 shows the annual immigration since 1850 to 1861, a period 
 of twelve years : 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OP IMMIGRANTS ARRIVED AT 
 THE PORT OF QUEBEC, SINCE THE YEAR 1850 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE, 
 
 
 
 
 Continent 
 
 
 Tear. 
 
 England. 
 
 Ireland. Scotland. 
 
 of Europe. 
 
 Lower porn. 
 
 1850, 
 
 9,887 
 
 17,976 2,879 
 
 849 
 
 701 
 
 1851, 
 
 9,677 
 
 22,381 7,042 
 
 870 
 
 1,106 
 
 1852, 
 
 9,276 
 
 15,983 5,477 
 
 7,256 
 
 1,184 
 
 1853, 
 
 9,585 
 
 14,417 4,745 
 
 7,456 
 
 496 
 
 1854, 
 
 18,175 
 
 16,165 6,446 
 
 11,537 
 
 857 
 
 1855, 
 
 6,754 
 
 4,106 4,859 
 
 4,864 
 
 691 
 
 1856, 
 
 10,353 
 
 1,688 2,794 
 
 7,343 
 
 261 
 
 1857, 
 
 15,471 
 
 2,016 3,218 
 
 11,368 
 
 24 
 
 1858, 
 
 6,441 
 
 1,153 1,424 
 
 3,578 
 
 214 
 
 1859, 
 
 4,846 
 
 417 793 
 
 2,722 
 
 
 1860, 
 
 6,481 
 
 376 979 
 
 2,314 
 
 
 1861, 
 
 7,780 
 
 413 1,112 
 
 10,618 
 
 •• 
 
 
 Total a.rrivala 'hfttwflATi IfinO nnd 1861 
 
 
 319,993 
 
 
 U (( 
 
 " 1829 " 1849... 
 
 
 632,675 
 
 
 
 
 
 952,668 
 
 The dispersion of these immigrants through the country 
 is a matter of great moment, as vast numbers find their way 
 eventually to the "Western States who come with the in- 
 tention of settling in Canada, yet, on account of neglect, or 
 the misrepresentations of agents, are led to seek a home on 
 the south side of the international boundary. 
 
302 IMMIGRATION. 
 
 The following is an approximate statement of the arrival 
 and distribution of immigrants during 1861 : — 
 
 Landed at Quebec 19,923 
 
 Arrived in Canada via the route of the United States : 
 
 By steamer to Portland, from January to April 330 
 
 •' " " ' " November to 31st December, 242 
 
 Bj route of Suspension Bridge, to Hamilton, 11,132; of 
 
 whom there remained in Canada 3,263 
 
 By steamer on Lake Ontario, from Rochester and Oswego, 353 
 •' " from Oswego and Cape St. Vincent to Kingston, 350 
 
 By route of Lake Champlain, to Montreal 126 
 
 4,664 
 
 - ■ Total arrivals in Canada, 24,587 
 
 Of the arrivals at Quebec, there proceeded to the United 
 
 States 10,700 
 
 Remaining in Canada, 13,887 
 
 Of this number there appear to have settled : 
 
 In Western Canada 9,500 
 
 In Ottawa District 1,544 
 
 In Eastern Canada 1,500 
 
 InGaspe 400 
 
 Unknown, but presvuned to have remained in Canada 943 — 13,887 
 
 Each immigrant on his arrival in the country is taxed one 
 dollar, which forms part of the funds under which the immi- 
 gration department is sustained. 
 
 The expenditure in 1861 amounted to $28,773; the 
 items were as follows : — 
 
 For the Quarantine establishment at Grosse Isle $4,700 25 
 
 For immigration, in the direct relief and assistance to 
 
 destitute immigrants 8,920 19 
 
 Agency charges, salaries, rents, office and travelling 
 
 expenses 15,152 58 
 
 $28,773 02 
 
 Being an increase of $2,259 19 compared with that of 1860. 
 
 The total amount of tax realized during this season was 
 $19,112, making the surplus of expenditure over receipts 
 $9,661 — a paltry sum, when the amazing advantage to the 
 province of a continuous stream of immigration from conti- 
 nental Europe is taken into consideration, and the settle- 
 ment of the vast wilderness in the rear of the St. Law- 
 rence by industrious laborers and mechanics. 
 
 There are six government immigrant agencies in Canada, 
 
FREE GRANTS OF LANDS, ETC. 303 
 
 located respectively at Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa City, 
 Kiiigson, Toronto, and Hamilton. The Imperial and Pro- 
 vincial Passengers' Acts provide as far as possible against 
 frauds and impositions being practised on tlie immigrant. 
 The Provincial Passengers' Act provides that immigrants 
 may remain on board forty-eight hours after the vessel's 
 arrival (except in cases when the vessel has a mail con- 
 tract), and that they shall be landed free of expense, at 
 proper hours ; that no person, without a license, shall influ- 
 ence passengers in favor of any particular steamboat, rail- 
 road, or tavern ; that tavern-keepers shall have posted, in 
 some conspicuous place, a list of prices to be charged for 
 board, lodging, &c.; and they will not be allowed to have 
 any lien upon the eflects of a passenger, for board and 
 lodging, beyond five dollars. The total immigration from 
 Great Britain, from 1815 to 1858, has been as follows : — 
 
 Proportion. 
 
 To British American colonies 1,180,049 24.60 
 
 To United States 2,890,403 60.25 
 
 To Australian colonies 652,.353 13.60 
 
 To other places 74,361 1.55 
 
 4,797,166 ] 00.00 
 
 FREE GRANTS OF LANDS AND COLONIZATION ROADS. 
 There are now seven million acres of crown lands sur- 
 veyed and open for sale, at prices varying from thirty cents 
 to one dollar per acre. Every purchaser must become an 
 actual settler. This enormous area of surveyed public 
 lands is distributed in the following manner: 
 
 Lower Canada 4,540,000 
 
 Upper Canada 2,460,000 
 
 Or, exhibiting more particularly the localities of these 
 public lands, there are in 
 
 Acres. 
 The Three Rivers district about 349,000 
 
 Ecst of the Chaudiere to Gaspe 
 
 Gaspe and Bonaventure 
 
 Saviguenay district 
 
 Eastern townships 
 
 Ottawa region nortB. of the river 
 
 Between Ottawa River and Georgian Bay. . 
 "West of French River and Lake Nipissing.. 
 
 1,310,000 
 
 348,000 
 
 295,000 
 
 1,030,000 
 
 1,206,000 
 
 1,740,000 
 
 160,000 
 
304 FREE GRANTS OF LAJND8, ETC. 
 
 The capital required to enable an immigrant family to 
 settle upon a free-grant lot, or enter upon the occupation 
 of wild land, should be such as would be sufficient for the 
 support of the family for eighteen months, until a return 
 from the land can be obtained. 
 
 The following is a careful estimate of the quantity and 
 cost of provisions required for twelve months, for a man and 
 his wife and three young children, and also a list of arti- 
 cles required by settlers going into the bush. Tlie prices 
 are attached at which they can be purchased at the villa- 
 ges near the settlements :* 
 
 8 barrels of flour, at £1 15s. per barrel £14 
 
 2 " of pork, at £3 15. " 7 10 
 
 80 bushels of potatoes, at 2s. per busheL. ... 8 
 
 30 lbs. of tea, at 2s. 6d. per lb 3 15 
 
 1 barrel of herring 2 
 
 i " of salt 1 6 
 
 Cost of Provisions £35 12 6 
 
 20 bushels of potatoes, at 2s. per bushel £2 
 
 3 " of wheat, at 7 s. 6d. " 12 6 
 
 10 " of oats, at 28. " 10 
 
 Costof seed £4 2 6 
 
 OTHEE NBCESSARIES. 
 
 1 Axe £0 8 9 
 
 1 Grindstone 7 6 
 
 1 Shovel 1 10 
 
 2 Hoes, at 38. 6s. each 7 
 
 3 Reaping-hooks, at Is. 6d. each. 4 6 
 
 1 Scythe 5 
 
 1 Inch auger 5 
 
 1 Inch-and-a-half auger 7 6 
 
 1 Hand-saw 7 6 
 
 2 Water pails, at Is. 6d. 6ach 3 
 
 1 Window-sash, and glazing .' 5 
 
 i Bake-oven. .'. 5 
 
 2 Pots, at 58. each 10 
 
 1 Kettle 5 
 
 1 Fryingpan 3 
 
 1 Teapot 2 6 
 
 6 Small tin vessels, at 4d each. 2 
 
 3 Large tin dishes, at 2 s. 6d. each .* 7 6 
 
 ♦ From Government Immigration Reports. 
 
GOVERNMENT ROADS. 
 
 305 
 
 OTHER NECESSARIES — continued. 
 
 6 Spoons, at 2d. each 10 
 
 6 Knives and forks 5 * 
 
 3 Pairs of blankets, at £1 5s. per pair 3 15 
 
 2 Rugs or quilts, at 28. 6d. each 5 
 
 2 Pairs of sheets, at 3s. per pair 6 
 
 1 Smoothing iron. 2 6 
 
 1 Pig 15 
 
 £10 7 1 
 
 Total £50 2 1 
 
 Add one Cow 5 
 
 Hay for do., 1st year... 3 00 
 
 Currency £58 2 I 
 
 Or, Sterling £47 
 
 The provincial government has recently opened seven 
 great lines of road in Upper Canada and ^ve in Lower 
 Canada, and laid out for settlement the lands through 
 which these roads pass. 
 
 The roads in Upper Canada are styled : — 
 
 1st. The Ottawa and Opeongo Road. — ^This road runs 
 east and west, and will eventually be 171 miles in length, 
 and connect the Ottawa River with Lake Huron ; about 62 
 miles are now finished, and 235 settlers already located 
 thereon. Resident agent, T. P. French, Clontarf, town- 
 ship of Sebastopol. 
 
 2d. Addington Road, running north and south, 61 
 miles long, and starting from the settlements in the county 
 of Addington, until it intersects the Opeongo Road ; the 
 number of settlers on this road is 178. Resident agent, 
 E. Perry, Tamworth. 
 
 3d. The Hastings Road, running nearly parallel to the 
 Addington Road, 68 miles long, and connecting the county 
 of Hastings with the Ottawa and Opeongo Road : there 
 are 306 settlers on this road. Resident agent, M. P. 
 Hayes, village of Madoc. 
 
 4th. The Bobcaygeon Road, running from Bobcaygeon, 
 between the counties of Peterborough and Yictoria, north, 
 and intended to be continued to Lake Nipissing ; 36 miles 
 are already completed, and there are 168 settlers on the 
 
306 
 
 GOVERNMENT ROADS. 
 
 line ; the number in the family of each settler, on the above 
 roads, averages about four. Resident agent, R. Hughes, 
 Bobcaygeon, and G. G. Boswell, Bobcaygeon JS^orth. 
 
 5 th. The Frontenao and Madawaska Road, of which 
 33 miles are completed. Resident agent, J. Spike, Har- 
 rowsmith. 
 
 6th. The Muskoka Road, of which 21 miles are com- 
 pleted. This road runs from the head of the navigation of 
 Lake Couchiching to the- Grand Falls of Muskoka, where 
 it will intersect the road called Peterson's Line, which 
 will eventually meet the Ottawa and Opeongo Road, now 
 gradually opening westwardly ; and by it the intending 
 settler, arriving at Toronto, can, in one day's journey from 
 that city, reach the very centre of the country. Resident 
 agent, R. J. Oliver, Orillia. 
 
 7th. The Sault Ste. Marie Road, intended to run from 
 Sault Ste. Marie to Goulais Bay, and of which 5 miles are 
 already completed. 
 
 The five roads in Lower Canada are : — 
 
 The Elgin Road, in the county of L'Islet, about 35 miles 
 long, from St. 'Jean, Port Joli, to the provincial line. 
 Resident agent, S. Drapeau, St. Jean, Port Joli. 
 
 The Matane and Cape Chat. 
 
 The Tache Road, from, Buckland, in the county of 
 Bellechasse, to Metapedia Road, in Rimouski — about 200 
 miles. 
 
 The Temiscoijata Road, from River du Loup to Lake 
 Temiscouata; and The Metapedia Road, from Cabot to 
 Restigouche. 
 
 In order to facilitate the settlement of these parts of 
 Canada, the government has authorized free grants of 
 land along these roads, not exceeding in each case 100 
 acres, and obtainable upon the following conditions : 
 
 1st. That the settler be eighteen years of age ; 2d. 
 That he take possession of the land allotted to him within 
 one month ; 3d. That he put into a state of cultivation 
 twelve acres of land in the course of four years ; 4:th. That 
 
GOVERNMENT KOADS. 307 
 
 he build a log-liouse, twenty by fourteen feet, and reside 
 on the lot until the foregoing conditions are fulfilled. 
 
 Families may reside on a single lot, and the several 
 members having land allotted to them, will be exempt 
 from building and residence upon each individual lot. 
 The non-fulfilment of these conditions will cause the im- 
 mediate loss of the land, which will be sold or given to 
 another. The lands thus opened up, and gratuitously 
 offered by the government for settlement, are chiefly of 
 excellent quality, and well adapted in respect to soil and 
 climate, to all the purposes of husbandry. 
 
 20 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES 
 
 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 A SKETCH OP THE NATURE, EXTENT AND VALUE OF THE METALS AND OTHEB 
 
 USEFUL MINERALS FOUND IN CANADA, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, 
 
 AND BRITISH COLUMBIA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESS 
 
 OP MINING INDUSTRY IN THESE PROVINCES. 
 
 BY CHARLES ROBB, MINING ENGINEER, MONTREAL. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 Canada is emphatically an agricultural country, and is 
 pre-eminently favored by nature in the excellence of its 
 soil, and the adaptation of its climate to the growth of wheat 
 and the other cereals, which must long continue as hereto- 
 fore to constitute its staple productions. Its natural resour- 
 ces, however, are by no means limited to the vegetable king- 
 dom ; and although, in the earlier stages of its history, the 
 products of its fields and forests naturally occupy the greatest 
 attention, and have received the fullest development, the 
 extent and importance of the mineral treasures with which 
 it abounds are now beginning to be duly recognized. 
 
 With the exception of coal, and a few of the less import- 
 ant metals, Canada has been found to produce almost all 
 the known useful minerals ; while, with regard to most of 
 them, it may be safely asserted that she contains within her- 
 self a supply not only amply sufficient for her domestic con- 
 sumption, but for permanent, profitable and extensive 
 foreign commerce. These boundless sources of wealth have 
 as yet been rendered available only to a very limited extent, 
 owing partly to the fact of their existence having been so 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH i.>ORTH AMERICA. 309 
 
 recentl}^ brought to light, and partly to the want of the 
 capital and skill requisite to develop them. As the resour- 
 ces of Canada are now rapidly becoming known to the rest 
 of the world, and as it is gradually learning greater self- 
 reliance, it may be reasonably expected that its mineral 
 productions are destined to assume their due rank in con- 
 tributing to the national wealth and prosperity. In relation 
 to this department of the contribution made by Canada to 
 the Great Exhibition of 1851 at London, the following judg- 
 ment was pronounced by the jury : " Of all the British colo- 
 nies, Canada is that whose exhibition is the most interesting 
 and complete, and one may even say that it is superior, as 
 far as the mineral kingdom is concerned, to all countries that 
 have forwarded their productions to the Exhibition." This 
 judgment will doubtless be more than confirmed by the 
 results of the Great International Exhibition of 1862, to 
 which Canada has contributed a collection of minerals far 
 in advance of that of 1851. 
 
 We have stated that coal does not occur in Canada, and 
 we fear it must be regarded as a fully established fact, at 
 least in regard to those parts of the country which have as 
 yet been settled and explored. The rocks are throughout 
 of a lower geological horizon than the carboniferous ; and 
 although bituminous schists and shales abound, and thm 
 veins of a substance closely resembling coal occur in cer- 
 tain parts of the country, these can not be regarded as of 
 much economic importance. Canada is, however, very 
 favorably situated in its proximity, at all points, to the car- 
 boniferous regions of the United States and Nova Scotia, 
 and in the facility of conveyance afforded by its vast lakes, 
 rivers and canals ; and moreover, it contains within itself 
 such ample supplies of wood, peat and mineral oil as will go 
 far to compensate for the want of coal. 
 
 Many useful minerals yielded in abundance by Canada, 
 and which require peculiar cheiiiical treatment to render 
 
310 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 them available in the arts, such as chromic iron, phosphate 
 of lime, petroleum, &c., are rendered comparatively value- 
 less from the fact, that in present circumstances, the crude 
 material has to be transported at great expense to distant 
 manufacturing centres. Such materials are peculiarly de- 
 serving of the attention of enterprising capitalists, as their 
 manufacture in the province would be attended with the 
 double advantage of rendering them available as a source of 
 national wealth as well as individual profit, and of giving 
 employment to an industrious and intelligent class of 
 population. 
 
 The knowledge we possess of the mineral wealth of Cana- 
 da, imperfect as it necessarily is, from the vast extent of 
 unexplored and partially explored territory, as well as from 
 the recent date at which public attention began to be di- 
 rected to the subject, is nevertheless sufficiently accurate to 
 admit of a certain classification and arrangement, and the 
 geographical distribution of the various useful minerals has 
 been ascertained with considerable accuracy. For much or 
 nearly all of this knowledge we are indebted to Sir Wil- 
 liam Logan, the Provincial Geologist, and his coadjutors, 
 who have devoted themselves assiduously, (under the liberal 
 patronage of the Provincial Government,) during nearly 
 twenty years to the investigation of the Geology of Cana- 
 da ; and whose labors have not only conferred incalculable 
 benefit on the country, but procured for themselves a world- 
 wide reputation. In order to illustrate our remarks upon 
 the mineral productions of Canada, we shall give a slight 
 sketch of the geological structure of the country as ascer- 
 tained by the provincial geologists. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF CANADA IN RELATION TO ITS USEFUL 
 MINERALS. 
 
 The oldest geological formation in Canada, styled by Sir 
 William Logan the Laurentian system, occupies all the 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 311 
 
 northern and portions of the central divisions of the pro- 
 vince, extending over an area of about 150,000 square 
 miles, and composed of various hard rocks, such as gneiss 
 and white crystaline limestone ; the total thickness of this 
 formation in Canada is probably not less than 20,000 feet. 
 These rocks consist of highly altered strata, in which no 
 positive and unequivocal traces of organic life have been 
 as yet detected; and which have been bent, twisted and 
 tilted up at all angles, and in some }>laces invaded by 
 masses of intrusive rock. Among the useful minerals 
 peculiarly characteristic of this formation, the ores of iron 
 are the most' important, being found in interstratified layers 
 or beds in quantities which may be regarded as inexhausti- 
 ble and of exceedingly rich quality. Veins of lead and 
 copper also, cutting the stratification, occur in the formation, 
 especially at or near its junction with the next succeeding 
 system of rocks ; plumbago and mica abound, and phos- 
 phate of lime and sulphate of bary tes are of frequent occur- 
 rence. The Laurentian limestones furnish marbles of very 
 excellent quality, together with a great variety of materials 
 applicable to ornamental purposes. 
 
 The Huronian system, the next in ascending order, is 
 wanting in the eastern and central parts of Canada, but at- 
 tains a great development on the northern shores of Lake 
 Huron and parts of Lake Superior; occupying a linear ex- 
 tent of about 400 miles, and consisting of slates, altered 
 sandstones, limestones and conglomerates, associated with 
 heavy masses and dykes of trap ; the total thickness is esti- 
 mated at about 18,000 feet. This system constitutes what 
 has been called the lower copper-bearing rocks of the lake 
 region ; the ore occurring sometimes disseminated among the 
 slates, but more frequently in quartz veins intersecting 
 them. These deposits of copper ore have formed, for many 
 years back, the object of mining operations ; and there can 
 be no doubt that this region contains metallic treasures 
 
312 
 
 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORIII AMERICA. 
 
 which will one day become the source of great wealth to 
 Canada. In addition to copper, silver and nickel occur 
 in this formation in quantities which promise to be of econ- 
 omic importance. Agates, jasper and other varieties of pre- 
 cious stones are of frequent occurrence, and the jasper con- 
 glomerate, which abounds in this region, affords a beautiful 
 material, which will be found applicable to many purposes 
 of decorative construction. 
 
 The upper copper-bearing rocks, including the well- 
 known rich deposits on the south shore of Lake Superior, 
 have recently been discovered to have their equivalents in 
 what has been denominated the Quebec Grbup, in the 
 eastern part of the province ; consisting of altered and highly 
 dislocated and disturbed limestone and sandstone strata, 
 belonging to the inferior part of the Lower Silurian system, 
 and extending in a belt varyii,ig from twenty to sixty miles 
 wide, from the borders of Lake Champlain eastward to 
 nearly the extreme point of Gasp6. This important region, 
 which occupies an area of over 15,000 square miles, is a 
 portion of the great metalliferous formation of North Ameri- 
 ca, which includes the well-known mining regions of the 
 Appalachian chain from Canada to Tennessee, as well as 
 those of Missouri and the Lake Superior region. Although 
 this fact has but recently been recognized, many valuable 
 discoveries of copper and other metals have already been 
 made in the eastern townships of Canada, and at other points 
 comprised within the region specified. In addition to the 
 metals, it abounds in roofing slates of excellent quality, 
 besides many beautiful varieties of serpentine, marble, soap- 
 stone, whetstones, ochres, &c. 
 
 The central portion of the province, comprising the re- 
 gion bordering on the north shore of Lake Ontario, and ex 
 tending over an area of about 7,000 square miles, is under 
 laid by rocks of the Lower Silurian age, which are com- 
 paratively unaltered, both as regards position and chemical 
 
MINERAL RESOURCiiS CF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 313 
 
 composition. They are for the most part hidden under thick 
 deposits of drift clay, and have hitherto produced no im- 
 portant discoveries of the metals ; but it is worthy of re- 
 mark that it is in limestone rocks of corresponding age and 
 condition that the extensive deposits of lead in Wisconsin 
 and Iowa occur. The limestones of this region, besides con- 
 tributing materially to its agricultural value, furnish excel- 
 lent building and paving materials ; and in many places beds 
 of hydraulic limestone are found, and a superior description 
 of lithographic stone maybe obtained in unlimited quantity. 
 
 The rocks of the western peninsula are of Upper Silurian 
 and Devonian age ; and furnish, by their decomposition, the 
 materials for the rich and fertile soils by which this part of 
 the province is distinguished, and rendered so invaluable 
 for agricultural purposes. The most important mineral pro- 
 ducts of the rocks of this region are gypsum, hydraulic lime 
 and petroleum. 
 
 The superficial deposits, all over the country, furnish 
 abundant materials for the manufacture of bricks, tiles and 
 every description of coarse pottery. Shellmarls occur in 
 many places, and constitute a valuable manure. Bog iron 
 ore is also found in great quantities, and at several points 
 has been made available in the manufacture of iron of an 
 excellent quality. Beds of ochre exist in many localities, 
 and considerable areas in the eastern part of the province 
 are covered by marshes yielding abundance of peat, which 
 must in time become most valuable for fuel. 
 
 CATALOGUE OF USEFUL MINERALS FOUND IN CANADA. 
 
 It will be impossible, within the limits prescribed to us, 
 to give more than a general and cursory account of the useful 
 minerals of Canada ; and with respect to many of them we 
 must confine ourselves to a bare enumeration. As the basis 
 of our remarks, we shall adopt the classification given by. 
 Sir William Logan; reproducing, in an abridged form, the 
 
314: MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 index to the elaborate and valuable " Descriptive Catalogues 
 of the JEconomic Minerals of Ganadaj^^ prepared by him for 
 the Grreat Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862; and omitting such 
 as are either common to most other countries, or of limited 
 application in the arts, together with such as appear to be 
 of rare occurrence in Canada. We shall then enter upon a 
 more particular account of such as are of special interest or 
 importance, giving such details as may serve to elucidate 
 their nature, mode of occurrence and value, and the extent 
 to which they have been developed. 
 
 METALS AND THEIR ORES. 
 
 Iron. Magnetic, specular, bog and titaniferous. 
 
 Zinc and Lead. Sulphurets, (blende and galena.) 
 
 Copper. Native, pyritous, variegated and vitreous sulphurets. 
 
 Nickel and Cobalt. Sulphurets. 
 
 Silver. Native, and associated with galena and copper ore. 
 
 Gold. Native ; in superficial deposits and in veins. 
 
 MINERALS APPLICABLE TO CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Chromium. In chromic iron ore, for forming chromate of 
 potash, &c. 
 
 Manganese. In iron ore, and as earthy peroxide, for bleach- 
 ing and decolorizing agents. 
 
 Iron Pyrites. For manufacture of copperas and sulphur 
 
 MINERAL PAINTS. 
 
 Iron Ochres. All varieties of color ; very abundant. 
 Sulphate of Baryta. For manufacture of permanent white, 
 
 &c. 
 Steatite. Soapstone, used both as a paint and a refractory 
 stone. 
 
 MATERIALS APPLICABLE TO THE ARTS. 
 
 Lithographic Stone, Mica, Moulding Sand, Fuller's Mzrth 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 315 
 
 MATERIALS APPLICABLE TO JEWELRY. 
 
 Agates, Jasper, Ldbradorite, Sunstone, Hyacinth, Oriental 
 Buhies, Sapphires, Amethysts, Ribboned Chert, (for 
 cameos,) Jet. 
 
 MATERIALS FOR GLASS MAKING. 
 
 While Quartzose Sandstone, Pitchstone, Basalt, &c. 
 
 REFRACTORY MATERIALS. 
 
 Soapstone, Pipestone, Asbestos, Sandstone, Plumbago, Fire-clay. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES. 
 
 Phosphate of Lime, Gypsum, Shellmarl 
 
 GRINDING AND POLISHING MATERIAL. 
 
 Millstones, Grindstones, Whetstones. 
 
 MATERIALS FOR COMMON AND DECORATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Granite, Sandstone, Limestone, Hydraulic Limestone, Roofing 
 Slates, Flagstones, Marbles, (in great variety of colors,) 
 Serpentines, Clays firr brich and tile making and coarse 
 pottery. 
 
 COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. 
 
 Peat, Petroleum, and Asphalt. 
 
 In tlie notices which we shall proceed to give of the pro- 
 gress of development of the various minerals under their 
 respective heads, it is to be understood that the date to which 
 this account is brought up is the early part of the year 1862. 
 
 IRON ORES. 
 
 The iron ores of Canada, with the exception of the bog 
 ores, which are distributed over many parts of the province, 
 are chiefly found associated, as we before remarked, with the 
 Laurentian rocks, in which they occur in prodigious quan- 
 tities, and generally in beds lyinsj conformably with the 
 
 \ 
 
316 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Stratification. Most of tliese beds are of very great extent 
 and thickness, and of excellent quality, yielding sixty to 
 seventy per cent, of pure iron ; and although the want of 
 mineral fuel operates as a very serious obstacle to the de- 
 velopment of this branch of industry, they have been par- 
 tially worked in a few places. 
 
 At the Hull mine, situated about five miles above Ottawa 
 City, the bed is about 90 feet in thickness, containing be- 
 tween 60 and 70 per cent, of metallic iron, and is of vast 
 though unknown extent. At the lowest estimate this de- 
 posit is calculated to contain not less than 250,000,000 tons 
 of iron. 
 
 The Crosby mine, situated on the Kideau canal, is on a 
 bed 200 feet thick, and its yield over the same extent of 
 ground would' amount to double that above-mentioned ; a 
 quantity which, at the present rate of production, would 
 afford employment for the whole mining force of Great 
 Britain and the United States for a century. 
 
 In the township of Marmora, where iron works have 
 been established and smelting done to a limited extent, 
 the beds are in the aggregate about 150 feet in thickness, 
 and by the same method of computation may be estimated 
 to contain 100,000,000 tons ; and at two other known loca- 
 tions which have been partially opened up, the probable 
 contents may amount to 150,000,000 tons; thus making, 
 for the five localities specified, an aggregate of 1,000,000,- 
 000 tons. Vast quantities of iron ore have recently been 
 discovered in the neighborhood of Lake Nipissing, and it 
 is certain that as the whole region overlaid by the Lauren- 
 tian rocks becomes settled, many additional localities of the 
 material will be discovered. It is thus evident that the 
 supply of iron ore in Canada may be regarded as practically 
 inexhaustible. 
 
 As regards the quality of the ore, and natural facilities 
 for working and transportation, these are unsurpassed by 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 317 
 
 any country in the world. The ore consists chiefly, in the 
 localities referred to, of the magnetic oxide of iron, which 
 is the same species, and occurring in the same geological 
 formation, with those of Sweden and Norway, from which 
 the celebrated Swedish Iron is made. There is therefore 
 every reason to believe that if treated in a similar way, it 
 will produce an equally good material for the manufacture 
 of steel and the finer descriptions of iron work. The ore-beds 
 occurring immediately at the surface can be wrought with 
 comparatively little labor, and many of the most promising 
 are situated near the banks of navigable rivers and canals. 
 
 The extensive scale on which iron smelting works must 
 necessarily be conducted, and the large capital involved, 
 together with the want of mineral fuel and expense of 
 labor, have hitherto operated as obstructions to the develop- 
 ment of this branch of industry in Canada; while the low 
 price of iron imported from the mother country renders 
 it doubtful whether, in present circumstances, it would re- 
 pay the cost of manufacturing. It is, however, in the 
 highest degree satisfactory to know that this country pos- 
 sesses within itself such vast stores of a material indispensa- 
 ble to the comfort and progress of mankind, and which can 
 be made available when circumstances render its applica- 
 tion expedient or necessary. 
 
 It is a remarkable and somewhat anomalous fact, how- 
 ever, that in the British provinces in North America, iron 
 smelting and some other branches of industry, received a 
 larger share of attention half a century ago than they do at 
 the present day. This is probably to be accounted for from 
 the application of the modern system of division of labor, 
 which tends to restrict the industry of countries, as well as 
 individuals, to those branches only which are supposed to 
 form their staple productions, or to which nature and custom 
 are conceived to have best adapted them. 
 
 Several years ago iron works were established, and smelt- 
 
318 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 ing carried on for some time, on the rich, magnetic oxides 
 in the townships of Marmora and Madoc in the county of 
 Hastings ; the produce was a very superior quality of man- 
 ufactured iron ; but owing chiefly to the want of roads, dis- 
 tance from markets, &c., they have been found unprofitable, 
 and abandoned in the meantime. We have no statistics of 
 the production of these works. Of late years a trade has 
 sprung up, to a limited extent, in the exportation of the 
 iron ores of Hull and Crosby to the smelting establishments 
 of Pittsburgh, Penn. ; which can be done with profit when 
 taken as return freight by the vessels carrying the agricul- 
 tural products of the West down the St. Lawrence. The ore 
 is worth from $5 to .$6 per ton at the furnaces, and can be 
 put on board at Kingston for $2.25. From the Hull mine 
 about 8,000 tons have been thus forwarded since 1855, and 
 from that of South Crosby, which is more conveniently 
 situated as regards proximity to the shipping port, the ex- 
 ports up to the year 1860 are stated at 6,000 tons. 
 
 Besides the magnetic oxides, specular iron ore abounds 
 in many localities in Canada, both in the Laurentian and 
 Lower Silurian groups of rocks, and red hematite or car- 
 bonate of iron is also of not unfrequent occurrence. About 
 fifty years ago, these descriptions of ores were mined for 
 smelting purposes in the neighborhood of Furnace Falls in 
 Landsdowne, but the works being found unprofitable at the 
 time, were abandoned. Eed hematite was formerly quar- 
 ried in the township of Brome, Canada East, of such 
 superior quality as to be found worthy of transportation a 
 distance of about 180 miles to be smelted. A great extent 
 of rich hematite has recently been discovered upon one 
 of the islands in Lake Nipissing. 
 
 Titaniferous iron ore is very abundant in Lower Canada, 
 chiefly in the Eastern townships and at Bay St. Paul, but 
 it is doubtful whether it Can be rendered available for 
 the manufacture of iron, owing to the presence of the 
 
MENEKAL KESOUECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 319 
 
 titanium which is difficult to separate, but which probably 
 may in the progress of the arts become itself a valuable 
 product. The deposit at Bay St. Paul, which is ninety 
 feet thick, and is traceable for about a mile, contains 
 48.60 of oxide of titanium. 
 
 The bog iron ores, which are found so extensively dif- 
 fused throughout Canada, have been in a few instances the 
 object of manufacturing industry. These ores occur in 
 patches from three to twenty -four inches thick, on the sur- 
 face, generally in the neighborhood of swampy lands, and 
 consist of hydrated oxide of iron combined with an acid de- 
 rived from vegetable decomposition ; their yield of metallic 
 iron is usually from forty to iifty per cent. The St. Maurice 
 forges at Three Rivers, in Lower Canada, which have 
 been in operation for upwards of a century, employ ex- 
 clusively this description of ore, which is found in great 
 abundance in the immediate neighborhood ; and have pro- 
 duced largely both of cast and wrought iron of a very 
 superior quality. This establishment, which at one time 
 employed from 250 to 300 hands, is now discontinued ; 
 but the business is carried on vigorously at the Radnor 
 forges in Batiscan, where the ore and fuel are abundant. 
 The chief manufacture here consists of cast-iron car- 
 wheels; and recently a rolling mill has been erected, 
 which produces railroad and other descriptions of fine iron. 
 The quantity of ore annually used at these works is be- 
 tween 4,000 and 5,000 tons, producing about 2,000 tons of 
 pig iron ; and the number of workmen varies from 200 to 
 400. 
 
 In Upper Canada an iron smelting work, in which the 
 bog ores were employed, was erected and carried on for 
 some time in the county of Xorfolk, on the shore of Lake 
 Erie, but is now abandoned, and no statistics of the pro- 
 duction of this work have, so far as we are aware, been 
 preserved. The excellent quality of the iron produced 
 from the bog ores of Canada is remarkable, inasmuch as 
 these invariably contain a notable quantity of phosphorus, 
 
320 MINERAL RE80UECK8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 which is generally, although, as it appears, erroneously^ 
 supposed to be highly prejudicial to the iron. 
 
 ZINC AND LEAD. 
 
 Hitherto no available deposits of zinc ore have been 
 discovered in Canada, although this metal is known to 
 exist at many places, and may yet become of economic 
 importance. Blende, or the sulphuret of zinc, is found 
 associated with copper in considerable proportion at Pointe 
 aux Mines, on Lake Superior, and it is also found with 
 galena at several points in the eastern townships. Deposits 
 of zinc ores mnst be large and favorably situated in order 
 to be worked with profit, and the sulphuret is not the 
 most valuable ore ; its occurrence in Canada, therefore, can 
 only be regarded as important in so far as it may lead, as 
 in other countries, to the discovery of the more useful ore, 
 calamine. 
 
 The officers of the geological survey have reported the 
 occurrence of galena, in many localities in Canada. 
 The most important is that now known as the Kamsay 
 lead mine, in the county of Lanark, C. W. Here the 
 rock intersected by the vein, which is of calc-spar, is an 
 arenaceous limestone, or dolomite, belonging to that di- 
 vision of the lower Silurian series known in New York 
 State and in Canada as the calciferous sand-rock. Mining 
 operations have been prosecuted with some success, and 
 have established beyond a doubt the important facts, 
 that the ore exists in true veins, which may be depended 
 upon for persistence in depth, and that its quality is most 
 excellent, producing eighty per cent, of metallic lead. Up- 
 wards of thirty tons of ore of this produce have been ob- 
 tained, and smelting works have been erected to reduce 
 the ore ; but the enterprise has languished from want of 
 sufficient capital to carry on the work efficiently. It is 
 expected that in the course of the present season (1862), 
 these mines will be worked by a powerful company, and 
 with good prospects of success. At other locations in the 
 
MINERAL KESOUECEB OF BEITISH NORTH AMERICA. 321 
 
 Bame district of country, as in the townships of Bedford 
 and Lansdowne, other veins have been discovered, hold- 
 ing a nearly uniform course, and which appear to be con- 
 nected with the well-known lead lodes of Kossie, in St. 
 Lawrence county, New York. Trial shafts have been 
 sunk on many of these veins, and with good prospects of 
 a successful result. 
 
 Galena is known to exist at several points in the 
 Quebec group of rocks, stretching from Lake Champlain 
 to Gaspo ; but it is as yet uncertain whether it occurs at 
 any place in sufficient quantity to be remunerative. At 
 Indian Cove, in Gaspe, a lead vein has been partially 
 explored, and has yielded about six tons of sixty per cent, 
 ore. 
 
 Galena has also been found in occasional bunches in the 
 Niagara limestone rocks, skirting the head of Lake Onta- 
 rio, and various attempts have been made to explore and 
 work them ; but no vein of any considerable importance 
 has yet been discovered here. 
 
 COPPEE. 
 
 This valuable metal undoubtedly constitutes the most 
 important of the mineral treasures of Canada, and is des- 
 tined to occupy a prominent rank among the resources of 
 the country. The ores of copper are found to be dis- 
 tributed abundantly over large tracts of country in the 
 western and eastern extremities of the province, their 
 existence having been known in the former case for nearly 
 two centuries, while in the latter, notwithstanding its 
 being a much more populous and accessible region, it has 
 onl}^ been brought to light within the last few years. The 
 Laurentian rocks have not hitherto been found to yield 
 any great deposits of copper ore, although veins of the 
 sulphurets have been traced in this formation which may 
 lead to more important discoveries. 
 
 Copper mining in^ the lake region. In the western part 
 of the province, the Huronian rocks, occupying the whole 
 
322 MINERAL EESOUECES OF BKITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 northern flank of Lake Huron, and parts of Lake Superior, 
 are traversed by numerous and powerful cupriferous veins, 
 wliicli liave formed the object of mining enterprise for many 
 years. The attention of travellers was attracted to the rich 
 copper ores of this region as far back as the middle of the 
 seventeenth century ; and in 1770 a company was actu- 
 ally formed by some enterprising Englishmen to work 
 copper mines on the north shores of Lake Superior ; but 
 owing to the remoteness and inaccessible nature of the coun- 
 try, it was found impracticable to continue operations for any 
 lengthened period. In 1845, when the excitement conse- 
 quent upon the great discoveries of copper on the south 
 shore of Lake Superior was at its height, similar mining 
 schemes were instituted on the Canadian side, and com- 
 panies were formed in Montreal, Quebec, and various 
 other Canadian cities, who with praiseworthy zeal, though 
 questionable discretion, sent armies of explorers and 
 miners into the field, equipped in the most extravagant 
 style, and who certainly obtained abundance of ore, but 
 at a cost greatly above its value. The consequence of 
 these rash and imprudent proceedings was that most of 
 the companies speedily abandoned their operations, after 
 the irretrievable loss of large sums of money ; and with 
 those who have continued in the business till the present 
 time, the debts thus incurred have proved a severe drag 
 upon their subsequent more cautious proceedings. The 
 Montreal Mining Company have prosecuted their works 
 till this time, and with tolerable success, at the Bruce Mine, 
 located on the shores of Lake Huron, where a group of cop- 
 per-bearing quartz lodes are found intersecting greenstone 
 rocks. On a careful examination instituted by Sir Wm. 
 Logan, in 1848, it was found that about 3,000 square fathoms 
 of the lodes would contain six and a half per cent, of cop- 
 per. The average annual produce of this mine during the 
 fourteen years of its existence has been about 700 tons, of 
 18 to 20 per cent. The deepest working is 60 fathoms 
 from the surface ; the mine employs about 34 hands. 
 
MINERAL EESOUKCES OF UKITISH NORTH AMERICA. 323 
 
 About four years ago the Montreal Mining Company- 
 leased one of their locations, the " Wellington Mine," to 
 a private English company, who have worked it with great 
 vigor and success. The lodes here are apparently con- 
 tinuations of those found on the Bruce location, and are 
 extremely powerful and productive. Tlie quantity of ore 
 obtained at this mine since 1857 is about 6,000 tons of 
 twenty per cent., and it is said to yield twenty-five per 
 cent, on the capital invested. The same company have 
 also recently opened on an adjoining location, which is 
 owned by the Huron Copper Bay Company, and have 
 discovered, very valuable deposits ; this mine being reported 
 to have yielded during 1861 not less than 1,300 tons of 
 twenty per cent. ore. The number of men on the Wel- 
 lington and Copper Bay Mines is supposed to be about 
 265. All the ore raised by this company is sent to Britain. 
 
 Smelting works have been established in connection with 
 the Bruce Mines, the coal being supplied at a nominal 
 rate of freight by the vessels which are sent to carry the 
 produce of the south shore mines. These works have 
 not hitherto been brought into successful operation, but if 
 skilfully and economically conducted, they cannot fail to 
 be of great advantage to the mining interests of this 
 region. The aggregate produce of the three Lake Huron 
 copper mines for 1861 is about 3,000 tons, worth about 
 $250,000, a considerable addition to the exports of the 
 country from one small port, but a mere fraction of what 
 might be done, should the government provide efficient 
 steam communication with the upper lakes. 
 
 The ores of the Lake Huron copper region are entirely 
 sulphurets, yellow, variegated, and vitreous — no native 
 copper being found. This form of the metal is, however, 
 found in considerable quantity at Maimanse, Michipicoten 
 island, and various other points on the north shore of Lake 
 Superior ; and it is quite possible that these regions may 
 ultimately prove as favorable for the production of copper 
 as the far-famed " south shore." 
 21 
 
324 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Copper mining in Canada East. We have already re- 
 marked that the rocks of the Lake Superior mining region 
 have their geological equivalents in the Quebec group in 
 Lower Canada, and accordingly we find them character- 
 ized by similar features as regards their metallic contents. 
 It is only within the last ten years that the existence of 
 copper ores has been recognized in the eastern part of the 
 province, and the discovery of their economic importance 
 is of still more recent date. So far as hitherto observed, 
 the deposits occur most abundantly, and in greatest rich- 
 ness, in the highly altered and disturbed strata constituting 
 the mountainous and picturesque region of the eastern 
 townships, extending from the province line, near the head 
 of Lake Champlain, in a north-easterly direction as far as 
 Quebec, and occupying a breadth of forty-five or fifty 
 miles. They occur chiefly in beds subordinate to the 
 stratification o^ the chloritic and micaceous slates, and asso- 
 ciated dolomitic limestones of the metamorphic lower Si- 
 lurian age, which are tilted to a high angle ; and the most 
 valuable deposits are found where these strata appear to 
 have been fissured or otherwise disturbed, and the openings 
 subsequently filled with ore. In some cases, also, veini 
 occur cutting the stratification at small angles, and these 
 give promise of being permanently reliable mines. The 
 ores are generally of an unusually rich character, and are 
 found in such variety as, by their mixture, to give great fa- 
 cilities for smelting. 
 
 '■ During the last two years (1860 and 1861), much activ- 
 ity has prevailed in prosecuting the search for valuable 
 minerals in the region in question, chiefly by individual 
 enterprise or by small companies. Surface explorations 
 have been made over a very large tract of country, and in 
 several instances actual mining operations have been com- 
 menced, and the results so far have proved highly encour- 
 aging. Deposits of the sulphurets of copper, more or less 
 promising, have been found to exist on upwards of 150 
 distinct lots, in various townships. On nine or ten loca- 
 
MINERAL EESOTJECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 325 
 
 tions, at great distances apart, trial shafts have been sunk 
 to a considerable depth, and in as many instances large 
 sums have been expended in costeening and trenching ; and 
 in almost all cases the deposits, when traced in depth, 
 have been found to improve in all the qualities requisite 
 for permanent and profitable mining. All that seems 
 wanting in order to establish the character of this promis- 
 ing mining region is the expenditure, at various well se- 
 lected points, of a moderate capital judiciously and eco- 
 nomically applied. These mines are very well situated as 
 regards transportation of the ores to market, the whole 
 district being traversed by railways, and at no point very 
 distant from water conveyance. 
 
 The only copper mines in Lower Canada which have as 
 yet produced much ore for the market are the Acton and 
 Harvey Hill mines. At Acton, in Bagot county, the ore, 
 which is associated with a dolomitic limestone, in conse- 
 quence apparently of complicated dislocations of the strata, 
 occurs at the surface, in a series of bunches of exceeding 
 richness, which have now for the most part been extracted 
 by open quarrying ; but on tracing this ore in depth, the 
 bunches appear to be connected with regular veins which 
 afford promise of being permanently productive, although 
 by a different and more satisfactory mode of working. In 
 the absence of full official returns, it may be safely esti- 
 mated that the Acton mine has, up to the close of the year 
 1861, produced not less than 6,000 tons of ore, averaging 
 seventeen per cent, produce, and worth about $400,000, at 
 a cost probably about one-sixth of that sum.* This mine 
 gave employment in 1861 to between 500 and 600 hands ; 
 and although its character as a good mine for permanent 
 
 * Since writing the above, it has been ascertained that the total value of 
 ore obtained at the Acton Mine, within three years after it was opened, was 
 $490,000. " It is believed that the history of mining in America affords no 
 parallel to this. In the majority of cases where copper mines have proved 
 ultimately profitable, it is only after the consumption of much time and the 
 investment of a large amount of capital that any returns have been realized." 
 — Dr. JacksoTi's Eejport on the Acton Mine^ 1862. 
 
326 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 and profitable working has been seriously injured by an 
 injudicious system of development, it is certain that the 
 ore is still very far from being exhausted. 
 
 At the Harvey Hill mine in Leeds (the property of the 
 English and Canadian Mining Co.), the works have been 
 prosecuted during the past three years with much skill and 
 vigor, in opposition to many and formidable difiiculties, 
 which seem at length likely to be crowned with merited suc- 
 cess. The ore, which consists of the pyritous, variegated, and 
 vitreous varieties, here occurs both in rich bunches in a series 
 of quartz courses of considerable though limited extent, 
 cutting the stratification at small angles, and in a more 
 diffused state in beds or bands coinciding therewith ; and is 
 attacked and extracted by regular and systematic under- 
 ground operations. The principal adit, when complete, 
 will cut all the courses at a depth of thirty-seven fathoms 
 from the summit of the hill, and will be 250 fathoms in 
 length. In order to save expense in transportation to 
 market, the ore is concentrated by dressing to thirty-five 
 per cent, or upwards. In opening up this mine, from 
 $80,000 to $100,000 have already been expended, and 
 during the past year it has produced about 130 tons of 
 thirty -five per cent, ore, worth about $18,000, and the to- 
 tal produce from the commencement may be estimated at 
 about $60,000.* The number of men employed is about 
 sixty ; the produce of this mine is all sent to England. 
 An experiment is now in process of trial at the Harvey 
 Hill mine for concentrating the poorer ores from the beds, 
 &c., by Henderson's patent process, which, if successful, 
 as there is every probability it will be, will add greatly to 
 the value of this, as well as all other copper mining prop- 
 erty in Canada. 
 
 The Ascot Mine, near Sherbrooke, opened in the fall of 
 
 * From a return made by Mr. Williams, at the close of the year 1862, we 
 find that the total quantity of ore shipped to England was 322 tons of 35 per 
 cent., besides about 2000 tons of poorer ore averaging 3^ per cent, then on 
 khe ground. 
 
MINERAL KESOTJKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERIGA.. 327 
 
 1861, has in five months produced about 100 tons of eight 
 or nine per cent, ore, with very little cost for working. 
 This mine has been opened on a twist in the stratification 
 of the chloritic and slaty limestone of the country, which 
 appears to have folded the copper-bearing bed upon itself, 
 giving three courses of ore in the breadth of eighty feet. 
 The ore-bearing bed, which is at one place about eight feet 
 thick, carries the yellow sulphuret of copper disseminated 
 throughout the mass, and is simply broken up and barrelled 
 for market without any special dressing. The total depth 
 reached is about seven fathoms, and the beds seem to in- 
 crease in richness as they are traced in depth. The rock 
 is m'ined with unusual facility; the ore has hitherto been 
 sent chiefly to the Boston smelting works, where it is much 
 prized for its valuable fluxing qualities. 
 
 At other mining locations in the townships of Sutton, 
 Melbourne, Durham, Wickham, and Upton, and in the 
 Seignory of Lotbiniere, some progress has been made in 
 the extraction of ore, the total value of which may be esti- 
 mated at $8,000 ; but these operations must be regarded 
 as only preliminary, this branch of industry being as yet 
 quite in its infancy ; and it is a highly gratifying feature 
 in these mines, that the ore incidentally obtained in test- 
 ing them frequently suffices to defray the expense. 
 
 As regards the comparative advantages of mining in 
 Canada and in England, we have to remark, that although 
 at present the expenses both of labor and transportation 
 are considerably greater in Canada, these evils may be ex- 
 pected to cure themselves as soon as mining becomes an 
 " institution" among us — the first by the immigration of 
 Cornish hands, and the latter by the erection of smelting 
 furnaces, or other means of concentrating the ores, at or near 
 the mines, or at the nearest coal country in British l^orth 
 America, — ISTova Scotia, — which must in time occupy the 
 same position with regard to the mining region of Lower 
 Canada that South Wales holds with respect to Cornwall. 
 As an ample set-ofi" to these present disadvantages, we may 
 
328 MINERAL EE30UECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 mention the greatly superior richness of the ores in Canada, 
 their greater proximity to the surface, dispensing with 
 much costly machinery for pumping, &c., and abundance 
 of wood for timbering and for fuel. 
 
 The mining adventurers in some instances purchase 
 the land with the minerals, but in general the mode of 
 tenure is by lease of the minerals only for a considerable 
 term of years, with payment of a royalty. The extraor- 
 dinary success of the Acton Mines, and the excitement 
 consequent upon the novelty of the discoveries, at first 
 rendered the proprietors exorbitant in their demands — a 
 per-centage of one-tenth of the gross proceeds, and in 
 some instances a bonus besides, being required be'fore 
 granting a lease. As, however, it became apparent that 
 the Acton deposits were altogether of an excef>tional cliar- 
 acter, and that the risk and expense of proving locations 
 and of underground working will not admit of any such 
 terms, there is a general disposition on the part of the 
 proprietors to encourage mining adventurers as well as 
 benefit themselves by exacting only moderate royalties. 
 
 It is the duty of government also, and of all public 
 companies interested in these lands, to foster and encour- 
 age this new branch of industry by assisting in the con- 
 struction of roads, by low tariffs on railways, and by all 
 other means in their power. 
 
 NICKEL AND COBALT. 
 
 Nickel has been found in several localities in Canada, 
 In rocks of the Laurentian, Iluronian, and Lower Silu- 
 rian ages, but it is as yet doubtful if it exist at any one 
 place in quantities which w^ould be remunerative in work- 
 ing. The most remarkable instance of its occurrence is in 
 the island of Hichipicoten in Lake Superior, where it 
 exists in the forms of the arseniurets and silicates of nickel, 
 associated with copper, silver, and traces of cobalt, and 
 yielding from seventeen to thirty-seven per cent, of nickel. 
 It is reported that considerable quantities of this ore were 
 
MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 329^ 
 
 thrown into the lake after being stamped and washed 
 for the native silver, the workmen being ignorant of its 
 value. This metal has also been found in considerable 
 abundance at the "Wallace Mine, on Lake Huron, as 
 an arsenical sulphuret, associated with iron pyrites; the 
 ore here yields thirteen per cent, of nickel, with a little 
 cobalt. 
 
 At Brompton Lake, in the Eastern township, nickel has 
 been found in the form of MilUrite^ or needle-nickel, 
 exhibiting beautiful slender elongated prisms, associated 
 with calc-spar and chrome garnets — specimens of the rock 
 yielding to analysis as much as one per cent, of nickel, 
 which, according to the modern systems of separating, 
 might pay for working. Traces of cobalt are found in 
 many places in Canada, but not in sufficient quantity to 
 be of much economic importance ; at one locality, how- 
 ever, in Elizabethtown, near Brockville, a great bed of 
 cobaltiferous pyrites occurs ; the ore yielding to assays one- 
 half per cent, of cobalt, which, according to the modern 
 systems of working, would yield a profitable result. The 
 presence of nickel and cobalt has been recognized in rocks 
 in Canada, which in the neighboring State of New York, 
 and in similar conditions, have yielded these valuable 
 metals in considerable abundance. 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 !N"ative silver is found with the native copper in Michi- 
 picoten, St. Ignace, and Spar Islands, in Lake Superior; 
 also at the latter location it is found as a sulphuret, asso- 
 ciated with sulphurets of iron, copper, lead, and zinc, in 
 a thick vein of calc-spar, barytes, and quartz. An assay 
 of a sample of several hundred pounds of the vein yielded 
 about four per cent, of silver, with traces of gold. 
 
 Most of the galena found in Canada is exceedingly 
 poor iji silver, but specimens from Maimanse, and other 
 points on Lake Superior, have yielded thirty ounces to the 
 ton of metaUic lead, and other ores from the Chaudiere, 
 
330 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 and from a vein near Slierbrooke, in Lower Canada, con- 
 tain respectively twenty-five ounces and sixty ounces of 
 silver per ton of lead. In all these cases, however, so far 
 as yet ascertained, the galena is diffused through* such 
 masses of rock as to make it questionable if it would pay 
 to separate the silver. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Discoveries of gold have been made at several localities, 
 and in fair quantity in Eastern Canada ; chiefly in the val- 
 leys of the rivers Chaudiere and Du Loup, and their tribu- 
 taries, and on the St. Francis, all in the eastern townships. 
 In all cases it has been obtained by a laborious process of 
 washing or stream-work^ the material subjected to this pro- 
 cess consisting of drift clay and gravel, the debris of the 
 rocks on which they repose. These rocks consist of clay, 
 slates, and interstratified gray sandstones, associated with 
 conglomerates, serpentine, and various ores of iron ; and it 
 s^ems probable that the gold-producing regions will have 
 the same geographical limits as those we have assigned to 
 the Quebec group of rocks. The precious metal has not 
 hitherto been found in any considerable quantity in the 
 quartz veins which traverse these regions, but it has been 
 proved that these veins do produce it, and there can be 
 little doubt that the gold found in the drift has been derived 
 from quartz veins, probably situated not far distant. The 
 largest nuggets found vary from one-half to six ounces. 
 
 The work of gold-washing in the drift has been prose- 
 cuted to a limited extent, during the last twelve years, by 
 various companies and individuals, and with fair success. 
 In 1851, the Canada Gold Mining Company commenced 
 a trial of the drift along the Riviere du Loup, near its junc- 
 tion with the Chaudiere ; their operations extended over 
 three years, the greatest part of the gold being obtained 
 in the bed of the river, and, allowing for the large ai^iount 
 of unprofitable preliminary labor, the results are suffi- 
 ciently encouraging. 
 
MINEEAL BESOURCES OF BKITISH NORTH AMERICA. 331 
 
 The following are the returns for the years 1851 and 
 1852, as given by Sir William Logan : 
 
 Year, Area washed. Gold collected. Value. Wages. Profit. 
 
 1851 facre. 2,107 dwts., 11 grs. $1,826.46 $1,644.33 $182.13 
 f " 2,880 " 19 " 2,496.69 l,r 
 
 1852 
 
 .35 508.34 
 
 Total, 1 acre. 4,987 dwts., 30 grs. $4,323.15 $3,532.68 $690.47 
 
 Sir William states that daring the time of his observa- 
 tions the deposit yielded about double wages. Since this 
 company discontinued their operations, no regular attempts 
 have been made to turn the auriferous drift to profitable 
 account, excepting on a very small scale by the French Ca- 
 nadian habitants, who occasionally bring to Quebec nug- 
 gets of considerable size as the fruits of their labors. 
 There seems little doubt, however, that, were the field laid 
 open to foreign enterprise, and the improved modern sys- 
 tems of separating the precious metal systematically pros- 
 ecuted, the gold fields of Canada would attract much 
 attention. Probably the government does not deem it 
 politic to encourage a description of industry which has, if 
 unduly excited, somewhat of a demoralizing eifect upon 
 the population. 
 
 CHROMIC IROK. 
 This mineral, which is highly prized for the manufac- 
 ture of the chromates of potash and lead, and for the pro- 
 duction of many beautiful red, yellow, and green colors, is 
 found in considerable quantities in the eastern townships 
 of Canada, chiefly in Bolton, Melbourne, and Ham, and 
 in the Shickshock Mountains in Gaspe. It is usually found 
 associated with beds of serpentine, in which the ore occurs in 
 masses or nodules, sometimes about 1,000 pounds weight, 
 but usually of much smaller dimensions. In the township 
 of Ham the bed has been partially worked, and has pro- 
 duced about ten tons of the ore, containing forty-five per 
 cent, of oxide of chromium, from seven square fathoms of 
 the bed. Besides the localities specified, chromic iron is 
 found in many other places in Canada, but generally not 
 
332 MINERAL KESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 in sufficient aggregation to be profitably workable. The 
 value of this mineral in England is stated to be about one 
 dollar per unit per ton, which would afford an ample profit 
 upon its exportation, and a very handsome return to parties 
 who would undertake to invest capital in the preparation 
 of the oxide from the raw material, in the province itself. 
 
 The following remarks on the method of manufacturing 
 bichromate of potash in Korway, by Mr. Thomas Macfar- 
 lane, of Acton, will be found interesting : 
 
 " The ore, in fine powder, is ignited in a reverberatory 
 furnace, with about thirty per cent, of calcined potash and 
 little or no saltpetre. The resulting mixture yields, on 
 lixiviation with water, a solution of neutral chromate of 
 potash, which separates as a granular salt on evaporation. 
 It is redissolved, and the solution treated with a certain 
 quantity of sulphuric acid, when crystallized bichromate 
 of potash is obtained; one hundred parts of ore yield 
 about thirty-seven of bichromate, equal to twenty per cent, 
 of chromic oxide. 
 
 " The manufacture suffers from expensive cartage of 
 fuel, and high prices of potash, which is chiefly imported 
 from Eussia. In Canada, at South Ham, Bolton, and Mel- 
 bourne, the ores are much richer and more extensive ; in 
 the first named place, containing forty-three per cent, of 
 chromic oxide. In Canada, around the mines of the east- 
 ern townships, the settler destroys acres of timber, the 
 softer parts of which he might burn into charcoal, and 
 manufacture tons of potash, which the chrome miner 
 might buy, and use to manufacture his ore into chromate 
 of potash, at a highly profitable rate. I am not aware of 
 any district where greater advantages exist. May they 
 soon be appreciated and taken advantage of as they de- 
 
 serve. 
 
 IRON OCHRES. 
 
 Yery extensive beds of hydrated peroxide of iron, con- 
 stituting the ochres of commerce, are distributed in many 
 parts of Canada, and chiefly in association with tlie bog 
 
MINEKAL KESOURCES OF BRITISH NOETH AMEEICA. 333 
 
 iron ores, which are, in point of fact, nearly of tlie same 
 origin and composition, only differing in the condition in 
 which their elements are combined. In many places 
 these substances are actually found in process of forma- 
 tion, the iron being visibly precipitated from springs hold- 
 ing it in solution. 
 
 Some of the ochre beds of Canada have been partially 
 worked, and supply an excellent material, of a great va- 
 riety of shades of color. The principal locality where 
 the manufacture of this description of paints has been 
 carried on is at Pointe du Lac, on the north shore of the 
 St. Lawrence, near Three Rivers, in Lower Canada, where 
 the deposit occupies an area of about 400 acres, with an 
 average thickness of eighteen inches ; but the enterprise 
 appears for the present to be abandoned. It was prepared 
 for the market at very little cost, and the works were ca- 
 pable of producing twelve barrels per day, worth ^ve dol- 
 lars per ban-el. Sir "Wm. Logan remarks in his Report, 
 in regard to the exhibition of Canadian minerals at Lon- 
 don, in 1851 : " I was informed by one of the principal 
 manufacturers of paints in London, that the iron ochres 
 from Canada were of the best usual description, and equal 
 to those now imported from France. The French ochres 
 imported into London in the crude state, and prepared 
 there on a large scale, can be sold to a profit at £8 ($15) 
 per ton ; and the superiority of the English manufacturers 
 over the French is such, that the latter, preparing the ma- 
 terial at home and exporting it to London, cannot ob- 
 tain a profit unless they can sell the commodity at £6 per 
 ton. The charges of freight mav render it difficult to 
 transport the Canadian ochre across the Atlantic at a 
 profit, but the abundance of the material in the country 
 should surely render it unnecessary that any should be im- 
 ported into this or the neighboring colonies." 
 
 SULPHATE OF BARYTES. 
 This mineral, otherwise called heavy-spar, and which is 
 much used in the manufacture of a white paint, and for 
 
334 MINBRAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 adulterating white lead, occurs abundantly at Baryta 
 Island, in Lake Superior ; and also in the townships of 
 Bedford, Bastard, Lansdowne, and McNab ; it forms, in 
 conjunction with calc-spar, the gangue of many of the 
 metallic veins, chiefly those of galena. At one place in 
 the township of Bastard, as described by Mr. Murray, 
 assistant provincial geologist, these minerals constitute a 
 vein traceable for a quarter of a mile in length, with a 
 breadth of twenty-eight inches, consisting in some places al- 
 most entirely of pure crystallized sulphate of barytes, yield- 
 ing about ten tons per fathom. The value of the crude mate- 
 rial is said to be $8 to $10 per ton to the manufacturer, 
 while the manufactured article is worth $30 per ton. 
 
 STEATITE OR SOAPSTONE. 
 
 This mineral, which is composed of silica and magnesia, 
 possesses many valuable and Useful properties. It is soft 
 and unctuous to the touch, capable of being worked into 
 any required shape by conmion carpenters' tools, and is 
 little affected by exposure to intense heat or strong acids. 
 In Canada it is used occasionally as a refractory stone, 
 and is found in beds of twenty and thirty feet thick re- 
 spectively, in the townships of Sutton and Bolton, associ- 
 ated with serpentine and dolomite. It also exists in the 
 townships of Leeds and Stanstead, where it is ground and 
 employed as a paint. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHIC STONE. 
 A species of limestone belonging to the period of the 
 lower Silurian formation, and occurring in the township 
 of Marmora, in the vicinity of the iron-works already men- 
 tioned, is found to be exceedingly well adapted to^the pur- 
 poses of lithography, and attracted much attention and 
 commendation at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, 
 although hitherto no attempt has been made to quarry it 
 for use. The bed from which this valuable material is de- 
 rived is of great lineal extent and about two feet in thick- 
 
MINERAL KESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 335 
 
 ness, and is distingiiislied for its perfect homogeneity, close- 
 ness and compactness of texture, and other excellent 
 qualities for the purpose referred to. Another locality of 
 this material, in the upper Silurian rocks, has recently 
 been discovered in Canada West, near "VYalkerton, Brant 
 county, where not less than fifteen beds of limestone, ad- 
 mirably adapted for this purpose, occur in a thickness of 
 nine feet. Good lithographic stone is said to be worth 
 about seven cents per pound. 
 
 MICA. 
 This remarkable mineral is found in great abundance 
 and of extreme purity in some parts of Canada, and has 
 been to a limited extent applied to economic purposes. 
 " The cleavable character of mica," says Sir William Lo- 
 gan, " its transparency, its elasticity and refractory nature, 
 render it valuable for several purposes, the more impor- 
 tant of which relate to it as a substitute for glass for ships' 
 windows,, and in some countries for house windows, for 
 stove fronts, and such like applications. For the latter 
 purpose it is greatly used in North America. The price 
 at wiiich plates of five by seven inches sell in Montreal is 
 about a dollar the pound.'' Sir William further states 
 that the Canadian mica attracted so much notice at the 
 French Exposition in 1855, as to induce inquiries by an 
 artist in Paris, who stated that he could use about 12,000 
 lbs. annually. He could afford to pay the following prices 
 for square plates of it, according to size : 
 
 From 3| inches to 5| inches $34.00 per 100 lbs. 
 " 5i " 1i " 40.00 " 
 
 " 1i " " " 46.75 " 
 
 " 9| " " " 53.5Y " 
 
 In Grenville, on the Ottawa Eiver, where the mineral 
 is found in great quantity, but in patches imbedded in 
 massive pyroxenic rock in contact with a bed of crystalline 
 limestone, crystals of mica have been obtained giving sheets 
 measuring twenty-four by fourteen inches. At another 
 
836 MTNEEAL BESOUBCES OF BKITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 locality in the township of ITorth Burgess, near the Hideau 
 Canal, the mineral is found in regular veins, or rather bands, 
 running parallel with each other at no great distance apart, 
 some of which are as much as four feet in width, and can 
 be traced for seventy-five yards in length. These deposits 
 have yielded good plates, which when dressed measure 
 twenty by thirty inches; the average size, however, 
 varies from three to ten inches square, of which great 
 quantities can be obtained in this locality. 
 
 At present the demand for mica is rather limited, but 
 there can be no doubt that a material possessing such re- 
 markable and valuable properties must, in the progress of 
 the arts, and when its abundant supply is established, find 
 many economic applications. 
 
 In addition to the uses mentioned above, it has recently 
 been much employed in photographic manipulations, and 
 for the manufacture of stable and other lanterns ; and 
 large flakes are eagerly sought after by optical instrument 
 makers, for dials for ships' compasses. A flake, one inch 
 thick can be divided into the astonishing number of 2,000 
 sheets. 
 
 Kecently a new field has been opened up, by a patent 
 process for the application of mica, previously colored or 
 metallized, to the decorating of churches, rooms, shops, 
 and other ornamental and useful purposes. The mica 
 from its unalterable nature, preserves the gilding, silver- 
 ing, or coloring from deterioration, and from its transpa- 
 rency the articles so treated will preserve all their bril- 
 liancy. The value of mica depends upon the size of the 
 sheets and their transparency. In the London market, to 
 which Canada has supplied about two tons, of the total net 
 value of £450 sterling, the Canadian mica is not so much 
 esteemed as that from Calcutta, which commands from 
 two shillings sixpence to four shillings per lb., while the Ca- 
 nadian will rarely exceed two shillings. The location in 
 North Burgess, mentioned above, has supplied the only mica 
 hitherto exported from Canada, so far as we are aware. 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 337 
 
 PLUMBAGO, OR GRAPHITE. ' 
 
 The crystalline limestones of tlie Laurentian system, 
 and some of the lower members of the Silurian system, 
 are marked by the occurrence of this mineral in many 
 cases, diffu'sed in small scales and flakes ; but sometimes 
 in sufficient aggregation to be economically available. The 
 chief locality where it seems to occur in workable quan- 
 tities, is in the townships bordering the north bank of the 
 Ottawa river, below Ottawa City. A bed of tolerably pure 
 graphite has been partially worked in the township of 
 Grenville ; it has been traced at intervals for a distance of 
 about three mileo, and shows on the surface a thickness of 
 ten inches ; but the purer portions of the band appear to 
 form lenticular masses, which cannot be depended upon 
 for continuous working, and, consequently, may not be 
 found profitable in mining. This, so far as hitherto as- 
 certained, seems to be the character of the deposits of 
 graphite generally throughout Canada. At the present 
 time it is essential to the commercial value of this mate- 
 rial, that it should be almost free from gritty or stony par- 
 ticles ; but economical methods of purifying it will doubt- 
 less be applied at an early day, and will secure a regular 
 market for the Canadian plumbago, some of which is found 
 in a state of great purity, and is worth from eighty to 
 one hundred dollars per ton. The chief applications of 
 this material are for the manufacture of crucibles for brass- 
 founders, fur glazing gunpowder, blacking stoves, &c., and 
 for diminishing friction in heavy machinery. Processes 
 have recently been patented in England, by Messrs. 
 Brockedon and Brodie, for the purification of ordinary 
 plumbago, so as to render it fit for the manufacture of 
 black-lead pencils. These have been ascertained to be 
 successfully applicable to the Canadian article, and will 
 thus render the mining of this valuable mineral, on an ex- 
 tensive scale, well worthy of attention. We are not aware 
 
338 MINERAL EESOtJKCES OF BKITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 that any considerable quantity of plumbago has yet been 
 produced in Canada. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES.— PHOSPHATE OP LIME.— GYPSUM.— 
 SHELL-MARL. 
 
 Apatite m* Phosphate of Lime. — This mineral, the con- 
 stituent elements of which form the base of animal bones, 
 is found in great abundance in the Laurentian rocks of 
 Canada ; and although not hitherto brought into very gen- 
 eral use as an artificial manure, is plentifully distributed by 
 the hand of nature from the debris of the rocks among the 
 soils, contributing no doubt very materially to their fertil- 
 ity and value. Its occurrence in rocks of such primitive geo- 
 logical age, points to the existence of animal life at a period 
 vastly earlier than the received geological theories admit. 
 
 The mineral phosphate of lime has for some years back 
 attracted considerable attention, both in England and the 
 United States, as a substitute for guano and bone-dust. 
 So important is the substance deemed, that the British 
 government sent commissioners to Estremadura in Spain, 
 where the mineral is found, for the purpose of arranging 
 for its importation into England ; but the result was that 
 it did not appear to exist in sufficient quantity ; so that the 
 only mineral phosphate now used by the agriculturists in 
 England is obtained from the crag on the coast of Suffolk. 
 This, however, is very impure, containing much carbonate 
 of lime and other earthy matters ; while the mineral phos- 
 phate found in Canada is nearly in a pure, and much of 
 it in a crystallized state. Although it has not yet been 
 mined to any considerable extent, sufficient has been as- 
 certained with regard to its mode of occurrence to render 
 it certain that it can be obtained in very great quantities, 
 and it may be hoped that it will supersede the use of 
 bones, of which probably not less than £400,000 or £500,- 
 000 worth are annually imported into England. Besides 
 the use of bone-dust for agricultural purposes, several 
 thousand tons of it are annually used in England for the 
 
MmEEAL EES0UKCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 339 
 
 manufacture of china ware, at a cost of from seven pounds 
 to ten pounds per ton. Probably the mineral phosphate 
 might be successfully applied as a substitute for this pur- 
 pose also. As a manure it has been actually applied to 
 the land with great success ; but a good and cheap method 
 of decomposing it, previous to applying it to the soil, is 
 still a desideratum. The usual mode of applying it as a 
 manure, is to grind the mineral to powder, and treat with 
 coarse sulphuric acid ; about two-thirds of the phosphate 
 is thus at once liberated, and enters into combination with 
 the soil, while the remaining third will act upon the 
 ground the ensuing year, by becoming soluble by natural 
 
 This mineral is found very extensively distributed 
 among the Laurentian rocks, both in detached nodules 
 and in crystals ; but the most important locality of its oc- 
 currence hitherto discovered is in the township of South 
 Burgess, where it forms a massive bed of unknown though 
 evidently very great dimensions, which has been quarried 
 to a small extent. Another deposit in the adjoining town- 
 ship of Elmsley, but which, from the direction of the beds, 
 seems to be in the same band, has also been worked a little, 
 and apparently forms an irregular bed in the Laurentian 
 limestone. This bed has been traced upwards of a mile, 
 and seems to be about ten feet wide, of which three feet 
 are nearly pure crystalline apatite, containing about ninety 
 per cent, of phosphate of lime, the remainder being mixed 
 with the limestone rock, in which, however, the phosphate 
 greatly predominates. The deposit in South Burgess has 
 the great advantage of being very easily quarried, and of 
 being situated immediately upon one of the reaches of the 
 Eideau canal. The mineral is stated to be worth from 
 twenty to thirty dollars per ton in England, the value oi' 
 course varying according to the percentage of phosphoric 
 acid. When we consider the bearing of the phosphate of 
 lime upon the animal and vegetable economy, we must 
 regard the discovery of this substance in such abundance, 
 22 
 
340 MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 and so easily accessible, as one of the most valuable of the 
 sources of wealth which has been added to the country 
 during the last few years. ^*^^'4'' 
 
 Gypsum. — In regard to this valuable material, the fol- 
 lowing extracts from a lecture delivered by Professor Hind 
 of Toronto, in 1857, are pertinent and exhaustive: "The 
 vast areas occupied by the rocks yielding gypsum in 
 Western Canada have for many years been regarded as 
 sources of great national wealth. Our gypsiferous rocks 
 extend from the Niagara to the Saugeen, a distance of 150 
 miles, and have a breadth varying from ^\q to fifteen and 
 even twenty miles. Gypsum has been quarried in the 
 townships of Dumfries, Brantford, Oneida, Cayuga, and 
 others in the valley of the Grand River ; it will probably 
 be found in great abundance in the valley of the Saugeen 
 when that fertile tract of country becomes better known. 
 
 " Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is used in the arts for 
 numerous purposes. It is employed by potters for pro- 
 curing moulds with its calcined powder, moistened with a 
 proper quantity 6f water. The finer kinds are selected 
 for the mi\^ufacture of the alabaster ornaments so much 
 admired. When properly calcined, and ground to a fine 
 powder, it ir largely employed for stucco-work, statues, and 
 statuettes; when mixed with glue or gelatine, colored 
 stuccoes of great hardness and beauty are made from it. 
 It is admirably adapted for taking casts of objects, and is 
 frequently employed for that purpose. When mixed with 
 alum, borax, or potash, a variety of materials greatly prized 
 in the plastic arts are produced. The subject is one of 
 general interest, ai? d the vast deposits of gypsum in Canada 
 will no doubt becone considerable sources of wealth when 
 the proper time arrives. 
 
 "For agricultural purposes the value of gypsum is too 
 well known to require ranch notice here ; a growing ap- 
 preciation of its worth is shewn in the yearly increasing 
 demand, and it is now found for sale in large quantities in 
 most Canadian towns* It i>* a fact ascertained by tlie eie- 
 
MINERAL BESOUECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 341 
 
 perience of very many years in France and Germany, and 
 more recently in America, that gypsum, when judiciously 
 applied, sometimes doubles and even trebles the quantity 
 of certain plants usually grown on a given area. A study 
 of the mode and time of applying it, and of the plants 
 most benefited by it, ought not to be lost sight of in Can- 
 ada, where it so largely abounds. The value of the exports 
 from Canada of ground plaster and hydraulic lime shows 
 a steady and important increase. In 1853 it was £1,340 ; 
 in 1854, £2,017; and in 1855, £19,112." 
 
 Sir William Logan remarks : " All the gypsum mines 
 at present worked in Canada occur on the Grand River, 
 in a distance of thirty-five miles, extending from Cayuga 
 to Paris. All the mines appear to be confined to one 
 Btratigraphical position in the formation, which is probably 
 about the middle. The mineral occurs in lenticular 
 masses, varying in horizontal diameter from a few yards 
 to a quarter of a mile, with a thickness of from three to 
 seven feet. The layer of gypsum appears to be in general 
 both overlaid and underlaid by beds of dolomite, much of 
 which is fit for the purpose of hydraulic cement, and the 
 gypsum, itself is sometimes interstratified with thin beds 
 of dolomite. In some parts there appear to be two work- 
 able ranges of gypsum, one a few feet above the other. 
 But this probably is only to be considered as a thickening 
 of the gypsiferous band with an interstratification of a 
 larger mass of dolomite." 
 
 The business of mining gypsum in Canada, and of pre- 
 paring it for the market, has been in existence for the last 
 fourteen or fifteen years. The following is the amount 
 raised annually from the quarries on the Grand River, 
 according to Sir Wm. Logan's returns : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 T. Martindale, Oneida, 3,500 
 
 J.Donaldson, *' 1,500 
 
 A. Taylor, York 3,000 
 
 Thompson & Wright, Paris 4,000 
 
 J. Brown, Cayuga, 2,000 
 
 14^000 
 
342 MINERAL EESOUEEES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The greater part of this gypsum is employed for agricul- 
 tural purposes, and the prices at which it is sold are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Plaster, unground $2.00 
 
 " ground for agricultural purposes 3.50 — 4.00 
 
 " " stucco, raw 5.50 — 7.00 
 
 " " " calcined 16.00 
 
 Much of the produce of these mines is sent to be ground 
 and prepared for market by Mr. Brown of Thorold, on the 
 Welland Canal, who has for the last fifteen years manu- 
 factured on an average 1,000 tons annually. 
 
 Shell Marl. Yast deposits of recent shell marl and cal- 
 careous tufa are found in various localities, and in all parts 
 of Canada, too numerous to be here specified. Wherever 
 they occur the land is characterized by a luxuriant vege- 
 tation, and dense growth of hard- wood timber, indicating 
 their extraordinary fertilizing properties on the soil. The 
 deposits of shell marl extend in some instances, as in the 
 township of Sheffield, county of Addington, C. "W., about 
 400 acres, with a thickness over the greater portion of at least 
 ten feet. One of the deposits of calcareous tufa is supposed 
 to extend over more .than 1,000 acres, with an average 
 thickness of five feet. 
 
 HYDRAULIC CEMENT.-ROOFING SLATES. 
 At several points, and in various geological formations in 
 Canada, silicious dolomites occur, which, when carefully 
 calcined and ground, are found to furnish a very superior 
 description of water-lime or cement, which rapidly hardens 
 under, and permanently resists the action of water ; this 
 invaluable property being due to their containing a definite 
 proportion of silicious and magnesian salts associated with 
 the lime. The principal localities where limestones hold- 
 ing the proper admixture of the materials named have been 
 discovered are at Paris, Cayuga, Thorold, Kingston, and 
 Loughborough in Canada West, and at ISTepean or Hull, 
 Quebec, and the Magdalen Kiver in Gaspe, Canada 
 
MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BKITISH NORTH AMERICA. 343 
 
 East. In some of these localities tlie beds have been 
 worked ; those of Hull and Thorold are of excellent qual- 
 ity and are highly esteemed. During the construction of 
 various railway and other public works within the last ten 
 years, the quantity of cement manufactured by Mr. Brown 
 of Thorold averaged 80,000 bushels annually, but at present 
 the quantity does not exceed one-tenth of that amount. 
 The present price of the cement is from twenty to twenty- 
 five cents per bushel of sixty pounds. The average annual 
 value of cement ground at the Thorold mills, for the last 
 eighteen years, varies from $3,000 to $6,000. 
 
 Roojmg Slates. — " Slate is a material daily becoming 
 more valuable, on account of the vast variety of useful 
 purposes to which it is applied. One of its most import- 
 ant characteristics is its strength ; it is computed to be 
 about four times as strong as ordinary stone, and slabs 
 eight feet long and upwards can be safely used of a thick- 
 ness not exceeding half an inch. It is a non-absorbent of 
 moisture, and is thus adapted as an admirable lining for 
 wells and for roofing houses. The economical importance 
 of slates has attracted attention to their distribution in 
 Lower Canada, and already large quarries are worked which 
 furnish slate of a superior quality." — Professor Hind's 
 Lecture. 
 
 Sir William Logan makes the following valuable re- 
 marks on the numerous useful applications of slate : " ^ot 
 only is it applied as a covering for houses, but it is employed 
 as walls for cisterns to hold water, slabs of fifteen feet by 
 eight being sometimes used for this purpose ; in smaller 
 dimensions it is used for wine-coolers, dairy dressers, 
 kitchen and hall flooring, tables, chimney mantels, and 
 a multitude of other purposes where surface is required. 
 In its application as tables and chimney-pieces, it is capa- 
 ble of receiving a high degree of decoration : the tables, 
 after being dressed to the smoothest possible surface, are 
 embellished with gilding, or with paintings in colors resist- 
 ing fire, showing landscapes or imitations of stone ; and a 
 
344: MINERAL EESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 silicious varnish being applied, the stone is subjected to a 
 heat which melts the varnish into an enamel, and produces 
 a brilliant result. Chimney-pieces in the same way are 
 enamelled over the natural color of the stone, or over a 
 fancy color given to it. When the color is black, it is 
 difficult to distinguish the slate from a brilliantly polished 
 and valuable black marble, while the cost is comparatively 
 small. The great number of purposes to which good 
 slate is applicable render the rock of great economic import- 
 ance and well worthy of research." To the many advan- 
 tages above enumerated, attending the use of this material, 
 may be added the extraordinary facility with which it can 
 be worked into any required shape. 
 
 The best slate quarry hitherto found in Canada is Mr. 
 Benjamin Walton's, in the township of Melbourne, C. E. ; 
 the band of slate is one-third of a mile wide, and overlies 
 serpentine rock ; thus marking its geological position to 
 be in the Quebec group of the lower Silurian system, and 
 probably equivalent to that of the far-famed Welsh slate 
 rocks. Mr. Walton commenced preliminary operations in 
 1860, and has produced slates for the market since the 
 spring of 1861. In opening up the quarry an expendi- 
 ture of about $30,000 is said to have been incurred, and . 
 during last year the value of slate sold has been about 
 $8,000. ' 
 
 These slates are held in high repute for their excellent 
 quality; and it is confidently anticipated that, when in 
 full operation, this quarry will find an abundant market 
 for its produce, not only in Canada, but in the western ^ 
 cities of the Union. The following table, given by Sir 
 Wm. Logan in his Catalogue of Economic Materials for 
 1862, exhibits, first, the sizes of the slates in inches ; sec- 
 ond, the number of such slates in a square (of one hundred 
 square feet); and, third, the price per square at which 
 Mr. Walton supplies his slates, placed on the railroad cars 
 on the Quebec and Richmond branch of the Grand Trunk 
 Railway, which is within one and a half mile of the quarry. 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 345 
 
 Sizes, 
 24x16.. 
 24x14.. 
 24x12.. 
 22x12.. 
 22x11.. 
 20x12.. 
 20x11.. 
 20x10.. 
 18x11.. 
 18x10.. 
 
 Number. Price. 
 
 .. 86 ! 
 
 , . 98 
 
 ,.114 
 
 ,.126 
 
 ,.138 
 
 ,.141 
 
 ,.154 
 
 ,.169 
 
 ,.175 
 
 ..192 
 
 18 X 9 213. 
 
 Sizes. Number. Price. 
 53.75 
 3.75 
 3.70 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 3.00 
 2.75 
 2.75 
 2.50 
 2.25 
 
 ,4.00 
 
 16x10. 
 
 ...222 
 
 4.00 
 
 16 X 9. 
 
 ...246 
 
 4.00 
 
 16 X 8. 
 
 ...277.... 
 
 4.00 
 
 14x10. 
 
 ...262 
 
 4.00 
 
 14 X 9. 
 
 ...291.... 
 
 4.00 
 
 14 X 8. 
 
 ...327 
 
 4.00 
 
 14 X 7. 
 
 ...374.... 
 
 4.00 
 
 12 x8. 
 
 ...400 
 
 4.00 
 
 12 X 7. 
 
 ...457.... 
 
 4.00 
 
 12 x6. 
 
 ...533.... 
 
 4.00 
 
 
 
 Canada abounds in materials of the best quality appli- 
 cable to common and decorative construction, such as 
 clay for bricks, etc., building stones of every description, 
 flags, marbles, porphyry, and many stones applicable to 
 jeweh-y — also grindstones, and whetstones of a ver;y su- 
 perior description ; but want of space compels us to omit 
 all special notice of these products. 
 
 PEAT. 
 
 "We must not omit mention, however, of a substance 
 which is found here, perhaps more largely distributed and 
 of a better quality than in any other country in the world ; 
 and which is probably destined at no distant date to be- 
 come of great economic importance. We refer to peat. 
 
 This description of fuel is found to form an excel- 
 lent substitute for coal in many countries where the latter 
 invaluable substance does not occur ; and for the manu- 
 facture of the best kinds of iron, for which the Canadian 
 ores are especially adapted, peat would be found peculi- 
 arly applicable. Various contrivances for compressing 
 peat have recently been patented, and introduced into Eng- 
 land and France ; and if this can be economically effected 
 in Canada, there will be a very large field open for the 
 employment of this department of national industry. As 
 the country becomes more thickly settled, wood will rap- 
 
34.6 MINERAL EESOUECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.. 
 
 idlj disappear, and in this exigency tlie peat bogs of Can- 
 ada will afford an inexhaustible supply of fuel, second in 
 value only to beds of mineral coal. 
 
 Peat occurs in great abundance in many parts of the 
 province ; in the Island of Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, there is an area of not less than 160 square miles, 
 occupied by a peat bog ; the thickness of peat varying 
 from three to ten feet where observed. This is the largest 
 peat field in Canada, and the general quality of the mate- 
 rial is excellent. Including this deposit. Lower Canada 
 contains probably not less than 1,000 square miles of this 
 valuable material, and in many places the thickness is 
 much greater than that mentioned above. Canadian peat 
 is found, on a careful comparison, to contain less mineral 
 matter than that usually found in Europe. An attempt 
 was m^de, some eight or ten years ago, to introduce this 
 material into Montreal as a fuel, but not being prosecuted 
 with sufficient energy and perseverance, it fell to the 
 ground. There can be no doubt, however, that at no dis- 
 tant date, and especially in that large and flourishing city, 
 where the material is very abundant in the immediate 
 neighborhood, sufficient inducements will be offered for 
 the prosecution of this branch of industry. 
 
 PETROLEUM. 
 
 This very remarkable mineral product has for the last 
 two or three years attracted a large share of public atten- 
 tion in Canada, where its existence in such abundance as 
 to afford promise of a great and permanent traffic has been 
 fully recognized. Never, perhaps, has there been an in- 
 stance of an extensive trade so rapidly developed as in the 
 case of the rock oil business in Canada. 
 
 The locality in which the oil springs have for the most 
 part been discovered and worked in Canada is the town- 
 ship of Enniskillen, county of Plympton, in the western 
 peninsula; and the geological position is the summit of 
 the upper Silurian, or base of the Devonian systems of lime- 
 
MINERAL EESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 347 
 
 Btone rocks, being a lower horizon than that of the oil 
 wells of Pennsylvania and Ohio. The petroleum owes its 
 origin, in all probability, to the slow subterranean decom- 
 position and bituminization of organic matter, both ani- 
 mal and vegetable, but chiefly the latter, which have been 
 deposited with the other materials of which the rocks are 
 composed. The resulting fluid and gaseous matters, float- 
 ing on the surface of the water which permeates the strata, 
 accumulate chiefly along the summit of a flat anticlinal 
 axis, which traverses the western peninsula of Canada, 
 penetrating the fissures or cracks in the rocks. The oil re- 
 veals itself at the surface, either by hydrostatic pressure 
 or by the elastic force of the vapor, where the superficial 
 clays are penetrated, either by natural or artificial means. 
 The fact of the existence of petroleum springs in "West- 
 ern Canada is by no means a new discovery, although it is 
 only very recently that they have been ascertained to be 
 of much economic importance. At several points along 
 the banks of the river Thames and Bear Creek in the west- 
 ern peninsula, the oil has been long known to exude at 
 the surface, and float along the water ; and was used in 
 the neighborhood as a remedy for cuts and cutaneous dis- 
 eases in horses. In the south part of the township of En- 
 niskillen two patches on the surface of the ground, of an 
 acre or more in extent, are found to be covered to a con- 
 siderable depth with a viscid mineral tar or asphaltum, 
 which has resulted from the oxidation and drying up ot 
 springs beneath. It is the existence of these superficial 
 deposits that first attracted attention to the substance as a 
 source of illuminating oil ; and it was speedily discovered 
 that, on penetrating below the asphalt into the underlying 
 clay, great quantities of the oil could be obtained in the 
 fluid state, and consequently much nearer the condition 
 required in the manufacture. The first adventurer in this 
 field was Mr. W. M. Williams, of Hamilton, who com- 
 menced operations in 1857, and to whom alone is due the 
 merit of developing this branch of industry in Canada, as 
 
318 MINERAL EE30UECES OF BKITISH NOKTH AMElilOA. 
 
 well as of pointing out tlie road to success in the same di- 
 rection in the United States. The capital which Mr. Wil- 
 liams and his associates have embarked in the works is 
 about $50,000 ; the oil obtained at their wells is conveyed 
 in barrels to Hamilton, a distance of upwards of 100 miles, 
 and there refined for the market. Refineries are now, 
 however, in operation to a considerable extent in the oil 
 region itself, there being not less than six establishments 
 of the kind in Enniskillen, and about an equal number in. 
 other parts of the province. The refining process consists 
 in rectifying by repeated distillations, deodorizing by treat- 
 ing with acids, and subsequent washing in alkalies. 
 
 Sir William Logan estimates that " within an area of 
 about four square miles, in the first three ranges of the 
 township of Enniskillen, there were supposed to be in 
 August, 1861, about seventy wells yielding more or less oil. 
 Of these forty were surface wells, that is, wells sunk from 
 forty to sixty feet through the drift clay and gravel to the 
 rock beneath. Some of these latter, which had yielded 
 but little oil, gave abundant supplies by boring into the 
 rock. The oil-bearing fissures or veins in adjacent wells 
 were met with at depths varying from 36 to 100 and even 
 150 feet from the surface of the rock." Since the date to 
 which Sir William refers many other wells have been sunk, 
 and there are now several hundreds in the township, many 
 of which, however, do not yield oil. In some cases, by pene- 
 trating to depths exceeding 200 feet from the surface, 
 what are called " fiowing wells " have been obtained, and 
 these, from their extraordinary yield of oil, and from the 
 circumstance that it is procured without pumjHng, for the 
 present eclipse in importance all the rest ; but experience 
 in other regions has proved that these valuable qualities 
 do not continue to exist for any very Jengthened period at 
 any one well. Some of the flowing wells, of which there 
 are altogether twelve up to the present time, are said to have 
 yielded at the rate of about 2,000 forty -gal loh barrels in 
 1 wenty-four hours. The petroleum from these deep wella 
 
MINEEAL KESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 349 
 
 is lighter, more fluid, and better adapted for the manufacture 
 of illuminating oil than that from the surface wells. 
 
 The total yield of the Enniskillen oil region, till the com- 
 mencement of 1862, is probably about 500,000 gallons, but 
 this quantity by no means represents the capacity of the 
 wells ; as, from the difficulty of communication during a 
 great part of the year, the scarcity of barrels, or other ves- 
 sels to receive the oil, and, above all, the want of a regular 
 market for the produce, they have never been worked to 
 their full capacity. At present much activity prevails 
 among speculators in this interesting commodity, and there 
 is a prospect of very large exports being made of the crude 
 oil to England, and even to the United States, as the Cana- 
 dian petroleum is reputed to possess superior qualities for 
 refining purposes to that found in Pennsylvania and Ohio, 
 which is said to be too light, and to contain too much vol- 
 atile and explosive naphtha. So long as the flowing wells 
 continue their extraordinary yield, the price of the oil at 
 the wells is almost nominal ; yet such is the cost of handling 
 and transportation, that it is worth one shilling per gallon, 
 or from £15 to £18 sterling per ton, in England, including 
 packages. 
 
 The loss in refining, where illuminating oil only is pro- 
 duced, is considerable, and in these circumstances it will 
 obviously be of advantage, so long as fuel can be obtained 
 at a sufficiently cheap rate, to refine the oil in Canada and 
 export it in that state. The refuse or heavier products 
 of the distillation, however, contain highly useful ingre- 
 dients, such as benzine, and many valuable coloring matters, 
 which in present circumstances can be turned to much 
 better account in England ; and thus it will probably be 
 found that the exportation of the crude oil will ultimately 
 form the staple business in this commodity. At present 
 rates, the cost of delivering one ton of crude oil in London 
 or Liverpool will not exceed £9 or £10 sterling, which 
 will leave a considerable margin for profit. There seems 
 little reason to doubt that an immense traffic in this article 
 
350 MINEEAL KESOUECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 will spring up between the two countries ; already about 
 6,000 barrels have been exported from Enniskillen to Eng- 
 land during the present season ; and from 40 to 50 teams 
 are daily employed in hauling from the wells to the rail- 
 way station. Although it is impossible to predict with 
 any degree of certainty how long the supply may continue 
 at any one point, yet, from the facts that wells sunk- quite 
 near to each other have evidently an independent source, 
 and that there is a very large area of country underlaid 
 by the oil-bearing veins, it is probable that the resources 
 of the country in this respect will not speedily be ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 MESTEKAL RESOUKCES OF NOYA SCOTIA, ISTEW 
 BRUJN^SWICK, AND NEWFOUJS^DLAJSTD. 
 
 In Nova Scotia the most important minerals of economic 
 importance hitherto discovered and wrought, are coal, 
 gypsum, iron, and gold. We must be content with a very 
 slight sketch of the history and statistics of these products. 
 For the facts adduced we are indebted mainly to Dr. 
 Dawson's valuable work on *' Acadian Geology." 
 
 COAL. 
 
 The coal-fields of Nova Scotia have been long known to 
 be of vast extent and value, and have been worked more 
 or less since the first settlement of the colony by the 
 British ; when the imperial government, in making their 
 grants of land, reserved for the crown all mineral rights, 
 and subsequently leased them to a company of capitalists 
 styled the General Mining Association, by whom the coal 
 has been for the most part mined and exported. Tlie most 
 important are the Albion mines in the county of Pictou, 
 in the northern part of the province, where two seams of 
 excellent coal occur, of the enormous aggregate thickness 
 of thirty-seven and twenty-two feet respectively; although 
 
MINERAL EESOUKCES OF BRinSH NORTH AMERICA. i351 
 
 of this total thickness only about twenty-four and twelve 
 feet can be said to be good coal. The main seain has been 
 very extensively worked, and its outcrop has been traced 
 for several miles ; but it is remarkable that it preserves its 
 character as a seam of good coal only for a very limited 
 distance on either side of the main shaft. The coal hith- 
 erto exported has been obtained almost exclusively from 
 the upper part of this seam, the workings being from 
 twelve to nine feet deep, and the lowest shaft sunk to a 
 depth of about 400 feet. Although the coal rapidly dete- 
 riorates in quality in all directions from the main shaft, 
 its thickness, together with that of the underlying deep 
 seam^ is so great that there is no prospect of their being 
 speedily exhausted ; and long ere this occurs, there is little 
 room to doubt that other good seams will be discovered in 
 the same district. 
 
 The quantity of coal raised at these mines in 1851 was 
 about sixty thousand chaldrons, and subsequently this 
 yield has been still farther increased. It is chiefly ex- 
 ported to the United States, and is admirably adapted and 
 extensively used in making gas, as well as for general 
 purposes. These mines afford employment to a popula- 
 tion of 2,000, and their produce is conveyed by a railway 
 worked by locomotives to the harbor of South Pictou, a 
 distance of six miles. 
 
 The following is an abstract of returns of coal raised, 
 sold, and exported at Pictou in the year ending 31st De- 
 cember, 1858 : 
 
 Large Coal. Slack Coal. 
 Total quantity raised and sold in tons. I00,607|- 14,344-J- 
 
 Of this there was — 
 
 Sold for home consumption 9,2124- 4,51 9| 
 
 Exported to the United States 89,217 6,396 
 
 Exported to the neighboring Colonies 2,178 3,419 
 
 Next in importance to the Pictou coal mines are those 
 of Sydney, at the north-eastern extremity of Cape Breton. 
 Here the productive coal measures cover an area of 250 
 
352 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 square miles, and the aggregate thickness of the coal seams 
 amounts to thirty-seven feet, of which, however, only 
 twenty feet are of good quality, or workable thickness. 
 The mines are worked here, as in the preceding instance, 
 by the General Mining Association, who raise annually 
 from the Sydney main seam 80,000 tons of coal, which is 
 conveyed by railway to the bar at JS'orth Sydney for ship- 
 ment. About 30,000 tons are annually consumed in Nova 
 Scotia, the remainder being exported to the United States. 
 The quantity of coal annually raised in the county of Cape 
 Breton, and almost entirely at Sydney, is stated in the 
 census of 1851 at 53,000 chaldrons. 
 
 In Cumberland county, on the confines of New Bruns- 
 wick, occurs the celebrated " South Joggins Section" of the 
 carboniferous system of rocks, which forms such an attract- 
 ive object to geologists, and has thrown so much light on 
 the theory of the coal formation, and all matters relating 
 thereto. Here, from the relative conditions of dip and 
 coast line, we find extending over a distance of about ten 
 miles, an exposure of not less than 14,000 feet in vertical 
 thickness, of successive rock formations, comprising the 
 whole of the carboniferous series, and including more than 
 seventy distinct seams of coal. Of these, however, only one 
 seam is of sufficient thickness to work, consisting of two 
 beds, three feet six inches and one foot six inches thick, 
 respectively, with a clay parting between, varying from 
 one foot to a few inches. It is a free-burning bituminous 
 coal of fair quality. The quantity of coal shipped in 1851, 
 was only 2,400 chaldrons ; it was exported principally to 
 St. John's, New Brunswick. Other seams of good coal, of 
 much greater thickness, have been discovered in this car- 
 boniferous district, but at too greal; distance from navigable 
 waters to be profitably mined, until the general progress 
 of the country admits of the construction of railways or 
 other sources of demand for the material. 
 
 The total quantity of coals raised in Nova Scotia in 1851, 
 according to the census returns, was 115^00 chaldrons ; in 
 
MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 353 
 
 1856, 120,668 chaldrons, valued at £86,027, were exported, 
 while in the first nine months of 1857, the shipments were 
 valued at £90,315, which are the latest official returns we 
 possess. These figures show a rapid and extensively in- 
 creasing trade. 
 
 There can be little doubt that the coal of Nova Scotia 
 is sufficient to supply the whole steam navy of Britain for 
 many centuries to come, and also to meet amply the de- 
 mands of the other North American colonies bordering on 
 the Atlantic, which possess within themselves no coal-fields 
 of any importance. 
 
 GYPSUM. 
 
 This useful mineral occurs in very great abundance, 
 associated with the carboniferous rocks of Nova Sco- 
 tia, and is mined to a considerable extent at several 
 points, but chiefly in the districts of Hants and Colchester. 
 The gypsum of Nova Scotia occurs in various forms and 
 conditions ; Sometimes as an hydrite, or hard plaster^ 
 which is not at present applied to any useful purpose, 
 being too hard to be profitably ground for agricultural 
 purposes, though very well adapted as a substitute for 
 marble. Sometimes the common gypsum is found in beds 
 and masses, and sometimes in veins cutting the soft marly 
 sandstones of the carboniferous series ; in the latter case 
 the gypsum is generally of a fibrous structure. The prin- 
 cipal point where this mineral is quarried for economic 
 purposes, is on the banks of the river Shubenacadie, in 
 Hants, where immense masses of pure gypsum rise boldly 
 from the banks, occasionally to the height of one hundred 
 feet, presenting an inexhaustible supply of the mineral. 
 It is also largely quarried at Windsor, Newport, Walton, 
 and several other places. In 1851, the quantity exported 
 amounted to about 80,000 tons, the value of which at the 
 port of shipment would be about $40,000, the greater part 
 being exported to the United States for agricultural pur- 
 poses. It is at present only quarried in places accessible 
 
354: MINERAL EESOURCBS OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 to shipping, and its small value per ton indicates the fa- 
 cility with which it can be obtained, in a country where 
 wages are high. 
 
 At other parts of the province, as in Cape Breton, very 
 large deposits of the mineral are found, but not at present 
 worked. 
 
 IROK 
 
 A very extensive and remarkable deposit of iron ore, 
 which promises to be of much economic value, occurs, as- 
 sociated with the metamorphic upper Silurian rocks of 
 the Cobequid hills, in the county of Londonderry. This 
 deposit attracted attention as early as the time when the 
 land on which it occurs was granted by the crown, and it 
 had been brought into notice at various times subsequently. 
 Since 1845 the extent and economical capabilities of this 
 deposit have been discussed by several writers, and it has 
 been opened, and smelting furnaces put in operation by an 
 association of capitalists, under the title of ^ the ''Acadia 
 Mine." This enterprise has recently been taken up by a 
 powerful English company. 
 
 This vein occurs near the junction of the carboniferous 
 and metamorphic series, and runs nearly, although not al- 
 together, with the stratification of the rocks, which are 
 tilted into a vertical position. It contains a great variety 
 of different ores of iron, as magnetic, specular, hematite, 
 (fee, as well as other minerals ; it is in one place not less 
 than 120 feet in thickness, and has been traced for a dis- 
 tance of seven niles. " The deposit," says Dr. Dawson, 
 " is evidently wedge-shaped, being largest and richest on 
 the surface of the highest ridges. It contains, however, 
 an immense quantity of valuable ores of iron, though its 
 irregular character opposes many difficulties to the miner. 
 Difficulties have also been found in smelting the ore to 
 advantage ; but these are often incident to the first trials 
 of new deposits, to which the methods applicable to others, 
 of which the workmen have had previous experience, do 
 not apply. It is to be hoped, however, that these prelimi- 
 
MIKEBAL RESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 356 
 
 nary liinderances have been overcome, and that the mine 
 will soon become highly profitable to the proprietors." 
 The following general estimate of the value of the deposit 
 is quoted from an elaborate report made in 1849, by Dr. 
 J. L. Hayes, of Massachusetts, which is further interesting, 
 as furnishing a statement of the comparative value of iron 
 ores at different places : 
 
 " From the descriptions above given, it is evident that 
 although the unlimited extent of the ore at a particular 
 point can only be determined by working the deposits, 
 yet an immense field is open for exploration and working. 
 Although it is probable that an abundant supply of ore 
 will be found upon the mountain last described, at a price 
 not exceeding $2 per ton of iron ; if this should not be 
 the case, an ample supply can be furnished from the 
 other localities at an expense which, including raising and 
 hauling, could not exceed $4 to the ton of iron. I would 
 advise the opening of the veins at different points upon 
 the line, to determine the cheapest point for mining, and 
 the ores which can be used most advantageously. If this 
 is done, the price of the ore cannot be fairly set down at 
 the sum for which it can be obtained at the nearest locality, 
 but at an average of the prices of the ores from different 
 localities, delivered at the point selected for the furnace. 
 This may be estimated at $3 to the ton of iron. 
 
 " The value of this locality with respect to ore may be 
 judged of by comparing it with establishments in the 
 United States. In Berkshire Co., Mass., at some estab- 
 lishments which have been successfully conducted, the 
 price of the ore is between five and six dollars to the ton 
 of iron. In Orange Co., N. Y., ore yielding between forty 
 and fifty per cent, costs between four and five dollars to 
 the ton of iron. At one locality in JSTew York State the 
 ore costs ten dollars to the ton of iron ; at some establish- 
 ments on Lake Champlain, ore costmg one dollar per ton 
 at the mine is carried twelve miles to the furnace. The 
 ore at the Baltimore furnaces costs over seven dollars to 
 23 
 
356 MmEEAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORIH AMEEIOA. 
 
 the ton of iron ; this is also about the average cost of the 
 ore at the furnaces in Pennsylvania. Estimating the cost 
 of the ore even at four dollars to the ton of iron, there will 
 be an advantage over the average American localities. 
 
 " The cost of ores at some of the Swedish and Russian 
 furnaces is still greater. In certain parts of the Ural 
 Mountains the minerals are carried by land to the forests, 
 a distance of from forty to eighty miles. Some of the 
 forges of Sweden are supplied with minerals from Pres- 
 burgh and Dannemora, which are transported by land car- 
 riage, the lakes, and the sea, to distances exceeding 370 
 miles. 
 
 " I have no doubt that iron of the first quality for purity 
 and strength, and which will command the highest prices 
 in the market, can be made from these ores. If Mr. 
 Hushet's opinion, based on his own experiments, that these 
 ores will furnish steel-iron equal to the best Swedish brands, 
 should prove correct, these ores possess a rare value ; for 
 of the many charcoal iron establishments in the United 
 States, I know but one which furnishes iron suitable for 
 making the first quality of steel." 
 
 In the district of Pictou and the neighborhood of the 
 Albion Mines, already described, there occurs an immense 
 bed of iron ore, which, from its situation and concomitant 
 advantages, must eventually become of great economical 
 importance. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 Since the excitement with regard to the wonderful gold 
 discoveries in California and Australia arose, reports have 
 from time to time obtained circulation of similar discoveries 
 in Kova Scotia, where the rock formations of the south- 
 east Atlantic coast bear a remarkable resemblance to those 
 of the auriferous regions in the countries named. Until a 
 very recent period, however, these rumors have invariably 
 been found to be devoid of adequate foundation in fact. 
 In 1855, Dr. Dawson, in his "Acadian Geology," expressed 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 357 
 
 the opinion, founded on geological considerations, that 
 gold would probably be found in that region, but his re- 
 marks would lead to the inference that it might not prove 
 to be of much economic importance. In 1857, Mr. John 
 Campbell, a gentleman of considerable scientific attain- 
 ments, obtained gold by washing the sand of the beach 
 near Halifax harbor. This was the first actual discovery 
 on record of gold being found in Nova Scotia, and since 
 that time Mr. Campbell has devoted himself assiduously 
 to the development of this branch of her natural resources. 
 
 In the year 1860, some important discoveries of the pre- 
 cious metal were made in the valley and toward the head- 
 waters of the Tangier River, about forty miles north-east 
 of Halifax, which created an immense excitement for a 
 time, and tempted many to leave their ordinary avocations 
 to search for gold, which, however, was not found in suffi- 
 cient quantities to reward the labor, and consequently the 
 excitement speedily subsided. 
 
 In the month of March, 1861, fresh discoveries of con- 
 siderably larger quantities were made near the mouth of 
 the same river ; and since that time there has been a steady 
 increase in the number, and also in the confidence, of the 
 adventurers engaged in this pursuit, as well as in the as- 
 certained extent of the gold-producing country, which may 
 now be regarded as comprising an area of 6,000 or 7,000 
 square miles, being the entire region occupied by the 
 metamorphic lower Silurian rocks of the Atlantic coast, 
 the corresponding geological position to that in which it 
 is found in most other countries. The description we 
 have already given of these rocks as they occur in Canada, 
 w411 apply to the same formations in Kova Scotia. 
 
 The most recent and authentic information hitherto ob- 
 tained in regard to the ISTova Scotia gold fields, is con- 
 tained in an article contributed by Dr. Dawson to the 
 " Canadian ITaturalist," for December, 1861 ; and in an' 
 elaborate report by Messrs. Poole and Campbell (1862), 
 who were specially appointed by the provincial govern- 
 
358 MINEKAL EESOUECES OF BRITISH NOETH AMEEICA. 
 
 ment to investigate the matter. From these docnmer^tg 
 we shall condense the most important particulars relative 
 to this interesting subject. In this province, although the 
 general conditions in which the gold occurs are doubtless 
 the same as in other auriferous regions, it is remarkable 
 that it is found chiefly in the quartz veins traversing the 
 rocks, rather than in the superficial clays constituting the 
 debris of these rocks. With the exception of one locality, 
 " The Ovens," near Lunenburg, seventy miles west from 
 Halifax, where a considerable quantity has been obtained 
 in the sand of the beach, formed by the action of the 
 waves upon the rocky cliffs, placer washings and surface 
 diggings have not proved remunerative in Nova Scotia. 
 On the other-hand, the quartz veins, on which the Cali- 
 fornian and Australian digger is accustomed to look with 
 suspicion, are here remarkably productive ; an instance ia 
 upon record where one and a lialf ton of quartz has pro- 
 duced seventy-two ounces of gold, valued at $1,296. The 
 veins have been traced continuously for a distance, in 
 one case, of two and a half miles, and found to pay well 
 throughout this whole extent. In many instances the 
 veins are exposed at the surface, and, where concealed by 
 drift clay, its thickness is very inconsiderable, rarely ex- 
 ceeding six or eight feet. In mining in the veins them- 
 selves, their richness appeai-s to increase with the depth ; 
 and there is much to encourage the hope that deep mining 
 will prove the most successful to the adventurer, as well 
 as the most permanent and reliable source of wealth to 
 the province. 
 
 The most important gold fields in IS'ova Scotia hitherto 
 discovered occur in the district of country eastwards from 
 Halifax to Cape Canso, a distance of 130 miles, with an 
 average breadth of about twenty miles. Within this area, 
 Mr. Campbell has recognized the existence of five bands or 
 lines of elevatiou, running nearly parallel with each other 
 and with the general coast line, and exhibiting at some 
 places arched or folded strata of dark-colored clay-slate, 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 359 
 
 traversed by quartz veins, of thickness varying from one 
 to nine or ten inches, following the planes of bedding in 
 the strike, but frequently cutting the strata in the direction 
 of the dip, sometimes in wavy or zigzag lines. There are 
 also larger veins, from one to three feet in thickness, but 
 the thin veins first referred to are invariably the richest in 
 gold. The metal occurs, for the most part, disseminated 
 in irregular grains and masses in the quartz : it is found 
 most abundantly at and near the walls of the veins, and is 
 usually associated with iron pyrites and mispickel^ or 
 arsenical pyrites. The largest nugget yet found is said to 
 be valued at $300. 
 
 It is impossible to state, with any degree of accuracy, 
 what amount of gold has been hitherto obtained in Nova 
 Scotia, as, in almost every instance, the claims have been 
 worked by private individuals, who are generally unable 
 or disinclined to give the requisite information. Even if 
 ascertained, this would afford no criterion of the value of 
 the gold fields, as the search has hitherto been prosecuted 
 only in the rudest manner. At one claim at Tangier $2,400 
 are said to have been realized in a very short time ; $1,300 
 from another, and $480 from a third, while many have 
 yielded little or nothing. A statement we have recently 
 seen gives the daily yield as 100 ounces, valued at $18 per 
 ounce. The ISTova Scotia gold is of remarkable purity. The 
 principal localities where mining has hitherto been carried 
 on are Tangier, "Wine Cove, Laurencetown, Sherbrooke, 
 Isaac Harbor, and Lunenburg. "With the exception of 
 Lunenburg, the district of country westward of Halifax 
 has not as yet produced much gold. 
 
 The provincial government have surveyed and divided 
 the principal gold fields into claims of twenty feet by fifty 
 feet, and exact an annual license fee, or rent, of $20 for 
 each claim. It is to be hoped that a more liberal policy 
 will prevail, and greater encouragement be extended to the 
 adventurers, as the claims are much too small, and the 
 rent too high, where the risks of mining are so great. 
 
360 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA 
 
 "In one important respect," says Dr. Gesnei, "the 
 Nova Scotian gold fields possess a very great advantage 
 over those of Australia, California, or British Columbia : 
 namely, that the rocks containing the gold in the greatest 
 abundance are near the Atlantic coast, and intersect a 
 number of the smaller rivers and harbors, whereby facili- 
 ties are afforded to supply the requirements of mining. 
 It is not at all probable that the richest gold deposits in 
 Kova Scotia have yet been discovered ; but there is enough 
 known to satisfy the most sceptical that the province con- 
 tains an ample amount of the precious metal to warrant 
 the most extensive operations, and the employment of ma- 
 chinery for its mining and purification." 
 
 JSTEW BKHN-SWICK. 
 
 The province of "New Brunswick has not hitherto at- 
 tained much consequence as a mining region, although a 
 very great part of its area is underlaid by the coal-measures ; 
 and many of the metals and other useful minerals are 
 known to exist within its bounds. 
 
 The coal formation of 'New Brunswick occupies an area 
 which is somewhat triangular in outline. Its base rests on 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and extends from Bathurst on 
 the north to the Nova Scotia frontier on the east. Its 
 apex is at the Oromocto Lake ; and its north-western mar- 
 gin runs from thence to Bathurst, while on the south-east 
 it approaches the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that only the south and south- 
 east sides of the great New Brunswick carboniferous basin 
 have yet been explored. 
 
 Within this area the only point at which coal mining 
 operations on an exteDsiv^e scale have been carried on, is 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES OF RRmSH NORTH AMERICA. 361 
 
 at the Grand Lake in Queens County, between Little Eiver 
 and Coal Creek, at the head of the lake. Here mining 
 leases, covering a space of abont forty-five square miles, 
 were granted by the crown in 1849 ; this area being sup- 
 posed to cover all the available coal ground in this lo- 
 cality. 
 
 Tlie number of distinct beds of coal is uncertain ; the 
 average thickness of those which are worked, is about 
 twenty inches ; the depth of the coal below the surface 
 seldom exceeds forty feet. The quality is excellent, being 
 hard, rather lustrous, giving out much heat in burning, 
 and lasting longer than most other coal. The amount 
 brought to market in 1854, was about 3,000 chaldrons, 
 but the mines are capable, with proper management, of 
 producing at least double this amount. We are not aware 
 whether these mines are now in operation. 
 
 We have now to refer to a very remarkable mineral de- 
 posit, allied to coal, which has been discovered in this 
 province, and somewhat extensively developed, and has 
 assumed much economic importance as a source of illu- 
 minating oils and gas. 
 
 We refer to the Albert coal. This remarkable mineral, 
 which appears to partake of the distinctive characteristics 
 of coal, asphalt, and jet, without belonging to either class, 
 occurs in the county of Hillsborough, near the southeast- 
 ern boundary of the province, in an irregular vein, varying 
 from one to thirteen feet in thickness, sometimes cutting 
 and sometimes coinciding with the strata through which 
 it passes, and which has been mined to an extent of several 
 hundred feet on the length of the vein.* We are not 
 aware of the amount or value of the material extracted ; 
 it has been used chiefly in the manufacture of illuminating 
 oil, of which it yields, by distillation, a very high percent- 
 
 * The material is one of the most beautiful of all carboniferous products ; 
 it is jet black, brilliant, and lustrous, with a conchoidal fracture, and is ex- 
 tremely brittle. Its composition is : carbon (fixed at redness), 36.04 ; volatile, 
 61.74; ash, 2.22; equal to 100. Coke, 38.26. Specific gravity, 1.13. 
 
362 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 age, and of the very best qnalitj ; but since the discovery 
 of the extraordinaiy petroleum wells of Pennsylvania and 
 Western Canada, no other source (so long as it lasts) can at 
 all compete with this for the purpose named. 
 
 The metalliferous rocks of the Appalachian chain trav- 
 erse the northern part of the province, and may be ex- 
 pected, when the country becomes settled and explored, to 
 yield the same results as in Canada, IS^ova Scotia, and the 
 Eastern States of the Union. Already gold, lead, and 
 copper have been found in .these rocks in New Bruns- 
 wick, and the deposits of iron ore are rich and extensive. 
 The principal locality of copper is at and near the village 
 of Bathurst, on the Bay Chaleur. Here rocks of the car- 
 boniferous system, or perhaps even higher in the geological 
 horizon, and occupying the region bordering on the coast 
 for a distance of live or six miles back, are found resting 
 on the " primitive slate formation," probably of lower Si- 
 lurian age. About seventeen years ago, a deposit of very 
 rich copper ore was discovered in the bank of the river 
 Nepisiguit, about one and a half miles from Bathurst, where 
 mining operations were commenced, and about twenty-four 
 tons of very rich vitreous copper ore, said to contain a 
 considerable proportion of silver, were taken out ; but the 
 deposits not being sufficiently regular to pay mining ex- 
 penses, the enterprise was abandoned. 
 
 Subsequent observations on the nature of these deposits, 
 and of the enclosing rocks, leading to the belief that they 
 were secondary products, derived from the debris of the 
 older rocks lying farther inland, search was instituted in 
 these rocks, which resulted in the discovery of some im- 
 portant copper lodes on the Tattagouche river, seven miles 
 from Bathurst, which are now being developed by an 
 American company. The lodes are said to be highly 
 promising, being of great thickness, and having all the 
 usual accompaniments of good copper veins; but the 
 works having been temporarily suspended, we are unable 
 to learn the results. Yery considerable sums of money 
 
MINERAL KE80UKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 3G3 
 
 have already been expended in mining in this locality. 
 One remarkable peculiarity in the mineralogical character 
 of this region is the occurrence of great veins of manganese 
 ore in the neighborhood of the copper lodes, though in a 
 rock of a different color. 
 
 A considerable deposit of copper pyrites has been dis- 
 covered near Woodstock, Carleton county, about sixty 
 miles north-west from Fred erictpn, in a true vein which 
 has been traced for upwards of 2,000 feet on the strike, 
 and traversing talcose and felspathic slates of the same 
 geological age with those of the Tattagouche river. Min- 
 ing operations were instituted here in 1858, to the extent 
 of sinking trial shafts and costeenings, which have proved 
 the deposit to be of considerable importance and value. 
 We are not aware whether this mine is still worked, or 
 to what extent it has proved commercially profitable. 
 The Tattagouche and Woodstock mines are situated at 
 a distance of about 130 miles apart, on a broad band of the 
 formation ; and the fact of such apparently valuable de- 
 posits being found at the extreme points of such an ex- 
 tensive area, the intennediate parts of which are as yet 
 entirely unexplored, points to this as a highly promising 
 field for mining enterprise. 
 
 Besides the metals above named in 'New Brunswick, 
 deposits of plumbago and gypsum, and salt springs of a 
 high degree of saturation, are found in many parts of the 
 province. 
 
 NEWFOU:^DLAI^D. 
 
 The geological structure and mineral resources of the 
 island of ^Newfoundland were examined and reported on in 
 1849, by Mr. Jukes, who gave it as the general result of 
 his investigations, that the island is not favorably situated 
 for useful minerals. 
 
 The coal formation occurs on a small portion of the 
 
364 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 west side of tlie island, but the beds of coal do not appear 
 to be of any considerable thickness ; although it is quite 
 possible that more important seams may be found, should 
 tiie district ever be thought worthy of a thorough exami- 
 nation. Gypsum is very plentiful on the island. Copper 
 was worked in ]^ewfoundland upwards of a century ago, 
 to a slight extent, and in 1845 attempts were made to re- 
 vive the work. The copper veins were found in the "lower 
 slate formation" (probably the equivalents of the Quebec 
 group in Canada), in Shoal Bay, south of Peck Harbor, 
 at the eastern extremity of the island. Owing to the un- 
 productive character of the work, however, it was speedily 
 abandoned. 
 
 A very remarkable lode of iron pyrites, containing also 
 much copper ore, was discovered during the year 1861, 
 about one mile inland from Little Bay, on the north- 
 east coast of Newfoundland, and a company has been 
 formed for working this and another similar deposit on 
 Trump Island. A grant of these claims has been obtained 
 from the colonial gbvernment, free from royalty during 
 the first five years. Vigorous operations were commenced, 
 during August of that year, by Mr. F. A. Gisborne, min- 
 ing engineer, who turned the course of two rivers, at the 
 junction of which the lode came to the surface. The lode 
 was thus uncovered for a length of 200 feet, showing a 
 thickness varying from twenty to forty feet of solid ore. 
 The true course of the lode appears to be six or eight de- 
 grees north of east, and south of west; the northern 
 country being a soft serpentine, an4 the southern killas, 
 or slate ; the north wall, so far as proved, goes down verti- 
 cally. After various trial pits had been sunk (all of which 
 proved a rapid increase in the richness of the vein for cop- 
 per, within a short distance from the surface), a stope was 
 commenced, forty-two feet in length and eight feet wide, 
 along the north wall ; from this stope a cargo of 150 tons 
 was obtained, and shipped to Swansea. The ore is found 
 in compact horizontal beds, or floors, averaging twenty 
 
MINERAL EESOUEvJES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 365 
 
 inches in thickness ; and at ten feet from the surface, would 
 average eight per cent, for copper, and forty per cent, for 
 sulphur : the surface ore yielding only from one to two per 
 cent, of copper, this rapid increase in richness is truly re- 
 markable. A shaft is now being sunk in the lode, and 
 will yield about twenty-five tons of ore per cubic fathom, 
 a result rarely surpassed in any mine. 
 
 BEITISH COLUMBIA, A^D YANCOUYER 
 ISLAI^D. 
 
 The present has been, perhaps, more prolific than any 
 preceding generation in wonderful discoveries in the arts 
 and sciences, and especially in tliose means and appli- 
 ances which tend to promote intercourse between distant 
 parts of the world. A striking illustration of this remark 
 is afforded by the late extraordinary and unprecedented 
 discoveries of gold in California and Australia, which 
 have done more in a few years for the settlement and civili- 
 zation of these remote regions, than might otherwise have 
 been effected in as many centuries. Still more recently 
 another region, yet more remote from the beaten paths 
 of nations, has been discovered to abound in the precious 
 metal ; by whose potent influence British Columbia is 
 rapidly becoming linked to the brotherhood of civilized 
 nations. 
 
 Yancouver Island, on the western shores of the Pacific 
 ocean, has been long regarded in England, notwithstanding 
 its great distance, as a promising field for settlement and 
 colonization, on account of the fertility of its soil, the se- 
 curity of its harbors, the excellence of its climate, and the 
 reported abundance of coal on the island. These circum- 
 stances, together with its admirable adaptation generally, %. 
 as a depot for the naval forces on the Pacific, early at- 
 tracted the attention of the British government, and dis- 
 
366 MINERAL RESOUECES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 posed them to afford every encouragement to emigration ; 
 bat it was not till the year 1856,* when the governor ot 
 the island reported to the imperial government the fact, 
 that gold had been found in considerable quantities within 
 the British territory on the Upper Columbia, that any 
 considerable emigration took place. From that date to the 
 present, the ascertained area and reputed richness of the 
 British Columbian gold fields have steadily and rapidly 
 increased ; and the influx of adventurers into Victoria, the 
 capital of Vancouver Island, and the nearest port for the 
 gold fields, has augmented in proportion. 
 
 The auriferous region of British Columbia comprises a 
 vast, though unknown, area on^the western slopes of the 
 Rocky Mountains. Hitherto the discoveries have been 
 chiefly confined to the left bank of the Frazer river, and 
 its numerous affluents from the east, and to the head 
 waters of the Columbia river ; the aggregate linear extent 
 of which may be computed at 1,000 miles. The country 
 is broken up into mountains and ravines ; there is really 
 no level ground, except the tops of the mountains, which, 
 curiously enough, are all flat and level. The ravines are 
 characterized universally by what the miners call *' bench- 
 es," or terraces running along their sides. These benches 
 are all auriferous as far as they have been tested. The 
 geological formations and conditions are precisely similar 
 to the gold-bearing region of California, of which in fact 
 this forms only the northern extension ; and it is worthy 
 of note, that gold mining has proved more successful in 
 California the further north it has been prosecuted. The 
 rocks consist of what (for want of a more precise designa- 
 tion) is now called the primary slate formation — probably, 
 as in other auriferous regions, the metamorphic lower Silu- 
 rian — thrown up and pierced by masses, veins, and dikes 
 of quartz, granite, porphyry, and other so-called igneous 
 frocks ; the debris from which, together with their precious 
 
 ♦ The earliest reported discovery of gold in British ColuDahia, however, 
 was in 1850, and again in 1853. 
 
MINEKAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 3G7 
 
 metalliferous contents, form vast accmnulations of sand, 
 gravel and clay, extending from tlie base of the mountains 
 to the banks of the rivers, which, as we have before stated, 
 constitute for the present the field of labor for the miners. 
 There is, however, reason to believe that ample scope will 
 be found for their exertions at a distance from the princi- 
 pal rivers. 
 
 As a general rule, the gold is found in smaller particles 
 and less in quantity nearer the mouths of the rivers, and 
 both size and quantity increase as we ascend them. At 
 the celebrated Cariboo district of the Frazer river, a lump 
 of pure gold, w^eighing seven pounds, is said to have been 
 obtained, and all the gold there is coarse. It will be 
 readily inferred from what we have said, that the adven- 
 turers confine their attention entirely to placer digging and 
 washing, and this method of w^orking will doubtless, for 
 many years, be that universally adopted ; but there can be 
 little doubt that the auriferous veins which have supplied 
 these washings will ultimately be discovered,* and will 
 afford inexhaustible supplies of the precious metal for gen- 
 erations to come. The principal difficulties to be con- 
 tended with at present are, the want of roads or means of 
 conveyance into the interior of the country ; the difficulty of 
 obtaining provisions, tools, and other materials ; the fiesh- 
 ets on the rivers, &c. ; to which may be added, the hostility 
 of the native tribes of Indians, who, though at present ap- 
 parently friendly, are treacherous and capricious. 
 
 In Yancouver Island, although gold has been found and 
 actually worked in a few places, it has not hitherto been 
 obtained in paying quantities. There is every reason to 
 believe, however, that important gold fields may yet be 
 discovered on the island." Rich copper ore has also been 
 found, but hitherto it is undeveloped. 
 
 Although here, as in all other gold-producing regions, 
 wonderful instances of good fortune occur, and are noised 
 
 * A rich auriferous vein was diseovered in 1852, in Mitchell Harbor, Queea 
 Charlotte's Island. 
 
368 MINEBAL RESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 abroad, there are equally lamentable, and, we fear, much 
 more numerous cases of failure, or at least of very mod- 
 erate success. We do not therefore think it necessary to 
 chronicle, as is the fashion with newspaper paragraphists, 
 any great strikes^ but shall confine ourselves to a statement, 
 from authentic sources, of the quantity of gold actually 
 obtained, and the number of hands employed, during the 
 years 1858 and 1859, from which we shall be enabled to 
 deduce their average earnings. 
 
 " In 1858," says Mr. Despard Pemberton, the surveyor 
 general of Vancouver Island, in a recent work containing 
 much valuable information on this subject,* " the greatest 
 monthly shipment of gold from British Columbia wa3 
 $235,000, and the least was about $6,000 ; and the total 
 product of the gold mines for that year was estimated at 
 $1,494,211 (Yide GazetU, April 19th, 1859). From data 
 before me, I believe the amount mined in 1859 to have 
 been about $2,000,000 ; but, to be moderate, assume the 
 product of the two years at $3,000,000 ; the number of 
 miners actually at work at any time in the country cannot 
 have exceeded 3,000, as the mining licenses ^hovf {Gazette^ 
 June 9th, 1859, estimates them at 2,000), which gives the 
 miners' average earnings at £100 sterling." Mr. Pember 
 ton probably somewhat underrates the prospects of success, 
 but his " facts and figures " render it sufliciently obvious 
 that, taking into account the aggregate results, adven- 
 turers will not be justified in forming very sanguine ex 
 pectations.f Mr. Pemberton adds : " In California the 
 average earnings are about half as much, but the country 
 is open and accessible ; and therefore the means of living 
 and creature comforts much more plentiful, which leads 
 the miner to prefer it far to British Columbia, notwith- 
 standing the higher pay in the latter." 
 
 * " Facts and Figures relating to British Columbia and Yancouver Island." 
 London, 1860. 
 
 f It should be f ^marked that the miners can only work four months in the 
 year. 
 
MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 369 
 
 Assuming, as we have every reason to believe, that Mr. 
 Pemberton's statistics are correct up to the time he wrote, 
 the last two years seem to have greatly improved the pros- 
 pects of the gold miner in British Columbia, for we find 
 a statement, apparently upon reliable authority, of the 
 yield of 1861, and number of men employed, which gives 
 a much higher average : — 
 
 79 miners took out an aggregate of $926,680 
 
 400 ditto, claim owners, took out 600,000 
 
 1,021 ditto, at $7 a-day, in 107 days 764,729 
 
 Total yield, nearly all from Cariboo . .$2,291,409 
 1,500 miners who worked in other 
 I places for 180 days at $10 
 
 per diem $2,700,000 
 
 2,000 ditto, at $5 1,800,000 
 
 J 4,500,000 
 
 5,000 miners— gross yield for 1861 $6,791,409 
 
 Giving an average of $1,358 or about £272 sterling a year 
 
 COAL. 
 The consumption of coals by steamboats on the Pacific 
 is enormous, perhaps not less than 200,000 tons a year. 
 It is, therefore, an object of much importance to secure a 
 supply at the nearest point. Tlie coal formations come to 
 the surface towards the coast of British Columbia, and 
 have attracted some attention ; but the principal source of 
 mineral fuel on the Pacific coast is undoubtedly Van- 
 couver Island. Outcrops of coal occur at several points 
 along the eastern coast of the island, and attempts have 
 been made at various times, by the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 who have, until very recently, held possession of it, to turn 
 these discoveries to profitable account. The earliest rec- 
 ord we can find of such works is in 1849, at Beaver Har- 
 bor, at the north-east extremity of the island ; but this 
 locality was soon abandoned as hopeless. Further search 
 has, however, been rewarded by the discovery of extensive 
 seams of workable coal at [{^aniamo, about sixty miles 
 north of Victoria, in latitude 49° 15', longitude 123° 45'. 
 
3Y0 
 
 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 We subjoin the following detailed account of mining op 
 erations here, abridged from a paper by Col. Grant, read 
 before the Geographical Society of London, in 1857. 
 
 "The coal at ]S"aniamo was first discovered by Mr. 
 Joseph McKay, in 1850, who was directed to it by the 
 Indians of the neighborhood. The same seam was dis- 
 covered on Newcastle Island, and several other small 
 islands in the channel, and the Indians soon got out two 
 hundred tons. A pit was commenced by ten regular 
 miners, on the 17th of September, and a shaft sunk to a 
 depth of fifty feet, being through twelve feet of alluvium, 
 eight feet of sandstone, and thirty feet of shale ; the situa- 
 tion of the pit is at the north-west extremity of Naniamo 
 harbor. Here they struck another seam of from six to 
 seven feet in thickness, lying on conglomerate ; they are 
 now regularly working this seam in several parallel gal- 
 leries, extending to a considerable distance already under- 
 ground. The seam here runs nearly level, although with 
 sufficient dip to insure good drainage. The greatest quan- 
 tity of coal that has been raised from it was at the rate of 
 120 tons per week, with eight regular miners. The other 
 seam has been discovered outcropping at another place, at 
 a considerable distance from the working already de- 
 scribed, and an adit level is being driven upon it. Work 
 has been done at four different places, three on the upper 
 seam, which is of an average thickness of six feet, and one 
 as above described, on the lower seam, about the same 
 thickness and of precisely similar quality, situated fifty 
 feet lower than the first. The pit is situated within a few 
 yards of the water side, and vessels drawing sixteen feet 
 can anchor close to it ; notwithstanding its pi'oximity 
 to the water, very little pumping is required. It is the 
 opinion of the head miner that coal may be found any- 
 where within a ci,rcumference of two miles from Naniamo, 
 at a depth of fifty or sixty feet below the surface. Alto- 
 gether, there are few places where coal can be worked so 
 easily, and exported so conveniently as from Naniamo." 
 
MINERAL RESOUKCES OF.EKITISH NORTH AMERICA. 871 
 
 As the Hudson's Bay Company liave recently surren- 
 dered their territorial rights, it has been decided to sell the 
 coal mines, which have accordingly been acquired by a 
 powerful English company, who will doubtless work them 
 to their full capacity. Altogether about 6,000 tons of coal 
 have been exported from Naniamo up to the present date, 
 of which one-half may be said to have been worked and 
 loaded by Indians, and the rest by regular miners. It is 
 chiefly used by the British steamers, those of the Hudson 
 Bay Company, and by the steamers plying between Yic- 
 toria and Frazer river ; and is worth from four to six dol- 
 lars per ton at the pit mouth. The coal is of excellent 
 quality, very like that from the West Riding of Yorkshire ; 
 the chief objection to it is that it burns too qnickly, and 
 leaves behind a good deal of slag, which makes it difficult 
 to keep the furnaces clear ; it is, however, very strong, 
 rich coal, and of high heating power. 
 
 Mr. William Downie, who was sent by the governor of 
 Vancouver Island to explore the region in the north of 
 British Columbia, along the coast to Fort Simpson, and 
 back into the interior, as far as Stuart Lake, reports, under 
 date October, 1859, that he considers this the best looking 
 minera,l country in British Columbia ; in some places gold 
 was discovered; rich veins of excellent plumbago were 
 found, and an extensive coal country occurs, where seams, 
 varying in thickness from three to .thirty-five feet, were 
 exposed in the banks of the rivers. Notwithstanding its 
 excellent soil and climate, however, and its mineral riches, 
 it is to be feared that unless the government assists in its 
 development, this region must long remain in its primitive 
 condition. 
 
 THE ITORTH-WEST TEEEITOEY. 
 Quite recently gold has been discovered on British ter- 
 ritory on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, 
 toward the head- waters of the Saskatchewan and Peace 
 24 
 
372 MINERAL RESOtTlCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 rivers, and expeditions have been fitted out and are now 
 engaged in proving the productiveness of this vast and 
 unknown region. Should the gold be found in any con- 
 siderable quantity, this wiH be a great stride toward the 
 attainment of an object which has long been deemed of 
 vast importance for the inter<!<)urse and civilization of the 
 world; namely, the opening np, on the northern hemi- 
 sphere, of a practicable route between the Atlantic and 
 Pacific oceans. The magnificent lake and river system 
 of Canada affords uninterrupted water communication for 
 nearly half the distance, and Lake Winnepeg and the river 
 Saskatchewan, together with the rivers flowing into the 
 Pacific, form a great part of the rest ; leaving only the dis- 
 trict lying between Lake Superior and Red River, and the 
 pass of the Rocky Mountains, to be overcome by land 
 transport. The country traversed by the Saskatchewan is 
 said to be remarkably fertile and to enjoy an excellent 
 climate, while coal and other useful minerals abound. 
 
 Were it for no other object, the opening up of this region 
 would be of inestimable importance, as the most direct 
 route from England and Canada to British Columbia and 
 Vancouver Island, in preference to a long, dangerous, and 
 expensive voyage by sea. There can be no doubt tHat the 
 existence of a supply of coal in British territory on the 
 shores of the Pacific, and in the valley of the Saskatchewan, 
 will exercise a powerful influence, in combination with the 
 gold discoveries in British Columbia, in furthering com- 
 munication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts along 
 the route we have designated. 
 
fflSTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION 
 
 UPPER AND LOWER CANADA .♦ 
 
 BY J. GEORGE HODGINS, LL. B., P. R. G. S. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 UPPER CANADA,— INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 By very many writers in Europe and America it lias 
 been asserted, and the assertion has been received without 
 question, that in the United States of America, before the 
 recent civil war, education was more generally diJffused, and 
 was in a more flourishing condition than in any other part 
 of the world. It has also been stated that the institutions 
 of most of the United States and their systems of govern- 
 ment were and are more favorable, if not more peculiarly 
 adapted to this educational success, than in any other part 
 of America ; but of late years a change has taken place in 
 public opinion in this respect, — an efficient system of popu- 
 lar education having in the meantime been established in 
 Canada. If this system continues to be properly directed 
 and vigorously maintained, as it has been hitherto, the result 
 will strengthen the conviction in the public mind that an 
 
 * This paper is divided into two sections and each section into three parts. 
 The first part of each section contains a brief historical sketch, in chronologi- 
 cal order, of the progress of education, including the universities, colleges, 
 grammar, common and other schools. The second part contains an account 
 in detail of universities, colleges, professional and other schools, together 
 with a list of various other educational appliances in operation in each portion 
 of the province. The third part contains various statistical information. 
 
374 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 entire compatibility exists between the working of free 
 colonial institutions, founded upon a monarchical basis, and 
 the development and growth of a highly popularized, yet 
 efficient system of public instruction — such as has hitherto 
 been said to flourish only in a democratic country.* 
 
 The necessity for a national system of education in Cana- 
 da, had long been admitted by all parties, but the final es- 
 tablishment of such a system did not take place until within 
 a comparatively recent period. For, when public attention 
 was first practically directed to the accomplishment of that 
 object in 1836-7, the seething turmoil of political strife pre- 
 vented the immediate realization of those hopes of the 
 friends of popular education, which had only then been re- 
 awakened. 
 
 The political union of the Canadas in 1840 did not long 
 include an educational union of Upper and Lower Canada, 
 for since 1843, they have each had their own separate 
 educational systems. 
 
 PART FIEST— CHAPTER I. 
 
 EARLY EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS IN UPPER CANADA, 1783—1805. 
 
 The references to the state of education in Upper Canada, 
 in books of travel and in other publications of 1783 — 1805, are 
 very meagre. All the writers, who do allude to the subject, 
 describe the education provided in the few schools then in 
 existence as very inferior in its character, and the facilities 
 
 * The editor of the Massachusetts Teacher, in giving an account of his visit 
 to Upper Canada, thus refers to the educational system in the Teacher of No- 
 vember, 1855 : He says, " So much has been written and said about the Prus- 
 sian system of schools, that well-informed teachers have become familiar 
 «nth most of its prominent features ; but a system of education in some re- 
 tpecis more complete and more imposing than that of Prussia has sprung up on 
 our own borders, which appears to have attracted less general attention 
 among us." 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LFPE.R CANADA. 375 
 
 for acquiring it but scantily diffused througliout the coun 
 try. This was chiefly owing to the sparseness of the popu- 
 lation and the remoteness of the new settlements. 
 
 One reason assigned by a highly intelligent American 
 traveller for the fewness of the schools in Upper Canada, in 
 1794-9, throws so much light upon the political policy and 
 social state of the province at that time, that we quote the 
 passage entire. This traveller, on visiting Kingston, (then 
 the most important town in Upper Canada,) makes the fol- 
 lowing observations : " The object of the British nation is to 
 people and cultivate this country, and to make it as perfect 
 a part of the empire as possible. Dreading revolutions, 
 they are cautious in receiving republicans from the States, 
 and wish to encourage husbandmen and laborers only. 
 Clergymen, lawyers, physicians, and schoolmasters from the 
 States, are not the first characters who would be fostered. 
 Many congregations would have been formed, and schools 
 
 opened, if the policy in this particular had been different, 
 •je- * * * * 
 
 " An extensive field is opened for men of letters in every 
 profession. Destitute of colleges, academies and schools, 
 and confiding in the qualifications of the clergy ordained 
 by the bishops in the States, Governor Simcoe* wished to 
 have introduced such, but an act of the British parliament 
 disconcerted his design. 
 
 " When the Bishops of England were permitted to con- 
 
 * Colonel John Graves Simcoe was born in England in 1752. He entered 
 the army at nineteen, and commanded the Queen's Rangers (Hussars) during 
 the American revolutionary war, 1775 — 83. In 1792 he was appointed Lieuten- 
 ant Governor of Upper Canada ; and in September of that year he opened the 
 first Parliament of the province, at the town of Niagara, then called Newark. 
 In 1796, he removed the seat of government to Toronto, then called York. He 
 induced many of the American United Empire Loyalists to settle in Upper 
 Canada, and sought in every way to promote the prosperity of the province. 
 He constructed Yonge street, thirty-six miles, as a military road to the lake 
 which now bears his name. He was appointed Governor of St. Domingo in 
 1796, and was made a Lieutenant General in 1798. He died on his return to 
 England, in 1806, aged fifty- four years. 
 
376 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 secrate bishops for the States, a clause was inserted in the 
 act passed by parliament for the purpose, that nothing 
 therein contained should 'enable such bishops or clergy- 
 men ordained by them, to exercise their functions within 
 the limits of the nation.' This act of coui*se applies to 
 Canada." The writer further remarks, that, under this law, 
 " the clergy born and ordained in the States are excluded 
 from the parishes in the provinces ;" and that its operation 
 " has certainly defeated the extending of religion and learn- 
 ing in the provinces."* 
 
 So far as we have been able to ascertain, the first school 
 opened in Upper Canada, was in 1785. In that year a 
 classical school was opened at Cataraqui, (Kingston,) by 
 the Eev. Dr. Stuart; another by Deacon Tr^yer at Port 
 Eowan, (Lake Erie,) in 1789. 
 
 The Duke de la Kochefoucault, who visited Kingston in 
 July, 1795, thus refers to the state of education in that part 
 of the country at that early date. He says : "In this dis- 
 trict are some schools, but they are few in number. The 
 children are instructed in reading and writing, and pay each 
 a dollar a month. One of the masters, superior to the rest 
 in point of knowledge, taught Latin ; but he has left the 
 school without being succeeded by another instructor of 
 the same learning." He also states that " No newspaper is 
 published in Kingston ; that of Newark [Niagara] is the 
 only one published in Upper Canada, which being a mere 
 imperfect extract from the Quebec Gazette^ is here taken in 
 by no one. I know but of two persons who receive even 
 the, Quebec paper. As to the interior of the country, no 
 news penetrates into that quarter, a circumstance that ex- 
 cites there very little regret." 
 
 From the Upper Canada papers it appears that private 
 schools were established shortly after this time in several 
 
 * A Tour through Upper and Lower Canada. By a citizen of the United 
 States. Printed at Litchfield, (according to Act of Congress,) 1 7 99. Pp. 55—57. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CAJiTADA. 37^ 
 
 parts of Upper Canada. Among the rest a school was es- 
 tablished for the Six Nation Indians, and the teachers paid 
 bj the king, at Mohawk, (Grand Eiver,) — " the principal 
 village of the Six Nations, in a tract purchased from the Mis- 
 sassaga Nation for them by his present Majesty, (George 
 III.) on account of their loyalty and attachment during the 
 late rebellion, in which they lost their possessions on the 
 Mohawk River, New York."* 
 
 The military chaplains at the different stations also did 
 what they could to promote education, but their efforts were 
 chiefly confined to their own immediate circle. The New 
 Testament, with Webster, Lindley Murray, or Dil worth's 
 Spelling-book, were the principal text-books, in general use. 
 
 At a very early period in the history of the province, 
 and but six years after the first settlement of Upper Canada, 
 (1789,) a memorial was presented to Lord Dorchester, (Sir 
 Guy Carleton,) the then Governor General of British North 
 America, representing the great deficiency in all means of 
 instruction, and requesting his lordship to establish a pub- 
 lic school at a central place, such as Kingston, or Fron- 
 tenac, (the old French post,) which was then the principal 
 town in Upper Canada. In compliance with this request, 
 Lord Dorchester gave directions to the surveyors-general to 
 set apart eligible portions of land for the endowment of 
 schools in all the new townships. These lands, however, 
 long remained unproductive; and before any benefit could 
 be derived from this solicitude on the part of the Governor 
 General, Canada was divided, by the constitutional act of 
 1791, into two distinct provinces ; and, in 1792, John Graves 
 Simcoe, Esq. was appointed the first Lieutenant Governor 
 of Upper Canada. In that year Rev. Mr. Addison estab- 
 lished a classical school at Newark, the seat of government, 
 
 * Topographical description of His Majesty's Province of Upper Canada. 
 By David Wm. Smith, Esq., Surveyor General of Upper Canada. London, 
 October! 1799. 
 
378 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 (now Niagara.) In 1794, the Rev. Mr. Burns, (father of the 
 late Hon. Judge Burns,) opened a school at the same place. 
 
 In 1795, Governor Simcoe addressed a letter to the Bishop 
 of Quebec, in which the following passages occur. " The peo- 
 ple of this province * * * havethemeansof governing them 
 selves. * * * To this end a liberal education seems indis 
 pensably necessary; and the completion of such education 
 requires the establishment of a university to inculcate 
 sound religious principles, pure morals and refined man- 
 ners." 
 
 In November, 1796, an evening school was opened at 
 Newark, by Mr. Richard Cockrel,* who shortly afterwards 
 transferred his school to the Reverend Mr. Arthur,! and 
 removed to Ancaster, where he opened another school. In 
 1796, notice was given in the York Gazette^ that " as schools 
 were now opened, ignorance would be no longer tolerated." 
 In 1798, a school was opened in Duke street, York, by Mr. 
 William Cooper. 
 
 In 1796, the Imperial Government, in a letter dated 22d 
 of June, and addressed by the Duke of Portland to Lieuten- 
 ant Governor Simcoe, acknowledged the receipt of a letter 
 from the Bishop of Quebec upon the subject of a school of a 
 higher class, to which Gov. Simcoe had called the Bishop's 
 attention, but which his Grace then did not think neces- 
 sary in Upper Canada. The Legislature of Upper Canada 
 thought differently, and, in the Spring of 1797, agreed 
 upon a memorial to His Majesty, George III., soliciting a 
 grant of land for the endowment of a grammar school in 
 
 * Mr. Cockrel's charges were 45. per week, for teaching Writing, Arith- 
 metic, and Book-keeping. Time of teaching, from 6 to 8 o'clock, P. M. 
 
 I In his advertisement Mr. Arthur intimates that " if any number of boys 
 oflFer, and hooks can he procured, a Latin class will commence immediately." 
 He also states that " besides the attention which he ever wishes to pay to the 
 behavior, religious instruction and literary improvement of all his pupils, his 
 hoarders will have the benefit of private tuition in geography and other parts 
 of a useful and ornamental education." 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 379 
 
 eacli district, and a university for tlie whole province. To 
 the address a favorable answer was returned, embracing a 
 scheme of education more comprehensive in its character, 
 so far at least, as higher education was concerned, than that 
 which was proposed by the Legislature. 
 
 This response to the memorial of the Legislature was con 
 tained in a dispatch addressed by the Duke of Portland to 
 Peter Eussell, Esq., President and acting Governor of Upper 
 Canada, and was dated the 4th of November, 1797, as follows: 
 "His Majesty ^ "^ * being always ready to show his paren- 
 tal regard for the welfare of his subjects in the furtherance 
 of so important an object as the instruction of youth, and to 
 assist and encourage the exertions of his province in laying 
 the foundation for promoting sound learning and a religious 
 education, has expressed his gracious intention to comply 
 with the wishes of the legislature of his province of Upper 
 Canada, in such manner as shall be judged to be most ef- 
 fectual. First^ by the establishment of free grammar schools 
 in those districts which they are called for; and, secondly^ in 
 due process of time, by establishing other seminaries of a 
 larger and more comprehensive nature, for the promotion 
 of religious and moral learning, and the study of the arts 
 and sciences." 
 
 Peter Eussell, Esq., the President, requested the chief 
 civil officers* to draw up a report on the subject. They 
 did so in 1798, and recommended a grant of half a million 
 of acres of land for the establishment of a grammar school 
 in each of the four districts into which Upper Canada was 
 then divided, and a central university at some future time. 
 They recommended, also, that a grant of £3,000 be made 
 to each of the districts in Upper Canada for the erection of 
 "a plain but solid and substantial building containing a 
 school-room sufficient to hold one hundred boys without 
 danger to their health from too many being crowded to- 
 
 * These officers were the members of the Executive Council, the judges 
 and law otiicers of the Crown in Upper Canada. 
 
380 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 gether; and also a set of apartments for the master, large 
 enough not only for the accommodation of his family, but 
 also for the very desirable purpose of enabling him to take 
 a few (from ten to twenty) of his pupils as boarders." The 
 salaries proposed were £100 for the head master, £50 for the 
 assistant master, and £30 for repairs, &c. Kingston and 
 Newark (Niagara) were recommended as eligible sites for 
 schools ; after which, when the funds were sufficient, schools 
 were to be established at Cornwall and Sandwich. York 
 (Toronto) was recommended as entitled to the university ; 
 and for the establishment and support of which a sum at 
 least equal to that granted to the four schools was named. 
 Governor Simcoe authorized the Hon. Messrs. Cartwright 
 and Hamilton, to select a person to take charge of the pro- 
 posed college. The Eev. Dr. Chalmers, having declined the 
 appointment, it was accepted by Mr. (now the Right Rever- 
 end Doctor) Strachan (Bishop of Toronto."^) On his arrival 
 at Kingston, on the 31st of December, 1799, he found that 
 the project of a college had been abandoned, Grovernor Sim- 
 coe, in the meantime, having gone to England. 
 
 In 1799, an act was passed by the Upper Canada Legisla- 
 ture " to provide for the education and support of orphan 
 children." It authorized the township wardens, with the 
 consent of two magistrates, to bind and apprentice, until 
 they became of age, children deserted by their parents. In 
 1799, a school was opened near St. Catherines. 
 
 * The Honorable and Right Reverend John Strachan, D. D., LL.T>., first 
 Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Toronto, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, on the 
 12th April, 1778, lie commenced life as a teacher; and in 1800 opened a 
 private school at Kingston, and subsequently one at Cornwall. Among his 
 pupils (in Scotland,) were Sir David Wilkie and (in Upper Canada) the 
 late Chief Justices, Sir J. B. Robinson, and Sir J. B. Macaulay, Com- 
 modore Barclay, &c. He was ordained a clergyman of the Church of 
 England on the 2d May, 1803, was minister of Cornwall in 1804, and Rector 
 of Toronto in 1812 ; was appointed a legislative counsellor in 1818; archdeacon 
 of York in 1825, and Bishop of Toronto in 1839. He founded the University 
 of Trinity College, Toronto, in 1851—2. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 381 
 
 In August, 1801, a meeting of the proprietors of the 
 Niagara Library was held at Newark, when it was resolved 
 that a call of $2 per share be made for the purchase of new 
 books. It was also resolved that new members pay $4 per 
 annum as subscriptions to the library, and old members $2 
 per annum. 
 
 It was soon discovered that half a million of acres of 
 land would endow but few grammar schools, land being 
 then only worth a shilling per acre ; the scheme had, there- 
 ore, to be abandoned. Meanwhile the Hon. Mr. Cariwright 
 made an arrangement with Mr. Strachan to instruct his 
 sons and a select number of pupils for three years. In 1803, 
 Mr. Strachan was ordained by the Bishop of Quebec, and 
 in 1804, he removed to the mission of Cornwall, where, at the 
 request of the parents of his former pupils, he. opened a 
 private school. For several years this school was the 
 only one of any note in Upper Canada ; and in it were 
 educated some of those gentlemen who have filled some 
 of the most important positions in the province. In 1802, 
 Dr. Baldwin opened a classical school at York; and, in 1805, 
 Mr. Strachan held the first public examination of his school, 
 in Cornwall, at which all the principal persons in the neigh- 
 borhood attended. Subsequently Mr. Strachan's school was 
 constituted the Grammar School of the district. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 j:ducational legislation, iso^e— isie. 
 
 The first legislative enactment relating to general educa- 
 tion was not passed, until March, 1807. This act provided 
 for the establishment of grammar or high schools, but made 
 no provision whatever for the common schools ; still, it did 
 good service, and was only finally superseded by a more 
 comprehensive measure in 1853. In the former year (1806) 
 
382 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 
 a temporary act was passed by the provincial legislature, 
 
 and made permanent in 1808, establishing a classical 
 
 and 
 
 mathematical or "Public School" in each of the eight dis- 
 
 tricts into which Upper Canada was then divided; 
 
 and 
 
 granting £800 per annum, or £100 per school as the 
 
 an- 
 
 nual salary of the teacher in each district — the teacher to be 
 
 nominated by the trustees, but appointed by the governor.* 
 
 * In order to give effect to this Act, Lieut.-Governor Gore, on the 13th 
 
 March, 1807, appointed " the undermentioned gentlemen to be Trustees of :be 
 
 Public Schools in the several districts of Upper Canada : 
 
 
 "1. Eastern District \ 
 
 "5. Home District 
 
 
 Samuel Sherwood, 
 Niel McLean, 
 Samuel Anderson, 
 
 1 
 
 Rev. Mr. Stuart, 
 D'Arcy Boulton, 
 John Small, 
 Duncan Cameron, 
 
 .1 
 
 Joseph Anderson, 
 
 1 
 
 Samuel Smith, 
 
 i' 
 
 John Crysler, 
 
 OB 
 
 William Graham, 
 
 Alexander McMillan, 
 
 
 Thomas Rid out, 
 
 
 " 2. District of Johnstown. 
 
 " 6. District of Niagara. 
 
 
 Thomas Sherwood, 
 
 
 Hon. Robt. Hamilton, 
 
 
 Ephraim Jones, 
 
 ■ s 
 
 Colonel Clark, 
 
 
 Solomon Jones, 
 
 William Dickson, 
 
 s 
 
 James Campbell, 
 
 i 
 
 Robert Kerr, 
 
 .1 
 
 Elijah Bottom, J 
 
 . 
 
 Thomas Cummings, 
 
 I 
 
 
 James Muirhead, 
 
 
 "3. Midland District 
 
 John Symington, 
 
 
 Hon. Richard Cartwright, ' 
 
 
 "7. District of London. 
 
 
 Rev. Dr. Stuart, 
 
 
 Thomas Talbot, 
 
 
 Allan McLean, 
 
 .{ 
 
 Samuel Ryerse, 
 
 
 Joseph Forsyth, 
 
 Joseph Ryerson, 
 
 1 
 
 Thomas Markland, 
 
 William Hutchinson, 
 
 ■ e 
 
 Peter Smith, 
 
 .2 
 
 Thomas Walsh, 
 
 f 
 
 Alexander Fisher, i Ap'd 
 Philip Borland, , f2May., 
 
 
 John Coltman, 
 
 
 
 Daniel Springer, . 
 
 
 
 " 8. Western District 
 
 
 " 4. District of NetvcasOe. 
 
 Hon. James Baby, 
 
 
 Asa Burnham, 
 
 
 Rev. Mr. Pollard, 
 
 
 Leonard Sooper, 
 
 
 Matthew Elliott, 
 
 S 
 
 Elias Smith, Sen'r., 
 
 .1 
 
 1 
 
 Angus Mcintosh, 
 
 Elias Jones, 
 
 John Askin, Sen'r., 
 
 i' 
 
 John Peters, 
 
 .« 
 
 Gregor McGregor, 
 
 3 
 
 John Bleeker, 
 
 
 Alexander Duff, j 
 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 383 
 
 In February, 1806, at the suggestion of Dr. Strachan, 
 an Act was passed granting £400 for the purchase of in- 
 struments for illustrating the principles of Natural Philoso- 
 phy, which were to be deposited in the hands of a person 
 employed in the education of youth. In January, 1808, M. 
 de Diemar opened a French school from 5 to 9 P. M., at 
 York, (Toronto,) and in August, Eev. Mr. Stuart, held a 
 highly satisfactory examination of his school at the same 
 place. 
 
 In describing the state of education in Upper €anada 
 about this period, we quote the following observations from 
 a work published at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1814. by M. 
 Smith, of Kichmond, Virginia, author of " A View of Upper 
 Canada," who resided in the province from 1808 until the 
 breaking out of the war of 1812. Mr. Smith says: " The 
 greater part of the inhabitants of Canada are not well edu- 
 cated ; for as they were poor when they came to the province, 
 and the country being but thinly settled for a number of 
 years, they had but little chance for the benefit of schools. 
 But since the country has become more settled, and the 
 inhabitants rich, or in a good way of living, which is almost 
 universally the case, they pay considerable attention to 
 learning. "Ten dollars a year is the common price given 
 for the tuition of each scholar by good teachers.. 
 
 " Until lately, there was no Latin or Greek school kept 
 in the province. Now there are three — one in York, taught 
 by the Eev. John Strachan, Episcopal minister of that place ; 
 one on the Bay Quantie, by a Mr. Bidwell,* from the United 
 States ; and the other in Niagara village, by the Rev. Mr. 
 Burns. Good encouragement would be given in many 
 other parts to teachers of such schools, particularly in the 
 Niagara and London districts. 
 
 " Notwithstanding that I said that the main body of the 
 
 * Father of the Hon. Marshall S. Bidwell, now of the city of New York; 
 but formerly Speaker of the Upper Canada Commons House of Assembly. 
 
384 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 inhabitants were not well educated, jet there are a number 
 of gentlemen in the province who have the best of learning. 
 
 " There is a public free school kept in every district, by 
 order of the king, the teachers of which receive annually 
 one hundred pounds sterling from the crown."^ 
 
 In 1812, Eev. Mr. Langhorn, a missionary for twenty 
 years, and a school-master, made a present of his library to 
 the inhabitants of the Bay of Quints. In 1814, Eev. Eobert 
 Baldwin was appointed Grammar School master at Corn- 
 wall, vice the Eev. Mr. Bethune, resigned. In 1815, an act 
 was passed by the Legislature to incorporate the Midland 
 District School Society. In 1816, an act was passed grant- 
 ing £800 for the purchase of a library for the use of the 
 Legislative Council and House of Assembly. 
 
 CHAPTEE IIL 
 
 FIRST ESTABLISHMENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS, 1816—1822. 
 
 In 1816, (nine years after the grammar schools were 
 established,) legislative provision was first made for the 
 establishment and maintenance of common schools in 
 Upper Canada. The large sum, in that day, of £6,000 was 
 annually granted for this purpose,! ^^^ the people were au- 
 thorized "to meet together" in any town, village or town- 
 ship, " to make arrangements for establishing common 
 schools in such town, village or township," at each of which 
 the attendance of pupils should not be less than twenty. It 
 also authorized that three "fit and discreet persons " should 
 be chosen Trustees, who were to " examine into the moral 
 
 * Geographical view of the British Possessions in North America, by M. 
 Smith, page 52— Baltimore, Maryland, 1814. 
 
 t The appropriations under this first Common School Act of Upper Canada 
 were as follows: To the schools in the Midland District £1,000; in the 
 Eastern District £800 ; in the Home, Johnstown, London, Gore, Niagara and 
 Western Districts, £600 for eaoh district ; in the Newcastle District £400, and 
 !n the Ottawa District £200. Total, £6,000, or $24,000. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 385 
 
 character and capacity of any person willing to become a 
 teacher " and appoint him. The trustees were also author- 
 ized to make rules and regulations for their own schools; 
 and to select text-books from a list prescribed by a district 
 Board of Education, to which they were required to report. 
 The provincial allowance to each school was in no case to 
 exceed £25 — the balance of salary and contingent expenses 
 tQ be made up by subscriptions. No rate-bills or assess- 
 ments were authorized. This law was considered only as 
 an experiment, and its operation was limited to four 
 years. 
 
 Thus, in hesitation and doubt, were sown the seeds of 
 intellectual life and vigor in Upper Canada, which, though 
 unproductive for a time, and even nearly uprooted for a 
 time by chilling frosts and wild popular commotions, have, 
 by renewed care and cxilture, been developed into more than 
 4,000 schools with almost $1,000,000 of self-imposed taxa- 
 tion for their maintenance. 
 
 At the expiration of the four years, it was obvious that 
 either the law of 1816 did not produce satisfactory fruit, or 
 men of narrower minds controlled our public affairs ; for, in 
 1820, another act was passed, reducing the legislative grant 
 from $24,000 to §10,000 per annum, making a uniform 
 grant of $1,000 to each district, and reducing the teachers' 
 allowance from $100 to $50 per annum. 
 
 In regard to the state of education in Upper Canada in 
 1817, and the fluctuating character of its progress since the 
 settlement of the province, in 1784, up to that time, Mr. 
 Robert Grourlaj^, a well-known Canadian politician and 
 author, writes as follows: 
 
 " There is no college in Upper Canada, but there are said 
 to be several townships of land set apart for the purpose 
 of endowing such an institution, when the population and 
 circumstances of the province shall require it. 
 
 "ISTo provision is made by law for free schools. The in- 
 
386 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA, 
 
 habitants of the several townships are left to a voluntary 
 support of schools, according to their own discretion. 
 
 " An Act of the provincial legislature, in 1807, granted 
 a hundred pounds a year to the teacher of one school, in 
 each of the eight districts under the direction of trustees. 
 In some districts the school thus provided for is made a free 
 school ; but in other districts the salary is considered as a 
 public encouragement to a teacher of literary eminence, in 
 addition to the compensation received for the tuition of each 
 scholar. " The act w^s limited to four years, within which 
 period the limitation was repealed, so that it is now a per- 
 petual law. From the extent of the districts, the location 
 of the schools, and other considerations, the school act has 
 proved not very satisfactory, and a repeal of it has been re- 
 peatedly attempted. Such dissatisfaction and attempts to 
 procure a repeal, may have lessened the ability of these 
 schools. Several of them, however, are flourishing and 
 highly respectable. 
 
 " Other seminaries for the education of youth are sup 
 ported by individual exertions, without public aid. 
 
 "The first inhabitants, as was stated in the historical 
 sketch, were generally poor, in consequence of the revolu- 
 tion. They had also to struggle with the labors and priva- 
 tions incident to new settlements. As their habitations were 
 sparse, it was difficult for them to unite in sufficient num- 
 bers to form good schools ; and they could neither afford 
 much expense for instructors, nor allow their children much 
 time for receiving instruction. From such inevitable causes, 
 education was neglected among them until the neglect almost 
 became habitual. The want of books, at the same time, re- 
 laxed their taste for reading. 
 
 " A sense of these disadvantages excited desires for sur- 
 mounting them, which have at length produced some cor- 
 responding exertion. Books are procured in considerable 
 numbers. In addition to those with which particular per- 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 387 
 
 sons and families are supplied, social libraries are introduced 
 in various places; and subscribers at a small expense thus 
 enjoy the benefit of many more volumes than they could 
 individually afford to purchase. 
 
 " A spirit of improvement is evidently spreading. The 
 value of education, as well as the want of it, is felt. The 
 practicability of obtaining it is considered. Gentlemen of 
 competent means appear to be sensible of the importance 
 of giving their children academical learning, and ambitious 
 to do it without sending them abroad for the purpose. 
 
 "Among other indications of the progress of literary am- 
 bition, I can not forbear referring to the academy lately 
 erected in Ernest Town, by the subscriptions of public- 
 spirited inhabitants of that and the neighboring townships, 
 who appear to be convinced that the cultivation of liberal 
 arts and sciences is naturally connected with an improve- 
 ment of manners and morals, and a general melioration of 
 the state of society." * 
 
 As to the state of feeling in the rural parts of the oldest 
 settled portions of Upper Canada, we make the following ex- 
 tracts from a letter written to Mr. Gourlay from the town- 
 ship of Grimsby, in 1818, by a highly respected resident, 
 William Crooks, Esq. Mr. Crooks remarks : 
 
 *' The state of education is at a very low ebb, not only 
 in the township, but generally throughout the [Niagara] 
 district; although the liberality of the legislature has been 
 great in support of the district schools, (giving to the 
 teachers of each £100 per annum,) yet they have been pro- 
 ductive of little or no good hitherto, for this obvious cause, 
 
 * " Such was the prospect when the war commenced, but it is changed. The 
 academy was converted into a barrack ; and the academical institution has not 
 been revived. The students resorted to other places of education, many of them 
 out of the province. The building is now occupied as a house of public worship, 
 and a common school. It is to be hoped, however, that the taste for literary 
 improvement may be revived, and this seminary be re-established." Statis- 
 tical Account of Upper Canada, &c. By Robert Gourlay. 2vols. London, 
 1822. 
 
 25 
 
388 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 the J are looked upon as seminaries exclusively instituted 
 for the education of the children of the more wealthy classes 
 of society, and to which the poor man's child is considered 
 as unfit to be admitted. From such causes, instead of their 
 being a benefit to the province, they are sunk into obscuri- 
 ty, and the heads of most of them are at this moment 
 enjoying their situations as comfortable sinecures. An- 
 other class of schools has, within a short time, been like- 
 wise founded upon the liberality of the legislative purse, de- 
 nominated common or parish schools, but like the preceding, 
 the anxiety of the teacher employed, seems more alive to 
 his stipend than the advancement of the education of those 
 placed under his care : from the pecuniary advantages thus 
 held out, we have been inundated with the worthless scum, 
 under the character of schoolmasters, not only of this, but 
 of every other country where the knowledge has been pro- 
 mulgated, of the easy means our laws afford of getting a 
 living here, by obtaining a parish school, which is done upon 
 the recommendation of some few freeholders, getting his 
 salary from the public, and making his employers contribute 
 handsomely beside. 
 
 "It is true, rules are laid down' for their government, and 
 the proper books prescribed for their use ; but scarcely in 
 one case in ten are they adhered to, for in the same class 
 you will frequently see one child with Noah Webster's 
 spelling-book in his hand,, and the next with Lindley Mur- 
 ray's. However prone the teachers are to variety in their 
 schools, much blame is to be attributed to the trustees, who 
 are in many instances too careless, and I might almost add 
 too ignorant to discriminate right from wrong, in the trust 
 they have undertaken for the public benefit. It is therefore 
 not to be wondered at why the parish school system should 
 meet with almost universal reprobation from most discern- 
 ing men. 
 
 " Of these parish schools, we are burdened with a liberal 
 share, having no less than three of them. If the establish 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 389 
 
 ment of this system was meant by the legislature to abbre- 
 viate the present enormous price of education, they have 
 been miserably deceived ; for I can see no alteration or re- 
 duction from the charge made before the passing of the act. 
 The price then was 125. 6d. [i. e. $2,50,] and is now the 
 same, per quarter."* 
 
 In 1819, the Executive Council, on considering the Duke 
 of Portland's dispatch of 1797, recommended that 500,000 
 acres of land be disposed of for the purpose of establishing 
 a University in Upper Canada. The members of the Coun- 
 cil thought that £10,000 would be required for the erec- 
 tion of " a suitable building and provide a library, philo- 
 sophical apparatus and a botanic garden," with £4,060 per 
 annum for " salaries, scholarships and contingencies." 
 
 In July, 1819, provision was made for an additional gram- 
 mar school ; for holding annual public examinations ; for 
 reporting the condition of the school to the governor, and for 
 educating ten common school pupils, free of charge, at each 
 of the nine public grammar schools already established ; 
 but the provincial allowance to teachers of grammar schools 
 was reduced to £50 in all cases where the numbers of pupils 
 did not exceed ten. 
 
 Thus ebbed and flowed, without a master hand to stay the 
 current, that tide which in other lands is regarded as the 
 nation's life's blood ; and thus was permitted to ensue that 
 state of living death by which Upper Canada, in the signifi- 
 cant and popular metaphor of the day, was likened to a 
 'girdled tree,' destitute alike of life, of beauty, or of stately 
 growth. 
 
 * In 1818, Mr. Gourley reports the names of the grammar school masters in 
 Upper Canada as follows : Johnstown District^ Rev. John Bethune, (now dean and 
 rector of Christ Church Cathedral, Montreal ;) Midland District^ Rev. John Wil- 
 son ; Home District^ Rev. Dr. Strachan, (now Bishop of Toronto 5) Niagara Dis- 
 trict, Rev. John Burns, (father of the late Hon. Judge Burns ;) London Dis 
 trict, Mr, James Mitchell, (subsequently Judge of the District Court ;) Western 
 District, Mr. Merrill ; Eastern and Newcastle Districts, vacant. — Statistical Ao 
 count of Upper Canada, <kc., Vd. 11., Appendix xciv. 
 
 [ 
 
390 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER ly. 
 
 FITFUL PROGRESS FROM 1822—1836. 
 
 In 1822, Sir Peregrine Maitland, the lieutenant-governor 
 of Upper Canada, submitted to the Imperial government a 
 plan for organizing a general system of education for the 
 province, including elementary schools; and, in 1823, 
 he obtained permission from England to establish a 
 Board of Education for the general superintendence of this 
 system of education, and for the management of the uni- 
 versity and school lands throughout the province. This 
 Board prepared some general regulations in regard to the 
 schools, and proposed a plan by which to exchange 225,- 
 944 acres of the less valuable of the school lands for the 
 more productive Clergy Reserve lands. The plan having 
 been approved of by the home Government, was carried into 
 effect by the Governor soon after. In 1824, the first at- 
 tempts towards providing the public with general reading 
 books, in connection with the common and Sunday schools, 
 were made. The sum of £150 was annually appropriated 
 for this object, and authorized to be expended by the Pro- 
 vincial Board of Education in the purchase of " books and 
 tracts designed to afford moral and religious instruction." 
 These books and tracts were intended for equal distribution 
 throughout all the districts of Upper Canada. 
 
 Thus were presented the dim outlines of a system of pub- 
 lic instruction, which it was clear the necessities of the coun- 
 try required, but which for want of a vigorous and system- 
 atic departmental supervision was gradually permitted to lan- 
 guish. The educational legislative enactments themselves 
 were suffered to become almost obsolete on the statute book. 
 
 In these fitful efforts may be traced the noble instincts of 
 the province to possess herself of an invaluable palladium 
 of civil and religious freedom, but which the apathy or 
 selfishness of her sons alone presented her from acquiring. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 391 
 
 We honour her even in her failures, while we learn a 
 valuable lesson from her history : that to entrust the cause 
 of education to the chances of political strife or to the guid- 
 ance of self-interest or aimless counsels is to doom it to ship- 
 wreck and destruction. 
 
 In January, 1824, the Common School Act was made to 
 apply "to all schools that are now or may hereafter be 
 established and kept among the Indians who shall be resi- 
 dent within the limits of any organized county or township 
 within this province, excepting such schools as shall or may 
 be otherwise provided for."* Provision was also made this 
 year for the examination of common school teachers by 
 county Boards of Education. 
 
 In March, 1827, Sir Peregrine Maitland obtained a charter 
 for King's College, Toronto. In transmitting the charter, 
 Lord Bathurst proposed to endow the University, as follows : 
 " I am further to acquaint you that His Majesty has been 
 pleased to grant £1,000 per annum as a fund for erecting 
 the buildings necessary for the college, to be paid out of the 
 moneys furnished by the Canada company and to continue 
 during the term of that agreement. 
 
 " I have to authorize you, on receipt of this dispatch, to 
 exchange such Crown Reserves as have not been made o^^r 
 to the Canada Company for an equal portion of the lands 
 set apart for the purpose of education and foundation of 
 a University, as suggested in your dispatch of the 19th 
 December, 1825, and more fully detailed in Dr. Strachan's 
 Report of the 10th March, 1826 ; and you will proceed to 
 endow King's College with the said Crown Reserves with 
 as little delay as possible." 
 
 Objections having been made in Upper Canada to the 
 charter of King's College as too exclusive, a committee of 
 the House of Commons, in 1828, recommended the appoint- 
 ment in it of a theological professor each for the established ' 
 
 * All the Indian schools of the province, which are sustained by various 
 religious bodies, are chiefly under the control of the Indian Department, 
 The management of the Indian lands is vested in the Crown Lands Department.. 
 
892 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 churches of England and Scotland. This recommendation 
 was, however, not acted upon. 
 
 In 1829, Sir John Colborne, (now Lord Seaton,) superse- 
 ded the Eoyal Grammar, or District School, at York, now 
 Toronto, by an institution which he named Upper Canada 
 College. He obtained for it, from His Majesty's Govern- 
 ment, an endowment of 66,000 acres of school land, besides 
 some town lots. On the 4th January, 1830, this college was 
 formally opened. See Part Second, chapter iii. 
 
 In 1828 — 9, the Wesleyan Methodists took active steps 
 to establish an Academy for the superior education of pupils 
 of both sexes ; and in June, 1830, the Wesley an Conference 
 appointed a committee to collect subscriptions and to 
 select a site for the proposed academy. 
 
 In 1831, a committee of the House of Assembly recom- 
 mended that £4,400 per annum be granted for the support 
 of the eleven free grammar schools, or respectable semin- 
 aries [to be " incorporated with the present district schoob,^^ 
 where the youth of the province generally might receive a 
 liberal education, without being removed many hundred 
 miles from the tender care and watchful authority of their 
 parents." The committee was also opposed to the endow- 
 ment of " King's College, or any other extensive university 
 which can only be viewed as of benefit to those whose wealth 
 enables them to bear the great expense of sending their chil- 
 dren to the capital of the province ;" but it recommended 
 that £2,000 be set apart for the annual support of a provin- 
 cial seminary at York, " whether called Upper Canada Col- 
 lege, or by any other name." They further recommended 
 that £50 be annually granted to establish a school in each of 
 the 132 townships of Upper Canada, (being 12 schools in a 
 district,) and thus give to Upper Canada a system of edu- 
 cation that might well be envied by any other colony in His 
 * Majesty's dominions." The report was partially acted upon 
 in 1839. See page 394. 
 
 In November, 1831, Lord Goderich, in a dispatch, pro- 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 393 
 
 posed that the King's College charter be surrendered, with 
 a view to its modification. 
 
 In 1832, the functions of the Upper Canada Board of 
 Education ceased ; and the school lands under its manage- 
 ment were reinvested in the Crown, with a view to having 
 the proceeds of their sale annually applied as might be di- 
 rected by the legislature. In the same year, £7,000 having 
 been collected by authority of the Wesley an Conference, the 
 site was selected for the proposed Upper Canada Academy 
 at Cobourg, and the building commenced. On the 18th of 
 June, 1836, the Academy was opened ; and in October of 
 that year a Eoyal Charter was obtained for it, through the 
 exertions of. the Rev. Dr. Ryerson.* 
 
 Dr. Thomas Rolph, who travelled in Upper Canada in 
 1832 — 3, thus refers to the state of the schools at that time. 
 He says : " It is really melancholy to traverse the province, 
 and go into many of the common schools ; you find a herd 
 of children, instructed by some anti-British adventurer, in- 
 stilling into the young and tender mind sentiments hostile 
 to the parent state ;t false accounts of the late war in which 
 
 * The Rev. Egerton Ryerson, D. D., LL, D., is a younger son of the late 
 Colonel Joseph Ryerson, (a United Empire Loyalist, of New Jersey, who 
 came from New Brunswick in 1793.) He was born in Charlotteville, county 
 of Norfolk, Upper Canada, in 1803 ; entered the Wesleyan ministry in 1825; 
 was editor of the Christian Guardian (which he established) in 1829 ; Principal 
 of Victoria College (Cobourg) in 1841 ; appointed Chief Superintendent of Edu- 
 cation for Upper Canada in 1844 ; made a tour of inquiry in Europe in 1844 — 5 ; 
 and founded the present system of public instruction in Upper Canada in 
 1846—53. 
 
 T It may be proper to remark here that it was not until 1846 that a check 
 was put upon this abuse of public confidence on the part of American or 
 Americanized teachers. In the Upper Canada common school law of 1850 
 it is provided that " no foreign book in the English branches can be used in 
 any model or common schools without the express permission of Council of Public 
 Instruction." Foreign teachers were also required by the school Acts of 1843 
 and 1850 to take the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty before they could receive 
 a certificate of qualification from the County Board of Public Instruction. 
 These restrictive provisions of the school law are thus justified by the Rev. Dr. 
 
394 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Great Britain was engaged with the United States , geogra- 
 phy setting forth New York, Philadelphia, Boston, &c., as 
 the largest and finest cities in the world ; historical reading 
 books, describing the American population as the most free 
 and enlightened under heaven ; insisting on the superiority 
 of their laws and institutions, to those of all the world, in de- 
 fiance of the agrarian outrages and mob supremacy daily 
 witnessed and lamented; and American spelling-books, 
 dictionaries, and grammar, teaching them an anti-British dia- 
 lect, and idiom ; although living in a province, and being 
 subjects, of the British crown."* Pp. 262, Appendix.f 
 
 Ryerson in his special Report to the Legislature in 1847 : " I think that less evil 
 arises from the employment of American teachers than from the use of Ameri- 
 can text-books. ***** Whatever may be thought of the wisdom or ex- 
 pediency of restricting legal certificates of qualification to natural born or nat- 
 uralized British subjects, I believe public sentiment is against its repeal, and in 
 favor of having the youth of the country taught by our own fellow-subjects, as 
 well as out of our own books. * * * In regard to the exclusion of American 
 books from the schools, I have explained that it is not because they are foreign 
 books simply that they are excluded, but because they are, with very few ex- 
 ceptions, anti-British, in every sense of the word. They are unlike the school 
 books of any other enlightened nation, so far as I have the means of know- 
 ing. The school books of Germany, France and Great Britain contain noth- 
 ing hostile to the institutions or derogatory to the character of any other na- 
 tion. * * * American school books, with very few exceptions, abound in state- 
 ments and allusions prejudicial to the institutions of the British nation," &c. 
 
 * Observations made during a Visit, (fee, together with a Statistical Account 
 of Upper Canada — By Dr. Thomas Rolph, Ancaster, Gore District, Upper 
 Canada. Dundas, 1836. 
 
 t T)r. Rolph, in his observations, states that there was in Prescott, at the 
 time of his visit, 1832 — 3, "a very elegant stone building erected by the 
 Catholic clergyman, the Rev. J. W. Champion, and denominated the Grenville 
 College, [Prescott being in the county of Grenville] 84 feet in length, with two 
 wings, one at either end 40 feet each in length. * * * When Grenville College 
 oomes into active operation it will afford a finished education. In connection 
 with this college or establishment there will be a library for general circula- 
 tion, which will be bought at the public expense, the proprietor supplying a 
 number of miscellaneous works : the proceeds of the library will be appropria- 
 ted to the clothing of poor children who will be instructed gratuitously in the 
 college." [We believe these expectations were never realized — the college not 
 having gone into operation.] — Rolph^s Ohservaiions^''^ &c., pp. 148, 149. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 395 
 
 In 1835, the Hon. and Eigbt Keverend Bishop McDonell 
 gave as a legacy by will, four acres of land to a projected 
 Roman Catholic College, to be named St. Eaphaels, and to 
 be established in the County of Glengarry. The site of the 
 College was afterwards removed to Kingston. In 1837, 
 the institution was incorporated as Kegiopolis College ; but 
 it was not until 1845 that an act was passed authorizing 
 the Trustees under the will to convey the Bishop's legacy to 
 the College corporation. In the following year the col- 
 lege was formally opened. 
 
 In the public accounts of Upper Canada, the expenditure 
 for public schools from 1832 to 1836, is given as follows : 
 
 Year. Common Schools. District Schools. Total. 
 
 1832, $ 9,600 $4,000 $13,600 
 
 1833, 35,200 3,861 39,061 
 
 1834, 31,400 3J981 35,381 
 
 1835, 33,800 4.545 38,345 
 
 1836, 35,800 4,559 40,359 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY INQUIRY AND ITS RESULTS, 1836—1843. 
 
 In 1836, another spasmodic effort was made to revive the 
 dying spirit of education in the province, and a commission 
 was appointed by the legislature to examine the systems 
 of public instruction in operation in the United States, and to 
 report the result. Dr. Charles Buncombe, (a member of the 
 provincial parliament,) the gentleman deputed on behalf of 
 the three commissioners (Drs. Duncombe, T. D. Morrison 
 and T. Brace,) to perform this labor, visited various States 
 of the Union, and embodied the result of his investiga- 
 tions in the form of an elaborate Report, accompanied by 
 an ample corroborative appendix, and a voluminous bill, 
 which he drafted with great care, and in which he proposed 
 to grant $60,000 per annum in aid of common schools. 
 
396 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 As a matter of curiosity and history, it. may be interest- 
 ing to give one or two extracts from Dr. Dunscombe's Re- 
 port, in which he expresses his opinion of the American 
 systems of pubhc instruction in 1836. Dr. Duncombe was 
 an active, intelligent man, and from his strong liberal views 
 and personal history, must be regarded as an impartial wit- 
 ness in regard to American institutions. He says (page 11) : 
 " In the United States, where they devote much time and 
 expense towards the promotion of literature, they are 
 equally destitute of a system of national education, with 
 ourselves ; and, although, by their greater exertion to im- 
 port the improvements made in Great Britain, and on the 
 continent, and their numerous attempts at systematizing 
 these modern modes of education so as to lay the founda- 
 tion for a future perfect system of education adapted to the 
 institutions of the country, they have placed themselves in 
 advance of us in their common school system, yet, after all, 
 their schools seemed to me to be good schools upon bad or 
 imperfect systems. They seem groping in the dark ; no in- 
 struction in the past to guide the future, no beacon light, 
 no counsel of wise men to guide them, more than we have, 
 upon the subject of common schools." Page 11. 
 
 " In the United States, so far as I have witnessed and am 
 capable of judging, their common school systems are as de- 
 fective as our own. They have, according to their public 
 documents, about 80,000 comijion school teachers, but very 
 few* of whom have made any preparation for their duties; 
 the most of them assume their office as a temporary employ- 
 ment." Page 63. 
 
 That the Canadian system of popular instruction was 
 equally inefficient, was fully admitted ; and Dr. Duncombe 
 has recorded the historical fact in the preamble to the bill 
 which he proposed for the adoption of the legislature. The 
 laboi*s, however, of Dr. Duncombe were productive of no 
 immediate results. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 397 
 
 The charter of King's College University having been 
 deemed too exclusive in its character to be generally accepta- 
 ble, the legislature petitioned the king to amend it. In re- 
 ply, His Majesty's Government authorized the provincial 
 legislature to do so. After much discussion a bill amend- 
 ing the charter and incorporating Upper Canada College 
 with the University was passed on the 4th of March, 1837, 
 and soon afterwards received Her Majesty's assent. 
 
 In May, 1839, the legislature passed an Act converting 
 the district schools into grammar schools; providing for 
 the appointment by the Government of five trustees for 
 each; applying a portion of the university endowment 
 to their support ; and setting apart 250,000 acres of crown 
 lands as a permanent endowment of these schools. The Act 
 also appropriated not less than one half the revenues of the 
 proposed King's College to the support of Upper Canada 
 College until the University would be established £200 
 were also applied to the erection of a grammar school in 
 each district, provided an equal sum was raised by sub- 
 scription among the inhabitants, and provided the buildings 
 thus erected were permanently insured. The Act further 
 provided for the payment of £100 to each of four other 
 grammar schools which might be established in towns or 
 villages not nearer than six miles from the county town, and 
 at which not less than sixty scholars were educated. 
 
 In 1840, the Presbyterians, in connection with the Church 
 of Scotland, wishing to establish a theological and literary 
 college at Kingston, obtained an Act of incorporation for 
 it from the provincial legislature. The Governor General 
 reserved the Act for the signification of Her Majesty's 
 pleasure thereon; but in the following year, (1841,) the 
 Queen granted a Boyal Charter erecting the institution into 
 the " University of Queen's College, at Kingston." Two 
 faculties were immediately afterwards organized, viz. Theo- 
 logy and Arts. The faculty of Medicine was added in 1854, 
 and that of Law in 1861. See Part Second, chapter v., vi. 
 
398 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 In 1840, the Congregationalists established a Theological 
 Institute at Toronto. In 1843, a similar institution was es- 
 tablished at Montreal ; but in 1846 it was removed to To- 
 ronto and amalgamated with the institution there. In 1860, 
 the Congregational College of Nova Scotia was also absorb- 
 ed in the Toronto Institution, and the name of the new 
 establishment changed to that of the Congregational College 
 of British North America. In the same year (1840,) the 
 United Presbyterians opened a Divinity Hall at London, U. 
 C. In 1841 it was formally recognized by the synod ; in 
 1849 it was removed to Toronto, and in 1861 it was merged 
 in Knox College, Toronto. (See next page.) 
 
 The eventful crisis of 1837, by which the political hori- 
 zon was overcast, and Canada was plunged into civil war, 
 prevented the consummation of the hopes which had -been 
 anxiously entertained for the resuscitation of the coinmon 
 school system. In 1839, the clouds of war and tumult 
 had passed away, and in 1840, the provinces of Upper and 
 Lower Canada were united under one Legislature. In 
 1841, the first Parliament of United Canada passed an Act 
 definitely establishing a system of popular education in 
 Upper and Lower Canada, and endowed it with an annual 
 Parliamentary grant of $200,000. 
 
 Thus was reached a great turning point in the somewhat 
 checkered educational history of Canada ; and, although the 
 effort was long and painful, the point once gained has never 
 been abandoned. 
 
 In 1841, Upper Canada Academy was converted into the 
 University of Victoria College, under the Presidency of the 
 Rev. Dr. Ryerson, and received from the legislature an an- 
 nual grant of £500. The college was opened with one 
 faculty, that of Arts ; the faculty of Medicine was added in 
 1854, and that of Law in 1862. See Part Second, chap, v., vi. 
 
 In the same year, (1841,) the Society of Friends estab- 
 lished a seminary for both sexes on a farm of one hundred 
 acres near Picton, in Prince Edward county. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 599 
 
 In 1841 — 2, a Diocesan Theological School for the Church 
 of England was established at Cobourg by the Lord Bishop 
 of Toronto. In 1852 it was merged into Trinity College, 
 Toronto. See Part Second, chapters v., vi. 
 
 In April, 1842, the foundation stone of King's College 
 was laid, with appropriate ceremonies, by His Excellency 
 Sir Charles Bagot, Chancellor of the University. In June, 
 1843, the University was formally opened under the 
 Presidency of the Eight Eeverend Bishop Strachan. In 
 1842, the library of the University was first formed. In 
 1854, the number of volumes in the library had increased 
 to 5,000 ; in 1861 to 15,000. 
 
 In 1843, an effort was made to unite or affiliate King's 
 College, Toronto, with Queen's College, Kingston, but the 
 project failed ; and with its failure commenced a systematic 
 agitation of the claims of all denominations to participate 
 equally in the benefits of King's College. 
 
 In 1843, another school law, applicable to Upper Canada 
 alone, was passed; and the Act of 1841, so far as it re- 
 lated to Upper Canada, repealed. 
 
 In 1844, Knox' Theological College was established, by 
 the (Free) Presbyterian Church of Canada, but its charter 
 was not obtained until 1858. See Part Second, chapter v. 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT, CHANGE, AND PROGRESS, FROM 1844—1853 
 
 In 1844, His Excellency the Governor General appointed 
 the Eeverend Dr. Eyerson (the present head of the depart- 
 ment) to be Superintendent of Schools for Upper Canada. 
 Dr. Eyerson specially set himself to reconstruct, upon a 
 broader and more enduring foundation, the entire system 
 of public elementary instruction in Upper Canada. As 
 a preliminary step, he devoted a year to the examination 
 
400 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 and comparison of the systems of education in Europe and 
 America, and embodied tlie results in an elaborate "Re- 
 port on a System of Public Instruction for Upper Canada." 
 
 In 1847, a bill providing for the establishment of common 
 schools in the cities and towns of Upper Canada, was pre- 
 pared by the Superintendent of Education, and received 
 the sanction of the legislature. 
 
 Shortly after the organization of the common school sys- 
 tem, and as a necessary part of it, a normal school for Upper 
 Canada, was established at Toronto in November, 1847. 
 
 In 1848, St. Joseph's College was established at Bytown, 
 now the city of Ottawa, by the Right Rev. Dr. Guigues, first 
 Roman Catholic Bishop of Ottawa. See pages 435-6. 
 
 The agitation against the constitution of King's College 
 having continued unabated, the Hon. Robert Baldwin (then 
 Attorney-General for Upper Canada) introduced into the 
 legislature, in 1849, an elaborate bill, designed to place the 
 institution on a more satisfactory footing, — to abolish the 
 remaining provisions of the Royal Charter, and to change 
 the name of King's College to that of the University of 
 Toronto. The bill soon afterwards became a law. 
 
 During the three years which :followed the passing of the 
 Common School Act of 1846, it was subjected to a good 
 deal of unfriendly criticism, which resulted, in 1849, in the 
 hasty passage of a new Act, entirely repealing the former 
 one. This new Act was, however, upon examination pro- 
 nounced to be ill adapted to promote the educational in- 
 terests of the country, and, upon the recommendation of the 
 Chief Superintendent of Education, its operation was vir- 
 tually suspended. 
 
 In 1850, the whole system of popular education under- 
 went a thorough revision, and a comprehensive draft of bill 
 on the subject was submitted to the Government by the 
 Chief Superintendent. This bill was concurred in by the 
 legislature, and became law in June of that year. It still 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 401 
 
 formstliebasisoftlie present common school system of Up- 
 per Canada. See Part Second, chapter i. 
 
 The Chair of Divinity having been abolished, and other 
 changes having been made in the University of Toronto un- 
 acceptable to the Bishop and other members of the Church 
 of England, the venerable prelate (although in his 72d year,) 
 vigorously set about the establishment of an exclusively 
 Church of England University. In this he was eminently 
 successful ; and having, in 1850, secured an act of incorpora- 
 tion for it from the Canadian legislature, he obtained, in 
 1851, a Royal Charter from the Queen for the University 
 of Trinity College, at Toronto. The institution was formally 
 opened in 1852, and the Diocesan Theological School at 
 Cobourg merged in it. See Part Second, chapters v., vi. 
 
 In the same year, (1852,) St. Michael's College was estab- 
 lished at Toronto, by some clergymen of the order of St. 
 Basil, under the patronage of the Right Reverend Doctor 
 de Charbonell, Second Roman Catholic Bishop of the 
 diocese. See Part Second, chapter v. 
 
 In 1853, some valuable improvements were made in the 
 details of the Common school system. After having been 
 discussed at various county school conventions, which were 
 held by the Chief Superintendent of Education, these im- 
 provements were embodied in a supplementary school bill, 
 and in that form received the sanction of the legislature. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HIGHER AND INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION, ETC., 1853—1861. 
 In the year 1853, an important change was made by the 
 legislature in the constitution of the University of To 
 ronto. In 1849, the faculty of Divinity was abolished— 
 in 1853 the faculties of Law and Medicine were also abolish 
 ed, and the lectures discontinued. By the Hon. Mr. 
 Hincks' bill, which became law this year, the functions of 
 
402 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 the University were separated from those of the College, and 
 two separate and distinct institutions were established. Uni- 
 versity College became a teaching institution for the re- 
 maining faculty of Arts ; while the University of Toronto 
 became solely an examining body in each of the faculties 
 of Arts, Law and Medicine. The Senate prescribed the 
 University course and appointed the University examiners. 
 The intention was to model the institution after the design 
 of the London University, and to constitute it a sole Uni- 
 versity for Upper Canada, having the various colleges in the 
 country affiliated with it as teaching institutions. There 
 having been no permanent endowment provided for these 
 various colleges, and they have continued up to the present 
 day, separate and independent universities, with power to 
 grant degrees in the several faculties, without reference to a 
 common university standard. See Part Second, chap, v., vi. 
 
 The Grammar schools, which were fii'st established in Up- 
 per Canada in 1807, were suffered to remain in a very un- 
 satisfactory state until 1853. In that year an improvement 
 in their condition was effected by the Chief Superintendent 
 of Education, who prepared a draft of Bill for their entire 
 reorganization and management. Owing, however, to a re- 
 pugnance on the part of some members of the Legislature 
 to assimilate the financial principles of the Grammar and 
 Common School Acts, and thus to impose upon the muni- 
 cipalities the duty of imposing a tax at least equal in 
 amount to that of the legislative grant to Grammar schools, 
 the objects of the bill were partially defeated ; and the an- 
 ticipated improvement in the condition of these schools did 
 not reach the point aimed at by the Chief Superintendent 
 in the bill. Further legislation is, therefore, rendered neces- 
 sary in order to make the Grammar schools more eflicient as 
 superior commercial or classical schools. See Part Second, 
 chapter iii. 
 
 In 1855 — 6, L'Assomption College was estaolished at 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 403 
 
 Sandwich, by the Jesuit fathers, but was afterwards trans- 
 ferred to members of the Benedictine Order, who conducted 
 it under the auspices of the Eight Eeverend Doctor Pinson- 
 cault, first Eoman Catholic Bishop of the diocese. 
 
 In 1867, the Methodist Episcopal Church in Upper Cana- 
 da succeeded, mainly through the exertions of the Eev. J. H. 
 Johnson, in establishing a seminary at Belleville for the 
 education of males and females. Extensive buildings were 
 erected, and the seminary soon went into active operation. 
 
 The same year witnessed the establishment, at Woodstock, 
 (in the county of Oxford,) by the Baptists of Upper Canada, 
 of the Canadian Literary Institute, for the superior educa- 
 tion of males and females. See also Part Second, chap. v. 
 
 In 1858, chiefly through the aid of private benevolence, 
 a school for the education of the Deaf and Dumb was com- 
 menced in Toronto by Mr. J. B. McGann. It has accom- 
 plished much good, and has received the countenance and 
 support of the public. See Part Second, chapter vii. 
 
 In 1858, the Model Grammar School for Upper Canada 
 was opened at Toronto. This institution is designed as a 
 model for the other Grammar Schools of Upper Canada, and- 
 also as a Training School for Masters of Grammar Schools. 
 
 In 1858, the Senate of the University of Toronto, with 
 the sanction of His Excellency the Governor-General, Sir 
 Edmund Head, authorized the erection of the handsome 
 buildings in University Park for the purposes of the Uni- 
 versity, and of University College. 
 
 Although ample public provision had been made for the 
 superior education of males in the Grammar schools and 
 the Universities, no corresponding legislative provision has 
 yet been made for the superior education of females. Their 
 separate elementary education is amply provided for under 
 the Common .School Act, (although this provision of the 
 law is acted upon to a very limited extent,)* and they may, 
 
 * Rural school trustees are authorized to establish, with the concurrence of 
 the local superintendent, a second or female school in each section ; and in 
 26 
 
404 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 and do, receive instruction with boys in many of the Gram- 
 mar schools ; but up to this time private enterprise alone has 
 provided for the superior education of females. The Meth- 
 odists, Koman Catholics and Baptists, as separate communi- 
 ties, have sought to supply this defect in our higher educa- 
 tional system. Under the auspices of the Methodists, facili- 
 ties for higher female education existed at Cobourg from 
 1833 until 1844. The Methodists now enjoy the same 
 advantages at Belleville and at Hamilton, the Eoman Catho- 
 lics at Kingston, Belleville, Toronto, Guelph, London, &c., 
 and the Baptists at Woodstock. A Wesleyan Female 
 College was established at Dun das, but in 1861 it 
 was merged in a more extensive establishment at Hamil- 
 ton, which is now in successful operation. There are also 
 some very superior ladies' private schools in the cities, and 
 in several of the towns of Upper Canada. 
 
 In October, 1859, the ceremony of placing the cope-stone 
 on the new buildings of the University of Toronto and 
 University College was performed by His Excellency, Sir 
 Edmund Head, visitor of the University. Early in 1860, 
 the institution was formally opened. 
 
 In compliance with the prayer of numerous petitions, 
 asking for an inquiry into the expenditures and educational 
 standard of the University of Toronto and University Col- 
 lege, a committee of the legislature was appointed in 1860 to 
 take evidence on the subject; and in 1861 a commission was 
 issued by His Excellency the Governor-General, to inquire 
 further into the matter. This commission consisted of the 
 vice-chancellor of the Toronto University, and a represent- 
 ative from each of the Universities of Victoria and Queen's 
 Colleges, with the bursar of the Toronto University and 
 Colleges as their secretary. The commissioners have made 
 
 cities, towns and villages the Board of School Trustees is authorized " to deter- 
 mine the number, sites, kind and description of schools [i. e. for boys, girls, color- 
 ed children ; high schools, &c.] to be established and maintained in each city, 
 town or village." 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUUATION IN UPPER CANADA. 406 
 
 a comprehensive Report on the subject. The Senate has 
 also unanimously agreed upon a scheme of affiliation, which 
 is embodied in the Report. The Commissioners recommend : 
 
 ^^Senaie. — That the Senate be reconstituted, and consist for 
 the future of a fixed number; viz., first. The heads of 
 affiliated colleges ; second, One member from each affiliated 
 college, elected by the corporation thereof; and, third. The 
 remaining one-third appointed by government. 
 
 "2. That the elected members continue in office five years, 
 and be eligible for re-election. 
 
 "3. That an annual meeting be held in rotation at the 
 seats of the various colleges, and that the other meetings be 
 held at any place deemed most convenient by the Senate. 
 
 " 4. That the Senate have control of the bursar's office. 
 
 "5. That the offices of chancellor and vice-chancellor be 
 continued, — the former to be appointed by government; the 
 vice-chancellor, as at present, to be elected by the Senate. 
 
 '■'■ 6. That no scholarships be founded by the Senate; but 
 that a sum not exceeding $1,000 be annually appropriated 
 for competition at a general examination of all affiliated 
 college students, the successful competitors being distin- 
 guished as " honor men." 
 
 " 7. That the name be changed to the University of Upper 
 Canada and University College to King's College, Toronto. 
 
 "8. That the library and museums be regarded as belong 
 ing to King's College, Toronto. 
 
 " 9. The Senate make annual returns to the government. 
 
 "10. The Senate shall have power to establish a common 
 curriculum of study for all affiliated colleges. 
 
 ''11. That the Senate shall appoint examiners, and provide 
 for payment of same. 
 
 '' 12. That the Senate have power to provide for the actual 
 expenses of its members while attending its sessions. 
 
 ''Affiliated Colleges.— 1. That the affiliated colleges be the 
 chartered colleges which como within the requirements of 
 
406 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 the act, provided each of them accepts the conditions which 
 may be hereafter imposed. 
 
 " 2. That the affiliated colleges with university powers 
 confer no degrees in arts, except on such students as have 
 passed an examination by examiners appointed by the 
 Senate of the University of Upper Canada, and that the 
 claim to all public aid be forfeited if this condition is 
 violated. 
 
 " 8. That all students who have passed the examination of 
 the Senate and graduated in their respective colleges, shall 
 be entitled to rank as graduates of the University of Upper 
 Canada. 
 
 "4. That the university examinations of candidates shall 
 be held in the respective colleges, where also the degrees 
 shall be conferred. 
 
 '' 6. That in the case of King's College, the bill shall pro- 
 vide that corporate powers be conferred upon this institu- 
 tion with provision for the appointment of professors, 
 regulation of salaries, expenditure, &c.; and for conferring 
 degrees in all the faculties, subject to. the same conditions 
 as in the case of the other incorporated affiliated colleges. 
 Also, that the necessary powers for conferring degrees be 
 provided in the case of Kegiopolis College, Kingston. 
 
 "6. That no degree shall be conferred on any candidate 
 who has not passed through a course of study and attend- 
 ance in some affiliated college, prescribed by the Senate of 
 the University of Upper Canada. 
 
 "7. That the apportionment of public funds to the affili- 
 ated colleges be fixed and equal, except in the case of 
 .King's College, and that King's College have an annual ap- 
 propriation from the general income fund not exceeding 
 $28,000. 
 
 " 8. That $500 be allowed to each college for scholarships, 
 or prizes, to be awarded by competitive college examination, 
 as in the case of the Queen's Colleges, Ireland. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 407 
 
 "9. That eacli college shall an nually furnish to government 
 a detailed statement of its income and expenditure. 
 
 " 10. That the University of Upper Canada shall confer 
 no degrees excepting through the affiliated colleges. 
 
 "11. That the Senate shall have a right to accommodation 
 at each affiliated college. 
 
 " 12. That religious denominations and private individuals 
 shall have power to found scholarships at each of the affili- 
 ated colleges, with such regulations as may receive the 
 sanction of the governing body in each. 
 
 13. That the library and museums of the Toronto Uni- 
 versity be transferred to and become the property of 
 King's College, Toronto; and, in consideration of the very 
 great advantages thereby conferred, each of the other affili- 
 ated colleges should receive a liberal grant for founding or 
 enlarging a library and museum, irrespective of any annual 
 appropriation." 
 
 His Koyal Highness the Prince of Wales, when on his 
 tour in Canada, in the autumn of 1860, visited all the prin- 
 cipal educational institutions of the province. On leaving 
 the country he made a donation of $800 to each of them. 
 This money has in all cases, we believe, been invested, and 
 the proceeds applied to the establishment of an annual gold 
 medal, or other prize, in the several institutions which were 
 honored by the royal gift. 
 
 PAET SECOND. 
 
 BCTMMARY OF EACH CLASS OP EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 In the second part of this article, we propose to give a 
 separate sketch of the actual state and condition of the fol- 
 lowing classes of educational institutions, &c., in Upper 
 Canada, beginning, as we should naturally do, with the ele- 
 mentary school: — 
 
408 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF BDUOATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Chaptek I. — Public Elementary Schools Receiving 
 Legislative Aid. 
 
 1. Common Schools; 
 
 2. Roman Catholic Separate Schools; 
 8. Protestant Separate Schools; 
 
 4. Coloured Separate Schools. 
 Chapter II. — Public Elementary Schools not Receiv- 
 ing Legislative Aid. ^ 
 
 1. Church of England Parochial Schools; 
 
 2. Private Schools for boys and girls; 
 
 3. Sunday Schools. 
 
 Chapter III. — Superior Schools Receiving Legisla- 
 tive Aid. 
 
 1. Upper Canada College and Model Grammar School; 
 
 2. The County Grammar Schools. 
 
 Chapter TV. — Superior Schools not Receiving Legis- 
 lative Aid. 
 
 1. College Preparatory Schools; 
 
 2. Seminaries and Academies. 
 Chapter Y. — Professional Schools. 
 
 1. Of Theology; 
 
 2. Of Law; . ■' 
 
 3. Of Medicine; 
 
 4. Of Teaching. 
 Chapter YI. — Universities. 
 
 Chapter YIL— Supplementary Elementary Educa- 
 tional Agencies. 
 
 1. Schools for Orphans; 
 
 2. Schools for the Deaf and Dumb; 
 
 3. Schools for Juvenile Criminals. 
 
 Chapter YIII.— Other Supplementary Educational 
 Agencies. 
 
 1. Mechanics' Institutes; 
 
 2. Literary Societies; 
 
 3. Libraries. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA, 409 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS RECEIVING LEGISLATIVE AID. 
 
 1. The Common Schools. 
 
 The chief features of the common school system of 
 Upper Canada are identical with those of other countries ; 
 but in its adaptation to the wants of the country and the 
 genius of the people, it is essentially Canadian. 
 
 Upper Canada is indebted, in a great degree, to the State 
 of New York for the machinery of her common schools ; 
 to Massachusetts for the principle upon which they are sup- 
 ported ; to Ireland for the best complete series of common- 
 school books which have been published ; and to Germany 
 for her system of normal-school training. All, however, are 
 so blended and modified to suit the circumstances of the 
 country, that they are no longer exotic, but "racy of the soil." 
 
 Each city, town, township, and village has its own muni- 
 cipal council, and each city, town, village, and school 
 section has its own independent board of school trustees, 
 which is invested with extensive corporate powers. One is 
 supreme in civic affairs, while the other is not less so in all 
 matters pertaining to the schools. The one accepts, on be- 
 half of the rate-payers, the Legislative School Grant, and 
 imposes an assessment equivalent to the amount granted ; 
 while the other imposes any additional assessment required, 
 and controls the entire expenditure of the school moneys, 
 establishes school libraries, and promotes the general in 
 terests of the schools. In Upper Canada there are 
 
 42 Counties ; 
 
 5 Cities ; 
 84 Towns and Incorporated Villages ; and 
 379 Townships, — or about 
 
 510 Municipalities in all. 
 
 There are also the same number of city, town, and village 
 school corporations, together with upwards of 4,000 school 
 
410 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 corporations in the rural school sections. The schools are 
 inspected at least twice a year by local superintendents ap- 
 pointed by the county council. In cities, towns, and villages 
 these officers are appointed, and their duties prescribed, by 
 the boards of trustees. Each local superintendent is re- 
 quired to dehver a school lecture in each section at least 
 once a year, in addition to his other duties. The judges, 
 magistrates, and other official persons specially named, 
 together with the clergy of the different religious pei*sua- 
 sions in the country, are ex-officio " school visitors," and are 
 authorized to visit the schools and aid with their counsel 
 and advice in promoting the great objects of popular edu- 
 cation. In each county there is also one or more boards of 
 public instruction for the examination and licensing of 
 teachers, composed of local superintendents and of the 
 trustees of county grammar schools. 
 
 As a central authority, and at the head of the whole sys- 
 tem, is a Council of Public Instruction and a Chief Super- 
 intendent of Education, both appointed by the Crown. 
 The council has the entire control of the normal and model 
 schools, prescribes the text-books for the public schools, the 
 reading books for the public school libraries, and the rules 
 and regulations for the government of both grammar and 
 common schools, for the examination of common-school 
 teachers, and the management of the public school libraries. 
 
 The Chief Superintendent of Education, as his name im- 
 plies, is the chief executive officer, and is appointed to 
 administer the laws relating to the public school system. He 
 is, ex-officio, a member of the Council of Public Instruction, 
 has the general superintendence of the normal and model 
 schools, and prepares all the general regulations and reports 
 relating to the public schools, &c. 
 
 Such are the distinctive features of the system of common 
 school instruction in Upper Canada. In a few particulars 
 it differs essentially from any of the school systems in op- 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 4ll 
 
 eration in Europe or tbe United States. It may, therefore, 
 be interesting to refer to these peculiarities in detail, as they 
 will thus throw light upon both the Canadian and American 
 systems as compared with the English and Irish systems. 
 
 1. The chief executive of the Canadian system is a non- 
 political and permanent officer. The success and efficiency 
 of the system is never, as in the United States, subjected, 
 year after year, to incessant change; nor is the executive 
 control of the system systematically risked at the polls or 
 ballot-box, where sound judgment and wise counsels do not 
 always prevail; although the greatest care is taken to ad- 
 minister the system "in accordance with the well under- 
 stood wishes of the people." In fact, with the truest 
 appreciation of the great and fundamental objects of a 
 system of Christiarl and national education, designed to 
 affect every grade of society alike, the Canadian Legislature 
 has never yet permitted it to degenerate into a symbol of 
 strife, nor to be the subject of a partisan warfare. So noble 
 an instinct is worthy of a truly great people, and should be 
 recorded to their honor. 
 
 The Legislature of Canada has held that after certain 
 great principles have been once settled, it is but sound na- 
 tional policy to entrust to some enlightened and responsible 
 person, within certain restrictions, the important duty of 
 perfecting and keeping in continuous and active operation 
 the system of public instruction. These systems are not 
 built up in a day, any more than was the " Eternal City on 
 the seven hills." And the history of the present educational 
 structure of Upper Canada confirms this truth ; for, with all 
 the continuous aid which the Legislature has been able to 
 give, and the public to receive and appropriate, it has taken 
 at least ten years, under one guiding hand alone, to bring 
 the system of public instruction through the first stage of 
 its existence. The system is now young and vigorous, en- 
 dowed with capabilities and resources which are rarely 
 
412 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 combined in other state systems of education; but bad 
 Upper Canada adopted the course pursued elsewhere, we 
 feel persuaded that she would have been dooming herself 
 to a continued educational infancy, and the schools would 
 have been the subject of endless experiment and theory, — 
 without the guidance of that settled and permanent policy 
 which alone can develop and mature a great and compre- 
 hensive system. 
 
 2. The next essential difference arises from the entirely 
 voluntary or co-operative character of the municipal sup- 
 port of the Canadian system of public instruction. Not a 
 penny of tax is imposed by the Legislature for the support 
 of the schools ; nor is the law compulsory upon a single mu- 
 nicipality of the province. It simply offers public aid on 
 condition than an equal amount be- raised from local 
 sources, and that the statutory obligations annexed to the 
 grant be complied with. Thus, every county of the pro- 
 vince is left to exercise its own discretion as to whether it 
 will or will not accept the terms offered by the Legislature. 
 With a singular unanimity, every county of the province 
 has accepted those terms, although now and then an indi- 
 vidual township has declined them ; still, no penalty attaches 
 to such a step, except the loss of the grant which it would 
 otherwise receive. The question, then, of free schools or 
 of no schools, is left, where it properly belongs, to the pa- 
 triotism and good sense of the people themselves. They 
 thus feel that the entire responsibility of the question rests 
 with themselves, and that they have the sole authority to 
 decide it. Thus their self-respect and dignity are preserved; 
 while the result has been most gratifying to every true 
 friend of local self-government and popular advancement. 
 
 3. The third essential difference will be found in the fol- 
 lowing extract from the Upper Canada school law: — "And 
 be it enacted, that no foreign books in the English branches 
 of education shall be used in any model or common school 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 413 
 
 without the express permission of the council of public in- 
 struction.'' This effectually relieves the educational system 
 of that greatest of all hindrances to its efficiency which 
 arises, as in the United States and in some respects in Eng- 
 land, from an endless variety of text-books in the schools, 
 and which renders any uniform standard of classification 
 impossible. It is certain that on no light grounds should 
 such power be reserved to the state ; but like some of these 
 invaluable safeguards which must be thrown around even 
 the most equitable and evenly balanced systems of human 
 government, it was found to be absolutely necessary to im- 
 pose this salutary restriction on the eccentric tastes or mere 
 caprice which often governs parties in the selection of text- 
 books. Besides, although it was admitted that isolated 
 text- books might be found possessed of many superior ex- 
 cellencies in themselves, still, such books being written or 
 compiled without any connection with others of a series, or 
 uniformity of design, were felt to be serious hindrances 
 rather than helps in the process of instruction, as the inter- 
 mediate steps or links of a complete series were entirely 
 wanting, or but imperfectly supplied. The question was, 
 therefore, reduced to the simple one of whether an uniform 
 series of books, constructed with a view to the progressive 
 improvement of the scholar, and leading in complete and 
 easy steps from the mere elements of knowledge to the 
 higher branches of learning, should be prescribed; or 
 whether the schoolmaster should be compelled to gather a 
 confused variety of instruction from disconnected books, in 
 each of which the same ground might have to be gone over 
 again. The wisest course was therefore adopted; and an 
 uniform series of text-books, based upon an intelligent sys- 
 tem of classification, was adopted and recommended for 
 general use in the schools. Not a single book in use was 
 proscribed; but by providing a better and cheaper descrip- 
 tion of text-books, the old ones gradually disappeared from 
 
414 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 the schools and were replaced by those recommended. The 
 result has justified what was at first felt to be a delicate ex- 
 periment, though an imperative necessity; and the Irish 
 National series of text-books are now in universal use 
 throughout the province, at a cost far below what had hith- 
 erto been paid for a heterogeneous variety of inferior books, 
 incapable alike of classification or of limitation in number 
 and variety even in the same school.* 
 
 4. Intimately connected with the foregoing is the manner 
 in which library books have been selected for the public 
 schools. To the same central authority is entrusted the 
 difficult and delicate duty of recommending suitable reading 
 books for the public school libraries. The reasons for this 
 course, although identical in some respects with those which 
 apply to the selection of text-books, are yet in some impor- 
 tant particulars essentially difierent in their character. 
 They were chiefly to prevent the introduction by skillful 
 vendors or from other sources, of unsuitable, immoral, irre- 
 ligious, or disloyal books. f The selection made by provin- 
 cial authority amounts to about 8,000 volumes, and em- 
 braces works in every department of human knowledge and 
 learning, including works on Christian Evidence and Nat- 
 ural Theology. From this extensive list, the local author- 
 ities are at liberty to make a selection, while new works of 
 value or interest are constantly being added to the list. 
 
 6. The fifth peculiarity relates to the facilities provided 
 by the educational department for supplying the public 
 schools with library and prize (but not text) books, and with 
 maps, charts, diagrams, and apparatus. Not content with 
 
 * A progressive series of text-books (especially Readers), prepared in and 
 for Canada, would be preferable as a whole ; but, until they are available, the 
 use of the Irish National text-books, being a syrametrieal series, should be oon- 
 tinued. 
 
 + The example of the state of New York (among other states) furnishes 
 most valuable and instructive warning fw- Upper Canada in library matters 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 415 
 
 merely authorizing the use of certain books and apparatus, 
 the Upper Canada educational department has undertaken 
 to supply the schools of the province, directly from its own 
 depositories, with all these valuable requisites. To aid in 
 the performance of this duty more effectively and advan- 
 tageously, the Legislature, with a most enlightened liberality, 
 granted $30,000 a year, to be expended in supplying the 
 schools with library and prize books, maps, charts, and ap- 
 paratus, and other adjuncts to their efficiency and success. 
 The principle upon which this fund is distributed is a just 
 and liberal one. It is as follows: — Whenever a school or 
 municipal corporation contributes a sum of money for the 
 purchase of library or prize books, maps, or apparatus, &c., 
 at the educational depository, the department contributes an 
 equal amount, and supplies the parties applying with arti- 
 cles at a reduced rate of from 20 to 25 per cent, to the value 
 of the sum thus augmented. A premium is thus held out 
 for local exertion and liberality, and each locality is aided 
 according to its works, and not arbitrarily, whether such 
 aid is required or not, as is done in some of the American 
 States; while all are encouraged to contribute to the utmost 
 of their ability to promote the efficiency of the schools. 
 Thus in a deep and expanding volume is permitted to flow 
 freely and continuously into every part of the province 
 streams of knowledge and of intellectual life, purified alike 
 from every poisonous principle and noxious element. 
 
 6. The principle involved in the sixth and last pecii 
 liarity is a new one in its application to the Canadian school 
 system. It is that of pensioning the worn-out teachers of 
 the province. 
 
 It has long been maintained, and with justice, that the 
 profession of teaching has been a most laborious and ill- 
 requited profession in the world ; that, while to it we owe 
 our very superiority as an intelligent people, with a heart- 
 
416 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 less indifference and ingratitude, we neglect, in old age, the 
 hand that early supplied us with intellectual food, and leave 
 its possessor to pine and die in solitude and want. Canada 
 has nobly removed this stigma from her character. She has 
 extended her generous sympathy and aid to a most deserving, 
 class of men ; men, too, who, amid privations and discourage- 
 ments doubly endured in a new country, devoted themselves 
 to the public service, when even the very existence of a 
 public system of education itself was imperiled, or lan- 
 guished for want of legislative aid and recognition. 
 
 7. We can scarcely leave this part of our sketch without 
 quoting one paragraph illustrative of the religious character 
 of the Canadian school system, from the speech of the Earl 
 of Elgia (at present Governor-General of India,) in 1851, 
 on the occasion of his laying of the corner-stone of the 
 spacious and commodious buildings devoted to the purposes 
 of the normal school and the department of public instruc- 
 tion for Upper Canada, — ''the seed plot of the system," as 
 he has graphically styled it. At the same time, it is but just 
 to refer to the enlightened policy of Lord Elgin in regard 
 to popular education in Canada during the seven years in 
 which he so ably administered the Government of British 
 North America. As an eloquent and accomplished states- 
 man, he stood out prominently among the many distin- 
 guished men who have occupied the high position of Her Ma- 
 jesty's representative in Canada ; and it must ever be a source 
 of pride and pleasure to the Canadians, and of satisfaction 
 to himself, that while Governor-General, he identified him- 
 self, personally as well as officially, throughout his whole 
 administration, with the general education of the people of 
 Canada. Speaking, on the occasion referred to, in reply to 
 the Chief Superintendent of Education, who had presented 
 to him an address on behalf of the council of public in- 
 struction, Lord Elgin impressively remarked : — " Sir, I un- 
 derstand from your statements, — and I come to the same 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 4:17 
 
 conclusion from my own investigation and observation, — 
 that it is the principle of our common-school educational 
 system, that its foundation is laid deep in the firm rock of 
 our common Christianity. I understand, Sir, that while the 
 varying views and opinions of a mixed religious society are 
 scrupulously respected — while every semblance of dictation 
 is carefully avoided, — it is desired, it is earnestly recom- 
 mended, it is confidently expected and hoped, that every child 
 who attends our common schools, shall learn there that he 
 is a being who has an interest in eternity as well as in time; 
 that he has a Father towards whom he stands in a closer, 
 and more affecting, and more endearing relationship than to 
 any earthly father, and that Father is in heaven ; that he 
 has a hope far transcending every earthly hope; that he 
 has a duty, the duty of striving to prove by his life and 
 conversation, the^ sincerity of his prayer, that that Father's 
 will may be done upon earth as it is done in heaven. I un- 
 derstand. Sir, that upon the broad and solid platform which 
 is raised upon that good foundation, we invite the ministers 
 of religion of all denominations, the de-facto spiritual guides 
 of the people of the country, to take their stand along with 
 us; that, so far from hampering or impeding them in the 
 exercise of their sacred functions, we ask and we beg them 
 to take the children — the lambs of the flock which are com- 
 mitted to their care — aside, and to lead them to those pas- 
 tures and streams where they will find, as they believe it, 
 the food of life and the waters of consolation." 
 
 The opinion of Lord Elgin, as to the religious character 
 of the common-school system of Upper Canada (which he 
 has here so beautifully and clearly expressed,) is fully borne 
 out, as will be seen from the following official regulations 
 on the subject: — 
 
 1. The Act itself provides (section 129) that " No person 
 shall require any profit in any such school to read or study 
 in or from any religious book or join in any exercise of de« 
 
418 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 votion or religion objected to by bis or ber parents or guar- 
 dians; but witbin tbis limitation pupils sball be allowed to 
 receive sucb religious instruction as tbeir parents or guar- 
 dians desire, according to any general regulations provided 
 for tbe government of common scbools." 
 
 2. Tbese general regulations are as follows : — 
 (^) " Witb a view to secure tbe Divine blessing, and to 
 impress upon tbe pupils tbe importance of religious duties, 
 and tbeir entire dependence on tbeir Maker, tbe council of 
 public instruction for Upper Canada recommends tbat tbe 
 daily exercises of eacb common scbool be opened and closed 
 by reading a portion of Scripture and prayer.^ Tbe Lord's 
 Prayer alone, or tbe forms of prayer provided, may be 
 used, or any otber prayer preferred by tbe trustees and 
 master of eacb scbool. But tbe Lord's Prayer sbould form 
 part of tbe opening exercises, and tbe Ten Commandments 
 be taugbt to all tbe pupils, and be repeated at least once a 
 week. But no pupil sbould be compelled to be present at 
 tbese exercises against the wisb of bis parent or guardian, 
 expressed in writing to tbe master of tbe scbool. 
 
 (2) "Tbe clergy of any persuasion or tbeir autborized 
 representatives, sball bave tbe rigbt to give religious in- 
 struction to tbe pupils of tbeir own cburcb in eacb common 
 scbool bouse, at least once a week, after tbe hour of four 
 o'clock in tbe afternoon; and if tbe clergy of more tban 
 one persuasion apply to give religious instruction in tbe 
 same scbool-bouse tbe trustees sball decide on what day of 
 tbe week tbe scbool-bouse sball be at tbe disposal of tbe 
 clergymen of eacb persuasion at tbe time above stated. 
 But it sball be lawful for tbe trustees and clergymen of any 
 denomination to agree upon any hour of tbe day at which 
 
 • It may be interesting and gratifying to state, in connection with the fore- 
 going, that of the 4,019 oommon schools in Upper Canada, 2,381 of them are 
 reported in 1861 as being reirularly opened and closed with prayer, and 2,879 
 of them in which the Holy Scriptures are read daily. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 419 
 
 such clergymen or his authorized representative may give 
 religious instruction to the pupils of his own church, pro- 
 vided it be not during the regular hours of the school." 
 
 Of the 4,500 teachers employed in the common schools 
 in 1861, 1,250 were Presbyterians, 1,250 were Methodists, 
 800 were Episcopalians, 322 were Koman Catholics, 230 
 were Baptists, and 85 were Congregationalists. Before 
 being admitted to examination for certificates of qualifica- 
 tion to teach, these teachers had to present to the examiners 
 a certificate of good moral character signed by the clergy- 
 men of their own religious persuasion, thus giving a guar- 
 antee for their moral if not religious character. 
 
 II. PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 As has already been intimated, the sum first granted by 
 the legislature for common school education in Upper Can- 
 ada amounted to $24,000. This sum was afterwards re- 
 duced to $10,000 per annum. In 1841, however, when the 
 foundations of the present system were laid, the noble sum 
 of $200,000 was granted to carry it into effect in the entire 
 province,--$80,000 to Upper Canada and $120,000 to 
 Lower Canada. They were afterwards equalized to $100,- 
 000 each. By the census taken in 1851-2, it was found 
 that Upper Canada so far exceeded Lower Canada in 
 population (on which the division of the grant was based) 
 that $103,000 were appropriated to Upper Canada, and 
 $97,000 to Lower Canada. The grant to the entire 
 province in 1862 was $384,000; of this sum the 
 share coming to Upper Canada was about $213,000 
 and $171,000 to Lower Canada. About $150,000 are an- 
 nually appropriated to the common schools;* $10,000 
 for libraries, maps, and apparatus; $14,200 to the normal 
 
 * The amount set down for libraries is less than that granted by the act, but it 
 represents the average sum. The amount set down for common schools is 
 more than the net sum available ; but it is augmented by old balances. 
 
 27 
 
4:20 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPI*ER CANADA. 
 
 and model schools; $6,000 to the model grammar school; 
 $4,000 for the support of common-school superannuated 
 teachers; $1,800 for a monthly journal of education ; $2,800 
 for an educational library and museum; $1,000 for the in- 
 spection of grammar schools; and $2,000 for a school of 
 art and design. Thus has the liberality of the legislature 
 kept pace with the growth and prosperity of the province, 
 and thus has provision been made for the promotion of 
 every branch of the great work of popular education in 
 Upper Canada. 
 
 As we have hitherto referred only to what has been 
 done by the government and legislature for the promotion 
 of popular education, we now turn to consider the corre- 
 sponding exertions of the people themselves. 
 
 In 1842, after the passage of the act of 1841, we find 
 that. 1,271 common schools had been estabhshed. The 
 number has now increased to upwards of 4,000. The 
 school population between the ages of five and sixteen 
 years has increased from 141,000 in 1842 to 885,000 in 
 1861, or 173 per cent. The attendance of pupils at the 
 common schools has increased from 66,000 in 1842 to 
 830,000 in 1861, or 400 per cent.; and at the grammar 
 schools from about 1,000 in 1847 to 4,766 in 1861, or 
 nearly 880 per cent., — a most gratifying increase, certainly, 
 in each branch of the system, and one that strongly indicates 
 the increased anxiety of the Canadian public to avail them- 
 selves of the largely increased facilities of instruction afforded 
 by these " colleges of the people." The greatest test, how- 
 ever, of the love of the Upper Canadians for their common 
 schools is indicated by the amount which they contributo 
 for their support. In 1842, the total sum raised by assess- 
 ment, rate-bills, and subscriptions, independent of the 
 legislative school grant, amounted to $100,000; in 1850, 
 to $334,400; and in 1861, to $1,215,000. The total ex- 
 penditure for the salaries of common school teachers 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 4:21 
 
 amounted in 1842 to $166,000 ; in 1850, to $329,000 ; and 
 in 1861, to $918,113,— or nearly 300 per cent, in ten 
 years. 
 
 The library system of Upper Canada having been only 
 put into operation in 1853-4, we can only report the result 
 of about eight years' efforts of the department to supply 
 the public with suitable reading books for the winter even- 
 ings. During that time, however, including books for 
 school prizes, there have been dispatched from the deposit- 
 ory at Toronto about 260,000 volumes, and these have gone 
 into almost every part of Upper Canada, conveying light 
 and intelligence into many a settler's dwelling. 
 
 In order to carry out efficiently a system of public in- 
 struction so comprehensive in its details, suitable officers 
 and appliances were found to be necessary, and have, there- 
 fore, been provided. We will state what has been done in 
 that direction, and give a short sketch of 
 
 III. THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT FOR UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Cotemporaneous with and indicative of the growth and 
 development of the educational system of Upper Canada, 
 has been the history of the department itself Originally a 
 branch of the provincial secretary's department, (who was, 
 ex officio, chief superintendent of education,) with an assist- 
 ant superintendent and a clerk, it has gradually expanded 
 into a distinct and important branch of the public service. 
 It now occupies, with its four excellent accessory schools, 
 a handsome structure which was specially erected by au- 
 thority of the legislature for that purpose. 
 
 The Education Office was first opened in 1841 at Kingston, 
 the then seat of government. In 1844, it was, for conve- 
 nience, removed to Cobourg, (one hundred miles further 
 west,) and, in 1846, to a building adjoining the old govern- 
 ment house, at Toronto. In 1852, it was removed to the 
 new buildings which wexQ erected on a square facing on 
 
4:22 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Gould, Church, Gerrard, and Yictoria Streets, which is now 
 nearly in the heart of the city. 
 
 The duties devolving upon the educational department 
 include those relating to the general administration of the 
 common and grammar school laws; the giving of explana- 
 tions to municipal councils, local superintendents, school 
 trustees, teachers, and others on doubtful points of law and 
 modes of proceeding; decisions on appeals and complaints ; 
 auditing municipal school accounts ; the oversight of the 
 normal and model grammar and common schools, and 
 the granting of provincial certificates to teachers ; paying 
 and accounting for all the legislative grants for grammar 
 and common schools ; providing teachers' registers, blank 
 reports and returns for trustees, local superintendents, 
 clerks, and treasurers of municipalities, and the Journal of 
 Education (besides editing it) to each local superintendent 
 and school corporation in Upper Canada; general corre- 
 spondence relating to the promotion of education, &c. 
 
 Some idea may be formed of the gradual progress of 
 work in the department from the following statement of the 
 correspondence of it since 1850 : — 
 
 Paring the yean 1850. 1851. 185^ 18.S3. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1360. 1861. 1862. 
 
 Letters received,. . 1,180 2.026 2 996 4.015 4.920 5.333 5,739 6,294 6.431 6.468 7,121 7,215 6.495 
 
 Do. sent out,. . 760 1,136 1,430 1,936 2,581 3,764 3,966 3,542 4,627 5^2 6,015 6,656 4,955 
 
 No power has been employed by the department but 
 that of persuasion ; and no attempt has been made to ad- 
 vance faster than the felt necessities and convictions of the 
 country would justify. To educate the people through 
 themselves is the fundamental principle of the Upper Can- 
 ada school system ; and to assist them to advance their own 
 best interests and manage their own school afikirs has been 
 the spirit and sole object of its administration. 
 
 2. Roman Catholic Separate Schools. 
 
 The privilege of establishing dissentient or separate 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 423 
 
 denominational schools in tlie rural parts of Canada wal 
 first conceded by tlie legislature in the common school act 
 of 1841.'^ This act was made to apply to the whole prov- 
 ince, and was designed to affect Eoman Catholics and Prot- 
 estants alike. In this act, separate schools were not 
 permitted in cities and towns ; but, to obviate their neces- 
 sity, it was provided that a joint board of Eoman Catholics 
 and Protestants should have the control of all the schools in 
 these municipalities. t 
 
 * The following is the section of the act which first authorized rural separate 
 schools in the townships of Upper Canada and in the parishes of Lower 
 Canada-: — 
 
 " XL Provided always, and he it enacted, That whenever any number of 
 the inhabitants of any township or parish, professing a religious faith different 
 from that of the majority of the inhabitants of such township or parish, shall 
 dissent from the regulations, arrangements, or proceedings of the common 
 school commissioners, with reference to any common school in such township 
 or parish, it shall be lawful for the inhabitants so dissenting collectively to sig- 
 nify such dissent in writing to the clerk of the district council, with the name 
 or names of one or more persons elected by them as their trustee or trustees, 
 for the purposes of this act -, and the said district clerk shall forthwith furnish 
 a certified copy thereof to the district treasurer ; and it shall be lawful for such 
 dissenting inhabitants, by and through such trustee or trustees, who for that 
 purpose shall hold and exercise all the rights, powers, and authorities, and be 
 subject to the obligations and liabilities herein before assigned to and imposed 
 upon the common school commissioners, to establish and maintain one or more 
 common schools in the manner and subject to the visitation, conditions, rules, 
 and obligations in this act provided, with reference to other common schools, 
 and to receive from the district treasurer their due proportion, according to 
 their number, of the moneys appropriated by law and raised by assessment for 
 the support of common schools in the school district or districts in which the 
 said inhabitants reside. In the same manner as if the common schools so to be 
 established and maintained under such trustee or trustees, where established 
 and maintained under the said common school commissioners, such moneys to 
 be paid by the district treasurer upon the warrant of the said trustee or 
 trustees." 
 
 t The following was the provision in the law designed to meet the case of 
 cities and towns : — 
 
 " XVI. And be it enacted, That it shall be lawful for the Governor of this 
 province to appoint from time to time in each of the cities and towns corporate 
 therein, not less than six nor more than fourteen persons, (one-half of whom 
 
424: HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 ^ In 1843, tlie act of 1841 was repealed so far as Upper 
 Canada was concerned, and a common scliool act was passed 
 applying to Upper Canada alone, in which provision was 
 made for the establishment of Koman Catholic and Protest- 
 ant separate schools, both in the rural school sections and 
 in cities and towns.* In 1846 this act was also repealed; 
 
 shall in all cases be Roman Catholics and the other half Protestants,) to be a 
 board of examiners for eaoh city or town corporate ; of which said board the 
 mayor shall be chairman, but shall have no vote other than a casting vote ; and 
 the said board shall be divided into two departments, one of which shall con- 
 sist of Roman Catholics, and shall exercise the duties herein after assigned to 
 the board of examiners in and over the common schools attended by the 
 Koman Catholic children only, and shall in such cases appoint their chairman ; 
 and the other department shall consist of Protestants, and shall exercise their 
 said duties in and over the common schools attended by the Protestant children 
 only, and shall in such case appoint their chairman ; and in all cases in which 
 the said common schools are attended by Roman Catholic children and Prot- 
 estant children together, the said duties shall be exercised in and over the same 
 by the whole board of examiners ; and the duties of the said board, and of the 
 said departments hereof, in the several cases above mentioned, in and for the 
 said cities and towns corporate, respectively, shall be to examine the persons 
 recommended as teachei-s by the corporation, and reject them if unqualified on 
 the ground of character or ability ; and to regulate for each school separately 
 the course of study to be followed in such school, and the books to be used 
 therein ; and to establish general rules for the conduct of the schools, and 
 communicate them in writing to the respective teachers ; in addition to which 
 duties, the board of examiners in any city or town corporate shall be visitors of 
 the common schools in such city or town corporate ; and, as such visitors, it 
 shall be the duty of the board to appoint two or more of their number to visit 
 each of the common schools in such city or town corporate, at least once in 
 every three months, and to report to the corporations upon all matters connected 
 with each of the said common schools in detail, as fully as common school 
 commissioners ; and the visitors by them appointed are bound to report to the 
 district councils under the provisions herein before contained." 
 
 * The sections of the act of 1843, authorizing the establishment of separate 
 schools, are as follows : — 
 
 " LV. And he it enacted, That in all oases wherein the teacher of any such 
 school shall happen to be a Roman Catholic, the Protestant inhabitants shall be 
 entitled to have a teacher of their own religious persuasion, upon the application 
 of ten or more resident freeholders or householders of any school district, or 
 within the limits assigned to any town or city school ; and, in like manner, whea 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 425 
 
 but in tlie new and more comprehensive common school 
 act of that year, the provisions embodied in it in regard to 
 Roman Catholic and Protestant separate schools were iden- 
 tical with those contained in the act of 1843. 
 
 In 1847, with a view to extinguish separate schools as a 
 distinct organization in cities and towns, and to bring all 
 the schools of the municipality, whether common or sepa- 
 rate, under one united management, an additional school 
 act was passed giving the boards of school trustees in cities 
 and towns power to establish " denominational or mixed " 
 schools.* 
 
 This provision, however, was not satisfactory to the sup- 
 porters of separate schools. In 1849, a school act was 
 passed which contained no provision for separate schools; 
 but the act being cumbrous and unacceptable never came 
 into operation. In 1850, the whole school system under- 
 went a thorough revision and consolidation, and the facili- 
 
 the teacher of any such school shall happen to be a Protestant, the Romian 
 Catholic inhabitants shall have a separate school, with a teacher of their own 
 religious persuasion, upon a like application. 
 
 " LVI. And be it enacted, That such applications shall be made in writing, 
 signed with the names of each resident freeholder or householder, and addressed 
 and delivered to the township, town, or city superintendent ; and such applica- 
 tion shall contain the names of three trustees who shall be the trustees of such 
 separate school ; and upon the compliance of such trustees and of the township, 
 town, or city superintendent with the requirements of this act, such school 
 shall be entitled to receive its share of the public appropriation, according to 
 the number of children of the religious persuasion who shall attend such sepa- 
 rate school, which share shall be settled and adjudged by the township, town, 
 or city superintendent, subject to an appeal to the county superintendent; and 
 all such separate schools shall be subject to the visitations, conditions, rules, 
 and obligations provided in this act with reference to other common schools, or 
 to other town or city schools established under this act." 
 
 * The section of the act of 1847 reads as follows : — 
 
 " V. It shall be the duty of the board of trustees of each city and town, * 
 * * Thirdly, to determine the number, sites, and description of schools 
 .which shall be established and maintained in such city or town, and whether 
 Buch school or schools shall be denominational or mixed." 
 
4:26 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 ties heretofore enjoyed by Eoman Catholics for the estab- 
 lishment and maintenance of separate schools were restored 
 to them. 
 
 In 1853, the provisions of the separate school law were 
 extended, and were made to apply to Eoman Catholic, Prot- 
 estant, and coloured separate schools alike. In 1855, this 
 law, so far as it related to Eoman Catholic separate schools, 
 was repealed, and an aafc prepared under the auspices of the 
 Eoman Catholic clergy, with some modifications, was passed. 
 This act is still the law of the land ; but as it does not yet 
 give satisfaction to the parties concerned, it is proposed to 
 amend it as to remove any just cause of complaint on the 
 part of Eoman Catholics. 
 
 It is true that the establishment of these separate Eoman 
 Catholic schools was first permitted by the legislature, not 
 as a right, but as an experimental concession to the consci- 
 entious convictions of the Eoman Catholics, and with the 
 hope that by multiplying educational facilities for the poorer 
 classes in cities and towns, one source of vagrancy and 
 crime would be dried up. The Eoman Catholics contended 
 that as their standards of religious belief differed entirely from 
 those of the different Protestant denominations, (who had all 
 a common standard,) they could not allow their children to 
 attend Protestant schools. The fear was, either that, being 
 young and inexperienced, the religious faith of the children 
 would be interfered with, or that they would be allowed to 
 grow up without any religious influences about them what- 
 ever. Eather than thus, in effect, to interpose any obstacles 
 to the promotion of education among the children of Eoman 
 Catholics, especially in cities and towns where it is so much 
 needed for all classes of children, the concession was made 
 by the legislature. It was, of course, understood that one 
 of the more important objects of the Eoman Catholic sepa- 
 rate school law would thus be accomplished ; and that, with 
 the combined influence of the public common schools, crime 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 427 
 
 and vagrancy would sensibly diminisli in cities and towns. 
 Should this desirable object not be accomplished, it would 
 be competent for the legislature to modify or take away the 
 powers now conferred by the separate school act. 
 
 In 1841, there was only one Eoman Catholic separate 
 school in Upper Canada ; in 1851 they had only increased 
 to sixteen ; but in 1862 they had increased to one hundred 
 and nine. The legislative apportionment to these schools 
 in 1861 was $7,550 ; the local contributions made by their 
 supporters in the same year was $23,262; total expenditure 
 on behalf of these schools in 1861, $30,941. The number 
 of pupils attending the forty -one separate schools in opera- 
 tion in 1855 was 4,885, while the number attending the one 
 hundred and nine schools in 1861 was 13,631. 
 
 8. Protestant Separate Schools. 
 
 The law which at present authorizes the establishment of 
 Protestant separate schools in Upper Canada was passed in 
 1850,^ but advantage is rarely taken of its provisions. 
 
 * The most important parts of this law, authorizing Protestant and coloured 
 separate schools, are as follows : — 
 
 " 1. Upon the application in writing of twelve or more heads of families resi- 
 dent in any township, city, town, or incorporated village, being Protestants, the 
 municipal council of the said township or the board of school trustees of any 
 such city, town, or incorporated village, shall authorize the establishment 
 therein of one or more separate schools for Protestants ; and upon the applica- 
 tion in writing of twelve or more heads of families resident in any city, town, 
 or incorporated village, being coloured people, the council of such township, or 
 the board of school trustees of any such city, town, or incorporated village, shall 
 authorize the establishment therein of one or more separate for coloured people ; 
 and in every such case such council or board (as the case may be) shall prescribe 
 the limits of the section or sections of such schools." 
 
 " 6. No Protestant separate school shall be allowed in any school section, ex- 
 cept when the teacher of the common school in such section is a Roman 
 Catholic." 
 
 " 7. In all cities, towns, incorporated villages, and township common school 
 sections in which such separate schools exist, each Protestant or coloured person 
 (as the case may be) sending children to any such school or supporting the 
 same by subscribing thereto annually an amount equal to the sum at which such 
 
4:28 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 This law permits the establishment of a Protestant separate 
 school in any locality in which a Koman Catholic teacher is 
 employed in the common school ; but although there were 
 three hundred and twenty-two Roman Catholic teachers 
 employed in the common schools of Upper Canada in 1861, 
 only four Protestant separate schools were in existence in 
 that year. These schools were attended by 120 pupils, and 
 were supported at an expense of $475 — $415 of . which 
 were contributed by their supporters, and $60 were appor- 
 tioned from the legislative school grant. 
 
 4. Coloured Separate Schools. 
 
 The law regulating coloured separate schools is the same 
 as that which applies to Protestant separate schools. The 
 coloured people can not be compelled to establish separate 
 schools, but may do so at their option. They enjoy the 
 right of sending their children to the ordinary common 
 schools, if they prefer it; but in some neighborhoods where 
 their numbers warrant it, they are authorized by law to 
 
 person, if such separate school did not exist, must have been rated in order to 
 the obtaining the annual legislative common school grant, shall be exempt from 
 the payment of all rates imposed for the support of the common schools of such 
 city, town, incorporated village, and school section, respectively, and of all 
 rates imposed for the purpose of obtaining such common school grant." 
 
 " 9. Such separate schools shall not share in any school money raised by local 
 municipal assessment." 
 
 " 10. Each such separate school shall share in such legislative common 
 school grant, according to the yearly average number of pupils attending such 
 separate school, as compared with the average number of pupils attending the 
 common schools in each such city, town, incorporated village, or township ; the 
 mean attendance of pupils for winter and summer being taiten." 
 
 " 17. The trustees of each such separate school shall be a body corporate 
 under the name of the trustees of the separate school of , (as the case 
 
 may be,) in the township, city, or town (as the case may be) of ; and 
 
 shall have the same power to impose, levy, and collect school rates or subscrip- 
 tions upon and from persons sending children to or subscribing towards the 
 support of the separate school, as the trustees of a common school section have 
 to impose, levy, and collect school rates or subscriptions from persons having 
 property in the section or sending children to or subscribing towards the sup- 
 port of the common school of such section." — [Consolidaied Statutes; cap. 65.] 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 429 
 
 unite and establisli schools of their own. The number of 
 these schools in existence in 1861 was only two. They 
 were attended by 118 children, and were supported at an 
 expense of $203; of which $127 were contributed from 
 local sources, and $76 from the legislative school grant. 
 The additional number of coloured children attending the 
 common schools has not been reported separately. 
 
 5. Indian Schools, 
 
 According to the Census of 1861, there were about 8,500 
 Indians in Upper Canada. Up to the same period, there 
 were only about thirty schools established among them. 
 These schools were taught by about thirty -five teachers, and 
 attended by about eight hundred pupils. Of these schools, 
 three were of a superior class, viz. : the New England So- 
 ciety's (Church of England) school at Mohawk, Grand Eiver, 
 and the Industrial (Wesleyan Methodist) schools at Mount 
 Elgin, (County of Middlesex,) and Alnwick (County of 
 Northumberland.) 
 
 The New England Society in behalf of the Indians, was 
 established in England in Queen Anne's time, (about 1700.) 
 In 1830, it succeeded to the management of the school es- 
 tablished for the remnant of the Six Nation Indians at 
 Mohawk, Grand River, (see page 374.) In this school pro- 
 vision is made for boarding the Indian boys and girls at- 
 tending it, and for giving them instruction in the usual 
 branches of a common English education accompanied with 
 religious teaching. A part of the boys are also taught 
 some mechanical arts and instruction is given to some of 
 the girls in domestic affairs. The schools at Mount Elgin 
 and Alnwick, are purely industrial or agricultural in their 
 character. The pupils receive a good plain education ac- 
 companied by religious instruction ; the girls are also in- 
 structed in household affairs, and the boys are employed a 
 portion of each day in working the farm. 
 
4:30 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS NOT EECEIVING LEGISLATIVE AID. 
 
 ' 1. Church of England Parochial Schools. 
 
 In most of the cities of Upper Canada, parochial schools 
 have, for some years, been established in connection with the 
 principal Church of England congregations, but no authen- 
 tic information relating to their condition has been pub- 
 lished. They are supported by fees and private subscrip- 
 tions and are chiefly attended by poor children. 
 
 2. Private Schools for Boys and Oirls. 
 
 In all the cities and towns of Upper Canada, there are 
 private schools of various descriptions for boys and girls. 
 Those for girls are more numerous than for boys, owing to 
 the greater number of public schools which have been 
 established for boys. There were in 1861 upwards of three 
 hundred private schools in Upper Canada, attended by 
 nearly 7,400 pupils. In the cities and more important 
 towns, several excellent Roman Catholic convents for the 
 education of girls have been established, viz. : 
 
 The Ladies of Loretto have established convents for the 
 superior education of young ladies at Toronto in 1847, with 
 branches at Niagara Falls, Guelph, and Belleville. 
 
 The Sisters of St. Joseph have also similar convents at To- 
 ronto, Barrie, Niagara, and St. Catharines, besides schools 
 at Oakville, Brantford, and Paris. 
 
 Ifie Sisters of the Presentation have an old established con- 
 vent at Kingston. 
 
 An Ursuline convent exists at Chatham, and a convent 
 under a French order of the Sisters of Charity at Ottawa. 
 The Sisters of Notre Dame have a school at Alexandria. 
 
 8. Sunday Schools. 
 
 From the returns received at the educational department 
 it appears that there were about two thousand Sunday 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 431 
 
 schools in Upper Canada in 1861, attended by about one 
 hundred thousand children. About eighteen hundred Sun- 
 day school libraries have been established, containing nearly 
 three hundred thousand volumes of books. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SUPERIOR SCHOOLS RECEIYINa LEGISLATIVE AID. 
 
 1. Upper Canada College. 
 
 Upper Canada College, or Royal Grammar School, at 
 Toronto, was established in 1829-30, by Sir John Colborne 
 (now Lord Seaton,) and endowed with a grant of sixty- 
 six thousand acres of the crown lands. This college is 
 under the control of the senate of the University of Toronto, 
 and was designed to occupy the same position in Upper 
 Canada as the best public grammar schools do in England. 
 It has done good service in its day ; and, since its establish- 
 ment, has educated about twenty -five Jiundred pupils, some 
 of whom now occupy high positions among the public men of 
 Upper Canada. From two hundred to two hundred and 
 fifty pupils annually attend the school. In addition to the 
 principal, there are ten masters in the college. At the July 
 examinations several exhibitions, varying in value from 
 forty to one hundred and twenty dollars are open to com- 
 petition among the grammar schools of Upper Canada. 
 Annual prizes and certificates of honor are annually dis- 
 tributed among the pupils. 
 
 2. Model Grammar School for Upper Canada. 
 
 The Model Grammar School for Upper Canada is some- 
 what similar in its character to Upper Canada College. It 
 was established by the council of public instruction, at 
 Toronto, in 1858, and was " mainly intended to exemplify 
 the best methods of teaching the branches required by law 
 to be taught in the grammar schools, especially classics and 
 mathematics, and as a model for the grammar schools of the 
 
432 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 country." It also provides facilities for a training class of 
 ten grammar school masters. The number of pupils is 
 limited to one hundred, or three from each county or union 
 of counties in Upper Canada. Prizes and certificates are 
 annually distributed among the pupils. In addition to the 
 rector there are «ght masters. 
 
 8. The County Grammar Schools. 
 
 Grammar schools were first established in Upper Canada 
 in 1807, under the name of " district schools." The num- 
 ber established in that year was eight, — or one each for the 
 eight districts into which the province was then divided. 
 
 In 1853, the present county grammar school system was 
 established. It was designed to form a link between the 
 common school and the university, and was intended to 
 provide facilities for giving " instruction in the higher 
 branches of a practical English and commercial education, 
 including the elements of mechanics and natural philosophy, 
 and also in the Greek and Latin languages and in mathe- 
 matics, so far as to prepare students for University College 
 or any college affiliated to the University of Toronto."* 
 
 The course of study in these schools and the general 
 regulations for their management are prescribed by the 
 council of public instruction for Upper Canada. Masters 
 must either be graduates of some university, or possess a cer- 
 tificate of qualification from a committee of examiners ap- 
 pointed by the council of public instruction. Pupils, on 
 entering a grammar school, are required to pass a prelimin- 
 ary examination in "reading, writing, spelling; simple 
 and compound rules of arithmetic, reduction and simple 
 proportion; elements of English grammar and parsing; 
 definitions and outlines of geography." There are four 
 grammar school terms in each year, and the fees are deter- 
 mined by the local boards of trustees. The members of 
 these boards are appointed by the county councils. In 1861 
 there were eighty-six grammar schools in Upper Canada, 
 
 ♦ 16 Vict, chap. 186. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 433 
 
 attended by 4,766 pupils and supported at a cost of $85,164, 
 including a legislative grant of $36,693. 
 
 CHAPTEK lY. 
 
 SUPERIOR SCHOOLS NOT REGBIYING PUBLIC AID. 
 
 1. College Preparatory Schools. 
 
 Until lately a preparatory school was attached to Trinity 
 and Queen's Colleges. That connected with Trinity College 
 has ceased to exist ; while that attached to Queen's College 
 has been merged into the Frontenac County Grammar 
 School. The preparatory school connected with Victoria 
 College is still in successful operation. 
 
 2. Seminaries and Academies, 
 
 The Friends' Seminary was established near Picton, in 
 the county of Prince Edward, in 1841, under the direction 
 and control of the Society of Friends. The seminary is 
 situated on a farm of one hundred acres, and will accommo- 
 date about sixty male and female pupils. At present, 
 instruction is given in the English branches only ; but ex- 
 ertions are shortly expected to be made to introduce the 
 study of the classics into the seminary. It is intended, 
 also, to erect more suitable buildings, capable of holding 
 eighty pupils. The ofl&cers of the institution are a super- 
 intendent, a matron, and other teachers — all of whom are 
 members of the Society of Friends. There are two terms, 
 — a winter and a summer term. 
 
 The Belleville Seminary was established at Belleville, 
 county of Hastings, in 1854, chiefly by the liberality of 
 members of the Methodist-Episcopal Church in Canada. 
 It was opened in 1857, and is under the control of that body. 
 Its design is to afford instruction in the higher branches 
 of education to young ladies and young gentlemen. The 
 building will accommodate three hundred pupils — one hun- 
 
434 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 dred of whom can reside in tlie building. The officers of 
 the institution are, a principal, a preceptress, a professor of 
 mathematics, of Greek and Latin, and of the natural sci- 
 ences, besides a lady teacher of music. The sessions begin 
 in May and September. 
 
 The Canadian Literary Institute was established at Wood- 
 stock, county of Oxford, in 1857-8, by the regular Baptists 
 of Upper Canada. It is under the control of that body, 
 and is chiefly designed to afford instruction in the primary 
 and higher English branches of education to young ladies 
 and young gentlemen. (The theological department is re- 
 ferred to on pages 433 and 439.) The course of study, in the 
 higher departments, is so arranged as to suit male students 
 both in classics and natural sciences. It is also designed to 
 prepare male students for admission to the Law Society, or 
 for matriculation in the faculties of arts, law, or medicine in 
 the University of Toronto. In the course for young ladies, 
 classics and the higher mathematics are omitted. In the 
 primary department, no pupil under eleven years of age is 
 admissible. The number of pupils in attendance in these 
 branches in 1861, was one hundred and thirty -four; in t"he 
 theological class, twenty-seven; total, one hundred and 
 sixty-one. The officers of the institution are six ; viz. : a 
 principal, two other male teachers, and three female teach- 
 ers. The terms begin in January, April, and September. 
 
 The Wesleyan Female College^ a proprietary institution 
 in connection with the conference of the Wesleyan Meth- 
 odist Church in Canada, was established at the city of 
 Hamilton in 1861. It is designed to furnish a superior ed- 
 ucation in the English branches to young ladies exclusively. 
 The proprietors of the college are an incorporated body, 
 possessed of one or more shares of the value of one hundred 
 dollars each. The officers of the college are eight; viz.: a 
 principal, five female and two male teachers, besides a 
 domestic or house governor, and a chaplain. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 435 
 
 The Convents. In nearly every irtiportant town of Upper 
 Canada, convents Lave within the last few years been es- 
 tablished for the instruction of young ladies in the superior 
 branches of an English education. The following are the 
 principal ones, viz. : 
 
 1. The Ladies of Loretto. They have a superior convent 
 in Toronto, with excellent branches at the Niagara Falls, 
 Guelph, and Belleville. A pupil at one institution can be 
 removed to the other without any inconvenience. 
 
 2. The Sisters of St. Joseph have also similar convents at 
 Toronto, Barrie, Niagara, and St. Catharines. They also 
 teach the Eoman Catholic Separate Schools at Oakville, 
 Brantford, and Paris. 
 
 3. The Sistei's of tJie Presentation have an old established 
 convent at Kingston. 
 
 4. An JJrsuline convent has been established at Chatham, 
 and a convent under a French order of the Sisters of Charity 
 has been established at Ottawa. The Sisters of Notre 
 Dame have a School at Alexandria. 
 
 CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 
 1. Schools of Theology, 
 
 I. — CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Although a Eoyal Charter was obtained in March, 1827, 
 authorizing the institution of a Faculty of Divinity in the 
 proposed University of King's College, at Toronto, it was 
 not until 1843 that a professorship in that faculty was act- 
 ually established. Pending the protracted public discussions 
 on the subject, the Eight Eeverend Doctor Strachan, Prot- 
 estant-Episcopal Bishop of the diocese, upon the report and 
 
 recommendation of his three chaplains, founded a diocesan 
 28 
 
4:36 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA 
 
 theological college at Cobourg, in December, 1841 This 
 diocesan college was continued, notwithstanding the exist- 
 ence of the Church of England professorship of di\ inity in 
 the University of King's College, from 1813 un< il 1850, 
 (when an alteration was made in that institution, and the 
 divinity professorship abolished,) in consequenc^j of the 
 precarious tenure by which the divinity profesaorship in 
 King's College was held during those years. In 1851, after 
 the professorship of divinity was finally abolished, the 
 bishop undertook the laborious and difi&cult task of found- 
 ing a purely Church of England university and obtaining a 
 Koyal Charter for it. This he successfully accomplished; 
 and in January, 1853, he had the satisfaction to preside at the 
 inauguration of Trinity College University, in which there 
 was established a faculty of divinity. The diocesan college 
 at Cobourg was merged into the new university, and in 
 1853 the students transferred from Cobourg to Toronto. 
 
 The regulations of the Theological Faculty in Trinity 
 College University are as follows: — 
 
 " The theological coi^se of Trinity College extends over 
 two years. Any person is eligible for admission to it who 
 has taken the degree of B.A., or who, having attained the 
 age of twenty-one, has passed one year in the Arts Course. 
 
 " Bachelor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must 
 be Masters of Arts of at least seven years' standing. The 
 requisite exercises are, — "A Latin andan English thesis, — 
 one on some point of doctrine connected with the Thirty- 
 nine Articles, and the other on some scriptural subject to 
 be appointed by the examiners ; An examination must also 
 be passed in some Latin or Greek treatise or treatises chosen 
 by the examiners; An English sermon must be preached 
 before the university. 
 
 " Doctor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must 
 be Baxihelors of Divinity of five years' standing. They 
 wiU be required to write an English and a Latin thesis, as 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 437 
 
 in tlie case of B.D., and to preach an Englisli sermon before 
 the university. 
 
 " The examiners in divinity shall be the professors of 
 divinity, and two graduates in that faculty, to be appointed 
 by the council." 
 
 Objections having been made to the character and ten- 
 dency of the theological teachings in Trinity College, To- 
 ronto, the Eight Keverend Doctor Cronyn, Bishop of Huron, 
 proposes to establish a theological college in that diocese. 
 A grant of five hundred pounds sterling has been made for 
 this object by the society in England for promoting Chris- 
 tian knowledge. An English gentleman has also given five 
 thousand pounds sterling towards the same object. 
 
 n. — CHURCH OP ROME. 
 
 Upper Canada is divided into five Koman Catholic dio- 
 ceses, viz.: Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, and 
 Sandwich, in each of which, there is a college for the in- 
 struction of youth. In these colleges, there is also provision 
 made for the training of candidates for the priesthood. 
 Eegiopolis College, at Kingston, is the oldest of these dio- 
 cesan colleges, and, for a number of years, was the only 
 Roman Catholic college in Upper Canada. 
 
 Eegiopolis College was founded by the late Hon. and Eight 
 Eev. Bishop McDonell, who left a legacy by will for this 
 object in 1835. It was opened in 1846 by the Yery 
 Eeverend Angus Macdonell, Yicar-General, who is its pres- 
 ent president. The general course of study in the college 
 embraces classics, mathematics, philosophy, and theology. 
 The theological course extends over three years. 
 
 St. Joseph's College, at Ottawa, was founded in 1848, by 
 the Eight Eeverend Doctor Joseph E. Guigues, first Eoman 
 Catholic bishop of the diocese. It is under the direction of 
 the " Society of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate." Its 
 general course is classical and commercial. 
 
4:38 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Its theological course comprises moral and dogmatical 
 theologj, and is usually attended by about fifteen students. 
 Already forty priests have been educated at the college, 
 and are now performing their functions in various parts of 
 the country. 
 
 St. Michael's College was established at Toronto in 1852 
 by some clergymen of the order of St. Basil, under the pat- 
 ronage of the Eight Reverend Doctor De Charbonell, 2nd 
 Roman Catholic bishop of Toronto. It is chiefly designed 
 for the instruction of youth in the higher branches of edu- 
 cation, but among its professors is one of divinity. The 
 superior is professor of logic. The course of study in 
 logic and theology extends from four to five years. 
 
 ni. — CHURCH OP SCOTLAND. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church of Canada, in connection with 
 the Church of Scotland, have a university at Kingston, 
 called Queen's College. In. its theological faculty there are 
 two professors, viz. : the Principal and primarius professor, 
 and the professor of oriental languages, biblical criticism, 
 and church history. The theological course extends over 
 three sessions; the study of Chaldee is only required during 
 one session, while attendance on the Syriac and Arabic 
 classes is optional. 
 
 IV. — CANADA PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. 
 
 The Canada Presbyterian Church now includes the United 
 Presbyterian Church, and the Free Presbyterian Church in 
 Canada. Both bodies had their separate divinity halls, or 
 colleges, until the period of the union in 1861, when they 
 were merged into Knox's (theological) College, Toronto, 
 which had been established by the Free Church in 1844. 
 This college has three professors, viz. : the Principal and pri- 
 marius professor of divinity, the professor of church history 
 and the evidences of Christianity, and the professor of ex- 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 439 
 
 egetical theology and philosophy. The course of study ex- 
 tends over six years, including three years in general studies, 
 and three years in theology. The admission to the college 
 is through the various presbyteries, which have the 
 right of examination in order to entrance. A boarding 
 house is attached to the college; but residence is optional. 
 The institution is supported by funds contributed annually 
 by the congregations of the church. The liberality of 
 several individuals and congregations has secured to it a ffew 
 permanent bursaries or scholarships. His Royal Highness 
 the Prince of Wales, on the invitation of Principal Willis, 
 visited the college in 1860, and afterwards made a donation 
 to it of eight hundred dollars to form a fund for the estab- 
 lishment of annual prizes. The college possesses a museum 
 and also a library of about five thousand volumes, which 
 was established chiefly through the exertions of the Rev. 
 Principal Willis, Rev. Professor Burns, and other friends. 
 
 V. — THE METHODIST CHURCHES. 
 
 Although two Methodist bodies in Canada have institu- 
 tions of learning at which many of their ministers attend 
 as secular students, in neither of them is there any provi- 
 sion made for theological training. The different Methodist 
 bodies have, however, a prescribed course of theological 
 study which all candidates for the ministry must complete 
 before ordination and during their four years' probation. 
 The Wesleyan Methodist course of study will be found on 
 page 440. 
 
 VI. — THE BAPTIST CHURCHES. 
 
 The only Baptist institution in Upper Canada in which 
 provision is made for theological training is the Canadian 
 Literary Institute at Woodstock. The regulations require 
 candidates to pass an entrance examination. They must 
 also bring letters from their respective churches, either 
 
440 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 licensing them to preach or approving of their studying 
 for the ministry. Prior, also, to their full admission, they 
 are required to submit to a committee, chosen by the trustees, 
 a statement of their Christian experience and call to the 
 ministry. The course of study extends over three years. 
 See page 440. 
 
 Vn. — CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH. 
 
 The Congregationalists of the various provinces have, 
 within the last few years, united their various institutions 
 into one theological college at Toronto, under the name of 
 the " Congregational College of British North America." 
 This college is not endowed, but is supported by annual 
 contributions from the colonial churches, assisted by a grant 
 from the Colonial Missionary Society of England. It is 
 under the control of subscribers, by whom a board of di- 
 rectors is chosen to manage the college. The course of study 
 extends over five sessions of six months each. Upwards 
 of fifty ministers have already been sent out from the insti- 
 tute. The present course includes " the usual branches of 
 a liberal education, embracing the original language of the 
 Scriptures, biblical literature, theology, church history, ho- 
 miletics and pastoral duty. Every candidate for admission 
 into the college is required to present to the directors, — 1. 
 The testimony of the church of which he is a member, and 
 apparent suitableness for the ministry ; 2. A written state- 
 ment of the grounds of his conviction that he is called to 
 the work, and his views of Christian doctrine; 3. Evidence 
 of sufficient literary acquirements — the minimum of which 
 shall be a fair English education." Students are first ad- 
 mitted for one session on probation. No fees are charged 
 for tuition, and assistance is given, when required, towards 
 defraying the expenses of board in private famihes. Ex- 
 aminations are held at the close of each session. The 
 college has a valuable library of over two thousand volumes. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 4.4.^ 
 
 SCHEDULE OP THEOLOGICAL TEXT OR REFERENCE BOOKS AND COURSE OF STUDY 
 IN THE SEVERAL COLLEGES, ETC. 
 
 1. Church of England. 
 
 Portions of the Septuagint ; 
 
 New Testament in Greek, (chiefly the 
 Epistles ;) 
 
 Hebrew: Bernard's Guide to the 
 Hebrew Student ; 
 
 One or more historical or prophetical 
 books of the Old Testament, &c., 
 
 Ecclesiastical History : In this depart- 
 ment have been used : Robertson 
 for the first six centuries ; Hard- 
 wick for the middle ages and Re- 
 formation ; and Massing Cerd, for 
 the English Reformation ; 
 
 Articles of the Church of England : Pro- 
 fessor Harold Browne's Lectures ; 
 
 Liturgy : Proctor on the Book of Com- 
 mon Prayer; 
 
 Pearson on the Creed ; 
 
 Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Book V.5 
 
 A treatise or treatises of the Fathers 
 of the first three centuries ; 
 
 Moral Science: Bishop Sanderson's 
 Lectures ; De Oblagatione Consci- 
 entiae 5 Bishop Butler's Sermons, 
 by Whewell ; 
 
 Aristotle, Ethic. Nicom., ii.,iii., iv. ; 
 
 Plato, Resp., ii., iii., iv. ; 
 
 History of Greek Philosophy ; 
 
 History of Moral Philosophy in E g- 
 land. 
 
 2. Church of Borne. 
 
 Bouvier's Institutiones Theologicee ; 
 Gury, Compendium Theologieee Mor- 
 
 ralis ; 
 St. Liguoris Theologia Moralis ; 
 Billuart on St. Thomas ; 
 Cardinel Gousset, Theologia morale et 
 
 dogmatique ; 
 Bishop Kenrick, Theologia moralis et 
 
 dogmatica ; 
 Joannes Devoti on Canon Law ; 
 Summa Theologise, Sancti Thomas ; 
 Baldeschi's Ceremonial 5 
 Ceremoniale Episcoporum ; 
 Reeve's Church History ; 
 Rohrbacher's Church History ; 
 
 Cardinal Wiseman's Lectures on 
 Science and Revealed Religion ; 
 
 L'Abbe Migne's Cursus Completus 
 SacrsB Scriptures ; 
 
 Cursus Completus Sanctorum Patrum . 
 
 Commentaries of Maldonatus ; 
 
 Catechismus Concilii Tridentini ; 
 
 Rodriguez's Christian Perfection ; 
 
 Calmet ; 
 
 Dixon's Introduction to Sacred Scrip- 
 ture ; 
 
 Bouvier and Rothenflue's Course of 
 Philosophy ; including Logic, 
 Metaphysics, and Ethics. 
 
 Theology : 
 Hill's Lectures ; Paley's Evidences ; 
 Butler's Analogy ; Greek Testament. 
 
 Biblical Criticism : 
 Greek Testament ; Badie on Colossians ; 
 Ellicott on Ephesians; Bush's Notes 
 
 on Genesis*, 
 Home's Introduction ; 
 Wolfe's Hebrew Grammar j 
 
 3. Church of Scotland. 
 
 Arnold's First Hebrew Book ; Bible. 
 
 Chaldee : 
 Riggs's Manual ; The Bible. 
 
 Syriac : 
 Uhlemann's Grammar ; The Bible. 
 
 Arabic : 
 
 Stewart's Grammar •, The Bible. 
 
 Church History: 
 Kurty's Text-book. 
 
442 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPP^iE CANADA. 
 
 4. Canada Presbyterian Chusch, 
 
 Systematic Theology— Oells' Institutes 
 
 Class of Exegetical Theology— EUicot ; 
 
 of Theology, with extracts from 
 
 Eadie on the Epistles ; 
 
 Calvin ; 
 
 Alford'fc Greek Testament ; 
 
 Dr. Willis' Latin Collectanea ; 
 
 Moji^tj on the Minor Prophets ; 
 
 Biblical Criticism— Home's Introduc- 
 
 Mwtil and Moral Philosophy, Reid, 
 
 tion ; 
 
 with Notes by Sir W. Hamilton— 
 
 ClaJas of Evidences of Christianity— 
 
 Wayland. 
 
 BuUer, Paley. 
 
 5. Wesleyan Methodist Church. 
 
 First year: 
 
 {Additional for honors : 
 
 The Bible ; Horner's Introduction ; 
 
 Smith's Sacred Annals — 1. Patriarchal 
 
 Wesley's Sermons, (first series ;) 
 
 Age : 2. Hebrew People.) 
 
 Wesley's Christian Perfection 5 
 
 Third year: 
 
 Wesley's Notes on the New Testa- 
 
 Watson's Theological Institutes, (part 
 
 ment; 
 
 iii. and iv.;) 
 
 Watson'a Theological Institut., (part i.) 
 
 Pearson on the Creed ; 
 
 (Additional for honors : 
 
 Taylor's Ancient and Modern History. 
 
 Wesley on Original Sin ; 
 
 (Additional for honors : 
 
 Fletcher's Appeal ; 
 
 Smith's Sacred Annals— 3. Gentile 
 
 Fletcher's Checks to Antinomianism.) 
 
 Nations.) 
 
 Second year : 
 
 Fourth year : 
 
 Watson's Theological Institut., (part ii.) 
 
 Butler's Analogy, with Teft's Analysis ; 
 
 Murdoch's Mosheim's Ecclesiastical 
 
 Upham's Mental Philosophy ; 
 
 History by Reid ; 
 
 Whately's Logic and Rhetoric ; 
 
 Dr. G. Smith's History of Methodism ; 
 
 (Additional for Tumors : 
 
 Bangs's History of the Methodist- 
 
 Examination by miscellaneous questions 
 
 Episcopal Church. 
 
 on the foregoing.) 
 
 6. Baptist Church 
 
 Paley's Natural Theology; 
 
 Giesler's Ecclesiastical History ; 
 
 Wayland's Moral Science ; 
 
 The JiTew Testament and Septua^t in 
 
 Paley and Wilson's Evidences of Chris- 
 
 Greek ; also translations ; 
 
 tianity ; 
 
 Analysis and Exegesis in Greek ; 
 
 Emesti's Principles of Interpretation ; 
 
 Besides lectures on the genuineness of 
 
 Hebrew Bible ; 
 
 Scripture, History of Sacred Criti- 
 
 Malcolm's Butler's Analogy ; 
 
 cism, Ecclesiastical History, Chris- 
 
 Jahn's Biblical Archeology ; 
 
 tian Theology, Pastoral Theology 
 
 Biblical Geography ; 
 
 Pastoral Duties, &o., &o. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 443 
 
 Books of Reference: 
 
 1. In Systematic Theology : 
 Calvin's Institutes; 
 The works of Howe, Edwards, and 
 
 Dwight ; 
 Knapp, Dick, and Wardlaw's Theology; 
 Dr. Pye Smith's First Lines ; 
 Payne's Lectures ; 
 "Watson's Institutes. 
 
 2. In Biblical Criticism, and Interpre- 
 tation : 
 
 Home's Introduction ; 
 
 Davidson's Introduction to the New 
 Testament ; 
 
 Westcott on the Gospels ; 
 
 Alexander's Christ and Christianity ; 
 
 Ellicott's Life of Christ ; 
 
 Ernesti's Institutes ; 
 
 Plank's Sacred Philology ; 
 
 Davidson's Biblical Criticism and Her- 
 meneutics ; 
 
 Fairbain's Hermeneutical Manual ; 
 
 Kitto, Herzog, and Smith's Cyclope- 
 dias : 
 
 7. Congregational Church. 
 
 On the Evidences : Butler, Campbell, 
 Paley, Watson, Chalmers, &c.; 
 
 On the Greek Testament : Alford, El- 
 licott, Winer, Benzu, and Oerhau- 
 sen. 
 
 3. In Church History : 
 Reid's Murdoch's Mosheim, Nean- 
 
 der, Giesler, Hase, Kurty, Schaff, 
 Bower's Lives of the Popes ; 
 
 Milman's Latin Christianity ; 
 
 (Bohn's) Greek Eeclesiast. Historians ; 
 
 Hagenback's History of Doctrine j 
 
 Neander's Christian Dogmas ; 
 
 Bingham's and Coleman's Antiquities ; 
 
 Chase's Apostolical Constitutions. 
 
 4. In Church Government : 
 John Owen, David Clarkson ; 
 "Wardlaw's Congregational Indepen- 
 dency; 
 
 Davidson's Church Polity of the New 
 Testament ; 
 
 5. On Baptism : "Wardlaw, Ewing, 
 L. "Woods, Beecher, "Wilson, and 
 Halley. 
 
 2. Schools of Law. 
 
 I. — THE LAW SCHOOL OF 05KJ00DE HALL. 
 
 " In Upper Canada, the profession of the law is divided 
 into two branches, each subject to its own peculiar regula- 
 tions, and, to a certain extent, independent of the other, 
 though generally the one person practices in both. They 
 are, hamsters, or persons authorized to ^^ plead at the bar" 
 of the courts of law or equity, and to take upon them the 
 advising and defense of clients, and from whom all judges, 
 Queen's counsel, and attorneys and solicitors general are 
 selected ; and attorneys and solicitors, or persons authorized 
 to " appear in the courts " in the place and on behalf of 
 others, to prosecute and defend actions on the retainer 
 
444: HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 of clients. The only distinction between these two latter is, 
 that " attorney " is the title adopted in the courts of com- 
 mon law, and " solicitor " the title adopted in the courts 
 of equity." — \_Ganada Educational Directory^ p. 94. 
 
 In the study of law, the course prescribed by the Law 
 Society for Upper Canada takes precedence.* 
 
 Students who have already passed through a three or four 
 years' university course of law studies are still required, if 
 they wish to become barristers at law, to begin de novo, and 
 continue as students of the Law Society for three years 
 longer. While those who are not university graduates are 
 only required to remain on the books of the Law Society as 
 students for five years. All students must be at least sixteen 
 years of age ; they must attend term lectures, and must re- 
 ceive their professional education under the superintendence 
 of some barrister. 
 
 In order to facilitate the education of the students, the 
 Law Society has arranged " that the tuition of the pupils 
 attending the law school shall be by means of lectures, 
 readings, and mootings; that there shall be four readers, 
 viz. : the reader on common law, the reader on equity, the 
 reader on commercial law, and the reader on the law of 
 real property ; that in addition to the lectures in term, there 
 shall be lectures during the three educational terms of each 
 
 * The Law Society of Upper Canada Was established in 1797, by the Act 
 37 George III., cap. 13, which enabled the then practitioners of the law to 
 form themselves into a society, " for the purpose of securing to the country and 
 the profession a learned and honorable body, to assist their fellow -subjects as 
 occasion may require, and to support and maintain the constitution of the 
 province." By the same act, the judges of the superior courts were consti- 
 tuted visitors, with authority to sanction such rules as they considered necessary 
 for the good government of the society. In 1822, the society was incorporated 
 by the Act, 2 George IV., cap. 5, and its functions vested in the treasurer and 
 benchers for the time being, elected according to the by-laws of the society, 
 much in the same manner as in the law societies of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 The benchers sit in convocation every law term, for the admission of students 
 and barristers, and for other business. — [Canada Educational Directory, p. 96 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 445 
 
 year, whicli shall continue for six consecutive weeks each. 
 The attendance on the lectures of the educational term is, 
 however, voluntary. In order to give an additional stimu- 
 lus to the study of law in Upper Canada, the society has 
 established four scholarships (one for each year's course) 
 which are open to any student on the society's books, 
 whether pupils of the law school or not. These scholar- 
 ships are of the respective values of one hundred and 
 twenty, one hundred and sixty, two hundred, and two 
 hundred and forty dollars per annum, and are payable 
 quarterly. The readers deliver the lectures, hold readings, 
 and preside at mootings or the moot courts. The charge 
 for attendance at the law school is one dollar per term. 
 Students of the Law Society are admitted upon examination 
 in one of the three following classes, viz. : the university 
 class, the senior class, and the junior class. The examina- 
 tion in the university and the senior classes is the same, and 
 includes Greek, Latin, mathematics or metaphysics, astron- 
 omy, ancient and modern geography and history; the ex- 
 amination in the junior class is in Latin, mathematic§, 
 English history, and modern geography. 
 
 Every candidate for admission to the bar must be of the 
 full age of twenty-one years. He must pass an examina- 
 tion in writing and also ore tenus. These examinations are 
 divided into two classes, viz.: for "call" simply, or for 
 " call, with honors." Every student on being called to the 
 bar must appear before the convocation in a barrister's gown 
 for the purpose of being presented to the superior courts 
 by a bencher of the society. Candidates for admissioil as 
 attorneys and solicitors must pass a similar examination, 
 and receive a " certificate of fitness," but are not required 
 to pass an entrance or matriculation examination as students 
 of the Law Society. They must, however, have completed 
 the whole term of their articles under the instruction of 
 
446 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION Hi UPPEft nA,NADA. 
 
 some attorney or attorneys previous to their examination 
 for a " certificate of fitness."* 
 
 n. — UNIVERSITT OF TORONTO LAW COURSE. 
 
 No lectures are delivered in the faculty of law in this 
 university; but the following are the requisites for obtain- 
 ing the degree of LL.B. in the ordinary course: — 
 
 Having matriculated in the faculty of law ; 
 
 Being of the standing of four years from matriculation ; 
 
 Having passed in each of those years the examinations 
 prescribed in the statute respecting " subjects of examina- 
 tion in the faculty of law; " 
 
 Being of the full age of twenty-one years. 
 
 The following are the requisites for obtaining the degree 
 ofLL.D.:— 
 
 Having been admitted to the degree of LL.B. ; 
 
 Being of ten years' standing from admission to the degree 
 of LL.B. or of M.A.; 
 
 * In an address by the late Sir John B. Robinson, Bart, to the students of the 
 Law Society, on the occasion of his retirement from the office of Chief-Justice 
 oT Upper Canada, (after thirty-two years' service,) he thus sums up the 
 " changes which have taken place in the condition of law students " since he 
 first studied law in 1807 : 1. The period of study has been reduced two years 
 in favor of graduates in arts or law ; 2. Term lectures are delivered on the 
 different branches of law ; 3. The whole of the statutes have been simplified 
 and consolidated ; 4. Much that was formerly difficult and embarrassing in the 
 mere technicality of law has by late changes been swept away. He strongly 
 advises students " to make some one branch of the law an especial object of 
 study — resolving to know, so far as it may be possible for you, every thing that 
 can be known in it, meaning and hoping to become in time an admitted author- 
 ity in that particular department of the law, whether your inclination and 
 judgment shall lead you to select the criminal law, the law of real property, 
 commercial law, or pleading generally, or practice generally. Such a course 
 would, I believe, insure to the person who pursues it the advantage of soon 
 being generally and favorably known. He would acquire a reputation which 
 must advance him in his profession, secure for him the confidence and respect 
 of his legal brethren, and make his services sought after by those who have 
 valuable interests to protect." 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 447 
 
 Having composed an approved thesis upon some subject 
 in law. 
 
 Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and 
 twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in 
 this faculty ; each successful candidate must sign a declara- 
 tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the Univer- 
 sity of Toronto. 
 
 A gold and a silver medal, certificates of honor, and 
 prizes in books, are also distributed annually among the 
 successful students. 
 
 111. — UNIVERSITY OF QUEEN's COLLEGE LAW COURSE. 
 
 The law course in Queen's College extends over three 
 years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination, 
 unless they have already passed a similar examination in 
 any college, or have been admitted as students of the Law 
 Society for Upper Canada. Lectures are delivered by three 
 professors. 
 
 IV. — UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA COLLEGE LAW COURSE. 
 
 The law course in Victoria College extends over four 
 years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination, 
 unless they have been admitted as barristers by the Law 
 Society of Upper Canada. A student of three years' 
 standing in arts may enter at the examination for the 
 second year; and a graduate in the same faculty may enter 
 at the third year examination. No lectures are given, but 
 annual examinations in the subjects prescribed are held. 
 
 V. — UNIVERSITY OF TRINITY COLLEGE LAW COURSE. 
 
 No lectures in law have been given since the law course 
 was opened at Osgoode Hall by the Law Society. 
 
448 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 SCHEDULE OF THE LAW COURSE IN THE SEVERAL UNIVERSITIES, ETC. 
 
 1. Law Society for Upper Canada. 
 
 Law Scholarships — IHrsi Year: 
 Stephen's Blackstone, Vol i. 
 Stephen on Pleading. 
 Williams on Perst)nal Property. 
 Story's Equity Jurisprudence, from 
 §440. 
 
 Second Tear: 
 
 1. Williams on Real Property. 
 
 2. Best on Evidence. 
 
 3. Smith on Contracts. 
 
 4. Story's Equity Jurisprudence. 
 
 Third Tear: 
 
 1. Real Property : Statutes of U. C. 
 
 2. Stephen's Blackstone, Book V. 
 
 3. Byles on Bills. 
 
 4. Haynes's Outlines of Equity. 
 
 5. Coote on Mortgages. 
 
 Fourth Tear : 
 
 1. Burton on Real Property. 
 
 2. Russell on Crimes. 
 
 3. Common Law : Pleading and Prac- 
 
 tice. 
 
 4. Smith's Mercantile Law. 
 
 5. Dart on Vendors and Purchasers. 
 
 6. Mitford on Pleading. 
 
 7. Equity Pleading and Practice. 
 Examination of Barristers for CaM: 
 I. Blackstone's Commentaries, Vol. i. 
 
 2. University of Toronto. 
 
 2. Addison on Contracts. 
 
 3. Smith's Mercantile Law. 
 Williams on Real Property. 
 Story's Equity Jurisprudence. 
 Stephen on Pleading. 
 Taylor on Evidence. 
 
 8. Byles on Bills. 
 
 9. Public Statutes of Upper Canada. 
 
 10. Pleadings and Practice of the Su- 
 perior Courts of Upper Canada. 
 
 Additional for Call, with Honors : 
 
 11. Russell on Crimes. 
 
 12. Story on Partnership. 
 
 13. Walkins's Principles of Convey- 
 ancing. 
 
 14. Coote on Mortgages. 
 
 15. Dart on Vendors and Purchasers. 
 
 16. Jarman on Wills. 
 
 17. Story's Conflict of Laws. 
 
 18. Justinian's Institutes. 
 Certificate of Fitness for Attorneys : 
 
 Blackstone's Commentaries, Vol. i. 
 Smith's Mercantile Law. 
 Williams on Real Property. 
 Story's Equity Jurisprudence. 
 Statute Laws of Upper Canada. 
 
 6. Pleading and Practice of the Courts. 
 
 1. Demosthenes, Olynthiacs. 
 
 2. Cicero, Orationes in Catilinum, pro 
 
 Arohia et pro Marcello. 
 
 3. Logical and Rhetorical Forms in 
 
 Fowler's English Language. 
 
 4. History of English Literature, from 
 . Elizabeth to Anne, in Spaulding's 
 
 English Literature. 
 
 5. Macaulay's History ; from Charles 
 
 i. to William iii., inclusive. 
 
 6. Hallam's Middle Ages, chapters i. 
 
 and ii., with Appendix. 
 
 7. Murray's Logic. 
 
 8. Wayland's Moral Philosophy. 
 
 9. Whately's Political Economy, 
 
 Additional for Honors • 
 
 1. Demosthenes' Philippics. 
 
 2. Cicero, pro Milone. 
 
 3. Translation from Latin into English 
 
 Prose. 
 

 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 449 
 
 4. 
 
 Analysis of one of Shakespeare's 
 
 2. Mitford's Pleading in Equity. 
 
 
 plays. 
 
 3. Burton's Compendium of the Law 
 
 5. 
 
 Whately's Synonyms. 
 
 of Real Property. 
 
 6. 
 
 Trench's English, Past and Present. 
 
 4. Archbold's Landlord and Tenant. 
 
 7. 
 
 Trench's Study of Words. 
 
 5. Addison on Contracts. 
 
 8. 
 
 Moliere, Le Misanthrope. 
 
 6. Westlake's Conflict of Laws. 
 
 9. 
 
 Translation from English into 
 
 Candidates for LL.B.: 
 
 
 French. 
 
 1. Taylor on Evidence. 
 
 2. Sugden on Vendors and Purchasers, 
 
 IQ 
 
 . Hallam's Middle Ages, chapter 
 
 
 viii.; parts i., ii., iii. 
 
 3. Jarman on Wills. 
 
 11 
 
 . Smith's Wealth of Nations, books 
 
 4. Blackstone, Vol. iv. 
 
 
 i., ii., iii., iv. 
 
 5. Justinian's Institutes. 
 
 
 Second Year: 
 
 6. Gibbon's Roman Empire, chap. xliv. 
 
 1. 
 
 Hallam's Constitutional History. 
 
 7. Arnold's Rome, chapters xiii., xiv., 
 
 2. 
 
 Austin's Province of Jurisprudence. 
 
 xvi., xxvi. 
 
 3. 
 
 Smith's Equity Jurisprudence. 
 
 Additional for Honors : 
 
 4. 
 
 Williams on Real Property. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 Smith's Mercantile Law. 
 
 8. Sugden on Powers. 
 
 6. 
 
 Bowyer's Civil Law. 
 
 Third Year: 
 
 9. Wheaton's International Law. 
 
 'i. 
 
 10. Mackeldey, Systema Juris Ro- 
 
 Cox's British Commonwealth. 
 
 man!. 
 
 
 3. UniversUy of Queen's College. 
 
 
 First Year: 
 
 5. Statutes of Upper Canada. 
 
 Stephens on Pleading. 
 
 Third Year: 
 
 2. 
 
 Stephens's Blackstone's Commenta- 
 
 1. Williams on Real Property. 
 
 
 ries, Vol. i. 
 
 2. Story's Equity Jurisprudence. 
 
 3. 
 
 Burton on Real Property. 
 
 3. Pleadings and Practice of the Courts 
 
 
 Second Year: 
 
 of Law and Equity. 
 
 1. 
 
 Addison on Contracts. 
 
 4. Archbold's Landlord and Tenant 
 
 2. 
 
 Smith's Mercantile Law. 
 
 5. Jarman on Wills. 
 
 3. 
 
 Taylor on Evidence. 
 
 6. Sugden on Vendors and Purchasers. 
 
 4. 
 
 Chitty on Bills. 
 
 
 
 4. University of 
 
 Victoria College. 
 
 
 First Year: 
 
 7. Whately and Hamilton's Logic. 
 
 1. 
 
 Cicero, Pro Arehia. 
 
 8. Statutes relating to the Constitution 
 
 2. 
 
 Demosthenes, De Corona. 
 
 of Canada. 
 
 3. 
 
 Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, Book 
 
 9. Wayland's Moral Science. 
 
 
 h., chapter 6. 
 
 Second Year: 
 
 4. 
 
 Whately's Political Economy. 
 
 1. Hallam's Constitutional History. 
 
 5. 
 
 Brougham's British Constitution. 
 
 2. Smith's Wealth of Nations. 
 
 6. 
 
 Blackstone's Commentaries, Vols. i. 
 
 3. Powell on Evidence, 
 
 
 and ii. 
 
 4. Drewry's Equity Pleading. 
 
450 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 5. Stephen on Pleading. 
 
 6. Blackstone, Vol, ill. 
 
 7. Smith on Contracts. 
 
 Third Year: 
 
 1. Smith's Mercantile Law. 
 
 2. Byles on Bills. 
 
 3. Walkins on Conveyancing. 
 
 4. Williams on Real Property. 
 
 5. Story'sEquity Jurisprudence, Vol. i. 
 
 6. Justinian's Institutes. 
 
 7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to 
 
 Real Property and Commercial Law. 
 Fourth Year: 
 \. Bentham's Tbeoiy of Legislation. 
 
 2. Story's Equity, Vol. ii. 
 
 3. Taylor on Evidence. 
 
 4. Addison on Contracts. 
 
 5. Russell on Crimes. 
 
 6. Blackstone, Vol. iv. 
 
 7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to 
 
 the Administration of Justice and 
 Criminal Law. 
 
 8. Schools of Medicine. 
 
 In addition to the ordinary schools of medicine connected 
 
 with the universities, there are three medical boards 
 
 m 
 
 Upper Canada for the examination and licensing of candi- 
 dates desiring to practice physic, surgery, and midwifery. 
 These three are (1.) The " Medical Board of Upper Canada," 
 which meets quarterly in the Toronto General Hospital ; 
 (2.) The " Homeopathic Medical Board of Canada," which 
 meets in Toronto half-yearly; and (3.) The "Eclectic Med- 
 ical Board," which annually meets in Toronto. 
 
 I. — UNIVERSITY OP TORONTO MEDICAL COURSE. 
 
 No lectures are given in the medical faculty of this uni- 
 versity; but the following are the requisites for admission to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in the ordinary course : 
 
 1. Having matriculated in the faculty of medicine, or 
 having matriculated and passed one other examination in 
 either of the faculties of law or arts; 
 
 2. Being of the full age of twenty-one years; 
 
 8. Having pursued medical studies for the period of at 
 least four years, and having regularly attended lectures 
 thereon ; 
 
 4. Having passed in this university an examination in all 
 the medical subjects specified; 
 
 5. Producing satisfactory certificates of good conduct 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 451 
 
 The following are the requisites for admission to the 
 degree of M. D. : — 
 
 Having been admitted to the degree of M. B. ; being of 
 one year's standing from admission to the degree of M. B. ; 
 and having composed an approved thesis upon some medi- 
 cal subject. [gQ hoib^m 9jbob noqu riiio.-l 
 
 Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and 
 twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in 
 this faculty ; each successful candidate must sign a declara- 
 tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the University 
 of Toronto. 
 
 ■/ij lo li U^tdvi 
 
 ■ «. — UNIVERSITY OF QUEEN'S COLLEGE MEDICAL COUEStiL' ' -' 
 
 The faculty of medicine in this university was established 
 in 1854. It includes seven professors and the president. 
 The period of instruction extends over four years. Attend- 
 ance on full course of daily lectures in at least two classes 
 is required. One year's instruction under a qualified medi- 
 cal practitioner is received as equivalent to a year's attend- 
 ance at college. 
 
 Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of 
 age, and must present a certificate of good moral character, 
 with a statement of his literary, scientific, and medical 
 studies. He must also submit an original thesis for the 
 approval of the faculty. At the end of the third year 
 a primary examination takes place, and a final examination 
 at the end of the fourth year. These examinations are held 
 both in writing and viva voce. 
 
 m. — UNIVERSITY or VICTORIA COLLEGE MEDICAL COURSE. 
 
 The faculty of medicine in this university was established 
 at Toronto, in 1854, by the merging of what was then called 
 the Toronto, or Eolph's, School of Medicine, (founded by the 
 Hon. Dr. Eolph in 1843,) into the university. It now em- 
 braces eight professors, (including an assistant,) and the dean 
 29 
 
'452 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 of the faculty. The period of instruction extends over four 
 years; but, if found duly qualified, a student may graduate 
 in three years. 
 
 Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of 
 age, and must compose, for the approval of the faculty, 
 a thesis upon some medical subject. 
 
 rV. — ^TORONTO SCHOOL OP MEDICINE. 
 
 As this institution, although incorporated in 1851, can 
 not confer degrees of itself, it is affiliated with the Univer- 
 sity of Toronto for that purpose ; its examinations are con- 
 ducted in that university, and upon the result of those 
 examinations the medical degrees are conferred upon its 
 students. There are eight lecturers in the school, in- 
 cluding its president. In addition to its own museum, 
 the medical museum of the Toronto university has been 
 placed in its charge, and forms a valuable collection for, 
 the use of students. 
 
 SCHEDULE OF THE MEDICAL COURSE IN THE SEVERAL UNHrERSITIES, ETC. 
 
 1. University of Toronto. 
 
 Practical Anatomy, 
 
 Theory and Practice of Medicine, 
 
 Principles and Practice of Surgery, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Midwifery and Diseases of Women 
 
 and Children ; 
 Having attended one course of lectures 
 
 for six months on 
 Therapeutics and Pharmacolc^ ; 
 Having attended one course of three 
 
 months on 
 Practical Chemistry, 
 Medical Jurisprudence ; 
 Having attended twelve months' prao- . 
 
 tice at some general hospital, and six 
 
 months' clinical lectures on Medicine 
 
 and Surgery. 
 
 moDthi with certificate of having aMitted at 
 
 Matrictdaiion: 
 
 ilina ; 
 Arithmetic and Algebra, in part ; 
 English Grammar and Composition ; 
 English History ; 
 Ancient and Modem Geography ; 
 Elements of Chemistry ; 
 Elements of Physiology ; 
 Elements of Botany. 
 
 For Degree of KB.: 
 Examination in the following sub- 
 jects: 
 Having attended two courses of lec- 
 tures of six months each* on 
 Anatomy, 
 Physiology, 
 
 * Or having attended one course of six 
 twelve caret of labour. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IS UPPER CANADA. 453 
 
 2. Queen's College, Kingston. 
 
 Matriculation : 
 Caesar's Commentaries ; 
 London Pharmacopoeia, or Gregory's 
 Conspectus. 
 
 For Degree of M.D.: 
 Examination on the following sub- 
 jects: 
 Having attended two courses of six 
 
 months each on 
 Anatomy, 
 Practical Anatomy, 
 Principles and Practice of Surgery, 
 
 Theory and Practice of Medicine, 
 
 Materia Medica and Pharmacy, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Obstetrics and Diseases of Women 
 and Children, 
 
 Institutes of Medicine ; 
 
 Having attended two courses of three 
 months each, or one of six months, 
 on Clinical Medicine, Clinical Sur- 
 gery; 
 
 Hospital, twelve months. 
 
 Victoria College, Cohourg. 
 
 Principles and Practice of Surgery, 
 
 Principles and Practice of Medicine, 
 
 Materia Medica and Therapeutics, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Midwifery and the Diseases of Women 
 
 and Children, 
 Clinical Medicine and Surgery ; 
 Having attended one course of six 
 
 months on 
 Medical Jurisprudence and 
 Pathology. 
 
 Matriculation : 
 Sallust, Catilina ; 
 London Pharmacopoeia, 
 Gregory's Conspectus, or any other 
 Latin author. 
 
 For Degree of M.D.: 
 Examination in the following sub- 
 jects: 
 Having attended two courses of six 
 
 months each on 
 Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy, 
 Physiology, 
 
 4. Toronto School of Medicine, 
 The same as that of the University of Toronto. 
 
 4. Schools of Teaching. 
 
 I. — THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR UPPER CANADA. 
 
 The establishment of a normal school for the training of 
 teachers, as a necessary part of a national system of educa- 
 tion, engaged attention in Upper Canada in 1836. But no 
 detailed plan by which that object could be accomplished 
 was recommended to the legislature until the presentation, 
 in 1846, of a " Keport on a System of Public Elementary 
 Instruction for Upper Canada," by the Eev. Dr. Eyerson, 
 Chief Superintendent of Education. Practical effect was 
 immediately given to these recommendations, by the passing 
 
454 HlSTOiRlCAL SKBTCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPEfe CANADA. 
 
 of a school law embodying the general features of the sys- 
 tem sketched out in that report, — appropriating $6,000 for 
 furnishing suitable buildings, and an annual grant of an 
 equal amount for the support of the school. After the 
 necessary arrangements had been completed, the Normal 
 School for Upper Canada was opened on the 1st of No- 
 vember, 1847, in the old Government House, Toronto, in the 
 presence of a large number of gentlemen from differei^t 
 parts of the province. 
 
 The institution having proved entirely successful, and 
 new and enlarged premises having become necessary, the 
 legislature, at its session in 1850, appropriated $60,000 for 
 the purchase of a site and erection of buildings, and an ad- 
 ditional $40,000 in 1852, making in all $100,000. The 
 corner-stone of the new buildings was laid on the 2nd of 
 July, 1851, by His Excellency the Earl of Elgin and Kin- 
 cardine, in the presence of the members of both branches 
 of the legislature, the judges, clergy, and the citizens of 
 Toronto. The premises were formally opened by a public 
 meeting in the theatre of the institution, on the 24th of 
 November, 1852. 
 
 The institution consists of a normal school and twc 
 model schools (one each for boys and girls;) the normal 
 school is the school of instruction by lecture, — the model 
 school the school of instruction by practice. The one hun- 
 dred and fifty students in the former are teachers-in-training, 
 whose ages vary from sixteen or eighteen to thirty, while 
 the hundred and fifty pupils in each of the latter are chil- 
 dren between the ages of five and sixteen years. In the 
 normal school, the teachers-in-training are instructed in the 
 principles of education and the best methods of communi- 
 cating knowledge to the youth placed under their care — are 
 " taught how to teach ; " in the model schools they are taught 
 to give practical effect to those instructions by teachers pre- 
 viously trained in the normal school, and under the direction 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 of tlie head master. The model schools are designed, both 
 by the system of instruction pursued and general arrange- 
 ment, to be the model for all the public schools in Upper 
 Canada. 
 
 The principal general regulations for admission of the 
 students to the normal school are as follows : — 
 
 I. Ko male student shall be admitted under eighteen 
 years of age, or a female student under the age of sixteen 
 years. 1. Those admitted must produce a certificate of 
 good moral character, dated within at least three months of 
 its presentation, and signed by the clergyman or minister 
 of the religious persuasion with which they are connected. 
 2. They must be able, for entrance into the junior divis,ion, 
 to read with ease and fluency; parse a common prose sen- 
 tence according to any recognized authority; write legibly, 
 readily, and correctly; give the definitions of geography; 
 have a general knowledge of the relative position of the 
 principal countries with their capitals, the oceans, seas, 
 rivers, and islands of the world; be acquainted with the 
 fundamental rules of arithmetic, common or vulgar frac- 
 tions, and simple proportion. They must sign a declaration 
 of their intention to devote themselves to the profession of 
 school-teaching, and state that their object in coming to the 
 normal school is to qualify themselves better for the impor 
 tant duties of that profession. 
 
 II. Upon these conditions, candidates for school-teaching 
 will be admitted to the advantages of the institution with- 
 out any charge, either for tuition, the use of the library, or 
 for the books which they may be required to use in the 
 school. '-^'--^'^^-'^MU- '- 
 
 III. Teacters-ih-training must board and lodge in the 
 city, in such houses and under such regulations as are 
 approved of by the council .of public instruction. 
 
 lY. A sum at the rate of one dollar per week (payable 
 at the end of the session,) will be allowed to each teacher-in- 
 
 
456 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 training who, at the end of the first or second session^ shall 
 be entitled to either a first or second class provincial certifi- 
 cate; but no teacher-in-training shall be entitled to receive 
 aid for a period exceeding one session, and no resident of 
 the city of Toronto shall be entitled to receive aid. 
 
 Y. The continuance in the school of the teachers-in- 
 training is conditional upon their diligence, progress, and 
 observance of the general regulations prescribed. Each 
 session to be concluded by an examination conducted b^ 
 means of written questions and answers. 
 
 On the establishment, in 1857', of an educational museum 
 and a model grammar school, it was found necessary to 
 provide further accommodation, and to remove the normal 
 school to another part of the premises. With this view, a 
 large additional building was erected, at a cost, including 
 fittings, of about $35,000, in rear of the main structure, 
 having a handsome front facing on Gerrard Street. To 
 this building was transferred, in 1858, the normal school — 
 the model grammar school being then but newly opened. 
 
 n. — THE MODEL GRAMMAR SCHOOL FOR UPPER CANADA. 
 
 The Model Grammar School was designed not only to 
 exhibit the best system of grammar school organization, 
 discipline, and teaching, but it was also intended as a train- 
 ing school for masters and assistant masters of grammar 
 schools in Upper Canada. 
 
 The regulations of the training department of this school 
 are as follows : — 
 
 1. Ko fees will be charged to students admitted in this 
 department; and each student, if approved at the end of 
 each term, may be assisted during one year to the amount 
 of a dollar per week, towards the payment of his board. 
 
 2. Each student must sign a declaration to become a 
 grammar school teacher in Upper Canada. 
 
 3. Graduates of universities in Her Majesty's dominions 
 ^'ill be admitted without examination, and be aided by such 
 
HISTORICAL SKfirCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 457 
 
 instruction and practice as may qualify them for the special 
 duties of organizing, teaching, and managing a grammar 
 school, and will receive a certificate accordingly. 
 
 4. A student who is not a graduate of some university in 
 Her Majesty's dominions must be at least twenty years of 
 age, and pass an entrance examination in the subjects for 
 matriculation in arts in the Provincial University. 
 
 5. He will receive instruction in all the subjects required 
 by law, to qualify for the mastership of grammar schools, 
 as also in the best methods of teaching and managing 
 schools. Each student on leaving the school will receive, 
 if approved, a certificate from the rector, in addition to his 
 legal certificate of qualifications from the committee of ex- 
 aminers, according to his attainments and merits. 
 
 The general management of both institutions is intrusted 
 to the council of public instruction appointed by the Crown ; 
 and their governmental superintendence, together with the 
 executive management of the grammar and common schools 
 of Upper Canada, to the chief superintendent of education. 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 Having already alluded in this paper to the faculties 
 of law, medicine, &c., in the four universities of Upper 
 Canada, it may be considered sufficient in this place briefly 
 to refer to each university separately, and to give, in a 
 schedule, the course of study in the remaining faculty of 
 arts. 
 
 1. Tlie University of Toronto. 
 
 This institution is simply an examining body, and confers 
 degrees in the faculties of arts, law, and medicine. Its his- 
 tory has been very varied since its first establishment 
 
458 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION- IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 in 1842, when, as King's College, it united the functions of 
 a college with those of a university. Since 1858, these 
 functions have been separate; and the two institutions are 
 now designated respectively the University of Toronto and 
 University College, Toronto. • 
 
 This latter institution is designed for teaching only. It 
 has nine professors, including a president and a lecturer and 
 tutor. Its lecture courses are delivered in the handsome 
 University Buildings, University Park. Its annual income, 
 including that of the University of Toronto, is nearly 
 $55, oof). The value of that part of the original grant of 
 lands, already sold, is about $1,500,000. ovc.iqqjj ^x 
 
 The regulations of the University of Toronto and of Uni- 
 versity College in regard to the faculty of arts are as follows: 
 
 Degree of B. A. — Candidates, on entering, must produce 
 satisfactory certificates of age and of good conduct. The 
 regular mode of proceeding to the degree of B. A. is 
 by passing the five annual examinations prescribed; but 
 students may enter at any of the annual examinations on 
 certain conditions. Candidates for the degree of B. A. who 
 are not students in any affiliated college must, in each of 
 the years succeeding that in which they matriculated, pass 
 an examination in the subjects appointed for such year. 
 
 Degree of M. A. — Candidates for the degree of M. A. 
 must have been admitted to the degree of B. A. ; must be 
 of the standing of one year from admission to the degree 
 of B. A.; and must have composed an approved thesis 
 •dpon some subject in one of the departments in the faculty 
 of arts. 
 
 Eight scholarships are annually ofiered for competition — •' 
 at the matriculation examination, and at the end of the 
 first, second, and third years' examinations, and five at the 
 final examination. Each scholarship is 'of the value of 
 6ne hundred and twenty dollars a year. Bach scholarship 
 is tenable for one year only ; but the scholars of one year 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 4:59 
 
 kicd eligible for the scholarships of the succeeding years. 
 No student can hold two scholarships at the same time; 
 but if two or more scholarships have been awarded to him, 
 he will be entitled to the sum of forty dollars for each ad- 
 ditional scholarship, his scholarship being called a double, 
 triple, &c., scholarship, as the case may be, and the senate 
 may award the remainder of the value of each additional 
 scholarship to the student who would next have been 
 entitled to it. All scholars will be required to sign a dec- 
 laration that it is their intention to proceed to a degree in 
 the University of Toronto. 
 
 Gold and silver medals, prizes in books, and certificates 
 of honour are also given to the most successful students. 
 
 2. The ZTniversity of YictOTixt College^ Cohourg. 
 
 This institution originated with the Wesleyan Methodist 
 Church in 1828, and is still under its control. It was 
 erected through the efforts of members of that church, aided 
 by a provincial grant of $16,400. It was first opened as 
 " Upper Canada Academy," under a royal charter, in 1832, 
 and for eight years was attended by male and female 
 pupils. In 1840, it was by the legislature erected into a 
 college and university; and in October, 1841, it was 
 formally opened, as such, under the principalship of the 
 Eev. Dr. Eyerson. It now contains three faculties, — those 
 of arts, law, and medicine. It has no permanent endow- 
 ment; but it is supported by voluntary contributions and 
 fees, supplemented by an annual parliamentary grant of 
 $5,000, and also $1,000 to the faculty of medicine. Its 
 annual income from these sources (not including the medi- 
 cal faculty) amounts to about $9,500. The number of 
 professors and tutors in the faculties of arts and medicine, 
 including the president, is fourteen. The number of stu- 
 dents is about two hundred, not including preparatory 
 students. 
 
460 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPI ER CANADA. 
 
 The regulations of tlie university, in regard to tlie faculty 
 of arts, are as follows: — 
 
 Degree of B. A. — After matriculation the course of study 
 embraces four years ; on the satisfactory completion of which? 
 students are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 Attendance on lectures during the entire four years is 
 requisite to graduation. Any student not intending to 
 graduate may pursue a special or elective course, selecting 
 such studies as his circumstances may require. 
 
 For the accommodation of such students, special classes 
 are formed in natural philosophy, logic, rhetoric, meta- 
 physics, and other subjects. 
 
 Degree of M. A. — This degree is conferred, in course, 
 on all Bachelors in Arts of three years' standing, whose 
 mental improvement and moral character have appeared 
 satisfactory to the authorities of the university. 
 
 Medals, Prizes in Books, &;c. — The Prince of Wales gold 
 and a silver medal, with various prizes in books, are given 
 to the most successful students. 
 
 8. Tlie University of QueerCs Colhge, Kingston. 
 
 Queen's College University received a royal charter in 
 1841. It is under the control of the Presbyterian Church 
 of Canada in connection with the Church of Scotland; and 
 is mainly supported by the voluntary contributions of 
 members and societies of that church, both in Canada and 
 Scotland. It is the only university in Upper Canada which 
 contains the four faculties of arts, theology, law, and medi- 
 cine. Its endowment fund amounts to $101,738, and its 
 annual income to about $13,300, including a parliamentary 
 grant of $5,000 to the faculty of arts, and $1,000 to the 
 faculty of medicine; besides $1,703 from the colonial com 
 mittee of the Church of Scotland to the faculty of theology 
 The number of professors in four faculties is eighteen, in- 
 cluding the principal. The number of students in these 
 8<=iveral faculties is about one hundred and eighty. 
 
HISTORICAL SKEfCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 461 
 
 The regulations of the university, in regard to the facultj 
 of arts, are as follows : — 
 
 Degree of B. A. — The degree of B.A. is obtained by 
 attending the courses of lectures in arts extending over 
 three years, and by passing the prescribed examination. 
 
 Degree of M. A. — The degree of M. A. can be taken only 
 after an interval of two years from the date of graduation 
 as B. A. The candidate must compose a satisfactory thesis 
 on a professional or other subject selected by himself and 
 approved by the faculty. 
 
 Graduates will be ranked in three classes: 1. Those who 
 simply pass; 2. Those who pass with honors; 8. Those 
 who pass with highest honors. A student is not entitled to 
 highest honors unless he has gained honors in each of the 
 departments of classics, mathematics, natural history, moral 
 philosophy, and English literature. 
 
 Scholarships and Prizes. — Twenty scholarships of the 
 annual value of from twenty to eighty dollars, and tenable 
 from one to three years, are at the disposal of the college. 
 Prizes, including the Prince of Wales prize, are also given 
 to the most successful students. 
 
 4. The University of Trinity College^ Toronto. 
 
 On the passage of the law in 1849, changing King's 
 College into the University of Toronto, the venerable 
 bishop of Toronto (the Eight Reverend Doctor Strachan,) 
 undertook the establishment of Trinity College as a Church 
 of England university. The buildings for the university 
 were erected at a cost of nearly $55,000. About $200,000 
 were collected to form its endowment. The annual income 
 of the college is about $17,000. The number of professors 
 is seven, including the provost, or head of the college. 
 
 The regulations of this university in regard to the faculty 
 of arts are as follows: — 
 
 Degree of B.A. — All candidates for the degree of B.A. 
 
462 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCATIOJf IN UPPBR CANADA. 
 
 must be matriculated students of Trinity College, and have 
 kept nine complete terms. They will be required by the 
 imiversity to pass two examinations. 
 
 1st. The previous examination, which will take place at 
 the end of the Lent term in the second year. 
 
 The names of those who pass this examination will be 
 arranged in two classes, in alphabetical order,^— the first 
 class consisting of those who shall pass with credit; the 
 second, of those to whom the examiners shall only not 
 refuse their certificate of approval. 
 
 Any one who shall absent himself from the proper ex- 
 aminations of his year without the written approval of the 
 vice-chancellor, will not be allowed the Lent term of that 
 year. 
 
 Those who fail to satisfy the examiners must present 
 themselves at the examination in the following year. 
 
 2nd. The examination for the degree of B. A. which will 
 take place at the beginning of the tenth term from matricu- 
 lation. 
 
 Those who shall have been approved at this examination 
 may present themselves for further examination for honours 
 in classics or mathematics. 
 
 The honour examination will take place shortly after the 
 examination for the ordinary degree of B, A. The result 
 of each honour examination will be published in three 
 classes, in order of merit 
 
 Provision for admitting candidates to Degrees in Arts, by 
 examination, without residenoe.^In consideration of the 
 small opportunity which the inhabitants of the province 
 have hitherto possessed of availing themselves of a univer- 
 sity education, the corporation have resolved to admit can- 
 didates to degrees in arts, by examination, without residence 
 or attendance at lectures, for the space of five years, beginning 
 from October, 1860, under the following regulations: — 
 
 1. All candidates shall be members of the United Church 
 of England and Ireland; 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 463 
 
 2. They shall produce testiijionials of good conduct and 
 attainment, signed by at least one parochial clergyman and 
 two laymen of respectability ; 
 
 3. They shall also satisfy the corporation that profes- 
 sional duties preclude the possibility of their ^passing 
 through a regular college course; ^^^.,^ ^,_ 
 
 4. No candidate shall be less than twenty-five years of age ; 
 6. These regulations shall in no way affect the regulations 
 
 already made respecting students in divinity; 'la^ «^ ,.nm>i:j 
 
 6. Candidates shall pass the several university examina- 
 tions — that is to say, the examination for matriculation, the 
 previous examination, and the examination for the degree 
 of B. A., at the usual intervals. 
 
 K. B. — Under this statute, candidates may be admitted to 
 the matriculation examination for the first time in October, 
 1860, and for the last time in October, 1864. 
 
 Scholarships. — Twenty scholarships and exhibitions, ten- 
 able from one to three years, and of the annual value of 
 from eighty to two hundred dollars, are at the disposal 
 of the college. 
 
 Any person offering himself as a candidate for admission 
 is required to produce testimonials of good conduct, and to 
 pass a matriculation examination. 
 
 Every candidate for admission must have entered on his 
 sixteenth year; for a scholarship, on his seventeenth year. 
 
 Medal and Prizes in Books. — A medal and various prizes 
 in books are also given to the most successful students. 
 
 SCHEDULE OF THE COURSE OF STUDY AND TEXT-BOOKS IN THE FACULTY OF 
 ARTS IN THE FOLLOWING UNIVERSITIES:* 
 
 1. University of Toronto. 
 
 Mairiadation : 
 Xenophon's Anabasis, book i.; 
 Sallust's Catilina ; 
 Virgil's ^aeld, book ii.; 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Arithmetic, to end of square root ; 
 Algebra, first four rules } 
 Euclid, book i.; 
 English Grammar ; 
 Outlines of English History ; 
 
 * Not including the honour course, which includes options, «fcc. 
 
464 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Outlines of Roman History, to death of 
 
 Medieval History ; 
 
 Nero; * 
 
 British History ; 
 
 Grecian History, to death 
 
 Chemistry and Chemical Physics ; 
 
 of Alexander ; 
 
 Mineralogy and Geology ; 
 
 Ancient and Modern Ge- 
 
 Murray's Logic ; 
 
 ography. 
 
 Wayland's Moral Philosophy ; 
 
 First yeax: 
 
 Locke, books ii., iii., and iv.; 
 
 Homer's Iliad, book vi.; 
 
 Third year : 
 
 Lucian's Vita and Charon j 
 
 Sophocles, (Edipus Rex ; 
 
 Virgil's /l^.neid, book vi.j 
 
 Herodotus, book ii.; 
 
 Cicero, de Amioitia 
 
 Horace, Satires and Epistles ; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Livy, book v.; 
 
 Arithmetic ; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Algebra ; 
 
 Hydrostatics, Optics ; 
 
 Euclid, books i.-vi. 
 
 French Composition ; 
 
 Plane Trigonometry ; 
 
 Racine's Phedre and Athalie ; 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 Bossuet's Oraisons Funebres ; 
 
 English Language and Literature ; 
 
 French Literature ; 
 
 French Grammar ; 
 
 German Grammar, &C.5 
 
 Montesquieu's Grandeur et Decadence 
 
 German Composition ; 
 
 des Romaines ; 
 
 Lessing's Minna von Bamhelm ; 
 
 Ancient History ; 
 
 German Literature ; 
 
 British History ,• 
 
 Modern History ; « 
 
 Elements of Chemistry ; 
 
 British History ; 
 
 Physiology; 
 
 Chemistry ; 
 
 " Botany ; 
 
 Comparative Physiology ; 
 
 Paley's Natural Theology j 
 
 Vegetable Physiology, &c.; 
 
 Paley's Evidences. 
 
 Reid's Intellectual Powers ; 
 
 Second year: 
 
 Stewart's Moral and Active Powers ; 
 
 Homer's Odyssey, book xi.; 
 
 Whately's Political Economy. 
 
 Demosthenes' Olynthiacs ; 
 
 Fina2 examination : 
 
 Horace, Odes ; 
 
 Euripides, Medea ; 
 
 Cicero, two orations ; 
 
 Tliucydides, book vii.; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Juvenal, sat. iii., vii., viii., and x.; 
 
 Statics, Dynamics ; 
 
 Tacitus, Germania and Agrioola j 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 English Literature ; 
 
 Acoustics; Astronomy; 
 
 French Composition ; 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 La Bruy^re Caracteres ; 
 
 English Language and Literature } 
 
 French Literature ; 
 
 French Composition ; 
 
 German Grammar ; 
 
 Corneille's Le Cid ; 
 
 Adler's German Reader ; 
 
 De Stael's De 1' AUemagne ; 
 
 German Dterature ; 
 
 French Literature , 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 465 
 
 German Composition ; 
 
 Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Phys- 
 
 Schiller's William Tell, &c.; 
 
 ical Geography , and Meteorologyj 
 
 German Literature ; 
 
 Smith's Wealth of Nations. 
 
 2. University of Victoria College. 
 
 Matriculation : , -it-u^ ^ ., h i 
 
 Horace, Satires and Epistles; 
 
 Greek Grammar ; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Greek Reader ; 
 
 Loomis's Trigonometry, plane and 
 
 Latin Grammar ; 
 
 spherical ; 
 
 Latin Reader ; 
 
 Mensuration, Surveying, and Leveling; 
 
 Arnold's First Book, Latin ; 
 
 Analytical Geometry and Conic Sec- 
 
 Cornelius Nepos ; 
 
 tions ; 
 
 Sallust's Jugurthine War ; 
 
 English Elocution ; 
 
 English Grammar ; 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 French: Racine; 
 
 Outlines of English History ; 
 
 Animal Physiology ; 
 
 Scripture History : the Pentateuch ; 
 
 Botany, Mineralogy, Geology ; 
 
 Arithmetic ; 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 Algebra ; 
 
 Junior year: 
 
 Geography, Ancient and Modern. 
 
 Thucydides, book i.; 
 
 Freshman year: 
 
 Greek Testament ; 
 
 Xenophon's Anabasis, books i. and iii.; 
 
 Tacitps, Germania and Agricola ; 
 
 Herodotus, book i.; 
 
 Cicero, DeOfficiis; 
 
 Greek Prose Composition ; 
 
 English Elocution; 
 
 Greek Lexicon ; 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 Greek and Roman Antiquities ; 
 
 German Grammar ; 
 
 Virgil's JSneid, books i., ii., iii., and vi.; 
 
 Mechanics ; 
 
 Livy, book i.; «&rj.|0 ^ 
 
 Acoustics and Optics ; 
 
 Latin Lexicon ; 
 
 Logic; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Mental Philosophy ; 
 
 Geometry, nine books ; 
 
 Stewart's Active and Moral Powers. 
 
 English Elocution ; 
 
 "Senior year: 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 Demosthenes, De Corona ; 
 
 French Grammar; 
 
 Aristotle's Ethics ; 
 
 French Reader ; 
 
 Horace, Ars Poetica ; 
 
 Fenelon's Telemaque ; 
 
 Cicero, De Oratore ; 
 
 Scripture History : Old Testament ; 
 
 Juvenal, satires iii., x., xiii., and xir.; 
 
 Chemistry, Electricity, Magnetism, and 
 
 Hebrew ; 
 
 Electro-Ch emistry . 
 
 English Elocution ; 
 
 Sophomore Class: 
 
 English Composition ; 
 
 Homer's Iliad, four books ; 
 
 German Reader ; 
 
 Xenophon's Memorabilia, books i. and 
 
 Evidences of Christianity ; 
 
 iv.; 
 
 Differential and Integral Calculus; 
 
 Greek Prose Composition ; 
 
 Astronomy ; 
 
 Horafe, Odes, books i. and ii.j 
 
 Political Economy. 
 
4S6 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 3. University of Queen^s College. 
 
 MairiciUation : 
 Greek Grammar; 
 Xenophon's Anabasis, book i.j' ^'^"'■^''^ 
 Sallust's Catiline ; ■ /- fitofl 
 
 Virgil's iEneid, books i. and ii.j i "''^'i 
 Caesar, book i.; ■ -imiKvJ 
 
 Arithmetic, to end of roots; 
 Algebra, to end of simple equations ; 
 Eaclid, books i. and ii. ' -^ i' .'» - - 
 
 First year : . ? aaotJ 
 Homer, Hiad, book vi.; i<im\:d. rf^<' 
 Lucian, Vita et Charon jqo»«'> rf« 
 Greek Prose Compositioiti|«>i : d'jni)i i 
 Cicero, De Amicitia ; >!^ v jfT ieimiu A 
 Virgil's uEneid, book yi^^aitf^ .ya&ioR 
 Horace, Odes, book i.j (oJaiH Unui^'f^ 
 Latin Prosody ; \> 
 
 Roman Antiquities; .4,«ofj({>'{0i/iiT 
 Latin Prose CompositioO'^ieJa'jT i jo-jO 
 Euclid, first six books; mi-rO^a^JioeT 
 Algebra ; ^tO ^a .oirv.i' ) 
 
 Plane Trigonometry ; 'wxAZi df.'. 
 Logarithms. '\rvyO ih.. 
 
 Second year : ^ .^-uaicii) 
 Demosthenes, Philippics J : ^tii^rioeW 
 Euripides, Alcestis ; ♦ ^aa aoijaoooA 
 Greek Prosody ; ; 'ji^^o^I 
 
 Greek Prose Composition; ^ .vasl/! 
 Greek Antiquities; -' '■Ui'ff-tt>. 
 
 ^T raailliW vAlidot. 
 
 Horace, Epodes ; 
 
 Virgil, Georgics, book iv,; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Euclid, parts of books xi. and xii.; 
 
 I Trigonometry, plane and spherical ; 
 
 '"WheweH's Conic Sections ; 
 
 Hall's Different, and Integ. Calculus ; 
 
 Potter's Mechanics; 
 
 , Natural Philosophy ; . !< . r- 1 / 
 
 Balfour's Outlines of Botany f"'{**«">«J'' 
 
 Natural History, Animal Kingdom; 
 
 Page's Geology ; 
 
 ) Gray's Manual of Botany ; 
 TJiird year : 
 
 Plato, Apology and Crito; ^lotqi-JoK 
 
 ! Sophocles, (Edipus Colonei»5f*'>"''l»'»A 
 
 i Greek Composition ; ; 
 
 ! Greek Antiquities ; 
 
 Roman Antiquities ; 
 
 Tacitus, Annals, book i.j 
 
 ,Livy, book xxi.; 
 
 Latin Composition ; ^ dsifii - 
 
 Terence, Phormio ; -'-'", 
 
 Newton's Prineipia, first three sec- 
 tions; 
 
 Hydrostatics, Optics, Astronomy ; 
 
 iWhately'sLc^ic: Fallacies, Rhetoric, 
 part iv.; 
 
 [Hamilton's Metaphysics ; 
 
 
 Cicero, Pro Milone ; Wayland's Moral Science, book i. 
 
 4. University of Trinity College. 
 
 MairicvlaMon : 
 
 Xenophon's Anabasis, book i.; 
 
 Sallust's Catiline ; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Grecian History : from Persian inva- 
 sion to the end of the Peloponne- 
 sian war ; 
 
 Roman History : from the expulsion 
 of the kings to the death of 
 
 Arithmetic ; 
 
 Algebra, to end of simple equations ; 
 
 Euclid, books i. and ii.; 
 
 Freshman year: 
 Two Greek and two Latin authors ;• 
 General and Organic Chemistry ; 
 Experimental Philosophy. 
 Second year: 
 An historical book of the New Testa- 
 ment: 
 
 Cajsar ; 
 
 ♦ The particular Greek and Latin aatbon for examination are 6\ed at the beginning of 
 %e preceding Lent term of each year. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 467 
 
 Paley's Evidences ; 
 
 Church Catechism ; 
 
 One Greek and one Latin author ; 
 
 Cicero, Tuse. Disputations, books i., ii.; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Isocratis Panegyricus ; 
 
 An historical book of the New Testa- 
 ment ; 
 
 Church Catechism ; 
 
 Gospel of St. Luke ; 
 
 Paley's Evidences ; 
 
 Euclid, books i.-iv. and vi.; 
 
 Algebra, to end of binomial theorem ; 
 
 Trigonometry, to end of solution of 
 triangles ; 
 
 Optics 5 
 
 Astronomy ; 
 
 Sound and the Theory of Light ; 
 
 Surveying ; 
 
 Practical Chemistry ; 
 
 Geology. 
 
 Third year : 
 
 Two Greek and two Latin authors j 
 
 Greek and Roman History ; 
 
 Latin Prose Composition ; 
 
 Old and New Testament History 5 
 
 An historical book of the New Testa- 
 ment ; 
 
 Articles of the Church of England ; 
 
 Euclid ; 
 
 Algebra, to end of binomial theorem ; 
 
 Trigonometry, to end of solution of 
 triangles ; 
 
 Mechanics ; 
 
 Hydrostatics, Optics ; 
 
 Astronomy 5 
 
 Sound and the The'ory of Light ; 
 
 Fortification ; 
 
 Applied Chemistry ; 
 
 Geology ; 
 
 Physiology ; 
 
 Moral Science ; 
 
 History of Philosophy. 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENaES. 
 
 ': 1. Schools for Orphans. 
 
 ■ Schools or asylums for orphans exist in various parts of 
 Upper Canada ; but they are chiefly under the control of some 
 particular religious denomination. The principal ones are 
 the Protestant Orphans' Home, Toronto, and the Roman 
 Catholic Orphans' Home^ in Toronto, Hamilton, Kings- 
 ton, &c. Two very useful institutions, called respectively, 
 the Bo3^s' Home, and the Girls' Home, exist-, ii?* ■'SC^^on^O) 
 and are supported by private subscriptions. , q'^q o'lsdT 
 2. JDeaf and Dumb School. oui^O laqqU ni m)^_^iiVy 
 
 Although the legislature authorized the 'expenditure of 
 
 $40,000, in 1854, for the erection of suitable buildings for a 
 30 
 
468 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 deaf and dumb asylum, yet up to the present time, no 
 public moneys have been applied to these objects. In 1858, 
 however, a private school was opened in Toronto ; and soon 
 a society was formed to provide a permanent school for these 
 unfortunates. The school is now in active operation, and 
 is supported by public aid and private contributions, and 
 educates about twenty out of the three hundred deaf mutes 
 who are at present in Upper Canada. 
 
 8. Schools for Juvenile Criminals. 
 
 Until very recently, the only place for the confinement 
 of convicted juvenile criminals was in the provincial peni- 
 tentiary at Kingston. As their numbers increased, this 
 place was deemed unsuitable for them, and a reformatory 
 school was opened in the old government barrack at Pene- 
 tanguishene. The institution is wholly supported by the 
 government, and is well managed. The number of inmates 
 at the end of 1861 was about one hundred. 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 OTHER SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES. 
 
 In a paper of this character it would be scarcely proper 
 to pass over, without some notice, those numerous supple- 
 mentary agencies which, although not professedly educa- 
 tional in themselves, do, nevertheless, perform an important 
 part in the education of the people. We therefore select the 
 more prominent of these agencies, and briefly refer to them 
 in the following order : — 
 
 1. Mechanics' Institutes. 
 
 There are about ninety cities, towns and incorporated 
 villages in Upper Canada. In nearly every one of these 
 municipalities there is a mechanics' institute, in a more or 
 less flourishing condition. The primary object of these 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 469 
 
 institutes is to afford to the industrial classes of tlie commu- 
 nity permanent sources of intellectual instruction, relaxation, 
 and amusement, by means of classes, popular lectures, and 
 libraries. In some places these objects have been fully re- 
 alized, and many young men have by their influence been 
 attracted from the saloons and the theatre ; but in a great 
 many instances no such influence has been exerted, and the 
 institutes exist only in name. 
 
 Foremost among these institutes is the central and con- 
 trolling institution, called the Board of Arts and Manufac- 
 tures. This board was established in 1857 by an act of the 
 provincial legislature, for the purpose of affording "encour- 
 agement to arts and manufactures, and stimulating the inge- 
 nuity of the mechanic aiMi artisan by means of prizes and 
 distinctions," &c. The board consists of the minister of 
 agriculture; the chief superintendent of education for 
 Upper Canada; the professors and lecturers on physical 
 science in the various chartered colleges; the presidents 
 of boards of trade, mechanics' institutes, and arts associa- 
 tions; and one delegate for every twenty members of 
 a mechanics' institute who are working mechanics or man- 
 ufacturers. In order to give a practical character to its 
 operations, the board has issued a programme establishing a 
 system of annual examinations of the members of the me- 
 chanics' institutes, and awarding three grades of certificates 
 in about twenty-six departments of study. The object 
 of the board is to induce the formation of permanent edu- 
 cational classes in the various mechanics' institutes, and the 
 sending up of members to compete by examination for the 
 prizes and medals offered by the board. The board pub- 
 lishes a monthly Journal of Arts and Manufactures^ and has 
 in connection with its rooms a museum containing models 
 of patented Canadian inventions and some specimens of 
 Canadian and foreign manufactures. It has also an appro- 
 priate and valuable library of books of reference. 
 
470 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 2. Various Literary Associations^ etc. 
 
 In most of the cities and towns, and in the colleges of 
 Upper Canada, a literary association of some kind exists, 
 either as a debating club, or as a literary society, or both 
 combined. The members are chiefly composed of young 
 men seeking to cultivate their literary tastes, to add 
 to their stock of knowledge, and to acquire a ready 
 and effective style of public speaking. As a specimen 
 of these societies, we may refer to the Ontario Literary 
 Society of Toronto. This society was established in 
 1856, and incorporated in 1860. The ordinary weekly 
 routine of its operations is thus classified : Essay writing ; 
 reading from English authors ; public and private debates ; 
 public addresses by distinguished lecturers. In the various 
 colleges, these societies take their tone and colour more or 
 less from the ordinary pursuits of student life. 
 
 With a view to popularize the study of law, the Osgoode 
 Club was organized by law students in Toronto in 1848. 
 The object of the club is to cultivate the habit of essay 
 writing and especially of public speaking in the discussion 
 of legal subjects and constitutional questions. A literary 
 association with a similar object in view, but on a wider 
 basis, was established in Belleville, in 1855. 
 
 3. Young MenHs Christian Associations. 
 
 ^ ,These associations are of recent growth in Upper Canada, 
 and are confined to cities. Their objects are similar to those 
 of kindred associations in Europe, &c., viz. : the mental and 
 moral improvement of young men (e^ecially of those 
 residing away from home,) and the development of Chris- 
 tian activity in various ways, such as tract distribution, &c. 
 Associations of this kind exist at London, Toronto, and 
 Kingston. ..^ ,^.^^^ ^.^^ auoijffovni mib&mO b^a&Uv 
 4^ Scientific Institutes. ■ <■ > 
 
 Of the higher class of scientific associations, only two 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 471 
 
 exist in Upper Canada ; viz. : the Canadian Institute at To- 
 ronto and the Canadian Institute at Ottawa.* 
 
 The Canadian Institute, at Toronto, was established in 
 184S. At first its members consisted almost entirely of 
 land surveyors, civil engineers, and architects; but in 1851 
 its constitution was changed and a royal charter obtained, 
 so as to enlarge its sphere of operations and to remove the 
 restriction of membership to the classes named above. In 
 the charter, the objects of the institute were briefly described 
 to be " for the encouragement and general advancement of 
 the physical sciences, the arts, and the manufactures," " in 
 our province of Canada." These objects have been steadily 
 kept in view ; and for the last twelve years from twenty to 
 thirty original papers on various literary and scientific sub- 
 jects have been annually read at the weekly meetings and 
 afterwards published (with other information) in the 
 Canadian Journal^ the organ of the institute. • The number 
 of enrolled members is now about five hundred, and the 
 annual income is upwards of twenty-five hundred dollars, 
 including a parliamentary grant of one thousand dollars. 
 
 The Institut Canadien Francais, at Ottawa, was estab- 
 lished some years ago, and still receives an annual grant 
 from the legislature. It possesses an excellent library. Its 
 objects are chiefly historical. It has recently erected a 
 spacious building for the meetings of its members, lectures, 
 &c. The Emperor Napoleon recently made a donation to 
 the library valued at twenty-five thousand francs. 
 
 An effort was also made in December, 1861, to establish 
 an historical society for Upper Canada, at Toronto, but it 
 
 * It may be interesting and proper "here to state that in February, 1862, a 
 scientific " Institute of Rupert's Land " was established at Assiniboia under 
 the presidency of the Right Reverend M. Anderson, D D., Protestant Episco- 
 pal bishop of Rupert's Land. From the number and character of the papers 
 read at the subsequent meetings of the institute we anticipate a useful career 
 for this valuable auxiliary to the cause of science and literature in the north- 
 western territories. 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
472 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Was not successful. A subsequent etfort was also made 
 in the following year to establish one at St. Catherines. 
 
 6. The Botanical Society of Canada. 
 
 The Botanical Society, at Kingston, was established in 
 1861, chiefly to aid in the advancement of botanical science 
 in Canada, in all its departments, — viz., structural, physio- 
 logical, systematic, and geographical, — and the application 
 of botany to the useful and ornamental arts. Sir William 
 Hooker, the eminent English botanist, at Kew, who has 
 already written on Canadian botany, has given his valuable 
 aid in the prosecution of the objects of the society. 
 
 6. Scientific Observatories* 
 
 There are two observatories in Upper Canada, viz., the 
 Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory, at Toronto, 
 and the Astronomical Observatory, at Kingston. The ob- 
 servatory at Toronto was established as one of the British 
 colonial observatories, in 1839, at the instance of the British 
 Association for the Advancement of Science and the Royal 
 Society. It was placed, by the British government, in charge 
 of one officer and three sergeants of the Royal Artillery, 
 and so continued for the specified period of fourteen years. 
 At the expiration of that time, Captain (now Lieutenant- 
 Colonel) Lefroy, the officer then in charge, returned to Eng- 
 land, and the observatory was assumed by the provincial 
 government, and placed in charge of a professor of Univer- 
 sity College, Toronto. With him were associated the three 
 former assistants, who were allowed to remain in Canada 
 for that purpose. The observatory contains the usual 
 scientific instruments, and is devoted to the investigation of 
 
 * It is proper, in this connection, to refer to the geological survey under Sir 
 William Logan, F.R.S., so far as it relates to Upper Canada. The researches 
 of Sir William and his associates have been of the greatest value in developing 
 the mineral resources of the country. The display of these resources, which 
 he was enabled to make at the Great Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862, attracted 
 tho attention of the scientific men of Europe to the nominal wealth of Canada, 
 and has re6ected the highest credit upon himself. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 473 
 
 botli magnetical and meteorological phenomena; the repoita 
 of which are of a highly valuable character. 
 
 Previous to his return to England, Colonel Lefroy Sug- 
 gested the establishment of meteorological stations in con- 
 nection with the grammar schools of Upper Canada. In 
 1853, an act was passed authorizing their establishment ; 
 and in 1855 the Eev. Dr. Kyerson, chief superintendent of 
 education, selected the instruments and completed the 
 arrangements for giving effect to the act in this particular. 
 Up to the end of 1862, eighteen stations were established in 
 connection with senior county grammar schools. The result 
 thus far, however, has not been satisfactory, owing to a de- 
 fect in the law in not directly providing a specific remunera- 
 tion for taking and recording the observations. 
 
 The Astronomical Observatory, at Kingston, was estab- 
 lished in 1855, by means of private subscriptions and a 
 grant from the city corporation. It now receives an annual 
 grant from the legislature. In 1861, it was transferred by 
 deed from the Corporation to the University of Queen's Col- 
 lege. It contains an equatorial, a reflecting telescope, and 
 a transit and clock. 
 
 7. Museums. 
 
 A museum of a greater or less extent exists in connection 
 with all the colleges in Upper Canada, and with some of the 
 other institutions. 
 
 The museum connected with the University of Toronto 
 and University College is the most valuable and extensive. 
 It contains nearly one hundred specimens mammalia, afford- 
 ing examples of most of the orders, and including some 
 rare and highly interesting species, besides skulls, horns. 
 Of birds, there are nearly one thousand species, including 
 a very large proportion of the native birds, and illustrations 
 of most of the recognized tribes, besides many eggs and 
 nests. Of reptiles, there are about seventy species, and of 
 fishes there are about one hundred and fifty, with skeletons. 
 
4:74: HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 There are some good Crustacea, a few arachnida, and an ex- 
 tensive and valuable series of insects, illustrative of the re- 
 ceived divisions, and including nia»y rare and beautiful 
 species. There is an extensive series, including several 
 thousand specimens, of the shells of molluscous animals, — 
 land, fresh-water, and marine, — amongst which will be 
 found nearly all the North American land shells, and there 
 are some good echinodermata and zoophjta. In botany, 
 there is a collection including about six thousand species, 
 among which will be found most of our native plants. 
 Some progress has been made in mounting and arranging 
 them. The University Museum of Mineralogy and Geology 
 has been but recently established. Already, however, up- 
 wards of six thousand specimens, with various instruments, 
 casts, and models, have been received from Europe, and a 
 special Canadian collection, increased by valuable additions 
 from the collection of the provincial geologists, is now 
 under arrangement. 
 
 The museums in Victoria College, Cobourg, and in 
 Queen's College, Kingston, embrace a collection of Cana- 
 dian and other minerals and fossils; that in Trinity College, 
 Toronto, contains various natural history, mineralogical, 
 and geological specimens. The museum in the Canadian 
 Institute, Toronto, is more varied, and includes numerous 
 specimens of natural history and geology, with Indian and 
 other relics. The museum connected with the educational 
 department for Upper Canada contains some specimens of 
 Canadian natural history and of Nova Scotian geology. It 
 also contains an extensive collection of copies of Italian, 
 Dutch, and Flemish paintings, and of statuary casts. Vari- 
 ous smaller museums exist in different parts of the country. 
 
 8. Libraries, 
 
 Not only do our collegiate and most of our other public 
 institutions possess a library, but many of the public schools 
 have also within the last few years established them for tho 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 475 
 
 benefit of the pupils and rate-pajers. As an approximation 
 to the number of volumes in the libraries named, we insert 
 the following table compiled from the best sources at our 
 command: — 
 
 University of Toronto and University College, 
 
 " Victoria College, Cobourg, • 
 
 " Queen's College, Kingston, 
 
 " Trinity College, Toronto, 
 
 Regiopolis College, Kingston, 
 
 Knox's College, Toronto, 
 
 St. Joseph's College, Ottawa, 
 
 St. Michael's College, Toronto, 
 
 Upper Canada College, Toronto, 
 
 Congregational College, Toronto, 
 
 Belleville Seminary, 
 
 literary Institute, Woodstock, 
 
 Osgoode Hall, Toronto, 
 
 Canadian Institute, Toronto, 
 
 French Canadian Institute, Ottawa, 
 
 Educational Department, U. C, 
 
 Board of Arts and Mauufectures, 
 
 Mechanics' Institute, Toronto, 
 
 " Kingston, 
 
 Hamilton and Gore Mechanics' Institute,. 
 
 Mechanics' Institute, Ottawa, 
 
 *' London, 
 
 Mercantile Library Association, 
 
 Public School Libraries, 48 
 
 Sunday School Libraries, 1,875 
 
 Jail and Asylum Libraries, 22 
 
 Miscellaneous Libraries, 
 
 Grand total,. . . . .f .§V114. X^MT/^WSW 2^ 
 
 In connection with the foregoing, it may be interesting to 
 show what has been the extent of the demand for books in 
 Canada during the last twelve years. The facts are highly 
 encouraging, and speak well for the prevalence of an enlight- 
 ened literary taste and growing intelligence among the 
 various classes of the people. 
 
 The following statistical table, which has been compiled 
 from the trade and navigation returns for the province, 
 shows the gross value of printed books (not maps or school 
 apparatus) imported into Canada during the twelve years 
 specified, as fbllow,^^^.f^^j^^^.;^ 
 
 15,500 
 1,000 
 3,000 
 3,500 
 2,500 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 1,500 
 500 
 
 8,000 
 2,600 
 
 2,000 
 1,050 
 5,400 
 2,300 
 
 193,258 
 
 288,664 
 
4:76 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Value of Books Value of Books Total Value of 
 
 entered at ports entered at ports Books imported 
 
 in Lower Canada, in Upper Canada, into the Province, 
 
 1850, $101,880... 
 
 1851, 120,700 
 
 1852, 
 
 141,176. 
 
 . $141,700... 
 
 . $243,580 
 
 . 171,732... 
 
 . 292,432 
 
 . 159,268... 
 
 300,444 
 
 . 254,280. . . 
 
 . 412,980 
 
 . 307,808... 
 
 . 479,260 
 
 . 338,792... 
 
 533,148 
 
 . 427,992... 
 
 636,628 
 
 . 309,172... 
 
 533,572 
 
 . 191,942... 
 
 363,197* 
 
 . 184,304. . . 
 
 323,261 
 
 . 252,504 
 
 408,108 
 
 . 344,621 . . . 
 
 530,233 
 
 .$3,084,115... 
 
 $5,056,943 
 
 1853, 158,700., 
 
 1854, 171,452... 
 
 1855, 194,356... 
 
 1856, 208,6J 
 
 1857, 224,400... 
 
 1858, 171,255. 
 
 1859, 139,057... 
 
 1860, 155,604... 
 
 1861, 185,612... 
 
 $1,972,828... 
 
 Up to 1854, the trade and navigation returns give the 
 value on books entered at every port of Canada separately ; 
 after that year, the reports give the names of the principal 
 ports only, and enumerating the rest as other ports. In 
 1854, (a fair average year,) the proportion entered in Lower 
 Canada was within a fraction of a third part of the whole ; 
 and, accordingly, in compiling this table for the years 1855- 
 61, the value entered in other ports is divided between Up- 
 per and Lower Canada, in the proportion of two-thirds to 
 the former and one-third to the latter. 
 
 CHAPTEK IX. 
 
 ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENTARY AIDS TO EDUCATION. 
 
 It is not easy to form an estimate of the number or extent 
 of these additional supplementary aids to education in 
 Upper Canada. They are very numerous and diversified, 
 and are difficult to classify. In a summary sketch like this, 
 no aid to education however humble, should be overlooked ; 
 for each in its place performs an important function, and con- 
 tributes materially to the progress of knowledge and intelli- 
 gence among the people. 
 
 Among these additional supplementary aids we may enu- 
 merate the following, although we can, in many cases, 
 scarcely classify them, or estimate their number: — 
 
 1. The religious, educational, literary, scientific, and sec- 
 
'HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPIER CANADA. 4.77 
 
 ular press; 2. Bible and tract societies ; 3. Religious meet- 
 ings, sermons, and lectures; 4. Mercantile library associa- 
 tions and reading rooms; 5. Agricultural and horticultural 
 associations, and tbeir exhibitions; 6. Youthful asylums 
 and similar benevolent institutions. 
 
 These all perform their duty silently and effectively. 
 Separately they are diverse, both in their character and op- 
 erations; but, combined, they form an active supplementary 
 agency in the after-training of an individual. They culti- 
 vate his intellect, call forth his benevolence, promote his 
 taste, extend the range of his sympathies, and give an ad- 
 ditional interest to his daily life. Each one, also, having a 
 definite object of pursuit, or taste, or benevolence, give a 
 concentration of purpose or effort, and thus supply a want 
 which mere educational training could not furnish. 
 
 Upper Canada is yet in comparative infancy, but she may 
 well be proud of her educational resources. They are princely 
 in their character and priceless in their worth. They demon- 
 strate that her inner life is vigorous and active ; and that if 
 she Mis in her high destiny, as the brightest colonial jewel 
 in the crown of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, the 
 fault rests with herself. 
 
 As these resources have accumulated and have come 
 down to us in such rich abundance, let us sacredly guard 
 them and seek to extend their value and usefhlness. Taking 
 ■warning by other nations, let us neither dwarf their growth 
 nor extinguish their light; but, through God's blessing, let 
 us transmit them undiminished and unimpaired to our sons 
 who must soon come after us. 
 
 PART THIRD— CHAPTER I. 
 
 VARIOUS ENDOWMENTS AND SUMS AVAILABLE FOR EDUCA- 
 TIONAL PURPOSES IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 I. THE EDUCATIONAL LANDS ENDOWMENT. 
 
 Through the munificence of the King and others, the 
 following lands were set apart for the objects named: — 
 
478 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 
 
 ^ iCXt^ J Acres. 
 
 1. Cojnty Gratamar Schools,. ., ^. . , 258,330 
 
 2. University Institutions, 226,200 
 
 3. Upper Canada College, 66,000 
 
 4. Trinity College (from private sources,) '. 23,590 
 
 5. Half of the Parliamentary Appropriation of one million acres of > ^qq qqq 
 
 Land for Common Schools in each part of the province, ... J ' 
 
 Grand total number of acres, 1,074,1^0 
 
 n. — ^THB STATE ENDOWMENTS OF EDUCATION, ETC. (1862.) 
 
 1. Parliamentary Grant to Superior Education (i. e., 
 
 Colleges and Universities,) $20,000 
 
 Less applied to Grammar Schools, as below, .... 3,200 
 
 $16,800 
 
 a. Income of University College, Toronto, and Upper 
 
 Canada College (from Lands,) etc., about. . . . 75,000 
 
 3. Parliamentary (.Trant to Grammar Schools, from 
 
 Lands, &c., 22,619 
 
 Parliamentary Grant to Grammar Schools, 
 
 $10,000, and $3,200, (as above,) 13,200 
 
 35,819 
 
 Parliamentary Grant to three Medical Schools,. . 3,000 
 Parliamentary Grants to three Literary Institu- 
 tions, «fec., 1,800 
 
 Parliamentary Grant to two Obsei-vatories, 5,300 
 
 10,100 
 
 $137,719 
 
 4. Parliamentary Grant to Common Schools, from 
 
 Lands, &c., .u»i-...b. 4- . : . 186,032 
 
 Grand total Annual Endowment,. . . . .,. < . .*»^» ;),,.?:»».... $323,751 
 
 III. INCOME FROM LOCAL SOURCES SCHOOL BATES, FEES, ETC. 
 
 1. Colleges, &c., (I860,) $33,750 
 
 2. Grammar Schools (1861,) 48,470 
 
 3. (a.) Common Schools (1861,) by trustees, 937,014 
 
 (6.) " " by municipal tax, 278,085 
 
 4. Private Schools (1861,) 45,393 
 
 Grand total Annual Income from Taxes, Fees, &o., $1,342,712 
 
 IV. THE NUMBER, CHARACTER, AND VALUE OF THE EDUCATIONAL 
 
 INSTITUTIONS OF UPPER CANADA.* 
 
 In Upper Canada there are the following educational in- 
 stitutions, viZi :-•**• . 
 
 * In many instances (he Information contained under this head is necessarily 
 defective. Circulars were sent to the various institutions named, but replies to 
 several questions were not received. And in sqjne instances no reply whatever 
 was received. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 479 
 
 Name, or DEscRipnoir of In- 
 stitution. 
 
 1. Toronto University, includ- 
 
 ing University College,.. . 
 
 2. Victoria College University, 
 
 Cobourg, 
 
 3. Queen's College University, 
 
 Kingston, 
 
 4. Trinity College University, 
 
 Toronto, 
 
 Four Roman Catholic Col- 
 leges, viz.: 
 
 1. St. Joseph's College, Ottawa 
 
 2. Regiopolis College, K'gston 
 
 3. St. Michael's College, T'lito 
 
 4. L' Assomption College, 
 
 Sandwich, 
 
 Two Theological Colleges,* 
 exclusively, viz.: 
 
 1. Knox College, Toronto,. . . . 
 
 2. Congregationni College of 
 
 B. No. Aniericn, Toronto 
 Three Collegiate Seminaries, 
 viz.: 
 
 1. Belleville Seminary, 
 
 2. Canttdiun Literary institute, 
 
 Woodstock,. 
 
 3. Wesley an Female Codege, 
 
 Hamilton, 
 
 Two RoyalGramvuLT Schools, 
 <$-c., viz.: 
 
 1. Upper Canada College, T'no 
 
 2. Model Grammar School, '' 
 Three JsTormal and Model 
 
 Schools, viz.: 
 1. Normal School, Toronto,... 
 
 2. Bovs' Model School, " ... 
 
 3. Girls' Model School," ... 
 County Grammar Schools. 
 
 86 Grammar Schools. 
 Three Industrial Schools^viz. • 
 
 1. Friends' Seminary, near Fic- 
 
 ton, 
 
 2. Indian Industrial School, 
 
 Alnwick, 
 
 3. Indinn Industrial School, 
 
 Mount Elgin 
 
 4010 Elementary Schools.viz.: 
 
 (1.) 3,910 Common Schools,.. 
 
 (2.) lO'J Roman Catholic Sepa- 
 rate Schools, 
 
 351 Miscellaneous, viz.: 
 
 (1.) 30 Indian Schools 
 
 (2.) 320 Private Schools, 
 
 (3.) 1 Deaf and Dumb School, 
 Toronto, . .. 
 
 or 4,477 Educational Institu^ 
 tions, in all, in U. Canada. 
 
 Grand Total for U. Canada,.. 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4,180 
 
 160 
 
 35 
 
 400 
 
 150 
 1.50 
 18U 
 
 4,766 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 316,287 
 
 13,631 
 
 800 
 7,354 
 
 20 
 
 .go's 
 
 a 5 
 
 250 $610,000 
 
 200 50,000 
 
 160 ! 75,000 
 
 40 j 100.000 
 
 30,000 
 50,000 
 40,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 20,000 
 1,000 
 
 12,500 
 10,000 
 20,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 r 150,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 8,500 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 27,000 
 
 3,000 
 60,000 
 
 
 ^5,000 
 2,000 
 5,000 
 10,000 
 
 2.000 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 
 600 
 
 4.000 
 
 600 
 
 500 
 
 1,000 
 800 
 
 1,200 
 400 
 400 
 
 8,000 
 
 500 
 
 250 
 
 250 
 
 60,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 200 
 2,000 
 
 100 
 
 5,072 345,134 $3,437,500 #193,400 $1,736,800 
 
 Estimnted 
 Annual 
 lucoiue. 
 
 t55,000 
 12,000 
 13,300 
 17,000 
 
 6,000 
 12.000 
 8,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,000 
 3,000 
 
 10,000 
 8,000 
 10,000 
 
 20,000 
 10,000 
 
 ^ 20,000 
 
 83,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 85{ 
 
 850 
 
 1,350,400 
 
 30,000 
 
 5,000 
 44,400 
 
 4,000 
 
 Religious 
 
 Deuominatiou, oi 
 
 otherwise. 
 
 (Public.) 
 Wesley. Methd'st 
 Cb. of Scotland. 
 Ch. of England. 
 
 1 
 
 Rom. Catholic. 
 
 Canada Presbyt'n. 
 Congregational. 
 
 Meth. Episcopal. 
 Baptist. 
 Wesley. Methd'st. 
 
 ^(Public.) 
 
 duaker. 
 Wesley. Methd'st. 
 
 (Public.) 
 Roman Catholic. 
 Various. 
 
 (Public.) 
 
 * In addition to these purely theological colleges, there are theological faculties in the Uni 
 versities of Trinity College, Toronto, and Queen's College, Kingston, as well as the Roman 
 Catholic colleges at Ottawa, Kingston, and Toronto, and in the Baptist Literary Institute, at 
 Woodstock. 
 
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COUNTRY DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSB. 
 
 31 
 
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ii!i;!i!!:il,,. 
 
 APPAEiLTUS AND EQUIPMENT Off THE DISTEICT_SCHOOL AS IT WAfl. 
 
 fiPBOIHXNS or APPA&ATUS OF OOL AS II IB. 
 
BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION 
 
 IN 
 
 LOWER CANADA. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 PART FIEST— CHAPTER I. 
 
 EARLY EDUCATIONAL EFFORT IN LOWER CANADA— 1632-1*759. 
 
 Although upwards of two centuries and a quarter have 
 now passed away since the first school was opened in Lower 
 Canada, yet it was not until nearly a full century had 
 elapsed after Jacques Cartier discovered the country, that 
 that event took place. In 1535, Jacques Cartier first entered 
 the St. Lawrence; and, in 1632, Rev. Father Le Jeune 
 opened the first Canadian school at Quebec. He commenced 
 with only two pupils, — one a negro and the other an Indian 
 boy, — to whom he taught reading and writing. Next year 
 his school was attended by twenty boys, chiefly Indian lads 
 collected by missionaries from wigwams in the neighbor- 
 hood. Father Le Jeime was greatly elated, and, in view 
 of the noble prospect before him, of christianizing the 
 Indian tribes, he wrote to his superior in France, to say that 
 he would not exchange his little school of savages for the 
 best university of Europe! The Indians permitted these 
 youth to attend the school, chiefly because they were the 
 less hardy and promising of their race, either mentally or 
 physically, and, therefore, were unequal either to the vicis- 
 situdes of the chase or to the endurance or strategy of war. 
 The restraints, however, of so monotonous a life proved too 
 much for their untutored natures, and they gladly made 
 
486 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 their escape. Although these early efforts of Father Le 
 Jeune were thus unsuccessful in inducing the Indians to 
 benefit by his instructions, he did not despair; and, in 1635, 
 under the patronage of the Marquis de Gamache, he founded 
 the " Seminary of the Hurons," or of " Notre Dame des 
 Anges," afterwards known as the Jesuit College of Quebec. 
 He was greatly consoled at this event, which, he said, had 
 been consummated " despite the powers of hell, banded in 
 full force against it!" 
 
 Soon afterwards, and in 1639, a young widow lady of high 
 rank, Madame Le Lapeltrie, laid the foundation of the con- 
 vent of the Ursulines at Quebec, which was designed for the 
 education of young Huron Indian girls. The plan, how- 
 ever, did not succeed. 
 
 Exactly two hundred years ago, and thirty-one years after 
 Father Le Jeune had opened his first school in Canada, the 
 distinguished Monseigneur de Laval, the first Koman Cath- 
 olic bishop of Quebec, projected the Grand Seminary of 
 Quebec. Subsequently, having acquired land for a site, he 
 with great solemnity, on the 14th of April, 1678, laid the 
 foundation of a new building, which he intended should be 
 occupied by his favourite " Seminary of Quebec." 
 
 The primary object of this institution was the education 
 of boys who felt an inclination for the priesthood; and such 
 it continued to be until the conquest in 1759. In 1668, at 
 the suggestion of Colbert, the celebrated finance minister of 
 Louis XIY., Bishop de Laval founded the Petit Seminary ; 
 and an attempt was made in it to civilize, or, as it was said, 
 frandzise^ a certain number of young Indians, who were 
 destined to become afterwards, among their own tribes, the 
 nucleus of a more extended civilization. Eight French and 
 six Indian boys were, with this object, taken as boarders 
 into the Petit Seminary and subjected to the same rules and 
 course of instruction. But the attempt utterly failed as it 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 487 
 
 had done before in the Jesuit College and Ursuline Convent 
 owing to the ungovernable conduct of the young Hurons. 
 
 In 1680, the bishop endowed the seminary with his own 
 patrimony; and in October, 1688, he had the satisfaction of 
 seeing sixty boys in attendance at its classes."'^ The bishop 
 had previously established an industrial school near Quebec, 
 from which the more promising young habitants were trans- 
 ferred to the Petit Seminary with a view to complete their 
 classical studies. Those who were intended for the priest- 
 hood first pursued their ordinary studies at the Jesuit 
 College, and finished their theological course at the Grrand 
 Seminary. 
 
 In 1647, the Theological Seminary of St. Sulpice was 
 founded at Montreal by the clergy of St. Sulpice, in Paris. 
 In 1677, the King of France granted to the compagnie ae 
 Montreal, Letters Patent confirming the Seminary. 
 
 Up to this time, few elementary schools existed in any 
 part of the country. Bishop Laval, however, with patriotic 
 solicitude, seconded the pious efforts of Sister Margaret 
 Bourgeoist to establish schools in connection with the order 
 of the Congregation de Notre Dame, which she founded at 
 Montreal in 1653. The Eecollets or Franciscans, too, kept 
 a good many schools in operation ; and the Jesuit College, 
 Quebec, maintained out of its own revenues several primary 
 schools under the management of ex-students of the college. 
 
 In 1680-1, His Majesty the King of France founded the 
 Recollet Convent, in the upper town, Quebec; and, in 1697, 
 the Monseigneur de St. Yalier, second bishop of Quebec, 
 established the convent of the Ursulines at Three Eivers. 
 
 In 1714, there were seventy-five pupils attending the 
 Quebec Seminary. In 1728, the Jesuits asked permission 
 
 * The dress of the pupils attending the seminary was peculiar in its charac- 
 ter 5 and consisted of a blue capot, or frock coat, with white corded seams, and 
 a parti-colored sash. TWs sash has been replaced by a green one, and the dis- 
 tinctive dress itself has, with slight modifications, been adopted in nearly all the 
 Roman Catholic colleges of Lower Canada at the present time. 
 
488 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER C ANADA. 
 
 to found a college at Montreal, and the Freres Charron of 
 Montreal proposed to employ schoolmasters in all the 
 parishes of the country as in France. In 1737, the brother- 
 hood of the Church Schools (Ecoles Chr^tiennes,) who 
 undertook the task of popular instruction along with the 
 Charron Fr^res, and a few scattered rural teachers, formed 
 themselves into an educational corps, the members of which 
 followed one system and wore the same distinctive gs^rb.* 
 These praiseworthy efforts were not, however, successful ; 
 and the schools languished, owing, chiefly, to the apathy of 
 the government and the want of interest in the education 
 of their children by the settlers. In fact, from the begin- 
 ning, the government of the colony, unless prompted by the 
 French monarch or his ministers, seemed to be utterly un- 
 concerned as to the condition of education in the country. 
 *' To the Catholic Church," nevertheless, says Arthur Buller, 
 Esq., the commissioner appointed by Lord Durham to 
 inquire into the state of education in Lower Canada, " To 
 the Catholic Church, [Lower] Canada is indebted for all its 
 early scholastic endowments; indeed, with the exception of 
 McGill College, for all that at present [in 1838] exists. 
 The ample estates and active benevolence of the Jesuits of 
 the seminaries of Quebec and Montreal, and of various nun- 
 neries and their missions, were devoted to the education of 
 the people." t 
 
 1 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 STATE OF EDUCATION FROM THE CONQUEST, 1759, UNTIL 1800. 
 
 Yery little change took place in the state of education in 
 Lower Canada until after the conquest in 1759. The stir- 
 
 * Garneau's "Histoire du Canada," translated by Bell, vol. i., p. 205 
 ^/)ven, Montreal, 1860. 
 \ Lord Durham's Report, Appendix (D,) p. 1. London : 1839. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 489 
 
 ring events whidi then transpired interfered to some extent 
 with the operations of the various colleges and other educa- 
 tional institutions ; but, as the crisis passed away, things re- 
 sumed their usual state. In 1773, however, the Petite Sem- 
 inaire, or College of Montreal was founded by the Sulpicians. 
 In the year following an important event occurred. The 
 suppression of the religious order of ^he Jesuits, which took 
 place in France in 1762, and in Italy in 1773, was, by royal 
 instruction, carried into effect in Canada in 1774. The 
 estates were, however, permitted to remain in the possession 
 of the surviving members of the order until March, 1800, 
 when they became vested in the Crown. Previous to that 
 time, and down to 1831, various petitions were presented both 
 to the governor-general and to the Imperial government, 
 praying that the estates might be appropriated to the pur- 
 poses of education, which was their original design. At 
 length, in that year (1831,) they were, with the exception 
 of the Jesuit College buildings at Quebec, surrendered 
 to the provincial parliament for the support of education. 
 Efforts have since been repeatedly made to obtain possession 
 of the college buildings for the same educational purposes, 
 but hitherto without effect. In 1776, these buildinors 
 were appropriated by the Imperial government to the pur- 
 poses of a barrack. The Crown has repeatedly offered to 
 surrender them, provided a suitable barracks be given in 
 exchange for them by the province. This, however, has 
 not been found practicable, and they are still used for mili- 
 tary purposes under the singularly incongruous name of 
 the " Jesuit Barracks." 
 
 In the year 1787, the legislative council of the province, 
 at the suggestion of the governor-general (Sir Guy Carleton, 
 then Lord Dorchester,) appointed a committee to inquire 
 into the best means of promoting education. In 1789, the 
 committee presented their report, recommending, among 
 other things, that an elementary school be established in 
 
490 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 eacli parish, a model school in each county, and a " colonial 
 college " for the entire province, at Quebec, endowed out 
 of the Jesuit estates, open to Protestants and Eoman Cath- 
 olics alike, and controlled by an equal number of each; 
 religious instruction for the students to be provided by each 
 church, and the visitation of the college to be vested in the 
 Crown. The Eoman C&tholic coadjutor. Bishop Bailly, ap- 
 proved of this scheme, while his superior, Monseigneur 
 Hubert, ninth bishop of Quebec, sought to have it modified. 
 He suggested that the Jesuit College of Quebec should be 
 revived and re-endowed; that it should be first placed 
 under the control of the surviving members of the order for 
 their lives, and that afterwards it should be vested in 
 the Eoman Catholic bishop of Quebec, as head of that 
 church in Canada. The titular superior of the dissolved 
 order. Father de Glapion, favored Bishop Hubert's plan, 
 and, to facilitate it, offered, on condition of receiving a fixed 
 stipend for the surviving members of his order, to make 
 over the estates to the province, to be forever applied to 
 educational purposes, under the direction of the Eoman 
 Catholic bishop and his successors. 
 
 As it would be interesting to learn from a cotemporaneous 
 and independent source something of the state of education 
 in Lower Canada in those days, we make the following ex- 
 tract from an account of the travels of the Duke de Eoche- 
 foucault who visited the country in 1795-9. He says, 
 " The Seminary of Quebec is kept by a sort of congregation 
 or fraternity known by the name of the Priests of St. Sul- 
 pice. * * * The estates which it possesses are consid- 
 erable, at least in point of extent, and contain from fifty to 
 sixty thousand acres. * * * This seminary forms the 
 only resource for Canadian families who wish to give their 
 children any degree of education, and who may certainly 
 obtain it there for ready money. * * * Upon the 
 whole, the work of education in Lower Canada is greatly 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 491 
 
 neglected. At Sorel and Trois Eivi^res are a few schools 
 kept by nuns ; and in other places men and women instruct 
 children ; but the number of schools is, upon the whole, so 
 very small, and the mode of instruction so defective, that a 
 Canadian who can read is a sort of phenomenon. * * * 
 The English government is charged with designedly keep- 
 ing the people of Canada in ignorance ; but were it sincerely 
 desirous of producing an advantageous change in this re- 
 spect, it would have as great obstacles to surmount on this 
 head as in regard to agricultural improvements." 
 
 In 1793, in response to a petition on the subject, the first 
 house of assembly which was ever convened in Lower 
 Canada presented an address to the governor, urging upon 
 the Crown the propriety of giving up the forfeited estates 
 of the Jesuits to the control of the legislature for the 
 support of education in the province — a destination, 
 it was argued, which would, more than any other, be in ac- 
 cordance with the design of those who had endowed the 
 order with these lands, and with the spirit of the letters- 
 patent of the French monarch which confirmed them to the 
 order for educational purposes only. Ko answer having 
 been given to this address, another on the same subject was 
 presented to the governor in 1800. 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 UNFULFILLED PROMISES, AND FAILURES— 1801-18 IS. 
 
 In reply to this address, the governor, in a speech to the 
 legislature in 1801, thus intimated the intentions of the Im- 
 perial government to give practical effect to the wishes 
 of the legislature, though in another form, and to set sapsirt 
 a portion of the Crown domain — as had been intimated 
 four years before in Upper Canada — for the permanent es- 
 
492 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 tablishment of public schools. " With great satisfaction," 
 he said, " I have to inform you that His Majesty [George 
 III.] from his paternal regard for the welfare and prosperity 
 of his subjects in this colony, has been graciously pleased 
 to give directions for the establishing of a competent 
 number of free schools, for the instruction of their children 
 in the first rudiments of useful learning and in the English 
 tongue and also as occasion may require, for foundations of 
 a more enlarged and comprehensive nature ; and His Majesty 
 has been further pleased to signify his royal intention that 
 a suitable proportion of the lands of the Crown should be 
 set apart and the revenue thereof applied to such pur- 
 poses."* 
 
 In the same year, an act was passed to give effect to these 
 promises. It provided for the establishment of free schools 
 and of a " Eoyal Institution for the Advancement of 
 Learning." To this corporation was entrusted the entire 
 management of all schools and institutions of royal founda- 
 tion in the province, as well as the administration of all 
 estates and property appropriated to these schools. The 
 governor was authorized to establish one or more free 
 schools in each parish or township, as he might see fit, 
 upon the application of the inhabitants. He was also au- 
 thorized to appoint the masters, and to fix their salaries. 
 
 The grants of land from the public domain for the endow- 
 ment of these schools not having been made, as promised, 
 the executive council recommended to the governor that 
 sixteen townships of the waste lands of the Crown be appro- 
 priated for this purpose. In concurring in this recommend- 
 ation, a further promise was made that each of the cities of 
 Quebec and Montreal should receive an additional grant 
 
 * The language of this intimation of the royal will, in regard to the estab- 
 lishment of schools in Lower Canada and their endowment out of the publio 
 domain, is almost identical with that used in the Duke of Portland's despatch 
 to the governor of Upper Canada, in 1797. (See page 376 of this paper.) 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 493 
 
 of twenty thousand acres of land for the support of a sem^ 
 inarj therein. Notwithstanding these distinct promises, 
 none of these grants were ever made ; and, consequently, 
 the act of 1801 practically remained a dead letter. Other 
 causes contributed to render the scheme a failure. Of the 
 eighteen trustees of the Eoyal Institution (who were not ap- 
 pointe'd by the government to direct the system of educa- 
 tion in Lower Canada until 1818,) four only were Eoman 
 Catholics; and of the fourteen Protestants, three were 
 prominent officials in Upper Canada. The teachers, too, 
 were principally from Britain, unacquainted with the French 
 language, and generally ignorant of the habits of the people. 
 
 In 1804, the Seminary of Nicolet was founded by the 
 Eev. M. Brassard, cur4, and in 1811, the College of St. Hy- 
 acinthe was founded by the Eev. M. Girouard, cur^. 
 
 In 1812, the legislative council voted an address to the 
 Prince Eegent, in regard to the land endowments, similar to 
 those passed by the house of assembly in 1793 and 1800. 
 It was sent down to that house for its concurrence; but, 
 owing to the more pressing importance of matters arising 
 out of the war with the United States in that year, it was 
 suffered to remain in abeyance. 
 
 In 1814, however, a bill was passed by the house of assem- 
 bly, amending the " royal institutions " act of 1801. As a 
 matter of curiosity, we give the following abstract of some of 
 its clauses. It provided, among other things, that if a ma- 
 jority or fifty landholders in a parish or township wished to 
 establish a school, they should serve a " notorial acte " 
 upon a resident militia officer highest in rank*, who shall then 
 call a meeting for the election of five trustees, one of which 
 to retire annually. These trustees, with the senior magis- 
 trate, cur^, or minister, were to be a corporation, and to re- 
 
 * It is a singular fact that this calling into requisition the services of militia 
 officers, as such, in educational matters, has been peculiar to Lower Canada 
 Bince the first establishment of public schools. 
 
494 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 place the school commissioners appointed by the governor, 
 under the previous act. The teacher to be employed by 
 this corporation was required to produce . a certificate of 
 loyalty and good character from two magistrates, to take 
 the oath of allegiance, and to receive not more than two hun- 
 dred and forty dollars per annum out of the provincial reve- 
 nue. Two magistrates, appointed by the Crown, to act as 
 school visitors. This bill was lost in the legislative council, 
 and failed to become law. 
 
 In 1818, a much simpler act was passed by both houses 
 of the legislature. Instead of elective trustees, it provided 
 that the rector, priest, or curate, with four Eoman Catholic 
 or Church of England church-wardens, the seigneur primi- 
 tif, and senior magistrate, should be, ex officio^ a corporation 
 for the management of the elementary school of the parish. 
 This act was reserved for the royal assent, which it never 
 received ; and, consequently, it never took effect. 
 
 In this year, however (1818,) practical effect was, after a 
 long delay, given to the act of 1801, authorizing the estab- 
 lishment of a " Koyal Institution for the Advancement of 
 Learning." All the schools then receiving government 
 aid were placed under the control of this corporation. In 
 order to conciliate those more immediately concerned, and 
 to demonstrate the liberality of the principles upon which 
 it intended to act, the following rules were promulgated: 
 " That every school should be placed under the immediate 
 inspection of the clergy of the religion professed by the in- 
 habitants of the sjwt ; and that where they might be of dif- 
 ferent persuasions, the clergy of each church should have 
 the superintendence of the children of their respective com- 
 munities." " That a regular superintendence of the schools 
 was assigned to visitors named by the corporation (one or 
 more to be the minister or ministers of the parish or town- 
 ship,) who were to report to them, every six months, the 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEU CANADA. 495 
 
 number and progress of the scholars, the conduct of the 
 masters, and, generally, on the state of the schools." 
 
 Notwithstanding the of&cial prestige which it possessed, 
 and the influence w^hich it undoubtedly exerted, the " Eoyal 
 Institution. " signally failed to accomplish the objects for 
 which it was established. Even the number of schools 
 under its management soon began' to diminish; and, at the 
 end of ten years from the date of its organization, all appli- 
 cations for schools to be placed under its control entirely 
 ceased. Yarious causes contributed to render the scheme 
 abortive ; but the most striking one was the general absence 
 of sympathy between the board itself and the people whose 
 educational interests it sought to promote. The board has 
 long ceased to control the public elementary schools, and its 
 functions are now chiefly confined to the oversight or 
 trusteeship of the University of McGill College, Montreal. 
 This institution, founded, in 1811, by the will of the Hon. 
 Peter McGill, did not receive its royal charter until 1821? 
 owing to a protracted lawsuit to test the validity of the will. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COMMON SCHOOL LEGISLATION— SUCCESS AND FAILURES— 
 1819-1835. 
 
 For several years after the Royal Institution came into 
 existence, various efforts were made by either or both 
 branches of the legislature, to introduce a more popular 
 system of management into the public schools. Thus, in 
 1819 and 1820, two bills were passed by the house of assem- 
 bly and legislative council with this view; but they were not 
 concurred in by the home government; while two others, 
 passed by the house of assembly, in 1821 and 1823, were 
 rejected by the legislative council, and, consequently, lost. 
 
 At length, in 1824, a special committee, appointed by the 
 
496 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 house of assembly, prepared au elaborate report upon tlie 
 state of education in the province. Its revelations were 
 startling indeed. It represented that in many parishes not 
 more than five or six of the inhabitants could write ; that, 
 generally, not above one-fourth of the entire population 
 could read; and that not above one-tenth of them could 
 write, even imperfectly." 
 
 To remedy this state of things, and to meet the wishes of 
 the Koman Catholic clergy in some degree, as a counterpoise 
 to the more Protestant Eoyal Institution act, a measure was 
 passed this year (1824) known as the Fabriqae act. It pro- 
 vided for the establishment of one school in each Eoman 
 Catholic parish, for every one hundred families, by the Fa- 
 briques, or corporate body, (established by the old laws of 
 France,) consisting of the cur6 and church- wardens. The 
 corporation was authorized to acquire land, for the support 
 of the school, to the annual value of two hundred dollars, 
 and to retain an acre for a school site. 
 
 In 1825, the College of Ste. Th^r^se was founded in the 
 county of Terrebonne, by the EeV. M. Ducharme, cur6; in 
 1826, the College of Chambly was founded in the county 
 of that name by the Kev. M. Mignault, cur6; and, in 1827, 
 the College of Ste. Anne la Pocati^re was founded in the 
 county of Kamouraska by the Kev. M. Painchaud. In 
 1827-8, the University of McGill College, after a protracted 
 delay, at length went into operation. In 1828, the convent 
 of La Providence was founded by Madame Gamelin, of 
 Montreal. 
 
 In 1829, another effort was made to meet the wishes 
 of the Koman Catholic clergy, and to modify the provisions 
 of the Koyal Institutions act of 1801. After some difficulty 
 in bringing both parties to an agreement on the subject, a 
 bill was passed in the legislative council, and received two 
 readings in the house of assembly, providing for the ap- 
 pointment of two committees of the Koyal Institution, — 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 497 
 
 one exclusively Eoman Catholic and tlie other Protestant. 
 Thus was introduced the germ of the present separate 
 school system in Upper and Lower Canada ; but, owing to 
 some legal impediments in the way of carrying it into 
 effect, the bill was dropped. 
 
 In the same year (1829,) an important step was taken in 
 the direction of popularizing the system of public schools 
 then in existence. A measure was passed in that year, pro- 
 viding for the establishment of schools by trustees elected 
 for that purpose by the landholders of each parish. The 
 act contained no provision for the visitation or inspection 
 of the schools ; and was otherwise defective ; but it is, never- 
 theless, considered as the first general elementary school act 
 of Lower Canada. 
 
 This act was am,ended in 1830, so as to authorize the elec- 
 tion, as trustees, of the Protestant or Eoman Catholic 
 clergy who were not freeholders. It further required the 
 teacher to hold a half-yearly examination, of which he 
 should give one week's public notice; twelve hundred 
 dollars were also appropriated by it for sending a person 
 abi'oad to learn how to conduct a deaf and dumb school. 
 
 This act was again amended in 1831, so as to provide for 
 the appointment of nineteen visitors, or local county school 
 inspectors, who, in company with the county member, or a 
 magistrate, commanding officer of militia, rector, or cur^, 
 should visit and inspect the school and report the result to 
 the governor. The act also contained an appropriation in 
 aid of a deaf and dumb institution. 
 
 In the same year (1831,) the house of assembly appointed 
 a standing committee of eleven members, to report, from 
 time to time, on all matters relating to education. This 
 committee, in their report, dwell on the importance of sup- 
 plementing the public aid by local contributions, and 
 deprecated the growing demand for such aid, without cor- 
 responding exertions to increase the amount of these 
 
4:98 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 contributions. The committee further remark, that the 
 proportion of children attending schools in Lower Canada 
 is only one in twelve, while, in the state of New York, it is 
 one in four. 
 
 In the following year (1832,) the three preceding acts of 
 1829, 1830, and 1831 were repealed, and a more general 
 and comprehensive school act substituted in their place. 
 Among other things, this act provided for the establishment 
 of a girls' school in each parish, and the yearly distribution 
 of two dollai-s' worth of prizes by the senior county member 
 in each boys' school. It also provided that legislative 
 councillors, members of parliament, senior magistrates, 
 highest militia officers, and the rector or chief minister of the 
 denomination most numerous in the parish, should be 
 county school visitors. These school visitors were invested 
 with extensive powers. Among other things, they were 
 authorized to decide disputes about school-houses, form and 
 alter the boundaries of school divisions, and fix the site for 
 a superior school in each county. The teacher was required 
 to obtain a certificate of character and qualification, signed 
 by at least five school visitors, including the county member 
 and rector; to keep the school open at least one hundred 
 and ninety days in the year, from nine to twelve, and from 
 one to four o'clock each day; to keep a school journal; 
 and to hold a public examination of his school. 
 
 In the same year (1832,) L'Assomption College was 
 founded in the county of that name by the Kev. M. Labelle 
 and Dr. J. B. Meilleur (afterwards superintendent of edu- 
 cation for Lower Canada, i. e., from 1841 to 1855.) 
 
 In 1833, this act was amended so as to authorize superiors 
 and professors of colleges and academies, and presidents of 
 all educational societies, to act as school visitors. It further 
 granted sixteen dollars per annum extra to any teacher 
 who could teach both the French and English languages, 
 and two dollars for prizes in girls' schools. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 499 
 
 In 1834, tlie act of 1832 was further amended, so as to 
 antliorize an extra grant of forty dollars per annum to the 
 best teacher in the county, who had taught French and En- 
 glish, grammar, geometry, and book-keeping in his school. 
 In case none of the teachers merited the grant, the school 
 visitors had it in their power to appropriate two hundred 
 dollars to any superior institution in the county, not receiv- 
 ing other public aid, in which those branches were taught. 
 
 CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 FINAL EDUCATIONAL MEASURES OP THE LOWER CANADA LEG- 
 ISLATURE—CONTESTS—FATAL DEFECTS OP TEMPORARY 
 LEGISLATION — 1836-1 840. 
 
 Jn 1836, the standing committee of the house of assem- 
 bly, in their report, regret that the liberality of the legisla- 
 ture, instead of stimulating local liberality in aid of education, 
 had rather paralyzed it As a proof of the unreasonable self- 
 ishness of the parties concerned, they state that an application 
 had been received from three families to constitute them a 
 school division, so as to receive public aid as such. They 
 also comment upon the universal incompetency of school- 
 masters; and recommend the establishment of normal 
 schools. An act was passed giving effect to this recom- 
 mendation, and providing for the establishment, for five 
 years, of a- normal school at Montreal and at Quebec. Six- 
 teen hundred dollars were granted to each school, for pre- 
 liminary expenses in procuring professors and obtaining 
 books, maps, and apparatus,. &c.; and thirty -four hundred 
 dollars per annum for current expenses ; besides four hun- 
 dred and eighty dollars per annum for the board and 
 lodging of at least five teachers for three years, at the 
 school. The same sum was granted for a like period to 
 each of the convents of the Ursulines at Quebec and 
 
500 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 Three Elvers, and to the convent of the congregation of No- 
 tre Dame, at Montreal, for the training of at least five female 
 teachers for three years in these institutions. 
 
 A supplementary bill (continuing the system of element- 
 ary schools in Lower Canada, and designed to replace the 
 school act of 1832, which had expired) was passed by the 
 house of assembly, simultaneously with the normal school 
 act ; but it was rejected by the legislative council. Two fea- 
 tures in the rejected bill were new and deserve notice. 
 The first was the permission to establish model schools, 
 and the other was the authority (not compulsory) of the 
 majority of the inhabitants to raise a rate by tax to support 
 the school. As the usefulness of the one act depended on 
 the passing of the other, the rejection of the elementary 
 school act brought the whole educational system to a stand- 
 still. In the mean time a normal school was opened at 
 Montreal by the Rev. John Holmes, principal of the Semin- 
 ary of Quebec, aided by two assistants, — one obtained from 
 France and the other from Scotland. In consequence, how- 
 ever, of the political troubles of the succeeding year, the 
 school was abruptly closed, and the grants suspended. 
 
 It is proper to state, that the reasons for rejecting the bill 
 of the house of assembly by the legislative council, were 
 candidly expressed in a report on the subject. This report 
 stated that the expenditure on behalf of education, for the 
 last seven years, had already reached the aggregate sum of 
 $600,000, and that the appropriations under this bill amounted 
 to $160,000 per annum. The committee of the legislative 
 council concurred with the house of assembly in the belief that 
 this liberal legislative aid had superseded, rather than stim- 
 ulated, local effort. They further deprecated the anomalous 
 and improper practice of confiding the superintending and 
 application of the educational grant to members of the 
 house of assembly. It was liable in their hands, the com- 
 mittee urged, to be used to promote political and party ob- 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 501 
 
 jects rather than strictly educational ones. In this part 
 of their report, the committee enumerate, under nine differ- 
 ent heads, the extraordinary and irresponsible powers which 
 were conferred upon the county members by this and pre- 
 ceding school acts, in the administration of the law, and the 
 expenditure of the legislative school grant.* 
 
 The political troubles which, in 1837-8, shook the prov- 
 ince to its center and paralyzed its educational efforts, 
 having to some extent subsided, an inquiry into the state 
 of education, and the causes of its failure in Lower Canada, 
 was instituted, in 1888, by the Earl of Durham, Her 
 
 * Arthur Bullet, Esq., commissioner, appointed in 1838 by Lord Durham, 
 to inquire into the state of education in Lower Canada, in reviewing the pro- 
 ceedings of the legislature of that province, in regard to its system of tempo- 
 rary or party political legislation in educational matters, uses the following 
 striking language : — 
 
 " Another great evil to which this system was subjected by its connection 
 with politics, was its want of permanency. Every alternate year it was liable 
 to expire altogether, or undergo modifications, which, as regarded those em- 
 barked in it, in many cases, amounted to expiration. The house of assembly 
 knew weir the power which they derived from their common habit of temporary 
 legislation. It was no slight hold to possess in the country, this of continuing 
 or at any given time withholding its sole means of education. It is true that it 
 would be almost impossible to make a system permanent which was to be sup- 
 ported entirely by legislative grants. » * » i trust that I have not done 
 injustice to the house of assembly. * * * It is extremely difficult to ap- 
 portion to them their proper share of praise and blame. * * * Jn tjjg \j[\i 
 of 1814-31, their main struggle was to subject the school system to popular 
 control. * * * The standing committee of the house labored diligently 
 and in good faith. They received evidence on all points. They did not 
 shrink from the investigation of alleged abuses, nor, in many instances, from 
 the application of proper remedies. * * * They knew * * * that 
 nothing short of compelling the inhabitants to contribute a direct and not 
 scanty proportion towards the expense of the system. They saw all this ; but 
 they did not dare to propose so unpopular a measure. In short, the moment 
 they found that their educational provisions could be turned to political account, 
 from that moment those provisions were framed with a view to promote party 
 rather than education. This was tlieir essential fault ; this it was that pervaded 
 and contaminated the whole system and paralyzed all the good that was other- 
 wise in it." 
 
502 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 Majesty's lord high commissioner and governor-general of 
 British North America. This duty he confided to the able 
 hands of Arthur Buller, Esq., one of his suite, who pre- 
 pared an elaborate and comprehensive report on the subject, 
 from which we have already made several extracts. Lord 
 Durham, also, from his own observation, gave expres- 
 sion to his views on the subject, and from his own report 
 we make the following extracts: " The bulk of the popula- 
 tion is composed of the hard-working yeomanry of the 
 country districts, commonly called haUtans. * * * It 
 is impossible to exaggerate the want of education among 
 them, no means of instruction have ever been provided 
 for them, and they are almost universally destitute of 
 the qualifications even of reading and writing. * * * 
 The common assertion, however, that all classes of the Ca- 
 nadians are equally ignorant, is perfectly erroneous ; for I 
 know of no people among whom a larger provision exists 
 for the higher kinds of elementary education, or among 
 whom such education is really extended to a larger propor- 
 tion of the population. The piety and benevolence of the 
 early possessors of the country founded, in the seminaries 
 that exist in different parts of the province, institutions of 
 which the funds ^nd activity have long been directed to the 
 promotion of education. Seminaries and colleges have 
 been, by these bodies, established in the cities and in other 
 central points. The education given in these establishments 
 greatly resembles the kind given in the English public 
 schools, though it is rather more varied. It is entirely in 
 the hands of the Catholic clergy. The number of pupils 
 in these establishments is estimated, altogether, at a thousand, 
 and they turn out every year, as far as I could ascertain, be- 
 tween two and three hundred young men thus educated." 
 
 In concluding a review of the causes which had led to a 
 failure of the system of education devised by the legisla- 
 ture, Mr. Buller sketched the broad outlines of a system of 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 503 
 
 education whicli, lie tliought, would obviate many of the 
 evils inherent in those systems which had already been 
 tried. 
 
 CHAPTEB YI. 
 
 A NEW FOUNDATION LAID— FIKST STEPS ONWARD— 1841-1855. 
 
 Lord Durham having, upon a comprehensive review of 
 all the causes which had led to the then unhappy state of the 
 provinces, recommended a legislative union of Upper and 
 Lower Canada, nothing was attempted in the way of reviv- 
 ing the educational system until the question of union was 
 settled. That occurred in 1840; and, in 1841, the first par- 
 liament of United Canada gave immediate attention to the 
 subject of popular education. An act, embodying many 
 of Mr. Buller's suggestions, was passed, providing for the 
 establishment and maintenance of elementary schools in 
 Upper and Lower Canada alike. An ex-officio chief super- 
 intendent of education was appointed for the whole prov- 
 ince, with working superintendents for its eastern and 
 western sections. Two hundred thousand dollars were 
 also granted to aid in the promotion of popular education. 
 This sum was divided between both sections, according to 
 their respective populations. 
 
 In the same year. Dr. J. B. Meilleur, an active education- 
 alist, who had formerly been a member of the legislature, 
 and who had been the principal author of the projected 
 school act of 1836, was selected as the executive educational 
 ofiicer for Lower Canada. He applied himself diligently to 
 the performance of his new duties ; and, after four years' 
 trial, he suggested such changes in the law as experience 
 had dictated. 
 
 In 1842, the schools of the Christian Brothers (Ecoles 
 
504 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 Chr^tiennes) were established at Quebec, by the Soci^td 
 d'Education and tbe Kev. Mr; Bailtargeon. 
 
 In the following year (1843,) the want of a Church of 
 England university and theological college having been 
 felt, Bishops' College, Lennoxville, in the eastern townships, 
 was projected, and an act of incorporation obtained for it. 
 The Classical High School of Quebec was also established 
 this year by the Eev. Dr. Cook. 
 
 In 1843, the school act of 1841 was repealed, so far as 
 Upper Canada was concerned, and, in 1845, it was also re- 
 pealed so far as it applied to Lower Canada. 
 
 In 1845, Bishops' College, Lennoxville, was formally 
 opened in a temporary building. The new buildings for 
 the college were completed in the following year. 
 
 In the law of 1846, the nominal office of chief superin- 
 tendent, ex officix)^ was abolished, and the entire executive 
 administration of the school laws confided to the respective 
 superintendents of each section of the province. In 1846, 
 the school laws of Upper and Lower Canada were, after 
 much consideration on the part of the two superintendents, 
 thoroughly revised, and adapted to the peculiar educational 
 wants of each section, as ascertained by actual experience 
 and observation. A very important principle, — that of 
 local taxation for the support of education, — which had 
 been introduced with success in the Upper Canada school 
 law, was substituted for that of voluntary contributions, as 
 an experiment, into the amended Lower Canada school act 
 of 1846. It encountered, however, so strong an opposition 
 from all sides, that, in 1849, the law was altered, and local 
 assessment was rendered permissive — not compulsory, as 
 before, — and the system of voluntary contributions re- 
 stored. 
 
 In the year 1846, the Joliette College, in the village of 
 Industrie, county of Joliette, was established by the Hon 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 505 
 
 B. Joliette; and, in 1847, Masson College, in the county of 
 Terrebonne, was established by Madame Masson. 
 
 In 1849, an important institution for the education of 
 deaf and dumb males was established at Chambly by the 
 Kev. Mr. Lagorce; and, in 1853, one for females, at Longue 
 Pointe, by the Eight Eev. Bishop Bourget. In 1849, the 
 College de Ste. Marie was established at Montreal by the 
 religious order of the Jesuits. A chair of law was estab- 
 in it in 1851, and, in 1852, the college received an act of 
 incorporation. 
 
 In 1850, the College of ISTotre Dame de Levis was 
 founded at Point Levis (opposite Quebec) by the Kev. 
 Joseph Deziel. Kigaud College was also founded in the 
 same year by the Kev. Mr. Desautels. 
 
 In 1851, another effort, after a lapse of thirteen years, 
 was made to establish a normal school in Lower Canada. 
 In that year, an act was passed by the legislature for this 
 purpose, and also for the appointment of local school 
 inspectors. Owing to various causes, however, the estab- 
 lishment of the normal school was deferred. 
 
 In August, 1852, an amended charter was obtained from 
 Her Majesty for McGill College University, and, soon after 
 that event, it entered upon its present successful career. 
 
 In December of the same year, the venerable institution 
 known in Canada for two hundred years as the Seminary 
 of Quebec, was erected into the University of Laval, by 
 rojal charter from the Queen. The university was soon 
 after organized on its present efficient footing. 
 
 In 1853, Bishops' College, Lennoxville, was erected into 
 a university by royal charter. In the same year (1853,) 
 the College of Ste. Marie de Monnoin,<»was established. In 
 the same year, the Church of England Society for New- 
 foundland and the Colonies, now known as the Colonial and 
 Continental Church and School Society, erected normal and 
 model schools in Montreal. They were opened in the fol- 
 
506 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 lowing year; but, in 1856, the normal school was transfer- 
 red to McGill College. 
 
 In 1854, the College of St. Germain de Rimouski was 
 founded in the county of that name by the Rev. C. Tanquay. 
 The Colleges of St. Francis, (Richmond,) Laval, (near Mon- 
 treal,) Ste. Marie de la Beauce and Yerscheres, were also 
 established in 1854. 
 
 In 1855, after fourteen years' arduous official labors in 
 superintending the system of public instruction in Lo-wer 
 Canada, J. B. Meilleur, Esq., M. D., resigned his office, and was 
 succeeded by the Hon. P. J. O'Chauveau, LL.D., a gentleman 
 of literary tastes and abilities, who had been eleven years a 
 member of parliament for the county of Quebec, and who 
 had held successively the office of solicitor-general for 
 Lower Canada and secretary of the province. Hon. Dr. 
 Chauveau entered vigorously upon the discharge of his 
 duties, and, in his first official report to the governor-general,* 
 suggested several important modifications and improvements 
 in the school law of Lower Canada. 
 
 CHAPTER YIL 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS— RENEWED ACTIVITY AND PROGRESS— 
 
 1856-1862. 
 
 In 1855, the Colleges, of Sherbrooke and Yarennes were 
 established; and in 1856, La Chute College, in the county 
 of Argenteuil, was projected. 
 
 In 1856, Dr. Chauveau prepared and recommended to 
 the government, the passage by the legislature of two im- 
 portant bills embracing the modifications which he had 
 suggested in his annual report. These bills became law in 
 the same year. One related chiefly to superior, and the 
 other to elementary, education. They provided, among 
 other things, for the distribution through the superintendent 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 507 
 
 of education, and upon Ms report, of the Lower Caaada 
 superior education fund among the various university col- 
 leges, academies, and model schools; for the establishment 
 of three normal schools instead of one ; the appointment of 
 a Council of Public Instruction for Lower Canada; the pub- 
 lication of Journals of Education (French and English;) 
 and the creation, as in Upper Canada, of a superannuated 
 common school teachers' fund. 
 
 In 1857, the long-delayed establishment of normal schools 
 at length took place. On the 2d of March, the Jacques 
 Cartier and the McGill Kormal Schools were, with appro- 
 priate ceremonies, inaugurated at Montreal, and, in May, 
 the Laval Normal School at Quebec. The Jacques Cartier 
 Normal School (chiefly designed for Eoman Catholics,) is 
 placed under the immediate supervision of the Superintend- 
 ent of education ; the McGill School (designed for Protest- 
 ants,) under the management of the corporation of McGill 
 College; and the Laval School (also designed for Eoman 
 Catholics,) under the management of the corporation of 
 Laval University. The French and English students in 
 each receive instruction in their own language. The 
 three schools are under the general direction and control of 
 the council of public instruction for Lower Canada. Males 
 and females attend each normal school ; and model schools, 
 for the purpose of practice, are attached to each of them. 
 
 Thus the last links in the chain of an efficient system of 
 popular education for Lower Canada have been successfully 
 formed. Under the active and enlightened superintendence 
 of the Hon. Dr. Chauveau, we have no doubt it will realize 
 the expectations of the friends of education, and confer in- 
 estimable benefits upon the youth of the country. 
 
 In 1859, the College of Three Eivers was projected in 
 the town of that name by Mgr. Prince, Eoman Catholic 
 Bishop of the Diocese ; and, in ^862, Morrin College was 
 founded at Quebec, under the will of Dr. Morrin, who was 
 
508 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 a late eminent physician in that city; and Molson Hall 
 College, Montreal, was inaugurated by His Excellency Lord 
 Monck. 
 
 We will now refer to the principal educational institutions 
 of Lower Canada, in detail, so far as we have been able to 
 obtain information in regard to them. 
 
 PAKT SECOND— CHAPTER L 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 1. University of Laval and the Quebec Seminaries* 
 
 In 1851, at the suggestion of the Roman Catholic bishop 
 of Montreal, Monseigneur J. Bourget, and the repeated in- 
 vitations of His Grace the Roman Catholic archbishop of 
 Quebec, the directors of the Quebec Seminary resolved to 
 erect the Seminary into a university. 
 
 The late Very Reverend Dr. L. J. Casault, then superior, 
 was sent to London, in 1852, in order to solicit the granting 
 of a royal charter. He obtained it without difficulty ; His 
 Excellency Lord Elgin, then governor-general of Canada, 
 and his ministry having been pleased to support with their 
 recommendation the application made to the Imperial 
 authorities for that purpose, it was successful. 
 
 By this charter, no change was effected in the constitution 
 of the seminary itself; but a council, including the direct- 
 ors of the institution and the three senior professors of the 
 several faculties, were empowered to possess and enjoy all 
 the privileges granted to the universities of the United 
 Kingdom, and especially that of conferring degrees in the 
 faculties of divinity, law, medicine, and arts. The Roman 
 Catholic archbishop of Quebec is, by virtue of his office, 
 
 * The information relating to the University of T^val and Quebec Seminary 
 was kindly furnished by the Very Reverend Dr. Taohereau, D. C. L., rector of 
 the University. . 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 509 
 
 visitor of the university * The superior of the Grand 
 Seminary, for the time being, holds the office of rector. 
 
 Since the granting of the charter, unceasing efforts have 
 been employed to give it full effect. In 1853, five profess- 
 ors of the faculty of medicine were appointed. One of 
 them was sent to England, France, and Belgium, to pur- 
 chase a medical library, a museum, and a collection of 
 surgical instruments. During the following year, a great 
 number of books were procured for the faculty of law, and 
 also a collection for the study of materia medica. At 
 length, in September, 1854, lectures in the faculties of law 
 and medicine commenced after an inauguration ceremony, 
 in which Lord Elgin took part. Several buildings were 
 also commenced for the use of the university. They are 
 now completed at a cost of $208,421 ; $13,146 additional 
 have also been expended upon the library, and $6,264 for 
 new scientific apparatus and natural history collections. A 
 botanical garden is also contemplated. Three young pro- 
 fessors, graduates of the university, were in Europe, so as 
 to prepare themselves to give lectures in the faculties of 
 law, medicine, and arts. 
 
 His Koyal Highness the Prince of Wales visited the in- 
 stitution on the 22nd of August, 1860, and was pleased to 
 express his satisfaction with the institution by the founda- 
 tion of an annual prize which bears his name. 
 
 The faculties of law and medicine are now completely 
 organized. The faculty of arts has only three titular pro- 
 fessors; but several of the eleven intended courses are 
 already taught under the title of elementary courses. 
 
 The course of instruction embraces three years in the 
 faculties of law and arts, and four in those of divinity and 
 medicine. In the faculty of divinity, holy scripture, moral 
 
 * The name of Laval, given to this new institution, was that of the first 
 Roman Catholic bishop of Canada, a great promoter of education, and the 
 founder of the Quebec Seminary and other institutions. 
 
610 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 and dogmatic theology, sacred eloquence, ecclesiastical hia 
 tor J, and canon law are taught. The subjects of lec- 
 tures in law and medicine include those branches usually 
 taught in such faculties. 
 
 The library now contains twenty-eight thousand volumes ; 
 including two thousand in the law department, four thou- 
 sand in that of medicine, eight thousand in the different 
 branches of sciences and literature, and fourteen thousand 
 in the department of divinity. 
 
 Matriculation and Degrees. — The requisites for the degree 
 of B. A. are as follows : — 
 
 1. Every candidate shall undergo two examinations. 
 The first after having completed his course of rhetoric ; the 
 second after having terminated his course of philosophy. 
 
 The first examination embraces the following : translation 
 of Latin and Greek authors, Latin prose or verse ; universal 
 history and geography, history of Canada; the history and 
 principles of hterature and rhetoric; French or English 
 composition, at the option of the candidate. 
 
 The second examination embraces the following : a disser- 
 tation on logic, or on some point of metaphysics or ethics, 
 as decided by chance ; questions on physics and chemistry ; 
 problems and questions on mathematics and astronomy; 
 questions on natural history. 
 
 2. Those candidates who in both the examinations 
 have been placed in the first class obtain the degree of 
 B.A. Those belonging to the second class may attend 
 the courses of the university; but they are not advanced 
 until they have obtained the degree of B. A. Those be- 
 longing to the third class obtain no privilege; it is how- 
 ever, permitted to them to present themselves anew for 
 examination.* 
 
 * The standards are : firet class, those who obtain two-thirds of the total 
 number of marks ; second class, those who obtain more than one-third ; and 
 third class, those who obtain Utas than one-third. The Prince of Wales'* 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCB OF EDtJCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 511 
 
 The requisite for tho degree of M. A. is a successful at- 
 tendance on the obligatory courses of lectures in the faculty 
 during three years. 
 
 In the faculty of law, the degree of bachelor is obtained 
 only after having satisfactorily passed six examinations at 
 the end of the same number of terms. In medicine, nine 
 terms and nine satisfactor}'- exi^minations are required. 
 License in these faculties, and in divinity, requires four 
 years of successful attendance on all the courses, with 
 written and oral examinations. 
 
 In order to obtain the degree of B.D., it is necessary to 
 pass written and oral examinations upon the several 
 branches taught in the Grand Seminary. 
 
 No one is admitted to the degree of doctor in any of the 
 four faculties unless he has publicly and successfully advo- 
 cated numerous theses upon most of the branches "of the 
 respective faculties. The candidates are allowed to pass 
 this examination, four, three, or two years after having ob- 
 tained the degree of licentiate, according to the testimonial 
 which they received at their examination for the license; 
 viz., satisfactory; with distinction; or with the greatest distinc- 
 tion. 
 
 Students in law and medicine, whose parents are not in- 
 habitants of Quebec, are required to reside in the univer- 
 sity boarding-house. Two rooms for the use of each 
 student are furnished by the institution. 
 
 Besides the pupils regularly matriculated, students legally 
 admitted to the study of law or medicine, although they 
 have not followed a complete and regular course of classical 
 studies, have permission to attend the law and medical lec- 
 tures; but they can not arrive at the degrees. In the Faculty 
 of arts, the lectures are free for those who have already paid 
 for the lectures on law or medicine. Twenty half-gratuities 
 
 prize is given to the most successful candidate for the degree of B. A., provided 
 he has obtained at least four-fifths of the total number of marks. 
 
612 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 are granted to matriculated students, wlio have not the 
 means of paying the entire boarding fee. 
 
 The Quebec Seminaries {Grand and Minor.) 
 
 On the 26th March, 1663, five years after his arrival in 
 this province, the first Roman Catholic bishop of Canada, 
 Francois de Montmorency -Laval founded and afterwards 
 (1680) endowed with his own patrimony, an institution 
 which was called the Quebec Seminary. 
 
 The venerable founder died on the 6th of May, 1708, at 
 the age of eighty-six, after having spent nearly half a cen- 
 tury in Canada. By his influence at the court of Louis 
 XIY., he contributed much to the prosperity of this prov- 
 ince, and constantly showed himself a most energetic and 
 liberal promoter of education. In 1678, he solemnly laid 
 the corner-stone of a fine and massive stone building, which 
 though twice consumed by fire (1701 and 1705,) and much 
 injured by shells during the siege of 1759, is still standing. 
 He had thus to build it three times in the short space 
 of twenty -seven years. Being himself so worn out by old 
 age and infirmities, he had, during the two calamitous fires, 
 to be carried out by the hands of his faithful servants. 
 
 He also founded and maintained during a quarter of a 
 century, at St. Joachim de Beaupr^, another institution, 
 which comprised a common, a normal and an agricultural 
 school, a model farm with apprentice shops for such trades 
 as blacksmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights, &c. 
 
 Before the conquest of Canada, in 1759, the seminary 
 had no other pupils than those intended for the church. 
 These also went every day to the classes of the Jesuits. 
 When this college was converted into a barrack, in 1776, 
 the seminary undertook to instruct all boys, whether in- 
 tended for the church or not, in a classical course of study. 
 
 The number of students has been progressively increas- 
 ing up to the present time. In 1668, there were only four- 
 teen; in 1680, forty; and in 1690, eighty. It has now (1862) 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 513 
 
 three hundred and ninety -six in the minor seminary, or col- 
 lege, (of whom two hundred and thirty are boarders,) and 
 forty-two in the Grrand Seminary, studying in divinity. 
 
 From the beginning to the present time, about one thou- 
 sand students have completed a regular course of classical 
 studies, while from ten to eleven thousand have completed 
 a partial course. 
 
 The estimated value of the whole premises is $500,000, 
 including the university and seminary buildings; viz., 
 $230,000 for the university, and $270,000 for the seminary. 
 
 The library has been transferred to the university, as 
 well as some maps and scientific apparatus. About five 
 thousand volumes, expressly chosen for the students of the 
 grand and minor seminaries, remain in the college, and are 
 worth about $6,000; maps, $400. There are twenty -four 
 professors, besides ten officers otherwise employed. 
 
 The Grand Seminary comprises the classes of dogmatic 
 and moral theology, Holy Scripture, ecclesiastical history, 
 and other branches. The course of studies extends to three 
 years at least. No one is admitted to it unless he has 
 followed a complete course of literature and philosophy. 
 The students are all boarders, and are required to wear the 
 clerical costume. They pay eighty dollars for board ; but 
 the instruction is gratuitous. A library of two thousand 
 volumes is at their disposal. 
 
 The Minor Seminary comprises nine classes, of which 
 seven are in the course of literature. Students in philoso- 
 phy follow the courses of the faculty of arts in the univer- 
 sity during the two remaining years. 
 
 In order to be admitted as a student into the minor semi- 
 nary, it is necessary to read the maternal tongue (French or 
 English) very correctly, write pretty well, and have some 
 knowledge of grammar. 
 
 About thirty gratuities have been founded at different 
 periods and by different persons (eight of them by Mon- 
 
614: HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 seigneur de LavaJ,) for the students of the minor seminary. 
 About one-third of these gratuities are limited to the mem- 
 bers of certain families. 
 
 A library of three thousand volumes is available for all 
 the students in the minor seminary, at one dollar per annum. 
 
 2. University of McGUl College^ Montreal.^ 
 
 This university was founded by the will (dated in 1811) 
 of Hon. James McGrill, a merchant in Montreal.f Not 
 having any children, he bequeathed to the Koyal Institution 
 (a corporation established by the provincial parliament,) for 
 the advancement of learning, his estate of Burnside, con- 
 sisting of about forty-six acres of land near the city, and 
 the sum of £10,000 in money, as a foundation for a univer- 
 sity. The will was contested ; and, with the exception of 
 obtaining a royal charter in 1821, no action was taken upon 
 it until 1829. The first step towards the establishment of 
 the university was the organization, in that year, of the 
 faculties of arts and medicine. 
 
 In 1835, the Eev. Dr. BethuneJ was appointed principal 
 of the university ; and increased efforts were made towards 
 the establishment of the faculty of arts. After several 
 years' delay, it was formally opened in September, 1843, in 
 buildings erected for that purpose. The college, however, 
 did not receive adequate support ; and, at length, the pro- 
 vincial government was moved to aid in an endeavor to 
 
 * The materials from which this information in regard to MoGill College 
 University is derived was kindly furnished by the principal, J. W. Dawson, 
 Esq., LL.D., F.G.S. 
 
 t Hon. James MeGill was born in Glasgow, Scotland, on the 6th October, 
 1744. He emigrated, when a young man, and settled in Montreal, where he 
 engaged successfully in mercantile pursuits. He was elected to the house of 
 assembly as member for Montreal. Subsequently, he was appointed by the 
 Crown a member of the legislative and executive councils. In the war of 
 1812, he acted as a colonel and brigndier-general of militia. He died in Mon- 
 acal on the 19th December, 1813, at the age of sixty-nine years. 
 
 X Now (1863) dean of Christ's Church Cathedral, Montreal. 
 
HI8T0KICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 515 
 
 place it on a better footing. A new charter was obtained 
 in August, 1852, which contrasted favorably with the 
 former one in many of its most important provisions. 
 
 No aid having been received from the government, an 
 appeal was made, in December of the year 1856, to the 
 Protestant population of Montreal, which was met in a 
 spirit of ready and unrestrained generosity. An endow- 
 ment fund, amounting to $60,000, was subscribed by a num- 
 ber of gentlem'^n, not exceeding fifty. Of this sum, $20,000 
 were given by the Messrs. Molson (three brothers), for found- 
 ing a chair of English literature ; the remainder was made 
 up in sums varying from $600 to $2,000. In addition to 
 this munificent liberality, Wm. Molson, Esq. (one of the 
 brothers) erected, at his own expense, a wing to the Uni- 
 versity, which was inaugurated by His Excellency Lord 
 Monck, in 1862. This wing contains a spacious convoca- 
 tion hall, a handsomely fitted library, and a chemical labor- 
 atory. The whole is designated the William Molson Hall. 
 
 The growth of the University has been very rapid since 
 its reorganization in 1854. Its chief characteristics are : 
 (1.) Its religious complexion, — that is, it is Protestant, but 
 not denominational. (2.) Its endowment, which is owing 
 to the munificence of the mercantile and professional men 
 of Montreal, — it having received no permanent endow- 
 ment, and but a very small and uncertain annual grant 
 from the Legislature. (3.) The extent to which it has de- 
 veloped facilities for various kinds of literary, scientific, 
 and professional training, and, (4) The high standard of 
 graduation which it has maintained. There are also several 
 peculiarities in its management, which, having arisen from 
 long experience and past failures, have proved themselves 
 better adapted to the circumstances of the country than 
 those borrowed from abroad. 
 
 In addition to the sum of $60,000, willed to the univer- 
 sity by Mr. McGill, the land he bequeathed to it is valued 
 33 
 
616 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 at $120,000. The present value of the various buildings 
 attached to the university is about $128,000 more. The 
 value of the library, museum, apparatus, &c., is estimated 
 at $50,000. There are 8,000 volmnes in the library, which 
 is divided into three departments. There are 45 professors 
 and teachers of all kinds in the university, and in the schools 
 attached to it, viz., in the Faculty of Arts, 10 ; Faculty of 
 Medicine, 9 ; Faculty of Law, 5 ; in the ISTormal School, 
 2 ; High School, 7 ; Model School, 2 ; occasional and as- 
 sistant teachers, 10. The number of students attending 
 the university, in 1862-3, was 293 — ^viz., in the Faculty 
 of Medicine, 165 ; Faculty of Arts, 73 ; Law, 55 ; in the 
 Normal School, 71 ; pupils in the High School, 280, and 
 in the Model Schools, 300 ; total, 944. 
 
 The McGill Normal School, attached to the university, 
 provides the requisite training for teachers of elementary 
 and model schools. Teachers trained in this school are 
 entitled to official certificates of qualification. 
 
 St. Francis College, Kichmond, is an affiliated college of 
 the university. Its matriculated students can prosecute 
 any part of their studies under the Faculty of Arts, and 
 be admitted to examination for the degree of B. A. 
 
 Under regulations for middle class examinations, the 
 university has appointed examinations for pupils of any 
 school or academy, on passing which, such pupils are en- 
 titled to Junior or Senior school certificates of the uni- 
 versity. The object of these examinations, as in England, 
 is by active competition to encourage a better class of 
 schools ; to elevate the standard of education, and to in- 
 duce young men, about to enter into business, to pursue a 
 longer and more thorough course of preparatory study. 
 
 I. FACULTY OF ARTS. 
 
 1. Matricidation and Admission, — The subjects of ma- 
 triculation examination are as follows : — Latin Grammar ; 
 
HISTOKICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 517 
 
 Greek Grammar ; Caesar's Commentaries ; Sallust ; YirgiPs 
 JEneid, 1st book ; Xenophon's Anabasis, Ist book ; Arith- 
 metic; Algebra, to Quadratic Equations; Euclid's Ele- 
 ments, 3 books ; Writing English from dictation. In classics, 
 the amount of knowledge, rather than the particular authors 
 studied, will be regarded. Candidates for matriculation 
 as students in any special course, or for partial courses of 
 study, will be examined in the subjects necessary thereto, 
 as may from time to time be determined by the Faculty. 
 
 2. Scholarships and Bursaries. — Sixteen scholarships 
 have been placed by the university at the disposal of His 
 Excellency, the governor-general. These entitle the holders 
 to exemption from tuition fees. Eight other scholarships 
 will be granted by the university, from time to time, to 
 the most successful students who may present themselves 
 as candidates. One or more normal school bursaries, in 
 the faculty of arts, are offered for competition to students 
 of the third or fourth years. They entitle the holder to an 
 annual sum of $100, for a term not exceeding two years, 
 on condition that the candidate attend and practise teach- 
 ing in the high-school department, and subsequently to 
 teach for three years, in some public school or academy in 
 Lower Canada, after taking the degree of B. A., and a di- 
 ploma as a teacher of an academy. 
 
 3. Outline of the Course of Study (1.) for the degree of 
 B.A, — First year. — Classics; English literature; Mathe- 
 matics; History; Elementary Chemistry. 
 
 Second year. — Classics; French or German; Logic; 
 Mathematics; Botany; Elocution. 
 
 Third year. — Classics; French or German; Ehetoric; 
 Mathematical and Experimental Physics and Astronomy ; 
 Zoology. 
 
 Fourth year. — Classics; Intellectual and Moral Philos- 
 ophy; Natural Philosophy and Astronomy; Mineralogy 
 and Geology. 
 
518 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 Undergraduates are required to study either French or 
 German for two years. 
 
 Students intending to join any Theological school, may 
 take Hebrew instead of French or German. 
 
 Students of the third or fourth years, matriculated in 
 the faculties of law or medicine of the university, or en- 
 tered as candidates for honors, will be entitled to claim 
 certain exemptions. 
 
 (2.) For the Diploma of Graduate in Civil Engineer- 
 ing. — First year, — Drawing; Mensuration; Surveying; 
 Mathematics of the second year, in arts; Experimental 
 Physics, with the ordinary mathematics and physics of 
 the third year, in arts; English literature; French or 
 German; Chemistry. 
 
 Second year. — Drawing; Engineering; Higher Mathe- 
 matics and Physics ; Geology and Mineralogy ; French or 
 German. 
 
 4. Examinations, Prizes, Certificate, and Honors. — 
 (1.) Prizes and certificates of merit are given to those 
 matriculated students who may have distinguished them- 
 selves in the studies of a particular class, and who have 
 attended all the other classes proper to their year. 
 
 (2.) General honors of first or second rank are given to 
 those matriculated students who show a high degree of 
 proficiency in all the studies proper to their year. 
 
 (3.) Special honors, of first or second rank, are given to 
 those matriculated students who have successfully passed 
 the honor examinations, in any class in which studies for 
 honors have been provided, and have also passed creditably 
 the ordinary examinations in all the subjects proper to 
 their year. 
 
 (4.) The Chapman Gold Medal is given to the student 
 who, being among those who have taken honors of the 
 first rank in the subjects appointed for the year, shall, 
 in the ordinary examination for the degree of B. A., 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 619 
 
 show the greatest proficiency in the greatest number of 
 subjects. 
 
 (5.) The Prince of Wales Gold Medal is awarded to the 
 student who shall have passed creditably the examinations 
 for the degree of B. A., and taken the highest honors of 
 the first rank, in a subject to be prescribed from year to 
 year by the Faculty. 
 
 II. FACULTY OF MEDICINE. 
 
 Courses of Lectures, — The number of professors in the 
 Faculty is nine ; the number of classes, ten, viz.: — 1. Anat- 
 omy ; 2. Chemistry ; 3. Materia Medica ; 4. Institutes 
 of Medicine; 6. Practice of Medicine; 6. Surgery; Y. 
 Midwifery ; 8. Medical Jurisprudence ; 9. Clinical Medi- 
 cine ; 10. Clinical Surgery. 
 
 Besides the above classes, students are required to at- 
 tend one course of Botany, and one course of Zoology. 
 
 m. FACULTY OF LAW. 
 
 Course of Lectures. — The number of Professors in this 
 Faculty is five; and the complete course of study extends 
 over three years, but it may be shortened to two years when 
 the student matriculates in the third year of his indentures. 
 
 The following are the subjects of lectures embraced in 
 the complete course of three years : 
 
 To Students of the First year : — On Public and Consti- 
 tutional Law ; on Contracts ; on the Civil Law ; on the 
 Origin and History of the Laws of France, of England, 
 and of Lower Canada ; on the Law of Eeal Estate and 
 Customary Law. 
 
 To Students of the Second year : — On Public and Con- 
 stitutional Law ; on Commercial Contracts ; on the Civil 
 Law ; on Legal Bibliography ; on the Law of Real Estate 
 and Customary Law. 
 
 To Students of the Third year : — On Criminal Law ; on 
 
620 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEE CANADA. 
 
 Commercial Contracts; on Leases; on the Law of Eeal 
 Estate and Customary Law. 
 
 UNIVEESITY OF BISHOP's COLLEGE,* LENNOXVILLE. 
 
 This University had its origin in the pressing want of a 
 theological school for educating candidates for the ministry 
 of the United Church of England and L-eland, in Lower 
 Canada. It was projected by the Rev. L. Doolittle, M. A., 
 then missionary of the Church of England at Lennoxville 
 and Sherbrooke ; and an act of incorporation was obtained 
 in 184:3.t In 1844 the building was commenced ; and in 
 September, 1845, the college was opened in temporary 
 apartments until the completion of the entire building in 
 the October of the following year. In 1853, the plan of 
 the college was enlarged, and it then became a university 
 by a royal charter, and was empowered to confer degrees 
 " in the several Arts, and the Faculties of Divinity, Law, 
 and Medicine." It held its first public meeting of con- 
 vocation for that purpose on the 7th of October, 1854. In 
 1857, a handsome chapel was erected adjoining the Col- 
 lege ; and in 1860-61 buildings on an extensive scale were 
 also erected for the pupils of the junior department, or 
 Grammar school. The attendance of students has not 
 been very great. It is now twenty-three in the faculties 
 of Theology and Arts. The number in the junior de- 
 partment is about 115. 
 
 The endowment of the University is derived from private 
 sources, and donations from the Societies for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge, and for Propagating the Gospel in 
 Foreign Parts. It has also an annual parliamentary grant. 
 The annual expenses of the University and Grammar 
 
 * The information in regard to this University is partly derived from the 
 Canada Educational Directory. 
 
 f On the appointment of the bishop of Montreal, this act was amended by 
 the 16th Victoria, cap. 60. 
 
HISTOKICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 521 
 
 School are about $10,000 ; and the value of the buildings, 
 furniture, and library of 4,000 volumes, is estimated at 
 $55,000. There are two "Jubilee scholarships," of the 
 value of $140 per annum, tenable for three years each ;* 
 besides a scholarship founded by the Prince of Wales in 
 1860. 
 
 FACULTY OF ARTS. 
 
 The degrees conferred on this faculty are B. A. and M. A. 
 The requisites for the degree of B. A. are, 1. Having passed 
 an examination in the subjects prescribed to candidates 
 for matriculation ; 2. Being of the standing of three years 
 (nine terms) from matriculation in the University ; 3. Hav- 
 ing, in each of these years, attended the lectures and passed 
 the examinations prescribed for each such year of the course. 
 
 The ordinary college course extends over four years, and 
 includes classical and English literature and composition, 
 history, mathematics, natural and experimental philosophy, 
 chemistry, logic, rhetoric, moral philosophy, and divinity. 
 At the end of the first year, those college students who 
 pass the prescribed matriculation examination, are entitled 
 to become members of the University. 
 
 The requisites for the degree of M. A. are : 1. Being of 
 the standing of three years from admission to the degree 
 of B. A. ; 2. Having performed the exercises prescribed for 
 candidates for the degree of M. A. 
 
 The following are the subjects for matriculation in this 
 faculty for 1863 : 
 
 Divinity. — The Scriptures generally. 
 
 Greek and Latin Languages. — Xenophon's Anabasis, 
 b. iii. ; Homer's Iliad, b. ii. to line 484 ; Cicero pro M. 
 Marcello ; Yirgil's Eclogues ; Horace's Odes, b. ii. ; Eng- 
 lish and Latin composition. 
 
 * The diocese of Quebec sent home £500 sterling to the Jubilee of the So- 
 ciety for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts; the donation was returned 
 by the society, doubled, and was invested in securities for the scholarships. 
 
522 HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEE CANADA. 
 
 Mathematics, — Arithmetic and Algebra; Euclid, to b. 
 vi. ; plane trigonometry. 
 
 History. — Outlines of Greek and Koman history. 
 
 Candidates for classical honors are required to pass an 
 examination in additional portions of classical authors ; 
 in some treatise or treatises of ancient philosophy ; and in 
 some work or works of the Greek or Roman orators. And 
 for mathematical honors, in differential and integral calciji- 
 lus, and in one or more of the subjects prescribed for the 
 college course. 
 
 FACULTY OF DIVINITr. 
 
 The degrees conferred in this faculty are B. D. and D. D. 
 
 The requisites for the degree of B. D. are : 1. Being of 
 the standing of seven years from admission to the degree 
 of M. A., or, being licentiates in Theology of nine years' 
 standing; 2. Having passed the examination, and per- 
 formed the exercises prescribed for candidates for the de- 
 gree of B. D., which are : 
 
 An examination in the Epistles (in the dfiginal) of the 
 New Testament ; one Latin and one Greek treatise of one 
 of the Fathers of the Church ; ecclesiastical history gener- 
 ally, and the history of the Church of England ; one of the 
 major Prophets, or the whole of the minor. Also, a Latin 
 sermon, on a subject to be given out at the time of the 
 examination. 
 
 The course of lectures for theological students extends 
 over two years, and is prescribed by the bishops. 
 
 Persons admitted, by authority of the bishops, to study 
 in this faculty, without graduating in arts, may, after two 
 years' residence, and having passed a satisfactory examina- 
 tion in the subjects prescribed for the divinity course, re- 
 ceive certificates as licentiates in theology. 
 
 The requisites for the degree of D. D. are : 1. Being of 
 the standing of ten years from admission to the degree of 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 523 
 
 B. D. ; 2. Having performed the exercises prescribed for 
 candidates for the degree of D. D. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CLASSICAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGES."^ (ARRANGED IN 
 CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.) 
 
 (1.) Classical College am^d Theological Seminary of Mon 
 treal. — ^The theological serainary, or Grand Seminaire^oi 
 St. Sulpice, at Montreal, was founded in 1647, by the 
 clergy of the order of St. Sulpice, in Paris. In 1677, the 
 king of France granted them letters patent ; but the Petit 
 Seminaire, or College of Montreal, which was founded 
 by the Seminary of St. Sulpice, was not established until 
 the year 1773. 
 
 The first Sulpician seminary, or college, established at 
 Montreal, was named St. Raphael.f It was opened in 
 the Chateau Yaudreuil, which was built in 1723, on the 
 square now known as the Place Jacques Cartier^ in the 
 city of Montreal. The chateau having been destroyed by 
 fire in 1803, the college was reopened in 1806, under the 
 name of the Seminary, or College of Montreal. 
 
 The number of professors in the Petit Seminaire^ or col- 
 lege, is eight, and the number of pupils about 260. The 
 library of the college contains upwards of 10,000 volumes ; 
 and the value of the museum is about $12,000. A great 
 many of the minerals were given by the celebated Abbe 
 
 * For a portion of the information in regard to these institutions, the writer 
 is indebted to the '^Memorial de V Education duBas Canada, par J. B. Meilleur, 
 M. D., LL. D.," late Chief Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada. 
 Montreal, 1860. 
 
 f Another college of the same name was established at St. Raphael, in the 
 county of Glengarry, U. C, by the late Right Rev. Bishop McDoneU. It was 
 afterward removed to Kingston, and is now known as Regiopolis College. 
 
524 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEE CANADA. 
 
 Haiij. The annual income of the college is about $22,000 ; 
 and the value of the college buildings and premises is esti- 
 mated at $500,000. 
 
 The Seminary buildings in Montreal having, in 1862, 
 been rented to the troops and converted into barracks, the 
 College was removed to the new Grand Seminary build- 
 ings, which were lately erected on a fine site south-east of 
 the mountain. These new premises are valued at $120,000. 
 The Grand Seminary is designed for the students in theo- 
 logy, of whom there are about eighty. The number of 
 professors is six ; and the number of volumes in the library 
 is 2,500. 
 
 The Seminary of St. Sulpice also established, in 1789, 
 and still maintains, at an annual expense of $32,000, some 
 excellent primary schools in the city and parish of Montreal. 
 
 The Grand Seminary, like that of Quebec, was founded 
 especially for giving instruction in theology to young men 
 destined for the priesthood in Canada and in the United 
 States. 
 
 (2.) Classical College and Theological Semvnary of 
 Nicolet, — This college was founded in 1804, by the Rev. 
 Mr. Brassard. He bequeathed it to Mgr. Denaut, tenth 
 Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec. It languished for 
 many years ; but, in 1821, it was incorporated ; and in 
 1826-30 it was re-established on an extensive scale by Mgr. 
 Panet, twelfth Roman Catholic Bishop of Quebec. It has 
 now eighteen professors and masters, and is attended by 
 about 260 pupils. Its library contains 4,000 volumes, and 
 it has, besides, a very good museum. The Theological 
 Seminary was established in 1854. The revenue of the 
 college is about $13,000 per annum ; and the value of the 
 buildings and premises is estimated at about $111,000. 
 
 (3.) Classical College and Theological Seminary of 
 St Hyacmthe. — ^In 1812, when St. Hyacinthe contained 
 but thirty houses, the Rev. A. Girouard projected this 
 
HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 525 
 
 institution. It made rapid progress, and was. incorporated 
 in 1835. As the number of pupils increased, the old college 
 was replaced by a spacious and elegant building of 200 
 feet front, on the outskirts of the city, at the cost of 
 Francis Cadoret, Esq., a public-spirited citizen of St. Hya- 
 cinthe. It has twenty-one professors and masters, and is 
 attended by nearly 300 pupils. Besides a library of 10,000 
 volumes, it possesses an excellent museum of natural 
 history, &c. The annual income of the college is from 
 $24,000 to $30,000 ; and the value of the buildings and 
 premises is estimated at $120,000. 
 
 (4.) Classical College and Theological Seminary of Ste. 
 Therese de Blainmlle, — This college was founded, amid 
 many difficulties, in 1824-5, by the Kev. Charles Du- 
 charme. It was enlarged in 1832, again in 1839, and finally 
 completed in 1845. It was incorporated the same year, 
 1845. It has about fifteen professors and teachers, and is 
 attended by nearly 185 pupils. It possesses a good library 
 of 2,200 volumes, and a museum valued at $3,200. The 
 value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $62,000 ; 
 and its annual income is about $13,400. The Theological 
 seminary was established in 1840. 
 
 (5). Chambly Industrial College, — This institution was 
 founded in 1825, by the Yery Eev. P. M. Mignault, Y. 
 G. It was incorporated in 1836, but has since been 
 closed. 
 
 (6.) Classical and Industrial College of Ste. Anne de la 
 Pocatiere. — ^This college was founded in 1827, by the Rev. 
 C. F. Painchaud, aided by the Legislature and the contri- 
 butions of friends of education in the vicinity. It was 
 opened in 1829. In addition to its classical and com- 
 mercial courses, a third one in agriculture was added in 
 18o8. It has a library of about 5,000 volumes, and a good 
 museum. The number of professors and teachers is fifteen, 
 and of pupils 260. The annual income of the college is 
 
626 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 
 
 about $20,000 ; and the value of the buildings and premises 
 is estimated at $80,000. 
 
 (7.) L^ Assorrvption Classical and Industrial College. — 
 The establishment of this college, in 1832, is due to the 
 exertions of the Rev. F. Labelle, and his brother Edward, 
 Dr. Cazeneuve, and Dr. Meilleur (late Superintendent of 
 Education for Lower Canada), aided by the Legislature, 
 and the contributions of the parishioners of L'Assomption 
 village. The act of incorporation was passed in 1841, and 
 amended in 1858. It has a library of 1,500 volumes and 
 a museum of Natural History. It numbers fifteen pro- 
 fessors and teachers, and is attended by about 180 pupils. 
 The annual revenue of the college is about $8,000 ; and 
 the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at 
 $24,000. 
 
 (8.) Joliette Industrial College. — In 1846, the Hon. B. 
 Joliette, aided by others, founded this college in the vil- 
 lage of Industry. In 1851, it was placed under the direc- 
 tion of the clerks of St. Yiator, a religious educational 
 order founded in France, in 1832. There are twelve pro- 
 fessors and teachers and about 350 pupils in the college. 
 It has a library of about 800 volumes. The income of the 
 college is about $5,000 ; and the value of the buildings and 
 premises is estimated at $17,500. 
 
 (9.) Masson Industrial College. — ^The foundation of this 
 college, in the village of Terrebonne, in 1847, by the Rev. 
 Mr. Theberge, is principally due to the benevolent gener- 
 osity of Madam Masson, widow of the Hon. Joseph Mas- 
 son. The Hon. Edward Masson, their son, also contri- 
 buted liberally to the erection of the new building. The 
 value of the college and premises is estimated at $36,000, 
 and its library of 1,500 volumes and museum at $2,000. 
 Its income is about $9,000 per annum. The number of 
 professors and teachers is twenty, and of pupils 300. 
 
 (10.) Jesuit College de Ste. Marie^ Mont/real. — Seven 
 
HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN XOWEE CANADA. 527 
 
 years after the second arrival of the Jesuits in Canada, they 
 founded (in 1849) St. Mary's College, Montreal, under the 
 auspices of Mgr. Bourget, second Boman Catholic Bishop 
 of Montreal. In 1852, the college was incorporated, and 
 in the same year a Law School was established in the in- 
 stitution. .There are fourteen professors and teachers in the 
 college, and the number of students is about 320 — including 
 70 in the Law School. The number of volumes in the 
 library is nearly 1,200. The annual income of the institu- 
 tion is upwards of $25,000 ; and the value of the buildings 
 and premises is estimated at $72,000. 
 
 (11.) Bigaud Industrial and Commercial College. — 
 Under the authority of the Lower Canada School Act of 
 1846, this college was founded in 1850, by the Rev. Mr. 
 Desautels (a generous friend to education), and the school 
 commissioners of the parish. It is placed under the di- 
 rection of the clerks of St. Viator, but is subject to govern- 
 mental inspection. The number of professors and teachers 
 is seven, and of pupils in attendance about 120. The 
 annual income is about $2,000 ; and the value of the build- 
 ings and premises is estimated at $5,000. 
 
 (12.) Classical and Industrial College of Ste. Marie de 
 Monnoir. — ^This college, founded in 1853, by the Very 
 Rev. E. Crevier, Y. G., was incorporated in 1855. It has 
 eight professors and teachers, and is attended by about 180 
 pupils. Its library was established by the contributions of 
 the clergy in the diocese of St. Hyacinthe. The annual 
 income of the college is about $3,000 ; and the value of the 
 buildings and premises is estimated at $10,500. 
 
 (13.) Industrial and Commercial College of St. Michel, 
 — ^This college was also founded under the authority of the 
 School Act of 1846, by the Rev. JST. C. Fortier, and the 
 school commissioners of the parish. It has three professors 
 and teachers, and is attended by about 150 pupils. The 
 number of volumes in the library is upwards of 1,000. 
 
528 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 The annual income of the college is about $4,000 ; and the 
 estimated value of the buildings and premises is $6,500. 
 
 (14.) Industrial and Commercial College of Notre Dane 
 de Levis. — This college was projected in 1850, and founded 
 in 1854, bj the Kev. J. D. Deziel, and his parishioners. It 
 was first under the direction of the Christian Brothers, but, 
 in 1860, it was placed under the direction of the corpora- 
 tion of Quebec Seminary. A Latin course was added, so 
 as to prepare the third-year boys for admission to the 
 fourth class of the Quebec Seminary. It has seven pro- 
 fessors and teachers, and is attended by nearly 180 pupils. 
 The value of the college and premises is estimated at 
 $32,000, and its annual income at $4,500. There are 
 2,000 volumes in the college library, besides $400 worth 
 of apparatus. 
 
 (15.) St. Francis Classical College. — ^This college was 
 founded at Kichmond, by subscriptions, chiefly collected in 
 the neighborhood, in 1854, and opened in 1856. It is in 
 affiliation with McGill College University, and is man- 
 aged by a board of Protestant trustees, of which Lord 
 Aylmer, who resides there, is president. The annual in- 
 come is about $2,000 ; and the value of the college and 
 premises is estimated at $12,000. It has eight professors 
 and teachers, and is attended by about 120 pupils. Its 
 library contains 1,000 volumes. 
 
 (16.) Indust/rial and Commercial College of Laval. — 
 This college was established in 1854, at St. Vincent de 
 Paul, near Montreal, by the Eev. N". Lavallee, and E. 
 Germain, Esq. It has seven professors and teachers, and 
 is attended by about 100 pupils. Its library contains 1,000 
 volumes. The annual income of the college is about 
 $1,500 ; and the value of the buildings and premises is 
 estimated at $5,000. 
 
 (17.) Industrial and Commercial College of Ste. Marie 
 de la Beauce. — ^This college was founded in 1854, by the 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 529 
 
 Rev. Mr. Proulx, and is under the direction of the Christian 
 Brothers. It has three professors and teachers, and is 
 attended by upwards of 100 pupils. The annual income 
 is about $600 ; and the value of the buildings and premises 
 is estimated at $6,500. 
 
 (18.) Industrial and Oommereial College of Yercheres, 
 — In 1854, this college was founded by the Rev. Mr. 
 Brunneau, and is placed under the direction of the clerks 
 of St. Yiator. It has nine professors and teachers, and 
 is attended by about 100 pupils. The annual income of 
 the college is about $1,500 ; and the value of the buildings 
 and premises is estimated at $8,500. 
 
 (19.) Industrial and Commercial College of St. Germain 
 de Rimouski. — ^The year 1854 was noted for the founda- 
 tion of the ^vQ preceding colleges. This one was also 
 founded in 1854, by the Rev. C. Tan quay. It had to con- 
 tend with many difficulties; but in 1861, it was reorganized 
 and placed upon an efficient footing. The study of Agri- 
 culture was also introduced into it. It has now six pro- 
 fessors and teachers, and is attended by about 110 pupils. 
 The college premises are valued at about $10,000. The 
 income is about $1,200 per annum. 
 
 (20.) Industrial and Commercial College of Sherhroolce. 
 ' — This college, or institute, was founded in 1855, by Mgr. 
 Prince, Roman Catholic Bishop of St. Hyacinthe. It has 
 three professors and teachers, and is attended by about YO 
 pupils. Its annual income is about $700 ; and the value 
 of the buildings and premises is estimated at $2,400. 
 
 (21.) Industrial and Commercial College of la Chute. — 
 This college was incorporated in 1856, and was established 
 chiefly by the contributions of the principal inhabitants 
 of La Chute. There are four professors or teachers, and 
 the number of pupils is 1Y5. The annual income of the 
 college is about $1,100, and the value of the buildings and 
 premises is estimated at $2,000. 
 
530 HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 (22.) IndusiHal and Commercial College of Yarennes 
 — This college was established in 1855. It has four pro- 
 fessors and teachers, and is attended bj 120 pupils. 
 The annual income of the college is about $750 ; and the 
 value of the buildings and premises is estimated at $12,000. 
 
 (23.) Classical College of Three Rivers. — This college, 
 which is under the direction of Mgr. the Roman Catholic 
 Bishop of Three Rivers, was established in 1859, and in- 
 corporated in 1860. It was designed to be similar to the 
 classical colleges at Quebec and Montreal. The number 
 of professors and teachers is nine, and the number of 
 pupils 110. The annual income is about $4,100 ; and the 
 number of volumes in the library is 800. The value of 
 its apparatus, &c., is $1,000. 
 
 (24.) Industrial and Commercial College of Longueuil, 
 — This institution, formerly an academy, was erected into 
 a college in 1860. It has seven professors and teachers, 
 and is attended by about 350 pupils. The number of 
 volumes in the library is 250. The annual income is about 
 $1,600 ; and the value of the building and premises is 
 estimated at $1,250. 
 
 (25.) The Morrin Classical College^ Quebec. — This in- 
 stitution was founded by deed of gift from the late Dr. 
 Morrin, of Quebec, in 1860. It was incorporated in 1861, 
 and opened in 1862, under two professors. It is attended 
 by twenty-five students. The estimated value of the College 
 property is $50,000 ; but the buildings are not yet erected. 
 The classical High Schools of Quebec and McGill College 
 are respectively attached to Morrin and McGill colleges. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ACADEMIES FOB BOYS AND GIRLS. 
 
 There were in Lower Canada, in 1861, sixty-three acad- 
 emies for boys, and for boys and girls — mixed; eighty. 
 
HISTOBICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION m LOWER CANADA. 531 
 
 four for girls ; or one hundred and forty-seven in all, taught 
 by 733 persons. These academies were attended by 21,406 
 pupils. Their united annual income was $240,000, and the 
 aggregate value of the landed property attached to the 
 various institutions, including buildings occupied, was esti- 
 mated at $1,700,000. The number of volumes in the 
 libraries of these academies was nearly 45,000. 
 
 The sixty-three academies for boys, and for boys and 
 girls mixed, were, in 1861, attended by 4,571 boys and 
 1,372 girls — total, 5,943; of which number 3,794 were 
 Koman Catholics and 2,149 Protestants. In the wjademies 
 for boys exclusively, only 310 pupils out of 4,571 were 
 learning Latin. Those for boys and girls mixed are ne- 
 cessarily less severe in their course of study, being design- 
 ed to supply a superior elementary education for the youth 
 of both sexes. 
 
 The eighty-four academies for girls were, in 1861, 
 attended by 15,363, and 100 young boys; total, 15,463; of 
 which number only 193 were Protestants, the remaining 
 15,270 being Eoman Catholics. In these academies for 
 girls are included the various convents in Lower Canada, 
 the most noted of which are the Convent of the Ursulines 
 at Quebec, founded in 1640, and that at Three Elvers, 
 founded in 1697 ; the convents of the Sisters of the Con- 
 gregation of Notre Dame at Montreal and Quebec, and 
 the larger convents of other religious orders in the cities 
 and towns of Lower Canada. The course of instruction 
 in these convents embraces all the higher departments of 
 female education, such as the modern languages, music, 
 drawing, painting, botany, mineralogy, chemistry, em- 
 broidery, etc. In the eighty-four academies for girls there 
 are 474 nun teachers, 78 lay female teachers, and one lay 
 professor ; total, 553 ; being on an average nearly seven 
 teachers to each academy, or one for every twe»ty-eight 
 pupils. ^I.^*.^ 
 
 34 
 
632 HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWES CANADA. 
 
 CHAPTEE lY. 
 / 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 There are in Lower Canada three Normal Schools ; 
 namely, two in Montreal and one in Quebec. Of the two 
 in Montreal, the Jacques Cartier is designed for Eoman 
 Catholics, and the McGill for Protestants ; and the one in 
 Quebec, viz., the Laval, is designed for Roman Catholics. 
 These three institutions were established by the Hon. Dr. 
 Chauveau, under the authority of an act of Parliament, 
 in 1857. Their annual income amounts to $37,000 ; and 
 the value of the buildings and premises is estimated at 
 about $100,000. The number of professors and teachers 
 is 30, viz., 24: males and six females. The number of 
 student teachers in attendance at the three schools in 1861 
 was 207, viz. : 98 males and 109 females, or 150 Roman 
 Catholics and 57 Protestants. The number of volumes 
 in the three libraries is 11,000. The course of study ex- 
 tends over two and three years. A model school for 
 practice is attached to each of the Montreal Normal 
 Schools, and two to the Quebec school. These four 
 schools are taught by eleven teachers and are attended by 
 704: pupils — boys and girls. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL, OR SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Under the head of special schools may be enumerated 
 theological schools, law schools, medical schools, agricul- 
 tural schools, schools of art and manufacture, and deaf 
 and dumb schools. 
 
 The Theological Schools embrace (1.) the Roman Ca- 
 tholic Seminaries of Quebec and Montreal, and the the- 
 ological schools in the colleges of St. Hyacinthe, Nicolet, 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 533 
 
 Ste. Th^rese de Blainville ; and (2.) the Church of England 
 Faculty of Theology in the University of Bishop's Col- 
 lege, Lennoxville.* In nearly all the (E,. C.) classical col- 
 leges of Lower Canada provision is made for giving a lim- 
 ited course of instruction in theology to students designed 
 for the priesthood. All such students, however, are re- 
 quired to finish their theological studies at the Grand 
 Seminary of Quebec or Montreal. 
 
 The Law Schools (already referred to also), are those in 
 connection with the universities of Laval and McGill, and 
 with the Jesuit College of Ste. Marie, Montreal.* 
 
 The medical schools include those in connection with 
 the Laval and McGill College Universities, and the Mont- 
 real School of Medicine and Surgery. This latter school 
 was established in 1843, and incorporated in 1845. 
 
 The only agricultural school in Lower Canada, we be- 
 lieve, is that in connection with the College de Ste. Anne 
 de la Pocati^re. It is attended by about ten pupils. 
 
 CHAPTEE YL 
 
 M(»EL, ELEMENTARY, AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS, ETC. 
 
 The model schools of Lower Canada are denominated 
 Superior Primary Schools, so as to distinguish them from 
 the secondary or elementary common schools. They in- 
 clude the better class of Protestant and Eoman Catholic 
 boys and girls' schools in cities, towns, and villages. Many 
 of them are under the control of particular societies and 
 religious communities,t but they nevertheless receive a 
 share of the legislative school grant. In 1861, there were 
 239 of these superior primary schools in Lower Canada, 
 
 * See separate account of eadi institution in Chapter IL 
 f See following chapter. 
 
 L_,. 
 
534: HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION TN LOWEB CANADA. 
 
 viz., 189 for boys and fifty for girls. Of this 239, only 
 125 received public aid to the amount of $16,400; the re- 
 maining 114 were private or " independent." 
 
 The elementary schools include the ordinary secondary 
 or common schools, and the Protestant dissentient com- 
 mon schools. There were, in 1861, 2,746 of the former, 
 attended by 134,777 pupils, and 143 of the latter, attended 
 by 5,119 pupils. Both classes receive public aid alike. 
 
 The number of private or independent schools reported 
 to have been in existence in Lower Canada, in 1861, was 
 325, attended by 22,355 pupils. 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL COMMUNITIES, SOCIETIES, AND SCHOOL ORGAN 
 IZATI0N8. 
 
 The educational communities, societies, and school 
 organizations of Lower Canada are numerous, and may 
 be referred to briefly, in chronological order, as follows : — 
 
 1. The JRecolletSy or Franciscans, were the first mis- 
 sionaries in Canada, as well as the first teachers. They 
 came to Canada after Champlain, 1615. In 1616, Frere 
 Pacifique established a school at Three Rivers ; and about 
 the same time, Frere le Caron established one at Tadousac. 
 In 1820, the Recollets, under the French king's authority, 
 established a convent at Quebec, to which the famous 
 Prince de Conde made a liberal donation. They also es- 
 tablished schools in the county parishes, as well as in 
 Yercheres, Quebec, and Montreal. At the conquest, in 
 1759, their lands, with those of the Jesuits, were taken 
 possession of by the crown. The last of the order, Pere 
 Louis (Demers), ordained in 1757, died at Montreal in 1813. 
 
 2. ITie Jesuits came to Quebec in 1625. Pere Le- 
 ]eune, one of the order, opened his Indian school at Que- 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 535 
 
 bee, in 1632, and Pere Lalemant his French school, at the 
 same place, in 1635. In the same year the Jesuit College 
 was opened in Quebec, and was continued as a college — 
 although the order had been suppressed — until 1776, when 
 it was converted into a barrack by the British govern- 
 ment. The Jesuits established several elementary schools 
 in the neighborhood, but they were closed after the order 
 was suppressed. In 1842 the Jesuits again arrived in 
 Canada, and, in 1848, established the College de Ste. 
 Marie, at Montreal. They have also established Superior, 
 a convent seven miles from Montreal. 
 
 3. The JJrsulines. — In 1639, Madame La Peltrie founded 
 the celebrated convent of the ,XJrsulines in Quebeo; and in 
 1697, Mgr. St. Yalier, Bishop of Quebec, founded another 
 extensive convent of the Ursulines at Three Rivers. The 
 Hotel Dieu, at Quebec, was also founded in 1639, by the 
 Dachesse d'Aiguillon (niece of the Cardinal Richelieu). 
 
 4. Ladies of the Congregation of Notre Dame.-^^\% 
 community, as an offshoot of one which still exists in Paris, 
 was established at Montreal, in 1653, by Dlle. Marguerite 
 Bourgeois. The first school was opened at Montreal, in 
 1657, and was chiefly attended by Indian girls. The 
 number of schools gradually increased in 1727, to 34, in- 
 cluding one in Kingston, Upper Canada, and two in Nova 
 Scotia. At present, not less than 10,000 attend the various 
 schools and convents established by this community. 
 
 5. Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning.. 
 — A Board or Council of Education under this name was 
 authorized by Act of Parliament in 1801. The members 
 of the Royal Institution were not, however, appointed 
 until 1818. The object of the institution was to promote 
 the establishment of elementary schools. In this it failed ; 
 and its powers have, by successive school Acts, been grad- 
 ually limited, so that it is now, we believe, connected with 
 McGill College only as a Board of Governors. 
 
536 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 6. The Fdhrique Schools. — In 1824, a Legislative Act 
 was passed giving power to the fabriques, or Roman Catho- 
 lic parish corporation, to establish schools. These schools 
 are now under the control of the local school authorities. 
 
 7. The Dissentient Schools. — ^These schools originated in 
 a desire to provide an education in Roman Catholic com- 
 munities for the children of the purely Protestant part of 
 the population of Lower Canada. They were contem- 
 plated in a bill which was introduced into the Lower Can- 
 ada House of Assembly in 1829, but which then failed to. 
 become law. The General School Law for Upper and 
 Lower Canada, however, which was passed in 1841, dis- 
 tinctly authorized the establishment of Protestant Dissen- 
 tient schools in Lower Canada, and separate schools in 
 Upper Canada, and they have ever since been in existence. 
 In 1861 there were in Lower Canada 143 of the Dissen- 
 tient schools, attended by 5,119 pupils. 
 
 8. Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes, or Christian Brothers^ 
 Schools. — ^This religious order was established in France, 
 in 1679, and it was introduced into Canada in 1837. Its 
 schools are now very numerous and well attended. 
 
 9. Continental Church and School Society. — This society 
 (formerly the " Colonial Church Society," and the " New- 
 foundland School Society"), in connection with the Church 
 of England, originated in London in 1823 ; and its 5pe- 
 rations were extended to Canada in 1838. In January, 
 1851, the two Societies named were united, and became 
 the " Colonial Church and School Society." In May, 1861, 
 the present name was adopted. A branch of the Society 
 exists in each of the Church of England dioceses of 
 Quebec and Montreal. In the Montreal diocese it has a 
 Model School, and an Infant School in each of the two 
 dioceses. The number of other elementary schools, in con- 
 nection with the Society, is 30 ; viz. : 20 in the diocese 
 of Montreal, and 10 in the diocese of Quebec. Total, 33 ; 
 
HISTOEICAL SKETTCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 537 
 
 attended by about 1,600 pupils. The annual expenditure 
 on behalf of these schools is nearly $12,000, of which the 
 government grant is about $1,000. One hundred and five 
 schools have been established, or at some time aided in 
 Canada by the Society. 
 
 10. Ladies of the Sacred Heart — This religious com- 
 munity came from France in 1842. It has an extensive 
 convent at Sault au Recollet, near Montreal. 
 
 11. Sisters of Providence. — This community was estab- 
 lished by Mgr. Bourget, in 1844. Upwards of 1,000 
 pupils attend the schools of the order. 
 
 12. Brothers of St. Joseph. — These brothers came from 
 France in 1847. They have several schools, in which they 
 afford' instruction in agriculture and the useful sciences. 
 
 13. Ladies of Ste. Croix. — ^This community, founded in 
 France in 1839, established a convent at Montreal in 1847. 
 They have also several other convents in the country. 
 
 14. Sisters of Ste. Anne. — ^This community originated 
 in Canada in 1848. It has four convents in Lower Canada. 
 
 15. Sisters of the Presentation. — ^This community came 
 from France in 1853. It has six convents in the diocese of 
 St. Ilyacinthe. 
 
 16. Sisters de V Assorrvption originated in the diocese 
 of Three Rivers in 1853. Their convent is at St. Gregoire. 
 
 17. The other Poman Catholic religious teaching com- 
 munit/ies'^ are the Ladies of the Holy Name of Jesus, 
 Sisters of the Holy Cross, and the Sisters of Charity, &c 
 Those which are not teaching communities are the Grey 
 Sisters or Nuns, who have charge of the Asylum for old 
 men and other charitable institutions at Montreal, and the 
 Ladies of the Good Shepherd, who have charge of a Refuge 
 or Magdalene in the same" place. 
 
 18. The other Protestant Societies* are the British and 
 
 * No separate information nas been obtained in regard to these communi- 
 ties and societies, etc. 
 
538 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. 
 
 Canadian School Society, Educational Society, American 
 Presbyterian School Society, besides schools named St. 
 Andrews, German, Protestant, etc. 
 
 GHAPTEE YIII. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES. 
 
 Under this head we may enumerate (1) schools for or- 
 phans ; (2) for deaf and dumb ; (3) for juvenile criminals. 
 
 (1.) There are excellent orphan schools in the principal 
 cities of Lower Canada ; but our information and want of 
 space will not warrant us in entering into details. 
 
 (2.) There are two Asylums for the deaf and dumb in 
 Lower Canada. The first, for boys, was established near 
 Montreal by the Eev. Abbe Lagorce, in 1849 ; and the 
 second, for girls, was established in Montreal by Mgr. 
 Bourget, Eoman Catholic Bishop of Montreal, in 1853. 
 In these two asylums there are eight teachers and about 
 sixty pupils. An asylum of the same description was es- 
 tablished by Donald McDonald, Esq., at Quebec, in 1832, 
 under the authority of a special act of Parliament. Mr. 
 McDonald was aided in his benevolent work by M. Clerc, 
 formerly a pupil of the Abbe Sicard, who was a successor 
 of the celebrated Abbe de L'Epee, inventor of a method 
 for instructing deaf-mutes. The law, however, having ex- 
 pired in 1836, it was never revived, and the Asylum was 
 closed. 
 
 (3.) The Eeformatory school for juvenile criminals was 
 established at the Isle aux ISToix, near the frontier, and at 
 the head of the Eichelieu river, in 1858. Being an old 
 military post, it was again deemed necessary to occupy it, 
 and the Eeformatory was removed to St. Yincent de Paul, 
 near Montreal, in 1861. There are now about fifty inmates 
 in the institution. 
 
mSTOEIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWlSt CANADA. 539 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OTHER SUPPLEMENTARY AGENCIES. 
 
 Thkcse agencies include mechanics' institutes, literary 
 societies, associations, and libraries. 
 
 (1.) As in Upper Canada, the Board of Arts and Manu- 
 factures of Lower Canada has chiefly to do with the me- 
 chanics' institutes. This board established, in 1859, a cen- 
 tral school of art and manufactures at Montreal. It has 
 now six professors and teachers, and is attended by about 
 sixty pupils. 
 
 (2.) The literary societies of Lower Canada are numerous, 
 but we have only room to enumerate those in existence in 
 Montreal and Quebec. In Montreal : The J^atural History 
 Society; Institut Canadien ; Medico-chirurgical ; Mechanics' 
 Institute ; Hochelaga Debating Club ; McGill University 
 Society ; Phrenological Society, etc. In Quebec : Literary 
 and Historical Society ; Institut Canadien ; Mechanics' In- 
 stitute ; Institute of St. 'Rochs ; St. Patrick's Institute, etc. 
 
 (3.) As far as possible, we have given the number of 
 volumes of books contained in the library of each of the 
 colleges. In addition, we can only give the following sum- 
 mary of libraries, from the report of the Superintendent of 
 Education for Lower Canada for the year 1861, viz. : num- 
 ber of public libraries, 163 ; number of volumes therein, 
 106,500; number of volumes in the libraries connected 
 with the seminaries, colleges, academies, and normal 
 schools, 161,366. Total number of volumes, 267,^ 
 
 Xote. — ^At the request of the publisher, this article on 
 the state and progress of education in Lower Canada has 
 been considerably abridged. 
 
540 HISTOEinAT. SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LO^ 
 
 PART I J I. 
 
 VEB CANADA. 
 
 :s. 
 
 }ses* 
 
 Acres, 
 891 845 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL STATISTK 
 (1.) larnds set apart f<fr Educational Purpc 
 
 (1 ) Order of Jesuits, &c., for education 
 
 (2.) Bishop and Seminary of Quebec 
 
 693,324 
 
 (3 ) St. Sulpicians and Seminary of Montreal 
 
 250 191 
 
 (4.) Ursuline Convent, Quebec 
 
 (5 ) Ursuline Convent, Three Rivers 
 
 164,616 
 
 .^8 ()nft 
 
 2,038,885 
 (6.) Parliamentary Appropriation for Common Schools in 
 
 Upper and Lower Canada (proportion), say 500,000 
 
 Grand Total of Acres 2.538.885 
 
 (2.) Public Aid to Education (1862). 
 (1.) Parliamentary Grant to Superior Edu- 
 cation (t. e., Colleges and Universi- 
 ties) $20,000 
 
 Income from Lands and Investments .... 26,685 
 Unappropriated balance transferred from 
 
 Legislative School Grant, as below . . 34,047 
 
 (2.) Income of Laval University and Semi- 
 nary from Lands, &c. (estimated) 
 
 ParUament. Grant to two Medical Schools 2,000 
 Parlia. Grant to two Historical Societies 2,000 
 Parliamentary Grant to two Observatories 2,900 
 
 (3.) Parliamentary Grant to Common Schools, 
 
 from Lands, &c 173,967 
 
 $80,732 
 12,500 
 
 6,900 
 139,920 
 
 Less unappjopriated balance transferred as 
 
 above to Superior Education 34,047 
 
 (4.) Local Assessment (1861) 
 
 261,630 
 264,689 
 526,219 
 
 $779,271 
 
 (5.) Fees, Ac., do. 
 
 
 * This statement in regard to the Royal grants of land in Lower Canada 
 is taken from a memorial addressed by the Right Rev. Dr. Strachan, Bishop 
 of Toronto, to the Canadian Legislature, in Nov. 1843. No further authentic 
 statement could be obtained on this subject. 
 
HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. 541 
 
 (3.) Progress of Education in. Lower Canada, since 1852. 
 
 Educational Institutions 
 of all kinds. 
 
 Assessments and 
 Fees. 
 
 Tear. of all kinds. Pupils. 
 
 1853 2,352 108,284 $165,848 
 
 1854 2,795 119,733 238,032 
 
 1855 2,868 127,058 249,136 
 
 1856 2,919 143,141 406,764 
 
 1857 2,946 148,798 424,208 
 
 1858 2,985 156,872 459,396 
 
 1859 3,199 168,148 498,436 
 
 1860 3,264 172,155 503,859 
 
 1861 3,345 180,845 526,219 
 
 CHAPTEE n. 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY GRANTS FROM 1832 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE. 
 
 STATEMENT OP THE ANNUAL PAYMENTS ON BEHALF OP EDUCATION IN UPPEB 
 AND LOWER CANADA, PROM THE YEAR 1832 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE, EXTRACTED 
 PROM THE PUBLIC ACCOUNTS AND OTHER OFFICLiL DOCUMENTS. 
 
 Year. 
 
 LOWBB CANADA. 
 
 XrPPEB CANADA. 
 
 C'ommon 
 
 Superior 
 Schools. 
 
 Total 
 
 Common 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 1832 
 
 
 
 $129,880 
 
 $9,600 
 
 $4,000 
 8,861 
 
 $13,600 
 89,061 
 
 1833 
 
 
 
 88,620 
 
 85,200 
 
 1834 
 
 
 
 98,174 
 108,243 
 
 81,400 
 83,800 
 85,800 
 88 600 
 
 8,981 
 
 4,545 
 
 4,559 
 
 4,550* 
 
 4,500* 
 
 5,600 
 
 85,381 
 38,345 
 40 359 
 
 1835 
 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 
 
 145,627 
 
 1837 
 
 
 
 100,000* 
 90,000* 
 80,000* 
 
 43,150 
 
 42,500* 
 
 42,800 
 
 78,000* 
 
 72,779 
 
 93,427 
 
 1838 
 
 
 
 88,600* 
 37,200 
 
 1839 
 
 
 
 1840 
 
 >i 
 
 
 1841 
 
 
 1842 
 
 
 1843 
 
 The payi 
 
 nents to Com 
 
 mon and Sup 
 
 erior Schools 
 
 in Upper 
 
 78,630 
 
 1844 
 
 and Lower 
 
 Canada, from 
 
 1841 to 1849, 
 
 are not distir 
 
 guished in- 
 these sums 
 
 268,821 
 
 1845 
 
 the Parliaa 
 
 lentary papers 
 
 of those yeai 
 
 3 from which 
 
 822,196 
 
 1846 
 
 are taken. 
 
 
 
 
 
 266,135 
 
 1847 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 267 970 
 
 1848 
 
 1 
 
 266,076 
 
 290,165 
 
 96,421 
 
 1849 
 
 :::::::::::::::.:.:::.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::••••• 1 
 
 1850 
 
 $158,212 
 
 $17,226 
 
 175,488 
 
 88,867 
 
 7,554 
 
 1851 
 
 102,144 
 
 25,557 
 
 127,701 
 
 94,434 
 
 7,710 
 
 102,144 
 
 1852 
 
 94,115 
 
 20,201 
 
 114,816 
 
 100,896 
 
 7,9 HD 
 
 108,315 
 
 1853 
 
 142,473 
 
 62,557 
 
 205,030 
 
 162,802 
 
 8,833 
 
 161,635 
 
 1854 
 
 151,878 
 
 63,260 
 
 215,183 
 
 95,806 
 
 24,536 
 
 120,342 
 
 1855 
 
 94,081 
 
 103,041 
 
 197,122 
 
 147,370 
 
 29,934 
 
 177,304 
 
 1856 
 
 183,800 
 
 91,372 
 
 226,172 
 
 166,185 
 
 42,798 
 
 198,983 
 
 1857 
 
 137,800 
 
 80,437 
 
 218,237 
 
 186,032 
 
 84,120 
 
 220,152 
 
 1858 
 
 137,800 
 
 76,674 
 
 214,474 
 
 186,032 
 
 82,922 
 
 218.964 
 
 1859 
 
 168,295 
 
 62,742 
 
 281,037 
 
 186,032 
 
 86,461 
 
 222,493 
 
 1860 
 
 139,680 
 
 83,975 
 
 223.655 
 
 186,033 
 
 44,076 
 
 230,108 
 
 1861 
 
 189,820 
 
 80,732 
 
 220,652 
 
 186,032 
 
 85,819 
 
 221,851 
 
 'Estimated, no authentic returns having been available. 
 
THB 
 
 PROGRESS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 
 
 WITH A BRIEF VIEW OP ITS 
 
 RESOURCES, NATURAL AND INDUSTRIAL. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SKETCH OP THE EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 New Brunswick, originally a part of N'ova Scotia, be- 
 came a distinct province under a separate charter in the 
 year 1785. 
 
 The whole country, which was first settled by the 
 French, under the name of Acadia^ and was afterward 
 granted by the English king, James I., to Sir William 
 Alexander, on the claim that it was a part of the territory 
 discovered by Sebastian Cabot, frequently changed mas- 
 ters. Sometimes the French, and sometimes the English, 
 held it in possession ; but it was at length fully ceded to 
 the British at the peace of Utrecht, in 1713 ; but until the 
 final extirpation of the French power in North America, 
 in 1768 and 1759, Great Britain could not be said to have 
 peaceable possession of New Brunswick. 
 
EAELY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 543 
 
 The first substantial occupation by the English began 
 with a party from the county of Essex, in the then prov- 
 ince of Massachusetts. In 1760 or 1761, they obtained a 
 grant of a township of twelve miles square on the river 
 St. John, wherever it might be found fit for improvement ; 
 and on the 16th of May, 1762, embarked at Newbury- 
 port, in a vessel provided for the purpose. 
 
 After some delays in making explorations, and coming 
 to terms of agreement with the Indians, they commenced 
 a settlement at Maugerville, where, during the war of the 
 American Kevolution, they were joined by other emi- 
 grants from New England : the settled district was ex- 
 tended and received the general name of Sunbury. There 
 courts, of justice were established, and other forms of 
 civil organization adopted, which served the needs of the 
 inhabitants until the close of the war, in 1783.* 
 
 Before that, however, a number of families from York- 
 shire, in England, and others from Massachusetts, had 
 settled about Cumberland, at the head of the Bay of 
 Fundy. 
 
 On the suspension of hostilities, and the acknowledg- 
 ment of the independence of the United States, the Eng- 
 lish government, having a numerous body of loyalists to 
 provide for, formed the plan of locating them as colo- 
 nists in Kew Brunswick. Accordingly, about three thou- 
 sand persons, men, women, and children, sailed from New 
 York in April, 1783, for the river St. John ; some of them 
 independent passengers, but most of them persons who 
 had joined the British army, and were now to be dis- 
 banded and settled. In October following, about twelve 
 hundred more were dispatched from the same place. 
 
 All these had to seek a shelter from the approaching 
 winter by building log and bark huts, while provisions 
 and clothing, and a few implements, were furnished them 
 by government for the first year. 
 
 ♦ The first newspaper was printed in 1783. 
 
544: EARLY HISTOKY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 In 1785, iN'ew Brunswick was separated from Nova 
 Scotia, and became a distin<jt province, with a charter and 
 constitution of its own. The administration consisted of 
 a governor and council, Sir Guy Carleton being gover- 
 nor, and the following gentlemen constituting the coun- 
 cil : — Beverly Kobinson, Gabriel G. Ludlow, George D. 
 Ludlow, Abijah Willard, Jonathan Odell, James Putnam, 
 Joshua Upham, Edward Winslow, William Hazen, Gil- 
 fred Studholm, and Daniel Bliss. Robinson, Willard, and 
 Putnam died soon after, when Beverly Robinson, a son 
 of the former, George Leonard, and John Saunders, were 
 appointed in their place. By this body of men the busi- 
 ness of the province was transacted for a long while. 
 Governor Carleton was authorized to locate lands to the 
 loyalists and disbanded troops. 
 
 From this period, the province gradually improved in 
 agriculture, shipbuilding, and the exportation of masts, 
 staves, hoop-poles, shingles, and lumber, to the West In- 
 dies, receiving, in return, coarse woollens, and other arti- 
 cles, from England, and rum, molasses, sugar, etc., from 
 the West Indies. A town was built at the mouth of the 
 river St. John, another at St. Ann's Point, called Fred- 
 ericton^ where parts of two regiments were stationed till 
 the French revolution. Barracks and other public works 
 were erected in different places, and the upper parts of the 
 country settled by establishing two military posts in the 
 interior : one at Presque Isle, eighty miles above Frederic- 
 ton, and another at Grand Falls, fifty-two miles farther 
 up. At St. Ann's a few scattered French huts were 
 found ; but the country around was a continued wilder- 
 ness — uninhabited except by savages and wild beasts. 
 
 The first settlers were subjected to many and great 
 hardships. The rigors of an untried climate came upon 
 them before their cabins were properly prepared to meet 
 its severity. They were frequently put to the greatest 
 straits for food and clothing ; and sometimes had to go 
 from fifty to one hundred miles with handsleds or tobog- 
 
EAELY HISTORY OF NEW BKITNSWICK. 545 
 
 gans, through the woods or on the ice, to procure supplies 
 for their famished wives and children. It is said that 
 during the sharpest portion of the winter, a part of the 
 family had to remain up during the night to keep fires 
 going, to prevent them all from freezing. Some of the 
 more destitute resorted to a novel expedient as a substitute 
 for blankets and bedding. The elder members of the 
 family would remain up by turns and heat pieces of board, 
 between which the smaller children were placed to keep 
 them warm — the boards being changed when they became 
 cold. It is a common belief that the climate has been 
 much ameliorated by the clearing up of the forests. 
 
 A considerable part of the eastern coast, from the 
 Straits of Northumberland to the Bay of Chaleur, was 
 formerly settled by the Acadians or French neutrals, 
 whose descendants remain in Westmoreland and North- 
 umberland counties. 
 
 Under the judicious and paternal care of Governor 
 Carleton, the difficulties attending infant colonies were 
 gradually overcome. The aboriginal inhabitants were a 
 rather superior class of Indians, and were not, as a body, 
 BO troublesome to the settlers as the savages had proved in 
 other portions of the country. They had the sagacity to 
 secure to themselves liberal allowances from the govern- 
 ment, as a condition of peace. In this they are supposed 
 to have been aided by the French missionaries among 
 them ; and they sometimes threatened to be turbulent as 
 a means of increasing their bounties. 
 
 In 1803, Governor Carleton removed to England, hav- 
 ing governed the province nearly twenty years, and seen 
 its advance from a rude wilderness to a state of importance 
 among the colonies. The government was then adminis- 
 tered by the following persons, under the style of Presi- 
 dents, till his death, viz. : — G. G. Ludlow, from his 
 departure till February, 1808 ; JEdward Winslow, from 
 that period till the 24:th of May following ; then Major- 
 general Hunter, who held the government till 1812, with 
 
546 EABLT HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 two short exceptions, during which it devolved, first, on 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Johnstone ; afterward on Major-Gen- 
 eral Balfour ; then on Major-General Smyth, who, going to 
 England in 1813, left it with Major-General Saumarez, 
 and, on his leaving the country again, in 1814, the duties 
 of the office devolved on Lieutenant-Colonel Hailes. 
 
 On the death of Governor Carleton, Major-General 
 George Stracey Smyth was appointed to the government, 
 by commission dated Feb. 28, 1817. Governor Smyth 
 died March 27, 1823, when the administration devolved 
 first on Ward Chipman, then on John Murray Bliss, Es- 
 quires. In the mean time Major-General Sir Howard 
 Douglas received the appointment, and assumed the gov- 
 ernment in August, 1824. 
 
 The population of the province at that time was esti- 
 mated in round numbers at eighty thousand. The census 
 for 1824, supposed to fall a little short of the actual number 
 of inhabitants, exhibited a return of seventy-four thousand 
 one hundred and seventy-six, besides the large settlement 
 of Madawaska and the parish of West Isles. 
 
 After the close of the second war with the United States, 
 in 1815, New Brunswick received another body of military 
 colonists. A portion of the disbanded men of several regi- 
 ments were settled on the upper part of the St. John 
 River, between Presque-Isle and the Indian Reserve. 
 
 In 1825, occurred the great fire on the Miramichi, for 
 whose extent and severity hardly a parallel is to be found 
 in the history of conflagrations. A very graphic descrip- 
 tion of the appalling disaster, written at the time, is well 
 worthy of preservation in this place. 
 
 THE GREAT MIRAMICHI FIRE OF 1825, AS DESCRIBED BY AN 
 EYE-WITNESS. (MR. COONEY.) 
 
 " The summer of 1825 was unusually warm in both hem- 
 ispheres, particularly in America, where its eff'ects were 
 fatally visible in the prevalence of epidemical disorders. 
 During July and August extensive fires raged in different 
 
EAELT HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 5i7 
 
 parts of ISTova Scotia, especially in the divisions of the 
 peninsula. The protracted drought of the summer, acting 
 upon the aridity of the forests, had rendered them more 
 than naturally combustible, and thus facilitating both the 
 dispersion and the progress of the fires that appeared in 
 the early part of the season, produced an unusual warmth. 
 On the 6th of October, the fire was evidently approaching 
 Newcastle ; at different intervals fitful blazes atid flashes 
 were observed to issue from different parts of the woods, par- 
 ticularly up the north-west at the rear of Newcastle, in the 
 vicinity of Douglastown and Moorfields, and along the 
 banks of the Bartibog. Many persons heard the crack- 
 ling of falling trees and shrivelled branches, while a 
 hoarse rumbling noise, not dissimilar to the roaring of dis- 
 tant thunder, and divided by pauses like the intermittent 
 discharges of artillery, was distinct and audible. On the 
 7th of October the heat increased to such a degree, and 
 became so very oppressive, that many complained of ita 
 enervating effects. About twelve o'clock a pale sickly 
 mist, slightly tinged with purple, emerged from the forest 
 and settled over it. 
 
 "This cloud soon retreated before a large dark one, which, 
 occupying its place, wrapt the firmament in a pall of va- 
 por: this encumbrance retaining its position till about 
 three clock, the heat became tormentingly sultry. There 
 was not a breath of air ; the atmosphere was overclouded; 
 an irresistible lassitude seized the people, and a stupe- 
 fying dulness seemed to pervade every place but the woods, 
 which now trembled and rustled and shook with an in- 
 cessant and thrilling noise of explosions, rapidly following 
 each other, and mingling their reports with a discordant 
 variety of loud and boisterous sounds. At this time the 
 whole country appeared to be encircled by a fiery zone, 
 which, gradually contracting its circle by the devastations 
 it made, seemed as if it would not converge into a point 
 while any thing remained to be destroyed. A little after 
 four o'clock an immense pillar of smoke rose in a verti- 
 35 
 
548 EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 cal direction, at some distance north-west of Newcastle, 
 for a while, and the sky was absolutely blackened by this 
 huge cloud ; but a light northerly breeze springing up, it 
 gradually distended and then dissipated into a variety of 
 shapeless mists. About an hour after, or probably at half- 
 past five, innumerable large spires of smoke issuing from 
 distant parts of the woods, and illuminated by the flames 
 that seemed to pierce them, mounted to the sky. 
 
 *' A heavy and suifocating canopy extended to the utmost 
 verge of observation, and, appearing more terrific by the 
 vivid flashes and blazes that darted irregularly through it, 
 now hung over Newcastle and Douglas in threatening 
 suspension, while showers of flaming brands, calcined leaves, 
 ashes and cinders, seemed to scream through the growling 
 noise that prevailed in the woods. 
 
 " About nine o'clock or shortly after, a succession of loud 
 and appalling roars thundered through the forests. Peal 
 after peal, crash after crash, announced the sentence of 
 destruction. Every succeeding shock created fresh alarm ; 
 every clap came loaded with its own destructive energy. 
 With greedy rapidity did the flames advance to the de- 
 voted scene of their ministry ; nothing could impede their 
 progress ; they removed every obstacle by the desolation 
 they occasioned, and several hundred miles of prostrate 
 forests and smitten woods marked their devastating way. 
 
 " The river, tortured into violence by the hurricane, 
 foamed with rage, and flung its boiling spray upon the 
 land. The thunders pealed along the vault of heaven ; 
 the lightning appeared to rend the firmament. For a mo- 
 ment and all was still — a deep and -awful silence reigned 
 over every thing. All nature appeared to be hushed, when 
 suddenly a lengthened and sullen roar came booming 
 through the forest, driving a thousand massive and devour- 
 ing flames before it. Then Newcastle and Douglastown, 
 and the whole northern side, extending from BarUbog to 
 the Naashwaak, a distance of more than one hundred miles 
 in length, became enveloped in an immense sheet of flame^ 
 
EAKLY HISTOKT OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 549 
 
 that spread over nearly six thousand square miles ! That 
 the stranger may form a faint idea of the desolation and 
 misery, which no pen can describe, he must picture to 
 himself a large and rapid river, thickly settled for one 
 hundred miles or more on both sides of it. He must also 
 fancy four thriving towns, two on each side of this river, 
 and then reflect that these towns and settlements were all 
 composed of wooden houses, stores, stables, and barns ; 
 that these barns and stables were filled with crops, and 
 that the arrival of the fall importations had stocked the 
 warehouses and stores with spirits, powder, and a variety 
 of combustible articles, as well as the necessary supplies 
 for the approaching winter. He must then remember 
 that the cultivated or settled part of the river is but a long 
 narrow strip, about a quarter of a mile in width, and 
 lying between the river and almost interminable forests, 
 stretching along the very edge of its precincts and all 
 around it. Extending his conception, he will see these 
 forests thickly expanding over more than six thousand' 
 square miles, and absolutely parched into tinder by the 
 protracted heat of a long summer. Let him then animate 
 the picture by scattering countless tribes of wild animals, 
 hundreds of domestic ones, and even thousands of men 
 through the interior. Having done all this, he will have 
 before him a feeble description of the extent, features, and 
 general circumstances of the country which, in the course 
 of a few hours, was suddenly enveloped in a fire. A 
 more ghastly or a more revolting picture of human misery 
 cannot well be imagined. The whole district of culti- 
 vated land was shrouded in the agonizing memorials of 
 some dreadful deforming havoc. The songs of gladness 
 that formerly resounded through it were no longer heard, 
 for the voice of misery had hushed them. ISTothing broke 
 upon the ear but the accents of distress ; the eye saw 
 nothing but ruin, and desolation, and death. 
 
 " ]S"ewcastle, yesterday a flourishing town, full of trade 
 and spirit, and containing nearly one thousand inhabi- 
 
DOO EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 tants, was now a heap of smoking ruins ; and Douglas- 
 town, nearly one-third of its size, was reduced to the same 
 miserable condition. Of the two hundred and sixty 
 houses and storehouses that comprised the former, but 
 twelve remained ; and of the seventy that composed the 
 latter, but six were left. The confusion on board one hun- 
 dred and fifty large vessels then lying in the Miramichi, 
 and exposed to imminent danger, was terrible; some 
 burnt to the water's edge, others burning, and the remain- 
 der occasionally on fire. 
 
 *' Dispersed groups of half-famished, half-naked, and 
 houseless creatures, all more or less injured in their per- 
 sons, many lamenting the loss of some property, or chil- 
 dren, or relations and friends, were wandering through the 
 country. Of the human bodies, some were seen with their 
 bowels protruding ; others with the flesh all consumed, 
 and the blackened skeletons smoking ; some with headless 
 trunks and severed extremities ; some bodies burned to 
 cinders ; others reduced to ashes ; many bloated by suffo- 
 cation, and several lying in the last distorted position of 
 convulsing torture. Brief and violent was their passage 
 from life to death, and rude and melancholy was their 
 sepulchre, ' unknelled, uncoffined, and unknown.' 
 
 " The immediate loss of life was upwards of five hundred 
 .human beings. Thousands of wild beasts had perished in 
 /the woods, and from their putrescent carcasses issued 
 streams of effluvium and stench that formed contagious 
 diseases over the dismantled settlements. Domestic ani- 
 mals of all kinds lay dead and dying in different parts of 
 the country; myriads of salmon, trout, bass, and other 
 fish, poisoned by the alkali formed by the ashes pre- 
 cipitated into the river, now lay dead, or floundering 
 and gasping on the scorched shores and beaches ; and the 
 countless variety of wild fowl and reptiles shared a similar 
 fate. Such was the awful conflagration at Miramichi, 
 which elicited the prompt benevolence of very many 
 philanthropists of the old and new worlds, who subscribed 
 
EARLY HISTOEY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 551 
 
 £40,000 for the relief of the survivors, whose property, 
 to the extent of nearly a quarter of a million, was destroyed. 
 
 *' l^ew Brunswick, like the other British provinces in 
 North America, has suffered much from fires. In 1837, 
 a great fire in St. John consumed one hundred and fifteen 
 buildings, and occasioned a loss of a million dollars." 
 
 Sir Howard Douglas held the office of governor, or, 
 rather, lieutenant-governor , which is the ofiicial title of 
 the executive officer, till 1831, and did much to improve 
 the country and advance its prosperity. His successors 
 have been : 
 
 Sir Archibald Campbell 1832 to 1838 
 
 Sir John Harvey 1838 " 1842 
 
 Sir W. M. G. Colebrooke 1842 " 1851 
 
 SirE. W. Head 1851 " 1855 
 
 Hon. Manners Sutton ] 855 " 1862 
 
 In 1851, the population of the province had reached 
 tha number of two hundred and ten thousand. 
 
 One of the most important events in the history of 'New 
 Brunswick was the settlement of the boundary question 
 with the United States, by the treaty of "Washington, in 
 1842. 
 
 By the treaty of peace in 1783, the boundary lines, 
 between the loyal and the revolted provinces, were so im- 
 perfectly defined that they continued for more than half 
 a century to be the subject of dispute. Efforts were 
 made from time to time to reconcile conflicting claims 
 and interests, but without avail. In 1839, the contro- 
 versy between l^ew Brunswick and Maine had arrived to 
 such a pass that armed forces were raised, fortifications 
 built, and the prospect of actual warfare became im- 
 minent. 
 
 In this crisis, the English and American governments, 
 abandoning all the futile plans of arbitration which had 
 so long been discussed, and even tried, adopted the policy 
 of compromise. They ultimately succeeded in agreeing 
 upon a line of division, which, as it fully satisfied neither 
 
552 DESCKIPTIYE AlTD STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 party, may be regarded as, on the whole, an equitable 
 one. 
 
 By this treaty, which was fully ratified in August, 
 1842, Kew Brunswick not only secured protection and 
 tranquillity to her inhabitants, but gained a large accefesion 
 of territory. This was estimated by Mr. Talcott, the 
 United States commissioner appointed to make the survey, 
 to contain eight hundred and ninety- three square miles, — 
 equal to five hundred and seventy-one thousand five hun- 
 dred and twenty acres. This country may be rough, and, 
 as represented by the commissioner, compared with other 
 sections, not of great value for timber or for agricul- 
 ture. It is, however, an important acquisition to the 
 province, and especially as it opens a convenient means 
 of communication with Canada without crossing a foreign 
 State. In compensation for this advantage, the right of 
 free passage on the St. John, with all unmanufactured 
 articles of traflic, was ceded to the people of Maine. • 
 
 If the climate of N^ew Brunswick is cold, it is remark- 
 ably healthful. Its soil is in many parts highly produc- 
 tive, and it has many resources for profitable traffic. A 
 careful observer and writer states that the children of 
 immigrants are taller and larger than their parents, that 
 the women are handsome, and the men active and intel- 
 ligent. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OP NEW 
 BRUNSWICK. 
 
 The Province of !N"ew Brunswick is situated between 
 the parallels of 45° and 48° north latitude, and the me- 
 ridians of 63° 45' and 67° 50' west longitude. It lies 
 between Nova Scotia and Canada, with its eastern front 
 on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and its southern front on the 
 Bay of Fundy, being bounded westerly by the State of 
 Maine, and on the north by Canada. 
 
 The area of New Brunswick is estimated at 17,677,360 
 
DESCKIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 653 
 
 acres, equal to 27,620 square miles. Of this quantity, 
 more tlian 6,000,000 of acres have been already sold or 
 alienated by the crown, leaving upwards of 11,000,000 of 
 acres yet to be disposed of. The quantity of good land fit 
 for settlement and yet unsold, is estimated at 7,500,000 
 acres, of which 250,000 are surveyed for settlers. 
 
 The mode of selling crown lands is by auction ; and 
 sales take place every month in each county. The upset 
 price is three shillings currency per acre, equal to two 
 shillings and five-pence sterling, payable one-fourth on the 
 day of sale, and the residue in one, two, and three years, 
 without interest. If the whole amount is paid at the time 
 of sale, the purchaser is entitled to a discount of 20 per 
 cent., which reduces the price to two English shillings 
 per acre. To this must, however, be added the expense 
 of survey, three-pence currency, equal to two and a half 
 pence sterling per acre. 
 
 When several persons, desirous of becoming actual set- 
 tlers, apply jointly for lots of vacant land, in a locality 
 where no roads exist, they can procure such lots, not ex- 
 ceeding one hundred acres each, and pay for the same in 
 labor on roads, to be laid out leading to or through their 
 land. In such cases the applicants pay for the survey of 
 the land, and at the rate of three shillings currency, equal 
 to two shillings and five-pence sterling per acre. The 
 road- work is done at such times and places as are fixed 
 upon by the commissioners appointed for that purpose. 
 No less work is to be done in any one year than will be 
 equal to one-fourth the whole purchase-money; and no 
 grant will issue until the purchaser has actually resided 
 on the land for one year, and brought at least ten acres 
 into a state of cultivation. 
 
 A third mode of disposing of crown lands for actual 
 settlement, has recently been adopted ; full particulars of 
 which will be found in the appendix hereto. 
 
 Professor J. F. W. Johnston, F. R. S., the well-known 
 writer on agriculture and agricultural chemistry, was em- 
 
554 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 ployed by the government, in 1849, to make an inspection 
 of Kew Brunswick, and report upon its agricultural capa- 
 bilities. In his report, subsequently published by author- 
 ity, he thus describes J^ew Brunswick : — 
 
 " Two very different impressions in regard to the Province of New- 
 Brunswick will be produced on the mind of the stranger, according 
 as he contents himself with visiting the towns, and inspecting the 
 lands which lie along the seaboard, or ascends the rivers, or penetrates 
 by its numerous roads into the interior of its more central and northern 
 counties. 
 
 " In the former case, he will feel like the traveller who enters Swe- 
 den by the harbor of Stockholm or of Gottenburg, or w^ho sails 
 among the rocks on the west coast of Norway. The naked cliffs, or 
 shelving shores, of granite or other hardened rocks, and the unvary- 
 ing pine forests, awaken in his mind ideas of hopeless desolation, and 
 poverty and barrenness appear necessarily to dwell within the iron- 
 bound shores, 
 
 " A large proportion of the Europeans who visit New Brunswick, 
 see only the rocky regions which encircle the more frequented har- 
 bors of the province. They must, therefore, carry away and convey 
 to others very unfavorable ideas, especially of its adaptation to agri- 
 cultural purposes. 
 
 " But, on the other hand, if the stranger penetrate beyond the At- 
 lantic shores of the province, and travel through the interior, he will 
 be struck by the Rumber and beauty of its rivers, by the fertility of 
 its river islands and intervals, and by the great extent and excellent 
 condition of its roads, and, upon the whole, of its numerous bridges. 
 He will see boundless forests still unreclaimed ; but will remark at the 
 same time an amount of general progress and prosperous advance- 
 ment, which, considering the recerit settlement and small revenue of 
 the province, is really surprising. If he possesses an agricultural eye, 
 he may discern great defects in the practical husbandry of the provin- 
 cial farmer, while he remarks, at the same time, the healthy looks of 
 their large families, and the apparently easy and independent condi- 
 tion in which they live. If he have travelled much in other coun- 
 tries, one thing which will arrest his attention more than all, will be 
 the frequent complaints which meet his ears, of the slowness with 
 which the province advances, of the condition of its agriculture com- 
 pared with that ofScotland or England, of the want of capital among 
 its land- possessing farmers, and so on; complaints which would be 
 made regarding New Brunswick with very much less urgency, were 
 the rate of its own actual progress better known to its inhabitants, 
 and its own rural and econouiical condition better understood and ap- 
 preciated. 
 
 " For my own part, in taking a general survey of the actual condi- 
 tion of the province, in connection with the period of its early settle- 
 ment, and with the public revenues it has possessed from time to 
 time as means of improvement, I have been much impressed with 
 the rapid progress it has really made, and with the large amount of 
 social advaaoement which is everywhere to be seen. The roads, the 
 
DESCRIFTIVE AOT) STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 555 
 
 bridges, the churches, th^ schools, the colleges, besides the numerous 
 other public institutions, excellent and liberal in themselves, assume a 
 very large magnitude in the eyes of the impartial observer, when it is 
 considered that they have been made, built, or established, and pro- 
 vided for by a population even at present under two hundred thousand 
 souls, less in number than the inhabitants of one of our third-rate Eng- 
 lish cities, and in the short space of sixty or seventy years. When I 
 have heard natives of New Brunswick complaining of the slowness 
 with which their province advanced, I have felt persuaded that the 
 natural impatience of a young people to become great, like that of a 
 young man to become rich, was blinding them to the actual rate at 
 which their country was going forward, a rate so different from what 
 is to be seen in any part of the old world, with the exception of the 
 Island Home from which we all come. 
 
 ''In justice to New Brunswick, I must add another remark. In 
 every part of the world it has been my fortune to visit, I have met 
 with numerous individuals who were more or less interested in, and 
 were anxious to promote the agricultural improvement of their na- 
 tive country. But in New Brunswick, a more general feeling appears 
 to prevail upon this subject, among all educated persons, than I have 
 ever met with before. 
 
 "In the province of New Brunswick, whatever defects its hus- 
 bandry may exhibit, and they are many, it has been satisfactory to 
 me to find, that a development of its agricultural resources by the 
 improvement of its agricultural practice, and independent of immi- 
 gration, has begun to manifest itself distinctly. Improved imple- 
 ments, and breeds of cattle and sheep, imported grain and grass seeds, 
 skilful ploughing, the preparation of composts, with experiments in 
 draining, in the use of lime and gypsum, in the growth of green crops 
 and feeding of stock — these and other similar forms of improvement 
 which have come under my notice in the province, show that there 
 are some at least who not only desire to advance the general condi- 
 tion of its husbandry, but who are aware also of the first steps which 
 ought to be taken to promote this advancement." 
 
 In 1845, commissioners were appointed by Her Majes- 
 ty's government to explore and survey the route for a 
 railway from Halifax to Quebec, across the province of 
 New Brunswick. In their report, submitted to parlia- 
 ment in 1849, signed by Major Robinson, E. E., the 
 province is thus described : 
 
 *'0f the climate, soil, and capabilities of New Brunswick it is im- 
 possible to speak too highly. There is not a country in the world so 
 beautifully wooded and watered. 
 
 "■ An inspection of the map will show that there is scarcely a sec- 
 tion of it without its streams, from the running brook up to the navi- 
 gable river. Two-thirds of its boundary are washed by the sea ; the 
 remainder is embraced by the large rivers, the St. John and the 
 Restigouche. For beauty and richness of scenery, this latter river 
 and its branches are not surpassed by any thing in Great Britain. 
 
556 DESCEimvE and statistical account. 
 
 " The lakes of Ifew Brunswick are numerous and most beantiful ; 
 its surface is undulating, hill and dale, varying up to mountain and 
 valley. It is everywhere, except a few peaks of the highest moun- 
 tains, covered with a dense forest of the finest growth. 
 
 " The country can everywhere be penetrated by its streams. In 
 some parts of the interior, by a portage of three or four miles, a 
 canoe can float away, either to the Bay of Chaleur and the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, or down to St. John in the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 " Its agricultural capabilities, climate, etc., are described in Bou- 
 chette's work, in Martin's British Colonies, and other authors. The 
 country is by them, and most deservedly so, highly praised." 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 Although the winters of New Brunswick are somewhat 
 severe (less so, however, than those of Lower Canada), 
 yet the climate is exceedingly healthy. Fever and ague 
 are wholly unknown ; epidemics, even of a slight nature, 
 are exceedingly rare, and the country is absolutely with- 
 out an endemic, or disease peculiar to itself. 
 
 Professor Johnston in his report says, that the province 
 has an exceedingly healthy climate. * Every medical man 
 he met in the country assured him of this ; and the 
 healthy looks and the numerous families of the natives, 
 of all classes, confirmed these assurances. 
 
 On the shores of the Bay of Fundy there is much fog 
 during the summer season, but this extends a short dis- 
 tance only into the interior. The city of St. John is fre- 
 quently wrapped in a dense sea-fog, while the days are 
 bright and cloudless at the distance of a few miles only. 
 In the interior of the province, the air is much warmer 
 in summer than on the sea-coast; and there is a greater de- 
 gree of cold in winter. 
 
 The ranges of temperature are : — At St. John, on the 
 Bay of Fundy, from 18° below, to 88° above zero. 
 
 At Richibucto, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, from 20° 
 below, to 90° above zero. 
 
 At Fredericton, in the interior, from 24° below, to 95° 
 above zero. 
 
 The following observations were made on the weather, 
 at an altitude of 132 feet above high-water mark in the city 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 557 
 
 of St. John, which is in latitude 45° 1' north, and longi- 
 tude 6Q° 4' west. 
 
 1848. 1849. 1850. 1351. 
 
 Highest temperature 87 88 84 85 
 
 Lowest temperature 14 15 6 18 
 
 Clear days 178 200 194 181 
 
 Cloudy days 116 124 112 124 
 
 Stormy days 72 41 59 66 
 
 Snow, in inches 89 46 117 43 
 
 Eain, in inches 48 37*6 33 40 
 
 There are not more than four snow-storms in any qpe 
 year, in which over a foot of snow falls at any one time ; 
 and snow-storms rarely last more than two days. In 
 England, nine inches of snow, when melted, average one 
 inch of water; in New Brunswick, seventeen inches 
 melted, average one inch of water. The snow is there- 
 fore twice as light, or dry, as that of England. 
 
 COURSE OF THE SEASONS. 
 The winter is fairly established at Christmas. In Jan- 
 nary, as in the other ISTorth American colonies, there is the 
 usual thaw ; in February is the deepest snow, which sel- 
 dom exceeds four feet on the average in the northern por- 
 tion of the province, and three feet in the southern por- 
 tion. In March, the sun acquires much power, and the 
 snows begin to melt. In the cleared country the snow 
 disappears in April, and spring ploughing commences. 
 Seed-time continues, according to the season, from the last 
 week in April until the end of May. In June, the apple- 
 trees are in full blossom; in July, wild strawberries ot 
 fine flavor are ripe and in abundance ; haying then be- 
 gins. In August, early potatoes are brought to market, 
 as also raspberries and other wild fruits. In September, 
 oats, wheat, and other cereal grains are ready for the sickle ; 
 these are gf^nerally secured before October. The autumn 
 is long, and the weather is then delicious ; this is decided- 
 ly the most pleasant portion of the year. There are usu- 
 ally heavy rains in November ; but when not wet^ the 
 weather is fine and pleasant ; the rivers generally close 
 
558 DESCEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 during the latter part of this montli, and in December 
 winter fairly sets in. 
 
 From numerous returns which were furnished to Pro- 
 fessor Johnston from all parts of the Province, the follow- 
 ing facts were deduced. The average interval between 
 the earliest sowing and latest ploughing, — or mean length 
 of summer — is six months and twenty-two days. Of this 
 period, the growth of wheat and crops of spring corn re- 
 quires an average of three months and seventeen days. 
 After reaping the corn crops, there is generally about 
 seven weeks clear for ploughing before winter sets in. Be- 
 fore the average sowing time in spring, there is usually 
 about, six weeks, during which ploughing and other pre- 
 paratory treatment of the land can be carried on. 
 
 Thenumber of days during which rain impedes the oper- 
 ations of the British farmer, is notoriously very great ; 
 and in those parts of the United Kingdom where the soil 
 is of a peculiarly tenacious character, it not only shortens 
 the period during which the work of preparing the land 
 can be done, but it also makes it heavier and more diffi- 
 cult to do. But in New Brunswick the climate is more 
 steady and equable. Rains do not so constantly fall ; and 
 when they do descend, the soils in most parts of the Prov- 
 ince are so porous, that they readily pass through. The 
 out-door operations of the New Brunswick farmer are less 
 impeded by rain, and the disposable time he possesses, 
 compared with that of the British farmer, is really not to 
 be measured by the number of days at the disposal of 
 each, but by the number of days dui'ing which each can 
 work out of doors. 
 
 The severe frosts in winter generally penetrate so deep 
 into the ground, especially when it is not covered with 
 grass, as to raise up and separate the particles from each 
 other, to a considerable depth ; so that when the thaw 
 comes, it is already so loose and open as scarcely to require 
 ploughing at all, or if ploughed, to be done with little force 
 and great speed. 
 
DESCEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 559 
 
 An Ayrshire farmer settled in ]N"ew Brunswick, whose 
 long experience with Scottish agriculture entitles his opin- 
 ion to much weight, sajs : — " The frost of winter leaves 
 the land in a very pliable state, and in a better order for 
 green crops than any number of ploughings done in win- 
 ter could make it. On this account, I believe, a pair of 
 horses coild work as much land here, under a given rota- 
 tion, as they would in Scotland." 
 
 Though the period for out-door labor is shorter in Kew 
 Brunswick — as it is in Canada, Maine, and 4;he IS'orth- 
 ern States — than in England, or in parts of Scotland, yet 
 the action of winter upon the soil is such as materially 
 to lessen the labor necessary to bring it into a proper 
 state of tillage. There is nothing therefore in the length 
 of the winter of I^ew Brunswick, or the shortness of its 
 summer, which ought, where time is diligently employed 
 and its value known, to interfere seriously with the 
 progress of out-door operations, or to add materially to 
 the expenses of arable cultivation. 
 
 The manner in which all root-crops thrive in the prov- 
 ince is really remarkable, and the frost is one of the 
 agents by which the large product is brought about, by 
 opening and pulverizing the soil. By tables of produce 
 heretofore published, it has been shown, that in potatoes 
 and turnips, New Brunswick greatly exceeds the present 
 average produce of any other part of North America with 
 which it has been compared. 
 
 Yery little attention is yet paid to the culture of flax, 
 which may be grown upon almost every farm in the prov- 
 ince. The same may be said of hemp, to the growth of 
 which some parts of the country are specially adapted, be- 
 cause of the rank rapidity with which vegetation proceeds 
 upon them. Wool-combing now affords employment to 
 some extent, and it will do so more largely, when greater 
 advantage is taken of the adaptation of the climate to 
 the rearing of sheep. The dressing of flax, hemp, and 
 wool offers means of winter employment, one or other of 
 
560 DESCEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 which may be rendered profitably available, in most dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 The climate of New Brunswick is well fitted for the 
 rearing and feeding of cattle. With proper care, they 
 not only winter well, but gain size and flesh. In Kesti- 
 gouche, the most northerly portion of the Province, the 
 climate is less severe upon stock than in Great Britain. 
 Though a large provision of winter food is required to 
 maintain the stock during so many months, yet by the 
 saving of manure upon farms of all kinds, even the newest, 
 and applying it to the grass land in the spring, and by 
 the cultivation of green crops, for which there are such 
 extraordinary capabilities, this food is easily raised. The 
 proper feeding of cattle during the winter, gives employ- 
 ment to the members of the farmer's family and his 
 paid servants ; and it is also the means of producing more 
 manure, thus insuring the production of better beef and 
 mutton, a greater weight of butter and cheese, and heavier 
 harvests of grain. 
 
 Professor Johnston procured returns from all parts of 
 New Brunswick, of the produce of each crop, and its 
 weight per Winchester bushel. From these returns he 
 deduced the following statement of the average product 
 and weight of each, in the entire Province : — 
 
 Crop. Per acre. Weight per bosheL 
 
 Wheat 20 bushels 60 1 1-12 lbs. 
 
 Barley 29 " 50 " 
 
 Oats 34 " 38 " 
 
 Buckwheat 33f " 48 8-11 " 
 
 Rye 20i " 52i " 
 
 Indian Com 41f " 59i " 
 
 Potatoes 226i " or 6 1-3 tons. .63 " 
 
 Turnips 456 " or 13^ tons. . . 66 " 
 
 "These average weights," says Professor Johnston, 
 " over a whole province, where the land is new, and ma- 
 nured only in rare instances, or at long intervals, indicate a 
 capacity in the soil and climate, to produce grain for hu- 
 man food, of a very superior quality." 
 
DESCEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 561 
 
 THE FOREST. 
 
 After agriculture, the forests of IN'ew Brunswick consti- 
 tute at present its next greatest resource, in furnishing the 
 materials for its staple export of timber, and its principal 
 manufactures — ship-building and sawed lumber. 
 
 The whole surface of the province, in its natural state, 
 is, with very few exceptions, covered with a dense forest 
 of timber-trees. Among these, the most valuable, as well 
 as the most interesting and majestic, is the white pine, so 
 called from the perfect whiteness of its wood when freshly 
 exposed. The wood is soft, light, free from knots, and 
 easily wrought ; it is durable, and not liable to split when 
 exposed to the sun. The white pine furnishes timber of 
 large dimensions, and boards of great width ; and its Avood 
 is employed in far more diversified uses, and in greater 
 quantities, than that of any other tree in America. 
 
 The most usual forms in which white pine is extensively 
 exported from New Brunswick are — as squared timber, 
 masts, spars, deals, plank, boards, scantling, clapboards, 
 palings, shingles, and laths ; also in boxes, barrels, water- 
 pails, and tubs. It would, however, be quite impossible to 
 enumerate the variety of purposes to which it is applied, 
 both in Europe and America. 
 
 Next to the white pine in commercial value, is the hlach 
 spruee. This tree is so multiplied in New Brunswick, as 
 to constitute a third part of the forests with which the 
 province is so uninterruptedly covered, and nowhere is it 
 found of larger size or finer quality. It often attains from 
 seventy to eighty feet in height, and frona eighteen to 
 twenty-four inches in diameter. 
 
 The distinguishing properties of the wood of the black 
 spruce are, strength, lightness, and elasticity. It furnishes 
 as fine yards and topmasts as any in the world, and for 
 these it has been long and extensively used. By many, 
 the wood of the black spruce is preferred to that of the 
 white pine for flooring ; but its great value arises from its 
 
562 DESCEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACOOmTT. 
 
 furnisMiig the spruce deals of commerce, which now con- 
 stitute one of the largest and most valuable exports of ^ew 
 Brunswick. These deals are of the uniform thickness of 
 three inches, not less than twelve feet in length, and nine 
 inches in width. The most usual dimensions are nine 
 and eleven inches in breadth, and lengths of twelve, four- 
 teen, sixteen, eighteen, and twentj-one feet. Spruce bat- 
 tens are twelve feet long, seven inches in width, and two 
 and a half inches in thickness. The manufacture of spruce 
 deals commenced in New Brunswick in 1819, and has 
 since been steadily increasing. In 1851, there were five 
 hundred and eightj-foui- saw-mills in the province, driven 
 either by steam or water power, and since then the num- 
 ber has been continually on the increase. The extent and 
 value of the exports of pine and spruce timber and deals, 
 will be seen by reference to the tables hereafter. 
 
 The next tree in the order of value is the American 
 larch^ which is known under a variety of names. The 
 French Canadians call it epinette rouge y the descend- 
 ants of the Dutch in America have called it tamarack. 
 It is most generally designated in !N'ew Brunswick by its 
 Indian name, hackmataclc. In the northern portion of the 
 province, and on the Gulf Shore, it is sometimes styled 
 cypress^ but much more frequently juniper, to neither of 
 which designations has it the slightest claim. 
 
 The American larch, like that of Europe, is a magnifi- 
 cent tree, with a straight, slender trunk, eighty feet or 
 more in height, and upwards of two feet in diameter. 
 Trees of this size are most abundant in the north-eastern 
 portion of the province, but, of greater or less size, they 
 abound throughout I^ew Brunswick. The wood of the 
 American larch unites all the properties which distin- 
 guish the European species, being exceedingly strong, and 
 singularly durable. It is highly esteemed, especially for 
 knees, the but of the stem and one of the principal roots 
 forming together the angle required. Few descriptions of 
 wood, if any, are superior to it for ship-planks and ship- 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 563 
 
 timber : and the elipper-ships of ^N^ew Brunswick, built al- 
 most wholly of its larch wood, have attained a world-wide 
 celebrity for speed, strength, and durability. 
 
 After the three principal trees already named, come the 
 birch, the beech, the maple, the elm, the hemlock, the spruce, 
 the butternut, the ash, and the white cedar. Each of these 
 furnishes forest trees of large size ; and, in various shapes, 
 they are of more or less value for home use, as well as for 
 exportation. 
 
 There are four species of hirch in !New Brunswick, all 
 of them tall trees. Of these, the black and yellow birch 
 are the most valuable, and furnish timber of the largest 
 size. The grain of the black birch is fine and close, 
 whence it is susceptible of a brilliant polish : it possesses, 
 also, very considerable strength. It is much used in ship- 
 building, for the keel, lower timbers, and planks of vessels ; 
 and, as it is almost indestructible under water, it is well 
 adapted for piles, foundation timbers, sluices, and in 
 general for any purpose where it is constantly wet. The 
 wood of the yellow birch is believed to be somewhat 
 inferior to that of the black birch ; but the timber and 
 planks from both trees are exported indiscriminately, 
 under the general name of birch. Both species abound 
 in New Brunswick, and they are almost always found on 
 deep, loose, and wet soils, where they attain their largest 
 size, which is from sixty to seventy feet in height, and 
 more than two feet in diameter. 
 
 There are two species of heech found in N"ew Brunswick, 
 the red and the white, but of these the red beech is far 
 the most valuable. In some situations, the beech is so 
 abundant as to constitute extensive forests, the finest trees 
 growing in a deep moist soil, or level or gently sloping 
 lands, which are suitable for the culture of grain. The 
 wood of the red beech is very valuable when preserved 
 from humidity, and incorruptible when constantly in the 
 water ; but it rapidly decays when exposed to the alterna- 
 tions of dryness and moisture. In the bottoms of vessels, 
 36 
 
56i DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 it lias been known to remain sound for forty years. It 
 serves for shoe-lasts, tool-handles, planes, and mallets, and 
 its ashes aiford good potash. The nuts of the red beech 
 are produced every second year ; hogs fatten rapidly on 
 these nuts, but the pork is not esteemed. Bears, part- 
 ridges, squirrels, and mice, feed on them largely. 
 
 Yery solid and elegant hedges may be made with young 
 beeches placed seven or eight inches apart, and bent in 
 opposite directions, so as to cross each other and form a 
 trellis, with apertures five or six inches in diameter. 
 During the first year, they are bound with osier at the 
 points of intersection, where they finally become grafted, 
 and grow together. As beech does not suffer in pruning, 
 and sprouts less luxuriantly than most other trees, it is 
 well adapted for hedges. The red beech is reared without 
 any difficulty from the seed ; it grows rapidly, and, if the 
 soil is in good order, a handsome and sufficient hedge may 
 be produced in five or six years. 
 
 The maples, in general, are lofty and beautiful trees ; 
 they grow quick, are easily transplanted, and bear crop- 
 ping. The grass flourishes under their shade. They 
 prefer, and are generally found on a free, deep, and l^iamy 
 soil, rich rather than sterile, and neither wet nor very 
 dry. Of the several species of maple, the most interesting 
 and the most valuable is the sugar-maple, also known a? 
 the rock .naple, and hard maple. It enters largely into 
 the composition of the forests with which New Brunswick 
 is covered, where it is found of the largest size, and in 
 great perfection. It frequently reaches the height of 
 seventy or eighty feet, with a proportionate diameter ; but 
 it does not generally exceed fifty or sixty feet, with a diam- 
 eter from twelve to eighteen inches. The sugar-maple is 
 most frequently found on the steep and shady banks of 
 rivers, and elevated situations where the soil is cold and 
 humid, but free, deep, and fertile, and not surcharged 
 with moisture. 
 
 The wood of the sugar-maple, when first cut, is white ; 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 565 
 
 but after being wrought, and exposed for some time to the 
 light, it takes a rosy tinge. Its grain is fine and close, and 
 when polished has a silky lustre. It is very strong, and 
 sufficiently heavy, but wants durability ; when exposed to 
 moisture it soon decays, and it is therefore neglected in 
 civil and naval architecture. In the arrangement of the 
 fibre, this wood frequently exhibits two accidental forms 
 of much beauty, respectively known as " curled maple," 
 and "birds'-eye maple." These make very handsome 
 articles of furniture, and are much sought after by cabinet- 
 makers ; they are exported in considerable quantities to 
 the United Kingdom, where they bring a high price. 
 
 The birches, the beeches, and the maples all furnish ex- 
 cellent fuel, and for this purpose they are extensively used 
 in 'New Brunswick. The sugar-maple, however, furnishes 
 the best fuel, and its ashes are rich in the alkaline princi- 
 ple. The charcoal made from it is superior to any other ; 
 it is one-fifth heavier than that made from the same 
 species of wood in the Middle and Southern States, which 
 sufficiently evinces that the sugar-maple acquires its char- 
 acteristic properties, in perfection, only in a northern 
 climate. 
 
 But the most valuable property of this tree is the quan- 
 tity of sugar it furnishes; and the extraction of sugar 
 from the maple is a valuable resource in a country where 
 all classes of society daily make use of tea and coffee. 
 The process by which it is obtained is very simple, and is 
 everywhere nearly the same. Though not essentially de- 
 fective, it might be rendered more perfect, and more 
 profitable, by a little more attention to science. The 
 work usually commences in the month of March, while 
 the cold continues intense, and the ground is still covered 
 with snow. The sap begins to be in motion at this early 
 season, and is obtained by boring small holes in the trunks 
 of the trees, from which it flows freely. It is then put 
 into kettles ; the evaporation is kept up by a brisk fire, 
 night and day, and^the scum is carefully taken off as it 
 
566 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 rises. Fresh sap is added as required, and the heat is 
 maintained until the liquid is reduced to a sirup, after 
 which it is left to cool, and then strained to remove the 
 remaining impurities. In boiling it for the last time, the 
 kettles are only half filled, and by an active, steady heat, 
 the sirup is rapidly reduced to the proper consistency for 
 being poured into moulds. The molasses being drained 
 off the moulds, the sugar comes out in hard, solid blocks. 
 
 The larger the boiler, the more sugar is obtained ; and 
 a copper vessel produces sugar of a fairer color than an 
 iron vessel. The sugar is lightly colored in proportion to 
 the care with which it is made, and the judgment with 
 which the evaporation is conducted. When refined, it 
 equals in beauty the finest sugar used in Europe. 
 
 The sap continues to flow for six weeks, after which it 
 becomes less abundant, less rich in saccharine matter, 
 and sometimes even incapable of crystallization. In this 
 state, it is consumed in the state of molasses, far superior 
 to that from the West Indies, and bears the name of 
 " maple honey." 
 
 The amount of sugar manufactured in a year, varies 
 from different causes. A cold and dry winter renders the 
 trees more productive than a changeable and humid sea- 
 son. When frosty nights are followed by dry and warm 
 days, the sap flow^ abundantly, and from three to five 
 gallons are then yielded by a single tree, in twenty-four 
 hours. Three persons are found sufiicient to attend two 
 hundred and fifty trees. Each tree of ordinary size yields^ 
 in a good season, twenty to thirty gallons of sap, from 
 which five or six pounds of sugar are made ; but the aver- 
 age quantity, in ordinary seasons, is about four pounds to 
 each tree. 
 
 By the census return for 1851, it appears that the whole 
 quantity of maple sugar made in N'ew Brunswick in that 
 year, was 350,957 pounds. 
 
 There are two well-defined species of Elm in New 
 Brunswick, known as the white elm* and the red elm. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 567 
 
 Both species are beautiful, and well adapted to make 
 shady walks, as they do not destroy the grass ; and their 
 leaves are acceptable to cows, horses, goats, sheep, anc 
 swine. 
 
 The white elm stretches to a great height. In clearing 
 the primitive forests a few stocks are sometimes left stand- 
 ing ; and, isolated in this manner, the tree appears in all its 
 majesty, towering to the height or eighty or one hundred 
 feet, with a trunk of three or even four feet in diameter, 
 regularly shaped, naked, and insensibly diminishing to the 
 height of sixty or seventy feet, when it divides itself into 
 two or three primary limbs. These diffuse on all sides 
 long, flexible, pendulous branches, bending into regular 
 arches and floating lightly in the air, and giving to the 
 tree a broad and somewhat flat-topped summit, of regular 
 proportions and admirable beauty. 
 
 In autumn, the bright golden foliage of the elm mixes 
 kindly with the various hues of the poplar and the maples, 
 which display all shades of red, and from the deepest crim- 
 son to the brightest orange. Its tint then contrasts favor* 
 ably with the pale-yellow, sober foliage of the birch and 
 beech, with the different shades of brown in the basswood 
 and the ash, or with the buff-yellow of the larch. At that 
 season, even the gloomy blackness of the firs, by throwing 
 forward the gayer tints, is not without its effect. 
 
 Mr. McGregor, in his work on British America, speak- 
 ing of the forests, says, — " It is impossible to exaggerate 
 the beauty of these forests ; nothing under heaven can be 
 compared to their effulgent grandeur. Two or three frosty 
 nights in the decline of autumn, transform the boundless 
 verdure of a whole empire into every possible tint of bril- 
 liant scarlet, rich violet ; every shade of blue and brown, 
 vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexora- 
 ble fir tribes alone maintain their eternal sombre green ; all 
 others, on mountains or in valleys, burst into the most 
 glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit the most splendid 
 and most enchanting panorama on earth." 
 
568 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 
 
 The white elm delights in low, humid, substantial 8oili», 
 such as are called in New Brunswick, " intervale lands," 
 along the banks of rivers or streams, or on the borders of 
 swamps, where the soil is deep and fertile. The rich 
 " intervales," formed by alluvial deposits, are necessary to 
 its perfection. The wood has less strength than the oak, 
 and less elasticity than the ash, but it is tougher and less 
 liable to split. It is said to bear the driving of bolts and 
 nails better than any other timber. "When exposed to the 
 alternations of dryness and moisture, it is liable to decay ; 
 it must be either wet or dry in the extreme. Consequently 
 it is proper for waterworks, mills, pumps, aqueducts, and 
 ship planks beneath the water-line. When fully seasoned, 
 the wood is highly esteemed for the carriages of cannon, 
 and for the gunwales and blocks of ships. 
 
 The red elm is less multiplied than the white, and the 
 two species are rarely found together, as the red elm re- 
 quires a substantial soil, free from moisture, and even 
 delights in elevated and open situations. This tree is fifty 
 or sixty feet high, and fifteen or twenty inches in diameter. 
 The wood is less compact than that of the white elm, and 
 of coarser grain ; but it is said to be stronger and more 
 durable when exposed to the weather, and of better quality 
 than the wood of the white elm. 
 
 The hemlock spruce forms a large proportion of the 
 evergreen forests of New Brunswick, and is abundantly 
 multiplied in every favorable situation. It is always larger 
 and taller than the black spruce, and frequently attains 
 the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a diameter of 
 two to three feet, and uniform for two-thirds of its length. 
 The properties of this spruce are such as to give it only a 
 secondary importance, notwithstanding its abundant diffu- 
 sion: and it has heretofore been considered among the 
 least valuable of the large resinous trees of Kew Bruns- 
 wick. Yet it is well adapted for mining, for wharf-build- 
 ing, or for use in situations where it is constantly wet. It 
 gives a tight hold to nails, and iron driven into it will not 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AKD STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 569 
 
 corrode, in or out of water. Large quantities are shipped 
 to Great Britain in the shape of lath-wood, from which 
 split laths are made. 
 
 The wood of the hemlock spruce is firmer than that of 
 the white pine ; although coarser grained, it gives a better 
 hold to nails, and offers more resistance to the impression 
 of other bodies. As two-inch plank, it is frequently em- 
 ployed for threshing-floors, and also for grain-bins, because, 
 as it is alleged, rats will not gnaw the wood. As inch- 
 boards, its most common use is for the first covering of 
 the frames of houses, called " rough-boarding," which is 
 afterward covered either with clap-boards, siding, or 
 shingles of white pine. When guarded from wet, the 
 wood of the hemlock spruce is as durable as any other 
 species of spruce, or even pine. The bark is extensively 
 used in tanning. 
 
 Only one species of the walnut is found in New Bruns- 
 wick, which is well known by the name of butternut. It 
 is abundant on the rich alluvial banks of the rivers, and 
 in such situations frequently attains the height of eighty feet, 
 and the circumference, at four feet from the ground, of six tp 
 eight feet. The fruit is commonly single, and suspended by a 
 thin, pliable foot-stalk ; it is often two and a half inches 
 in lencrth, and five inches in circumference. The nuts are 
 hard, oblong, rounded at the base, and terminated at the 
 summit in an acute point. They are ripe in October, and 
 in some seasons are so abundant, that one person may 
 gather several bushels in a day. The kernels are very 
 oily; these the Indians, in former times, pounded and 
 boiled, and separating the oily substance which swam 
 upon the surface, mixed it with their food — whence the 
 name of " butternut." 
 
 The wood of the " butternut" is light, of little strength, 
 and of a reddish hue ; but it possesses the advantage of 
 lasting long, of being able to resist the effects of heat and 
 moisture, and of being secure from the ravages of worms. 
 Yery considerable quantities of furniture are now made in 
 
570 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAI^ AOCOUNT. 
 
 the province, of the butternut wood, and it is becoming 
 in request for a variety of purposes. For wainscoting, and 
 for fitting up libraries, it is well adapted, being easily 
 worked, of a pleasing color, and susceptible of a good 
 polish, which throws out the graining, and shows the wood 
 to advantage. It has been recently employed in the high- 
 est order of architectural finishing, in the cathedral, and 
 various churches and chapels of the province, in the arches 
 and ceilings of which it is seen under favorable circum- 
 stances and greatly admired. 
 
 Bii '•ternut wood has not yet become an article of export, 
 but the large size of which it can be produced, and its va- 
 rious good qualities, only recently become known, must 
 render it in demand. The propagation of this tree is 
 very easy, either from the cuttings or from the nut ; and 
 as it grows to the greatest advantage in pastures, and 
 along the sides of roads, it is advantageous to farmers to 
 cultivate it, as well for the beauty of the tree itself, and 
 the fruit it produces, a"s for the value of the wood at ma- 
 turity. 
 
 Of the ash^ there are two distinct species in New Bruns- 
 wick, the white ash and black ash. The wood of the ash 
 differs more, from difference of soil and situation, than that 
 of any other tree ; consequently there are several varieties 
 in the province, but on close examination they may be 
 referred to one of the two species named. 
 
 The white ash is an interesting and valuable tree, from 
 the qualities of its wood, the rapidity of its growth, and 
 the beauty of its foliage ; it abounds in Kew Brunswick. 
 In favorable situations, it sometimes attains the height ot 
 fifty or sixty feet, with a diameter of eighteen inches or 
 more. The trunk is perfectly straight, and often undivided 
 to the height of thirty feet. The wood of the white ash is 
 highly esteemed for its strength, suppleness, and elasticity ; 
 it is superior to every other wood for oars, and is second only 
 to hickory for handspikes. Besides its extensive use by 
 carriage and sleigh makers, it is in very general use for 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AJSTD STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 571 
 
 agricultural implements. It is among the exports of the 
 province in the form of staves and pjanks. 
 
 The black ash is a tree of smaller size than the white ash, 
 and its wood is neither so strong nor so durable. Its wood 
 is not therefore in great request ; but as it may be sepa- 
 rated into thin, narrow strips, it is much used by the 
 Indians for the manufacture of baskets. 
 
 The white cedar abounds throughout New Brunswick. 
 It grows almost always in wet ground ; in swamps, the 
 trees sometimes stand so thick, that the light can hardly 
 penetrate their foliage. It is sometimes upwards of forty 
 feet in height, with a diameter of two feet and more at the 
 base. Usually, however, it is not more than ten or fifteen 
 inches in diameter, at five feet from the ground. It fre- 
 quently occupies exclusively, or in great part, swamps from 
 fifty to one hundred acres in extent, some of which are 
 accessible only in winter, when they are frozen and covered 
 with deep snow. These " cedar swamps," when cleared 
 and drained, are noted for producing large crops of clover. 
 
 The wood of the white cedar is light, soft, fine-grained, 
 and easily wrought. It has a strong aromatic odor, which 
 it preserves as long as it is guarded from humidity. The 
 perfect wood resists the succession of dryness and moist- 
 ure for a great length of time, and this constitutes its great 
 value for fencing. Rails of split cedar, deprived of the 
 bark, have been known to last for fifty years ; and shingles 
 for upwards of thirty years. The largest stocks of the 
 white cedar are much sought after by boat-builders, who 
 use it for boats employed in the fisheries. It possesses 
 superior fitness for various household utensils, especially 
 pails', tubs, and churns, which, instead of growing dull like 
 those of other wood, become whiter and smoother by use 
 It is chiefly exported in the form of posts and palings ; 
 but as the comraittee of Lloyd's have just determined to 
 admit white cedar of good quality for the third foot-hooks 
 and top timbers of ships, of the six and seven years' grade, 
 its value will hereafter be considerably enhanced. 
 
572 DEscKinivE and statistical account. 
 
 Besides the timber trees already mentioned, which are 
 of much value in an economical and commercial point of 
 view, there are a variety of other trees in the forests of 
 ISTew Brunswick, of less size and value, but yet exceedingly 
 useful in their way. 
 
 Among these may be mentioned the red and gray oak, 
 both trees of small size, but the latter furnishing wood of 
 great Weight, strength, and durability, which is much in 
 request for agricultural implements, as also for boats, car- 
 riages, and sleighs. The white maple and red flowering 
 maple are much smaller than the sugar-maple, and the sap 
 from them yields only half the quantity of sugar. Their 
 wood is much used in cabinet-work, in chair-making, and 
 for a variety of domestic utensils. The white birch and 
 canoe-birch are both trees of considerable size, furnishing 
 much fuel; and the bark of the canoe-birch 'is exceed- 
 ingly useful for a variety of purposes, especially the con- 
 struction of canoes, and the making of boxes, dish^es, and 
 a variety of ornamental articles. One of its many uses is 
 being placed in large sheets beneath the shingles and clap- 
 boards, to render the houses drier, and less liable to be 
 penetrated with cold. The alders, the willows, and the 
 wild cherry-trees are all of small size, but useful for some 
 purposes. The fruit of the wild cherry is oftentimes very 
 abundant. These wild cherries are about one-fourth of an 
 inch in diameter, of a roundish form, purplish-black color, 
 and edible, but slightlj bitter to the taste. They are 
 made into a cordial by infusion in rum or brandy, with the 
 addition of sugar ; this, when carefully made with brandy, 
 is superior to the Kirsohenwasser, imported from Copen- 
 hagen. There are two species of poplar, known as the 
 balsam poplar (or balm of Gilead) and the American 
 aspen, both furnishing trees of considerable size, but of no 
 great value, except for ornamental purposes. The Amer- 
 ican lime, generally known as hasawood, is a tree of large 
 «^ize in New Brunswick, but not ver^ abundant. It is 
 sometimes met with more than eighty feat high, and four feet 
 
DESCKIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 573 
 
 in diameter ; its presence indicates loose, deep, and fertile 
 soil. The wood is soft, easily worked, and is used for the 
 panels of carriages, seats of chairs, and fans of fanning- 
 mills. The hornbeam and ironwood are both found in 
 New Brunswick somewhat extensively. The wood of 
 each is exceedingly hard and tough, and capable of bear- 
 ing great weight ; but as they are both trees of the third 
 order only, their small size prevents their being so gener- 
 ally useful as if of larger dimensions. 
 
 The white spruce is a tree of smaller size than the black 
 spruce, and the wood is of inferior quality, although the 
 deals made from it are mixed with those of black spruce, 
 vithout distinction. The fibres of its roots, macerated in 
 \\ Ater, are very flexible and tough ; they are used by the 
 Indians to stitch their canoes of birch bark, their dishes, 
 and water-pails, of the same material. The seams of the 
 canoes, and of the water-pails, are rendered water-tight by 
 a resin, improperly called gum, which exudes from knots 
 and wounds on the trunk of this tree, whence it is gath- 
 ered, melted, and boiled, to free it from impurities. The 
 American silver fir^ sometimes called balsam fir, is found 
 in greater or less abundance throughout New Brunswick. 
 Its height rarely exceeds forty feet, with a diameter from 
 twelve to sixteen inches. The wood of the silver fir is light, 
 and slightly resinous ; it lasts longer in the air than in water, 
 and its principal use hitherto has been in the form of 
 boards, for the outside covering of farm-buildings. The 
 great abundance and cheapness of white pine and spruce, 
 have caused the silver fir to be much undervalued. The 
 well-known fir balsam is procured from this tree. It is 
 naturally deposited in vesicles on the trunk and limbs, and 
 is collected >^y bursting these tumors, and receiving the 
 contents in a shell or cup. In England, it is celebrated 
 for medicinal purposes, and is there generally known by 
 the name of Canada balsam. The following statement 
 shows the quantities of the principal products of the 
 forest, exported from New Brunswick during five years ; 
 
574: 
 
 THE FISHEKIES. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Timber (tons) 
 
 Deals (Mfeet) 
 
 Boards & plank I 
 
 (Mfeet) \ 
 
 Masts & spars (No.) 
 Ship-knees (No.). . 
 Lathwood (cords) . . 
 Sawed laths (M). . . 
 
 Shingles (M) 
 
 Box-shocks (No.).. 
 
 1849. 
 
 18,50. 
 
 1851. 
 
 IS.% 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854 
 
 159,759 
 
 168,381 
 
 168,062 
 
 134,888 
 
 137,389 
 
 127,567 
 
 141,149 
 
 145,685 
 
 179,810 
 
 203,639 
 
 248,344 
 
 258,004 
 
 23,511 
 
 25,538 
 
 21,006 
 
 19,647 
 
 7,867 
 
 19,256 
 
 7.156 
 
 4,786 
 
 7,831 
 
 9,381 
 
 4,224 
 
 3,794 
 
 8,262 
 
 5,262 
 
 2,861 
 
 9,453 
 
 14,410 
 
 15,248 
 
 2,059 
 
 2.548 
 
 2,542 
 
 2,475 
 
 2,595 
 
 2,223 
 
 6,009 
 
 5,664 
 
 4,652 
 
 6,853 
 
 20,925 
 
 19,672 
 
 22,345 
 
 22,995 
 
 30,636 
 
 28,774 
 
 30,197 
 
 24,837 
 
 15,241 
 
 48,521 
 
 29,481 
 
 60,775 
 
 43,275 
 
 124,672 
 
 1855u 
 112,134 
 189,817 
 
 23,099 
 
 6,393 
 10,846 
 
 1,605 
 34,033 
 31,491 
 
 Besides the principal articles shown in this statement, 
 there were also exported considerable quantities of fire- 
 wood, tanners' bark, railway sleepers, pickets, cedar posts, 
 poles and rickers, handspikes, palings, and clap-boards ; 
 besides wood in a variety of other shapes, more or less 
 
 manufactured. 
 
 THE FISHERIES. 
 
 The sea-coast of New Brunswick, as well in the Bay of 
 Fundy as within the Gulf of St. Lawrence, abounds with 
 fish of various descriptions ; and all its rivers possess fish- 
 eries more or less valuable. As the fisheries in the Bay 
 of Fundy differ materially from those in the Gulf, they 
 will be described separately. 
 
 The Bay of Fundy. — ^The principal sea fisheries in the 
 bay are those for cod, pollock, hake, haddock, herring, 
 and mackerel. The chief fishing grounds for these are 
 near the entrance to the bay, and in the vicinity of the 
 islands of Grand Manan, Campo Bello, and the group 
 known as "West Isles, whence the fishing is pursued along 
 the coast eastwardly to the harbor of St. John, and some- 
 times much further up the bay. The estimated annual 
 value of these fisheries is about £40,000 sterling. 
 
 The fishing for cod, pollock, hake, and haddock, is with 
 hook and line only. It is chiefly followed by fishermen 
 resident on the coast and adjacent islands, in small open 
 boats, which go out in the morning and return in the 
 evening, except in hake fishing, wliich is pursued during 
 the night. The boats generally in use are from twelve to 
 eighteen feet in length ; the twelve feet boat has one 
 
THE FIBHEEIE8. 575 
 
 man, the eighteen feet boat usually three men. These 
 boats have sharp or pink sterns, with one mast shipped 
 very close to the stem, and a mainsail very broad at the 
 foot, stretched well out with a light boom, and running up 
 to a point at the top. They sail uncommonly well, and 
 lie very close to the wind. Small schooners are also em- 
 ployed for winter fishing, and for the distant banks or 
 fishing grounds. 
 
 The cod of the Bay of Fundy are large and of the 
 finest quality, equal to any taken on the coast of North 
 America. They bear the highest price in the United 
 States market, being always selected for the best tables. 
 The cod fishery may be followed nearly the whole year, 
 when the weather permits, sometimes close to the land, 
 and at others ten or fifteen miles from it, in very deep 
 water, according to the season, and the course of the her- 
 rings, or other fish upon which the cod feed at difierent 
 times. When caught, the cod are usually split, salted, 
 and dried, and in that state are known as the dry cod of 
 commerce, which is always sold by the quintal of 112 lbs. 
 At those seasons when cod cannot be dry-cured, they are 
 salted in pickle, and packed in barrels ; these are called 
 " pickled cod." 
 
 The very best cod are taken at the close of winter, or 
 very early in the spring, in about sixty fathoms water. 
 These are a thick, well-fed fish, often attaining the weight 
 of 70 lbs. or 80 lbs. and sometimes more. The oil extract- 
 ed from the liver of the cod is valuable, and, when refined, 
 sells at a high price for rnedicinal purposes. The tongues 
 and sounds of the cod are excellent eating; they are 
 pickled and sold as an article of food. . The heads of the 
 cod contain much rich and delicate nutriment, which is 
 highly recommended to persons of weak constitution, and 
 to those whose systems have become debilitated ; but, 
 owing to the abundance of other excellent fish, the cods'- 
 heads are chiefly used for manure. When properly pre- 
 pared with other substances, they are believed to stimu- 
 
576 
 
 THE FISHERIES. 
 
 late vegetation nearly as inucli as guano, while they 
 greatly enrich the soil, and render it in a better condition 
 for future crops. 
 
 T\\Q pollock is one of the few ocean fishes which range 
 on both sides the Atlantic ; on the coasts of England and 
 Ireland, it is commonly known as the coalfish. Its season 
 for spawning is early in spring ; in the early ^part of sum- 
 mer the fish is lank and almost worthless. It becomes in 
 good condition in July, and improves as the season ad- 
 vances. It frequently swims at no great depth, and, when 
 attracted by bait, will keep near a boat or vessel until all 
 are taken. 
 
 Pollock fishing may be considered as one of the most 
 valuable deep-sea fisheries of the Bay of Fundy. They 
 are often taken from boats at anchor, like the cod ; but, in 
 general, the .best fishing for them is in the strong currents 
 between the islands of the bay, and in the '' ripplings," or 
 agitated w^aters, formed by the conflict of tides rushing 
 through various narrow passages with great force. In 
 these the lively pollock delight to play, as there they find 
 abundance of small herrings for food. In the " ripplings" 
 they are taken from vessels under easy sail, the bait being 
 kept in brisk motion by the sailing of the vessel ; it then 
 closely resembles a living fish darting through the water, 
 and is eagerly chased by the pollock. They are split and 
 dry-cured like cod. Their abundance, and the facility 
 with which they are taken, often render this a profitable 
 fishery. Their livers, in the latter part of summer and 
 autumn, yield much valuable oil. 
 
 The hake is a large fish, frequently three feet in length ; 
 it is taken abundantly, chiefly by fishing during the night, 
 on muddy bottoms. Its jaws are furnished with several 
 rows of sharp incurved teeth, which rendei necessary an 
 armature of six or eight inch-iS above the hook, as this fish 
 readily bites ofi" a common cod-line. It is split and dry- 
 cured like cod, but requires much more salt. The picklo 
 for hake i? made of exceeding strength, a bushel of salt 
 
THE FISHERIES. 577 
 
 being used for each quintal of fish. When sufficiently 
 cured, it is exported to the markets of the United States 
 and the "West Indies. 
 
 The haddooh is a small fish, found almost everywhere 
 near the shores of New Brunswick. It is exceedingly fine 
 when eaten fresh, or when slightly salted and smoked, in 
 the same manner as the Finnan haddocks of Scotland. 
 This fish is too thin to be of much value when salted and 
 dry-cured. The haddocks swim in immense shoals, and 
 are prone to change their ground frequently, no doubt in 
 pursuit of food, their consumption being enormous ; but 
 there are many localities in which they are almost certain 
 to be found at all seasons of the year. They are in the 
 best condition in autumn and winter, and are a favorite 
 object of pursuit with those who follow d-eep-sea fishing 
 as an amusement, afiPording good sport, and most delicious 
 fresh fish. 
 
 The pollock, the hake, and the haddock, when dry- 
 cured, are designated by dealers, " scale-fish," and have 
 only half the commercial value of the cod. 
 
 The herring is found in great variety and abundance 
 everywhere in the Bay of Fundy. The statements made 
 by the older naturalists, as to vast armies of herrings com- 
 ing down annually from the Arctic Ocean, and making 
 the circuit of the seas, is now supposed to be wholly 
 imaginary. It is at present believed that the herring 
 fattens in the depths of the ocean, and approaches the shore 
 in shoals, merely for the purpose of depositing its spawn. 
 It is quite certain that the common herring is caught in 
 the Bay of Fundy during every month in the year, which 
 quite precludes the idea of its being a migratory fish ; and 
 it is equally certain that particular varieties are always 
 caught in well-known localities, and not elsewhere. 
 
 Herrings are commonly taken in nets, set at night, in 
 the same manner as on the coasts of the United Kingdom. 
 These are cured in pickle, and packed in barrels; they 
 form the ordinary pickled herrings of commerce. The 
 
578 THE FISHERIES. 
 
 small herrings are taken in shallow bays and coves, in 
 weirs, formed of stakes driven at regular intervals, and 
 interwoven with twigs, thus forming what is called a 
 " brush weir." The fish enter these weirs at high water, 
 and are taken out when the tide recedes and leaves them 
 dry, or nearly so, at low water. These small herrings are 
 salted and smoked, and when properly cured are very 
 savory. They are packed in boxes of about twelve dozens 
 each, and sold at a low price ; they enter largely into 
 domestic consumption, and form an article of export of 
 very considerable amount. 
 
 The mackerel is a fish rather erratic in its habits, and 
 therefore no great dependence can be placed upon this 
 fishery in the Bay of Fundy. Formerly, mackerel were 
 very abundant near Grand Manan and Gampo Bello, where 
 but few are now taken, although the quantity has increased 
 of late years. Those taken are generally of small size, 
 and not at all equal to the mackerel of the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, of which mention is made hereafter. 
 
 The halibut is a large flat fish, of the flounder family; 
 it IS frequently caught when fishing for cod. This fish 
 reaches the weight of 200 lbs., and sometimes much more. 
 In summer it is taken in shallow water, often quite near 
 the shore ; in winter it retires to deep water. The flesh, 
 though white and firm, is dry, and the muscular fibre 
 coarse, yet by many it is much esteemed ; the fins and 
 flaps are delicacies, if the fish is in good condition. "When 
 a number of these fish are taken at one time, the fisher- 
 men salt the flesh lightly, and then dry and smoke it for 
 winter use. 
 
 The sea-shad of the Bay of Fundy is one of the most 
 delicious fish found in its waters. It is taken in long 
 drift-nets, attached to a boat, and thus kept stretched 
 across the tide, during the night only. Some are taken 
 (M the harbor of St. John, but the principal fishery is 
 within Cumberland Basin, at the head of the bay. In 
 the muddy waters of that basin they attain their highest 
 
M 
 
 S. "*• / , 
 
 ^mr 
 
 f'W^ 
 
 iii 
 
 m. 
 
 
 fll; 
 
' THE FISHERIES. 679 
 
 perfection, owing to the great abundance there of their 
 favorite food, the shad-worm and the shrimp. The usual 
 weight of this fish is from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs., although it 
 sometimes attains the weight of 6 lbs. For winter use the 
 shad is split down the back, and pickled ; it must be care- 
 fully cleaned and freed from blood or other impurities, 
 otherwise, from its exceeding fatness, it is apt to spoil. 
 Upwards of two hundred boats and five hundred men are 
 employed in the shad fishery, every season, in Cumber- 
 land Basin ; their annual catch is estimated at something 
 more than 4,000 barrels, worth at least £5,000 sterling. 
 
 Besides the sea-fish above described, there are others 
 also taken, of less commercial value, which are usually 
 eaten fresh. Among these are the silver hake, a fish 
 resembling the whiting of Europe; the cunner, or sea- 
 perch ; the torsk, or cusk, which is sometimes salted and 
 dried ; several varieties of flounder ; eels in great abund- 
 ance and of good quality, occasionally pickle-salted for 
 exportation; the tom-cod, a small variety of the cod 
 family ; skate in abundance, and of large size, seldom 
 eaten, not being sufficiently appreciated ; and that delicious 
 little fish, the smelt, which in spring is taken in immense 
 quantities, and in great perfection. 
 
 Of shell-fish^ there are lobsters in considerable numbers ; 
 large and small clams ; a large flat shell-fish, known as the 
 scallop ; the periwinkle ; and great abundance of shrimps, 
 with which the market might be amply supplied, but for 
 the scarcity of shrimp-fishers, who might here follow their 
 vocation most profitably. 
 
 The islands of Grand Manan, Campo Bello, and "West 
 Isles, own and employ in the fisheries sixty-eight vessels, 
 manned by 558 men ; 350 boats, manned by 900 men ; 
 besides 200 men employed in connection with the herring- 
 weirs. The settlers along the shores of the Bay of Fundy 
 all fish more or less in their own boats, chiefly for their 
 own use. The value of their fishing cannot be stated with 
 any degree of precision. 
 37 
 
580 THE FISHERIES. 
 
 The rivers which fall into the bay yield a variety of 
 fish ; but the most valuable river fishing is in the harbor 
 of St. John, at the mouth of the St. John Kiver, which 
 yields annually about 40,000 salmon, 12,000 to 16,000 
 barrels of alewives, and about 1,000 barrels of shad. The 
 salmon are large and fine, precisely similar to the salmon 
 of Europe. They are worth at St. John about six-pence 
 sterling per pound, and are sent in ice, in large quantities, 
 to the United States, yielding a considerable profit, and 
 forming a valuable export. The alewife is a small species 
 of shad, generally known in New Brunswick by the name 
 of gaspereau ; its length is from eight to ten inches, tol- 
 erably good when eaten fresh, early in spring, but very 
 dry when salted. It is exported in pickle to the Southern 
 States, where it is eaten by the slaves ; in that hot climate, 
 a fatter fish will not keep. Shad are taken in the river, 
 on the way to their spawning grounds, which are some 
 distance above tide-water. The river shad are much 
 inferior to those taken in the bay, or in Cumberland 
 Basin, and, when salted, are but little superior to the 
 gaspereau. 
 
 The fisheries in St. John harbor give employment to 
 two hundred boats and five hundred men; their value is 
 estimated at £20,000 sterling annually. 
 
 The Gulf of St. Lawrence. — The fisheries in this 
 gulf are prosecuted only from April until the end of No- 
 vember, the ice preventing their being followed during 
 the rest of the j^ear. 
 
 The principal fishery is for cod ; it commences early in 
 June, and continues until late in November. In the early 
 part of the season, cod are taken very near the shores ; as 
 the season advances, they draw off into deep water. The 
 best fishing grounds, or, rather, those most frequented, 
 are from Point Escuminac to Miscou, and thence along 
 the Bay of Chaleur to the Kestigouche. The fishermen 
 go out in boats, from one to fifteen miles from the land, 
 in the morning, and when at the longer distance do not 
 
THE FISHERIES. 581 
 
 return until the evening of the second day. Tlieir boats 
 are large, but not decked ; they have two fore-and-aft 
 sails and a jib. Each boat is managed by two men, and 
 there is frequently with them a boy. The fisli^ermen gen- 
 erally build their own boats during winter : the keel is 
 of birch ; the timbers of cedar ; and the planks of pine or 
 cedar. The boat has oars, an anchor and rope, compass, 
 and small oven for cooking ; the cost is about £18 for 
 each boat and outfit. A boat will last from six to eight 
 years, and so will the sails also, with care. 
 
 It is considered a good day's fishing at Miscou, or 
 Shippagan, for one of these boats to take ten quintals of 
 fish, which they frequently do. When first caught, 112 
 of the small fish, and thirty of the large size, are reckoned 
 to the quintal. The fishermen generally split, salt, and 
 cure their own fish ; when they do not, 252 lbs. of green 
 fish, salted and drained, are given to a curer, who returns 
 a quintal, or 112 lbs. of merchantable dry fish. 
 
 The Bay of Chaleur cod are more prized in the markets 
 of the Mediterranean, and will at all times sell there more 
 readily, and at higher prices than any other. They are 
 beautifully white, and being very dry, can better with- 
 stand the effects of a hot climate and long voyage than a 
 more moist fish. The peculiarity of tlieir being smaller 
 than cod caught elsewhere, is also of great importance as 
 regards the South American market, for which they are 
 packed in tubs of a peculiar shape called " drums," and 
 into which they are closely pressed by means of a power- 
 ful screw. ■ 
 
 Hake are taken abundantly in the gulf, at night, and 
 on muddy bottoms, as in the Bay of Fundy. But much 
 more attention is given to their cure, and they are ex- 
 ported under the name of " ling." The haddock abounds, 
 but the pollock are not found in the gulf, probably from 
 the absence of those rushing tides and foaming currents 
 in which they so greatly delight. The torsk, or cusk, is 
 more common than in the Bay of Fundy, and is dry-cured 
 
582 THE FISHEKIES. 
 
 as a " scale-fish." Halibut are often taken. They are cut 
 in slices and pickled in barrels, in which state they sell at 
 half the price of the best herrings. 
 
 Herrings are taken everywhere on the gulf coast of 
 'New Brunswick, around Miscou Island, and within the 
 Bay of Chaleur. Immediately after the disappearance 
 of the ice, at the end of April or early in ^ay, vast quan- 
 tities of herrings draw near the shores to deposit their 
 spawn ; the fishing continues until about the first of 
 June, when, the spawning being concluded, the fish retire 
 to deep water. These "spring-herrings," as they j^re 
 termed, being taken in the very act of spawning, are tliin 
 and poor ; of little value as an article of food, whether fresh 
 or salted. Other herrings appear on the coast about the 
 20th August, and remain inshore for a month; these are 
 called " fall-herrings." They are fat, and in good con- 
 dition, furnishing excellent food, and a valuable commod- 
 ity for export. It is admitted that, when first caught, 
 the " fall -herrings" are fully equal in every respect to the 
 best Scotch herrings ; and if they were cured in the same 
 manner, this fishery, from the increased price and de- 
 mand, would become one of the most valuable fisheries of 
 the gulf. 
 
 Mackerel abound in the gulf, and are the chief object 
 of pursuit with the numerous American fishing vessels 
 which annually resort to its waters. This fishery commen- 
 ces early in July, and continues until late in October. The 
 mackerel taken in the early part of the season are gener- 
 ally very poor; they improve in quality as the season 
 advances. Those taken latest are by far the best, being 
 large and fat, and in the finest condition. The mackerel 
 fishery, as such, can scarcely be said to be followed by 
 Kew Brunswick fishermen. They take small quantities 
 only with hook and line, to serve as bait for cod ; and 
 a few are taken in nets along the coast by settlers. This 
 valuable and prolific, though somewhat uncertain fishery, 
 has as yet been turned to very little account by the people 
 
THE FISHERIES. 583 
 
 of !N'ew Brunswick ; but, if properly understood, may be 
 prosecuted very extensively, and with much profit, for the 
 mackerel of the gulf bear a very high price, and are in 
 great demand in the United States. 
 
 In the spring, the alewife or gasperau enters all the 
 rivers which flow into the gulf, between Bale Yerte and 
 Shippagan, and many thousands of barrels are taken 
 annually. The striped bass abounds all along the same 
 coast; while the quantities of smelts are perfectly pro- 
 digious. The sea-eels are uncommonly large and fat, and 
 many are salted for exportation. The cunner, or sea- 
 perch, is large and fine in the gulf. Shad are not plenti- 
 ful, and those taken are thin and of small size, greatly 
 inferior to those caught in the Bay of Fundy. The cape- 
 lin is a small migratory fish from four to seven inches in 
 length, not unlike the smelt. It is a very delicate fish, 
 and large shoals draw near the shores every season, at 
 places which are favorable for the deposit of their spawn. 
 Flounders are found everywhere in great abundance and 
 variety, as also the tom-cod and the skate ; there are also 
 other fishes of less value, among them the dog-fish, the 
 livers of which yield oil largely. 
 
 Salmon of the finest description are taken in great 
 numbers along the shores of the gulf, and in the estuaries 
 of the rivers flowing into it. At the entrance of the Mi- 
 ramichi, more than 400,000 lbs. of fresh salmon have 
 been put up in a single season, in tin cases hermetically 
 sealed, for export to the United Kingdom. 
 
 The shell-fish of the gulf consist of oysters, of excel- 
 lent quality ; lobsters, in exceeding abundance ; large and 
 small clams, in great quantities; crabs, periwinkles, 
 shrimps, mussels, and razor-fish, are found everywhere, in 
 profusion. 
 
 River Fisheries. — The numerous rivers, lakes, and 
 streams, which so bountifully water New Brunswick, are 
 filled with fish of excellent quality, and in great va- 
 riety. Besides those fishes which enter from the seaj in- 
 
584 THE FISHERIES. 
 
 eluding the salmon, the shad, the gaspereau, the striped 
 bass, the smelt, the silver-eel, the sea-trout, and the 
 sturgeon, there are others which remain constantly in 
 fresh water, and may be taken readily. 
 
 The finest of the fresh-water fishes is the red or brook 
 trout, which is found in nearly every lake and stream in 
 New Brunswick, up to three pounds in weight, and some- 
 times even larger, afibrding excellent sport to the angler, 
 and most delicious food. In the cold waters of the large 
 and deep lakes the great gray trout is caught, up to 
 twelve pounds in weight, but these are not of so fine a flavor 
 as the brook trout. The striped bass passes much of its 
 time in fresh water ; it is a good fish for the table, and is 
 sometimes taken of the weight of twenty pounds and up- 
 wards. After the fishes of the salmon family, it is un- 
 questionably the most sporting fish in North America; its 
 flesh is firm, white, and well fiavored. The small white 
 bass, commonly called the " white perch," is an excellent 
 fish ; it abounds in the St. John and its tributaries, but is 
 not found in the rivers fiowing into the gulf. — The yellow 
 perch, the roach, the dace, the gudgeon, the carp, the 
 sucker, and the chub, are all found in the fresh waters of 
 New Brunswick ; as also the white fish, commonly called 
 the " gizzard fish," and spotted burbot, usually designated 
 " fresh-water cusk," both good in their season. Eels are 
 found everywhere, scarcely any piece of water being with 
 out them. 
 
 Sturgeon of large size ascend several of the principal 
 rivers for the purpose of spawning. They are sometimes 
 caught, but their flesh, being coarse and strong, is rarely 
 eaten, owing to the abundance of fishes of better quality. 
 
 The following is a statement of the official value, in 
 pounds sterling, of the fish exported from New Brunswick 
 during six years, distinguishing the several countries to 
 which the same were exported : — 
 
 -v 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE PKOYINCE. 
 
 685 
 
 To what countries. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 North American Colonies. 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Other British Colonies . . . 
 
 United States 
 
 Foreign States 
 
 Totals, 
 
 1850. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1,835 
 
 2,613 
 
 6,185 
 
 14,605 
 
 12,285 
 
 11,051 
 
 16,507 
 
 9,792 
 
 16,659 
 
 13,713 
 
 1,911 
 
 489 
 
 1,778 
 
 788 
 
 1,841 
 
 55 
 
 1,761 
 
 1,274 
 
 496 
 
 .... 
 
 8,400 
 
 14,281 
 
 22,934 
 
 18,609 
 
 19,676 
 
 4,067 
 
 3,320 
 38,971 
 
 4,096 
 
 5,793 
 
 8,830 
 
 27,319 
 
 46,059 
 
 56,950 
 
 56,345 
 
 186&. 
 
 £ 
 
 8,553 
 
 12,224 
 
 782 
 
 990 
 
 19,929 
 
 4,715 
 
 47,193 
 
 It is believed that this statement does not include the 
 value of much of the fresh fish which is sent to the United 
 States in ice, or of the larger quantities of fresh and half- 
 cured fish which go from the fishing grounds in coasting 
 and trading vessels, without being reported. 
 
 GEOLOaY OP THE PROVINCE. 
 
 So large a proportion of 'New Brunswick is now covered 
 with dense forest, and, as yet, has been so imperfectly ex- 
 plored, that no very precise description of the geological 
 formation of the country can be given. At present it can 
 only be stated generally, that according to the information 
 hitherto obtained, I^ew Brunswick consists mainly of cer- 
 tain rocks, which may be thus described : 
 
 1. The primary rocks of granite, gneiss, and mica slate, 
 which form a broad belt extending directly across the 
 province, near its centre, in a north-easterly direction. 
 This belt is a spur or branch of the great chain of Alle- 
 ghany mountains. It enters the province from the United 
 States above Woodstock, embracing Mars Hill, near the 
 Des Chutes river, and the range of hills known as the 
 Tobique mountains, all of which, however, are less than 
 2,000 feet in height, except one, which rises to the height 
 of 2,170 feet. At the western end, this belt of hilly coun- 
 try is supposed to be forty miles wide ; it narrows gradually 
 in its north-easterly course, and the hills decrease in height, 
 until they finally disappear before reaching the Bay of 
 Chaleur, near Bathurst. 
 
 Another belt of similar rocks enters the province from 
 
586 GEOLOGY OF THE PKOVINCE. 
 
 the westward, at the Cheputnecticook Lakes and River 
 St. Croix, and also pursues a north-easterly course to Bull 
 Moose Hill, near the Bellisle in King's county, soon after 
 which it disappears on meeting the coal measures. The 
 Xerepis Hills are in this belt, which is narrower and less 
 elevated than that to the northward. 
 
 Both these belts of granitic rocks form anticlinal ridges, 
 against which the stratified masses le^n, or they border 
 immense troughs containing the secondary and tertiary 
 formations. The regions they occupy are generally stony, 
 often rocky, and not susceptible of cultivation. In tlie less 
 rocky portions excellent soils are frequently found when 
 the loose stones are removed. 
 
 The trap rocks, which malnde felspar, hasalt, porphyry, 
 green-st07ie trap, and others of a volcanic character, are 
 found largely in connection with these belts of primary 
 rocks, into which they send numerous dikes, veins, and 
 intruding masses. A tract of trap rocks, associated with 
 granite and sienite, and frequently passing into the true 
 granitic rock, extends from Chamcook, near St. Andrew's, 
 to the eastern extremity of the county of St. John. This 
 tract is on the average about ten miles in width, and about 
 ten miles distant from the northern shore of the Bay of 
 Fundy, with the north-easterly course of which it runs 
 nearly parallel. These trap rocks occupy a large space in 
 the counties of King's, St. John, and Charlotte ; the lofty 
 columnar basalt, of the island of Grand Manan, is espe- 
 cially remarkable. Tliey form in general a poor and rugged 
 country, but do not necessarily indicate the presence of 
 unfertile soils, because they contain a large percentage of 
 lime. This chemical character eminently distinguishes 
 the trap from the granitic rocks ; and the soils formed from 
 each of these classes of rocks respectively, differ widely, 
 and require entirely different modes of treatment. When- 
 ever the trap rocks crumble, from the action of the weather 
 or other causes, as frequently happens, they form reddish 
 soils of much richness ; and when these soils are deep, 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE PEOVINCE. 587 
 
 they may be profitably applied as covering to other soils 
 of an inferior character. 
 
 2. Tke lower Silurian rocks, which form a broad belt 
 south of the Tobique hills, running parallel with the 
 north-easterly course of that range, and sweeping around 
 the western end of the coal measures. The slates of this 
 formation are composed of beds of clay that have been 
 gradually consolidated, in which there is no lime. They 
 form soils of medium and inferior quality, which require 
 drainage and the free use of lime. 
 
 3. The upper Silurian rocks, which cover nearly the 
 whole northern portion of New Brunswick, from the To- 
 bique hills to the northern boundary of the province, at 
 the 4:8th parallel of I^orth latitude, where this formation 
 is met by the lofty mountain ridges of Gaspe. The coun- 
 ties of Carleton, Victoria, and Restigouche, rest principally 
 on this formation, which furnishes a large portion of the 
 richest upland soil of ]S"ew Brunswick. Among the upper 
 Silurian rocks of this reo-ion are beds of valuable lime- 
 stone, frequently abounding in characteristic fossils. The 
 rocks themselves are generally slaty clays, more or less 
 hard, containing lime in considerable quantity as an in- 
 gredient, and crumbling down into soils of much richness, 
 and sometimes of great tenacity. These soils are of a 
 heavier character than those of the coal measures, and 
 infinitely more fertile. 
 
 The upper Silurian rocks are also found skirting the Bay 
 of Fundy, forming a belt of unequal width, from the Saint 
 Croix to Point Wolf, at the eastern extremity of St. John 
 county. The southern part of Charlotte, and nearly the 
 whole of St. John county, are in this formation. The rocks 
 of this district have been heretofore classed as lower Silu- 
 rian ; but the better opinion seems to be that they belong 
 to the upper Silurian, and have been greatly changed by 
 igneous action. This opinion is sustained by the presence 
 of large beds of limestone, which especially distinguish 
 this district; and by the presence of fossils in the slates 
 
588 GEOLOGY OF THE PfiOVDfCE. 
 
 which are less metamorphosed. They are not altogether 
 incapable of yielding good soils ; but this portion of the 
 province is, for the most part, covered with soils of an 
 inferior character. 
 
 4. The lower carboniferous rocks, or red sandstone, 
 which form a narrow belt everywhere between the Silurian 
 rocks and those of the coal measures. They are also found 
 extensively in Westmorland, Albert, King's, Queen's, Carle- 
 ton, and Gloucester ; with small patches in St. John atld 
 Charlotte counties. In these sandstones, which are sit- 
 uated beneath the coal measures, large deposits of gypsum 
 are found, and salt springs often occur. This formation 
 consists chiefly of red conglomerate, fine-grained red sand- 
 stone, and beds of red clay. The conglomerate does not 
 produce so good a soil as the fine-grained red sandstone, 
 which crumbles into red and sandy soils, light and easy to 
 work, often fertile, and under proper management yielding 
 good crops. The beds of red clay, often called red marl, 
 are interstratified with beds of red sandstone, and crumble 
 down into soils which vary from a fine red loam to a rich 
 red clay. In the neighborhood of lime, these sandstones 
 are themselves rich in lime; and when associated with 
 gypsum, combine to form some of the most generally use- 
 ful, and, when properly drained, some of the most valuable 
 upland soils in the province. 
 
 5. The carhoniferous rocks, or coal measures, which 
 cover a large proportion of the breadth of ISTew Bruns- 
 wick, consist chiefly of gray sandstones of various tints, 
 but sometimes of a dark and greenish hue, and at others 
 of a pale yellow color. The district occupied by these 
 coal measures, extends along the whole gulf shore of this 
 province, from the boundary of Nova Scotia, at Baie 
 Verte, nearly to Bathurst on the Bay of Chaleur, without 
 interruption. It constitutes a large part of the counties 
 of Gloucester and Northumberland ; the whole of Kent ; 
 the most considerable portions of Westmorland, Queen's, 
 and S anbury; and extends also into Albert, King's, and 
 
GEOLOGY OF THE PKOVINCE. 589 
 
 York counties. This coal measure district is distinguished 
 by the general flatness of its surface, gently undulating, 
 however, intersected by numerous rivers and several large 
 lakes, but consisting principally of table lands, more or 
 less elevated, over which forests of mixed growth extend 
 in every direction. The sandstones of this formation con- 
 sist pr?ricipally of silicious matter, cemented together by 
 a small proportion of clay, chiefly decayed felspar; they 
 crumble readily, form light soils, pale in color and easily 
 worked, retaining little water, ploughed with facility early 
 in spring and late in autumn, but needing much manure, 
 and subject to being parched up in hot and dry summers. 
 Some of these sandstones, however, contain greater pro- 
 portions of clay, and form stifier soils; others, that are 
 green or gray internally, weather of a red color, and form 
 reddish soils of good quality. 
 
 It has been remarked, that the coal measures of Kew 
 Brunswick contain a smaller variety of sandstones than 
 those of England and Scotland, and are free from those 
 thick beds of dark-colored shale which occur in the coal- 
 measures of the United Kingdom. The soils there, lying 
 above the richest coal-fields, are often miserably poor, and 
 greatly inferior to those furnished by the carboniferous 
 rocks of IS^ew Brunswick. 
 
 6. The tertiary deposits, which are found at numerous 
 localities along the coast of the Bay of Fundy. These 
 consist of beds of sand, marly clay, and marl, forming low 
 and nearly level tracts, exposed to the sea, and frequently 
 extending some distance from the shores. In the marl 
 and marly clay of this formation, the remains of marine 
 animals and plants are found in profusion. In the coun- 
 ties of Gloucester and Restigouche, on the coast of the 
 Bay Chaleur, these are similar to animals and plants which 
 still exist in the province, and the marls of that district 
 may therefore be referred to the pliocene period of the 
 upper tertiary formation. 
 
 There are two kinds of alluvium in \he province, the 
 
690 MENES, MLNEKALS, AND QFAEK1E8. 
 
 fresh- water and the marine, both exceedingly fertile. Tlio 
 first of these, composed of tlie particles of rocks detached 
 by the frost, heat, and moisture, which cause rapid disin- 
 tegration, are carried downward by the rains, and trans- 
 ported by the floods in early spring along the valleys and 
 river sides, where, being deposited, they form the fertile 
 intervales that border nearly every river in New Bruns- 
 wick. The marine alluvia are carried inwards by the 
 rapid tides of the Bay of Fundy, and spread along its 
 estuaries, where, in the course of time, they become grass- 
 bearing marshes, and being rescued from the sea by 
 embankments, finally produce clover and wheat. These 
 " diked marshes," as they are termed, possess extraordinary 
 and enduring fertility, and exist extensively in the coun* 
 ties of Westmorland and Albert, near the head of the 
 Bay of Fundy, where the tides rise to the height of fifty 
 feet and upwards. 
 
 For information under this head the writer is indebted 
 to the labors of Dr. Gesner, Dr. Robb, Professor Johnston, 
 and Mr. Logan of Canada, in addition to his own observa- 
 tions in every part of Kew Brunswick. 
 
 MINES, MINERALS AND QUARRIES. 
 
 Ab the geological character of 'New Brunswick can aa 
 yet be but imperfectly described, its minerals, at the pres- 
 ent, are therefore only partially known. The principal 
 mineral substances hitherto found in the province are as 
 follows : — 
 
 1. Bituminous coal, of good quality, found in numerous 
 localities in the coal measures of the province, of the fat 
 and caking description, like the Newcastle coal of England. 
 No seam of this coal thicker than twenty-one inches has 
 yet been discovered. The principal workings are in the 
 vicinity of Grand Lake, Queen's county, and the seam 
 is found, on the average, at about twenty feet below the 
 surface. Li 1851, nine hundred and forty tons were raised. 
 
 2. A highly bituminous mineral, found near the Petico- 
 
691 
 
 diac river, in Albert county. A scientific dispute has 
 arisen as to the precise character of this mineral, which 
 one party designates asphalie, and the other pitch coal; 
 hence it has been proposed to establish it as a new mineral, 
 under the name of alhei'tite. It is valuable for making 
 the best illuminating gas, and also for the manafacture of 
 various liquid hydro-carbons and illuminating and lubri- 
 cating oils, which are distilled from it. The seam at pres- 
 ent worked is vertical, and on the average about six feet 
 wide. The deposit is supposed to be extensive. In 1851, 
 fifteen hundred tons were raised. 
 
 3. Iron ores, of various descriptions and qualities, are 
 found in almost every section of Kew Brunswick. An 
 inexhaustible bed of hematite has been found at Wood- 
 stock, near the river St. John ; extensive iron- works have 
 been constructed there, and in 1851, eight hundred and 
 ten tons were smelted. No other iron-works have yet 
 been established in the province, although rich ores exist 
 abundantly, especially in King's and Queen's counties. 
 
 4. Various ores of manganese have been found in con- 
 nection with the iron ore of Woodstock. Gray oxide of 
 manganese, highly crystallized and of fine quality, has 
 been worked to some extent on the Tattagouche river, 
 near Bathurst, and thence shipped to England. Black 
 oxide of manganese has been found near Quaco, and of 
 this considerable quantities have, at different periods, been 
 shipped to the United States. 
 
 5. Plumbago {graphite) exists in one of the largest beds 
 known in America, at the falls near the city of St. John. 
 It approaches in some degree to a metamorphosed coal, 
 but is still sufficiently pure for the manufacture of lustre, 
 and preparation of moulds for iron castings. It has been 
 worked to some extent; in 1853, eighty-nine thousand 
 nine hundred and thirty-six pounds were exported. 
 
 6. Ores of lead {galena) have been found on the island 
 of Campo Bello ; also at Norton, in King's county, and 
 lately on the banks of the river Tobique, of very good 
 
592 MINES, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES. 
 
 quality. The extent of the deposit, at the several places 
 mentioned, has not yet been ascertained. 
 
 7. Gray snlphuret of copper has been found in small 
 quantities on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, in Charlotte 
 county. It has also been found on the left bank of the 
 river Kepisiguit, near Bathurst, and a company vras 
 formed some years since to work the deposit ; but the 
 irregular distribution of the mineral rendered their opera- 
 tions uncertain, and the mine has been abandoned. 
 
 8. Granite, of the best description, is found on the fight 
 bank of the Saint John, above the Long Reach, in King's 
 county. Quarries were opened there some years since, 
 and many public and' private buildings in the city of St. 
 John are built wholly, or in part, of the granite quarried 
 there. Although it exists largely in other portions of the 
 province, no other quarries have yet been worked. 
 
 9. Gypsum exists in abundance at Hillsborough, about 
 four miles from the Peticodiac river, to which it is trans- 
 ported on a tramway, and thence shipped in large quanti- 
 ties to the United States. It is also found extensively at 
 Martin's Head, in St. John county ; at Sussex Yale, in 
 King's county ; and near the river Tobique, in Yictoria 
 county. There is also a deposit neai Cape Meranguin, in 
 Westmorland. A snow-white gypsum, compact, translu- 
 cent, and approaching the finest alabaster, is likewise 
 found at Hillsborough, in considerable quantity. It 
 works readily in the lathe, and makes beautiful ornaments. 
 The quantity of gypsum quarried in 1851 was 5,465 tons. 
 In 1853, no less than 15,712 tons were exported. 
 
 10. Limestones are found in various districts, but are 
 principally burned for quick-lime, in large quantities, near 
 the city of St. John, at L'Etang, in Charlotte county, and 
 at Petit Rocher, on the Bay of Chaleur. Kilns exist at 
 other places, where quick-lime is burnt on a small scale, 
 for local consumption. Hydraulic limestones have been 
 noticed in many localities. The old mountain limestone, 
 abounding with fossils, is found near the Ocnabog lake, 
 
MINES, MINEKALS, AND QTJAEEIES. 693 
 
 In Queen's county, in its usual position with reference to 
 the coal measures ; the whole thickness of the band does 
 not, however, exceed one thousand feet. Magnesian 
 limestone has been noticed near the coal mines at Salmon 
 river, in Queen's county. In 1851, the quantity of lime 
 burned was 35,599 casks, of five bushels each. 
 
 11. Marbles of very fair quality are worked in the 
 vicinity of St. John, and are also found near Musquash, on 
 the shores of the Bay of Fundy, as well as on the coast 
 of the Bay of Chaleur. 
 
 12. Superior dark-red sandstones, as also gray and 
 other sandstones, are quarried at Mary's Point and Grind- 
 stone Island, in Albert county, and thence exported to 
 some extent. These sandstones are found in large blocks, 
 and are prized for building purposes. Excellent blue 
 flagstones are likewise found at Grindstone Island. Good 
 sandstones for buildings are found on the banks of the 
 Miramichi, as well as in numerous other parts of the coal 
 measures. 
 
 13. Grindstones are manufactured to a very consider- 
 able extent in the counties of Albert and Westmorland, as 
 also at Miramichi, and on the coast of the Bay of Chaleur, 
 at New Bandon and Caraquet. They form an export of 
 much value. There were 68,949 grindstones made in 1851. 
 
 14. Fine oil-stone {novacuUte), equal to Turkish, is 
 found at Cameron's Cove, near the northern head ot 
 Grand Manan, whence American citizens carry it oif in 
 quantities. Excellent blue whetstone has been worked to 
 some extent near the Sevogle, a tributary to the ISTorth- 
 West Miramichi. Fine stone of the like description is 
 also procured from the banks of the Moose Horn brook, 
 in King's county. 
 
 15. Double refracting or Iceland spar, of Ihe best de- 
 scription for optical purposes, is found at Belledune, in 
 the county of Kestigouche. 
 
 16. Koofing slate {argillaceous slate) of good quality is 
 found on the banks of the Tattagouche, near Bathurst, 
 
594 UNES, MINERALS, AND QUAERIES. 
 
 and tlie roof of the court-house at that place is covered 
 with it. Similar slate has been observed at the narrows ol 
 the Tobique river, and on the left bank of the St. John, 
 about three miles above Green river, in Madawaska. 
 
 17. Iron pyrites, or s\ibpkuret of iron, abounds in New 
 Brunswick, and may be used in the manufacture of cop- 
 peras when it occurs in veins. Where dikes of trap-rock 
 have been injected into slate, the latter is often found 
 charged with pyrites ; and this pyritiferous slate is an 
 article of much economical value, as, by a very simple 
 process, it may be made to produce both copperas and alum. 
 
 18. Bituminous shale, a variety of orgillaGeous slate, is 
 found in abundance on the banks of the Memramcook 
 river, near Dorchester, in Westmorland — -and throughout 
 a large district in that vicinity. This shale is highly 
 charged with bitumen ; and from it naphtha is distilled, as 
 also a new liquid hydro-carbon which has been designat- 
 ed herosene. Atmospheric air, after being passed through 
 this liquid, becomes a powerful illuminating gas. A min- 
 eral oil is also obtained by distillation from this shale, 
 and from it j^arafine. is made, a valuable substance for lu- 
 bricating machinery. Liquid bitumen, or naphtha in its 
 natural state, is found in small quantities flowing from 
 this shale, in several places. 
 
 19. Plastic clay, for bricks and pottery, exists in large 
 beds in many districts, and is often found of very fine 
 quality. Beds of fire-clay are found beneath the bitumi- 
 nous coal wherever it exists in lN"ew Brunswick. A large 
 outcrop of this valuable clay has been observed at the 
 mouth of the Salmon River, near the head of the Grand 
 Lake, in Queen's county. 
 
 20. Peat, of good quality for fuel, exists in large tracts, 
 especially in the counties of Kent, Queen's, and Sun- 
 bury. There are two extensive deposits, washed by the 
 sea, on the shores of the Bay of Miramichi — the one at 
 the Black Lands, near Tabusintac ; and the other on the 
 opposite side of the bay, at Point Escuminac. 
 
MINES, MINEEAL8, AND QUARRIES. 
 
 21. Sulphate of barytes has been found north of Fort 
 Howe, near the city of St. John, and is said to exist in 
 other localities. 
 
 22. Felspar, in large crystals, has been frequently seen 
 in those granitic rocks which intersect gneiss. When 
 pure, this mineral is admirably adapted for the manufac- 
 ture of fine porcelain. 
 
 23. Milk-white quartz, in veins and beds more or less 
 extensive, occurs in numerous localities. This substance 
 may be profitably employed in tb^ manufacture of flint 
 glass. Quartz crystals, both limpid and smoky, are 
 found in many places. The finest pure crystals have been 
 procured near the Musquash river, in the county of St. 
 John. 
 
 24. Ochres and the ochreous earths are found, in beds- 
 of considerable thickness, in the sandstones of the coal 
 measures. From some of the ochres, of a ferruginous 
 character, fire-proof paints have been manufactured,, at 
 the Scadouc river, near Shediac, in Westmorland. 
 
 25. Chlorite, the famous pipe-stone of the Indians, eotllted 
 by them Tomaganops, is procured at Grand Manan,. and 
 also at the Tomaganops brook, a tributary of the Korth- 
 West Miramichi, in Northumberland. When first procured 
 from its native bed it is of a dark-green color, compact,, 
 soft, and easily worked ; by the moderate actioa of fire, it 
 becomes very black and quite hard. 
 
 26. Jade {nephrite)^ a stone remarkable- for its hard- 
 ness and tenacity, of a light-green color^ and of an oily 
 appearance when polished, is found in the province, in 
 localities known to the Indians. Some of them possess 
 ancient scalping-knives and other weapons of jade, neatly 
 polished, and bearing a fine cutting edge. 
 
 27. Jasper is found along the shores of the Bay of Cha- 
 leur, and other localities in the northern part of the prov- 
 ince. Tlie ancient arrow-heads, spear-heads, and other 
 Indian implements of stone, for use in war or the chase,, 
 were chiefly formed of native blood-red jasper, exceeding 
 
 38 
 
696 MINES, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES. 
 
 ly fine and hard, oftentimes emulating the appearance of 
 the semipellucid gems. 
 
 28. Hornstone, or cTiert^ is frequently found in the 
 primary rocks, and has been especially noticed at Grand 
 Manan and the Gannet Kock. It has been seen of various 
 colors, and somewhat translucent. Tlie Indians formerly 
 used chert for the heads of their spears and arrows, al- 
 though these were sometimes formed of white quartz. 
 
 29. Soapstone {steatite) is found in the northern part of 
 the province by the Indians. Cooking pots, and other 
 utensils of soapstone, are often found near their ancient 
 camping-grounds. 
 
 30. Salt-springs, affording a copious supply of water, 
 exist at Sussex Yale, from which salt has been manufac- 
 tured for many years, by evaporation in boiling. This 
 salt is peculiarly fine, and is supposed to improve the 
 flavor of the excellent butter made in that valley. Salt- 
 springs are also found along a small tributary of the Ham- 
 mond river, in King's county, and near the river Tobique, 
 in Victoria. 
 
 The origin of these springs is yet an unsettled question ; 
 and whether they arise from some unknown chemical 
 action in the bowels of the earth, or are produced by the 
 solution of beds of rock-salt, remains to be determined. 
 
 31. Sulphureous and ferruginous springs, and those 
 emitting carburetted hydrogen, are found in numerous 
 localities, in the coal measures and siates of the province ; 
 but as none of their waters have yet been analyzed, no 
 precise description can be given of their several qualities. 
 
 Yery many of the various minerals above described 
 have been observed by the writer, in the localities men- 
 tioned ; and there is reason to believe that others will be 
 found as the country becomes cleared and more minutely 
 explored. 
 
 In addition to the minerals already mentioned, Dr. Gea- 
 ner states, that Talc and Talcose Slate, Mica Slate, 
 Thompsonite, Stilbite, Apophyllite, Tourmaline, Serpen- 
 
SHIP-BUILDING. 697 
 
 tme, Iserine, Asbestos, Amethysts, Agates, and Garnets, 
 exist in New Brunswick, but he does not indicate their 
 several localities. 
 
 SHIP-BUILT)ING. 
 
 The advantages of 'New Brunswick for ship-building 
 were apparent to its earliest settlers. Jonathan Leavitt, 
 one of the first settlers in the harbor of St. John, built 
 a small schooner there before 1770. This vessel was named 
 the "Monneguash," that being the Indian name of the 
 rocky peninsula on which the eastern part of the city of 
 St. John now stands. In 1773, a large schooner was built 
 at Miramichi, and named the '* Miramichi," by William 
 Davidson, the first British settler on that river. From 
 these two schooners the province dates its ship-*building, 
 which may be said to have grown up with it, gradually 
 increasing until it has attained its present extent and value. 
 
 The forests of New Brunswick supply timber of large 
 size, in any quantity, for building ships of the first class. 
 Such ships are principally built of black birch and larch, 
 or hackmatack. The black birch is used for the keel, floor 
 timbers, and lower planking ; larch or hackmatack for all the 
 other timbers, knees, and npper planking. American live 
 and white oak are imported for the stems and posts of su- 
 perior ships, and pitch pine for beams. White pine is used 
 for the cabins and interior finishing, and for masts. The 
 black spruce furnishes as fine yards an4 topmasts as any in 
 the world. Elm, beech, maple, cedar, and spruce, are used 
 in the construction of ships of the second class, and for 
 small vessels. 
 
 Ship-building is prosecuted more extensively than else 
 where at the ports of St. John and Miramichi, where it 
 first commenced. Vessels are also built at St. Andrew's ; 
 at various coves and harbors on the Bay of Fundy, es- 
 pecially at Teignmouth and Quaco ; along the banks of 
 the river St. John, for ninety miles from the sea, on the 
 Kennebeckacis, one of its tributaries, and at the Grand 
 Lake. Latterly, ship-building has been prosecuted to a 
 
598 
 
 SHIP-BUILDINa. 
 
 considerable extent on the banks of the Peticodiac river, 
 and at Sackville, in Cumberland Basin. Within the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, vessels have been chiefly built hith- 
 erto at Shemogue, Cocagne, Buctouche, Kichibucto, Kou 
 chibouguac, Miramichi, and Shippagan ; at Bathurst and 
 at Dalhousie, within the Bay of Chaleur ; and at Cambelton 
 on the Restigouche. 
 
 One of Lloyd's surveyors now resides in ]N"ew Bruns- 
 wick, and all large vessels are subjected to his strict and 
 careful supervision while in course of construction. Ships 
 built under his inspection are classed before they go to 
 sea ; and such ships have justly attained a high character. 
 The "Marco Polo," renowned for her sailing qualities, was 
 built in the harbor of St. John, and has been followed by 
 a fleet of other ships, equally famous for their strength, 
 speed, and durability. 
 
 The following is a return of the new vessels registered 
 in the province of New Brunswick, and their tonnage, in 
 each year from the year 1825 to the year 1860, both years 
 inclusive, including vessels built for owners in the United 
 Kingdom, and sent home under certificate or governor's 
 pass. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1842. 
 
 No. of vessels. Tons. 
 
 120 28,893 
 
 130 31,620 
 
 99. 21,806 
 
 71 15,656 
 
 64 \ 8,450 
 
 52 9,242 
 
 .... 61 8,571 
 
 .... 70 14,081 
 
 97 17,837 
 
 92 24,140 
 
 .... 97 25,796 
 
 100 29,643 
 
 99 27,288 
 
 122 29,167 
 
 164 45,864 
 
 168 64,104 
 
 119 47,140 
 
 87 22,840 
 
 Tear. Na of vessels. Tons. 
 
 1843 64 14,550 
 
 1844 87 24,543 
 
 1845 92 28,972 
 
 1846 124 40,383 
 
 1847 115 53,373 
 
 1848 86 22,793 
 
 1849 119 39,280 
 
 1850 86 30,356 
 
 1851 99 49,596 
 
 1852 118 58,399 
 
 1853 122 71,428 
 
 1854 135 99,426 
 
 1855 95 54,561 
 
 1856 129 79,907 
 
 1857 148 71,989 
 
 1858 75 26,263 
 
 1859 93 38,330 
 
 I860 100 41,003 
 
 The vessels built in 1853, it will be observed, were of 
 
MILLS AND MAl^UFACTOKIES. 599 
 
 large size, averaging no less than 585 tons each. The 
 proportions in which they were built in different parts of 
 the province? in 1854, may be judged by the following 
 stateaient from the ports of registry : — St. John, 94 vessels, 
 56,452 tons; Miramichi, 21 vessels, 13,205 tons; St. 
 Andrews, 7 vessels, 1,771 tons. The vessels registered at 
 Miramichi include all those built in the gulf; and those 
 registered at St. Andrews include all that were built in 
 Charlotte county. 
 
 At an average of eight pounds sterling per ton, the 
 vessels built in 1854 were worth £795,408 sterling. As 
 fully half the cost of each ship is expended in labor, the 
 value of employment afforded by ship-building in Kew 
 Brunswick may be readily estimated. The amount of 
 daily labor in and about the hull and spars of a ship, is, 
 on the average, ten days for each registered ton. 
 
 The shipping belonging to the province of Kew Bruns- 
 wick on the 31st December of each year, from 1854 to 
 1860, respectively, is shown in the following table : 
 
 Saint John. Miramichi. Saint Andrews. • - Total 
 Tear. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. 
 
 1854 582 119,695 103 10,063 193 11,696 878 141,454 
 
 1855 566 110,451 105 15,269 195 12,572 866 138,292 
 
 1856 585 135,713 110 16,051 197 12,462 892 164,226 
 
 1857 543 133,669 126 18,363 188 8,476 857 160,508 
 
 1858 497 114,457 119 14,925 196 9,713 812 139,095 
 
 1859 489 112,420 126 13,556 196 8,079 811 134,055 
 
 1860 492 123,425 132 14,910 201 8,748 825 U7,083 
 
 MILLS AND MANUFACTORIES. 
 
 The number of saw-mills has increased very much in 
 Kew Brunswick of late years; and recently they have 
 been greatly improved in their construction and machinery. 
 Water power is still used very extensively ; but the number 
 of mills worked by steam is becoming large, especially at 
 and near the various sea-ports. In 1833, the number of 
 saw-mills in the province was estimated at two hundred 
 and thirty ; by the census of 1851, it appears that the 
 number of saw-mills had then increased to five hundred 
 
600 
 
 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. 
 
 and eighty-four — giving employment to 4,302 men. Many 
 saw-mills on a large scale have since been erected. 
 
 By the census of 1851, it also appears that there were 
 then in the province, 261 grist-mills, employing 366 men ; 
 125 tanneries, employing 255 men ; 11 foundries, employ- 
 ing 242 men ; 52 carding and weaving establishments, 
 employing 96 persons : and that there were also 5,475 
 hand-looms, at which 622,237 yards of cloth were made 
 in a year ; this was chiefly coarse woollen, for farmers' 
 use. There were eight breweries, manufacturing annually 
 100,975 gallons of malt liquor ; and 94 other manufactur- 
 ing establishments, giving employment to 953 persons. 
 
 The value of various articles manufactured in the prov- 
 ince in 1851, is thus stated : — boots and shoes, £89,367 ; 
 leather, £45,162 ; candles, £19,860 ; wooden ware (not 
 cabinet-work), £20,505 ; chairs and cabinet-ware, £13,472 ; 
 soap, £18,5^2 ; hats, £6,360 ; iron castings, £20,205. 
 
 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. 
 
 The rivers of ]S"ew Brunswick and their tributaries are 
 BO large, and afford such facilities for reaching the interior 
 of the country, that for a long period after its first settle- 
 ment the construction of roads was greatly neglected. 
 
 The principal river is the St. John, which is 450 miles 
 in length. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons, and 
 steamers of large class, for eighty-four miles from the sea, 
 up to Fredericton, the seat of government. Above Fred- 
 ericton, small steamers ply to Woodstock, about seventy 
 miles further up the river ; when the water is high, they 
 make occasional trips to the Tobique, a further distance 
 of fifty miles ; and sometimes they reach the Grand Falls, 
 which are about two hundred and twenty miles from the 
 sea. Above these falls the river has been navigated by a 
 steamer about forty miles, to the mouth of the Madawaska; 
 beyond that point the St. John is navigable for boats and 
 canoes almost to its source. The Madawaska river is also 
 navigable for small steamers thirty miles, up to Lake 
 
mXEKNAIi COMMUNICATION. 601 
 
 Temiscouata, a sheet of water twenty eleven miles long, 
 from two to six miles in width, and of great depth. 
 From the upper end of this lake to the river St. Law- 
 rence, at Trois Pistoles, the distance is about eighteen 
 miles only. 
 
 Another large sheet of water in connection with the St. 
 John, is the Grand Lake, the entrance to which is about 
 fifty miles from the sea. This lake is about twenty-nine 
 miles long, and from two to seven miles in width. The 
 Salmon river enters the Grand Lake near its head, and is 
 navigable for small vessels and steamers for sixteen miles. 
 The Maquapit and French Lakes are connected with the 
 Grand Lake by a deep, narrow channel, through which, 
 small vessels can pass. 
 
 The Washademoak Lake is about twenty miles long, 
 and, on the average, three-quarters of a mile in width. 
 The stream from it enters the St. John about forty miles 
 from the sea. This lake is navigable for steamers to the 
 mouth of the New Canaan river, which flows in at its 
 head. 
 
 The Kennebecasis river, a large tributary of the St. 
 John, is eighty miles long ; it is navigable for steamers 
 twenty -five miles from its mouth to Hampton, where ves- 
 sels of 500 tons have been built. The Oromocto is another 
 large tributary flowing from two large lakes, navigable for 
 vessels drawing eight feet of water for twenty miles from 
 "its mouth. It enters the St. John from the westward, 
 seventy-two miles from the sea ; within its mouth vessels 
 of 1,200 tons are built. The Nashwaak, the Keswick, the 
 Mactaquack, and the N^ackawic are all considerable streams, 
 entering the St. John from the eastward. The Tobique 
 is a large river, eighty miles in length, with its tributaries 
 watering a large tract of country east of the St. John 
 There are many other tributaries of the St. John both 
 from the eastward and the westward, among which the 
 Aroostook is the most considerable. 
 
 The Peticodiac is a large river flowing into Cumber- 
 
602 
 
 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. 
 
 land Basin, near the head of the Bay of Fundy. It is 
 navigable twenty-five miles for vessels of the largest size ; 
 and for schooners of sixty or eighty tons burden for twelve 
 miles further, to the head of the tide. The whole length 
 of this river is about one hundred miles ; above the head 
 tide-water it is navigable for boats and canoes fully fifty 
 miles. 
 
 The Richibucte is a considerable river flowing into the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is navigable for small vessels 
 for fifteen miles above the harbor at its mouth ; the tide 
 flows up it twenty-five miles. 
 
 The Miramichi is a large river, navigable for vessels of 
 800 tons for twenty-five miles from the gulf, and for 
 schooners twenty miles further, to the head of the tide, 
 above which for sixty miles it is navigable for tow-boats. 
 This river has many large tributaries spreading over a great 
 extent of country. 
 
 The Restigouche, at the north-eastern extremity of the 
 province, is a noble river, three miles wide at its entrance 
 into the Bay of Chaleur, and navigable for large vessels 
 for eighteen miles from the bay. The principal stream of 
 the Restigouche, is over two hundred miles in length. Its 
 Indian name signifies *' the river which divides like the 
 hand," — in allusion to its separation, above the tide, into 
 five large streams. The main river, and its large tribu- 
 taries, widely spread, are supposed to drain at least 4,000 
 square miles of territory, abounding in timber and other 
 valuable natural resources. 
 
 The Bay of Chaleur, into which the Restigouche flows, 
 may be described as one immense haven, with many excel- 
 lent harbors. Its length is ninety miles, and it varies in 
 breadth fi*om fifteen to thirty miles ; yet in all this great 
 extent of length and breadth, there is neither rock, reef, 
 nor shoal, nor any impediment to navigation. On the 
 southern or New Brunswick side of this bay the shores 
 are low, the water deepening gradually from them. On 
 the northern or Canadian side, the shores are bold and 
 
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. 603 
 
 precipitous, rising into eminences which may almost be 
 called mountains. 
 
 Besides the rivers mentioned, there are very many 
 others, of such size as would entitle them elsewhere to be 
 deemed very considerable. An inspection of the map of 
 Kew Brunswick will show how admirably the country is 
 watered throughout, no portion of it being without run- 
 ning streams, " from the smallest brook up to the navi- 
 gable river," by which the country can everywhere be 
 penetrated, as mentioned by the railway commissioners. 
 
 Gkeat Roads have been made through those lines of 
 country most thickly settled. The principal of these is 
 the line of great road from the harbor of St. John, up the 
 valley of the St. John river to Canada. The next is the 
 line of great road, from the United States frontier, at Ca- 
 lais, across the province, eastwardly, to the city of St. 
 John ; thence -eastwardly, along the valleys of the Ken- 
 nebecasis and Peticodiac, to the bend of the latter river. 
 At that point, a branch diverges southerly to the bound- 
 ary of Nova Scotia ; the main line pursues its course to 
 Bhediac, and thence northerly, along the Gulf Shore of the 
 province, to the Canadian boundary at the Restigouche. 
 There are also great roads that connect Fredericton with 
 the ports of St. Andrew's and Miramichi ; with other great 
 roads of less extent connecting several important points. 
 The by-roads in each county are numerous, penetrating 
 into every settlement ; these are being extended continually, 
 as settlers push their way into the wilderness. About 
 £80,000 sterling is appropriated annually from the pro- 
 vincial revenue, for the construction and improvement of 
 roads and bridges. A wire suspension bridge has recently 
 been thrown over the river St. John, situated near the 
 city of St. John, where a toll is levied ; with that single 
 exception, all the roads and bridges in the province are 
 free. 
 
 There are numerous waterfalls on the rivers and streams 
 of the province ; very few are without, and some have 
 
604 RAILWAYS. 
 
 falls of great height and large volume. The amount of 
 water power in New Brunswick is exceedingly large, and 
 almost beyond calculation. Few countries of its size pos- 
 sess such facilities for obtaining power to an unlimited 
 extent from running water. 
 
 RAILWAYS. 
 
 The province was early in the field of railway enterprise. 
 It was only in the year 1825 that the Darlington railroad was 
 opened to supply London with coal. The cars moved by steam 
 at the rate of seven miles per hour, which was considered a 
 marvel then. Inl827, three miles of railway were completed 
 in the state of Massachusetts. In 1828, twelve miles of the 
 Baltimore and Ohio i-ailroad were completed. In 1830, the 
 Liverpool and Manchester railroad, thirty-one miles in 
 length, was opened. It was the opening and successful work- 
 ing of this important line that gave the first grand impulse 
 to railway enterprise. In 1844, only fourteen years after 
 this great era in the means of travel and transit, the St. 
 Andrew's and Woodstock railroad in New Brunswick was 
 commenced. The length of the line to Woodstock, is 
 about ninety miles. Its progress has been slow, partly 
 owing to the depression which occurred in the timber 
 trade shortly after its commencement, partly owing to in- 
 eflBcient management, and partly owing to the fact that the 
 provincial energies were directed to the construction of 
 other important lines of railway. In 1855, twenty-five 
 miles of this road were completed. The company have a 
 grant of one hundred thousand acres of land from the 
 provincial government, ten thousand acres of which they 
 have made over to the contractors at $5 per acre, in part 
 payment for their contract. This road is just announced 
 as being opened all the way to Woodstock station this 
 month (June, 1862). Its cost per mile has been something 
 near $16,000. It was originally intended to extend it to- 
 ward Quebec, so as to tap the great Canadian lines. In 
 all probability it will be extended in the course of a few 
 
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. 605 
 
 years so as to tap the Intercolonial Line which is to be 
 constructed forthwith. 
 
 The line of railway between the city of St. John's on 
 the Bay of Fundy and Shediac, a town on the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, is the chief line in this province. It has 
 been in successful operation for over two years. This road 
 is one hundred and eight miles in length. The whole line 
 with its full complements of stations, sidings, and rolling 
 stock, has cost the province, up to November 1st, 1861, 
 the sum of $4,548,664.59, or $42,116.34 per mile, equal to 
 £8,774 4:8. 7d. sterling per mile. 
 
 The road is of superior quality, well-built, well-drained, 
 well-ballasted, with wider cuttings and embankments than 
 the E^ova Scotia and Canadian lines, and therefore not 
 costing so much for yearly upholdence and improvements. 
 
 The capital amount of the above cost has been expended 
 as follows : 
 
 Engineering account $214,535.15 
 
 Permanent way : 3,704,785.49 
 
 Buildings 192,231.94 
 
 Eolling stock and machinery 358,216.20 
 
 Miscellaneous stock 15,371.21 
 
 General expenses 63,424.60 
 
 $4,548,564.59 
 
 Other expenditures not included in the above 134,235.89 
 
 Grand Total $4,682,800.48 
 
 The total revenue of this line for the last year was 
 $130,678.15, being an increase on that of the previous year 
 of $14,452.75. This line has already been highly beneficial 
 to 'New Brunswick and to the city of St. John's. It has 
 attracted the trade and travel of Prince Edward Island 
 toward that city. 
 
 ELECTKIC TELEaRAPH LINES. 
 
 The first line of telegraph communication was built in 
 New Brunswick in the year 1848. There is, at present, 
 
606 CX)MMEECE AND NAVIGATION. 
 
 seveii hundred miles of telegraph-line in the province of 
 New Brunswick, being eight hundred miles less than that 
 contained in ^Nova Scotia. The number of offices are 
 twenty-four ; telegraphists, twenty-nine. ]S"umber of other 
 employes, ten. 
 
 The most important lines, viz. : the line from Sackville 
 to Calais, and from St. John's to Woodstock, via. Freder- 
 icton, are let to the American Telegraph Company on 
 terms similar to that on which the Xova Scotia lines are 
 let. The rates of tolls are very nearly the same as in 
 Kova Scotia, making allowance for the difference in the 
 currency of the two provinces. 
 
 COMMBROB AND NAVIGATION. 
 
 The extent and value of the commerce and navigation 
 of the province, will be best shown by the following sta- 
 tistical tables, carefully compiled from official returns. 
 
 The first is a statement of the numbers and tonnage of 
 vessels, owned and registered in the province, on the 31st 
 day of December, in each of the years mentioned : — 
 
 Tear. Number. Tons. Tear. Number: Tons. 
 
 1848.... 763.... 113,825 
 
 1849 775.... 117,475 
 
 1850.... 807.... 121,996 
 1851 796 118,288 
 
 1852 782 103,641 
 
 1853 827 114,588 
 
 1854 582 119,695 
 
 Estimating the population of the province in 1855, at 
 200,000 souls, the proportion of tonnage to population will 
 be eleven-twentieths of a ton for each man, woman, and 
 child in the country — an unusually large proportion in any 
 community. 
 
 The following is a statement of the number of ships and 
 vessels, and their tonnage, which entered inwards at the 
 several ports of New Brunswick, from all parts of the 
 world, during five years, — distinguishing the various 
 countries from which they arrived : — 
 
OOMMEKCE AND NAVIGATION. 
 
 607 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 From United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 140,024 
 95,393 
 
 113,665 
 86,203 
 98,592 
 90,944 
 71,417 
 
 From British 
 colonies. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 1,213 
 1,281 
 1,275 
 1,535 
 1,863 
 1,741 
 1,615 
 
 81,050 
 
 81,424 
 
 87,965 
 
 99,642 
 
 110,414 
 
 117,912 
 
 101,704 
 
 From United 
 States. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 1,304 
 1,457 
 1,453 
 1,511 
 1,767 
 1,642 
 1,659 
 
 182,007 
 242,104 
 274,594 
 344,187 
 405,345 
 391,930 
 
 From foreign 
 states. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 13,106 
 17,701 
 12,926 
 9,254 
 12,225 
 24,481 
 10,520 
 
 Total 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 2,893 
 3,039 
 3,058 
 3,314 
 3,556 
 3,700 
 3,442 
 
 416,187 
 436,622 
 489,150 
 539,336 
 627,276 
 625,267 
 590,767 
 
 The next table contains a statement of the number of 
 ships and vessels, and their tonnage, cleared outwards during 
 five years, distinguishing the countries to which they sailed. 
 
 The increase in the number of vessels inwards and out- 
 wards, during the years stated, has been equal to the in- 
 crease in imports and exports, and shows the steady ad- 
 vance in trade and navigation. 
 
 
 To United 
 
 To British 
 
 To United 
 
 To foreign 
 
 Total. 
 
 ? 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 colonies. 
 
 States. 
 
 states. 
 
 5 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 •No. 
 1,172 
 
 Tons. 
 68,097 
 
 No. 
 928 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 3.769 
 
 No. 
 2,891 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1849 
 
 769 
 
 300,806 
 
 84,742 
 
 25 
 
 457,414 
 
 1850 
 
 768 
 
 203,617 
 
 1,241 
 
 70,155 
 
 937 
 
 87,925 
 
 25 
 
 3,286 
 
 2,971 
 
 464,983 
 
 1851 
 
 815 
 
 347,757 
 
 1,182 
 
 73,280 
 
 950 
 
 111,772 
 
 34 
 
 5,717 
 
 2,981 
 
 538,528 
 
 1852 
 
 793 
 
 353,013 
 
 1,465 
 
 86,652 
 
 999 
 
 135,580 
 
 41 
 
 6,227 
 
 3,298 
 
 581,472 
 
 1853 
 
 902 
 
 413,796 
 
 1,784 
 
 102,216 
 
 1,191 
 
 158,523 
 
 44 
 
 6,763 
 
 3,929 
 
 681,478 
 
 1854 
 
 936 
 
 436,007 
 
 1,680 
 
 97,130 
 
 1,064 
 
 155,985 
 
 65 
 
 11,764 
 
 3,745 
 
 700,886 
 
 1855 
 
 523 
 
 324,908 
 
 1,578 
 
 95,256 
 
 1,219 
 
 233,075 
 
 61 
 
 10,742 
 
 3,381 
 
 663,981 
 
 The following table shows the value in sterling of the 
 imports and exports of the province of New Brunswick 
 from and to the United States, and from and to all 
 countries, during the last thirty-three years, or between 
 the years 1828 and 1860, both years inclusive. 
 
 From and to the United States. From and to all countries. 
 
 Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports. 
 
 1828. . . .£123,662 £18,084 £643,581 £457,855 
 
 1829.... 133,976 26,959 638,076 514,219 
 
 1830.... 146,767 30,372 693,561 570,307 
 
 1831.... 77,476 18,017 603,870 427,318 
 
 1832.. .123,192 30,798 704,059 541,800 
 
608 
 
 COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION. 
 
 From and to the United Stfttes. From and to all conntries. 
 
 Imjwrts. Exports. Imports. Exports. 
 
 1833 136,432 29,362 694,599 558,527 
 
 1834 109,606 20,411 781,167 578,907 
 
 1835 102,839 24,299 969,860 652,154 
 
 1836 112,713 29,224 1,249,537 652,645 
 
 1837 124,991 25,185 1,058,050 650,615 
 
 1838 121,160 25,598 1,204,629 792,119 
 
 1839 249,298 35,472 1,513,204 819,291 
 
 1840 254,134 23,808 1,336,317 753,036 
 
 1841.... 267,852 18,522 1,291.611 700,699 
 
 1842 162,422 29,453 548,307 487,479 
 
 1843 140,259 16,190 639,686 538,592 
 
 1844 207,484 16,909 850,099 598,837 
 
 1845 312,313 27,940 1,105,998 787,624 
 
 1846 298,006 15,861 1,036,016 886,763 
 
 1847 340,098 44,644 1,125,328 696,399 
 
 1848 244,276 44,553 629,408 639,199 
 
 1849 264,562 51,582 693,927 601,462 
 
 1850 262,148 77,400 815,531 658,018 
 
 1851 330,835 83,028 980,300 772,024 
 
 1852 393,210 83,792 1,110,601 796,335 
 
 1853 574,070 121,858 1,716,108 1,072,491 
 
 1854 711,234 97,930 2,068,773 1,104,215 
 
 1855 782,762 123,127 1,431,330 826,381 
 
 1856 714,515 173,485 1,521,178 1,073,351 
 
 1857 628,510 158,697 1,418,943 917,775 
 
 1858 564,245 163,702 1,162,771 810,779 
 
 1859 675,095 236,014 1,416,034 1,073,422 
 
 1860 688,217 248,378 1,446,740 916,372 
 
 The following table is a return 
 of revenue, in currency, of the 
 wick, during each financial year 
 years inclusive. 
 
 Year. Amount In cnrrency. 
 
 1837 £75,320 16 3 
 
 1838 79,167 9 3 
 
 1839 123,285 7 10 
 
 1840 109,942 17 7 
 
 1841 110,983 10 9 
 
 1842 55,904 2 
 
 . 1843 59,498 13 
 
 1844 92,333 14 2 
 
 1845 127,753 1 9 
 
 1846 127,403 17 1 
 
 1847 127,410 7 2 
 
 1848 86,437 14 3 
 
 showing the gross amount 
 province of 'New Bruns- 
 from 1837 to 1860, both 
 
 Yoar. 
 
 Amount In currency. 
 
 1849 £95,536 17 4 
 
 1950 104,089 9 6 
 
 1851* 117,363 10 
 
 1852 138,220 1 2 
 
 1853 184,727 4 4 
 
 1854 203,054 14 11 
 
 1855 127,476 3 11 
 
 1866 149,248 7 6 
 
 1857 167,063 18 10 
 
 1858 136,357 15 1 
 
 1859 193,381 1 
 
 1860 208,331 1 10 
 
 The increase in the imports and exports during the last 
 BIX years is worthy of especial notice, as marking the 
 
 * For eleven months. 
 
FORM OF GOVERNMENT. 609 
 
 steady progress and continued advancement of the coun- 
 try. The apparent deficiency in each year between the 
 value of imports and the value of exports, is amply made 
 up by the sale of new ships in the United Kingdom, the 
 freight of their cargoes to the place of sale, the earnings 
 of the ships belonging to the province, and the prices ob- 
 tained for articles exported beyond the official estimate 
 of their value when shipped, leaving, on the whole, a 
 large balance of trade in favor of the province. 
 
 FORM OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The chief executive officer is the Lieutenant-Governor, 
 appointed by the Sovereign of England, of w^hom he is 
 the immediate representative in the province. His func- 
 tions are extensive, as he performs the duties of Comman- 
 der-in-Chief, Yice-Admiral, Chancellor, Ordinary, and 
 other high offices. He administers the government with 
 the advice of an Executive Council of nine members, who 
 hold office only while they possess the confidence of the 
 people, as expressed through their representatives in the 
 Assembly, retiring on an adverse vote, precisely as the 
 ministry in England. The Legislative Council, or upper 
 House of the Legislature, consists of twenty-one members, 
 appointed by the crown during pleasure, but usually hold- 
 ing office for life. The lower House, or House of As- 
 sembly, is the popular branch, and consists of forty-one 
 members, elected by the people. The several counties, 
 and the city of St. John, are thus represented in the As- 
 sembly : Restigouche, two members ; Gloucester, two ; 
 liTorthumberland, four ; Kent, two ; Westmorland, four ; 
 Albert, two ; county of St. John, four ; city of St. John, 
 two; Charlotte, four ; King's, three ; Queen's, two; Sun- 
 bury, two ; York, four ; Carleton, two ; Victoria, two. 
 
 The Legislative Council has the power of amending or 
 rejecting bills sent to it by the House of Assembly, and 
 may originate bills, except money bills. The members of 
 the House of Assembly are elected every four years, by 
 
610 JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 freeholders in the several counties, and by the citizens in 
 St. John. This House has the power of appropriating the 
 public moneys, levying duties, investigating the public ac- 
 counts, and generally of legislating on the affairs of the 
 province, as they are brought under its notice by the gov- 
 ernment, by its own members, or by the petitions of the 
 people. Bills which have passed both branches of the le- 
 gislature, must receive the assent of the Lieutenant-Grov- 
 ernor before they become law; and they are then subject 
 to the approval or disallowance of Her Majesty in Council. 
 
 JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The Courts of Justice ^.re, the Supreme Court, Court of 
 Yice Admiralty, Court for the trial and punishment of 
 Piracy, Probate Courts, Courts of Marriage and Divorce, 
 Inferior Courts of Common Pleas and General Sessions of 
 the peace, and Justices' Courts. The Court of Chancery 
 has been recently abolished, and its powers and duties 
 transferred to the Supreme Court. This court consists of 
 a chief-justice and assistant judges ; its jurisdiction ex- 
 tends to all criminal cases, and civil suits where the 
 amount in dispute exceeds five pounds, except in, cases of 
 appeal from the Justices' Courts. It sits at Fredericton, 
 four terms in each year, and the judges go on circuit, and 
 hold the assizes in each county, the same as in England. 
 
 The Court of Yice-Admiralty is held at the city of St. 
 Jonii, and is presided over by one judge, holding his com- 
 mission from the Crown. This court decides maritime 
 causes, and has jurisdiction over prizes taken in war. The 
 Court for the trial and punishment of Piracy and other 
 offences committed on the high seas, consists of the Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor, the Chief-Justice and other judges of the 
 Supreme Court, the members of the Executive Council, 
 the Judge of the Yice-Admiralty, the Provincial Secretary 
 and the Provincial Treasurer, with the flag officers and 
 captains and commanders of ships of war on the station 
 for the time be^ng. It sits at any place within the prov- 
 
JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS. 611 
 
 ince appointed by any three of its members, tlie Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor, the Chief-Justice, or one of the judges of 
 the Supreme Court, or the Judge of the Yice- Admiralty, 
 being one. 
 
 The Courts of Probate are held in each county, by Sur- 
 rogate Judges appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor. 
 Thes6 courts are always open for the transaction of busi- 
 ness, although regular sittings are usually held once in 
 each month in the counties, and once each week in the 
 city of St. John. The duties of these courts relate to the 
 probate of wills, granting letters of administration for the 
 estates of persons dying intestate, making orders for the 
 distribution of such estates, and compelling executors and 
 administrators to render exact accounts of their proceed- 
 ings. 
 
 The Court of Governor and Council, for hearing and de- 
 termining cases relating to marriage and divorce, consists 
 of the Lieutenant-Governor, the members of the Executive 
 Council, and usually one or more of the Judges of the 
 Supreme Court. It sits at Fredericton on the second Tues- 
 day in February, and the third Tuesdays in June and 
 October. 
 
 The Inferior Courts of Common Pleas, and General 
 Sessions of the Peace, are held in each county four times in 
 the year. They are presided over by three or more judges, 
 appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Council, the 
 senior of whom acts as Chairman of the Magistrates at the 
 General Sessions. On the civ^il side, these courts have 
 jurisdiction of all causes where the sum in dispute exceeds 
 five pounds, except in cases where the title to land is in- 
 volved. On the criminal side, the Sessions exercise juris- 
 diction over larcenies and minor offences, not involving 
 capital pimishment. The Sessions also, in counties not 
 yet incorporated, appoint county and parish officers and 
 audit their accounts, levy rates and taxes, and exercise 
 a general supervision over parish and county business. 
 In three counties which are now incorporated, these duties 
 39 
 
612 TENUEE OF LAND ^INHEKITANCE. 
 
 are performed by a warden and councillors elected by the 
 rate-payers in each parish ; and doubtless other counties 
 will soon avail themselves of the privilege of being incor- 
 porated under the provisions of the Municipal Act. 
 
 The Justices' Courts are usually held at the residences 
 of the J ustices of the Peace in the several counties, when- 
 ever necessary or convenient. Two justices are compe- 
 tent to decide in cases of petty theft, or of assault and 
 battery, not accompanied by wounding or aggravating 
 circumstances. In civil suits, one justice decides causes 
 where the sum in dispute is less than five pounds, or the 
 damages claimed are less than forty shillings, except where 
 the title to lands comes in question. An appeal lies from 
 the decision of the justices in these cases to the judges of 
 the Suprenie Court. 
 
 TENURE OF LAND AND LAW OF INHERITANCE. 
 
 All lands are held in 'New Brunswick in free and com- 
 mon socage, or simple freehold, by letters-patent from the 
 Crown, under the Great Seal of the province. No quit- 
 rent, due, or serviee is imposed ; mines and minerals only 
 are reserved to Her Majesty and her successors, but may 
 be worked by the land-owner, on paying a small royalty. 
 Granted land is transferred from one individual to another 
 by simple deed of feoffment, or indenture of bargain and 
 sale, which must be registered in the office of the registrar 
 of deeds, in the county where the land lies, in order to be 
 effective. Mortgages, wills, memorials of judgment which 
 bind real estate, leases, and other instruments affecting the 
 title to land, must also be registered in the same office, 
 where searches can be made and titles ascertained. 
 
 In the distribution of real estate, the widow, in all cases, 
 has her right of dower, or one-third during life ; when 
 there is no will, the law gives two shares to the eldest son, 
 and one share to each of the other sons and daughters. If 
 there are no children, the estate is divided among the next 
 of kin, in equal shares. Of personal property, the widow 
 
EELIGI0U8 WORSHIP — EDUCATION. 613 
 
 takes one-third, and the residue is divided equally among 
 the sons and daughters, share and share alike. If there 
 are no children, the widow is entitled to one-half of the 
 personal estate, and the other half is appropriated among 
 the next of kin, in equal proportion. 
 
 RELIGIOUS WORSHIP AND MEANS OP EDUCATION. 
 
 The extent of the provision for the worship of God, will 
 be best understood by the following statement of the places 
 of public worship in each county, and the number of clergy- 
 men in the provinces : — 
 
 Places of worship in Restigouche county, 6; Glouces- 
 ter^ 19 ; Northumberland, 32 ; Kent, 21 ; Westmorland, 
 38 ; Albert, 20 ; St. John, 40 ; Charlotte, 53 ; Kings, 61 ; 
 Queens, 40 ; Sunbury, 15 ; York, 45 ; Carleton, 25 ; Vic- 
 toria, 8. Total places of worship in the province, 423. 
 
 The number of clergymen of the several religious de- 
 nominations in 'New Brunswick, in 1853, is thus stated : — 
 
 The Episcopal Church of England and Ireland, as by 
 law established, one bishop, one archdeacon, and 58 clergy- 
 men. The Roman Catholic Church, one bishop, two vic- 
 ars general, and 23 priests. The Church of Scotland, as 
 by law established, 8 clergymen ; the Presbytery of N"ew 
 Brunswick, adhering to the Westminster Standards, 13 
 clergymen ; the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland, 
 3 clergymen ; Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia, 1 cler- 
 gyman ; Wesleyan Methodists, 33 ministers ; Baptists, 52 
 ministers and 7 licentiates; Free Christian Baptists, 18 
 ministers ; General Baptist Church, 2 ministers ; Congrega- 
 tional Church, or Independents, 4 ministers. 
 
 With the exception of some assistance received by the 
 clergy of the Church of England from the Society for the 
 Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, and by the 
 Wesleyan ministers from the Methodist Missionary Society 
 in England, the clergy of New Brunswick are supported 
 almost wholly by the contributions of the members of their 
 
614: EDUCATION. 
 
 several churches, on the voluntary principle, no tithes or 
 other charges for ecclesiastical purposes being known in the 
 province. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 "New Brunswick, with its limited population and rev- 
 enue, devotes annually about £12,000 sterling to educa- 
 tional purposes. Few countries in the world, in propor- 
 tion to population and income, devote so large a sum to 
 the education of the rising generation. 
 
 At the head of the educational establishments of the 
 province is King's College, at Fredericton, which was es- 
 tablished by Koyal Charter dated 18th November, 1823. 
 The object of this College, as declared in the Charter, is 
 " the education of youth in the principles of the Christian 
 religion, and their instruction in the various branches of 
 literature and science." It receives a grant amounting to 
 £2,000 sterling per annum from the province, and has be- 
 sides a revenue arising from its endowment in lands, which 
 have enabled the College Council to erect a spacious 
 building, provide a considerable library, and the requisite 
 scientific, mathematical, and astronomical instruments. 
 
 In each county of the province, except York, King's, 
 and Victoria, there is a Grammar School, supported by 
 subscriptions, tuition fees, and a grant of £100 per annum 
 from the provincial treasury. These Grammar Schools 
 are managed by trustees ; instruction is given in the class- 
 ics, and in the usual branches of English education — 
 and here the foundation is laid for admission into College. 
 In York County, the Collegiate School at Fredericton, 
 under King's College, takes the place of a Grammar 
 School. 
 
 The Baptist Seminary at Fredericton is under the gen- 
 eral superintendence of the Baptist Association of New 
 Brunswick, by whom it was founded in 1836. The course 
 of instruction comprises the classics, English education, 
 and mathematics. It has no permanent revenues, and its 
 
EDUCATION. 615 
 
 maintenance depends on grants from the provincial legis- 
 lature and the contributions of the denomination. 
 
 The Wesleyan Methodists have an Academy at Mount 
 Allison, a very pleasant situation, at Sackville, in the 
 county of Westmorland. The building, which is handsome 
 and spacious, was completed in 1843, by private subscrip- 
 tions, and a very large donation from C. F. Allison, Esq., 
 from whom the place takes its name. This institution is 
 incorporated, and a managing committee has the direction 
 of its affairs. The branches of learning taught are, the 
 classics, mathematics, natural philosophy, moral philos- 
 ophy, and divinity. This Academy receives a small 
 grant from the province annually, but is chiefly supported 
 by tuition money and private subscriptions. 
 
 The expenses of board and tuition at the Baptist Acad- 
 emy and the Wesleyan Academy, are about £30 per 
 annum. 
 
 An incorporated body, styled " The Governor and Trus- 
 tees of the Madras School in 'New Brunswick," is en- 
 dowed with certain lands and grants of money ; it has 
 established schools at St. John, Fredericton, and other 
 places in the province, where many children of the poorer 
 classes are taught gratis, besides being furnished with 
 books, and sometimes with clothing. 
 
 But the schools most generally diffused throughout the 
 province are the Common or Parish Schools, which en- 
 able the children in every settlement, unless very remote, 
 to obtain the blessings of education. 
 
 The Act relating to Parish Schools makes the following 
 provisions, which are now in operation. The Lieutenant- 
 Governor, with the Executive Council and the Superin 
 tendent of Schools, constitute a provincial Board of Edu- 
 cation. The Governor and Council appoint the Super- 
 intendent, who acts as Secretary to the Board, and they 
 also appoint an Inspector of Schools for each county. A 
 Model School and a Training School are established, and 
 examiners appointed of those who desire to become 
 
616 EDUCATION. 
 
 teachers. On the report of the examiners the Board of 
 Education grants licenses to the persons examined as first, 
 second, or third class teachers. The Inspectors of Schools 
 visit and examine the schools in their several districts four 
 times in each year, or oftener, if the Board directs, and 
 make an annual report. Male teachers of the third class 
 receive from the Provincial Treasury £22 10^. currency 
 per annum, and are required to teach reading, writing, 
 spelling, and arithmetic. Teachers of the second class re- 
 ceive £30 currency per annum, and in addition to the fore- 
 going, must teach English grammar, geography, history, 
 and bookkeeping. Teachers of the first class receive £37 
 10^. per annum, and besides what is taught by the two 
 preceding classes, must also teach geometry, mensuration, 
 land-surveying, navigation, and algebra. Female teachers 
 of the third class receive £1 7 10s. per annum, and teach 
 spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, and common needle- 
 work. Those of the second class receive £22 10s. per an- 
 num, and in addition teach English grammar and geog- 
 raphy. Female teachers of the first class receive £27 
 10s. per annum, and teach history in addition to what is 
 taught by the second and third class teachers. No teacher 
 is paid for a less period than six months, unless under 
 special circumstances, nor unless the inhabitants of the 
 district have raised by assessment, or paid for his or her 
 support, in the same proportion as the provincial al- 
 lowance. Any parish or district which voluntarily as- 
 sesses itself for the support of common schools, receives 
 from the provincial treasury twenty-five per cent, more than 
 parishes or districts which do not assess ; but in case of such 
 assessment the tuition money must not exceed two shil- 
 lings sterling per quarter. In every school, three children 
 of indigent parents are admitted as free scholars. 
 
 The provincial allowance for schools must not exceed 
 an average of £200 currency to each parish in any one 
 county, or £260 to any one parish therein. Tlie number 
 of parish schools and scholars in each county, in 1853, is 
 
CIVIL LIST, KEVENUE, AUD EXPENDITtrRE. 617 
 
 thus stated : Restigouche, 22 schools, 508 scholars ; Glou- 
 cester, 35 schools, 1,167 scholars; Northumberland, 58 
 scholars ; Kent, 36 schools, 1,169 scholars ; Westmorland, 
 95 schools, 2,967 scholars ; Albert, 33 schools, 994 schol- 
 ars ; St. John, 64 schools, 2,869 scholars ; Charlotte, 122 
 schools, 2,702 scholars ; King's, 97 schools, 2,507 scholars ; 
 Queen's, 65 schools, 1,643 scholars ; Sunbury, 22 schools, 
 751 scholars ; York, 57 schools, 2,659 scholars ; Carleton, 
 56 schools, 1,612 scholars; Victoria, 12 schools, 275 
 scholars. 
 
 Besides these parish schools, there are foui Roman Cath- 
 olic schools in different parts of the province, an academy 
 at St. Stephen, an infant school at Fredericton, as also an 
 African school and a commercial school at St. John, which 
 received special grants annually from the legislature. 
 
 The number of parish schools in 1852, was 588, attended 
 by 18,591 scholars ; the numbers in 1853 were, schools, 
 744, scholars, 24,127 ; evincing a marked increase both of 
 schools and scholars. 
 
 CIYIL LIST, REYENUE, AND EXPENDITURE. 
 
 In 1837, the proceeds of all Her Majesty's hereditary, 
 territorial, and casual revenues, and of all sales and leases 
 of Crown lands, woods, mines, and royalties in 'New 
 Brunswick were surrendered to the province, and made 
 payable to the provincial treasurer. In consideration of 
 this surrender, the sum of £14,500 currency, annually, was 
 granted to Her Majesty to provide for the payment of the 
 civil list of the province. The salaries of the lieutenant- 
 governor and the principal officers of the province are 
 borne on this list, and paid from the sum so granted. 
 
 The following statement of expenditure in 1854 and 
 1855, in pounds sterling, shows the various objects for 
 which the provincial revenues are annually disbursed. 
 
618 BANKS FOE SAVINGS, ETC. 
 
 Heads of expenditure. 1864 185S. 
 
 CivU list £13,195 £12,083 
 
 Pay and expenses of the legislature 9,749 9,619 
 
 Collection and protection of the revenue. . 5,806 5,215 
 
 Judicial establishment 1,362 * 1,628 
 
 Printing laws, &c 2,313 3,429 
 
 College and Grammar schools 2,133 1,860 
 
 Parish and Madras schools 12,548 13,685 
 
 Great roads and bridges 27,016 24,525 
 
 By-roads 24,377 22,596 
 
 Navigation of rivers 2,326 6,448 
 
 Public buildings 765 2,169 
 
 Wharves and landings 2,069 739 
 
 Post-oflBce, couriers, &c 4,334 3,937 
 
 Lunatic Asylum 5,106 3,203 
 
 Provincial Penitentiary 1,500 3,062 
 
 Destruction of bears and wolves 210 
 
 Erection of oat-mills 83 41 
 
 Agricultural societies 3,498 1,758 
 
 Fishing societies 418 300 
 
 Relief of immigrants 573 741 
 
 Charitable purposes 2,588 7,250 
 
 Grant to Patriotic Fund 5,000 
 
 Indians 437 415 
 
 Return duties 425 230 
 
 Miscellaneous 4,318 4,934 
 
 Interest on sums borrowed 4,810 3,952 
 
 Support of lighthouses 3,397 3,115 
 
 Support of sick and disabled seamen 822 1,286 
 
 Military expenditure 287 133 
 
 £136,463 £138,353 
 
 BANKS FOR SAYINGS ; VALUE OF COINS ; RATE OF INTEREST. 
 
 Savings' Banks are established in several parts of the 
 province, where deposits are received to the extent of £50 
 currency for one person, and interest allowed at the rate 
 of five per cent, per annum. These banks are regulated 
 by law, and the Province Treasurer is authorized to receive 
 the money deposited in them, and allow six per cent, in- 
 terest ; the difference of one per cent, in the interest pays 
 the expenses of these institutions. 
 
 The Spanish dollar is taken as the standard of currency ; 
 its value is established by law at five shillings currency. 
 The public accounts are kept, and returns made, in ar- 
 my sterling, which rates the dollar at four shillings and 
 two pence sterling. To bring currency into army sterling, 
 
GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS. 619 
 
 it is only necessary to deduct one-sixth ; and to bring 
 sterling into currency, to add one-fifth to the several 
 amounts. 
 
 The sovereign is a legal tender at 24^. ^d. currency. 
 The English crown-piece passes at 6^. \d. currency, and 
 other silver coins in proportion. Immigrants should not 
 bring bank-notes, as those are generally sold at less than 
 the same amount in gold or silver. 
 
 The legal rate of interest is six per cent, per annum. 
 No greater rate is allowed to be te-ken, except in the case 
 of bottomry bonds, or the loan of grain, cattle, or live 
 stock, where the lender t3,ke8 the risk of casualties upon 
 himself. 
 
 GENERAL INFORMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS. 
 
 Immigrants to New Brunswick are especially cautioned 
 against taking passage to Quebec, as there are no regular 
 means of conveyance from that port to any of the Lower 
 Provinces. The only route is by railway to Portland, in 
 Maine, and thence by steamer to St. John, which is ex- 
 pensive. 
 
 Passage tickets should always be carefully retained by 
 immigrants, so that if they are not treated according to law, 
 or are landed at a different place from that named in the 
 ticket, they may obtain redress. Immigrants are warned 
 that they have no claim of right on the immigrant fund, 
 and ishould provide themselves with sufficient means of 
 their own, for their subsistence and conveyance into the 
 interior from the port where they land. Sick immigrants 
 only are provided at the public expense. Agricultural 
 laborers need not bring out implements of husbandry, as 
 these can easily be procured in the province ; but artisans 
 are recommended to bring such tools as they possess, if 
 not too bulky. Those who intend to become settlers, 
 should bring a stock of comfortable warm clothing, with 
 blankets and strong boots and shoes for their families. 
 There is no duty on the household effects of immigrants. 
 
620 GKNEBAL njFOEMATION FOB IMMIGEANTS. 
 
 The best period to arrive in ^ew Brunswick is earlj in 
 May, so as to be in time to take advantage of the spring 
 and summer work, and get comfortably settled before the 
 winter sets in. The average length of passages to !N'ew 
 Brunswick from great Britain and Ireland is 36 days, but 
 the Passengers' Act requires provisions and water to be 
 laid in for 70 days. Passengers are entitled by law to be 
 maintained on board the ship, the same as during the voy- 
 age, for 48 hours after arrival in port. The tax on each 
 passenger is 2*, Qd, currency {28. Id, sterling), which is 
 paid by the master . of the ship ; and security must be 
 given by bond, in the penalty of £75 currency, that any 
 lunatic, idiot, maimed, blind, or infirm person not belong- 
 ing to an immigrant family, shall not become chargeable 
 to the funds of the province for three years. This bond 
 may however be dispensed with, or cancelled by order of 
 the lieutenant-governor in council, on payment of such 
 reasonable sum as shall be deemed just and proper under 
 the circumstances. 
 
 Until immigrants become acquainted with the labor of 
 the country, their services are of comparatively small value 
 to their employers. They should therefore be careful not 
 to fall into the common error of refusing reasonable wages 
 on their first arrival. 
 
 Demand for Labor. — The progress of agriculture in 
 New Brunswick causes a steady demand for labor in the 
 rural districts, and, for the last two years, farmers have 
 Buffered more than any other class, from an inadequate 
 supply of agricultural laborers and female domestics. In 
 the towns there has also been great scarcity of female ser- 
 vants, and a supply of these is greatly needed. Boys from 
 twelve to eighteen years of age are greatly in demand 
 throughout the province by farmers and mechanics. Un- 
 skilled laborers are generally sure of employment, at from 
 two and sixpence to four shillings sterling per day, accord- 
 ing to ability and the length of time for which they are 
 engaged. Masons, bricklayers, carpenters, and joiners are 
 
GENEBAL INFOKMATION FOR IMMIGRANTS. 621 
 
 in request at good wages ; and there is no scarcity of em- 
 ployment for millwrights, smiths, foundrymen, and work- 
 ers in iron generally, painters, tailors, and shoemakers. 
 
 The Clearing of Wild Land is to be understood as 
 cutting down and burning the trees, fencing, and leaving 
 the land ready for crop, the stumps and roots alone re- 
 maining to impede the operations of the farmer. The ex- 
 pense varies greatly, according to circumstances, but may 
 be stated at two to four pounds sterling per acre. A com^ 
 fortable log-house, sixteen by twenty-four feet, two floors, 
 and shingled roof, costs twelve to fifteen pounds sterling, 
 but much less when the work is chiefly performed by the 
 immigrant himself. When properly built, this description 
 of house is extremely warm and comfortable. No immi- 
 grant should undertake to clear land and make a farm un- 
 less he has the means of supporting his family for twelve 
 months. It is better that the immigrant should engage 
 himself to a farmer for the first year or two after his 
 arrival, by which he will obtain experience as to the work 
 of the country and the mode of conducting a farm, while 
 laying up his wages wherewith to make a beginning in 
 the forest. 
 
 If the immigrant is possessed of some capital, he should 
 by no means expend it in endeavoring to make a farm 
 in the wilderness, as he will be almost certain thereby to 
 waste his means. He should buy land partially cleared, 
 either in crop or ready for crop ; he will always find per- 
 sons ready to sell their land, with house and clearing, 
 stock, and implements of husbandry suitable to the 
 country, at a much less price than he could procure them 
 for himself. 
 
 By adopting this course, an immigrant that arrives in 
 New Brunswick with £100 sterling, will in a few years 
 find himself in easy and independent circumstances, and 
 the greater number he has in family, the better ofiT he 
 will be. 
 
 The Direct Taxes payable by a settler, Jire for poor 
 
622 GENERAL INEOKMATION FOB IMMIGKAlTrS. 
 
 rates, county expenses, and occasional assessments for 
 public buildings ; in the case of a small farmer, .these 
 altogether seldom amount to one pound per annum. 
 The 'settler is also liable to perform statute labor on 
 the roads, streets, and bridges in his county, but not 
 the first year after his arrival in the country. He may 
 perform this labor either in person or by sufficient substi- 
 tute, eight hours of actual labor being considered a day's 
 work ; or he may commute the same, at the rate of one 
 shilling and threepence currency for each day's labor. The 
 scale of annual assessment for statute labor is as fol- 
 lows: — Persons between eighteen and twenty-one years 
 of age, two days ; above twenty-one years, four days ; and 
 one day in addition for every £100 in value of his real 
 and personal estate, or one day for every £25 of his an- 
 nual income, up to sixty days' labor, beyond which no 
 person can be assessed. Every rate-payer is liable to serve 
 the following offices in his parish ; constable, pound-keeper, 
 fence-viewer, parish clerk, overseer of the poor, clerk of 
 the market, assessor or collector of rates, road-commis- 
 sioner, surveyor of highways, trustee of schools, and 
 some other offices peculiar to certain counties, such as sur- 
 veyors of dams, overseers of fisheries, boom-masters, and 
 timber-drivers, for all which, however (except as trustee 
 of schools), small fees or perquisites are allowed. All per- 
 sons between sixteen and sixty years of age, are liable to 
 serve in the militia in case of necessity. 
 
 Ordinary Diseases. — As yet, no regular bills of mor- 
 tality are made up in the province ; and with respect to 
 the ordinary diseases of the country, their type and preva- 
 lence, reference can only be had to the reports of the medi- 
 cal officers in charge of the troops in the colony, which are 
 prepared with great minuteness and precision. In the re- 
 port submitted to Parliament in 1853, it is stated that 
 common continued fever constitutes about two-thirds of 
 the fevers in this command ; but is much less frequent 
 than even among the most favored class of troops in the 
 
FEUrrS AND VEGETABLES. 623 
 
 United Kingdom, and mucli less severe in its character. 
 The proportioH of typhus is also smaller than in the 
 United Kingdom, although its intensity is much the same; 
 eruptive fevers have been so rare as scarcely to require 
 notice. In a former report, attention was called to the 
 fact, that notwithstanding the greater severity of the cli- 
 mate, and the sudden alternations of temperature to which 
 the troops are exposed, the proportion both of admissions 
 into hospital, and deaths by diseases of the lungs, was 
 lower than among an equal number of infantry in the 
 United Kingdom ; and the same was observable during 
 the ten years included in the report of 1853. Diseases of 
 the liver are stated to be rare in this command, more 
 so than among the same class of troops in the United 
 Kingdom. Other classes of diseases, although a source 
 of considerable inefficiency, are stated not to add much 
 to the mortality ; most of these are produced by habitual 
 drunkenness, arising from the low price and facility of 
 procuring ardent spirits. On the whole, there is much 
 less sickness and mortality, both among officers and men, 
 than in any part of the United Kingdom. 
 
 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 
 
 All the fruits generally found in England are grown in 
 New Brunswick, especially apples, pears, plums, currants, 
 gooseberries, strawberries, and cherries. Of the wild 
 fruits, there are strawberries, cranberries, gooseberries, 
 raspberries, blackberries, great whortleberries, blue whor- 
 tleberries, wild cherries, and some others. Butter-nuts, 
 hazel-nuts, and beech-nuts are plentiful in many places. 
 
 The potatoes of New Brunswick are most excellent; 
 those grown in newly pleared land are often drier than 
 others, and of superior flavor. All the varieties of peas 
 and beans, turnips, beets, carrots, parsnips, cabbages, cau- 
 liflowers, celery, cucumbers, and squashes, with all other 
 common culinary vegetables of the United Kingdom, are 
 cultivated with success. 
 
624: THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 WILD BEASTS AND GAME. 
 
 Occasionally, wolves annoy the farmer to a small ex- 
 tent ; in the more settled districts sheep are usually pro- 
 tected by a fold. The farmer may sometimes lose a stray 
 hog by the bears ; but there are many farmers who have 
 lived all their lives in the province without seeing wolf or 
 bear. As in other countries, foxes and smaller animals are 
 destructive to poultry that is not looked after carefully. 
 
 Game is mentioned as forming one of the natural re- 
 sources of the country. The animals hunted are the elk, 
 or moose-deer ; the cariboo, a species of reindeer ; and the 
 Virginian red deer. Of the smaller animals, which are 
 taken either by hunting or trapping, there are the beaver, 
 otter, mink, musk-rat, marten (a species of sable), fox, 
 fisher (or pine marten), lynx, raccoon, porcupine, wood- 
 chuck, ermine, and northern hare. Of birds, there are 
 wild geese, wild ducks, in great variety, and wood grouse, 
 usually called partridges. Snipe and woodcock afford 
 some fine shooting, in their season. There are several 
 sorts of curlew, some very large, and an infinite variety of 
 the plover tribe. The passenger-pigeon sometimes visits 
 the province in great numbers. 
 
 As has been already stated, all the rivers, lakes, and 
 streams of I^ew Brunswick abound with fish, in consid- 
 erable variety ; and if a man thinks proper, in the words 
 of Izaak Walton, " to be pleasant, and eat a trout," he 
 can gratify his taste almost anywhere in the province. 
 
 THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 There are in 'New Brunswick two tribes of Indians, 
 differing widely from each other in their language, cus- 
 toms, implements, and habits of life. The marked dis- 
 tinction, in almost every particular, between these tribes, 
 inhabiting the same country, and evidently sprung from 
 the same stock, constitutes a remarkable point of interest. 
 
 First in order, not .only as the most numero^is, but as 
 
CONCLUSION. 625 
 
 possessing botli moral and physical superiority over the 
 others, are the Micmacs — a tall and powerful race of men, 
 who speak a dialect of the Algonquin language, and fre- 
 quent the northern or gulf shore of the province. The less 
 numerous and inferior body are the Milicetes, who speak 
 a dialect of the Huron language, and frequent the river 
 St. John and its tributary waters. The Micmacs are 
 strongly attached to the seaside, near which they are 
 generally found ; hence the Milicetes call them '' salt- 
 water Indians." The Milicetes, on the contrary, have 
 great aversion to salt water ; they are thorough woodsmen, 
 and confine themselves to the lakes and streams of the in- 
 terior, for navigating which their light canoes are well 
 adapted. 
 
 An enumeration of the Indians of the province was 
 made by the writer, in 1841, when it was found that their 
 numbers stood thus : — Of Micmacs ; adults — males, 229 ; 
 females, 255 ; under 14 — boys, 215 ; girls, 236 ; total, 
 935. Of Milicetes ; adults — males. 111; females, 113; 
 under 14-^boys, lOT ; girls, 111 ; total, 442. The whole 
 number of Indians in the province, in 1841, was, therefore, 
 1,377. By the census of 1851, it appears that the numbers 
 then found amounted to 1,116 only ; and there is reason to 
 believe, from inquries recently made, that their numbers 
 do not now reach 1,000. That they are steadily decreasing, 
 is beyond a doubt ; and this, in a great degree, is owing to 
 the ravages made among their adults by small-pox and ty- 
 phus fever, and among children by measles, whooping- 
 cough, scarlet fever, and other diseases to which children 
 are subject. Yery few submit to be vaccinated, and hence 
 small-pox is their great scourge. Their unwillingness to 
 undergo regular medical treatment, is the reason why dis- 
 eases are fatal among them, and not so to persons of Eu- 
 ropean descent. 
 
 The Micmacs subsist during the summer chiefly by fish 
 ing and fowling ; during winter many of them find em 
 ployment with lumbermen in the forest. On the Mira 
 
626 CONCLUSION. 
 
 michi and Richibucto rivers several Micmac families have 
 turned their attention *to the cultivation of the soil, and 
 have comfortable houses, with some stock. The Milicetes 
 hunt and trap during the winter ; in summer they make 
 baskets and other light articles, varying their labor With 
 fishing and shooting. The people of both tribes live on 
 the most friendly terms with their white neighbors ; and 
 they are often engaged by sportsmen as their attendants 
 on excursions along the coast or up the rivers ; an em- 
 ployment of which they are very fond. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 The observations of Lord Durham, with respect to the 
 capabilities and advantages of the British N^orth American 
 colonies, are specially applicable to !N^ew Brunswick. It 
 possesses great natural resources for the maintenance of 
 large and flourishing communities. A wide range of the 
 best soil still remains unsettled, and may be rendered 
 available for the purposes of agriculture. The wealth of 
 forests of the best timber, and of extensive regions con- 
 taining valuable minerals, yet remains untouched. Along 
 the whole line of sea-coast, around each island, and in 
 every river, are to be found the most productive fisheries 
 in the world. The best fuel and most abundant water- 
 power are available for manufactures. Trade with other 
 countries is favored by the possession of a large number 
 of safe and commodious harbors. Numerous rivers, long and 
 deep, supply the means of easy internal intercourse ; the 
 structure of the country, generally, afibrds the utmost fa- 
 cility for every species of communication by land. Un- 
 bounded materials of agricultural, commercial, and manu- 
 facturing industry are present. These elements of wealth 
 and special advantages need only capital and labor to be 
 turned to profitable account, and render New Brunswick, 
 with a large and flourishing population, one of the fairest 
 and richest portions of British colonial empire. 
 
DESCEIPTION OF THE PBOVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 627 
 
 PROGRESS OF POPULATION. 
 
 The total population of New Brunswick, in 1824, was 
 74,176 souls ; in 1834, it was 119,457 souls ; in 1840, it 
 was 154,000 souls ; and in 1851 (in the last census), it was 
 193,800 souls. At present the population is estimated at 
 210,000 souls, and upwards. 
 
 The increase of population in Kew Brunswick has been 
 greater than that in the neighboring State of Maine, by 
 7.29 per cent. ; than that of New Hampshire, by 11.79 
 per cent. ; and than that of Yermont, by 16.07 per cent. ; 
 and it has exceeded their aggregate and average ratio by 
 10.86 per cent. 
 
 AN ACCOUNT OF THE NmiBER OP IMMIGRANTS* ARRIVED IN THE PROVINCE 
 OP NEW BRUNSWICK BETWEEN THE YEARS 1844 AND i860, BOTH YEARS 
 INCLUSIVE. 
 
 Tear. No. Immigmnts arrived, 
 
 1844 2,605 
 
 1845 6,133 
 
 1846 9,765 
 
 1847 14,879 
 
 1848 4,141 
 
 1849 2,724 
 
 1850 1,838 
 
 1851 3,470 
 
 1852 2,165 
 
 Year. No. immignmts arrivetL 
 
 1853 3,762 
 
 1854 3,440 
 
 1855 1,539 
 
 1856 708 
 
 1857 '. 60T 
 
 1858 390) 
 
 1859 230. 
 
 1860 32a 
 
 Immigrants arrived at the port of St Jolin in 1860, 3.15. 
 " " atCaraquet & 
 
 Total for New Brunswick in I860,. 32a 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIEa 
 
 Eestigouche. — This is the northernmost county in the 
 
 province. It has a large frontage on the Bay of Chaleur, 
 
 and is bounded northerly by the forty-eighth parallel of 
 
 north latitude, which is the dividing line betvreen New- 
 
 * A duty of 2*. 6d. currency, or 2s. Itf. sterling, was imposed by an act of 
 the Colonial Legislature on each immigrant arriving in the province. In th© 
 year ending 31st December, 1860, the sum of £40 7*. 6dL currency was col- 
 lected in this colony on account of immigrant duty. 
 40 
 
628 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 Erunswick and Canada in that quarter. It abuts west- 
 wardly on Yictoria county, and is bounded southerly by 
 Gloucester and Northumberland. 
 
 Restigouche county contains 1,426,560 acres of which 
 156,979 acres are granted, and 1,269,581 acres are still 
 vacant. The quantity of cleared land is 8,895 acres only. 
 
 The population, in 1851, was 4,161 ; of whom 2,353 were 
 males, and 1,808 were females. Lumbering is carried on 
 extensively in Restigouche, which will account for the 
 excess of males. This county is divided into five parishes 
 — Addington, Colborne, Dalhousie, Durham, and Eldon. 
 The shire town is Dalhousie, a neat town at the mouth 
 of the River Restigouche. It is built on an easy slope, at 
 the base of a high hill ; the streets are broad and clean. 
 A crescent-shaped cove in front of the town is well shel- 
 tered, and has good holding ground for ships, in six and 
 seven fathoms water. There are excellent wharves, and 
 safe timber ponds at Dalhousie, affording every conveni- 
 ence for loading ships of the largest class. The eastern 
 point of Dalhousie harbor is in latitude 48° 4' north, longi- 
 tude 66^ 22' west. Variation of the compass, 20° 45' west. 
 Neap tides rise six feet, and spring tides nine feet. From 
 Dalhousie to the village of Oampbelton the distance by the 
 river is about eighteen miles. The whole of this distance 
 may be considered one harbor, there being from four to 
 nine fathoms throughout, in the main channel. At Oamp- 
 belton the river is about three-quarters of a mile wide ; 
 above this place, the tide flows six miles, but large ves- 
 sels do not go further up than Canipbelton. In 1853, 
 ninety vessels, of the burden of 18,217 tons, entered the 
 port of Dalhousie. 
 
 The soil in this county is very fertile, and produces large 
 crops ; it is especially noted for the excellent quality of its 
 grain. The best wheat grown there weighs sixty-five 
 pounds per bushel; barley, fifty-six pounds per bushel; 
 black oats, forty-two pounds per bushel ; white oats, forty- 
 Beven pounds per bushel. The productiveness in Resti- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 629 
 
 gouch6, although so far north, affirms the principle, that 
 "climate, unless it be very severe, is by no means the 
 most influential element in determining the agricultural 
 capabilities of a country." The geological character of 
 any country has more influence upon its economical pros- 
 pects than climate, and should be equally, if not more 
 carefully studied. 
 
 Gloucester. — This county lies between Restigouche and 
 Northumberland, and has a long range of sea-coast, in 
 part on the Bay of Chaleur, and in part on the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence ; it also includes the Islands of Shippagan and 
 Miscon, which form the north-eastern extremity of the 
 province. 
 
 Gloucester county contains 1,037,44:0 acres, of which 
 332,902 acres are granted, and 704,538 acres are yet 
 vacant. The amount of cleared land is 19,812 acres. The 
 population in 1851, was 11,704 souls, of whom 1,479 were 
 males, and 1,434 were females. Owing to the extent of 
 sea-coast and the facilities for prosecuting the fisheries, 
 there are many fishermen in this county. The value of 
 the catch, in 1851, was returned at £15,693. 
 
 There are six parishes in Gloucester — Bathurst, Beres- 
 ford, Caraquet, New-Bandon, Saumarez, and Shippagan. 
 Bathurst is the shire town. It is pleasantly situated between 
 the Kepisiguit and Middle rivers, on a point of land which 
 has a very easy slope to the harbor. The entrance to the 
 harbor is between two low points of sand and gravel, and 
 is about 230 yards across. Outside this entrance is the 
 bar, on which, at spring tides, there is fifteen feet of water. 
 Within the entrance, the harbor is a beautiful basin, about 
 three and a half miles in length, and two miles in width, 
 well sheltered from every wind. In the principal channel 
 there is about fourteen feet at low water, and vessels draw- 
 ing more than fourteen feet usually take in part of their 
 cargoes outside the bar, in the roadstead, where there 
 is from six to ten fathoms water, and good holding-ground. 
 The entrance to Bathurst harbor is in latitude 47° 39' north, 
 
630 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVLNCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 longitude 65° 38' west ; the rise and fall of tide, four to 
 seven feet. In 1853, eighty-four vessels, of the burden 
 of 11,473 tons, entered the poi*t of Bathurst. 
 
 The Nepisiguit River, flowing into Bathurst harbor, is 
 eighty miles long, but not navigable, owing to the number 
 of cascades, falls, and rapids. Large quantities of timber 
 are floated down it for shipment. Great numbers of salmon 
 ascend this river every season, as far as the Grand Falls. 
 
 At the north-eastern part of this county is the spacious 
 haven of Shippagan, which comprises three large and com- 
 modious harbors, between the islands of Pocksoudie and 
 Shippagan, and the mainland. Within these harbors 
 there is good anchorage fox vessels of the largest class, 
 which can lie perfectly sheltered from every wind. The 
 rise and fall of tide is from three to six feet. Miscou 
 harbor (formerly called Little Shippagan) lies between 
 the islands of Miscou and Shippagan. It has a good an- 
 chorage, well sheltered, with three to five fathoms at low 
 water. This excellent harbor is of much use and import- 
 ance to fishing vessels frequenting the gulf, which resort to 
 it greatly in stormy weather. 
 
 The Caraquet, Pokemouche, and Tracadie rivers are 
 wholly in Gloucester county, and there is much good land 
 yet vacant on their banks. 
 
 In 1851, there were 14,302 grindstones made in this 
 county, and 21,157 lbs. of maple sugar. The quantity of 
 butter made was 82,691 lbs. 
 
 Northumberland. — This is the largest county in the 
 province. Its front on the gulf includes the whole bay of 
 Miramichi, from Tabusintac to Point Escuminac, whence 
 it spreads out to a great breadth westerly, abutting on Sun- 
 bury, York, and Victoria, with Kent to the southward. 
 
 The county of Northumberland contains 2,980,000 acres, 
 of which 986,168 acres are granted, and 1,993,832 are still 
 vacant. The quantity of cleared land is 30,221 acres. In 
 1851, the population was 15,064 souls, being little more 
 than one soul , to each 200 acres in the county. The in- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 631 
 
 habitants are chiefly employed in lumbering, agriculture, 
 and the fisheries, while the ship-yards and saw-mills afford 
 much employment for ordinary labor. There are ten par- 
 ishes in this county — Alnwick, Blackville, Blissfield, Chat- 
 ham, Glenelg, Hardwicke, Ludlow, Nelson, Newcastle, 
 and Northesk. The shire town is Newcastle, situated about 
 thirty miles from the gulf, on the left bank of the Mirami- 
 chi. Douglastown is a thriving village, about three miles 
 below Newcastle, on the same side of the river, with every 
 convenience for business. Chatham is a bustling little 
 town, on the right bank of the Miramichi, about twenty- 
 five miles from the gulf, rather crowded along the water side, 
 but with deep water in front, and many facilities for load- 
 ing large vessels. In 1853, two hundred and seventy-seven 
 vessels, 34,528 tons burden, entered the port of Miramichi. 
 There is a bar at the entrance of the port ; but the river is 
 of such large size, and pours forth such a volume of water, 
 that the bar offers no impediment to navigation, there 
 being sufficient depth of water on it, at all times, for ves- 
 sels of seven or eight hundred tons, and nowhere less than 
 three fathoms in the entrance, at low water. From the 
 entrance there is six and seven fathoms, in the channel, up 
 to Newcastle. Owing to the size and depth of the Mi- 
 ramichi, ships can load along its banks anywhere for 
 miles ; and, consequently, detached villages have sprung 
 up, wanting many of the advantages which would be 
 gained from having one large town. The tide rises from 
 three to five feet. The variation of the compass is 21" 
 west. 
 
 In 1853, the following quantities of fish were exported 
 from Miramichi :— herrings, 3,728 barrels ; alewives, 7,130 
 barrels; pickled salmon, 396 barrels ; pickled bass, 113 
 barrels ; shad, 45 barrels ; oysters, 200 barrels ; eels, 21 
 barrels ; salted trout, 7 barrels ; mackerel, 167 barrels ; 
 162,500 pounds of preserved salmon; 29,000 pounds pre- 
 served lobsters. 
 
 The Tabusintac, a river about sixty miles long, enters 
 
682 DESCEirnoN of the province by counties. 
 
 tlie gulf, a few miles to the northward of the Miramichi. 
 The tide flows up it twenty miles ; but it has only eight 
 feet, at low water, on the bar at its entrance, near which 
 the sea-fisheries are prosecuted to some extent. There is 
 much good land on the Tabusintac yet vacant. 
 
 Of late years much attention has been given to farming 
 in Northumberland, with favorable results. In 1851, this 
 county produced 30,854 bushels of wheat; 120,366 bushels 
 of oats ; and 289,436 bushels of potatoes ; besides other 
 crops of grain and roots. In the same year 202,637 pounds 
 of butter were made in the county, and 5,381 pounds of 
 maple sugar. There are thirty-two places of worship in 
 this county, and 2,116 inhabited houses. 
 
 Kent. — This county was formerly part of Korthumber- 
 land, of which it formed the south-eastern corner. It has 
 a large frontage on the gulf, extending from the northern 
 point of Shediac Harbor to Point Escuminac, at the en- 
 trance to the Miramichi. 
 
 Kent contains 1,026,000 acres, of which 386,398 acres 
 are granted, and 640,002 acres are still vacant. The quan- 
 tity of cleared land is 35,496 acres. The population in 
 1851 was 11,410 souls, little more than one soul to each 
 hundred acres in the county. The inhabitants follow lum- 
 bering, fishing, farming, and ship-building. There are 
 six parishes — Carleton, Dundas, Harcourt, Richibucto, 
 Weldford, and Wellington. The shire town is Richibucto, 
 a seaport on the left bank of the Richibucto River, built 
 chiefly along the water side, with wharves, warehouses, 
 and timber-ponds in front. In 1853, one hundred and 
 eight vessels, of the burden of 15,189 tons, entered at this 
 port. There was formerly twelve to fifteen feet on the bar 
 at low water, but it has of late shoaled considerably, owing 
 to a new channel having broken out ; measures have, how- 
 ever, been taken to deepen the main channel, and improve 
 the entrance. The tide rises in Richibucto harbor two 
 and a half to four feet. 
 
 The Harbor of Buctouche is twenty miles soutli of Richi- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 633 
 
 bucto. This harbor is at the mouth of Great and Little 
 Buctouche rivers ; the entrance, between two low sand 
 beaches, is narrow. The tides rise and fall two to four 
 feet ; and vessels, drawing thirteen and a half feet, can cross 
 the bar at ordinary tides. Outside the bar, there is in- 
 stantly three fathoms water, deepening gradually seaward. 
 Inside the bar there is two and a half to five fathoms, the 
 loading place at the bridge, where vessels lie in nine fath- 
 oms water. The Big Buctouche is forty miles in length ; 
 the tide flows up it thirteen miles. The Little Buctouche 
 is thirty-five miles in length, and the tide flows up it ten 
 miles. There is much good land, and some fine farms on 
 both these rivers. In 1853, thirty-seven vessels, of the 
 burden of 4,323 tons, arrived at this port. 
 
 The Harbor of Cocagne, by the coast, is nine miles south 
 of Buctouche. This is also a bar harbor ; in ordinary tides 
 there is nine feet on the bar at low water, and fourteen 
 feet at high water ; at spring tides there are two feet more. 
 Within, there is a large sheet of water, well sheltered. 
 The tide flows seven miles up the Cocagne Kiver ; the land 
 on its banks is of good quality for settlement. 
 
 There is scarcely a hill of any magnitude in the whole 
 county of Kent, and it may be described as the most level 
 county in the province. Being wholly within the forma- 
 tion described as the coal measures, it consists altogether 
 of gentle undulations and long swells of country, covered 
 with the finest timber, chiefly hardwood. The maple 
 abounds ; and 44,154 pounds of maple sugar were made in 
 1851. In the same year, 83,171 pounds of butter were 
 made in the county. 
 
 Westmorland. — This county has a large extent of low 
 sandy coast, on the Straits of Northumberland, extending 
 from the boundary of Kova Scotia, at Bale Yerte, to the 
 northern point of Shediac Harbor. On the south-west it 
 is bounded by the Peticodiac River and county of Albert ; 
 and on the west by King's and Queen's counties. It pos- 
 sesses great agricultural capabilities, besides many facilities 
 
634. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 for lumbering, fishing, and ship-building, in addition to its 
 mines and quarries. 
 
 Westmorland contains 878,440 acres, of which 57Y,440 
 acres are granted, and 301,000 acres are vacant. The cleared 
 land amounts to 92,822 acres. The population in 1851 
 was 17,814 souls, dwelling in 2,390 houses. There are 
 seven parishes — Botsford, Dorchester, Moncton, Sackville, 
 Salisbury, Shediac, and Westmorland. The shire-town is 
 Dorchester, a rural village about one mile from the eastern 
 bank of the Peticodiac Kiver. 
 
 The Harbor of Shediac, on the gulf shore, is by the coast, 
 ten miles south of Cocagne. Its entrance, at the southern 
 end of Shediac Island, is in latitude 46° 15' 15" north, and 
 longitude 64*^ 32' 10" west. The longitude in time is 4h. 
 18 min. 8.40 seconds ; the variation of the compass, 19° 
 west. During the summer solstice, the time of high water, 
 at the full and change of the moon, is 7 a. m. ; at and dur- 
 ing the winter solstice, at 12 noon ; neap tides rise two 
 feet, and spring tides four feet. In the fair-way, or ship- 
 channel, at the distance of two-and a half miles from the 
 harbor, twenty-five feet water is found, which is continued, 
 with little variation, up to the entrance. From thence 
 there is nineteen feet in the channel, gradually lessening, 
 imtil at the anchorage off Point Du Chene, where sixteen 
 and a half feet is found, at one-third of a mile from the 
 shore. Two small rivers, the Shediac and the Scadouc, 
 fall into this harbor. In 1853, two hundred and twenty- 
 two vessels, of the burden of 21,226 tons, entered at Sche- 
 diac. The terminus of the railway from St. John is near 
 the entrance to this harbor, whence communication may 
 be had, by steamers and sailing vessels, with Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, thirty-six miles distant, and all other parts 
 of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as also the Great Lakes of 
 Canada by the River St. Lawrence and its canals. It is 
 therefore quite certain to become a place of much trade 
 and business. 
 
 Aboushagan and Tedish are boat harbors, to the east- 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 635 
 
 ward of Shediac, between that harbor and Cape Bauld. 
 At Aboushagan there is five feet water on the bar, with 
 good sand beaches near the entrance. Tedish bar is dry 
 at low water, but there is a fine sand beach, on which boats 
 are easily drawn up. 
 
 The harbors of Big and Little Shemogue are between 
 Cape Bauld and Cape Tormentine. Big Shemogue is a 
 good harbor for vessels of all sizes, up to 130 tons. At 
 ordinary tides there is ten feet on the bar at high water, 
 with a channel fifty fathoms wide. Inside, the harbor is 
 capable of containing one hundred vessels, with anchorage 
 in two and a half fathoms, well sheltered. Ship-building 
 is prosecuted in this harbor, near which the best ship 
 timber is said to be abundant. Little Shemogue is about 
 three miles east of its larger namesake, but is only a boat- 
 harbor, with two feet water on its bar. 
 
 Westmorland has the advantage of several shipping 
 ports on the Bay of Fundy, within Cumberland Basin, and 
 along the Peticodiac River; from each of these there is 
 considerable coasting and foreign trade. In 1853, eighteen 
 vessels, of 1,328 tons, entered at Sackville ; ten vessels, of 
 771 tons, entered at Dorchester ; and twenty-one vessels, 
 of 1,646 tons, entered at Moncton. Vessels of all sizes, up 
 to 1,000 tons, are built at each of these places. 
 
 The rise and fall of tide on the shores of Westmorland, 
 within Cumberland Basin, and up the river Peticodiac, are 
 very great. At Dorchester Island, near the mouth of the 
 Peticodiac river, an ordinary tide rises thirty-six feet, and 
 spring tides forty-eight feet. The tide rushes up this river 
 with great velocity, and with a tidal wave, usually called 
 " the bore," which at spring tides is five or six feet high. 
 At Moncton, usually called the Bend, because it is situated 
 at the point where the river, which flows thence in an 
 easterly course, turns suddenly, almost at a right angle, 
 and flows to the southward, an ordinary tide rises forty- 
 eight feet, and spring tides fifty-seven feet. Moncton is a 
 thriving village, its population increasing rapidly in con- 
 
636 
 
 DESCEIFHON OF THE PKOVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 sequence of the operations for establishing railway com- 
 munication with the Gulf at Shediac, and with the city of 
 St. John. A bank has been established there recently, 
 for facilitating extensive business transactions, and this 
 flourishing place bids fair to become an entrepot for trade 
 with the northern counties, Prince Edward Island, and the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence generally. 
 
 The fertile marshes and uplands of Westmorland are 
 well adapted for grazing purposes. In 1851, 322,335 
 pounds of butter were made. In the same year, this 
 county, with other crops, produced 33,937 tons of hay ; 
 145,396 bushels of oats ; and 282,224 bushels of potatoes. 
 The quantity of maple sugar made was 43,485 pounds. 
 
 Albert. — This county lies south and west of the Eiver 
 Peticodiac, with the Bay of Fundy in front, and abutting 
 westwardly on St. John and King's counties. It was for- 
 merly part of Westmorland, from which it was separated 
 in 1845. 
 
 Albert contains 433,560 acres, of which 233,700 acres 
 are granted, and 199,860 acres are still vacant. There are 
 32,210 acres of cleared land. The population in 1851 was 
 6,313 souls. There is much good land in this county, and 
 its diked marshes are extensive. A large proportion of 
 the vacant land is of good quality, well adapted for settle- 
 ment and cultivation. Besides its agricultural capabilities, 
 Albert county possesses valuable resources in its forests, 
 its mines, and its fisheries. 
 
 There are ^ve parishes in this county^Coverdale, Elgin, 
 Haryey, Hillsborough, and Hopewell. The shire-town is 
 at Hillsborough, on the western bank of the Peticodiac 
 River. Shipments take place at Hillsborough and Harvey, 
 and at the former place ship-building is prosecuted. In 
 1853, thirteen vessels, of 1,401 tons, entered at Harvey ; 
 and sixty-seven vessels, of 11,377 tons, entered at Hills- 
 borough. Tliese vessels carried the various products of 
 this country to places abroad*; and there were many coast- 
 ers also employed in carrying produce to the port of St 
 
DESCEIPTION OF THE PKOYINCE BY COUNTIES. 637 
 
 John. In 1851, there were 142,137 pounds of butter made 
 in Albert, and 62,235 pounds of maple sugar. 
 
 Saint John. — This county consists of a narrow strip of 
 land, stretching for nearly ninety miles along the shores of 
 the Bay of Fundy, with Albert county on the east, Char- 
 lotte county on the west, and King's county to the north- 
 ward. It contains 414,720 acres, of which 309,147 acres 
 are granted, and 105,573 acres are still vacant, chiefly at 
 the eastern and western extremes of the county. Its 
 population, in 1851, was 38,475 souls. 
 
 There are five parishes in this county — Lancaster, Port- 
 land, St. John, St. Martins, and Simonds. The city of 
 Saint John is the shire town; it contained, in 1851, a 
 population of 22,745 souls, and the parish of Portland, its 
 suburb, contained 8,429 souls, making together, 31,174 
 souls. At the present time (1854) the population of St. 
 John and Portland may be estimated at 35,000 souls. 
 
 Although this county cannot boast of its agricultural 
 capabilities, yet in 1851 it produced, with other crops, 
 6,855 tons of hay, 30,961 bushels of oats, 9,758 bushels of 
 buckwheat, 34,438 bushels of turnips, and 105,695 bushels 
 of potatoes. In the same year, 102,716 pounds of butter 
 were made, and 12,960 casks of lime were burned. 
 
 The city of Saint John was established by Poyal Char- 
 ter in 1785, and is now divided into seven wards. Of 
 these, five are on the eastern side of the harbor ; the other 
 two are on the western side, and constitute that part of the 
 city usually called Carleton. The city government, or 
 common council, consists of a mayor and recorder, with an 
 alderman and councillor from each ward. The mayor, 
 aldermen, and councillors are elected annually by the 
 citizens and freeholders ; the recorder is appointed by the 
 crown. All British subjects may become citizens on pay- 
 ing certain fees, amounting to about £5 sterling ; but sons 
 of citizens, born in the city, and those who have served an 
 apprenticeship in it, become citizens at twenty-one years 
 of age, on payment of about £1 sterling. 
 
638 DESCKIPTTON OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 In 1851, there were 3,885 inhabited houses in the city, 
 and 133 in course of erection. The number of stores, 
 barns, and outhouses was then 2,397 ; these numbers have 
 considerably increased since 1851. There are many good 
 buildings of brick and stone, especially in the business part 
 of the city, where none others are now allowed to be built. 
 The tide rises twenty-one to twenty- three feet at ordinary 
 tides, and twenty-three to twenty-five feet at spring tides. 
 At full and change of the moon, it is high water at eleven 
 hours forty-four minutes. There is good anchorage within 
 the harbor in ten to seventy fathoms water. Owing to the 
 tide-falls at the head of this harbor it is never frozen, or in 
 any way impeded by ice during the winter ; vessels arrive 
 and depart every day during the year. Its latitude is 
 45° 15' north, longitude 65° 3' 36'' west ; variation of the 
 compass, 16° 30' west. 
 
 The position of St. John harbor, at the mouth of a large 
 river with numerous tributaries, and its entire freedom 
 from obstruction by ice, give it great advantages over all 
 the northern ports in North America, and render it almost 
 certain of becoming a place of much commercial impor- 
 tance. The existing trade and commerce of the port, with 
 its steady increase, will be best understood by the following 
 statement of the numbers and tonnage of vessels entered 
 inwards, and cleared outwards, during six years. 
 
 No. Tons. 
 
 1850— Inwards 1,695 260,429 
 
 Outwards 1,720 284,793 
 
 1851— Inwards 1,528 282,566 
 
 Outwards 1,545 324,821 
 
 1852— Inwards 1,740 334,267 
 
 Outwards 1,746 362,917 
 
 1853— Inwards 2,117 400,216 
 
 Outwards 2,106 400,216 
 
 1854— Inwards 1,9 '> 353,060 
 
 Outwards 1,990 405,812 
 
 1855— Inwards 1,886 367,521 
 
 Outwards 1,870 420,624 
 
 The amount of ship-building and the value of the fishing 
 m the harbor of St. John, have been already stated under 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 639 
 
 those heads. In the city and county of St. John, there 
 were in 1851, fifty-one saw-mills, employing 803 men ; 
 fourteen grist-mills ; seventeen tanneries ; six foundries ; 
 four breweries ; and sixty-one other factories, giving em- 
 ployment to 1,120 men. The numerous ship-yards, and 
 the large quantities of deals and timber continually ex- 
 ported, afibrd much profitable employment for labor. 
 
 There are three banks in the city of St. John — the Bank 
 of New Brunswick, with a capital of £100,000 currency ; 
 the Commercial Bank of I^ew Brunswick, with a capital 
 of £150,000 currency, and a branch of the Bank of British 
 North America, established in London, with a capital of 
 £1,000,000 sterling. 
 
 By means of the electric telegraph, St. John is in imme- 
 diate communication with Nova Scotia and Canada, and 
 with all parts of the United States to which the telegraph 
 has been extended. A railway from the harbor of St. John 
 to Shediac, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a distance of 114 
 miles, is now in course of construction. It is proposed to 
 extend this railway to the Nova Scotia boundary near Bale 
 Yerte, to meet the railway now being built from Halifax 
 to that point ; and also northwardly from Shediac to Mira- 
 michi, and to the St. Lawrence and Trois Pistoles, there 
 to connect with the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, and 
 so with the Great Lakes and the far west. Another line 
 of railway is also contemplated from the city of St. John, 
 westwardly, to the frontier of the United States at Calais, 
 by which connection will be had with the whole railway 
 system of the United States. From this line it is proposed 
 to construct a branch northwardly to Frederickton, and 
 thence up the valley of the St. John, to give greater facili- 
 ties for traffic, especially in winter. 
 
 At present, constant communication is maintained witli 
 Portland and Boston by first-class steamers. The time 
 from St. John to Portland by steamer, and thence by rail- 
 way, either to Montreal or Quebec, is abo it thirty-five 
 hours — to Boston thirty hours. 
 
64:0 DESCBIPTION OF THE PROVmCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 The city of St. John is lighted with gas and supplied 
 with water by iron pipes, from a reservoir about four miles 
 from the city. These water-works are to be immediately 
 extended, so as to give every part of the city an ample 
 supply of pure water. 
 
 Charlotte County. — ^This county occupies the south- 
 west corner of New Brunswick, and is nearly square in 
 form. Its front on the Bay of Fundy extends from Point 
 Lepreaux to the St. Croix River, which is the boundary of 
 the United States m that direction. Charlotte county con- 
 tains 783,360 acres, of which 317,245 acres are granted, 
 and the remaining 466,115 acres are yet vacant. The 
 quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 45,656 acres, or 
 about one-seventh part of the quantity granted. The 
 population of the county in 1851, was 19,938 souls, chiefly 
 engaged in fishing, farming, lumbering, and ship-building. 
 There are ten parishes in Charlotte — Campo Bello (an 
 island). Grand Manan (also an island), Pennfield, St. An- 
 drews, St. David, St. George, St. James, St. Patrick, St. 
 Stephen, and West Isles (a group of islands). The shire 
 town is St. Andrews, which is pleasantly situated on a 
 point of land between the St. Croix (or Schoodic) River, and 
 the inner Bay of Passamaquoddy, on an easy slope, with a 
 southern aspect The parish of St. Andrews has a popu- 
 lation of 3,910 souls. From the harbor of St. Andrews a 
 railroad has been projected, which is at present in course 
 of construction, toward Woodstock on the River St. John, 
 a distance of about ninety miles. Of this railway, twenty- 
 six miles are now completed and open for traffic ; and the 
 intention is, after reaching Woodstock, to continue the 
 line by the valley of the St. John, to the River St. Law- 
 rence, and thence to Quebec. 
 
 The St. Croix is a large river, flowing from two chains of 
 lakes, widely spread over a tract of country which has long 
 furnished, and still continues to furnish, extensive supplies 
 of timber. It is navigable to the head of the tide at St. 
 Stephen, which is about 16 miles above St. Andrews. St. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PBOVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 64:1 
 
 Stephen and Milltown are two thriving villages on the St. 
 Croix, chiefly supported by the saw-mills in their vicinity, 
 and the traffic in sawed lumber of every description. 
 
 The Digdeguash and the Magaguadavic are two consider- 
 able rivers falling into the Bay of Passamaquoddy, to the 
 eastward of St. Andrews. There are saw-mills on each of 
 these rivers, and ships load with lumber at their mouths, as 
 also at the entrance to . Lepreaux River, in Mace's Bay, at 
 the eastern extreme of this county. The fisheries of Grand 
 Manan, Campo Bello, and West Isles, have already been 
 mentioned. All vessels which enter and clear at the various 
 harbors and loading places in Charlotte county, are enu- 
 merated as entering and clearing at the port of St. 
 Andrews. The following is a statement of their numbers, 
 tonnage, and men, during six years, distinguishing coun- 
 tries : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 VESSELS INWARDS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 United 
 
 British 
 
 United 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Totals. 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 states. 
 
 states. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1849 
 
 10 
 
 2,430 
 
 66 
 
 2,887 
 
 613 
 
 52,001 
 
 1 
 
 230 
 
 690 
 
 57,548 
 
 2,681 
 
 1850 
 
 12 
 
 3,437 
 
 84 
 
 5,475 
 
 634 
 
 63,531 
 
 2 
 
 250 
 
 732 
 
 72,693 
 
 3,851 
 
 1851 
 
 15 
 
 4,985 
 
 92 
 
 8,168 
 
 694 
 
 75,407 
 
 4 
 
 1,137 
 
 805 
 
 89,597 
 
 4,725 
 
 1852 
 
 9 
 
 3,916 
 
 57 
 
 4,262 
 
 675 
 
 81,693 
 
 2 
 
 424 
 
 743 
 
 89,845 
 
 4,322 
 
 1853 
 
 13 
 
 3,760 
 
 91 
 
 6,029 
 
 733 
 
 88,950 
 
 6 
 
 1,159 
 
 843 
 
 99,898 
 
 4,881 
 
 1854 
 
 8 
 
 2,882 
 
 55 
 
 4,586 
 
 716 
 
 110,958 
 
 3 
 
 1,318 
 
 782 
 
 119,744 
 
 5,115 
 
 1855 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 788 
 
 127,689 
 
 5,516 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 VESSELS OUTWARDS. 
 
 J 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 British 
 Colonies. 
 
 U>lted 
 St]»t»«. 
 
 Foreign 
 States. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Toas. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 M n. 
 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 50 
 59 
 85 
 94 
 88 
 121 
 
 17,548 
 24,044 
 34,191 
 42,846 
 47,558 
 63.340 
 
 86 
 97 
 124 
 59 
 86 
 48 
 
 6,861 
 6,553 
 7,430 
 4,246 
 5,654 
 3,810 
 
 503 
 504 
 511 
 565 
 629 
 611 
 
 36,794 
 
 40,594 
 41,332 
 44,073 
 47,978 
 56,495 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 492 
 167 
 364 
 200 
 21!? 
 
 641 
 661 
 722 
 720 
 8^4 
 780 
 
 61,605 
 71,358 
 83,317 
 9J.365 
 JiO.1.402 
 
 2,829 
 3,867 
 4,274 
 4,334 
 4,909 
 
 
 
 ^•fcA^x.v^xr^ii^bM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
642 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 There is abundance of both lime and marl in the connty 
 of Charlotte, as well as sea manure, and in those respects 
 it possesses advantages over most other counties in the prov- 
 ince. By the census of 1861, it appears the crops of that 
 year were as follows : — hay, 17,076 tons ; wheat, 3,263 
 bushels; barley, 7,206 bushels ; oats, 69,988 bushels; buck- 
 wheat, 14,304 bushels; peas and beans, 1,999 bushels; 
 turnips, 72,419 bushels; potatoes, 163,117 bushels. The 
 quantity of butter made during the year, was 441,522 
 pounds ; of maple sugar, 700 pounds ; of lime burned, 
 15,100 casks. 
 
 This county may be described as a hilly country, with a 
 rocky sea-coast studded with islands, everywhere indent- 
 ed with excellent harbors, and the neighboring waters 
 abounding with fish. Numerous rivers and large lakes in- 
 tersect the interior in every direction, and in the valleys 
 and basins of these rivers and lakes, there is much good 
 land. The quantity of available water power is wonder- 
 fully great, and in many places it yet remains to be turned 
 to profitable account. 
 
 King's County. — This is an inland county, lying north 
 of St. John, abutting westwardly upon Charlotte county, 
 and widening to the eastward, where it is bounded by the 
 counties of Albert and Westmorland. It contains 849,- 
 920 acres, of which 662,752 acres are granted, and only 
 187,168 acres are vacant. The quantity of cleared land 
 in 1851, was 120,923 acres, and its population, 18,842 
 Bouls. 
 
 King's county is divided into two parts by the Kiver St. 
 John, which passes across it from north to south. The 
 eastern part is intersected by the River Kennebecasis, 
 which passes through it from north-east to south-west, and 
 renders much of that portion accessible by water. The 
 western part of this county, on both sides of the St. John, 
 is hilly and dotted with numerous small lakes ; while the 
 eastern portion, stretching towards the sandstones of the 
 coal measures, and embracing the lower carboniferous 
 
DESCEIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 643 
 
 rocks, consists of long swells of land, liills of gentle ele- 
 vation and rounded summits, with level and fertile valleys 
 between, often of considerable extent and much picturesque 
 
 There are nine parishes in this county, thus designated^ 
 — Greenwich, Kingston, Hampton, Norton, Springfield, 
 Studholm, Sussex, Upham, and "Westfield. The shire 
 town is in Kingston, between the Kennebecasis River and 
 Bellisle Bay. The village of Hampton is a thriving place, 
 twenty-five miles from the city of St. John, on the Ken- 
 nebecasis River. The tide flows up this river five miles 
 beyond Hampton, but up to the village the river is navi- 
 gable for small vessels and steamers. As this village will 
 soon be connected with St. John, by the Shediac railway, 
 it will, undoubtedly, become a place of great resort, and 
 a favorite spot for summer residences. The rides and drives 
 in its vicinity are varied and beautiful, and the country, with 
 its numerous lakes and streams, possesses many attractions 
 for the sportsman. 
 
 King's is essentially an agricultural county ; the crops 
 of 1851 are thus stated in the census of that year : — ^hay, 
 38,811 tons ; wheat, 14,895 bushels ; barley, 5,427 bushels ; 
 oats, 178,968 bushels ; buckwheat, 206,251 bushels ; In- 
 dian corn, 2,968 bushels ; peas and beans, 4,210 bushels ; 
 turnips, 84,359 bushels ; potatoes, 303,568 bushels; other 
 roots, 9,142 bushels. There were then in the county, 18,- 
 295 head of neat cattle ; 8,463 cows ; 2,988 horses ; and 
 30,235 sheep. The quantity of butter made in 1851, was 
 506,292 pounds ; and of maple sugar, 37,801 pounds. The 
 number of saw-mills was seventy-five ; of grist-mills, 
 forty-six; with seventeen tanneries, and eleven carding and 
 weaving establishments. Apples are found to thrive well 
 in this county, and much attention is now being paid to 
 the growth of that description of fruit. 
 
 The facilities of access, both by land and water, from 
 every part of King's county to the harbor of St. John, 
 and a ready market there, give great advantages to the far- 
 41 
 
644 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 mers of this county, and render their pursuits in general 
 very profitable. 
 
 Queen's County. — This county lies north-westerly of 
 King's county, and between it and Sunbury, being 
 bounded by Charlotte on the south-west, and by "West- 
 morland, Kent, and ^Northumberland at its north-eastern 
 extremity. It contains 961,280 acres, of which 514,204 
 acres are granted, and 444,076 acres are still vacant. The 
 quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 63,719 acres, and 
 the population, 10,634 souls. 
 
 Queen's county is also divided into two portions by the 
 river St. John, which crosses it from north to south. The 
 largest part, east of the St. John, comprises within its 
 bounds those two large lakes, the Washademoak and the 
 Grand Lake, with several smaller lakes, and the numerous 
 tributaries by which they are fed. That part of the county 
 west of the St. John, is generally broken and hilly, yet 
 there are in this district many tracts of good land. The 
 portion east of the St. John rests almost entirely upon the 
 sandstones of the coal measures, and its prevailing charac- 
 teristic is that of a low and level country. Along the St. 
 John, there are extensive meadows and large flat islands, 
 formed by alluvial deposits ; these possess great fertility, 
 of an enduring character, from their being overflowed 
 every spring, and thus annually receiving a fresh deposit 
 of rich alluvium. 
 
 The inhabitants of Queen's county are chiefly engaged 
 in agricultural pursuits, for which the country is well 
 adapted ; but some of them follow lumbering, and others 
 are employed in raising coals, at various localities near the 
 Grand Lake. 
 
 The crops of 1851 are thus stated: hay, 22,556 tons; 
 wheat, 7,222 bushels ; oats, 97, 359 bushels ; buckwheat, 
 89,475 bushels ; Indian corn, 8,507 bushels ; peas and 
 beans, 2,771 bushels ; turnips, 28,925 bushels ; potatoes, 
 168,656 bushels. The number of neat cattle, 10,612 ; cows, 
 4,710; horses, 1,614; sheep, 16,040. The quantity of 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIBS. 645 
 
 I 
 
 butter made, 242,342 pounds ; of maple sugar, 6,587 
 pounds. There were then 24 saw-mills ; 28 grist-mills ; 8 
 tanneries, and 6 carding and weaving establishments, with 
 454 hand looms in the county, at which 59,283 yards of 
 cloth were made. 
 
 Queen's county is divided into nine parishes, thus named 
 — Brunswick, Canning, Chipman, Gagetown, Hampstead, 
 Johnston, Petersville, Waterborough, and "Wickham. 
 
 Gagetown, a pleasant village, about fifty miles from the 
 sea, is the shire town. It is situated upon Gagetown creek, 
 a short distance from the River St. John, on a fine swell 
 of land, sloping easily to the water's edge, and may be 
 reached by vessels and steamers of large class. 
 
 The large navigable lake and streams of this county 
 furnish great facilities for the transport of agricultural 
 produce to the port of St. John, and render it easily acces- 
 sible from the sea in every part, except at its southwest- 
 ern and north-eastern extremities. 
 
 SuNBURY. — This county is of equal breadth throughout, 
 and lies north-westerly of Queen's, between it and York 
 county, with its south-western end abutting upon Char- 
 lotte, and its north-eastern extreme bounded by Northum- 
 berland. 
 
 Before Kew Brunswick was erected into a separate 
 province, it constituted a county of Nova Scotia, known 
 as " Sunbury ;" and now Sunbury is diminished to one of 
 the smallest counties in New Brunswick. It contains only 
 T82,080 acres, of which 377,078 acres are granted, and 
 405,002 acres are yet vacant. The quantity of cleared 
 land in 1851 was 15,587 acres only, and the population, 
 5,301 souls. 
 
 Sunbury county is divided into five parishes, thus desig- 
 nated — Blissville, Burton, Lincoln, Maugerville, and Shef- 
 field. The shire town is in Burton, on the west bank of 
 the St. John. The county is divided into two nearly equal 
 portions by the River St. John ; the western portion con- 
 sists chiefly of long swells of land and rounded hills of 
 
64:6 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COTTNTIES. 
 
 little elevation, while that part east of the St. John is very 
 low and level, resting almost wholly on the gray and other 
 sandstones of the coal formation. Along the St. John 
 there are large tracts of alluvial land, as in Queen's county 
 and in the river several large islands of exceeding fertility, 
 which are flooded nearly every year, and produce large 
 quantities of excellent hay. Lumbering is prosecuted to 
 some extent, but Sunbury may be classed as an agricultu- 
 ral county. 
 
 The crops of 1851 are thus stated : hay, 10,069 tons ; 
 wheat, 5,551 bushels ; barley, 973 bushels ; oats, 40,024 
 bushels; buckwheat, 21,911 bushels; Indian corn, 7,170 
 bushels ; peas and beans, 1,378 bushels ; turnips, 17,348 
 bushels ; potatoes, 116,357 bushels ; other roots, 2,682 
 bushels. The number of neat cattle was 4,475 ; of cows, 
 2,125, and of sheep, 6,688. The quantity of butter made 
 was 105,704 pounds, and of maple sugar, 1574 pounds. 
 
 The only village in this county is Oromocto, situate on 
 the right bank of the St. John, at the mouth of the river 
 of that name, about seventy miles from the sea. The Oro- 
 mocto, as its name implies, is a " deep river," and ship- 
 building is prosecuted on its banks to some extent ; vessels 
 up to 1,300 tons burden being built there, and sent down 
 the St. John to sea. Ship timber of good quality and large 
 size, especially hackmatack (larch), abounds in Sunbury. 
 Large quantities are sent down the St. John, besides afford- 
 ing facilities for ship-building in the county. Bituminous 
 coals are found in Sunbury, but hitherto no mines have 
 been opened or worked. .. .-; ,^« .-. 
 
 York. — This is a large county, occupying a cetiti^af jio- 
 sition in the province, and lying across it diagonally. It 
 is bounded by Charlotte county and the frontier of the 
 United States on the south and west, and by !N"orthumber- 
 land on the nortli-east ; the Kiver St. John flows across it 
 from west to east, and divides it into two unequal portions. 
 Its geological character is greatly varied ; the country is 
 diversified with hills and valleys, and intersected by nu 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PEOVINCE BY COUNTIES. 647 
 
 meroTis lakes and streams. Along the latter there are 
 many tracts, or " bottoms," of rich alluvial soil, and the 
 hills in general are not deficient in fertility, even to their 
 summits. 
 
 York county contains 2,201,600 acres, of which 970,914 
 acres are granted, and the remaining 1,230,686 acres are 
 still vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851 was 
 69,017 acres, and the population, 17,618 souls. There are 
 ten parishes in this county, thus designated — Douglas, 
 Dumfries, Fredericton, Kingsclear, New Maryland, Prince 
 William, Queensbury, Saint Mary's, Southampton,* and 
 Stanley. The shire town is the city of Fredericton ; with 
 its environs, constituting the parish of that name, it con- 
 tained in 1851, 4,458 inhabitants. This city is. the seat of 
 government in New Brunswick ; it is situate on the right 
 bank of the St. John, at eighty-four miles distance from 
 the Bay of Fundy, and the river is navigable up to this 
 point for large steamers and the smaller class of sea-going 
 vessels. The town is pleasantly situated on a level plain, 
 consisting of diluvial sand and gravel, several feet higher 
 than the alluvial intervales along the river. It is bounded 
 tn front by a wide sweep of the E-iver St. John, which is 
 here three-quarters of a mile wide, and in the rear by a 
 range of hills, moderately elevated, which rise directly 
 from the plain. The streets are wide and airy ; they are 
 perfectly straight, and cross each other at right angles ; the 
 cultivation of gardens, and the planting of ornamental 
 trees, have added greatly to the beauty of the situation. 
 
 The lieutenant-governo«* of the province resides at 
 Fredericton, in a large stone building known as Govern- 
 ment House. In the Province building, which is of wood, 
 the Provincial Legislature holds its sittings, and the Su- 
 preme Court also meets there. The Crown Land Office, 
 and other public offices, are in close proximity to the Prov- 
 ince building. King's College is a substantial stone 
 building, 170 feet long and sixty feet wide, standing on the 
 hill in the rear of Fredericton ; from it there is a very fine 
 
648 DESCRIPTION OF THE PBOVINCE BY CX)UNTIES. 
 
 view of the river and the adjacent country. There are 
 barracks in the city, near the river, with sufficient accom- 
 modation for a regiment of infantry. The city has been 
 incorporated but a few years ; its affairs are managed in 
 St. John, by a mayor, aldermen, and councillors, elected 
 by the citizens and ratepayers. The Central Bank, located 
 at this place, with a paid-up capital of £35,000, gives facili- 
 ties for business, and from its position, there is much trade 
 carried on from Fredericton with the upper country. Al- 
 together, it is a thriving place, which will steadily increase 
 with the settlement and improvement of the country. 
 
 York is an agricultural county, although lumbering is 
 pursued within its limits to a large extent. The crops of 
 1851 are thus stated : — hay, 26,430 tons ; wheat, 16,142 
 bushels ; barley, 4,539 bushels ; oats, 205,343 bushels ; buck- 
 wheat, 62,765 bushels ; Indian corn, 18,178 bushels ; peas 
 and beans, 6,842 bushels ; turnips, 44,616 bushels ; pota- 
 toes, 233,695 bushels ; other roots, 6,524 bushels. The 
 number of neat cattle was 11,594 ; of cows, 5,705 ; of 
 horses, 2,440 ; of sheep, 16,734. The quantity of butter 
 made was 447,395 pounds ; of maple sugar, 31,077 pounds. 
 There were then thirty-five saw-mills ; thirty-one grist- 
 mills ; eleven tanneries ; five carding and weaving estab- 
 lishments ; with 477 hand looms in the county, at which 
 70,936 yards of cloth were made. 
 
 Two very striking instances of success attending the 
 formation of new settlements in the wilderness, by associ- 
 ations of settlers, can be adduced in this county. The 
 Harvey settlement was formed in 1837, by a party of immi- 
 grants from the north of England, who landed in the prov- 
 ince in a very destitute condition. The teetotal settlement 
 was formed in 1842, by a party of destitute immigrants from 
 the south of Ireland. Both these settlements are now in the 
 most prosperous and thriving condition; many of the settlers, 
 who at the outset were in actual want, are now possessed of 
 large and valuable farms, while some have become posi- 
 tively wealthy. These persons were assisted, in the first 
 
DEJBCKIPTION OF THE PBOVINCE BY COUNTIES. 649 
 
 instance, by being employed to make roads througb the 
 wilderness to their several settlements, for which they were 
 paid at a reasonable rate. This mode of assistance gave 
 them not only profitable employment, but enabled them to 
 reach their lands with facility. The experiment was 
 attended with complete success, and no doubt might be 
 extended to other parts of the province with the like favor- 
 able results. 
 
 In the north-eastern part of this county, the l^ew Bruns- 
 wick and Kova Scotia Land Company (incorporated by 
 Royal Charter, in 1834) holds upwards of half a million 
 acres of land in one tract. This company has from time 
 to time expended large sums in making roads, and con- 
 structing bridges, mills, school-houses, churches, and other 
 buildings, in order to encourage the settlement of their 
 territory. Stanley, a thriving village on the River Nash- 
 waak, was founded by the company ; a good road connects 
 tliis village with the city of Fredericton. At present, the 
 company sells lots of land, up to 300 acres each, at the 
 rate of four and sixpence currency per acre (equal to 
 three and ninepence sterling), payable as follows : — Deposit 
 on signing agreement to purchase, sixpence currency per 
 acre. The second year no payment is required ; the third 
 year and each succeeding year, sixpence currency per acre, 
 until the whole is paid, without interest. Larger quanti- 
 ties of land may be purchased by special agreement, as 
 also improved farms, with buildings ; a liberal discount is 
 made by the company to those who pay in full at the time 
 of purchasa Settlements have been established on the 
 south-west Miramichi, Nashwaak Mactaquack, and Kes- 
 wick rivers ; the cleared and cultivated land on many of the 
 farms in these settlements, is from thirty to eighty acres. 
 Much of the land is represented to be of good quality, 
 especially near the rivers, and there are several mill-sites 
 for sale. The company's commissioner resides at Frederic- 
 ton, and there is an agent at the port of St. John. 
 
 Cableton. — ^Tliis county is nearly triangular in form ; 
 
650 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 it lies north of York, with the State of Maine on the west, 
 York county on the east, and Victoria to the northward. 
 The River St. John runs nearly through its centre from 
 north to south ; it contains 700,000 acres, of which 
 465,802 acres are granted, and 234,198 acres are still 
 vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851 was 55,537 
 acres, and the population, 11,108 souls. 
 
 There are seven parishes in Carleton county, as follows : 
 — Brighton, Kent, Northampton, Simonds, "Wakefield, 
 "Wicklow, and Woodstock. The shire town is Woodstock, 
 a prosperous village on the right bank of the St. John, 
 about sixty-four miles, by the river, above Fredericton. 
 The great post road, by the valley of the St. John to 
 Lower Canada, passes through Woodstock ; and it is at 
 the extremity of a high road from the town of Houlton, 
 in the State of Maine, about twelve miles distant, on which 
 there is much trafiic. From the rapidity of the current, 
 transportation downward on the River St. John is quite 
 easy. Steamers of light draught ply regularly during the 
 summer, from Fredericton to Woodstock, except when the 
 water in the river is very low ; but such improvements are 
 now being made in the navigation between these places, 
 that steamers will be enabled to ply more frequently than 
 heretofore. Being surrounded by a fine agricultural 
 country, the steady advancement of Woodstock is quite 
 certain. 
 
 There is much alluvial land of excellent quality along 
 the St. John, and its tributaries, in this county, and the 
 upland is generally very good, producing large crops of 
 grain and vegetables, besides being well adapted to horti- 
 culture. The crops of 1851 are thus stated : — hay, 15,718 
 tons ; wheat, 21,165 bushels ; barley, 8,512 bushels ; oats, 
 234,628 bushels; buckwheat, 131,482 bushels; Indian 
 corn, 14,650 bushels ; peas and beans, 7,163 bushels ; 
 turnips, 73,506 bushels : potatoes, 174,416 bushels ; other 
 roots, 2,235 bushels. The number of neat cattle in that 
 year was 8,072 ; of cows, 4,026 ; of sheep, 14,361. The 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 651 
 
 quantity of butter made was 237,172 pounds ; of maple 
 sugar, 37,520 pounds ; of iron smelted, 770 tons ; and of 
 lime burned, 810 casks. 
 
 The completion of the railway from St. Andrews to 
 "Woodstock, by giving ready access to the sea at all sea- 
 sons, will throw open the resources of this county in 
 timber and iron, and rapidly develop its great agricul- 
 tural capabilities. 
 
 YiCTORiA. — Next to Northumberland, this is the largest 
 county in the province. It comprises all the land on the 
 St. John and its tributaries, above Carleton county, which 
 belongs to New Brunswick, and a large portion of terii- 
 tor}^ watered by the upper tributaries of the Restigouche. 
 It is bounded by the State of Maine on the west, by 
 Canada to the north, and by the counties of Northumber- 
 land and Restigouche on the east. 
 
 Victoria contains 2,872,000 acres, of which only JIS,- 
 600 acres are granted ; the remaining 2,526,100 acres are 
 still vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851 was 
 but 26,831 acres, and the population 5,108 souls. 
 
 The ranges of high land which cross this county, are 
 generally of the primitive rocks ; bold and rugged in their 
 outlines, they give the country a wild and romantic aspect. 
 But although much of the surface is elevated, and rises 
 into lofty eminences, there are not many abrupt precipices, 
 and in general the slopes are not too steep for cultivation. 
 Along the St. John, the belts of alluvial land become 
 more and more narrow ; but there are terraces along the 
 whole course of the river, composed of successive deposits 
 of alluvium, sometimes consisting of five different steps, 
 indicating that number of changes in the level of the 
 stream. 
 
 There are six parishes in Yictoria, thus designated — 
 Andover, Madawaska, Perth, Saint Basil, Saint Francis, 
 and Saint Leonard. The shire town is Colebrooke, a vil- 
 lage situate at the Grand Falls of the St. John, which are 
 about 200 miles from the sea. A sudden turn in the river 
 
652 DESCRIPTION OF THE PEOyiFCE BY COUNTIES. 
 
 at this place, forms a little peninsula, upon which the 
 village is placed. The whole waters of the St. John are 
 precipitated over a ledge of rocks seventy-four feet in 
 height, and then rush wildly through a narrow rocky gorge 
 of three-quarters of a mile, descending in that distance 
 forty-five feet. The difference of level between the waters 
 in the basin at the head of the falls, and the waters of the 
 basin at the foot of the rocky gorge, up to which the lower 
 St. John is navigable for tow-boats, and sometimes for 
 small steamers, is 119 feet. Squared timber and round logs, 
 from the extensive forests on the upper St. John and its 
 numerous tributaries, are passed over the falls and down 
 the rocky gorge, but not without considerable loss and 
 damage, even under the most favorable circumstances. 
 All merchandise and supplies for the upper country are 
 hauled by horses across the portage between the upper 
 and lower basins, and this is attended with great labor and 
 expense. A railway has been projected to overcome the 
 difficulties of transit at this point, to be worked by a sta- 
 tionary steam-engine at the summit level, with inclined- 
 planes to the water in either direction, and it is believed 
 that this undertaking, when completed, will be of great 
 public and private benefit. 
 
 The Tobique Eiver, which enters the St. John about 
 twenty miles below the Grand Falls, is almost wholly 
 within the county of Yictoria. It is a river of large size, 
 and the land along its valley is reported to be of excel- 
 lent quality ; as yet it is in a state of complete wilderness, 
 and almost wholly destitute of settlers. The ledges of red 
 sandstone, and the cliffs of gypsum, in the valley of the 
 Tobique, with other rocks of a favorable character, com- 
 bine to form an admirable soil along the river, exceed- 
 ingly well adapted for cultivation. There is here good 
 land sufficient for a large county, needing only the labor 
 of men to bring it into profitable cultivation. 
 
 In the upper part of Yictoria, at the mouth of the 
 Madawaska river, stands the rising village of Edmundston. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PKOVINCE UY COUNTIES. 653 
 
 From its position on the St. John, at the outlet of a navi- 
 gable river flowing from extensive chains of lakes, ex- 
 tending to within sixteen miles of the St. Lawrence, and 
 watering a wide extent of timber country, this village bids 
 fair to become a place of some importance and consid- 
 erable trade. 
 
 The population of Yictoria is yet too scanty to have 
 done much towards developing its agricultural capabili- 
 ties. But considering the large proportion of its inhabi- 
 tants who are engaged in lumbering, the following return 
 of the crops of 1851 is worth notice: — hay, 6,961 tons; 
 wheat, 5,262 bushels ; barley, 7,979 bushels ; oats, 59,163 
 bushels ; buckwheat, 44,730 bushels ; Indian corn, 824 
 bushels ; peas and beans, 7,824 bushels ; turnips, 9,195 
 bushels ; potatoes, 84,527 bushels. The quantity of butter 
 made in 1851, was 78,467 pounds; of maple sugar, 65,- 
 685 pounds; of gypsum quarried, 4,075 tons. 
 
 The Grand River, the Quisibis, and the Green Eiver, 
 are three considerable streams in this county, flowing into 
 the St. John from the eastward ; they interlock the Resti- 
 gouche and its upper tributaries, which flow in the oppo- 
 site direction. The various streams thus interlaced, drain 
 a tract of country containing more than a million of acres, 
 of which very little is known, the whole being yet in a 
 state of nature, and heretofore visited only by some ex- 
 ploring lumberman, or an adventurous hunter and trap- 
 per. The reports of explorers state that there are in this 
 tract thousands of acres of deep rich soil, covered with 
 the finest timber, standing more widely apart than is 
 usual in the forests of ]^ew Brunswick, and giving to th© 
 country a park-like character. 
 
 ,^i^- 
 
THE PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA, 
 
 WITH A BRIEF VIEW OF ITS 
 
 RESOURCES, NATURAL AND INDUSTRIAL 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 DISCOVERT AND EARLY FORTUNES OP NOYA SCOTIA. 
 
 On the 6th of March, 1496, John Cabot, a Yenetian 
 mariner, already somewhat distinguished for skill and 
 enterprise, obtained from Henry YII. of England a 
 patent, in favor of himself and his three sons, to fit out a 
 small squadron, " for the conquest, discovery, and occupa- 
 tion of the lands beyond the western ocean, inhabited by 
 heathens and infidels, and till those times unknown to 
 Christians." 
 
 In the early part of May, the following year, this small 
 squadron, consisting of one larger and three small ships, 
 sailed from the port of Bristol for the regions of the setting 
 sun. 
 
 On the 24:th day of June, 1497, they caught the first 
 glimpse of land in the "Western World. They named the 
 spot they had first sighted Prima Vista, There is some 
 doubt as to whether this land which they first sighted 
 was the coast of Newfoundland, Labrador, or Nova Scotia. 
 The best authorities, while admitting the doubt, favor 
 the opinion that it was Nova Scotia. During that and 
 the following year, John Cabot and his son Sebastian 
 explored a great part of the coast of North America. 
 For nearly a centiyy after these discoveries, the English 
 bestowed hardly any attention on North America. 
 
 Newfoundland, on account of its valuable fisheries, 
 
PKOGEESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 655 
 
 formed the only exception. It was visited yearly by the 
 ships of English merchants, and attempts were made at an 
 early period to colonize it. 
 
 Cape Breton was resorted to by Englishmen, in the year 
 1590. The earliest attempt to colonize Kova Scotia proper, 
 was made in the year 1598, by the Marquis de la Hoche, 
 under the direction of Henry lY. of France. Eive years 
 subsequently, M. De Monts was appointed, by the same 
 monarch, governor-general of La Nouvelle France^ which 
 embraced Nova Scotia, and extended from 40 to 54 degrees 
 north latitude. He sailed from Havre de Grace on the 
 17th March, 1604, and arrived at a harbor on the south- 
 east side of Acadia on the 16th of May following. The 
 first European settlement was formed at this date, on the 
 shore of the Bay of Fundy, and on the Annapolis Eiver. 
 They called their headquarters Port Royal (now Annap- 
 olis Eoyal). 
 
 Newfoundland was taken formal possession of by Sir 
 Humphrey Gilbert, on behalf of the crown of England, 
 twenty-one years prior to this date. 
 
 In the year 1613, the French settlement at Port Royal 
 (Annapolis) was broken up by Sir Samuel Argall, gover- 
 nor of Virginia, in the name of the English, who con- 
 sidered the French as intruders upon British possessions. 
 In 1621, James I. of England granted the whole country 
 called by the French Acadia, by letters patent, to Sir 
 William Alexander. Sir William was a Scottish noble- 
 man, and in the patent the country is named Nova Scotia. 
 He, with several of his countrjmien — men of distinction — 
 fitted out fourteen vessels, and effected some settlements. 
 Knights-baronets of Nova Scotia were founded in the 
 year 1624. 
 
 Shortly after this date. Sir David Kirk effected the con- 
 quest of Canada and Cape Breton. 
 
 But just as the British were beginning to establish 
 themselves in the country, Charles I., in the year 1632, 
 in the most unceremonious manner, by the treaty of St. 
 
656 DISCOVERY AND EARLY FORTUNES. 
 
 Germans, ceded the whole of Acadia and Canada to the 
 king of France. 
 
 In 1654, as the French were occupied with home con- 
 flicts, a British fleet was fitted out by Cromwell, which 
 soon effected the conquest of the country, and brought it 
 again under the domain of Great Britain. 
 
 In 1667 it was again ceded to France by the treaty of 
 Breda, one of the conditions being the payment by France 
 of £16,000 to Sir Thomas Temple, who had expended that 
 amount on the erection of forts. This condition was 
 never fulfilled. The French population at this time was 
 reckoned at 900 or 1,000 at the utmost. The French now 
 enjoyed peaceable possession of the country for upwards 
 of twenty years. In 1690, however, an expedition under 
 Bir William Phipps succeeded in wresting Acadia from 
 the French ; but by the treaty of Ryswick, 1696, it was 
 again restored to France. 
 
 The French in Acadia (Nova Scotia, &c.) sought every 
 opportunity of annoying the British colonists of Massa- 
 chusetts. The people of Massachusetts retaliated as they 
 were able. At length they were fully aroused to the im- 
 portance of taking Acadia entirely out of the hands of the 
 French. Having obtained the assent of the British gov- 
 ernment, with the promise that it should not be again 
 ceded to France, they succeeded, in the year 1710, in effect- 
 ing the conquest of Port Royal. The expenses of the 
 expedition, which amounted to £23,000, were paid by the 
 British government. 
 
 Three years after this date, peace having been concluded 
 between Great Britain and France, on the lltli of April, 
 1713, by the twelfth article of the treaty of Utrecht, '' all 
 Nova Scotia, with its ancient boundaries, as also the city 
 of Port Royal, and the inhabitants of the same, were 
 ceded to Great Britain." 
 
 The name of Port Royal was now changed to Annapolis 
 Royal, in honor of Queen Anne. It was strongly garri- 
 soned, and continued the caoital of Nova Scotia till 1749. 
 
PK0GRES8 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 657 
 
 General Nickelson, of Massachusetts, who took a very 
 active part in the subjugation of IN'ova Scotia, was ap- 
 pointed its commander-in-chief in 1714, and continued to 
 govern it till 1719. He was succeeded by Colonel Phillips, 
 under whose administration a council of eleven was formed. 
 At this period the population consisted chiefly of Acadians 
 and Indians. There were, of the former, 4,000 capable of 
 bearing arms. The attempts to make them swear alle- 
 giance to the crown of Great Britain proved, upon the 
 whole, unsuccessful. 
 
 The French, having lost Nova Scotia, turned their at- 
 tention with much vigor to Cape Breton, which remained 
 still in their hands. In 1720, they began the fortification 
 of Louisburg, and, at the cost of £1,250,000 sterling, 
 made it one of the strongest forts in America. In con- 
 junction with the Indians, they made frequent and very 
 destructive forays upon the British settlements in ITova 
 Scotia. 
 
 In 1745, an expedition, under the joint command of 
 General Pepperell, of New England, and Commodore 
 Warren, of the West India station, after a brief siege, 
 took the fort and town of Louisburg. The Island of St. 
 John (now Prince Edward Island) fell into the hands of 
 the British at the same time. The French made vigorous 
 but unsuccessful attempts to retake Cape Breton. 
 
 In 1748, however, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, 
 and much to the annoyance of the New Englanders and 
 the provincials generally, Cape Breton was once more re- 
 stored to France. 
 
 The French, now more anxious than ever to obtain more 
 territory in North America, maintained that it was only 
 the peninsula of Nova Scotia that was ceded by the treaty 
 of Utrecht, and that all the country between New Eng- 
 land and the Gulf of St. Lawrence belonged to the French 
 crown. 
 
 Boused by strong petitions from New England against 
 this claim, the British government resolved to begin 
 
4 
 658 
 
 DISCOVERT AND EARLY FORTUNES. 
 
 at once the settlement of the country with their own 
 people. 
 
 Accordingly 3,Y60 families were sent out from Great 
 Britain, under the Hon. Edward Cornwallis, who was ap- 
 pointed governor of the province. They arrived at the 
 harbor of Chebucto in the month of June, 1749. They 
 landed, according to the most authentic accounts, on the 
 21st day of June, 1749, and forthwith began to lay out 
 and build the city of Halifax, which from that time be- 
 came the capital of I^ova Scotia. This city was so named 
 by Cornwallis in honor of the Earl of Halifax, an active 
 promoter of the enterprise which resulted in founding the 
 city. A council of six persons, under Governor Cornwallis, 
 performed the functions of government. 
 
 Some five or six years later, Lunenburg was settled by 
 1,453 Germans. What is now the province of !N^ew 
 Brunswick was part of the province of Nova Scotia. 
 Cape Breton was still in the possession of France. In 
 1755, the French population of !N^ova Scotia (then including 
 New Brunswick) was 18,000 souls. These were a source 
 of great annoyance and danger to the British settlers. 
 They leagued with the Indians in conflicts with the British 
 settlers. Both they and the Indians were tools in the 
 hands of France, which it used against the British at dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 In the month of September, 1755, the French neutrals 
 (Acadians) were removed from Nova Scotia and distributed 
 among the other British possessions in North America. 
 About 7,000 individuals — men, women, and children — 
 shared this fate. Their property, with the exception of 
 money and movables, was confiscated to the government. 
 They had 1,269 oxen, 1,537 cows, 5,070 young cattle, 93 
 horses, 8,660 sheep, and 4,197 hogs. In the district of 
 Minas (Horton) alone, 255 houses, 276 barns, 15 outhouses, 
 11 mills, and 1 church were destroyed. 
 
 On the invitation of the governor of Nova Scotia, the 
 lands vacated by the expulsion of the Acadians were set- 
 
PEOGEESS OF NOYA SCOTIA. 659 
 
 tied by farmers from Kew England. The grandchildren 
 and great-grandchildren of these inhabit, at this moment, 
 the richest and fairest portions of ISTova Scotia. 
 
 Louisburg, in Cape Breton, and Quebec, in Canada, 
 were now the strongholds of the French in America. 
 Louisburg was twice conquered by the British. It was 
 finally ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris, 
 (1763) in which the French relinquished all claims forever 
 to Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Canada, and all the islands 
 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 It was in 1758 that orders were given by Governor 
 Lawrence for the election of the First Peovincial Pae- 
 LiAMENT of Nova Scotia. It was convened in October of 
 that year. It consisted of twenty-two members, elected 
 by freeholders among the people, a council of twelve, and 
 a governor appointed by the crown. 
 
 In 1763 Cape Breton was annexed to ISTova Scotia. Im 
 1784 it was separated from Nova Scotia, and had a distinct 
 government of its own. But in 1819 it was again joined 
 to Nova Scotia, and has continued a part of that province 
 to the present time. 
 
 It was only in the year 1784 that New Brunswick was 
 separated from Nova Scotia and erected into a separate 
 province. 
 
 In 1769, the parliamentary estimate for the province 
 was £4,375. In 1772 the population of Nova Scotia and 
 Cape Breton was 19,120. In the year 1776, after the re- 
 volted American colonies had declared their independence, 
 1,000 royalists left Boston and arrived at Halifax. It is 
 estimated that the population of the province was aug- 
 mented by the number of 20,000 from this one source 
 during the American War of Indepe^ndence. 
 
 From this time onwards the progress of Nova Scotia in 
 population, and in the development of her great natural 
 resources, has been marked, steady, regular, and will not 
 sufter by comparison with any of her older and more 
 powerful neighbors. 
 42 
 
660 BITUATION — EXTEin? — NATTTRAT. FEATUEES, ETC. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 SITUATION.— EXTENT.— NATURAL FEATURES.— CLIMATE, etc. 
 
 Position. — As a glance at the map will show, Nova 
 Scotia is situated on the eastern side of the continent of 
 North America. It lies between 43° 25' and 47° north 
 latitude, and between 59° 40' and 66"" 25' west longi- 
 tude. It consists of a peninsula, called Nova Scotia pro- 
 per, and the Island of Cape Breton, which is separated 
 from the main land by the Strait of Canseau — an outlet 
 of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, joining it to the Atlantic 
 Ocean. The province projects in a southeast direction 
 into the Atlantic. It extends about two hundred miles 
 farther east than any other portion of the North American 
 continent, except the coast of Labrador. This position 
 gives it great and peculiar commercial advantages. It 
 marks it as the great natural highway for travel between 
 Europe and the continent of America, especially as regards 
 the vast portions of that continent lying north and west 
 of the province. 
 
 Extent. — Nova Scotia proper is 256 miles in length, 
 with an extreme breadth of 100 miles, and an area of 
 15,600 square miles. The Island of Cape Breton is about 
 100 miles in length, 72 in breadth, w^ith an area of 3,000 
 square miles. The whole superficial area of the province of 
 Nova Scotia is, therefore, 18,600 square miles, or 12,000,000 
 acres. Still, with an area so limited, it is possessed of 
 vast mineral resources — exhaustless shore fisheries — great 
 diversity of soil, and has the capability of raising with 
 profit a great variety of products. 
 
 Natural Features. — Its surface is undulatingr. Its 
 hills, in some instances, are steep and high, though hardly 
 ever rising to the dignity of mountains, — the highest 
 (the " Cobequid Chain ") being only 1,100 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Excellent arable soil is found on the tops 
 
PBOGEESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 661 
 
 of the highest hills, and some of them are covered at this 
 moment with rich crops of various grains and esculents. 
 The Lakes and Rivers^ or rather streams of the province, are 
 very numerous. The latest maps give 400 lakes, but this 
 is considerably short of the number. We know four lakes 
 in a single district, of considerable extent, and yielding 
 excellent trout, which have never yet found their way into 
 any map of the province. The lakes generally afford 
 excellent trout. Lake Rossignol is the largest in Nova 
 Scotia proper, being twenty miles in length. The next 
 largest is Ship Harbor Lake, fifteen miles long ; and the 
 next again, Grand Lake, near Halifax, nine miles in length. 
 The lakes of Cape Breton are much larger and more im- 
 portant. The principal of them are, however, inland seas 
 rather than lakes. The great Bras d'Or Lake is a mag- 
 nificent expanse of water, of great depth, about fifty miles 
 in length, and abounding with the best quality of fish, — 
 mackerel, herring, cod, &c. 
 
 Of the Rivers of J^ova Scotia, thirteen flow into E'orth- 
 umberland Strait ; four into St. George's Bay ; seventeen 
 into the Atlantic ; and twenty-four into the Bay of Fundy. 
 With two or three exceptions, all these are navigable for 
 the ordinary coasting-vessels of the province, for distances 
 varying from two to twenty miles. The most important 
 are the Shubenacadie, the Avon, and the Annapolis, flow- 
 ing into the Bay of Fundy ; the St. Mary's, Musquodo- 
 boit. La Have, and Liverpool, flowing into the Atlantic. 
 
 Among the Bays of Nova Scotia, the most beautiful is 
 Mahone Bay ; the largest and most remarkable is the Bay 
 of Fundy, which is about fifty miles in width, and which, 
 after extending 100 miles inland, divides into two branches. 
 The northern branch is called Chiegnecto Bay, and forms 
 part of the boundary-line between Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick. The southern branch is called at its mouth, 
 and for the distance of eighteen miles, Minas Channel ; it 
 then suddenly expands into a beautiful sheet of water 
 about forty miles in length, and nearly twenty in breadth. 
 
662 SITUATION — EXTENT — ^NATURAL FEATURES, ETC. 
 
 called the Basin of Minas ; its Eastern extremity is called 
 Cobequid Bay. The Bay of Fundy is famous the world 
 over for the extraordinary height and rapidity of its tides, 
 and the excellence of its shad fishery. At the mouth of 
 Minas Channel, the spring tide rises about fifty feet, while 
 at the mouth of the Shubenacadie, near the head of Cobe- 
 quid Bay, at the spring tides it attains to the height of 
 seventy-five feet. 
 
 The Harbors of I^ova Scotia are numerous, deep, and 
 spacious. There is, perhaps, not another country in the 
 world, of the same extent, possessed of so many and such 
 excellent harbors. The Harbor of Halifax ranks first in 
 importance. It is pronounced by the highest authorities 
 " one of the best in the world." It is of easy access for 
 ships of every class. It is capacious enough to afford 
 anchorage for the navies of all Europe ; it is also so situ- 
 ated as to afford protection from every wind. It runs over 
 fifteen miles inland, and after passing the city of Halifax, 
 and having considerably narrowed about three-quarters 
 of a mile above the city, it suddenly expands into Bedford 
 Basin, a beautiful sheet of water covering an area of nine 
 square miles, completely shut in from the sea and affording 
 good anchorage throughout, with from four to thirty 
 fathoms of water. The coast line of JS^ova Scotia extends 
 over a distance of 1,000 miles; and good harbors are 
 accessible on every side. The best are, however, on the 
 Atlantic coast. Between the mouth of the Bay of Fundy 
 and the Strait of Canseau, a distance of about 300 miles, 
 there are nineteen harbors easy of access, capacious, and 
 secure for first-class ships. There are also on the same 
 coast and within the same distance forty other harbors of 
 inferior capacity, available for vessels of from 300 to 500 
 tons. There are some, excellent harbors also on the north 
 side of the province. 
 
 The Island of Cape Breton is second only to N'ova 
 Scotia proper, in the number and capacity of its harbors. 
 The " Big Bras d'Or," to which reference has already been 
 
PK0GBES6 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 663 
 
 made, is one grand harbor. The Strait of Canseau, which 
 is eighteen miles in length, and varies from one-half to one 
 and a half miles in breadth, with from fourteen to thirty 
 fathoms of water, comprises several good harbors. It is 
 the grand highway for vessels running between the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence and. all of the American coast lying west 
 of its southern termination. It is often preferred to the 
 more dangerous route by the north of Cape Breton, by 
 vessels bound up the St. Lawrence from the east side of 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 Scenery. — The scenery of Kova Scotia is not grand or 
 imposing, when compared with that of some other coun- 
 tries. Still it is diversified, picturesque, and in some 
 instances, of exceeding beauty. We know of no scenery — 
 natural scenery — that can surpass that of Mahone Bay. It 
 is for sight, not for description. The same may be said 
 also of the view one obtains from the bluff of Cwpe Blo- 
 midon^ and some heights of the North Mountain of Corn- 
 wallis, — whence may be seen the rich and beautiful valley 
 of Cornwallis — Horton with its Grand Pre — the flourishing 
 little towns of Canning, Kentville, and Wolfville — 6,000 
 acres of the finest marsh-land in the world — upward of 
 3,000 snow-white cottages and farm-houses — thirty church- 
 es — twenty-six school-houses — six temperance halls — thou- 
 sands of orchards in blossom, or laden with fruit, according 
 to the season, — the Basin of Minas, with its numerous in- 
 lets and little estuaries, and the twelve rivers that pour their 
 w^aters into its bosom, may be all taken in with one sweep 
 of the naked eye — while the glass will add still more 
 to the number and beauty of the objects that consti- 
 tute the entire scene. A portion of four of the finest 
 counties in the province is before you, while the garden 
 of Nova Scotia is at your feet. The view obtained from 
 one of the peaks of the North Mountain of Annapolis is 
 scarcely inferior. The scenery of Truro, of Pictou, and 
 Bcctions of Cape Breton, is also worthy of mention. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of Nova Scotia is by no means 
 
664: NATURAL FEATURES CLIMATE, ETC. 
 
 BO severe as it is reported to be, both in Great Britain and 
 the United States. Though, at some seasons, the weather 
 is very severe, as compared with England, Ireland, the 
 South of Scotland, and a great portion of the United 
 States of America, still it is more conducive to health 
 than the milder but more humid corresponding seasons 
 in those countries. The length and severity of JN'ova 
 Scotia winters are greatly compensated by the mildness 
 and beauty of autumn, — which is protracted, not unfre- 
 quently, into the middle of December, — as well as by the 
 months of steady sleighing which follow. 
 
 Temperatuke. — The extreme of cold is 24° Fahr. below 
 zero ; the extreme of heat, 95° above, in the shade. These 
 extremes are not often attained to of late years. The 
 mean temperature of the year is 43°. There are about 
 100 days in which the temperature is above 70° in sum- 
 mer. There are about twenty nights in the year in which 
 the temperature is below zero. The coldest season is from 
 the last week of December till the first week of March. 
 
 The following table exhibits the annual mean temper- 
 ature of several European cities, as compared with Halifax, 
 Kova Scotia, and Toronto, C. W. : 
 
 Latitude. Fahrenheit 
 
 44^ 40/ Halifax 43.8 
 
 43 39 Toronto 44.4 
 
 52 31 Berlin 47.5 
 
 53 23 Dublin 49.1 
 
 60 r Frankfort 49.5 
 
 49 39 Oherl^ourg 52.1 
 
 IfEJLK STTMMEB TEMPERATURE. 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Halifax. 62.0 
 
 Toronto 64.5 
 
 Greenwich 60.9 
 
 Berlin 63 . 2 
 
 Cherbourg 61.9 
 
 The annual quantity of rain which falls is about forty- 
 one inches. Of this quantity about six and a half inches 
 fall iu the form of snow. The annual depth of snow is 
 
PKOQKESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 665 
 
 eight and a half feet. Much of this quantity of snow is 
 not allowed to rest long in its solid form. There are about 
 114: days of rain on the average in each year, and much of 
 this rain occurs in winter. The average days of snow in 
 each year is about sixty. 
 
 Violent tempests are not of frequent occurrence in Kova 
 Scotia. The prevailing winds are the south-west, west, 
 and north-west. In summer the north, north-west, and 
 west winds are cool and dry. In winter they are cold and 
 piercing. The south and south-west are mild — agreeable 
 — delightful. The north-east brings our greatest snow- 
 storms ; the east and south-east our most disagreeable 
 rain-storms. 
 
 The Seasons. — Spring commences in ISTova Scotia 
 with the beginning of April. Seed-time and planting 
 continue till the middle of June. 
 
 Summer begins with the latter part of June, and em- 
 braces July and August. Vegetation is very rapid in the 
 middle and western parts of the province, where the hay, 
 crop, and usually nearly all the grain-crops, are harvested 
 by the last week of August or first week of September. 
 
 Autumn is the finest season in Nova Scotia. It is 
 mild, serene, and cool enough to be bracing, and the at- 
 mosphere is of a purity that renders it peculiarly exhil- 
 arating and health-giving. The " Indian summer" occurs 
 sometimes as late as the middle of November, and lasts 
 from three to ten days. 
 
 The Winter in Nova Scotia may be said to comprise 
 about four months. It begins, some seasons, with the 1st 
 of December, and runs into the month of April. Other 
 seasons it begins in the middle of December and ends 
 with the last of March. 
 
 The mean temperature of Spring is 49 ; of Summer, 
 63 ; of Autumn, 35 ; of Winter, 22. 
 
 Variety of Productions as a Test of Climate. — Similari- 
 ty in agricultural productions furnishes a very fair criterion 
 for the comparison of the climates of different countries. 
 
QQQ NATURAL KESOtTECES. 
 
 Wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, potatoes, 
 turnips, mangel-wurtzel, tomatoes, and other roots and 
 grains grow in abundance and perfection in Kova Scotia. 
 Apples, pears, plums, cherries, and a multitude of smaller 
 garden-fruits attain the utmost perfection. In some sec- 
 tions of the country peaches and grapes ripen in the open 
 air. 
 
 Health and Longevity. — The climate of Nova Scotia 
 is highly favorable both to health and length of days. 
 Men and women frequently attain to the age of eighty years 
 with the full possession of their mental faculties, and in 
 excellent bodily health. It is not unusual to find men 
 enjoying good health at ninety ; and not a few reach 
 one hundred years, while some pass over that extreme 
 boundary. 
 
 Let the proportion of deaths to population in 'Nova. 
 Scotia be compared with that in Great Britain and the 
 State of Ehode Island : — 
 
 Nova Scotia, 1 in 70.71, or less than li per cent 
 Rhode Island, 1 in 46.11, or more than 2 '* 
 Great Britain, 1 in 44.75, or more than 2 " 
 
 The climate of IN^ova Scotia is not noted for the genera- 
 tion of any disease peculiar to itself. Diphtheria has, of 
 late years, been its most terrible scourge. 
 
 CHAPTER m. 
 
 NATURAL RESOURCES. • 
 
 The natural resources of Nova Scotia are not to be sni- 
 passed by those of any country of equal extent on the face 
 of the earth. Our sketch of them here will be compre- 
 hensive, though necessarily very brief. 
 
 Botanical. — We only enumerate the plants and trees 
 
PK0GEES8 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 667 
 
 that enter more especially into the industrv and commerce 
 of the province. The most important of these are : the • 
 white and red pine; the hemlock; the black, red, and 
 white spruce ; the fir, and the hackmatack or juniper, of 
 the order coniferce. The trees enumerated are commonly 
 called soft wood. They are brought into market in the 
 form of boards, plank, shingles, scantling, &c. The 
 hackmatack is very valuable as ship-timber. 
 
 Amonor the most useful hardwood trees are the black 
 sugar-maple, the white sugar-maple, the white -soft maple, 
 the red maple, the striped maple, the mountain maple ; 
 the white ash, the black ash ; the white beech, the red 
 beech ; the white oak, the black oak ; the yellow, the 
 black, the white, the canoe, and the poplar-leaved birch ; 
 and the hazel. The rock-maple ranks high for the su- 
 perior quality of its timber. The variety known as bird's- 
 eye maple is much used in the manufacture of furniture. 
 The black birch is also much used in the manufacture of 
 furniture, and when highly polished is preferred by many 
 to mahogany, to which, in that state, it bears a very strong 
 resemblance. Birches are also used in ship-building. 
 
 Among the ornamental trees of IS^ova Scotia the prin- 
 cipal are the sumach, the wild pear, the mountain ash, 
 the wild hawthorn, the wild red cherry, the willow, the 
 aspen, the poplar, the white-leaved poplar, the acacia. 
 Distinguished among medicinal plants are the black 
 cherry-tree and the sarsaparilla. Among the wild plants 
 of I^ova Scotia, distinguished for the beauty of their 
 flowers, are the May-flower, the white pond-lily, the wild 
 rose, the Indian cup, Solomon's seal, the tree cranberry, 
 the pigeon-berry, the Indian hemp, the wild pea, the st;^r- 
 flower, the violet. 
 
 The strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, blueberry, 
 whortleberry, cranberry, gooseberry, are the principal 
 fruit-bearing plants. 
 
 Agricijltukal. — For a country of such limited area, 
 Nova Scotia possesses great diversity of soil, and the 
 
668 NATUKAL KESOUIiCES. 
 
 capability of raising, with profit, a great variety of pro- 
 ducts. 
 
 Young, in his "Letters of Agricola," published some 
 forty-four years ago, classified the principal soils of Nova 
 Scotia as follows : 
 
 1. Marsh. — A compound of fine particles of sand, 
 limestone, clay, calcareous earth, — of shells and putres- 
 cent remains of vegetables and animals, which lived and 
 decayed upon it. 
 
 2. Fresh-water Intervale. — The finest of ITova Scotia 
 loams. 
 
 3. Ujpland Loams. — Of the same material, but the 
 parts are bulkier, and not so well mixed. 
 
 4. Sandy or Gravelly Uplands. — Unproductive to any 
 remunerative degree, in their natural state ; but capable 
 of great improvement by the addition of clay. 
 
 5. Clay in the Unsubdued State. — The most barren of 
 all soils, but capable of being rendered eminently fertile, 
 by the mixing of a quantity of sand with it, sufficient to 
 open its pores, and then spreading over it a small quan- 
 tity of lime. 
 
 Dr. Dawson, Principal of McGill Collfege, classifies the 
 soils of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton under the following 
 heads ; 
 
 1. The soils of the Metamorphic district of the Atlan- 
 tic coast. 
 
 2. The soils of the Metamorphic districts of the inland 
 hills. 
 
 3. The soils of the Carboniferous and New Ked Sand- 
 stone districts. ; 
 
 4. The Marine and Eiver Alluvia, Marshy and Inter- 
 vale soil. 
 
 5. Bog soils. 
 
 First. — The Metamorphic District of the Atlantic Coast. 
 If you run a straight line from the north of Clare, in Dig- 
 by, to the head of Chedabucto Bay, nearly all to the south 
 of that line will belong to this district. It is an uneven 
 
PEOGKESS OF NOYA SCOTIA. 669 
 
 but not very elevated country. It is composed of slate, 
 granite, and qnartzose rocks. It abounds with lakes, 
 streams, and rocky ridges ; and contains the greater part 
 of the barren lands of the province. Of cultivable soil, 
 there are two kinds, — the granitic and slaty. The g7'ar 
 7iitie is usually coarse and sandy, and often covered with 
 black vegetable mould. In most cases it produces good 
 crops. This kind of soil is abundant in the county of 
 Shelburne ; between Chester and Halifax ; at Musquodo- 
 boit Harbor ; between Indian Harbor and Cape Canseau ; 
 and in the southern part of Kings and Annapolis, which 
 are on the northern margin of this district. These soils 
 are generally deficient in lime, gypsum, and phosphates, 
 while often well supplied with alkaline matter. It is a 
 happy arrangement that this kind of soil occurs near the 
 sea, where the very elements of fertility which it lacks 
 can be supplied from sea-weed and fish offal, which 'are 
 both abundant and accessible in the districts which have 
 most need of them. The slaty variety of this district con- 
 sists usually of clays — more or less stiff, sometimes light 
 and shingly. When not too much encumbered with frag- 
 ments of rocks, or too shallow, they are generally culti- 
 vable, and sometimes of very fair quality. They are ca- 
 pable of great improvement by draining, sanding, liming, 
 and receiving an occasional covering of sea manure or 
 compost. Soils of this description occur abundantly in 
 Clare, Yarmouth, ISTorth Queens, Lunenburg, Halifax, 
 and southern Guysborough ; — some of which is under ex- 
 cellent cultivation, and, for some kinds of crops, will take 
 rank with any upland in the province. When properly 
 cultivated, this land yields excellent pasturage, and might 
 be made a source of wealth, by rearing flocks and herds. 
 There are 140,000 acres of cultivable ungranted land in 
 this section of the province. 
 
 Second. — We have the soils of the Inland Hills^ — the 
 Silurian and Devonian districts. Under this head may 
 be comprised the Cobequid range of hills, extending from 
 
670 NATURAL KESOUKCES. 
 
 Cape Chiegnecto to the east of Earltown, on the borders of 
 Pictou ; the hills on the south side of the Yalley of Corn- 
 wallis (locally called " the South Mountain") ; all the 
 hilly country extending from the sources of the Stewiacke 
 through Pictou, Sydney, and ]N"orthern Guysborough, 
 with the greater part of the hills of Cape Breton. With 
 some inconsiderable exceptions, the soils of these districts 
 may be characterized as good. They are often deep, and 
 easily worked, and always fertile. In their original state, 
 they are covered with a fine growth of hard- wood timber ; 
 and when well cultivated, yield excellent crops of hay, 
 oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, turnips, and other root and 
 green crops. In the more fertile parts of these hilly 
 ranges, as in South Horton, New Annan, Earltown, the 
 Pictou Hills, Lochaber, and northern Cape Breton, there 
 are fine flourishing agricultural settlements. A consider- 
 able part of the soil included in the granitic district ap- 
 proaches in quality the soils of these districts, as in Clare, 
 North Yarmouth, Queens, Rawdon, and Douglas in 
 Hants, for example. The quantity of ungranted (crown) 
 lands in these districts may be stated, in round numbers, 
 at about 400,000 acres. 
 
 Third. — We come to the soils of the Carboniferous and 
 New Red Sandstone districts. These occupy the low 
 country of Annapolis, Kings, Hants, Colchester, Cumber- 
 land, Pictou, Guysborough, Sydney, and the several coun- 
 ties of Cape Breton. In some cases it rises on the flanks 
 of the hills. Dr. Dawson has four varieties under this 
 head. — 1. The loamy and marly soils of the carbonifer- 
 ous system, which occur usually in the vicinity of large 
 deposits of limestone and gypsum, and of which the soils 
 of Mabou, Whycocomah, Long Point, Middle River, Bad- 
 deck, Boularderie, Red Islands, Irish Cove, and other sec- 
 tions of Cape Breton : Antigonish, South River, Merigo- 
 mish, parts of East and West Rivers of Pictou, River 
 John, Cape John. Tatamagouche, Gulf Shore of Wallace, 
 Wentworth, and Pugwash ; much, also, of South Colches- 
 
PK0GEES8 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 671 
 
 ter and South Hants, Stewiacke, Shubenacadie, Newport, 
 Windsor, Gay's Kiver, and parts of Musquodoboit, may 
 be given as good specimens of this class. The soil of all 
 these localities is entitled to the character of first-class up- 
 lands, not to be surpassed by the upland of any country, 
 when properly tilled.* 
 
 2. There are the clays, sands, and stony grounds of the 
 carboniferous district. These are light-colored or reddish 
 stiff clays, white and gray sands, and ground filled with 
 flaggy fragments of hard sand-stone, and sometimes peb- 
 bles and other rocks. This soil is greatly inferior to the 
 kind last described, though often in its close vicinity, and 
 even intersecting it. 
 
 3. Loams and Sands of the New Ked Sandstone. Those 
 are limited to the country bordering on the Bay of Fundy. 
 They occur near Truro ;• they skirt both sides of Cobequid 
 Bay ; occur in several places in Hants, but more extensive- 
 ly in the Valley of Cornwallis, and onward toward Annap- 
 olis. Generally they are of a bright-red color, and vary 
 from loams to sandy loams, and light sands. When not 
 "run out," the red loams and sands abound in oxide of 
 iron, lime, and gypsum, but they are deficient in phos- 
 phates and alkalies. They are admirable for the culture 
 of the apple and other fruits, also for potatoes and Indian 
 corn ; w^hile as grain soils they are inferior to the best 
 soils of the carboniferous and silurian districts. 
 
 4. The soil of the Trap district, which is confined to 
 the North Mountain of Kings and Annapolis, and its pro- 
 longation in Digby, and to a few isolated patches on the 
 opposite side of the bay, yields well at first, but soon be- 
 comes degenerated. It is best fitted for pasturage, and is 
 being largely used for that purpose. 
 
 Fourth. — These are the Alluvial soils. These are the 
 best soils of Nova Scotia. There are three varieties of this 
 class: Ked Marsh, Blue Marsh, and Intervale. — 1. The 
 
 * The quantity of ungranted land of this superior class is about two hundred 
 thousand acres. 
 
672 NArCRAL KE80TJRCE8. 
 
 Red Marsh is far tlae best. There iB no soil in the 'w orld 
 
 to surpass the best portions of it. Some portions of the 
 
 Grand Pre of Horton, and the Cornwallis Middle and 
 
 Upper Djkes, have been cropped for upwards of 200 
 
 years without manure. The richness of this soil is such, 
 
 that when carted on upland it makes excellent manure. 
 
 It has 87.00 per cent, of silicious sand, very fine, 
 in its composition. 
 
 "1.5 " Organic matter. 
 
 " .095 " Chlorine. 
 
 " .119 " Soda. 
 
 " .017 " Potash. 
 
 " .73 " Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 " .061 " Lime. 
 
 " 1.285 " Alumina. 
 
 ^* .094 " Magnesia. 
 
 " 3.60 " Carbonate of Lmie. 
 
 " 2.74 " Oxide of Iron. 
 
 " .11 " Magnesia. 
 
 " M " Phosphoric Acid. 
 
 " .5 " Moisture. 
 
 The weak point oi tnis soil is the small proportions of 
 phosphates it contains; and although it may bear crop- 
 ping for generations without manure, it will gradually 
 run oat. Draining is essential to its fertility. Admitting 
 the sea- water to deposit new layers of mud, is one method 
 of restoring its power. Bone-dust and guano are the best 
 restoratives. — 2. JSlue Marsh — which is also known by 
 the names, inshore dyke, low marsh, corky dyke, and gray 
 marsh — is much inferior to the red marsh. It contains 
 more vegetable matter than the red, and is often not much 
 superior to boggy swamp. Draining and heavy liming 
 have been tried on this kind of marsh with excellent effect. 
 When drawn out and composted with lime or marl, it 
 makes an excellent top-dressing for upland grass.— 3. The 
 Fresh-water Alluvium of Nova Scotia is generally of very 
 good quality. There is hardly a river, or even a brook 
 in Nova Scotia which is not skirted with more or less of 
 this beautiful and productive soil. It is spoken of usually 
 under the name Intervale. There are about 40,000 acres 
 of alluvial soil ungranted in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. 
 
PEOGKKSS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 673 
 
 Fifth. — Tliere are the Bog Soils. Much of the bog 
 land of Nova Scotia is called meadow, and is covered with 
 natural grass. Other portions are covered with spruce, 
 alder, and other trees, and usually called swamps; and 
 others again are covered with low shrubs and moss, and 
 are known simply by the name logs. The greater part 
 of the bog soil of this province is at present unproductive. 
 It is, however, being rapidly reclaimed. When cleared, 
 and burned, and drained, and limed, and sanded, it is 
 found to be equal in productiveness to good marsh land. 
 After being once well cultivated, it will yield a succes- 
 sion of crops without manuring. 
 
 The natural capabilities of N^ova Scotia, as an agricul- 
 tural country, will be best illustrated by the subjoined 
 table, compiled from authoritative documents : 
 
 
 PRODUCE PER 
 
 A.CRB. 
 
 
 
 
 State of 
 
 state of 
 
 Canada 
 
 New 
 
 
 
 New York. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 West. Brunswick 
 
 . NoTa Scotia. 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 bushels, 14 
 
 15i 
 
 121 
 
 20 
 
 25 to 33 
 
 Barley, 
 
 " 16 
 
 24 
 
 m 
 
 29 
 
 39 to 40 
 
 Oats, 
 
 " 26 
 
 331 
 
 24f 
 
 34 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 Rye, 
 
 n 
 
 16i 
 
 IH 
 
 20i 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 Buckwheat, 
 
 14 
 
 2i 
 
 16f 
 
 331 
 
 40 to 45 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 " 25 
 
 41i 
 
 24f 
 
 411 
 
 30 to 60 
 
 Potatoes, 
 
 90 
 
 69 
 
 84 
 
 226 
 
 200 to 350 
 
 Tnrnips, 
 
 " 88 
 
 . . 
 
 
 460 
 
 400 to 600 
 
 Haj, 
 
 tons, 
 
 u 
 
 
 If 
 
 lito3 
 
 What relates to the United States, Canada, and Kew 
 Brunswick, is taken upon the authority of Professor John- 
 ston and Principal Dawson. The rates per acre in Nova 
 Scotia are on the authority of the Secretary of the Central 
 Board of Agriculture, James Iron, Esq., verified by my 
 own observation, and the testimony of practical farmers. 
 In Cornwallis, well-manured upland yields 300 bushels of 
 potatoes per acre ; while on the dyked land of that place, 
 600 bushels have been raised off one acre. Seventy bush- 
 els of oats have been raised off the same land. Also forty 
 bushels per acre of wheat. This is of the very best dyke 
 land, but without being manured. 
 
674: NATURAL BESOURCES. 
 
 Zoological. — Like most of their brethren on this conti- 
 nent, the aborigines of Nova Scotia lived by hunting and 
 fishing. The early immigrants too found the chief attrac- 
 tion in the chase and the fishery, which the forests and 
 rivers, and lakes, and shores of the country afibrded. They 
 prosecuted the department of hunting with such excessive 
 eagerness, that in less than one century, more than one 
 valuable species became extinct, at the same time that 
 the most valuable, both for fur and food, became very 
 scarce. 
 
 Among the native quadrupeds of the province, the 
 moose, cariboo, bear, fox, lynx, weasel, martin, otter, 
 minx, fisher, woodchuck, hare, raccoon, porcupine, beaver, 
 musquash, squirrel, rat, mouse, are still to be found. 
 
 The moose is the most splendid animal of our forest. He 
 is generally sixteen hands high. His palmated horns, 
 which he sheds annually in February, weign from thirty 
 to forty pounds. He has no brow antlers. His head is 
 long, neck short, ears large and pointed, and nostrils great- 
 ly dilated. His upper lip is very broad and pendent, his 
 legs long, tail short ; his hoof is cloven, and when he trots 
 the clattering of it can be heard a long distance. His col- 
 or is light gray, mixed with a dark red. His fiesh is ten- 
 der, delicate, easy of digestion, palatable, and nourishing. 
 He ruminates like the ox, and feeds on moss, on the natu- 
 ral grass of intervales, and on the tender buds and leaves 
 of a species of maple called moosewood. 
 
 The cariboo is distinguished by having brow antlers, 
 which are rounder than the horns of the moose. It is not 
 BO tall as the moose, but more swift. Its flesh is very ten- 
 der, and much esteemed for its nourishing qualities. Both 
 moose and cariboo were very numerous in Nova Scotia 
 forty years ago, but they are fast disappearing. 
 
 The only kind of bear in Nova Scotia is the Hack hear, 
 which attains to a very large size, and weighs from 500 to 
 800 pounds. 
 
 We have four varieties of fox — the red, gray, silver, and 
 
PKOGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 675 
 
 black. Their fur, with that of the otter, minx, and bea- 
 ver, forms a valuable export. That it is not surpassed 
 by any other fur in the world, may be fairly inferred 
 from the fact, that " a medal was awarded to W. J. Cole- 
 man, Esq., for a very choice collection of skins — fine speci- 
 mens of silver, red, and cross fox, otter, and minx," by the 
 jury of the Great International Exhibition of 1862. 
 
 The native hirds of Nova Scotia are too numerous to 
 be even enumerated here. Each of the six orders into 
 which birds have been divided, is well represented. Of 
 the order Rajptores are two families : ^^falGons and owls / 
 prominent specimens of which are, the bald-eagle, the fish- 
 hawk, hen-hawk, and sparrow-hawk ; of the owls, we have 
 the white owl, great-eared owl, speckled owl, horned owl, 
 barn owl. Of the order Perckers^ there are the shrikes^ 
 warblers^ thrushes^ fiy-catchers^ chatterers^ finches^ cross- 
 hills^ crows, creepers, humming-'birds, hing-fishers, swallows^ 
 night-hawlcs / under each of these families there are many 
 species, which I attempt not to enumerate. Of the order 
 Climbers, the woodpecker is the most familiar family in 
 .^Nova Scotia. Of the order Scrapers, the grouse and 
 pigeons are the chief families in JSTova Scotia, of which 
 the birch-partridge, spruce-partridge, and wild-pigeon are 
 well known specimens. Of the order Waders ^ there are 
 herons, snipes, phalaropes, and plovers. Of the last order, 
 the Swimmers, we have six families — the ducks and geese, 
 divers, auks, gulls, gannets, and grebes. 
 
 The reptiles of ISTova Scotia are not very numerous, 
 neither are they large in size, nor injurious to man. The 
 principal are the tortoise (fresh water) ; several species of 
 snakes ; some lizards ; several species of frogs, toads, and 
 newts. 
 
 Fish forms one of the chief natural I'esources of iNTova 
 Scotia and Cape Breton. With the exception of ]^ew- 
 foundland, no other country on this continent can ap- 
 proach Nova Scotia in the article of fish. Her seas, bays, 
 and coasts abound with inexhaustible quantities of mack- 
 43 
 
Q7Q NATUEAL KES0UECE8. 
 
 erel, herring, cod, haddock, halibut, alewives oi ^a?pereaa, 
 pollock, salmon, and shad. All these are superior in qual- 
 ity. There is hardly a lake, river, or streamlet, that does 
 not abound with excellent trout, salmon, perch, or some 
 other kind of fresh-water fish. The cod, mackerel, and 
 herring, are the most important and numerous. The cod 
 and haddock frequent the coast of the province throughout 
 nearly its entire extent, and in quantities which hardly 
 know exhaustion. The mackerel come in vast " schuleSy^ 
 of several miles in breadth, sometimes so dense as to im- 
 pede the progress of smaller vessels. "With proper appli- 
 ances immense quantities can be secured at a single haul 
 from these masses. Upwards of 3,000 barrels have been 
 taken in a single night, and 1,000 barrels in a single haul. 
 In the autumn of 1855, upwards of 20,000 barrels of mack- 
 erel were taken in the harbor of Halifax alone. Mackerel 
 of the first quality abound in the Great Bras d'Or Lakes, 
 Cape Breton. There is no part of the Atlantic coast 
 where herring may not be caught in abundance. The 
 halibut is a delicious fish, attaining sometimes to the 
 weight of 500 pounds ; it is very abundant on the Atlantic 
 coast. The Bay of Fundy shad is a splendid fish, greatly 
 valued, and always in demand at a good price, at home 
 and abroad. It is seldom found on the Atlantic coast, 
 the Bay of Fundy, with its basins, and estuaries, and trib- 
 utary rivers, being its chief resort. The ale wife, aloof, or 
 gaspereau, is caught in rivers and streams, where it resorts 
 in great quantities in spring. The salmon is found in most 
 of the rivers of ]N^ova Scotia and Cape Breton, and is taken 
 on the coast in spring, before it has entered the rivers. 
 The ccmimon trout ^ and salmon-trout are found in all lakes, 
 rivers, and brooks. The eel^ perch^ and smelt, abound in 
 the harbors and streams. 
 
 Of shellrfah our coasts furnish the following specimens : 
 The lobster, muscle, sea clam, cockle, blue crab, nipple- 
 fish, oyster, periwinkle, quahog, scallop, razor-fish, shore 
 clam, sea-spider, soldier-crab, sea-crab, and star-fisli. 
 
PBOGRESS OF NOYA SCOTIA. 677 
 
 CHAPTEE ly. 
 
 POPULATION, STATISTICS, &0. 
 
 The study of the increase and origin of the population 
 of a country is both interesting and important. The peo- 
 ple of a countr}^, after all, is its most precious treasure. 
 It is its men that make a country great or otherwise. 
 Every thing relating to the origin, character, habits, and 
 progress of the population is, therefore, deserving of care- 
 ful preservation and study. Till the taking of the last 
 census in this province, there had been a very sad neglect 
 in securing and preserving information on these subjects. 
 
 The Mie Mac Indians and French Acadians constituted 
 the bulk of the population of Kova Scotia, inclusive of 
 Cape Breton and what now forms the province of l!Tew 
 Brunswick, prior to the year 1765, when the expulsion of 
 the disloyal Acadians took place. A considerable acces- 
 sion to the British population was made in 1749, when the 
 city of Halifax was founded. 
 
 At the date of the expulsion of the disloyal Acadians, 
 the British population of the whole province of I^ova 
 Scotia was only 5,000. 
 
 Three years after this date a proclamation was issued 
 by the governor of Nova Scotia, inviting the people of 
 ]^ew England to settle on the lands of the banished Aca- 
 dians. The terms were very liberal, and hundreds of 
 substantial farmers came over and settled in the several 
 districts left vacant by the Acadians. 
 
 In 1764 the population of the province was estimated 
 at 13,000. The American War of Independence added 
 considerably to the population of I^ova Scotia. The 
 number of loyalists who sought refuge in the province 
 during that war has been estimated at 20,000. Their 
 descendants are to be found in the counties of Shelburne, 
 Digby, Annapolis, Hants, and Guysborough. 
 
6T8 POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC. 
 
 Emigration from Scotland added largely to the popula- 
 tion of the province in the years 1770-1 Y75. The eastern 
 part of ITova Scotia proper and Cape Breton are indebted 
 mainly to Scotland for their population. 
 
 By the last census — that of 1861 — we have only 5,927 
 Negroes, 1,407 Indians, and 20,859 Acadians. 
 
 The following table will give a view of the increase of 
 the population of ISTova Scotia, down to the census of 1861 : 
 
 Dates. Population. Interval of years. Bate of Increase. 
 
 1755, 6,000, .. 
 
 1764, 13,000, 9, 
 
 1772, 19,920, 8, 
 
 1784, 82,000, 12, 
 
 1818, 82,053, 34, 156.41. 
 
 1828, 153,848, 10, 87.49. 
 
 1837, 199,906, 9, 29.93. 
 
 1851, 276,117, 14, 38.12. 
 
 1861, 330,857, 10, 19;82. 
 
 Since the period of the American Kevolution, INTova 
 Scotia has received no considerable addition to her popu- 
 lation from immigration. A ship-load of immigrants from 
 Scotland, and another from Ireland, might arrive at some 
 of our principal ports, at the earlier period, once a year, 
 latterly once in two or three years, and land half her 
 passengers, and then proceed to Canada or the United 
 States with the remainder. The progress of our popula- 
 tion cannot, therefore, fairly be compared with that of 
 Canada or the United States, as a whole. Nearly three- 
 fourths of the population of Canada, by the last census, 
 and about one-half of the population of the United States, 
 have arisen from immigration. 
 
 "When we compare the rate of increase of population in 
 Nova Scotia with that of older countries, the result is 
 highly gratifying to our patriotism. 
 
 Let us compare it with some of the New England States. 
 From the year of the peace of 1783 to 1850, the popula- 
 tion of Connecticut increased less than twofold; Ehode 
 Island and Massachusetts, nearly threefold j New Hamp- 
 
PEOGKESS OF KOVA SCOTIA. 679 
 
 shire, nearly fourfold. Nova Scotia proper increased, from 
 1784 to 1851, more than sixfold, and to 1861, more than 
 eightfold; while, including Cape Breton, it increased more 
 than tenfold. 
 
 IVS^ 1850. 
 
 Khode Island, 60,400 147,545 
 
 IN'ew Hampshire, 82,500 317,976 
 
 Connecticut, 206,000 370,792 
 
 Massachusetts, 350,000 994,504 
 
 ISfova Scotia (1784), 32,000 (1851) 276,117 
 
 The following table will show the increase of the popu- 
 lation for the last ten years in the several counties of the 
 province : 
 
 POPULATION. Eate per cent. 
 
 1861. 1861. , Increase, of Increase. 
 
 Halifax (city) 19,949 25,026 6,077 25.44 
 
 " (outside city).. 19,163 23,995 4,832 25.21 
 
 Total in county 39,112 49,021 9,909 25.33 
 
 Colchester 15,469 20,045 4,576 29.58 
 
 Cumberland 14,339 19,533 5,194 36.22 
 
 Pictou 25,593 28,785 3,192 12.47 
 
 Sydney 13,467 14,871 1,404 10.42 
 
 Guysborough 10,838 12,713 1,875 17.30 
 
 Inverness 16,917 19,967 3,050 18.02 
 
 Richmond 10,381 12,607 2,226 21.44 
 
 S^lXeton count, [ ^7,580 | .^-^^^ ^ 2,929 10.62 
 
 Hants 14,330 17,460 3,130 21.14 
 
 Kings 14,138 18,731 4,593 32.48 
 
 Annapolis 14,286 16,953 2,467 17.26 
 
 Digby 12,252 14,751 2,499 20.39 
 
 Yarmouth 13,142 15,446 2,304 17.53 
 
 Shelburne 10,622 10,668 46 .43 
 
 Queens 7,256 9,365 2,109 29.06 
 
 Lunenburg 16,395 19,632 3,237 19.74 
 
 Totals 276,117 330,857 64,740 19.82 
 
 The average number of members in each family in tlie 
 province is 6.07; in Canada, in 1851, the average was 6.26, 
 and in Great Britain, at the same date, 4.73. 
 
 Origin of the Population. — Out of a population of 
 330,857, there are 294,706 native born, leaving only 
 36,151 who have come from abroad ; the proportion bom 
 out cf the province being 10.92 per cent, of the whole. 
 
680 
 
 POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC. 
 
 The following abstract, prepared from the census of 
 1861, will give an interesting view of our population by 
 
 origin : 
 
 Native Nova Scotlans. 294.706 
 
 Scottish 16.895 
 
 Irish 9,813 
 
 English 2,993 
 
 Welsh 97 
 
 GueriLsey 28 
 
 Jersey 62 
 
 IsleofMan 8 
 
 Canada 868 
 
 New Brunswick 2,251 
 
 Newlbundland. 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Magdalen Islands 
 
 West Indies 
 
 United States 
 
 France , 
 
 Spain , 
 
 Portugal , 
 
 Sardinia. , 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Bom at Sea 
 
 927 
 
 870 
 
 12 
 
 216 
 
 1,950 
 
 83 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Places in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Norway 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Holland 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Russia 
 
 Africa 
 
 Australia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Poland 
 
 Switzerland , 
 
 Sweden 
 
 South America. 
 
 All other plaots 
 
 2 
 
 41 
 
 198 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 9 
 1 
 7 
 
 15 
 8 
 
 16 
 8 
 2 
 
 17 
 1 
 fi 
 8 
 9 
 168 
 
 Total population. 880,867 
 
 The Keligious Census of E'ova Scotia may be exhibited 
 as follows : 
 
 Episcopalians , 47,744 
 
 United Presbvterians . . 69,466 I oo ki q 
 
 Church of Scotland .... 19,063 f ^'^'^^ ^ 
 
 Bomanists 86,281 
 
 Baptists • 65,336 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists ' 84,055 
 
 Free Christian Baptists 6,704 
 
 Christian Disciples. 901 
 
 Congregationalists 2,183 
 
 Eeformed Presbyterians 286 
 
 other Creeds not classed 822 
 
 Lutherans 4,882 
 
 Universalists 
 
 Quakers 
 
 Sandemanians 
 
 Bible Christians . . . 
 
 Campbellites 
 
 Evangelical Union. 
 Swedenborgians . . . 
 
 Mormons 
 
 Deists 
 
 846 
 
 46 
 li2 
 
 82 
 143 
 
 lb 
 
 27 
 B 
 
 No creed given 2,814 
 
 Total population 880,857 
 
 PEOFESSIONS, TRADES, AND OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 Farmers 87,897 
 
 Farm Laborers 9,806 
 
 Fishermen 7,659 
 
 Mariners 6,242 
 
 Laborers 3,908 
 
 Carpenters and Joiners 4,468 
 
 Shoemakers 1,976 
 
 Merchants 1,472 
 
 Blacksmiths 1,618 
 
 Shipwrights 1,122 
 
 Coopers 1,146 
 
 Tailors. 
 
 Tanners and Curriers. 
 
 Traders 
 
 Servants 
 
 Painters 
 
 Millers 
 
 Lumberers 
 
 Grocers 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Dressmakers 
 
 Masons 
 
 Miners 
 
 670 
 868 
 868 
 474 
 208 
 592 
 607 
 212 
 494 
 
 665 
 
 Weavers 
 
 Wheelwrights 
 
 Truckmen 
 
 Saddlers and Harness-Makers 
 
 Sailmakers 
 
 Shop-keepers , 
 
 Millwrights 
 
 Hotel and Inn keepers 
 
 ( 'abinetmakers , 
 
 CaiTiage-makers , 
 
 Butchers 
 
 Printers , 
 
 Bakers 
 
 Brick-makers 
 
 Accountants 
 
 Calkers 
 
 Grindstone-makers 
 
 Quan-ymen 
 
 Pilots 
 
 Bricklayers 
 
 Riggers 
 
 Plasterers 
 
 Plumbers. 
 
 19fl 
 178 
 176 
 15T 
 121 
 107 
 184 
 189 
 147 
 162 
 147 
 115 
 90 
 91 
 
 74 
 76 
 60 
 
 99 
 
pkogkess of 
 
 MlUiupre 76 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 681 
 
 Physician s and Surgeons 170 
 
 Barrister an d Attorneys 147 
 
 School Teachers 864 
 
 Students 98 
 
 Machinists 85 
 
 Moulders 88 
 
 
 Sawyers 68 
 
 Magistrates 1,220 
 
 Hieh Sheriflfs 18 
 
 Tinsmiths 131 
 
 Tailoresses 94 
 
 Coroners 89 
 
 Judges of Probate 14 
 
 
 
 Telecraph Operators 21 
 
 Aldermen 18 
 
 Turners 84 
 
 Clerks of Peace 22 
 
 Tobacconists 18 
 
 Seamstresses 90 
 
 
 Collectors and Controllers of Cus- 
 toms 61 
 
 Gardeners 46 
 
 Iron Founders 15 
 
 Heads of Departments 8 
 
 
 Dyers . 17 
 
 Teachers of Deaf Mutes 2 
 
 Carders and Fullers . . . 2i 
 
 Winedealers 8 
 
 Confectioners g 
 
 Civil Engineers 22 
 
 Upholsterers 2 
 
 Trunkmakers 2 
 
 Silversmiths 4 
 
 Stevedores 20 
 
 Eopemakers 4 
 
 Nailcutters , 3 
 
 Boatbuilders 71 
 
 Cab-drivers . 20 
 
 
 Carvers and Gilders 15 
 
 Chairniakers . . . 15 
 
 Peddlers 16 
 
 
 Potters 9 
 
 Pianofortemakers 9 
 
 Papermakers 5 
 
 Block and Pump makers 47 
 
 Brewers 16 
 
 Architects 18 
 
 Artists 27 
 
 Matchmakers 7 
 
 Marbleworkers 16 
 
 Musicians 27 
 
 Light-house keepers 27 
 
 Booksellers and Stationers 17 
 
 Brass Founders 12 
 
 Bookbinders 12 
 
 Bankers 8 
 
 Lumber dealers . . .... 7 
 
 Iron-puddlers 7 
 
 Gasfitters 14 
 
 Gunsmiths 6 
 
 Farriers 12 
 
 Ferrvmen 13 
 
 Distillers 5 
 
 Brokers 5 
 
 Auctioneers 8 
 
 Builders 6 
 
 Basketmakers 7 
 
 Boilermakers 4 
 
 Jewellers 11 
 
 Judges 5 
 
 Clergymen and Ministers 389 
 
 Diseases and Deaths. — T 
 one year — the year previous 
 of 1861— was 4,769, being ' 
 population. 2,480 of this m 
 females. One- third of the 
 persons under five years of a^ 
 number take place under on 
 of 1851 showed the mortalit 
 or about one per cent, of the 
 mortality, as shown by the 
 the ravages of that fatal, an 
 lively new disease, diphtheri 
 preceding the census it carrie 
 persons. The only other d 
 half is consumption^ which h 
 
 
 Dentists 5 
 
 All others. 87 
 
 be total number of deaths in 
 to the taking of the census 
 1.41 per cent, of the entire 
 imber were males, and 2,199 
 :otal number of deaths is of 
 ^e, and over two-fifths of this 
 e year of age. The census 
 y of that period to be 2,802, 
 population. The increased 
 census of 1861, is owing to 
 d, in this province, compara- 
 %. In the year immediately 
 d off upwards of one thousand 
 isease that approaches it by 
 ad swept off 767 in the same 
 
682 
 
 POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC. 
 
 year. Scarlet fever ranks next, being 210 ; then measles^ 
 152 ; next croup^ 122 ; infiamniation of tJie lungs and sore 
 throat are the only other specific diseases that have taken 
 off as many as one hundred in the year. The mortality 
 in Upper Canada, in 1851, was under one per cent. ; in 
 Lower Canada it was one and one-third per cent. ; in !N"ew 
 Brunswick it was the same as in Lower Canada.* 
 
 * DEATHS AND CAUSES OP DEATHS. 
 
 Class and Nature of Disease. Deaths. 
 
 Epidemic^ Endemic, and Conta- 
 gious Diseases. 
 
 Cholera 
 
 Cramp 
 
 Intermittent Fever. 
 
 Diphtheria. 
 
 Dysentery 
 
 Typhus Fever. 
 
 Hooping Cough 
 
 Influenza : . . 
 
 Measles 
 
 Scarlet Fever 
 
 Small Pox 
 
 Diseases of the Jfervous System. 
 
 Apoplexy 
 
 Brain Fever 
 
 Diseases of the Brain . 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 Insanity 
 
 Convulsions . 
 
 Diseases of the Digestive Organs. 
 
 Bilious Fever 
 
 Disease of Liver 
 
 Disease of Stomach 
 
 Indigestion 
 
 Debility 
 
 Jaundice 
 
 Inflammation of Bowels. . 
 Inflammation of Stomach. 
 
 Disease of Bowels 
 
 Worms 
 
 Teething 
 
 Violent and Accidental Deaths. 
 
 Burns and Scalds. 
 
 Frozen 
 
 Drowned 
 
 Murdered 
 
 Poisoned. 
 
 Other Accidents.. 
 
 10 
 
 1,692 
 
 284 
 
 42 
 26 
 9 
 
 871 
 
 Class and Nature of Disease. 
 
 Diseases of the Respiratory 
 CireulaUng Organs. 
 
 Asthma. 
 
 Bronchitis 
 
 Consumption 
 
 Croup 
 
 Cougn 
 
 Disease of Lungs 
 
 Disease of Heart 
 
 Inflammation of Lungs 
 
 Inflammation of Chest 
 
 Inflammation of Heart 
 
 Pleurisy 
 
 Quinsy 
 
 Sore Throat 
 
 Diseases of Urinary and Genera- 
 live Organs. 
 
 Disease of Bladder 
 
 Diabetes 
 
 Inflammation of Kidneys. 
 
 Puerperal Fever 
 
 Child-bed 
 
 Diseases of Uncertain Seat 
 
 Abscess 
 
 Cancer. 
 
 Colds 
 
 Scrofula 
 
 After Amputation 
 
 Mortification 
 
 Dropsy 
 
 Old Age 
 
 Erysipelas 
 
 Intemperance 
 
 Rheumatism 
 
 Tumor 
 
 Carbuncle 
 
 Diseases qfEye and Ear. 
 
 Disease of Eye. 
 Disease of Ear.. 
 
 Oaoses not specified 
 
 Total of Causes specified. 
 
 Total 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 767 
 
 122 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 67 
 
 114 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 75 
 15 
 153 
 
 1,859 
 
 58 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 85 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 149 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 884 
 
 4 
 
 452 
 4,227 
 
 4.688 
 
PK0GEES8 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 683 
 
 Deaf and Dumb. — There is 1 of this class in every 
 1,100 of the population. In Canada, in 1851, there was 
 1 in 1,372 ; in the United States, 1 in 2,395 ; in Great 
 Britain, 1 in 1,590 ; in France, 1 in 1,212 ; in l^russia, 1 
 in 1,364 ; and in Switzerland, 1 in every 503. The aver- 
 age proportion of this class throughout the civilized world 
 is estimated at about 1 in 1,550 of the population. 
 
 The Blind. — There were 136 blind persons in Nova 
 Scotia in 1851. The census of 1861 returns 185 of this 
 class. It is not stated how many of this number w^ere 
 born blind, and how many became so by old age or dis- 
 ease. 
 
 Lunatics and Idiots. — In 1851, there were only 166 of 
 this class of unfortunates, being 1 in 1,660 of the whole 
 population. The returns for 1861 give 340. It is more 
 than probable that the number in 1851 was understated. 
 The number of idiots in the returns of 1851 was 299, and 
 in 1861, 317. 
 
 EELATTVE PROPORTION OF SEXES. 
 
 , 1851. , , 1861. . 
 
 Males. Females. Males, Females. 
 
 Under 10 years of age. . . 44,000 43,452 45,563 44,561 
 
 From 10 to 20 33,791 33,444 40,843 39,715 
 
 " 20 " 30 20,277 22,385 27,998 30,148 
 
 " 30 " 40 14,615 14,665 17,447 18,618 
 
 " 40 " 60 10,616 10,271 12,893 13,056 
 
 Above 50 years 14,378 14,228 20,489 18,844 
 
 137,677 138,445 * 165,233 164,942 
 * Column of ageg not given not included. 
 
 jflS^" 
 
684 INDUSTRIAL EESOUECES. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 
 
 XJnder this head may be comprised the Agricultural^ 
 Fishing^ Mining^ Commercial^ Ship-huildin^^ Manufac- 
 turing^ and Lumbering interests, with the progress made 
 in each of these departmQnts. The natural resources of 
 Kova Scotia in four of these departments are such as to 
 afford scope for indefinite industrial progress. Her geo- 
 graphical position affords eminent facilities for the pursuits 
 of commerce. Her fisheries have no rivals. Her coal-fields 
 — the umpires of the Great International Exhibition being 
 judges — have no equal j and her iron, gypsum, and gold, 
 no superior ; while a great portion of her soil is as fertile 
 and productive as any in the world. 
 
 Agkioultural. — That this is an important part of our 
 provincial industry, will appear from the fact that there 
 are 37,897 farmers, and 9,306 farm laborers, given in the 
 census of 1861 — something considerably over onefourth 
 of the entire male population of the province. In Upper 
 Canada, which is eminently an agricultural country, only 
 three-eighths of the male population claim to be farmers, 
 in the census of 1851 ; while the State of New York, in 
 the census of 1855, returned only 321,930, or about one- 
 fifth, as such. 
 
 As' a grazing country, Nova Scotia takes a very respec- 
 table position among her neighbors. The counties of 
 KingB, Annapolis, Cumberland, Colchester, and Hants, 
 owing to their excellent and extensive marshes and inter- 
 vales, are not to be surpassed by any other place in Brit- 
 ish America, in this respect.^ No finer heef is produced 
 in America than that of Kings county, and the praise of 
 Annapolis cheese bids fair to be as wide-spread as that of 
 Gloucester, Cheshire, or Duulop cheese. As a wheat jpro- 
 
PE0GRES8 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 685 
 
 ducing country, l^ova Scotia cannot take rank with the 
 Great West. She does not raise her own bread. Still, 
 in this article she surpasses five of the New England 
 States, and twelve of the more recently settled States and 
 Territories. The following table will illustrate this fact : 
 
 
 Bush. 
 Wheat. 
 
 Eye. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Buck- 
 wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Tons 
 Hay. 
 
 Lbs. 
 Better. 
 
 Lbs. 
 Cheese. 
 
 Bushels 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Maine 
 
 N. Harnpsh'e 
 
 Mass 
 
 E. Island. .. 
 Connecticut 
 Dist. of Col, 
 
 Florida 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi . 
 Louisiana .. 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas. .. 
 California .. 
 Minnesota.. 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Utah 
 
 New Mexico 
 Missouri ... 
 Kentucky . . 
 Wisconsin.. 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Georgia 
 
 S.Carolina.. 
 N. Carolina. . 
 Maryland .. 
 Tennessee.. 
 Delaware. .. 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Michigan. .. 
 Pennsylva'a. 
 Vermont . . . 
 
 297,157 
 
 296,259 
 
 185,658 
 
 81,211 
 
 49 
 
 41,726 
 
 17,370 
 
 1,021 
 
 294,041 
 
 137,990 
 
 417 
 
 41,198 
 
 199,6:39 
 
 17,321 
 
 1,401 
 
 211,948 
 
 107,702 
 
 196,517 
 
 67,488 
 
 6,509 
 1,152 
 17,261 
 9,606 
 475 
 8.108 
 8,047 
 
 ■*i25 
 106 
 210 
 
 44^268 
 
 19,9i6 
 53,750 
 48,790 
 
 8,066 
 
 1,884,437 
 973,381 
 
 215^232 
 
 1,258,738 
 
 8.134 
 
 66,586 
 
 2^878 
 178,888 
 656,188 
 
 80^582 
 65,146 
 10,900 
 
 '6ib',451 
 
 170,801 
 
 104,528 
 
 65,265 
 
 105,892 
 
 1,245 
 
 . ■ '878 
 55 
 848 
 1.121 
 3 
 56 
 175 
 
 "515 
 
 "382 
 
 100 
 
 28,641 
 
 16,097 
 
 79,878 
 52,516 
 
 ■ 283 
 16,704 
 103,671 
 19,427 
 8,615 
 .... 
 .... 
 
 .... 
 
 196,097 
 151,731 
 70,256 
 112,885 
 
 18,875 
 
 19,090 
 
 75 
 
 *8,958 
 229 
 
 4'776 
 
 177 
 
 9,712 
 
 l"799 
 
 5 
 
 9,361 
 
 95,343 
 
 25,6<)8 
 
 11,501 
 
 4,583 
 
 2,785 
 
 745 
 
 2,787 
 
 66 
 
 6,492 
 
 25,437 
 
 110,795 
 
 45,483 
 
 75,249 
 
 165,584 
 
 42,150 
 
 287,837 
 
 73,353 
 
 1,974 
 
 2,690 
 
 81,801 
 
 12,517 
 
 20,672 
 
 8,397 
 
 3,924 
 
 2,638 
 
 2,069 
 
 878 
 
 4,268 
 
 116,284 
 115,296 
 
 84,598 
 28,497 
 25,427 
 145,180 
 145,070 
 72,942 
 30,159 
 
 3,613,890 
 
 1,066,625 
 
 14,869 
 875,853 
 
 668,i36 
 
 2,319,574 
 
 1,854,104 
 
 705 
 
 1,100 
 
 211,784 
 
 74,064 
 
 101 
 
 Him 
 
 1,983,128 
 2,979,975 
 
 1,684^867 
 
 642,069 
 
 296J48 
 
 18,824 
 30,423 
 20,314 
 1,148 
 92,018 
 
 46,391 
 
 4,810 
 95,048 
 3,925 
 
 8,187 
 
 500,819 
 434,850 
 
 1,986,789 
 
 65V,629 
 
 '28,292 
 
 7.828 
 
 246,001 
 
 261,482 
 
 95,6:32 
 
 93,548 
 
 198,832 
 
 9,292 
 
 21,145 
 
 91,836 
 
 43,968 
 
 3 
 
 939,006 
 
 1,496,487 
 
 1,402,077 
 
 276,120 
 
 227,379 
 
 136,494 
 
 620,318 
 
 764,938 
 
 1,067.844 
 
 840,542 
 
 The above table is based on the census of 1851. It ap- 
 pears from the above, that in the growth of Bye^ IS'ova 
 Scotia exceeds sixteen of the neighboring States and Terri- 
 tories; in the growth of Oats^ she excels thirteen; in 
 Budkwlieat^ twenty-three ; in Barley^ every State and Ter- 
 ritory in the Union, with the exception of Ohio and Kew 
 York. In the growth of Hay, and in the produce of the 
 Dairy, the larger, more populous, and older States only 
 are in advance of Nova Scotia. In Hay, she is ahead of 
 twenty-two ; in Butter, of fifteen ; in Cheese, of fourteen ; 
 while in Potatoes she leaves twenty-three of them far be* 
 
6S() 
 
 INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 
 
 hind her. In the growth of Indian corn, most of the 
 States surpass Nova Scotia. The quality of the corn raised 
 in the province is excellent, and the rate per acre is larger 
 than in any place we know of. It is only in some of the 
 western counties of the province that any effort has been 
 made to raise it. 
 
 The progress of Kova Scotia in husbandry is not by any 
 means what it might be, were skill, and industry, and en- 
 terprise applied to her natural resources, as they have been 
 in some neighboring countries. Too little attention is 
 given to the laws of rotation — to the preservation and 
 preparation of manures — to the management of live stock 
 — to the using of improved implements and modes of cul- 
 ture. There is need of a second Agricola, to give a new 
 impetus to our agricultural interests. Agricultural socie- 
 ties in many of our counties are but a mere form, without 
 life or energy ; and the Central Board, if not entirely de- 
 funct, is certainly asleep for all practical purposes. 
 
 Comparison with the past, however, will show that we 
 are making substantial progress. 
 
 The number of acres under cultivation at three succes- 
 sive periods were as follows : 
 
 In 1827. In 1861. In 18C1. 
 
 292,009 acres. 839,322 acres. 1,028,032 acres. 
 
 The cultivated land of the province is given in the cen- 
 sus of 1861, under the following heads . Salt marsh, 20,- 
 729 acres ; diked marsh, 85,487 acres ; cultivated inter- 
 vale, 77,102 acres ; and cultivated upland, 894,714 acres ; 
 making a total of 1,028,032 acres, the total value of 
 which is estimated at $18,801,365, the average value 
 given per acre is : of diked marsh, $62.06 ; of salt marsh, 
 $26.04 ; of cultivated intervale, $27.45 ; and of cultivated 
 upland, $15.58. This is undoubtedly an under-estimate 
 of the value of every one of these classes of land. It is to 
 be accounted for in a great measure by the local preju- 
 dices of a great many people against giving tne full value 
 
FKOGEESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 687 
 
 of their real estate to tlie enumerators, for fear that it would 
 be made the basis of taxation. In some counties, cultivated 
 upland sells for $50, $60, $80, and in some cases, $100 per 
 acre ; while diked marsh of the most ordinary description 
 brings $80, and the best from $200 to $350. 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OP AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE, ETC., FOR 182^, 
 
 1851, AND 1861 
 
 
 
 
 1827. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1861. 
 
 Wheat, bush. 
 
 152,861 
 
 297,15V 
 
 312,081 
 
 Barley, " ] 
 
 
 
 196,097 
 
 269,578 
 
 Rye, 
 
 
 61,488 
 
 59,706 
 
 Oats, " 
 
 . 449,626 
 
 1,384,437 
 
 1,978,137 
 
 Buckwheat, " 
 
 170,301 
 
 195,340 
 
 Indian Corn, " 
 
 
 37,475 
 
 15,529 
 
 Peas & Beans, " 
 
 
 
 21,333 
 
 Potatoes, " 
 
 
 
 1,986,789 
 
 8,824,864 
 
 Turnips, " 
 
 
 467,127 
 
 554,3^3 
 
 Other Eoots, " 
 
 
 
 87,727 
 
 Apples, 
 
 
 
 186,484 
 
 Plums, " 
 
 
 
 4,335 
 
 Hay, tons, 
 
 163,218 
 
 287,837 
 
 834,287 
 
 Maple Sugar, lbs., 
 
 
 
 249,549 
 
 Butter, " 
 
 
 3,613,890 
 
 4,532,711 
 
 Cheese, " 
 
 
 652,069 
 
 901,296 
 
 The value of the agricultural products of 1861 is esti- 
 mated at $8,021,860. 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING INCREASE OP LIVE STOCK, FROM 1808 
 
 TO 1861. 
 
 1808. 1827. 1851. 1861. 
 
 Horses ....6,763 12,951 28,786 41,927 
 
 Sheep '. 75,364 173,781 282,180 332,653 
 
 Swine 27,695 71,482 61,533 63,217 
 
 Neat Cattle, including 
 
 Milch Cows 56,972 110,818 
 
 IsTeat Cattle, exclusive 
 
 of Cows .* 156,857 151,793 
 
 Milch Cows 86,856 110,504 
 
 The value of the live stock of E"ova Scotia is estimated 
 at $6,802,399. 
 
 A good milch cow costs from $20 to $40. Sometimes 
 cows of superior breeds sell for $60 and $80. 
 
688 INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 
 
 The best fatted oxen are produced in Kings county. 
 The next best in the county of Cumberland ; Hants and 
 Annapolis counties come next. 
 
 A pair of fatted oxen of the first quality yield the 
 owner from $190 to $300 at his own barn-yard. This re- 
 fers specially to Cornwallis, Kings county. 
 
 In the department of agricultural industry, Pictou ranks 
 first, Colchester second, Cumberland third. Kings fourth, 
 Annapolis fifth, Inverness sixth, Sydney seventh, Hants 
 eighth, Lunenburg ninth, Halifax tenth, Cape Breton 
 (county) eleventh, Yarmouth twelfth, Digby thirteenth, 
 Victoria fourteenth, Guysborough fifteenth. Queens six- 
 teenth, Richmond seventeenth, Shelburne eighteenth. It 
 will be noticed that those counties which rank the lowest 
 in agricultural, rank the highest in fishing industry. 
 
 Fishing Industry. — If we except JSTewfoundland, JSTova 
 Scotia may be safely said to possess the finest fisheries in 
 the world. There is no part of its coast of 1,000 miles, 
 where, at one season or another, a profitable fishing may 
 not be pursued. Its bays and harbprs, and inland lakes, 
 seas, and rivers, abound also with excellent fish. 
 
 The following comparative statement of the number of 
 vessels and boats employed, and -men engaged in fishing, 
 and the quantities of fish cured in ISTova Scotia, in 1851 
 and 1861 respectively, will exhibit the progress being made 
 in this department : 
 
 •1861. 1861. 
 
 Vessels 812 900 
 
 Boats 5,161 8,816 
 
 Men employed 10,394 14,322 
 
 Quintals of Dry Fish 196,434 896,425 
 
 Barrels of Mackerel 100,047 66,108 
 
 Barrels of Shad 3,536 7,649 
 
 Barrels of Alewives 6,343 12,565 
 
 Barrels of Salmon 1,669 2,481 
 
 No. of Smoked Salmon 2,738 
 
 Barrels of Herring 53,200 194,170 
 
 Boxes of Herring, smoked 15,409 35,657 
 
 The only kind of fish in which there is a decrease in the 
 catch, as compared with 1851, is the mackerel. The migra- 
 
PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 689 
 
 torj habits of this fish will account for the difference. 
 230,979 gallons of fish-oil have been manufactured in the 
 province in 1860. 43,965 nets and seines are reported in 
 the census of 1861. The value of the vessels, boats, and 
 nets used in the fisheries of the province is estimated at 
 $1,780,450. The value of the fish and oil reported in 1861 
 is estimated at $2,376,721. Halifax ranks first in this de- 
 partment of industry, Guysborough second, Hichmond 
 third, Lunenburg fourth, Shelburne fifth, Yarmouth sixth, 
 Digby seventh. Cape Breton (county) eighth, Inverness 
 ninth, Queens tenth, Victoria eleventh, Annapolis twelfth, 
 Sydney thirteenth. Kings fourteenth, Pictou fifteenth, 
 Colchester sixteenth, Cumberland seventeenth, Hants 
 eighteenth. 
 
 The set-line or " trawl" fishing is pursued to a large 
 extent by foreign fishermen, to the serious injury of our 
 fishing interests. It is maintained by good authorities on 
 the subject, that if this method is long persisted in the 
 banks will be rendered entirely unproductive. Lines 
 having hooks suspended to them, about three feet apart, 
 are made to descend nearly to the bottom of the sea, where 
 the mother fish repose to deposit their spawn. Tliese 
 baited hooks are seized by these fish, generally the largest, 
 before they have accomplished the important office of 
 reproduction. The consequence will inevitably be, the 
 extermination of that invaluable kind of fish in that most 
 productive of all regions. Destroy the mother with her 
 brood, her offspring, and the result is one and inevitdbU 
 in all nature. It is the interest of all governments to put 
 an instant and peremptory stop to this suicidal practice. 
 
^90 COMMEBCIAL INDUSTKT. 
 
 CHAPTEK YI. 
 
 COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 The geographical position of N'ova Scotia is highly favor- 
 able to commercial pursuits, — and as her natural resources 
 become more fully developed, there is no doubt her com- 
 merce will increase indefinitely. It was only in the year 
 1818 that Halifax and St. John were appointed free ports : 
 Pictou and Sydney, C. B., in 1828. Kow there are sixty 
 free ports in the province. 
 
 The largest portion of the exports of ]N'ova Scotia is 
 drawn from the fishing and agricultural interests. In 1860 
 the total value oifish exported, after supplying home con- 
 sumption, was $3,094,499; in 1854 it was $2,093,415. 
 The total value of live stock and agricultural products 
 exported in 1860 was $786,526 ; of lumber, $767,136 ; 
 products of mines and quarries, $658,257 ; furs, $72,218 ; 
 manufactures, $69,978 ; vessels, $168,270 ; mispellaneous, 
 $151,132 ; imported from other countries and re-exported, 
 $1,019,788 : making the total exports for 1860, $6,787,- 
 804. 
 
 The chief exports to Great Britain consist of ships built 
 in the province, and squared and sawed timbers. The 
 "West Indies is the principal market for our fish. The 
 United States is also an important market for some kinds of 
 our fish, also for potatoes, coal, gypsum, and freestone. The 
 trade of Nova Scotia with Canada is rapidly increasing. 
 
 Nova Scotia imports the greater part of what she needs 
 of textile manufactures ; also, hardware, cutlery, pottery, 
 chinaware, ship-chandlery, chemicals, glassware, &c., from 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Breadstuff's, tea, sugar, tobacco, wood ware, &c., are 
 largely imported from the United States. The value of 
 
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 691 
 
 imports from the United States to the port of Halifax 
 alone, in 1861, was $1,736,879, and of those from Great 
 Britain to the same port in that year, was $2,222,266 ; 
 from the British I^orth American provinces, $760,800 ; 
 the West Indies, $107,443 ; from all other countries, 
 $678,671. Every one of the outports import largely from the 
 United States ; Yarmouth imported goods to the value of 
 $224,967 in 1861 from the United States, while the value 
 of all her imports was but $323,697. The " Keciprocity 
 Treaty" has given a very favorable impetus to our com- 
 merce with the United States. All unmanufactured 
 articles, the growth and produce of Kova Scotia, may, by 
 virtue of that treaty, be exported free of duty to the 
 United States. 
 
 The following statement will exhibit the value of the 
 imports and exports of Nova Scotia from 1852 to 1861 : 
 
 Imports. Exports, 
 
 1852, $5,970,877 $4,853,908 
 
 1853, 7,085,431 5,393,538 
 
 1854, 8,955,410 8,696,525 
 
 1855, 9,413,515 4,820,654 
 
 1856, 9,349,160 6,864,790 
 
 1857, 9,680,880 6,967,830 
 
 1858, 8,075,590 6,321,490 
 
 1859, 8,100,955 6,889,130 
 
 1860, 8,511,549 6,619,584 
 
 1861, 7,613,227 5,774,334 
 
 The value of ships exported is not included in the above. 
 In 1860 that article amounted to 8,842 tons, valued at 
 
 $295,064. 
 
 VESSELS ENTERED INWARD AT THB PORTS OP NOVA SCOTIA IN 1861. 
 
 Vessels. Tons. Men. 
 
 Great Britain 194 97,538 5,111 
 
 British West Indies 259 81,436 1,916 
 
 British North America 2,681 227,596 14,451 
 
 United States 2,851 803,638 18,225 
 
 Other countries 838 86,555 2,101 
 
 Total 6,823 696,763 41,804 
 
 44 
 
692 COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 
 
 VESSELS CLEARED OUTWARD AT THE PORTS OP NOVA SCOTLi IN 1861.., i^, 
 
 Vessels. Tons. Men. '- 
 
 Great Britain 152 68,289 4,262 ' 
 
 British West Indies 476 52,890 4,541 
 
 British North America 2,655 239,036 14,995 
 
 United States 2,509 306,333 15,836 
 
 Other countries 297 29,034 1,886 
 
 Total 6,089 695,582 41,520 
 
 In shipping Nova Scotia takes a high rank, in propor- 
 tion to her extent and population. It was shown, in an 
 official report from the governor of the province to the 
 colonial secretary, in 1853, that IN'ova Scotia then owned 
 one-third as much tonnage as France — that she surpassed 
 the Austrian empire by 2,400 vessels, and by 69,000 tons ; 
 that she owned 116,000 tons of shipping more than Bel- 
 gium — 38,449 tons more than the Kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies — 90,783 more than Prussia. Holland, which once 
 contested the supremacy of the sea with Great Britain, 
 owned at that date (1853) but 72,640 tons of shipping 
 more than Nova Scotia ; Sweden, with a population of 
 three millions, surpasses Nova Scotia in shipping by only 
 36,927 tons. At the same date, only six of tlie United 
 States of America exceeded Nova Scotia in tonnage, viz. : 
 Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- 
 land, and Louisiana. 
 
 In 1846, the tonnage of all the British North American 
 colonies was 252,832 tons. That of Nova Scotia alone 
 was 141,093 tons — something considerably over the half. 
 In 1853, the tonnage of Nova Scotia had increased to 
 189,083 tons. It is now (1861) 248,061 tons. The num- 
 ber of vessels is 3,258 ; estimated value, $6,487,490. 
 
 Ship-Building. — Great facilities for ship-building exist 
 in Nova Scotia, and it has attracted the capital and indus- 
 try of many of the inhabitants, from the earliest settle- 
 ment of the country. Correct statistics, showing the ex- 
 tent to which this branch of industry was carried on in 
 earlier years, are not attainable. The greater number of 
 vessels built in the province are comparatively small, and 
 
 • 
 
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 693 
 
 adapted to the coasting trade, and trade with the United 
 States. Many are built, however, at Pugwash, New 
 Glasgow, Pictou, Sydney, C. B., Shelburne, "Windsor, and 
 other places, of a superior description, and ranging from 
 300 to 1 ,200 tons ; and they command a ready market in 
 England and elsewhere abroad. 
 
 The following statement will exhibit the extent to which 
 ship-building has been prosecuted, from 1853 to 1861 : 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Uo. of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1853, 
 
 203 
 
 31,376 . 
 
 $1,557,090 
 
 1854, 
 
 244 
 
 52,814 
 
 2,546,595 
 
 1855, 
 
 236 
 
 40,469 
 
 2,240,710 
 
 1856, 
 
 208 
 
 39,582 
 
 1,852,540 
 
 loo/, 
 
 1858, 
 
 iii 
 
 i6,866 
 
 ' 757,900 
 
 1859, 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 
 
 1860, 
 
 233 
 
 20,684 
 
 852,831 
 
 1861, 
 
 216 
 
 23,634 
 
 972,448 
 
 LuMBEEma. — This department of industry is not prose- 
 cuted to the same extent that it had been some years ago, 
 in Nova Scotia ; still, however, the products of the forest 
 form an important part of our exports. Deals, boards, 
 scantlings, spars, knees, and other ship-timber; hoops, 
 staves, laths, shingles, and cord-wood, are all comprised 
 under this head. 
 
 There are in Nova Scotia 1,401 saw-mills ; 130 shingle 
 mills; 6 lath mills. In 1860, the saw-mills turned out 
 25,072 M. feet deals ; 46,607 M. feet pine boards ; 36,422 
 M. feet spruce and hemlock boards. The return of staves 
 for the same year is 7,659 M. Timber, 22,592 tons. 
 
 The county of Queens takes the lead in this branch of 
 industry. It saws more than one-half the pine boards 
 that are sawed in the province. Lunenburg comes next, 
 and then Digby. Pictou ranks fourth .; it exceeds all the 
 other counties in hewed timber. ^Halifax exceeds the 
 others in staves ; and Cumberland in the quantity of deals. 
 
 In the census of 1861, only 507 give themselves as lum- 
 bereT3. Many others, no doubt, devote part of their time 
 
694: COMMEECIAL LNDUSTKY 
 
 to himbering, while they are given in the census as farm- 
 ers, or carpenters, or laborers. 
 
 Maniifacturing. — The manufacturing industry of ]N"o- 
 va Scotia is but in its infancy. We are still dependent on 
 Great Britain and the United States, to a very large ex- 
 tent, in this department, as has already been indicated 
 under the head of " Commerce." The position and inex- 
 haustible natural resources of ITova Scotia, however, war- 
 rant the expectation that in the course of some years, as 
 her population increases, and these resources become de- 
 veloped by the application of skill and industry and en- 
 terprise and . capital, she will occupy the first position 
 amongst all her neighbors as a manufacturing country. If 
 she comes short of this, it will be through lack of energy 
 and enterprise on the part of her sons. The number of 
 saw-mills, shingle-mills, and lath-mills, has been already 
 given under the head of "Lumbering." This class of in- 
 dustry is usually placed under the head of Manufactures. 
 In 1851, there were in Nova Scotia 398 grist-mills ; in 
 1861, 414. Hand looms, in 1851, 11,096; in 1861, 
 13,230. Cloth fulled in 1851, 119,068 yards; in 1861, 
 281,709 yards. Cloth not fulled, in 1851, 790,104 yards; in 
 1861, 1,039,214 yards. Malt liquor manufactured in 1851, 
 71,076 gallons ; in 1861, 109,867 gallons. The value of 
 leather manufactured in 1851 was $210,500 ; of the same 
 article manufactured in 1861, $240,386. There is not 
 much room for comparison with former years in this de- 
 partment of our provincial industry ; its history is simply 
 from nihil up to something. That something, however, 
 is hopeful. In addition to what has been already enumer- 
 ated, we can add the following : 77 carding mills, with 
 116 employes — value of mills, $39,440 ; 3 soap and candle 
 factories, value, $7,000 ; 4 block factories, $1,650 ; 3 axe 
 factories, $3,130 ; 2 rake factories, $1,400 ; 3 chair facto- 
 ries, $4,400; 3 cloth factories, $14,800; 1 paper mill, 
 $1,000 ; 1 tobacco factory, $800 ; 2 nail factories, $6,000 ; 
 11 iron foundries, $114,600 ; 10 carriage factories, $19,- 
 
COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 695 
 
 940 ; 44 tanneries, $74,600 ; 3 cabinet factories, $7,100 ; 
 1 brush factory, $1,200 ; 1 gas factory, $180,000 ; 1 trunk 
 factory, $300 ; 5 breweries, $46,000 ; 2 joiners' factories, 
 $14,400 ; 2 brick factories, $8,200 ; 15 fulling mills, $18,- 
 800 ; 8 shoe factories, $4,000 ; 2 planing factories, $7,000; 
 1 plaster mill, $400; 1 grind-stone factory, $4,000; 1 
 coal-oil factory, $1,000; 2 baking factories, $7,000; 1 
 engine factory, $4,000; 1 pottery, $500; 6 bark-mills, 
 $7^600; 1 pail factory, $100; various kinds of factories, 12 ; 
 value, $59,000. The number of bricks made in 1861 was 
 7,659 M. ; value, $51,703. The number of grind-stones 
 made, 46,496 ; value, $44,100. Bushels of lime burnt, 
 136,848; maple sugar made, 249,549 pounds. By the 
 census of 1861, it appears that 13,516 of our population 
 are employed in manufacturing. 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 PUBLIC WORKS.— CROWN LANDS.— REYENUB, &0. 
 
 Raclwats. — ^The oldest piece of railway in !N"ova Scotia 
 is in the county of Pictou, between the Albion Mines and 
 " the loading ground." It is about eight miles in length ; 
 it is owned by the General Mining Association, and was 
 built upwards of twenty years ago. 
 
 The ^N^ova Scotia Railways, built and owned by the 
 province, are of more recent date. They were commenced 
 in April, 1854, and completed in December 15th, 1858. 
 They consist of a trunk line from Halifax to Truro, and a 
 branch line to Windsor. The number of miles completed 
 is 92.75. The distance from Halifax to Tmro is about 
 sixty miles, and from " the Junction " to Windsor about 
 thirty-three miles. The Windsor branch brings Halifax 
 into railway copamunication with the Bay of Fundy ; the 
 Eastern Hue, when extended to Pictou, will open railway 
 
696 PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 
 
 communication with the Gulf of St. Lawrenc'e. The line 
 from Truro to Pictou is being located. The distance ig 
 forty miles. 
 
 The cost to the province of the 92.75 miles already built 
 may be stated as follows : 
 
 Cost of building permanent way, including 
 
 sidings, stations, and buildings $3,896,148 86 
 
 Cost of locomotives 231,179 00 
 
 Cost of rolling stock (as cars) 121,600 00 
 
 Total $4,248,927 86 
 
 There are on the lines twenty locomotives, ten first-class 
 cars, eight second-class cars, one hundred and sixty other 
 cars, two snow-ploughs. The road will compare favorably 
 with British railroads, and is superior to the railroads on 
 this continent, with the exception of portions of the Grand 
 Trunk line of Canada. The station-houses are built, how- 
 ever, with a special view to economy. The railway is 
 managed by a commissioner who is a member of the gov- 
 ernment, and who is responsible for its successful manage- 
 ment. There are employed under the commissioner a 
 superintendent of the locomotive department ; a superin- 
 tendent of the traffic department ; and a general inspec- 
 tor of upholdence and construction. All these are re- 
 sponsible to the Commissioner for the management of the 
 departments committed to them. 
 
 The following table will exhibit the revenue of the Nova 
 Sootia Eailroad, for the last three years : 
 
 Tear endlngr Tear ending Tear ending 
 
 Dec. 81, 1869. Dec 81, 1860. Dec. 81, 1861. 
 
 Receipts from all sources,.. $102,872 57 $116,742 89 $120,917 66 
 Working expenses 111,274 88 96,47^26 94,114 88 
 
 $8,397 31 $20,270 63 $26,802 78 
 
 In 1859 the road did not pay working expenses ; in 
 1860, it earned $20,270.63 over and above working ex- 
 
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 697 
 
 penses; in 1861, $26,802.78 over working expenses, while 
 1862 promises to be far in advance of 1861. The rate 
 for travel per mile is three cents first class, two cents second 
 class cars ; rate of speed twenty miles per hour, including 
 stoppages. Nova Scotia railway stock has reached as high 
 as 108 and 109 in the English market. Parties in England 
 hold our debentures to the amount of $3,500,000, beino* 
 interest at 6 per cent., payable half-yearly, on cost of rail- 
 ways. The largest proportion of this interest must, 
 for some years to come, be paid from the general revenue 
 of the country. The extension of the Trunk line to 
 the 'New Brunswick frontier, and onwards through that 
 province till it unites with the Grand Trunk line of 
 Canada, will cause this line to be highly remunerative. It 
 is highly probable that in. the course of 1863, this great 
 line will be located. This will make Halifax the grand 
 winter terminus for British I^orth America. The distance 
 from Halifax to Eiviere du Loup (the present terminus of 
 the Grand Trunk line) is 530 miles ; of this sixty miles is 
 already made, that is, from Halifax to Truro, which leaves 
 only 470 miles. This is by the north shore route. By 
 the central route the distance is 478 miles ; from which 
 deduct eighty-two miles already completed, and we have 
 to be built only 396 miles. Again, there is the St. John 
 River route, which makes the distance from Halifax to 
 Eiviere du Loup 593 miles, of which 237miles is constructed, 
 and which leaves 355 miles to be made. Each of these 
 routes has its advocates in New Brunswick. It has been 
 agreed at an intercolonial convention to leave the decision 
 of the matter to a commission consisting of two from 
 Canada and one from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 
 respectively — provision being made for the appointment of 
 an umpire in case of the commissioners failing to agree in 
 opinion. 
 
 Canals. — In the yea^ 1825 the " Shubenacadie Canal" 
 was commenced. It is still unfinished. It is intended by 
 means of this canal so to unite the Dartmouth Lakes and 
 
698 PUBLIC WOKKS, ETC. 
 
 the Shubenacadie River, as to connect the Halifax harbor 
 with the Bay of Fun^y. It consists of a series of locks 
 and two inclined planes, one 1,320 feet, the other 600 feet 
 in length, to be worked by machinery. The locks are 
 sixty-seven feet in length, seventeen in breadth, with five 
 feet depth of water. It is very nearly completed. 
 
 There is also the " St. Peter's Canal," which is to con- 
 nect the waters of the Atlantic coast of the Island, with 
 the great Bras d'Or lake. The whole length of this canal 
 is to be only 2,300 feet ; its breadth, at water line, fifty 
 feet ; and depth of water thirteen feet. It is to have one 
 lock at the St. Peter's Bay termination, and a ^uard 
 gate at the Bras d'Or. Length of lock, 120 feet ; width 
 of gates, twenty-two feet. This canal was commenced in 
 the autumn of 1854. The work has been suspended for 
 some time. 
 
 Steamers. — The line of steamers from which Kova 
 Scotia derives the greatest advantage is that of the Cunard 
 Company. These call at Halifax to land and receive pas- 
 sengers and freight, both from Liverpool to Boston, and on 
 the return voyage to Liverpool. The freight by these 
 steamers to Halifax is increasing every year. The finer 
 description of merchandise, which was wont to be conveyed 
 in sailing ships, is now almost without exception brought 
 to Halifax in these steamers. When the great Interco- 
 lonial Railway is finished, Halifax will undoubtedly have 
 her weekly line of steamers from England, instead of 
 fortnightly as at present. The Cunard Company have also 
 a line of screw steamers, which ply regularly between 
 Halifax and St. Johns, Newfoundland ; and Halifax and 
 Bermuda. The steamers to Kewfoundland receive a sub- 
 sidy from the colonial government. There is a steamer 
 also which plies between Halifax, Yarmouth, and Boston. 
 There is a steamer that makes tri-weekly trips between 
 Windsor and St. John, 'N. B. ; also, between Annapolis 
 Royal and St. John, JST. B., and connecting with Boston 
 steamers to that city. There is aho a line that connects 
 
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 699 
 
 Pictou -witli Charlotte Town, Prince Edward Island, She- 
 diac, N. B., and Quebec. There is one also on the Bras 
 d'Or^ake, and one that plies between Halifax and the 
 principal gold-fields on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Two little steamboats ply between Pictou town and New 
 Glasgow, and two others between the city of Halifax and 
 the town of Dartmouth. The legislature granted the sum 
 of $Y,700, in aid of steamers, packets, &c., in 1860 ; and 
 $7,240 in 1861. 
 
 Roads, Stage Coaches, &c. — The high roads of Kova 
 Scotia are very numerous, and generally they are good. 
 Legislative grants are made yearly to aid in opening new 
 roads, and repairing the great post-roads. The grant for 
 this object in 1850 was $96,800 ; in 1860 it was $103,855 ; 
 and in 1861, $100,341 34. 
 
 The great roads of the province are : — 
 
 From Halifax Westward to Yarmouth, by the Atlantic 
 coast, as follows ; Halifax to Lunenburg, seventy miles ; 
 thence to Liverpool, thirty-six miles ; thence to Shelburne, 
 forty ijiiles ; thence to Yarmouth, fifty-six miles, — making 
 in all 202 miles from Halifax to Yarmouth. A tri- weekly 
 stage-coach runs this line. Another line of highway is 
 from Halifax to Yarmouth via Windsor, Kentville, Annap- 
 olis Royal, Digby, and Clare. The distance from Halifax 
 to Yarmouth by this route is 214 miles. A stage-coach 
 runs this line three times a week. Eastward from Halifax 
 we travel sixty miles to' Truro by railway ; from Truro to 
 Amherst (within three miles of the New Brunswick line) 
 the distance is sixty miles ; from Truro to Pictou the dis- 
 tance is forty miles. An excellent line of stage-coaches 
 run this road daily. Erom Pictou to Antigonish, fifty 
 miles ; thence to the Strait of Canseau Ferry, thirty-three 
 miles. Total from Halifax to Canseau, 188 miles. On 
 Cape Breton side, from Plaister Cove at Canseau, to Syd- 
 ney town via South of Bras d'Or, seventy-six miles ; from 
 Sydney via Sydney mines to Margaree, sixty-four miles ; 
 from Plaister Cove to Port Hood, thirty miles ; thence to 
 
700 PUBLIC WOEKS, ETC. 
 
 Margaree, forty miles. Another great road runs from 
 Halifax through Musquodoboit via Guysborough to the 
 Strait of Canseau. Another from Halifax to Tangier, 
 Sheet Harbor, &c., by the Atlantic coast. Another impor- 
 tant road runs from Pictou via River John, Tatamogouche, 
 Pugwash, &c, to Amherst. The cross-roads and by-roads 
 are too numerous to mention. All those mentioned are 
 run either by daily, tri- weekly, bi-weekly, or weekly stage- 
 coaches. 
 
 Postal Communication, &c. — ^Kova Scotia has regular 
 mails from Great Britain only once a fortnight ; with the 
 United States we have weekly, and sometimes bi-weekly 
 postal communication ; with Newfoundland, in summer 
 we have fortnightly communication, in winter, monthly ; 
 with Prince Edward Island, bi-weekly in summer, or 
 during seven months, and weekly, and sometimes only 
 monthly, in mid- winter ; with New Brunswick, bi-weekly 
 and weekly. 
 
 The number of offices under the control of the postmaster- 
 general, in 1860, was, 1 general post-office, Halifax, 72 cen- 
 tral offices, and 344 branch or way offices. In 1861, th*e num- 
 ber of way offices increased to 380. The number of news- 
 papers posted at, and delivered at Halifax office during 
 the year 1860, was 2,080,520 ; in 1861, 2,358,824— show- 
 ing an increase of 278,304. The number of letters of all 
 kinds sent, received, and delivered in 1860, was 534,922 ; 
 in 1861, 705,696— increase, 170,774. The number of par- 
 cels received and sent from Halifax and county post-offices 
 in 1860, was 627; in 1861, 717— increase, 90. The 
 amount of money paid through the money-order depart- 
 ment of the post-office during the last year, was $67,081.90. 
 This department has been in existence only two years, in 
 this province. The net income for 1861, was $47,115.76. 
 The total expenditure for the same period, $69,444,351. 
 
 In 1860, the length of mail route in existence in the 
 province was 4,115 J miles ; and the actual distance trav- 
 
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 701 
 
 elled, 751,346 miles. In 1861, the length of route, 4,151 J 
 miles ; distance travelled, 809,032 miles. 
 
 There are 289 mail contracts made by the postmaster- 
 general, at an annual cost of $38,604.60. 
 
 There is a uniform rate of postage — five cents for let- 
 ters weighing half an ounce — now established between all 
 the British Korth American provinces, with the exception 
 of Newfoundland. 
 
 Electric Telegraphs. — The province of Nova Scotia 
 contains 1,500 miles of telegraph line, and three sections 
 of submarine cable, viz. : 
 
 Across Pugwash Harbor ^ mile. 
 
 " Strait of Oanseau li " 
 
 " Lenox passage (between 0. B. and the Isle of Madone) . 1 " 
 
 Total Smiles 
 
 The lines in the province are owned by the "Nova 
 Scotia Electric Telegraph Company." 
 
 It has fifty telegraph offices ; fifty-six telegraphists ; 
 thirty linesmen, and a large number of messenger boys. 
 All officers of the company are sworn to secrecy. The 
 rates of tolls for messages of ten words are as follows : 
 
 Over any distance under 80 miles 12| cents. 
 
 Over 80 miles and " 160 " 25 " 
 
 Over 160 " " " 240 " 37* " 
 
 Over 240 " " " 320 " 50 " 
 
 Over 320 " " " 400 " 62i " 
 
 All distances over 400 miles 75 " 
 
 In proportion to extent and population, the province of 
 Nova Scotia has a greater extent of telegraph wire, a 
 greater number of offices, and the tariff is lower, than in 
 any other country in the world. 
 
 The first line in Nova Scotia was erected from Halifax 
 to the frontier of New Brunswick, by the provincial gov- 
 ernment, in 1848. Another line was built by a local com- 
 
702 
 
 PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 
 
 pany, between Truro and Picton, in 1849. In 1851, the 
 legislature chartered the " Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph 
 Company." This company purchased the government line 
 from Halifax to New Brunswick, as well as the one from 
 Truro to Pictou ; and they constructed nearly all the ex- 
 isting lines between that date and 1856. In 1860, all the 
 lines of the company were leased for fifty years to the 
 "American Telegraph Company" — a wealthy organiza- 
 tion, which controls a great proportion of the telegraphs 
 on the American continent. 
 
 Crown Lands. — Only a little over the half of the area 
 of Nova Scotia has been granted, or alienated from the 
 crown. The price charged for crown lands in Nova Sco- 
 tia is about forty cents per acre. The following statement 
 will show the quantity of granted and ungranted land in 
 the province : 
 
 
 Quantity al- 
 ready granted. 
 
 Eemaining 
 ungranted. 
 
 Estimated as 
 available for 
 settlement 
 
 Lands open for 
 settlements. 
 
 Nova Scotia proper. 
 Cape Breton 
 
 Acres. 
 
 4,935,349i 
 813,5431 
 
 Acres. 
 
 4,112,384i 
 l,207,438i 
 
 Acres. 
 
 556,664^ 
 356,676i 
 
 Acres. 
 
 3,412,384i 
 777,438i 
 
 Total 
 
 5,748,893 
 
 5,319,822f 
 
 913,340f 
 
 4,189,8221 
 
 The gross proceeds of crown lands sold during 1860, was 
 $20,846.28. In 1861, $16,598.73. 
 
 Eevenue AND ExPENDrruRE. — The year 1861 shows a 
 decrease in the revenue of Nova Scotia. This is owing, 
 undoubtedly, to the American war. Nova Scotia has suf- 
 fered probably more from this war than any of the British 
 North American colonies. 
 
 Free trade is the policy of Nova Scotia. It has no pro- 
 tection duties. Its ad valorem duties are lower than those 
 of any neighboring countries. 
 
 The following statement will exhibit the gradual growth 
 of our provincial revenue : 
 
PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 703 
 
 Years. Eevenue. ' Tears. Expenditures. 
 
 1806, $82,309 50 1766, $19,464 00 
 
 1825, 196,455 65 1800, 22,160 00 
 
 1886, 185,864 00 1810, 40,660 00 
 
 1846, 831,104 00 1815, 52,860 00 
 
 1851, 438,120 00 1851, 423,742 00 
 
 1852, . ■ 485,582 00 1852, 482,895 00 
 1858, 610,192 00 1853, 458,712 00 
 
 1854, 752,642 00 1854, 776,802 00 
 
 1855, 838,069 00 1855, 783.052 00 
 
 1856, 691,015 00 1856, 696,397 00 
 
 1857, 726,666 00 1857, 793,809 00 
 
 1858, 716,025 00 185», 737,108 00 
 
 1859, 698,938 00 1859, 690,595 00 
 
 1860, 870,055 00 1860, 852,133 00 
 
 This revenue is derived from import, excise, and light 
 duties, from the crown lands, the mines, the provincial 
 railway, and the post-office department. The expendi- 
 ture is for the payment of all public officers, the interest 
 of the public debt, grants for roads and bridges, educa- 
 tion, agriculture, subsidies for steamers, mail packets, and 
 ferries, militia, &c. 
 
 The estimated expenditure for 1861 was $870,771. 
 
 Public Debt, Curkency, &c. — The public debt has been 
 mainly incurred in constructing the provincial railways. 
 It is almost wholly represented by works of great public 
 utility. At the close of the year 1860, the whole liability 
 of the province was $4,901,305 42, viz : 
 
 Provincial Bonds $4,000,000 00 
 
 Provincial Notes 447,458 00 
 
 Savings Bank 453,847 42 
 
 Total $4,901,305 42 
 
 The first provincial currency was eighteen shillings 
 sterling to the pound currency, or £100=£90. The next 
 change made the English shilling equal to one shilling 
 and three-pence sterling, or sixteen English shillings equal 
 to £1 currency. 
 
 In common with New Brunswick and Canada, IN'ova 
 Scotia has recently adopted the decimal mode of computa- 
 
704: EDUCATIONAL mSTITUTIONS, ETC. 
 
 tion. Dollars and cents have taken the place of pounds, 
 Bhillings, and pence, with us. In Nova Scotia, the British 
 shilling is twenty-five cents — the British Florin fifty 
 cents — the British crown $1 25 — and the British gold 
 sovereign or pound, $5. 
 
 The treasury issues £1 'Noysl Scotia currency, or $4 and 
 $5 notes. The banks issue £5 or $20 notes and upwards ; 
 but they are not permitted to issue notes of a less sum 
 than $20. The par of Exchange on England is 12i per 
 cent. 
 
 The oldest bank in the province is the " Halifax Banking 
 Company," besides which, there are the " Bank of I^ova 
 Scotia," the " Bank of British North America," and the 
 " Union Bank." There has never yet occurred an in- 
 stance of a Nova Scotia bank having suspended pay- 
 ment. The new premises of the Union Bank, when com- 
 pleted, will be the finest building in Halifax. 
 
 CHAPTER YHI. 
 
 : EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 
 The history of the progress of education in Nova Scotia 
 does not much difier from that of its progress in the neigh- 
 boring states and provinces. Its progress has been in the 
 face of many and formidable difficulties. The early settlers 
 had to conquer the forest, build houses, make roads, and 
 struggle hard to keep want and grim poverty out of their 
 humble dwellings. They could neither afibrd to build 
 school-houses nor pay schoolmasters — if they could be had. 
 They had to teach their children at their own firesides, 
 after the toils of the day were ended, without the aid of 
 many books, and often when they could not afibrd the 
 luxury of lamp or candle to read by. Two of the most 
 distinguished statesmen and orators Nova Scotia ever 
 reared, were thus taught to read. On more than one oc- 
 casion we have heard one of them relate, for the encour 
 
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. Y05 
 
 agement of the young of his native city, how on the long 
 winter evenings, at his father's knee, he studied history 
 and literature with no other light than that furnished by 
 the good old-fashioned fireplace. In the year- 1787, there 
 was not a single school or school-house in what is now the 
 populous and highly educate4 county of Pictou. ISTow 
 tliere are 116 school-houses in that county, and as many 
 schools, many of which are of a high order. Seventy 
 years ago there were not thirty school-houses in all Nova 
 Scotia, and the majority of those were but log-houses 
 of the humblest description. Now there are upwards 
 of twelve hundred school-houses, many of which are 
 elegant, commodious, and well furnished structures. 
 Thirty years ago the legislative grant for the support of 
 education was only $16,000. In 1861 it was $66,749.02, 
 while that contributed by voluntary subscription was 
 nearly three times that amount. 
 
 Sixty and even forty years ago, an old soldier, who could 
 read, write, and '' cipher as far as the rule of three" — a 
 broken-down merchant, or an accountant,- whose habits 
 had become so unsteady that he could no longer serve 
 with efficiency in the counting-house, would be hired as a 
 schoolmaster. Now it is only the graduates of our provin-- 
 cial normal college for the training of teachers, that can 
 command any of our best common schools. It is not 
 half a century since the " New England Primer," " Dil- 
 worth," " T/^^ Collection," " Tutor's Assistant," i\iQ ferule 
 and the hirch^ were accounted the orthodox and all-potent 
 instrumentalities for teaching "the young idea how to 
 shoot," and for restraining and correcting it, should it 
 venture " to shoot" on its own account in any forbidden 
 direction. At present our schools are supplied with the 
 latest and best British and American text-books, and cor- 
 poral punishment, in the best of them, is resorted to but 
 very seldom, and that in extreme cases. 
 
 Common Schools. — The province of Nova Scotia, in- 
 cluding Cape Breton, is divided into thirty-three school 
 
706 EDUCATIONAL mSTTrUTIONB, BTIU 
 
 districts, each having a distinct board of school commis- 
 sioners, whose duty it is to examine and license teachers, 
 determine what shall be the number and what the bound- 
 aries of the schools,' and distribute the government allow- 
 ance among the several schools entitled to participate in 
 it. There are 1,227 school-houses in the province, and 
 1,175 schools were in operation in 1857 (the only edu- 
 cational census taken) ; 685 of this number were taught 
 by male teachers, 520 by females. About one to every 
 seven of the population is attending school : — a small pro- 
 portion when compared with some of the New England 
 and Middle States, where the proportion is one to four, and 
 in three of the States, Maine, New Hampshire, and New 
 York, it is one to three. There are school libraries under 
 the direction of every board ; 6,844 vols, were in circu- 
 lation in 1857. The number of text-books reported was 
 6,360; wall maps, 2,521; blackboards, 640; globes, ,56. 
 
 Amount contributed for common-school education by 
 voluntary contributions, $128,222.22 ; by the government, 
 $53,519.25. Maximum salary of common-school teachers, 
 $600; average salary, $180; average cost of each pupil 
 per annum, $2.53. The best common schools are in Pic- 
 tou, Colchester, and Kings. 
 
 Gramiviar Schools. — There were forty-four grammar 
 schools in the province, by the late educational census. 
 The winter attendance was 1,476, and the summer, 1,738. 
 The number studying the classics and mathematics was 
 1,074. The support from the people, $9,814.09 ; from gov- 
 ernment, $3,274.95. Latin, French, mathematics, includ- 
 ing algebra and agricultural chemistry, are taught in 
 the grammar schools, in addition to the branches taught 
 usually in the common schools. 
 
 Academies. — There are six academies at present in 
 Nova Scotia, inclusive of Sack Wile Academy, N. B. All 
 of them, with the exception of Pictou Academy, are under 
 the control of some one religious denomination. 
 
 The Windsor Academy, or Collegiate School, which is 
 
EDUCA.TIONAL INSTrrUTIONS, ETC. ' YOT 
 
 the oldest, is under the direction of the Episcopah'ans. It 
 has three teachers. The Pictou Acddemy comes next in 
 point of age, and first, perhaps, in point of fame. It was 
 started at the early part of this century, under the direc- 
 tion of the distinguished Dr. McCulloch, and gave a 
 powerful impetus to the cause of a thorough and sound 
 education in the province. For many years it was under 
 the control of the Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia. 
 At present it has but two teachers, and is only a high 
 school for the town of Pictou. 
 
 The Horton Academy^ at Wolfville, comes next in point 
 of age. It is under the control of the Baptists. It has a 
 principal and two assistants. 
 
 The Sackmlle Academy is under the control of the Wea- 
 leyan Methodist body, and is equally patronized and sup- 
 ported by the provinces of Nova Scotia and ISTew Bruns- 
 wick. It has male and female departments. The male 
 department has seven teachers i the female department, 
 nine teachers. 
 
 The Presbyterian Academy^ in Halifax, was started in 
 1847, in connection with the Free Church. It has four 
 teachers. 
 
 The Arichat Academy^ in the Isle of Madame, C. B., is 
 in connection with the Roman Catholics. It has three 
 teachers. 
 
 The Sackville Academy stands, for the Wesleyan Meth- 
 odist body, instead of a college, theological hall, and 
 preparatory high school. All the other academies enu- 
 merated are but preparatory high schools. 
 
 Colleges. — There are six institutions in the province of 
 Nova Scotia that go by the name of colleges. The oldest 
 and best endowed of these is King's College^ at Windsor. 
 It w^as commenced in 1788-9. From that date till about 
 twelve years ago it had annually received from the pro- 
 vincial government a grant of $1,777.66. At present the 
 annual grant is $1,000. It \\2i^five professors. It is under 
 the control of the Episcopal Church. It was chartered in 
 45 
 
708 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 
 
 1802, by George III., and lias the Archbisliop of Canter- 
 bury for its patron. 
 
 Acadia College is in Wolfville, in Kings county. It is 
 under the control of the Baptist denomination. It has 
 fowr professors — one theological, and three for all the 
 other branches taught. $1,000 of provincial aid, that was 
 formerly given to this college, is now given annually to 
 the academy in the same place and connection. 
 
 The Presbyterians have two colleges at present, — a 
 theological college in Halifax, with three professors ; a lit- 
 erary and classical college at Truro, with three professors 
 and one tutor. These institutions are endowed, by the 
 liberality of the body with which they are connected, to 
 the amount of $56,000. Arrangements are in progress by 
 which the two may be consolidated. 
 
 Goreham College, in Liverpool, Queens county, was set 
 up by the liberality of the late Mr. Goreham of that place, 
 in connection with the orthodox Congregational body. 
 The buildings were destroyed by fire a few years since, and 
 have not been rebuilt. 
 
 St. Maryh College is a theological school, in the Roman 
 Catholic connection. The number of professors, &c., is not 
 made known to the general public. It receives $1,000 
 annually from the provincial government. It is situated 
 in Halifax. 
 
 Bt, Francis Xavier*s College is in the town of Atigo- 
 nish, in the county of Sydney. It has five professors; 
 three theological, and two for other departments. It is 
 under the control of the Koman Catholic body, and re- 
 ceives $1,000 from the government annually. 
 
 Dalhousie College is in the city of Halifax. It is a 
 handsome edifice, built of freestone. It was built under 
 the direction, and mainly through the infiuence, of the 
 Earl of Dalhousie, when he was governor of the province ; 
 he procured $39,000 out of the Castine fund for its per- 
 manent endowment, and induced the legislature to grant 
 $12,000 towards the erection of the building. It was in- 
 
EDUCATIONAL mSTlTTJTroiS'B, ETC. 709 
 
 corporated in 1820, and was to be conducted on the model 
 of the University of Edinburgh. Several attempts have 
 been made to set it into operation, but hitherto without, 
 much success; the main hindrance being the existence of 
 so many denominational institutions under the name of 
 colleges. In the mean time the capital endowment fund 
 has been so well managed by the governors of the college, 
 that from $39,000 it has increased to about $60,000. 
 There is the prospect at present of the Presbyterians and 
 Congregationalists, and perhaps one or two other denomi- 
 nations, combining their several secular colleges with this 
 institution, and thus out of the whole forming one grand 
 provincial university — each denomination to maintain its 
 own theological institute, and the provincial grants that 
 were wont to be given to these, to be given to the university. 
 
 The province has no medical or law school or college, 
 nor a single professorship devoted to these branches in any 
 of the existing colleges. This clamant want will be sup- 
 plied in that university that is to he, 
 
 Normal College and Model Schools. — These are sit- 
 uated in the town of Truro, Colchester county, and are, 
 as near as may be, in the centre of the province. They 
 are provincial institutions. The act for the establishment 
 of the Normal College passed the legislature in 1854 ; and 
 the Eev. Alexander Forrester, D. D., was appointed prin- 
 cipal of the institution, and superintendent of education, 
 by the governor in council, in the spring of 1855 ; and- 
 opened the Normal College in November of the same year. 
 The Model Schools were opened in June, 1857. There 
 are five teachers in the Normal College, and six in the 
 Model Schools. There is a model farm attached to these, 
 which is worked under the direction of the principal. The 
 annual cost of these institutions, and of the whole educa- 
 tional supervision of the province, is only $4,680. The 
 Normal College has already trained about 500 teachers, 
 of whom 230 have taken grammar-school and first-class 
 certificates. . . 
 
710 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 
 
 The establishment of these institutions has been an im- 
 portant era in the history of education in ^N'ova Scotia. 
 They have been a very decided success. The natural or 
 training system is that pursued. The mechanical^ ex- 
 jplanatory^ and objective systems are made use of only in so 
 far as they enter into the full working out of the one 
 selected. The Model School is conducted on the most 
 approved graded method, having three departments, 
 primary, intermediate, and high-school, each with its 
 own regular teacher. Yocal music and physical exer- 
 cise are very happily intermingled with the severer busi- 
 ness of the school. There is a very great improvement 
 in the furniture of school-rooms throughout the whole 
 province since the establishment of the Model Schools ; 
 also in the quality of the education imparted to the young. 
 Adequate support is the great want of our common and 
 grammar schools, at present. The public mind is steadily 
 setting in for a system of general assessment of property 
 and income for the support of schools ; the present method 
 — ^voluntary subscriptions — being found in many sections 
 of the country very inefficient. This appears from the 
 startling disclosures of the late census (1861). It appears 
 from the census, that while in some districts every man, 
 woman, and child who is able to speak can read, and nearly 
 all can write ; yet that when the province is taken as a 
 whole, there are, between the ages of five ^d fifteen 
 years, 36,430 who cannot read, and 45,012 who cannot 
 write; while there are, over the age of fifteen years, 
 49,430 who cannot read, and 65,444 who cannot write ; 
 making in all, 85,860 illiterate persons in the province. 
 This is a state of matters which no patriotic Christian mind 
 can contemplate without the deepest concern for the future 
 of the country. It may be proper to state that a few thou- 
 sands may be deducted from one of the above items, when it 
 is borne in mind that children in the rural districts of Nova 
 Scotia, generally, do not attend school or learn to read and 
 write till they are seven and often eight years of age. 
 
ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITION, ETC. 711 
 
 Institution for Deaf anb Dumb. — This institution is but 
 in its infancy. It was established in 1858, under the present 
 highly efficient superintendence. It has very commodious 
 premises, in a very healthy and sightly position in the city 
 of Halifax. It derives its support from three sources : 
 the contributions of the benevolent — fees from the pupils, 
 when the parents are not poor, and legislative grants from 
 tlie provinces of ^N'ova Scotia and New Brunswick. The 
 whole income of this institution for 1861 was $3,691.85. 
 $2,000 of this sum was from the legislature of Kova Scotia, 
 and $80 from that of Xew Brunswick. The attendance 
 for the year 1861 was forty-four pupils, thirty of whom 
 were males and fourteen females: eight of this number 
 were from New Brunswick, the remaining thirty-six from 
 Nova Scotia. The system of instruction is emphatically 
 the natural system. The pupils are taught reading, writ- 
 ing, English composition, arithmetic, geography, history, 
 and the principles of Christianity, as taught in the Bible, 
 with remarkable success. There is also an industrial de- 
 partment in this school, both for boys and girls, where no 
 small amount of work is very skilfully and cheerfully 
 performed. The institution is managed by five directors, 
 a secretary, treasurer, principal, and assistant teachers ; a 
 matron, physician, dentist, and a committee of eleven 
 ladies. The Eight Hon. the Earl of Mulgrave is patron, 
 and lady Mulgrave patroness of the institution. The Rev. 
 Mr. Cochran, the secretary, was mainly instrumental in 
 starting this school. Its present high state of efficiency is 
 owing to the indefatigable labors of the principal, J. Scott 
 Hutton, Esq. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITIOIT OF THE PROYIN"CB. 
 
 Nova Scotia does not want for religious denominations 
 or places of worship. There are 22 denominations and 
 
712 ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITION, ETC. 
 
 831 places of worship. This gives a church for every 400 
 of the population. It is true that many of the buildings, 
 called churches, are not such as to accommodate 400, but 
 many others again are buildings that can comfortably seat 
 500, 800, 1,000, and in some cases 2,000. 
 
 All religious denominations are considered equal in the 
 eye of the law ; in other words, there is no church or re- 
 ligious sect established by civil enactment in Nova Scotia, 
 or in any of the lower provinces of British America. 
 
 The Episcopal Chuech. — This denomination was at one 
 time established by law in Nova Scotia. The law which 
 gave it the supremacy in matters of religion has been re- 
 pealed, and it is now on the same level with the other 
 churches. It has 47,744 adherents in Nova Scotia and 
 Cape Breton. It has 139 places of worship, and 64 clergy- 
 men. The Episcopal bishop of Nova Scotia exercises 
 I'urisdiction over the Episcopal church in Prince Edward 
 Island. This denomination has hitherto derived much of 
 its support from the liberality of the Society for Propa- 
 gating Religion in Foreign Parts. There is at present a 
 very creditable movement among the laity of the body, to 
 raise an endowment fund for the permanent support of 
 religion in that connection. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church. — Under this may be in- 
 eluded three different bodies, viz. : the Presbyterian church, 
 which has 69,456 adherents, 144 places of worship, and 88 
 ordained clergymen ; the Church of Scotland in Nova 
 Scotia, which has 19,063 adherents, 25 places of worship, 
 and 20 ordained clergymen ; and the Reformed Presbyte- 
 rian Church, which has (by late census) 236 adherents 
 (ought at least to be double that number), 8 places of wor- 
 ship, and 5 ordained clergymen. 
 
 The Roman Catholic Church. — In the number of ad- 
 herents this body ranks next to the Presbyterians. Tlie 
 number is 86,281 ; places of worship, 121 ; clergy, 42. It 
 is under the control of the Archbishop of Halifax. It has 
 two diocesan bishops, that of Halifax and Arichat. It 
 
ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITIONj ETC. 7l3 
 
 owns some of the finest church buildings in the prov- 
 ince. 
 
 The Baptist Chijrch. — The Associated Baptists have 
 55,336 adherents, 182 places of worship, and 83 clergy- 
 men. Other Baptists have 7,605 adherents, 34 places of 
 worship, and 15 clergymen. 
 
 The Wesleyan Methodist Church. — ^This body is under 
 the superintendence of the Eastern British ITorth Amer- 
 ican Affiliated Conference. It is a branch of the British 
 Conference, and includes under its supervision the whole 
 of the lower provinces, as well as Bermuda. The president 
 is nominated by the colonial body. Its adherents in 
 Nova Scotia are 34,055 ; places of worship, 136 ; clergy, 54. 
 
 The Congregational Church. — This body has 2,183 
 adherents, 11 places of worship, and 10 clergymen. 
 
 The Lutheran Church has 4,382 adherents, 4 places of 
 worship, and 3 clergymen. 
 
 The Uni/versalists have 846 adherents, 2 places of wor- 
 ship, and 1 clergyman. 
 
 There are 158 Quakers ; 112 Bible Christians; 27 Mor- 
 mons ; 13 Swedenborgians ; 143 Morisonians, or E. U. ; 
 46 Sandemanians ; 32 Campbellites ; and 3 Deists. 
 
 The British and Foreign JBible Society has a branch in 
 Xova Scotia. Its headquarters are in Halifax, but it has 
 numerous auxiliary branches throughout the province. 
 
 There-are five Young Men^s Christian Associations in the 
 province. The one in Halifax has an excellent library 
 and reading-room, and has a course of twelve lectures, of 
 a very high order, during the winter months. There is a 
 mission to the 3fic Mac Indians of the lower provinces, 
 which is supported by all evangelical denominations in 
 common. The New Testament has been translated into 
 the Mic Mac, through its means. The Presbyterians 
 maintain 4 missionaries in the South Sea Islands. The 
 Baptists at one time maintained a missionary in Hindu- 
 stan : but their a^ent having fallen a victim to the climate, 
 the mission has been abandoned by them. JNo other 
 
Y14 POLITICAL STATE OF THE PKOVINCE. 
 
 denomination has as yet engaged in foreign missionary 
 enterprise. 
 
 In Pictou and Colchester counties, the Presbyterians 
 greatly predominate. In the western counties, especially 
 Kings and Annapolis, the Baptists and Wesleyans prevail. 
 In the Island of Cape Breton, the Presbyterians and 
 Roman Catholics are aboat in equal numbers. In Hal- 
 ifax, the Episcopalians and Roman Catholics prevail ; in 
 Hants, the Episcopalians and Presbyterians ; in Cumber- 
 land, the Wesleyans ; in Lunenburg, the Lutherans. Con- 
 troversy between religious bodies has been at discount, 
 for some years past. Christian benevolence and denomi- 
 national courtesy are manifestly on the increase. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROYINCE. 
 
 It is both interesting and instructive to trace the polit- 
 ical progress of ]N"ova Scotia, for the last one hundred and 
 fifty years. From absolute despotism it has passed, 
 during that interval, into constitutional government,^ — the 
 freest, the most equitable, and, withal, the least costly in 
 the civilized world. From the first settlement of the 
 province till the year 1719, its government was vested 
 solely in the governor, and, in his absence, in the lieutenant- 
 governor or commander-in-chief. The seat of government 
 was at Annapolis Royal. In 1719, Governor Phillips 
 received instructions from the crown to choose a council 
 of twelve, who should advise with him in regulating 
 the affairs of the province ; he was further directed to 
 regulate himself by the instructions of the governor of 
 Yirginia in cases of emergency, and until a legislative 
 assembly should be formed. The names of the first council 
 of Nova Scotia are : John Doncett, Lawrence A(rmstrong, 
 Paul Mascarine, Cyprian Southack, John Harrison, Arthur 
 Savage, John Adams, Hibbert Newton, Willian^ Skeen, 
 
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PEOVINCE. Y15 
 
 William Sheriff, Peter Boudrie, and Gideon Phillips. They 
 were all officers of the garrison or public departments, with 
 the exception of Mr. John Adams. From 1719 till 1749, the 
 governor with this council — ^both appointed by the crown — 
 combined at once the legislative, judicial, and executive 
 functions of civil government. They had absolute power 
 in all cases, except in so far as they were restrained by 
 the general principles of English law. In 1749, on the 
 arrival of Governor Cornwallis, the seat of government 
 was removed to the newly formed town of Halifax. He 
 had instructions to erect commission courts of justice. 
 He erected three courts. The first was a Court of Ses- 
 sions. The second was a County Court, invested with 
 powers similar to the Court of King's Bench, Common 
 Pleas, and Exchequer, in England. Tlie third was a Court 
 of Assize and General Jail Delivery, in which the governor 
 and the council for the time being sat as judges. In 1752 
 the County Court was abolished, and the Court of Common 
 Pleas erected in its place. The General Court of Assize 
 was abolished in 1754, and the Supreme Court established 
 in its place. Jonathan Belcher, Esq., was appointed chief 
 justice of this court the same year. 
 
 In the month of May, 1758, Governor Lawrence laid 
 before his council his majesty's instructions for the elec- 
 tion of the first representative assembly for Nova Scotia. 
 It was then resolved, by the governor in council, '' That 
 a house of representatives of the inhabitants thereof, in 
 conjunction with his majesty's governor, or commander- 
 in-chief for the time being, and his majesty's council for 
 the said province, be the civil legislature thereof." 
 There were sixteen members " elected for the province at 
 large." Any elector voting for one of these sixteen mem- 
 bers was compelled to vote for the other fifteen. There 
 were two elected for the township of Lunenburg, and four 
 for the township of Halifax. The whole assembly con- 
 sisted of twenty-two members : eleven, besides the speaker, 
 constituted a quorum. The first meeting of the fi/rst 
 
716 POLITICAL STATE OF THE PKOVINCE. 
 
 rej>resentative assembly of If ova Scotia was on the second 
 day of October, 1758. Eobert Sanderson, Esq., was cho- 
 sen speaker of this first assembly. 
 
 In 1761 a new assembly was elected, consisting of twenty- 
 four members. The province was then divided into four 
 counties — Halifax, Lunenburg, Annapolis, and Kings — 
 each returning two members ; and into seven townships — 
 Halifax, Lunenburg, Annapolis, Horton, Cornwallis, Fal- 
 mouth, Liverpool — each sending two members, with the 
 exception of Halifax, which sent four. 
 
 The Present Constitution of the Pjrovince. — The 
 province had not a legislative council distinct from the 
 executive council till the year 1838. Hitherto the council 
 deliberated with closed doors. From this date the legis- 
 lative council sat with doors open to the public. In 1841 
 " responsible government" was inaugurated in Nova Scotia. 
 It was not fully established, however, till the parliamentary 
 session of 1847-8. The departmental system was then fully 
 acted upon for the first time. 
 
 The highest authority is vested in the Lieutenant- Gov- 
 ernor^ who acts as the representative of royalty. He is 
 styled lieutenant-governor, as being nominally subordi- 
 nate to the governor-general of British Nqrth America. 
 The governor is surrounded by an executive council of 
 nine persons, appointed by the crown from the legislative 
 council and house of representatives ; these are his sworn 
 advisers, in the exercise of his legislative and adminis- 
 trative duties. They are responsible to the people for the 
 acts of his administration. That is one of the pecnliariticb 
 of responsible government. Five of the members of the 
 executive council, in accordance with the existing consti- 
 tution, are heads of departments : the attorney-general, 
 solicitor-general, provincial secretary, financial secretary, 
 and receiver-general. 
 
 Tlie Legislative Council is appointed by the crown. It 
 consists of twenty-one members. They choose their own 
 president, subject to the approval of the crown. They are 
 
POLITICAL STATE OF THE PKOVIN'OE. ^17 
 
 to ITS instead of peers. They hold their seats for life, if 
 they do not become insolvent. They are magistrates with- 
 in the province. 
 
 The House of Representatives consists of fifty-five mem- 
 bers, who are elected once in four years. They represent 
 eighteen counties. Some counties are subdivided into dis- 
 tricts ; others have townships. Universal suffrage is the 
 law of ^N'ova Scotia, subject to the following restrictions : 
 The elector must be twenty-one years of age ; must be 
 native-born, or a naturalized subject of Great Britain. He 
 must be a resident one year in the county, district, or town- 
 ship in which he votes. The members of this house must 
 have a property qualification, and must take the oath of 
 allegiance before they take their seats. The members of 
 both houses are paid $4 per diem each, with travelling ex- 
 penses during the sitting of Parliament. 
 
 The salaries of the officers on the civil list, authorized by 
 law, amount to $52,365. This is inclusive of $6,415 of 
 pensions paid to retired officials. There is usually voted 
 yearly, in addition to the above, $29,680 for clerks and 
 contingencies. 
 
 Laws and Coubts of Justice. — ^The laws and forms of 
 judicial procedure of Nova Scotia are founded on those 
 of England, while the common law of England is the 
 law of ITova Scotia, where the case is not otherwise pro- 
 vided for by special provincial enactment. The body 
 of local enactments has been recently revised and consoli- 
 dated under the supervision of the provincial government. 
 The work is known by the name of " Kevised Statutes." 
 The punishment of death is limited by the law of JSTova 
 Scotia to the crimes of treason and murder. 
 
 Justice's Court. — This is the lowest order of courts for 
 the trial of civil causes. There are 1,412 justices of the 
 peace in Nova Scotia. Each magistrate has jurisdiction 
 throughout the whole county in which he resides. They 
 can adjudicate in civil causes to the amount of forty dol- 
 lars. In criminal matters their powers are very similar to 
 
718 POLITICAL STATE OF THE PEOVmOE. 
 
 • 
 
 that of the same class of officers in England. They can 
 fine and commit to the county jail for petty offences, arid 
 bind over to keep the peace, or appear for trial at the Su- 
 preme Court, for graver offences. They usually issue war- 
 rants for the appearance of offenders against the peace. 
 
 General Sessions of the peace are held annually in each 
 county, and in some counties twice in the year. These are 
 composed of justices of the peace and other officials, for 
 the transaction of county business. They are presided over 
 by the Gustos Rotulorum of each county. 
 
 The Court of Probate is a county court, which has the 
 custody of all wills, and disposes of the estates of deceased 
 persons. The judge of this court, who is usually a barris- 
 ter of good standing, practises at the bar, but cannot be a 
 member of Parliament. 
 
 The Supreme Court is by far the most important in 
 IN'ova Scotia. It has civil and criminal jurisdiction in the 
 highest causes. It is the only criminal court in the prov- 
 ince. It has original jurisdiction in -all civil causes over 
 twenty dollars, and is the court of appeal from the decision 
 of justices' courts. The province is divided into four cir- 
 cuits, and the Supreme Court holds its sitting twice a year 
 in every county of the province for the trial of civil and 
 criminal causes. It sits in Halifax twice in the year as a 
 court of equity, the Court of Chancery, which once ex- 
 isted in Nova Scotia, having been abolished, and its juris-* 
 diction transferred to this court. It is presided over by a 
 chief-justice and four assistant judges. These judges are 
 appointed by the governor in council, and they hold office 
 for life. Their appointment must receive the royal sanc- 
 tion before they can be considered as fixed in office. Their 
 salaries are fixed upon the civil list of the province. 
 
 The Court of Marriage and Divorce is composed of 
 the lieutenant-governor, the executive council, one of the 
 judges of the Supreme Court, a register, advocate, and 
 proctor. It has full jurisdiction over all matters relating 
 to marriage and divorce. 
 
EAKLY HISTORY OF NEW BKUNSWICK. 719 
 
 Tlie Court of Yi'ce-Admiralty includes Canada and all 
 the lower provinces within its jurisdiction. The governor- 
 general of British I^orth America is the vice-admiral, and 
 Alexander Stewart, C. B., the judge of this court. It has 
 surrogates, procurators, and advocates in all the British 
 provinces. Its bank of admiralty deposits is the Bank of 
 British Korth America. 
 
 The Court of Error consists of the governor and coun- 
 cil. Suits where the amount of the judgment is not less 
 than $1,200, may be brought into this court. Cases for the 
 commutation of capital punishment are also brought before 
 the governor in council by petition. The last appeal is to 
 the queen in council. It is the policy of the British gov- 
 ernment not to interfere with any local matters in the 
 colonies. We are instructed to make what laws we deem 
 proper, and to appoint whom we choose to administer our 
 laws. 
 
 CHAPTEK XL 
 
 GENERAL CIYILIZATIOlsr.— SOCIAL PROGRESS.— LITERATURE, &o. 
 
 Great progress has been made in every section of Nova 
 Scotia, during the last half century, in all that makes life 
 comfortable and agreeable. The little, nide log-house of 
 two, or at best three apartments, has passed away, to make 
 place for the snug white cottage of at least six or seven 
 rooms, besides the kitchen, or the fine stately two-story 
 house, with ten, twelve, or more apartments. Barns and 
 outhouses have improved in a corresponding manner. The 
 hand-mills, or " querns," of seventy years ago, have given 
 place to excellent grist-mills, propelled by water-power or 
 steam. Saw-mills, shingle-mills, carding-mills, dyeing- 
 mills, foundries, and factories, have increased proportion- 
 ately. 
 
 Churches and school-houses of an improved style have 
 sprung np in every settlement. Temperance halls and 
 
720 GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 
 
 other connty and township public buildings are quite nu- 
 merous in proportion to the population. 
 
 There are 53,215 dwelling-houses in Nova Scotia. The 
 citj of Halifax contains only 2,635 of the above number. 
 There are 63,293 farms and outhouses. The number of 
 stores and shops is 3,322 ; of that number the city of Hali- 
 fax has 422. There are forty-nine temperance halls in the 
 province, valued at $43,340. Nine of the number are in 
 Hants county, and eight in Kings county. There are only 
 two counties without a temperance hall, viz. : Richmond 
 and Victoria. There are ninety-three public county and 
 township buildings, estimated at $984,160. 
 
 The vast improvements made in the mode of travelling, 
 and in the mail communication of the province, have been 
 already noticed. Parties are still living who can remem- 
 ber when there was only a weekly mail between Halifax 
 and Pictou, and when that mail was carried by one man, 
 on his back, in a knapsack, making a journey of one hun- 
 dred miles on foot. Now there is a daily mail to and from 
 Pictou. 
 
 Towns and Tillages. — The oldest town in Nova Scotia 
 is Annapolis Eoyal. From the earliest settlement of the 
 country until the city of Halifax was built, this town was 
 the capital of the province. It was the head-quarters of the 
 forces of France and England, as they alternately possessed 
 the country. The conquest of " Port Royal " was, in those 
 times, considered the conquest of the whole province. It 
 is a small town still, and is not remarkable for any thing, 
 except its having been the ancient French and English 
 capital of the province. Yarmouth is an important com- 
 mercial town, and owns much shipping. Pictou contests 
 the honor of being the second most important town in the 
 province, with Yarmouth. New Glasgow^ on the East 
 River of Pictou, has grown up lately into a town of almost 
 the size of Pictou. Sydney and Arichat^ in Cape Breton, 
 Windsor, in Hants, Lunenburg, in the county of the same 
 name, and Dartmouth, opposite Halifax, are the remaining 
 
GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 721 
 
 towns of the Province. There are besides, however, quite 
 a number of villages and places near seaports, that are fast 
 growing into the magnitude and importance of towns. 
 Among these may be named Baddeck^ in Victoria ; Port 
 Hood and Mayhon, in Inverness ; Antigonish, in Sydney ; 
 Truro, in Colchester ; Amherst and Pugwasli, in Cumber- 
 land ; Canning^ and Wolfville, and Kentville, in Kings ; 
 Liverpool, in Queens; Bridgetown, in Annapolis; and 
 Bighy and Shelburne, in the counties of the same name. 
 
 City of Halifax. — This city was founded by Lord Corn- 
 wallis in the latter end of June, 1749. It became the seat 
 of tiie provincial government early in the following year. 
 It has a noble harbor, which we have already described. 
 It is fortified b,y St. George's Island in the centre of the 
 harbor; by the Citadel, which is on the hill which rises 
 behind the city, to the height of two hundred and fifty feet 
 above the level of the sea ; also, by the fortification of York 
 Redoubt, and several masked batteries on both sides of the 
 harbor. The strength of the fortifications of Halifax take 
 rank next after those of Quebec. 
 
 The city extends about two miles and a quarter north 
 and south, on the slope of the hill, by the harbor. Its 
 width, at the most, does not exceed three-quarters of a 
 mile. Just one hundred and one years ago the town con- 
 tained one thousand houses, and about three thousand in- 
 habitants. At that time one-third of the population were 
 Irish, one-fourth German and Dutch, the remainder Eng- 
 lish, with a very small number of Scotch. 
 
 " There were one hundred houses licensed to sell ardent 
 spirits, and as many more houses that sold spirituous 
 liquors without license ; so that," to continue the words of 
 Dr. Styles, who records the fact, " the business of one-half 
 the town is to sell rum, and the other half to drink it." 
 About this time the city was divided into Halifax, Irish- 
 town, and Dutchtown — Halifax the centre, Irishtown the 
 south, and Dutchtown the north end. The population in 
 1861 was 25,026. Some sections of the city are now ex- 
 
722 GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 
 
 ceedingly well built. In tlie centre of the city, particular- 
 ly on Granville street and Hallis street, wooden buildings 
 have been replaced by brick, granite, and freestone struc- 
 tures, which are not surpassed by any on this continent. 
 
 Of public buildings, the "Province Building" is the 
 chief. It is built of brown freestone, one hundred and 
 forty feet in length, seventy in width, and forty-two in 
 height. On its ground flat are apartments for the various 
 provincial offices — provincial secretary's, financial secre- 
 tary's, receiver-general's, attorney-general's, customs, ex- 
 cise, and crown-land department offices. On the second are 
 the halls and committee-rooms of the two houses of Par- 
 liament, and a very spacious and beautiful apartment oc- 
 cupied by the provincial legislative library. The Govern- 
 ment House, the Admiralty House, Dalhousie College, the 
 Asylum for the Insane, the Wellington Barracks, the Court 
 House, the Hospital, the Penitentiary, and the City Mar- 
 ket are the remaining principal public buildings. The 
 Queen's Dockyard, in the north of the city, is an impor- 
 tant public establishment, It was commenced in the year 
 1758. It is enclosed on the side toward the city by a high 
 stone wall. It contains workshops, warehouses, and stores 
 of various descriptions, besides very commodious buildings 
 for the residence of its officers and workmen. 
 
 The city is divided into six wards, and the corporation 
 consists of a mayor and eighteen aldermen. The Mayor's 
 Court is held on the second and fourth Tuesday of every 
 month. The police office is open on every week-day from 
 ten A. M. till three p. m. The fire department is under the 
 control of the city corporation ; and also the water supply 
 of the city. The taxable property of the city, in 1861, was 
 $14,400,000. 
 
 There are seventeen places of public worship in the city. 
 Three of these belong to the Episcopalians, fmir to the 
 Presbyterians, three to the Wesleyans, two to the Baptists, 
 two to the Poman Catholics, one to the Congregationalists, 
 one to the Universalists, and one\jo the Campbellites. 
 
« 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
ETC. 723 
 
 There are in the city four commercial banks, and one 
 savings bank, and a building society; the agencies of thir- 
 teen British and four American life insurance companies, 
 and of four British and sixteen American fire insurance 
 companies. There are four public libraries in the city, 
 two reading and news rooms, and benevolent societies of 
 various descriptions and nationalities. There are one gas 
 company, five gold-mining companies, and five other joint- 
 stock companies. There are one public museum and one 
 visiting dispensary. 
 
 Halifax is important both as a military post and naval 
 station. It is the military head-quarters of all the lower 
 provinces. It is the chief naval station for the whole of 
 British l^orth America and the "West Indies. The admiral 
 of the l!^orth American station resides at Halifax during 
 the summer months, and in the winter at Bermuda. The 
 commerce of Halifax is considerable. The exports from 
 the port of Halifax, in the year 1860, were $3,902,638., 
 The imports for the same year were $6,431,581. 
 
 LiTEEATUKE, &c. — l^OYSi Scotia dcpcuds for literature, to. 
 a very great extent, on Great Britain and the United States. 
 The quarterly reviews and monthly magazines of those 
 countries are very extensively read in the province. There 
 is no quarterly review published in the province, and the 
 only monthly periodicals at present published are two of 
 a religious character, under the direction of the Presbyte- 
 rians. Of newspapers, there are twenty-two published in 
 the province at present. In 1828 there were seven. Of 
 these seven, six were in Halifax, and one in Pictou. The 
 first paper started, out of Halifax, was the Pictou Colonial 
 Patriot. The oldest of our existing newspapers is the 
 Acadian Recorder, Of the twenty-two newspapers now 
 published, thirteen are in Halifax, and the remaining nine 
 are published in the following towns in the province : one 
 in Sydney, one in Atigonish (the Casket^ partly English 
 and partly Gaelic), two in Pictou, one in Liverpool, two in 
 Yarmouth, one in Digby, and one at Bridgetown. We 
 46 
 
724 
 
 have no daily newspaper. There are six of the Halifax 
 papers that are published tri-weekly, on alternate days. 
 Some are morning and some are evening papers. Four of 
 the Halifax weeklies are in the interest of religious denomi- 
 nations. There is also a monthly sheet devoted to the 
 cause of total abstinence. 
 
 The principal publishing house in Halifax is that of A. 
 & W. Mackinley. The greater part of their publications 
 are school-books. 
 
 The principal literary productions of Nova Scotia are 
 those of Judge Haliburton (Sam Slick), John Young, Esq., 
 Principal Dawson (now of McGill College, Montreal), Pro- 
 fessor Lyall, and the Rev. George Patterson. Haliburton's 
 History of Nova Scotia is a standard work of over seven 
 hundred and fifty pages octavo. It brings the history of 
 the province down only to the year 1828. The lighter 
 writings of the judge, under the nom de plume of Sam 
 Slick, are very popular, and widely known. The " Letters 
 of Agricola," by John Young, Esq., have been already 
 referred to. 
 
 Dr. Dawson's works are chiefly on geology. His Acadian 
 Geology and Archia are widely and very favoftibly known, 
 both in Europe and America. His Remarks on Agricul- 
 ture and Husbandry are also very valuable. His attain- 
 ments in natural science are not second to those of any on 
 this continent, while his style, for simplicity, elegance, terse- 
 ness, and quiet power, is equalled only by very few Kving 
 naturalists. 
 
 " Intellect, Emotions, and the Moral Nature," has ranked 
 Professor Lyall already with the foremost thinkers and 
 writers of the present day. 
 
 " Memoirs of Dr. McGregor," by the Rev. George Pat- 
 terson, is a work of much interest and well written. The 
 late Dr. MacCulloch was a writer of no ordinary power, 
 and has left behind him some theological works. The 
 Hon. Joseph Howe, the present premier of Nova Scotia, 
 is one of our most beautiful and effective writers. He has 
 
725 
 
 produced some political brochures of great power — always 
 written in a fascinating style. I^o poet of any mark has 
 yet made his appearance in Nova Scotia. There are nu- 
 merous versifier^ among us, but hardly any that has arisen 
 to the dignity of a poet. The nearest approach to poetry 
 has been made by some of our female writers. 
 
 The following list of the governors of Kova Scotia is 
 from Haliburton's History, as far as it comes down, and 
 the remaining ones from, personal knowledge : 
 
 AT ANNAPOLIS ROYAL. 
 
 1. Colonel Vetch, Governor October 22, 1710. 
 
 2. Francis Nicholson, Esq 1714. 
 
 3. Richard Philips, Esq 1719. 
 
 4. John Doucet,*Esq., Senior Councillor, administers government 1722. 
 
 5. Lawrence Armstrong, Esq., Lieutenant-Governor 1725. 
 
 6. John Adams, Esq., Senior Councillor December 8, 1739. 
 
 7. Paul Mascarene, Esq., Lieutenant-Governor 1740. 
 
 AT HALIFAX. 
 
 Edward Cornwallis, Governor, July 14 1749 
 
 Peregrine Thomas Hopson, Governor, Aug. 3 1752 
 
 Charles Lawrence, Senior Councillor, Nov. 1 1753 
 
 do do Lieutenant-Governor, Oct. 21 1754 
 
 do do Governor, July 23 1756 
 
 Jonathan Belcher administers government, Oct. 9 1760 
 
 Mr. Ellis, late Governor of Georgia, is appointed Governor of 
 
 Nova Scotia, but never leaves England 
 
 Jonathan Belcher, Lieutenant-Governor, Nov. 21 1761 
 
 Montague Wilmot, Lieutenant-Governor, Sept. 26 1763 
 
 do do Governor, May 31 1764 
 
 Mr. Green, Senior Councillor, May 23 1766 
 
 Michael Franklin, Lieut. Governor, Aug. 26 1766 
 
 Right Hon. Lord Wm. Campbell, Governor, Nov. 27 1766 
 
 Benjamin Green, Senior Councillor, Oct. 30 1771 
 
 Michael Franklin, Lieut. Governor, June 30 1772 
 
 Lord Wm. Campbell resumes government, July 13 1772 
 
 Francis Legge, Governor, Oct. 8 1773 
 
 Mariot Arbuthnot, Lieut. Governor, April 27 1776 
 
 Richard Hughes, Lieutenant Governor, Aug. 17 1778 
 
 Sir Andrew Snope Hammond, Lieut. Governor, July 31 1781 
 
 John Parr, Governor, Oct. 9 1782 
 
 Edward Fanning, Lieut. Governor, Sept. 23 1783 
 
 Richard Bulkley, Senior Councillor, Nov. 25 1791 
 
 John Went worth, Lieut. Governor, May 14 1792 
 
 Sir George Prevost, Lieut. Governor, April 13 1808 
 
726 GENEBAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 
 
 Alexander Croke, Senior Councillor, Dec. 17 ^m^^ 4f^'^>' ^^08 
 
 Sir George Prevost, Lieut. Governor, April 11 1809 
 
 Alexander Croke, Senior Councillor, Aug. 26 1811 
 
 Sir John Sherbrooke, Lieut. Governor, Oct. 16 1811 
 
 Major-General Darrook, Commander-in-chief, Aug. 26 1814 
 
 Sir John Sherbrooke, Lieut. Governor, Sept. 21 1814 
 
 Major-General Geo. Tracy Smith, Commander-in-chief, June 27 1816 
 Lieut. General Eight Hon. Geo. Earl of Dalhousie, Lieut. Gov- 
 ernor, Oct. 24 1816 
 
 Michael Wallace, Senior Councillor, Sept. 13 1818 
 
 Lord Dalhousie, resumes May 1 1819 
 
 Sir James Kempt, Lieut. Governor, June 2 1820 
 
 Michael Wallace, Senior Councillor, May 19 1824 
 
 Sir James Kempt, do do Aug. 22 1825 
 
 Michael Wallace, do do May 26 1825 
 
 Sir James Kempt, do do July 18 1828 
 
 Michael Wallace, do do Aug. 23 1828 
 
 Sir Peregrine Mailand do 1828 
 
 Sir Colin Campbell, Lieut. Governor 1834 
 
 Lord Falkland, Lieut. Governor 1840 
 
 Sir John Harvey, Lieut. Governor 1846 
 
 Colonel J. Bazalgette, Com 1852 
 
 Sir J. G. La Marchant 1852 
 
 Earl of Mulgrave 1858 
 
 During one hundred and fifty-five years, the province had forty- 
 nine administrators of its government. 
 
 SABLE ISLAND. 
 
 This little island is a dependency of ITova Scotia. It 
 is between 44 degrees and 43 degrees and 54 minutes north 
 latitude, and between 60 degrees 12 minutes and 59 degrees 
 40 minutes west longitude. It is about eighty-seven geo- 
 graphical miles from Cape Canseau, the nearest point in 
 S"ova Scotia to it. It is over twenty-five miles in length, 
 and varies from one to two miles in breadth. It is merely 
 a sand-bank thrown up by the sea and wind. Its highest 
 hillocks are one hundred feet high. Coarse grass, cran- 
 berry and whortleberry bushes cover the greater part bf 
 its surface. It is famous chiefly as the scene of numerous 
 shipwrecks, for its position is in the usual track of ships 
 sailing between Great Britain and Nova Scotia, and is sur- 
 rounded by shoals, which are very dangerous to navigators. 
 A superintendent and a stafi* of men are now placed on 
 the island, and maintained at the joint expense of Kova 
 
GENERAL CIVILTZATION, ETC. T2T 
 
 Scotia and Great Britain, for tlie express purpose of afford* 
 ing assistance and protection to distressed seamen. Its 
 cost to ]^ova Scotia for the year 1860 was $3,854.44. The 
 island is visited statedly by a government vessel, for the 
 two-fold purpose of conveying necessary supplies to the 
 island, and bringing off those who have been thrown on 
 shore. The island is searched all round after every storm. 
 The commission takes possession of the wrecks and prop- 
 erty saved, and sells them for the benefit of the owner, 
 retaining a salvage for the benefit of the establishment. 
 There is not a tree on the whole island. It has one lake — 
 Lake Wallace, eighteen miles long, and nearly a mile wide. 
 Between this lake and the sea there is a narrow ridge or 
 wall of sand, about two hundred yards in width. Some 
 years ago a breach was made in this wall on the north side, 
 by a violent storm, and an inlet was formed which con- 
 verted this lake into a very commodious harbor for small 
 coasters. A storm similar to that which opened it closed 
 it again, blockading two small American shallops, which 
 had taken shelter there. The house of the superintendent 
 is on the north side of the lake, opposite its centre. Eng- 
 lish rabbits, and a species of ponies — "Sable Island po- 
 nies" — are the only wild animals running at large, and 
 subsisting on the products of the island. The rabbits are 
 very numerous, and good for food. The ponies are small, 
 but active and strong, and surprisingly hardy. Some hun- 
 dred years ago this was a favorite resort of fishermen, for 
 the purpose of killing morse and seal. They are now all 
 but exterminated, especially the former. 
 
 't no ;- . * .'nehm i; 
 
 . \S\i\K\k <.iH ffo If, v/iD r,. T .•SjjjoiodelUH ^9i/p 
 
728 siruATiON, extent, eto. 
 
 PEINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SITUATION, EXTENT, GENERAL FEATURES, EARLY HIS- 
 TORY, ifec 
 
 Prince Edward Island is situated in that large recess 
 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence which washes the shores of 
 Cape Breton, IN'ova Scotia, and IN'ew Brunswick. It is be- 
 tween 45° 57^ and 47 7^ north latitude, and between 62° and 
 64° 26' west longitude. Its distance from New Brunswick 
 at the nearest point is nine miles ; from IS^ova Scotia, fifteen 
 miles ; from Cape Breton, thirty miles. 
 
 On the CRst, north, and west, it is bounded by the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence, and on the south by the Northumberland 
 Strait. 
 
 Extent. — ^Its extreme length is 130 miles ; its greatest 
 breadth, thirty-four miles. Its area is 2,133 square miles, 
 or 1,365,400 acres. 
 
 General Features. — ^In form, the island somewhat re- 
 sembles a crescent, the concave side being toward the 
 gulf. In general appearance it is flat and gently undu- 
 lating. There are no mountains, and the several ranges 
 of hills which lie across the country, nowhere rise to any 
 considerable height. 
 
 The north-eastern and southern shores of the island are 
 much indented by bays, harbors, and inlets ; on the west 
 there is an almost unbroken shore, without bay or harbor. 
 
 The principal 5^^2/5 are Holland, Grenville, Harris, Cove- 
 head, Bedford, and St. Peter's, on the north; Egmont, 
 Bedeque, Hillsborough, Pownal, and Orwell, on the south ; 
 
SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. 729 
 
 and Cardigan, Boughton, Howe, Hollo, and Colville on the 
 east. 
 
 The chief harbors are Charlottetown, Georgetown, Be- 
 deque, Cascampec, Porthill, !N^ew London, and Murray 
 •"harbors. 
 
 The lakes are few and small. The jponds or lagoons are 
 numerous. 
 
 The principal rivers are the East, West, and North 
 Bivers, meeting in the harbor of Charlottetown ; the Ellis, 
 opening on Richmond Bay ; the Morell, flowing into St. 
 Peter's Bay ; and the Cardigan, Brudnell, and Montague, 
 flowing into Cardigan Bay. 
 
 The principal capes are J^orth Point, Kildare Cape, 
 Cape Tryon, Cape Turner, East Point, Colville Point, 
 Terras Point, Cape Bear, Point Prim, Cape Traverse, In- 
 dian Point, Cape Egmont, and "West Point. 
 
 In Richmond Bay there are two islands^ Lennox and 
 Bunbury ; in Cardigan Bay are Panmure and Boughton ; 
 in Hillsborough Bay are St. Peter's and Governor's Islands. 
 
 Early History. — In all probability this island was 
 discovered in the year 1497, after the discovery of ]^ew- 
 foundland. Good authorities diifer in opinion as to the 
 exact date of its discovery, no details of Cabot's first 
 voyage having been preserved. It was nearly two centu 
 ries after its discovery before any attempt was made to 
 colonize it. The Abenaki and MiomaG Indians were its 
 original inhabitants. 
 
 It is mentioned, and accurately described, as to situa- 
 tion and extent, by Champlain, the founder of Quebec, 
 under the name St. John. It retained this name till the 
 year 1800. It was included by the French in that exten- 
 sive territory called New France. In 1663, it was granted 
 to Sieur Doublet, a captain in the French navy, for fish- 
 ing purposes. It was not, however, till early in the eigh- 
 teenth century, that this island began to be the permanent 
 home of Europeans. A few families from Acadia, with 
 occasional settlers from Cape Breton, were its first settlers. 
 
730 
 
 In 1728, the European settlers were only sixty families* 
 These sixty families were chiefly Acadians, who had re- 
 moved from Kova Scotia after the Treaty of Utrecht. 
 
 In 1752, the whole population of the island was esti- 
 mated at 1,354. The sections of the island at that time 
 most thickly settled, were the lands on both sides of Point 
 Prim, the lands about St. Peter's Bay, Savage Harbor, 
 Charlottetown Harbor, and Hillsborough Bay. 
 
 The expulsion of the Acadians from !N"ova Scotia was 
 the means of more than doubling the population of the 
 island. When it became a British possession, in 1758, the 
 inhabitants numbered 4,100. By the treaty of Fontaine 
 bleau, in 1763, this island was finally ceded to Great 
 Britain. It was then placed under the government ot 
 Nova Scotia. In 1764, iii common with the other British 
 American territories, the British government ordered thr 
 survey of the island. This survey was begun in the spring 
 of 1764, and completed in 1766. After the completion of 
 the survey, ho doubt remained as to the superior quality 
 of the land of this island for agricultural purposes. Vari- 
 ous plans for its settlement were proposed. Lord Egmont 
 proposed that it should be settled on a feudal plan ; that 
 he himself should preside as lord paramount, and that 
 a number of baronies should be held from him, — each 
 baron to erect a stronghold, and with their under-tenants 
 and men-at-arms to perform suit and service, after the cus- 
 tom of the ancient feudal tenures of Europe.* This plan 
 was rejected as impracticable. The plan adopted was far 
 from satisfactory in its results. It was to the following 
 effect : — ^The island was divided into a given number of 
 townships, or lots — sixty-seven. These townships, or lots, 
 or parts of them, with certain reservations, were to be 
 granted to parties having claims upon the government, 
 upon certain conditions of settlement, and the payment 
 of quit-rents. Lot sixty-six, about 6,000 acres, was reserved 
 for the crown. Lots forty and fifty-nine had already been 
 
 * Montgomery Martin. 
 
SITITATION, EXTIJNT, ETC. 731 
 
 promised to parties who had made improvements on them. 
 Sixtj-four townships, or lots, remained to be disposed of. 
 There were more applicants than lots. Thej were disposed 
 of by means of the ballot-box. " "When an individual was 
 to receive a whole lot, his name alone appeared on the slip 
 of paper ; in other cases two, and sometimes three names 
 were inscribed on one paper, as sharers in one lot. Upwards 
 of one hundred individuals participated in these grants.'*"* 
 These grants were made in 1767. 
 
 A town-lot and royalty were reserved in each county ; 
 while each township was to furnish a glebe-lot of one 
 hundred acres for a minister of the Gospel, and a lot of 
 thirty acres for a school-master. The quit-rents were of 
 three rates, six shillings, four shillings, and two shillings, 
 annually, per hundred acres. 
 
 The grantees were to settle on each lot a settler for 
 every 200 acres, within ten years from the date of the 
 grant. The settlers were to be Protestants, from the parts 
 of Europe not belonging to Great Britain, or persons that 
 had resided in America for two years prior to the date of 
 the grant. Emigration from the mother country was then 
 discouraged, from the prevailing notion that it would de- 
 populate the country. 
 
 At the request of the majority of the grantees, the island 
 was separated from the province of l^ova Scotia, and 
 obtained a separate government, 1770. Its first governor 
 as a separate colony was Walter Patterson, Esq. ^''^j ■'"* 
 
 When ten years had elapsed, there was but very Kttlo 
 done toward fulfilling the conditions on which the land 
 was granted to the several proprietors. 'No attempt had 
 been made to settle forty-eight of the sixty-seven lots, or 
 townships, into which the island was divided. The pro- 
 prietors of only ten lots had shown any conscientious zeal 
 in fulfilling the conditions of their grants. Sir James 
 Montgomery deserves to be named first among those who 
 
 * Sutherland. Geography and Natural and Civil History of the Island; 
 an excellent work. 
 
Y32 SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. 
 
 had done their duty in this matter. The grand object of 
 the majority of the proprietors was, how to make the 
 greatest gain with the least trouble and expense. 
 
 This land question has been the standing grievance of the 
 island for the last ninety years. 
 
 In 1781, nine whole and five half townships were sold 
 for the payment of quit-rents. In 1797, it was found upon 
 investigation, under direction of the provincial parliament, 
 that twenty-three lots, embracing 458,580 acres, had not a 
 single family settled on them ; twelve other lots, containing 
 243,000 acres, had only thirty-six families ; six other lots, 
 containing 120,000 acres, had only forty-eight families. 
 The whole population at this time was estimated at 4,500. 
 The knowledge of these facts led to an agitation for the 
 escheat of the lands of those proprietors who made no 
 effort to fulfil the conditions of their grants. 
 
 In the year 1798, a bill passed the provincial legislature, 
 changing the name of the island from St. John to Pbince 
 Edward. Inconvenience had arisen from the island hav- 
 ing the same name with the capitals of two neighboring 
 provinces. The people of the island were anxious to mark 
 their gratitude to Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the 
 father of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, for kindness ex- 
 tended to them; they therefore resolved to call their 
 country by his name, the change to take effect from the 
 commencement of 1800. At this period the population 
 of the island was not over 5,000. 
 
 At the beginning of the present century the arrears of 
 quit-rent amounted to £59,162 sterling. A very liberal 
 arrangement was made by the government for the pay- 
 ment of these arrears. The lots were divided into Jim 
 classes. The first, those which had the full number of 
 settlers, were to pay only four years' quit-rent, for the 
 amount of arrears from 1769 to 1801. The second class, 
 those having only half the required number of settlers, 
 were to pay five years' quit-rent. The third class, those 
 having less than a half and more than a fourth of the re 
 
SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. 733 
 
 quired population, were to pay nine years' quit-rent. The 
 fourth class, those which had less than a fourth of the 
 required number of settlers, were to pay twelve years' 
 rent. The fifth class embraced those lots or townships 
 that were wholly unsettled; fifteen years' quit-rent was 
 required in their case in lieu of all arrears. This was less 
 than half the amount owed by this class. This arrange- 
 ment had a very beneficial effect on the prosperity of the 
 island. Rapid progress in population and social comfort 
 followed. 
 
 There were some proprietors who did not avail them- 
 selves of this commutation ; it became necessary, therefore, 
 to proceed against theni for the recovery of the quit-rents 
 due from them. In 1804, judgments were obtained against 
 ten townships, five half-townships, and one-third of a 
 township. It seems, however, that the nonpaying proprie- 
 tors had sufficient influence with the home government to 
 prevent the act under which their lands were seized from 
 receiving the royal assent. Under the administration of 
 Governor Smith, lots 15 and 55 were escheated. He was 
 prevented from further progress with that work by orders 
 from the king. 
 
 The old conditions for settling the island having been 
 cancelled, as far as they required the immigrants to be 
 Protestants from the parts of Europe not belonging to 
 Great Britain, and the quit-rents having been made light- 
 er, a very healthy impetus was given to the prosperity of 
 the island. 
 
 In 1803, the Earl of Selkirk settled about 800 High 
 landers on his lands, who soon, by dint of industry, became 
 comfortable and prosperous farmers. In subsequent years 
 immigrants continued to arrive from Scotland, Ireland, 
 and England ; so that in the year 1832, the population in- 
 creased to 32,292. From that time onwards, the history 
 of this little colony has been that of true progress, in &u 
 that tends to make a country truly great. 
 
734: 
 
 CHAPTEE n. 
 
 NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, Ac. 
 
 j^ This island differs from the neighboring provinces, in 
 respect of natural resources, in having no mines or min- 
 erals. Its chief natural resources may be comprised under 
 these three : the forest, the soil, the sea, [ tu'[fiH h^mh 
 
 The Forest. — The whole island was at one time covered 
 with a magnificent growth of forest trees ; birch, beech, 
 maple, elm, ash, pine, spruce, hemlock, fir, juniper, cedar, 
 willow, and poplar, are the chief varieties. There are 
 hardly any barrens in this island ; even where destructive 
 fires, or the constant encroachments of lumbermen, de- 
 stroyed the original forest, a new growth of trees spring 
 up with wonderful rapidity, and become fit for fuel or 
 fence-poles. At one time a very extensive lumber trade 
 was carried on in several districts of the island. Ship- 
 building is still carried on to a considerable extent. 
 
 The Soil. — There is no portion of the lower provinces 
 where agriculture can be prosecuted with better prospects 
 of a good return than in this island. The soil is strong 
 and rich to an uncommonly uniform degree. Even the 
 swamps, with which we meet occasionally, are hardly an 
 exception to this statement, for when drained and limed, 
 they make good hay land. The peat bogs, which, accord- 
 ing to Dr. Gesner, are of excellent quality, will one day 
 afford good fuel. They afford also good material for com- 
 posted manure. The most extensive of these is on t}ie 
 south side of Cascampee harbor. Such is the excellence 
 of the soil, that good crops are produced immediately on 
 its being redeemed from the forest, and for a long time the 
 yield is good, though it remain entirely unmanured, if any 
 attention is given to the rotation of crops. The soil seems 
 equally adapted to the growth of wheat, oats, and potatoes. 
 The facilities for making manure are very great. The 
 
NATUEAL EESOURCES, CLIMATE, ETC. 735 
 
 bogs, to which reference has been already made, supply 
 one source. The rivers — rather, arms of the sea — creeks, 
 and inlets, which almost everywhere indent the land, have 
 deposited vast stores of sea-manure, which, when spread 
 over the exhausted soil, has the most beneficial effect in 
 fertilizing it. The quadrupeds and birds of this island 
 are, with few exceptions, of the same kind with those of 
 iSlcva Scotia and New Brunswick. 
 
 The Sea. — It is enough to say of the waters of Prince 
 Edward Island, that they are not one whit behind those 
 of JSTova Scotia in the abundance and excellence of their 
 fish. The rivers kbound with excellent trout, eels, fioun- 
 ders, mackerel, oysters, Iqbsters, and salmon ; and the 
 coast with cod and herring. The oysters of this island 
 are very superior, and large quantities of them are export- 
 ed annually. The halibut and sturgeons that are caught 
 on the coast, are usually very large. In former times the 
 walrus was wont to frequent the shores in large numbers, 
 and was a source of considerable profit. The harbor seals 
 and harp seals float on the ice toward the north shore in 
 large numbers. Wild geese, wild pigeons, wild ducks, and 
 brant are also very plentiful in their seasons. 
 
 Climate. — This island, being situated in the centre of 
 the temperate zone, has a climate that is neither extremely 
 cold nor hot. The variations from the coldest day in winter 
 to the hottest day in summelr are however very considerable. 
 On rare occasions, under a keen northwest wind the mercury 
 will be found falling as low as 23 degrees below zero ; and 
 on a calm day in July or August, it will rise as high as 90 
 degrees in the shade. In some sections of Nova Scotia and 
 New Brunswick it rises higher in summer and falls lower 
 in winter than it ever does in this island. The mean tem- 
 perature of the year is 40 degrees. The number of days of 
 falling weather in a year ranges from 120 to 140 days. 
 The climate of this island is conducive to health and longev- 
 ity in a high degree. The atmosphere is pure, and re- 
 markably free from fogs. The water is good and very 
 
736 INDUSTRIAL KESOTJBCES. 
 
 abundant. Many of the prevailing fevers and diseases of 
 the I^orth American continent are almost unknown in this 
 island. Healthy and vigorous old age is rather the rule 
 than the exception here. 
 
 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 
 
 Agricultural. — Agriculture overshadows every othei 
 department of industry in this island. When in the posses- 
 sion of the French, large quantities of grain were supplied 
 from this island to their fortresses at Louisburg and Quebec. 
 They called it even then the granary of North America. 
 Individual farmers were then wont to export 1,200 bushels 
 of grain annually. The soil and the climate are equalJy 
 favorable to the pursuit of agriculture. Wheat, oats, barley, 
 and rye, of excellent quality, and at a highly remunerative 
 rate per acre, are raised. The potatoes of Prince Edward 
 Island are famous for their excellence, not only in the 
 British provinces but also in the United States ; beans and 
 peas, and all sorts of esculents and culinary vegetables, 
 grow to perfection, and yield large returns. Apples, plums, 
 cherries, currants, &c., grow well, and with due attention 
 yield ample returns. Excellent s]>ecimens of live-stock 
 are to be met with in every section of the island. Some 
 of the hardiest and swiftest horses in the lower provinces 
 are raised in Prince Edward Island. The following figures 
 will indicate the progress made in this department of in- 
 dustry during the last three-quarters of a century. 
 
 In 1825 there were raised on this island 766 bushels of 
 wheat; 10,717 bush, oats, and 47,220 bush, potatoes. In 
 1841 there was raised of wheat, 160,028 bush. ; of barley, 
 83,299 ; of oats, 611,824 ; of potatoes, 2,250114 bush. Num- 
 ber of horses, 9,861 ; of neat cattle, 41,915 ; sheep, 73,650 ; 
 hogs, 35,521. In 1860 (as shown by the census of 1861) 
 
INDUSTRIAL EES0UECE8. 1f37 
 
 there was raised of wheat, 346,125 bush.; of barley, 223,195 ; 
 oats, 2,218,578; buckwheat, 50,127; potatoes, 2,972,335; 
 turnips; 348,784; hay, 31,100 tons ; horses, 18,765; neat 
 cattle, 60,015 ; sheep, 107,242 ; hogs, 71,535. 
 
 In 1841 there were 141,560 acres of land under cultiva- 
 tion. In 1848 there were 215,389 acres cultivated. The 
 number has largely increased since that date. 
 
 The Fishing industry of this island is not what it might 
 have been, if the skill, energy, and enterprise of the inhabit- 
 ants had been a little more directed into that channel. There 
 is however a decided progress, as shown by recent statistics. 
 The late census (1861) gives as the product of the fisheries 
 during the preceding year : herrings and gaspereaux, 22,416 
 barrels ; mackerel, 7,163 barrels ; codfish, 39,776 quintals ; 
 fish oil, 17,608 gallons. There were 89 fishing establish- 
 ments, 1,239 boats, and 2,318 persons employed in the 
 fishery. 
 
 Ship-Building is not carried on to the same extent that it 
 was some years ago ; still, a good many vessels are built an- 
 nually, in proportion to the population. In 1846, 82 vessels 
 were built, whose tonnage was 12,012 ; estimated value, 
 $330,000. In 1847, 96 vessels were built, tonnage, 18,445 ; 
 value, $553,350. In 1860, QQ vessels were built, value, 
 $309,225. 
 
 The Manufacturing industry of the island is not very 
 extensive. The statistical returns of 1861 give the follow- 
 ing items under the head of manufactories : grist-mills, 141; 
 carding mills, 46 ; saw-mills, 176 ; fulling and dressingmills, 
 9; tanneries, 55 ; lime-kilns, 48; biick-kilns, 9. In 1848 
 there were 13 breweries and distilleries. In 1860 there were 
 122,940 yards of cloth fulled ; and 303,676 yards of cloth 
 manufactured, not fulled ; 143,803 lbs. of leather manufac- 
 tured ; 1,331,000 bricks manufactured; 711,485 lbs. of 
 butter, and 109,233 lbs. of cheese. 
 
 Commercial. — The commerce of Prince Edward Island 
 is mainly with the British provinces, the United States of 
 America, and Great Britain. 
 
738 
 
 The total value of the imports of Prince Edward Island 
 for 1847, was $718,270 ; total value of exports for the same 
 year, $356,130. Of the imports, $286,065 were from Great 
 Britain ; $395,505 from the British provinces, and $35,325 
 from foreign countries. Of the exports, Great Britain re- 
 ceived $160,98 ; the British provinces, $190,315 ; West 
 Indies, $1,215 ; foreign countries, $1,105. In 1850, the 
 whole value of imports to the island was $630,175 ; of 
 exports, $325,990. The value of the exports for 1860 waa 
 $1,015,970, exclusive of sixty-six new vessels which were 
 built that year. The trade of the island- with the United 
 States has largely increased of late years. The value of 
 exports from Prince Edward Island to that country during 
 1860, was $390,028 ; being almost as much as the exports 
 to all the lower provinces together. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 POPULATION, EDUCATION, CIYIL INSTITUTIONS, &o. 
 
 PopuLATiojs-. — ^In 1752, the whole population of the 
 island was but 1354 souls. In 1758, when it became a 
 British possession, the inhabitants numbered only 4,100. 
 
 In 1822, the population had increased to 24,600; in 
 1833, it was 32,292; in 1841, it was 47,034; in 1851, 
 65,000 ; and by the census of 1861, it was 80,856. 
 
 The vast majority of the inhabitants are natives of the 
 island. Of those from abroad, the largest number are 
 Scotchmen, next Irish, then English ; after tliat, British 
 colonists. The number from foreign countries is but very 
 small. 
 
 Religious Denominations. — ^The Roman Catholics are 
 the most numerous of all the religious bodies on this 
 island. The number of the adherents of this faith is, 
 85,797. They have one bishop and twelve clergymen. 
 
739 
 
 The PEESBTTEKiAxf s, numericallj, take rank next. They 
 number 25,925. They have fifteen clergymen. 
 
 The Episoopalzans come next in point of numbers, be- 
 ing 6,785. They have one arch-deacon and nine clergymen. 
 
 The Wesleyans number 5,804. They have seven cler- 
 gymen and one supernumerary. The Baptists number 
 3,402, and have seven clergymen. The Bible Ohbistians 
 number 2,061, and have five clergymen. There are forty- 
 one Universalists, and about 300 who name themselves on 
 no denomination. 
 
 Education. — The first efibrt toward the promotion of 
 public education was made by opening the IsTational School, 
 in Charlottetown, about the year 1821. 
 
 The Board of Education was appointed in 1830. It 
 consisted of five members, three of whom formed a quo- 
 rum for the transaction of business. The Central Academy^, 
 at Charlottetown, was opened in Januai;y, 1836. The fii'st 
 principal of this institution was the Rev. Charles LoydL In 
 1837, a further impulse was given to the cause of a sound 
 and thorough education, by the appointment, for the- first 
 time, of a visitor of schools for the whole island. John 
 Mcl^iel, Esq., was appointed to this ofiice. The- number 
 of schools at that period, was fifty -one ; scholars, 1,649. 
 In 1847, when Mr. McKiel resigned this important work, 
 the schools had increased to 120, and the pupils to 5,000. 
 In 1851, the number of schools was 135 ; of scholars, 
 5,360. In 1856, the number of schools was 260 ; of 
 scholars, 11,000. Towards the close of the same year, a 
 Normal School, for the training of teachers, was opened. 
 It is the law of Prince Edward Island, that the Bible be 
 read in all the public schools. This law was passed in 
 1860, after much agitation on the subject. 
 
 The census of 1861 gives 302 public school-houses, and 
 280 public teachers. 
 
 The number of churches is 156. 
 
 Civil Government. — This island, like the neighboring 
 provinces, is a British colony. Like all the North Ameri- 
 47 
 
740 POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC. 
 
 can colonies, it enjoys the fullest freedom to make and 
 administer whatever laws are best suited to its peculiar 
 circumstances, without any interference by the parent 
 state. 
 
 The Legislature consists of the Governor, who is ap- 
 pointed by the Queen, a Legislative Council, and a House 
 of Eepresentatives. 
 
 The House of Assembly, or Representatives, consists of 
 thirty members, and the Legislative Council of twelve 
 members. Both these bodies are elected by the people. 
 The island is divided for civil purposes into three coun- 
 ties — ^King's, Queen's, and Prince's; each of these elects 
 ten representatives and four councillors. 
 
 The Executive Council consists of the Governor and 
 nine members, chosen out of the members of the Legis- 
 lative Council and House of Assembly. 
 
 The Judicial Department embraces the following 
 courts : 1. The Commissioners' Courts^ for small debts. 
 These have jurisdiction in settling debts that do not ex- 
 ceed sixty dollars. Each county has six or seven of 
 these courts. They consist of three commissioners, ap- 
 pointed by government. They meet monthly, and are de- 
 signed to prevent expensive litigation. 2. The Court of 
 Probate^ which disposes of wills^ and grants letters of ad- 
 ministration for the disposal of the property of such as die 
 intestate. 3. The Supreme Courts which is the highest tri- 
 bunal of civil law. It meets four times in the year in Queen's 
 county, and twice a year in the two other counties. It is 
 presided over by a Chief-Justice and one Assistant Judge. 
 4. The Court of Chancery, of which the Lieutenant-Gov- 
 ernor is chancellor, and the master of the rolls the acting 
 judge. This court adjudicates in cases which cannot be 
 satisfactorily determined by statute law. It aims at de- 
 ciding according to the equity of the case. 6. Tlie Court 
 of Yice-Adm/iralty, which is similar in function to the 
 court of the same name in the other provinces. 6. The 
 Court of Marriage and Divorce. The Lieutenant-Gover- 
 
POPULATION, EDTJCATIONj ETO. 741 
 
 nor is the president of this court, and the Executive-Coun- 
 cil are the members of it. It exists, as yet, but in name. 
 
 The First House of Assembly of Prince Edward Island 
 met in July, 1Y73. It consisted of eighteen members. The 
 Legislative and Executive Councils were then one body, 
 appointed by the sovereign. 
 
 The island was connected with IN'ova Scotia, in respect 
 of civil government, till the year 1770. In that year it 
 was erected into a separate province. Its first governor, 
 as a separate province, was : 
 
 1. "Walter Patterson, Esq., whose term was 
 
 from 
 
 n'ZO to 1786 
 
 2. Lieut. General Edmund Fanning, " 
 
 (( 
 
 1786 " 1805 
 
 3. Colonel Joseph F. W. Debarres, '• 
 
 (i 
 
 1808 " 1813 
 
 4. Charles Douglas Smith, Esq., " 
 
 (( 
 
 1813 " 1824 
 
 5. Colonel John Ready, " 
 
 <i 
 
 1824 " 1831 
 
 6. Sir Aretes W. Toung, " 
 
 i( 
 
 1831 " 1835 
 
 1. Sir John Harvey, " 
 
 « 
 
 1836 " 1837 
 
 8. Sir Charles Augustus Fitzroy, " 
 
 (t 
 
 1837 " 1841 
 
 9. Sir Henry Vere Huntly, " 
 
 (1 
 
 1841 " 1847 
 
 10. Sir Donald Campbell, " 
 
 (1 
 
 1847 " 1850 
 
 H. Sir Alexander Bannerman, " 
 
 (t 
 
 1851 " 1854 
 
 12. Sir Dominic Daly " 
 
 <i 
 
 1854 " 1859 
 
 George Dundas, Esq., became governor in 1859, and con- 
 tinues still. He is one of the most deservedly popular 
 governors the island ever had. 
 
 The Public Debt of the island on the 31st of January, 
 1861, was $155,324. To meet this debt, there are 4,190 
 acres of crown lands, and 73,821 acres of public lands, as 
 well as $66,278 due in instalments for sales of public lands, 
 and bearing interest at five per cent. 
 
 Revenue and ExPENDnuRE. — For 1859, the revenue 
 amounted to £41,106 3^. lld.^ Prince Edward Island cur- 
 rency. The expenditure for that year was £44,707 13^. l^d. 
 For 1860, the revenue was £43,113 13^. 5d The expen- 
 diture for that year, was £61,794 12^. 9^. The excess of 
 expenditure over revenue during these years, is to be ac- 
 counted for by the expensive purchase of the large estates 
 of the Earl of Selkirk, for the public good. 
 
 The city of Charlottetown is the capital of the island. 
 
Y4:2 POPULATION, EDUCATION, ETC. 
 
 It is built on gently rising ground, looking toward the 
 south. It is on the north of the East river, and near its junc- 
 tion with the North and West rivers. The streets cross 
 each other at right angles. The six main streets are one 
 hundred feet wide, and run north and south. The other 
 nine streets, crossing the former at right angles, vary in 
 width from sixty to thirty feet. The colonial building is 
 a beautiful and commodious edifice, built of ISTova Scotia 
 freestone. The corner-stone of this building was laid on 
 the 16th day of May, 1843, by Sir Henry Yere Huntly, 
 the lieutenant-governor. This building cost about $72,500. 
 In 1848, the population of Charlottetown was 4,000 ; in 
 1855, 6,513 ; in 1861, 6,706. 
 
 The only town in King's county is Georgetown. It is 
 about thirty miles from the capital, and contains a popu- 
 lation of about 800. 
 
 The only town in Prince's county is Summerside. It 
 lies on the north side of Bedeque harbor. Its distance from 
 the capital is forty miles. It is only thirty-five miles from 
 the town of Shediac, New Brunswick. It is a town of re- 
 cent growth, but it is rapidly increasing, and its trade is 
 considerable. 
 
 There are no railways in Prince Edward Island, but its 
 highways are excellent in summer and winter ; in the fall 
 and spring they are usually very deep and miry. There is 
 no country of the same size in British North America 
 where there is so much good turnpike road. It has 
 telegraphic communication with the continent of America 
 by means of a submarine cable, eleven miles in length, 
 connecting it with New Brunswick. There is also tele- 
 graphic communication between Charlottetown and some 
 of the principal places in the island. 
 
 The standing grievance of Prince Edward Island has 
 been the Land Question. The royal commissioners, who 
 Bat on this subject in 1861, among other things, recom- 
 mend the purchase of the estates of large non-resident pro- 
 prietors by the government, at an equitable rate, to be sold 
 
POPUL-ATION, EDUCATION, ETC. 743 
 
 again in retail to the tenants. If the government decline, 
 or is not in circumstances to make the purchase, then the 
 award of the commissioners is, that the sale of the land to 
 the occupant tenants be compulsory on the part of the 
 landlords, on the receipt of a just and reasonable price. 
 They also fixed twenty years' rent as the highest sum that 
 could be demanded by any proprietor. The award further 
 determines, that all arrears of rent due previous to first of 
 May, 1858, are now cancelled. Their report is very able 
 and elaborate, and has had a beneficial effect already. It 
 may be further noticed, that their award does not compel 
 proprietors of less than 1,500 acres to sell their lands to 
 those who may be occupying them as tenants. 
 
NEWFOUNDLAOT). 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 SITUATION, DISCOYERT, AND EARLY HISTORY. 
 
 Situation- and Extent. — ^Newfoundland is an island in 
 the form of an irregular triangle, situate on the east side 
 of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and lying between the paral- 
 lels of 46° 40' and 51° 39' north latitude, and the meridians 
 of 62° 44' and 59° 31' west longitude. On the eastern 
 shore it is bounded by the Atlantic ; on the north and 
 northeast by the Strait of Bellisle — fifty miles long by 
 twelve wide ; on the northwest by the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence ; on the south and southwest by the Atlantic. Its 
 extreme length, from Cape Race to Grignet Bay, is 420 
 miles ; extreme breadth, from Cape Ray to Cape Bonavista, 
 300 miles. Its circuit is estimated at 1,000 miles ; its area, 
 36,000 square miles. It is nearer to Europe than any part 
 of the American continent ; the distance from St. John's, 
 in Newfoundland, to Yalenti, in the west of Ireland, being 
 1,656 miles. 
 
 Discovery, Settlement, &g. — ^It is said that in the year 
 1001, A. D., Biorn, a sea-king of Iceland, took possession 
 of this island, and settled near Harbor Grace. Both Rob- 
 ertson and Pinkerton are of opinion that its colonization 
 was at least attempted by the Norwegians, in the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries. John Cabot, the Yenetian, under a 
 commission for discovery from Henry YII. of England, 
 on the 24th of June, 1497, observed a headland of this 
 island, and taking it for a lucky omen, called it Bonavista, 
 which is its name till tlie present day. The island was 
 then inhabited by a savage race of Indians, with whom it 
 
SITUATION, DISCOVERY, &0. 745 
 
 was very difficult to establish any amicable relations. 
 They suffered greatly, in consequence, at the hands of the 
 many adventurers who resorted thither. It is supposed 
 that the last remnant of them emigrated to Labrador. It 
 is some years since one of them has been seen on the island. 
 A colony of Micmacs from Nova Scotia helped to drive 
 them off. They have left many traces of tlieir labors and 
 energy behind them : one of these is a fence, which extends 
 
 over thirty miles. Its object was to be of help to them in 
 catching deer. It was built from water to water, with one 
 gap, close to which the hunters posted themselves, and 
 w^atched for their prey. 
 
 The earliest attempt at colonizing this island by the 
 English, was in 1536. " Master John Hore," a London 
 merchant, " with divers other gentlemen," sailed thither 
 in that year, but were reduced to great extremities, and 
 were compelled to return to England in the winter, and 
 would have perished had they not met with a French ship 
 laden with provisions, which they seized and brought with 
 them to England. , 
 
 In 1578, another fruitless attempt was made to settle a 
 colony there, by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the half-brother 
 of Sir Walter Ealeigh. The island having now become a 
 common resort for fishermen and traders of all nations, 
 even pirates having made it a place of rendezvous with 
 impunity, Sii; Humphrey Gilbert again, in 1583, embarked 
 with 200 people, in several ships, landed at Bay St. 
 John's, and took possession of it in the name of Queen 
 Elizabeth of England, in the presence of the crews of 
 thirty-six fishing vessels of various nations. Sir Hum- 
 phrey Gilbert was lost on his way home to England the 
 succeeding winter, his little ship, the Little Squirrel^ hav- 
 ing foundered in a terrific gale near the Azores. Of all 
 the armament that went out with him, the Golden Hind 
 alone reached England, and she in the most dilapidated 
 condition. Sir Bernard Drake made a further attempt a 
 few years later, but without much success. The next 
 
746 SITUATION, DISCOYEKT, &C. 
 
 attempt was made in 1610, under a patent granted by 
 ♦ James I., to Lord Bacon and others, who established the 
 first permanent colony on the island at Conception Bay. 
 
 In 1617, a Welsh settlement was established on the south 
 part of the island, called Cambriol (now Little Britain), 
 under the direction of Captain Whitbourne. In 1623, 
 Sir George Calvert — who afterward, as Lord Baltimore, 
 settled Maryland — formed an important and prosperous 
 settlement at Ferryland, where he remained about twenty 
 years. A few years later, Lord Falkland (Cary) sent a 
 small colony of Irishmen there. About the year 1646 
 there were sixteen settlements planted on various parts of 
 the coast. Sir David Kirk brought a number of settlers 
 to the island in 1654. There were 350 British families 
 there about this date. The French had a colony of some 
 strength at Placentia. For the next eighty years the 
 colony suffered greatly for the want of regular govern- 
 ment, which was mainly caused by the selfish cruelty and 
 mistaken policy of the "Lords of Trades and Planta- 
 tions," who imagined that a well regulated government 
 would be injurious to their interests there. They even 
 moved the British government, through their misrepresen- 
 tations and influence, to send Sir John Berry out with 
 orders for the deportation of the settlers, the destruction 
 of their houses, and the wholesale demolition of a colony 
 which had been planted and reared at a heavy cost of 
 blood and treasure to the nation. Sir John Berry was a 
 man of humane character, and while with his left hand 
 he reluctantly and tardily carried out his orders, with his 
 right hand he pleaded successfully for the colonists. 
 
 In 1696 all the English settlements of IS'ewfoundland, 
 except Bonavista and Carbonear, were seized by the French, 
 who alwa^ys set a high value on this island on account of 
 its fisheries. It was the scene of much conflict between 
 Great Britain and France, for many subsequent years. 
 The Treaties of Utrecht, 1715; of Paris, 1763; of Yer- 
 
TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, &C. 747 
 
 sailles, 1783 ; and of Paris, 1814 and 1815, all recognize 
 this island as a British possession. 
 
 It was in the year 1729 that Captain Osborne was ap- 
 pointed the first civil governor of this colony. He was 
 empowered to appoint justices of the peace. Courts of 
 justice were appointed in 1789. A few years later a 
 chief-justice was appointed, and surrogate courts in vari- 
 ous parts of the island. John Reaves, Esq., was the first 
 chief-justice of this colony. In 1824 the island was divided 
 into three districts, in each of which a court was annually 
 to be held. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, &o. 
 
 I^EWFOUNDLAND is in shapc almost an equilateral trian- 
 gle, the apex being to the northward, terminating in Cape 
 Bauld, while the base extends east and west between Cape 
 Ray and Cape Race. The coast-line is very irregular, 
 being indented at intervals of only a few miles with bays, 
 harbors, coves, creeks, and rivers. The shores are rocky, 
 and the headlands, on the south-west side, quite lofty. 
 
 Bats. — The most important bays are : on the east side 
 of the triangle, Hare, White, Kotre-Dame, Bay of Exploits, 
 Bonavista, Trinity, and Conception Bays; on the south 
 side, St. Mary's, Placentia, and Fortune Bays ; on the 
 west, St. George's and the Bay of Islands ; and at the 
 northern apex. Pistol et Bay. Most of theseare extensive, 
 and contain commodious and well-sheltered harbors. The 
 good harbors are numerous, and have good anchorages with 
 clear good channels. 
 
 RrvERS. — Rivers are numerous in the island, and though 
 the great majority are small, yet some attain to respectable 
 
748 TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, &C. 
 
 size. The largest are the Humber, Kiver of Exploits, 
 Gombo, and Great Cod Roy Rivers. !N"early all the rivers 
 of this island issue from lakes or ponds in the interior. 
 Many of them abound with excellent salmon. 
 
 Lakes and Ponds. — Fresh-water lakes and ponds are 
 very numerous. They are found over the face of the 
 entire country — on the very tops of the hills. The surface 
 covered with water has been estimated at one-third of the 
 whole island. The Grand Pond is about sixty miles long, 
 and five miles wide. Indian Lake is thirty miles long by 
 six wide. Sixty-seven ponds have been counted from one 
 spot on the top of the N. E. Mountains of Avalon, some 
 two and three miles in extent, none less than 100 yards, 
 and not at a farther distance than ten miles from the base 
 of the hill. Some of the larger and more important lakes 
 have water communication with each other. 
 
 Victoria Lake has communication with Bathurst, Wil- 
 mot, and George the Fourth lakes. 
 
 Mountains and Hills. — There is a long and continuous 
 mountain extending from the three sugar-loaf hills near 
 Cape Roy, to the north-east. These elevations have a 
 steep face toward the north-west, and are rather flat and 
 regular on the summit. The *^ Blow-me-down Hills," on 
 the south side of the Humber River, have the least ele- 
 vated peak at 800 feet. " Butter Pots," near Conception, 
 at either end are 1,000 feet. A ridge that runs from Cape 
 Dog to St. Mary's Bay, at the highest elevation ranges 
 from 1,200 to 1,500 feet. The elevations about St. John's, 
 viz. : Signal Hill, South Side Hill, and Bronxscombe Hill, 
 are respectively 520, TOO, and 870 feet above the level of 
 the sea. The hills near the mouth of the River of Ex- 
 ploits are from 1,000 to 1,500 feet high. There is more 
 good soil on this island than was supposed some years 
 since. The " Barrens," properly so called, are the tops of 
 hills, and most elevated plains. These are covered with 
 thin scrubby vegetation — berry-bearing plant5> and dwarf 
 bushes of various kinds. 
 
TOPOGKAPkY, NATUKAL EESOTJIiCES, ETC. 74:9 
 
 Trees. — ^Tlie principal trees are, spruce, birch, larch, 
 willow, mountain ash, and fir-trees. Trees do not attain 
 to a large size. Kecumbent and standing evergreens are 
 to be met in great variety ; berry-growing bushes aboimd 
 in every swamp. European and American grasses, also 
 red and white clover, are abundant. 
 
 Animals. — The only animal peculiar to this island is 
 the Newfoundland dog, which is famous the world over. 
 A team in the out-districts of Newfoundland consists of 
 a man and two dogs. A team of this description carries 
 two men with a considerable amount of stuff on a sledge 
 or sleigh. All their fire-wood is hauled by teams of this des- 
 cription in some districts. The long-haired pure Newfound- 
 land dog is not very easily procured now. There is, how- 
 ever, a short-haired native breed, a cross with the other, 
 which is abundant, and possesses the chief excellences of 
 the first named. The deer^ the wolf, the bear, the beaver, 
 martin, and wild-cat, are to be enumerated among the 
 wild animals of the country. Land and aquatic birds are 
 numerous. 
 
 Fish. — The lakes, and ponds, and rivers abound with 
 trout, and salmon, and eels of great size. The lobsters 
 are uncommonly large and of good quality. The mussels 
 are more esteemed than European ones. The capelin, 
 mackerel, herring, and salmon are abundant. The hali- 
 but, thornback, and other kinds of fish, are to be found 
 on the coast. The cod^ however, is the " fish" of New- 
 foundland, while all other varieties, as being less import- 
 ant, are called by their specific names. There is no place 
 in the world comparable to the shores and " banks" of 
 Newfoundland for cod-fisheries. 
 
 Agricultural Capabilities. — In several sections of the 
 Island agriculture can be carried on with profit. The 
 timber, natural grass, and clover, found in various districts, 
 indicate a productive soil. In the neighborhood of many 
 of the lakes and rivers there are valuable alluvia. The 
 stunted forests on the east and south shores mark a poor 
 
750 TOPOGRAPHY, NATUKAL BESOUECES, ETC. 
 
 country ; but tlie large growth of timber in the interior 
 and toward the west indicates a rich soil, and proves that 
 there is room for successful agricultural enterprise in 'New- 
 foundland. The land close by the sea-shore affords no 
 criterion by which to estimate the fertility of the inland 
 districts. 
 
 Potatoes yield well and are of excellent quality. Green 
 crops thrive well in many districts. Wheat has been 
 known to yield fifty bushels per acre. Apples, plums, and 
 cherries have been raised with success. Ked, black, and 
 white currants ; gooseberries, strawberries, and raspberries 
 of very good quality are grown. The season for the growth 
 and ripening of the fruits of the earth is brief, but fervent. 
 
 Climate. — ^The climate, though severe, is not unhealthy. 
 The rate of mortality, according to the population, is lower 
 than in any other country in America. Old age is usually 
 attended here with an uncommon degree of bodily vigor 
 and mental activity. 
 
 In 1829, Marten Galen, of Placentia Bay, was over one 
 hundred years of age, lived in excellent health, and in 
 company with his brother, caught that year nine quintals 
 of fish. Seventy years previous to that date he piloted 
 Captain Cook into Placentia Bay. Mrs. Tait died in the 
 same place 125 years old. About twenty-five years since 
 a woman died at Torbay, near St. John's, aged 125 years ; 
 shortly before her death she sent for a doctor to see what 
 was the matter with her poor child, who was sick. The 
 child was ninety years of age ! The winter lasts from the 
 beginning of December till the middle of April, and some- 
 times till the end of that month. Frost is less intense 
 here than in Canada. January and February are the 
 coldest months. The bitterest winds are from the north- 
 west. The south-east wind is warm; the nofth-easterly 
 winds are cold, both in summer and winter. The follow- 
 ing table contains the results of meteorological observa- 
 tions for the years 1858, 1859, 1860, taken by E. M. I. 
 Delaney, Esq., C. E. 
 
INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 
 
 751 
 
 1858. 
 
 Max. height of harometer, corrected to sea level 
 
 Min. do. do. 
 
 Mean do. do. 
 
 Max. height thermometer 
 
 Min. do. do. 
 
 Mean temperature for year 
 
 Quantity of rain, including melted snow 
 
 Prevailing winds 
 
 Rain fell on 98 days ; fog prevailed 66 days. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Max. height of barometer, corrected to sea level 
 
 Min. do. do. 
 
 Moan do. do. 
 
 Max, height of thermometer 
 
 Min. do. do 
 
 Mean temperature for year 
 
 Quantity of rain, including melted snow 
 
 Prevailing winds 
 
 Rain fell on 110 days; snow on 54; fog, 88; thunder 
 and lightning on 6. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Max. height of barometer, corrected to sea level 
 
 Min. do. do. 
 
 Mean do. do. 
 
 Max. height of thermometer. 
 
 Min. do. do 
 
 Mean temperature for year , 
 
 Quantity of rain and melted snow. , 
 
 Prevailing winds 
 
 Rain fell on 117 days: snow on 43; fog, 109; thunder 
 and lightning on 6. 
 
 80.33 Inches.... January 16. 
 
 2S.70 " .... March 26. 
 29.51 « .... 
 
 84° Augustl2. 
 
 2" February 11. 
 
 41° ' 
 
 50.860 inches ... the year. 
 
 N.W ^ 
 
 80.56 inches .... Januarv 25. 
 28.72 " .... Decembers. 
 29.79 « .... 
 
 96-^ July 13. 
 
 8' MarchS. 
 
 44° 
 
 64.220 inches ... the year. 
 N.NW. & SSW. 
 
 80.36 inches .... February 29. 
 29.56 " .... February 11. 
 29.60 " .... 
 
 80° Aug. 11 & 15. 
 
 1U° Februarys. 
 
 41° 
 
 82.040 inches ... the year. 
 NW. &SSW.. 
 
 Grand Banks. — These are the most famous submarine 
 elevation on the face of the globe. In the whole of their 
 extent they occupy six degrees of longitude, and nearly 
 ten degrees of latitude, being over 600 miles in length, 
 and 200 miles in breadth, with soundings varying from 
 twenty-five to 150 fathoms. The mean depth is estimated 
 at forty fathoms. They swarm with cod and other kinds of 
 fish. 
 
 CHAPTER ni. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 
 
 Agriculture. — ^This important branch of industry was 
 for centuries not only systematically* discouraged, but actu- 
 ally prohibited by law in Newfoundland. The first im- 
 portant relaxation of the old system regarding the land wa8 
 
752 INDUSTEIAL EESOURCES. 
 
 made by Governor Sir Eicliard Keats, in 1816. He was 
 authorized to make small grants of land, limited from two 
 to four acres. In 1825 a further advance was made ; un- 
 der the government of Sir Thomas Cochrane grants of 
 from 250 to 500 acres were made to enterprising settlers ; 
 roads were made at the public expense, and agriculture 
 encouraged. 
 
 From the returns for 1836, we give the following items : 
 
 24,117 acres of land in possession. 
 
 11,062^ " in cultivation; estimated value, $606,250 
 
 1,559 horses ..." " 77,950 
 
 5,832 neat cattle ... . " " 145,800 
 
 6,923 sheep ..." " 44.615 
 
 4,000 goats . . . " " 20,000 
 
 3,155 hogs ..." " 23,660 
 
 $918,275 
 
 The returns for the same year give 1,168,127 bushels of 
 potatoes, 10,310 bushels of grain, and 6,975 tons of hay. 
 
 The returns for 1845 give the following figures, which 
 show a healthy progress : 
 
 83,435^ acres of land in possession. 
 
 29,656|- " under cultivation, valued at $2,990,625 
 
 2,409 horses . . . . " ** 120,450 
 
 8,135 neat cattle . . . " " 203,375 
 
 5,750 sheep . . . . " " 23,750 
 
 5,791 goats . . . . " " 28,955 
 
 5,077 hogs ...."" 39,075 
 
 $3,406,230 
 
 The same returns give 853,352^ bushels of potatoes ; 
 11,695 bushels of grain ; 11,013 tons of hay and fodder. 
 
 In 1857, the latest Census taken, the whole improved 
 land of the Island, including dyke or marsh land, intervale, 
 and upland, was 49,61 6| acres. Tons of hay cut, 16,250| ; 
 bushels of oats raised, 9,438 ; bushels of wheat and barley, 
 l,932f; bushels of potatoes 'raised, 571,480; bushels of 
 turnips, 12,832 ; bushels of other roots, 3,502 ; bushels of 
 clover and timothy seed, 731^ Number of neat cattle, 
 
INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 753 
 
 12,962 ; milch cows, 6,924 ; horses, 3,509 ; sheep, 10,T37 ; 
 swine and goats, 17,551. Butter made, 134,968 pounds ; 
 cheese, 158 pounds. 
 
 Mills And Factories. — ^There were in the Island, in 
 1857, fourteen-saw mills, valued at $28,500, and employ- 
 ing fifty-four men ; and three grist-mills, valued at $5,000, 
 worked by three men. There was one iron foundry, em- 
 ploying seven men ; three breweries, employing thirteen 
 hands. The oil factories and cod-liver oil manufactories 
 are numerous ; but the returns of them are incomplete. 
 In one electoral division alone there are eight cod-liver oil 
 manufactories, and one common oil factory. The shoes 
 and boots manufactured the year preceding the census, are 
 valued at $43,455 ; chairs and cabinet wares, $120 ; car- 
 riages, $490 ; other wooden wares, $31,220 ; lime manu- 
 factured, 16,500 bushels, valued at $6,000. 
 
 Ship-Building. — ^Tliis department of industry has never 
 been prosecuted to a very large extent in this colony. The 
 native timber does not furnish materials for ships of the 
 first class. The returns for 1857, give eighty-eight vessels 
 as the number built, the tonnage of which was 2,427, which 
 shows that they were vessels of very moderate size. ISTum- 
 ber of boats built during the same year was 630 ; number 
 of vessels owned in the island was 212 — tonnage, 6,229. 
 
 Fishing Industry. — This is by far the most important 
 department of industry in N^ewfoundland. The cod and 
 seal fisheries rank first in importance. 
 
 The fishing season opens in May, when herring are 
 caught chiefly for bait. The cod fishing begins in the 
 month of June, and continues till the end of September, 
 and sometimes till the middle of October. It is carried 
 on in large boats on the great banks, and in boats and 
 shallops near the shore. The first is termed the bank fish- 
 ery, the other the shore fishery. The bank fisheries are 
 prosecuted chiefly by the French and Americans, w^hile 
 the British direct their chief energies to the shore fisheries. 
 The cod is caught on hooks baited with herring, mackerel, 
 
754: INDUSTEIAL KESOUECES. 
 
 capelin, clams, &c. They are very voracious, and bite 
 with great rapidity. One man often catches 250 good 
 fish in a day. They are carried on shore for curing, with 
 as little delay as possible. When landed, the fish is thrown 
 on a stage, and by a division of labor between four per- 
 sons — respectively termed cut-throat, header, splitter, and 
 Salter — they are rid of heads, opened, cleaned, and piled in 
 salt to cure, at the rate of several hundreds per hour. 
 When completely cured, the codfish are assorted into four 
 difierent kinds, known as merchantable, Madeira, West 
 India, and dun or broken fish. The first is prime fish ; 
 the second is nearly as good ; the third is intended for the 
 negroes ; the fourth, which is incapable of keeping, is used 
 at home. The tongues and bladders are cut off from the 
 refuse by the old men, women, and children, and pickled 
 in kegs. The livers are exposed to the sun in vats, until 
 the oil drains off; the oil is then barrelled ; it is afterward 
 boiled to extract the inferior quality. These several pro- 
 ducts of this branch of industry are commonly sold by the 
 fishermen to the wholesale merchants for goods or money. 
 During the winter months many of the fishermen are en- 
 gaged in hunting for game, or trapping for fur. Others 
 are occupied in making boats, oars, staves, hoops, &c. 
 
 In 184:9, there were exported from Newfoundland 
 1,175,167 quintals of dried fish, valued at $2,825,895 ; in 
 1857, 1,335,649 quintals of fish were cured, the value of 
 which would be over three millions of dollars. 
 
 Next in importance to the cod, is the seal fishery. The 
 season for this fishing commences in March. During win- 
 ter, vessels of from eighty to one hundred and fifty tons are 
 fitted out, and, manned with crews of from fifteen to forty 
 men, set out for the seal regions early in March. Tlie men 
 generally pay for their own provisions, and receive their wa- 
 ges in such a proportion of the seal-skins caught, as may be 
 agreed upon between themselves and the owners of the 
 vessel. They have usually to cut a channel for themselves 
 out of their harbor ; then they push their way to the fields 
 
INDUSTRIAL KESOUECES. 
 
 T55 
 
 of ice and bergs that float down from the Arctic ocean, 
 and are often exposed to terrible dangers. The seals are 
 found in groups on the ice, sunning themselves, or asleep. 
 These places are called '* seal meadows.'*'^ When a " seal 
 meadow" is reached, the men, armed with spiked clubs, 
 beset them on every side, and with a knock on the head 
 dispatch them with great rapidity. If not instantly killed, 
 they utter the most piteous moans, like the cry of children. 
 Tliey are skinned at once and on the spot ; and the skins, 
 pelts, and scalps, with the inner coat of blubber on them, 
 are then carried into the vessel, and strewed upon the 
 deck until they have become sufficiently dry to be stowed 
 below. 
 
 As many as 800, and sometimes 1,000, have been taken 
 by a vessel in one day. The seals are oifour kinds : the* 
 bay seal, found on the coast ; the hooded seal, which has- a 
 hood that it can draw over its head ; the square flipper; 
 and the harp seal, the last named being the most valuable. 
 
 In 1845 there went out, from the port of St. John alone, 
 to the seal fishery, 126 vessels, of 11,863 tons, and manned 
 by 3,895 men. They took 302,363 seals. In 1852, the seal 
 fishery of the Island employed 367 vessels, of 35,760 tons, 
 manned by 13,000 men, and took 550,000 seals. During 
 the same year, 7,333 tons, 220 gallons of seal oil, valued 
 at $1,188,500 ; 387 tons, 237 gallons of blubber and dregs ; 
 and 534,378 seal-skins, were exported, the whole being 
 valued at $2,085,100. 
 
 The census of 1857 gives the number of vessels engaged 
 in the seal fishery at 802, tonnage 57,898J, men on board, 
 14,442. timber of seals taken, 428,143. 
 
 Herrings are plentiful, but until recently have not en- 
 tered much into the fishing industry of the colony. In 
 1857 there were 157,354 barrels of herring cured. 
 
 The same remark applies to the salmon fishing. It has 
 
 secured more attention of late years. In 1857, 2,940 
 
 tierces of salmon were cured,.besides 913 fresh salmon that 
 
 were disposed of in St. John's. The following is the num- 
 
 48 
 
756 POPULATION, ETC. 
 
 ber of boats that were engaged in tlie shore fishery in 
 1857 ; large boats, from four to fifteen quintals, 10,497 ; 
 large boats, from fifteen to thirty quintals, 797; large 
 boats, from thirty quintals and upward, 1,244, — total, 
 12,538. 
 
 CoAEMERCE. — ^Fish is the great staple of trade and com- 
 merce in ^Newfoundland. 
 
 The following statement of the imports and exports of 
 the Island for a series of years, will indicate at once the 
 amount of its commerce, and its stationary character. In 
 1829 the imports of the colony were valued at $4,096,995 ; 
 the exports at $3,451,545. 
 
 Imports. Exports, 
 
 1845 $4,006,650 $4,697,190 
 
 1846 4,011,435 3,795,515 
 
 1847. 4,217,045 4,032,825 
 
 1848 3.848,140 4,187,905 
 
 1849 3,700,912 4,207,521 
 
 1850 4,163,116 4,683,676 
 
 1851 4,609,291 4,276,876 
 
 1852 3,857,468 4,306,376 
 
 1856 6,356,830 6,693,985 
 
 1857 7,067,160 8,255,855 
 
 1858 5,864,310 6,594,180 
 
 1859 6,620,680 6,785,565 
 
 For 1860, the imports were valued at $6,270,640 ; the 
 exports at $6,358,560. During the last 260 years, this 
 Island has furnished fish and oil to the value of very nearly 
 $650,000,000. 
 
 CHAPTER lY- 
 
 POPULATION, CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS, &c. 
 
 Population.— In 1785, the population of the Island was 
 estimated at 10,244; in 1806, it was 26,505; in 1825, 
 45,759 ; in 1836, 73,705 ; in 1845, 96,295 ; in 1851, it was 
 
POPULATION, ETC. 757 
 
 101,600 ; and by the census of 1857, it was 122,638. The 
 last census shows that 107,399 of the population were born 
 in Newfoundland ; 3,516 born in England ; 7,383 in Ire- 
 land ; 390 in Scotland ; 475 in the British colonies ; and 
 the balance in foreign countries. 
 
 In 1857, the religious census is stated as follows : — 
 Church of England, 44,285 ; Eoman Catholics, 56,895 ; 
 Wesleyans, 20,229 ; Kirk of Scotland, 302 ; Free Kirk, 
 536 ; Congregationalists, 347 ; Baptists and other denom- 
 inations, 44. 
 
 The places of worship are : Church of England, 75 ; 
 Church of Rome, 63 ; Wesleyans, 37 ; Kirk of Scotland, 
 1 ; Free Kirk, 2 ; Congregationalist, 1. 
 
 Under the head of trades and professions, we have the 
 following statement : — Clergymen, or ministers, 77 ; doc- 
 tors and lawyers, 71 ; farmers, 1,697 ; mechanics, 1,973 ; 
 merchants and traders, 694 ; persons engaged in catching 
 and curing fish, 39,805 ; able-bodied seamen and fisher- 
 men, 20,887 ; persons engaged in lumbering, 334. 
 
 Buildings. — ^The number of inhabited houses in the 
 Island in 1857 was 18,364. These were inhabited by 20,187 
 families. The number of uninhabited houses was 903 ; 
 of houses then in process of building, 1,026; of stores, 
 barns, and out-houses, 9,940 ; of fishing-rooms in actual 
 use, 6,006. 
 
 Schools. — Denominational schools prevail more in 
 Newfoundland than in any of the lower provinces. De- 
 nominational conflicts of a fierce and pernicious descrip- 
 tion prevail there also. There are Episcopalian schools, 
 Roman Catholic schools, and Protestant dissenters' schools. 
 In 1836, there were but 79 schools in the colony. In 
 1845, there were 209 schools, with an attendance of 10,266 
 pupils. In 1857, there 280 schools, and the number of 
 pupils in attendance was 14,136. The sum voted by the 
 legislature for education, in 1859, was $55,968. There is 
 a General Protestant Board of Education and a Roman 
 Catholic Board. There are three academies in St. John's ; 
 
758 POPULATION, ETC. 
 
 one under the direction of the Chnrch of England, Church 
 of Eome, and the Wesleyan Church, respectively. There 
 is a high school in connection with St. Andrew's Presbyte- 
 rian Church. There is a grammar school of a superior 
 character in Harbor Grace. There are ten commercial 
 schools of a superior character. 
 
 Legislative. — ^The first legislature of Newfoundland 
 met in the year 1832. The elective franchise was confer- 
 red, in 1832, on the whole male population over twenty- 
 one years of age, and occupying dwelling-houses, either as 
 owners, or tenants for one year. The legislature consists 
 of the governor in council and two houses of Parliament : 
 the upper house, called the Legislative Council ; the lower, 
 the House of Assembly. The executive council consists at 
 present of five members ; the legislative council of twelve, 
 and the house of assembly of thirty members. 
 
 Judicial. — There is the Supreme Court, with a chief- 
 justice and two assistant judges. The spring term of the 
 court begins on the 20th of May ; the autumn term on 
 the 20th of November. There is a central circuit court, 
 the spring term of which opens in April, and the autumn- 
 term in October. There is a court of vice-admiralty, of 
 which the chief justice for the time being is judge. There 
 are also courts of the justices of the peace. 
 
 Board of Works. — This board has the management and 
 superintendence of the public buildings and public works 
 of the colony. Government House, the Colonial Buildings, 
 Court Houses, Customs Houses, Hospital, Lunatic Asylum, 
 and all other public buildings belonging to the Island are 
 under its control. It has also the supervision of all light- 
 houses, buoys, beacons, roads, highways, bridges, &c., &c. 
 The various local boards act under* the direction of the 
 central board. 
 
 Post Office Department. — ^There is a postmaster-gen- 
 eral in St. John's. There are sixteen post masters and 
 mistresses, and fourteen way-office keepers, in the various 
 other districts of the Island. 
 
POPULATION, ETC. , Y59 
 
 The only route on wliich there is a daily mail is between 
 St. John's and Portugal Cove. On two or three routes 
 there is a tri- weekly mail, by wagon. About four 'more 
 routes are run weekly, by boat or messenger; the remainder 
 are run fortnightly in summer and monthly during winter. 
 
 Electric Telegraphs. — ^Tliere are five hundred and fifty 
 miles of over-land telegraph in Newfoundland. The sub- 
 marine line from Aspy Bay, Cape Breton, to Cape Ray, 
 ]^ewfoundland, is seventy-eight miles. This submarine 
 line was laid in 1856. There are fifteen stations and twenty- 
 two employes. The tariff from St. John's to Port Hood, 
 C. B., is three dollars for ten words, and for each additional 
 word, twelve cents. The local tariff is twenty-five cents 
 for ten words. The great Atlantic electric cable was laid 
 on the 5th of August, 1858. Its termini were Yalentia Bay, 
 Ireland, and Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. 
 
 Banks, &c. — The Savings Bank is governed by three 
 members of the Legislative Council, and five members of 
 the House of Assembly. The bank is opened every Mon- 
 day for depositors' business, and on every Wednesday for 
 discount business. Three per cent, is allowed on all sums 
 not less than $4. No sum exceeding $400 is received, ex- 
 cept on condition that it shall not be withdrawn without 
 two months' notice. As audited the 31st December, 1860, 
 the assets and liabilities were as follows : — 
 
 Assets $930,633 
 
 LiabUities 839,741 
 
 Surplus and assets $90,892 
 
 The Union Bank and Commercial Bank are both in a 
 prosperous condition, and are found sufficient for the accom- 
 modation of the^community in this department. 
 
 There are fire, life, and marine insurance companies, and 
 agencies for British and foreign ones. There are also 
 benevolent, charitable, and religious voluntary associa- 
 tions. 
 
760 
 
 St. John's City. — ^This is the capital of the Island. It is 
 built mainly of wooden houses. It is built at the mouth 
 of one of the best of harbors, with highlands sheltering it 
 on either side. It is entered from the sea through a narrow 
 passage only about six hundred feet wide, between two 
 lofty cliffs, which are strongly fortified. The city is lighted 
 by gas, and supplied with water from a pond on one of the 
 adjoining hills. One irregular street of about one mile in 
 length comprises the chief buildings of the city. The Colo- 
 nial Building is built of granite ; the Government House is 
 a handsome building, which cost nearly $1,000,000. The 
 new Roman Catholic Cathedral is also a handsome edifice. 
 
 The Miquelets. — These are three little islands on the 
 south coast, at the mouth of Fortune Bay, being the only 
 remaining possessions of the French in these regions. 
 They are called Miqiielon^ Little Miquelon (or Langley), 
 and St. Pierre. The Miquelets are connected by a sandy 
 beach, which is sometimes passable by foot travellers, and 
 at other times cut through by storms. The French main- 
 tain a small military force there, and it is the head-quar- 
 ters of their Newfoundland fisheries. Of late years it has 
 been assuming the dignity and importance of a naval 
 station. 
 
INDEX 
 
 ABOKiGurBS of "Sew Brunswick, 624-626. 
 
 Acadia College in Nova Scotia, 708. 
 
 " Acadia" iron mine of Nova Scotia, 854. 
 
 Acadia, New Brunswick first settled under 
 the name of, 542. 
 
 Acton copper mines, 825-828. 
 
 Addington colonization road, 805. 
 
 Agricultural Association of Upper Canada, 
 history o^ 44r-48 ; tables of the exhibitiona 
 of, 45-47. 
 
 Agricultural capabilities of New Bruns- 
 wick, 554. 
 
 Agricultural productions of Canada, 52-64; 
 of Lower Canada, 35, 36 ; of Upper Can- 
 ada, 61, 62 ; of New Brunswick, 560, 62T- 
 653; of Nova Scotia, 687; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, 736; of Newfoundland, 752. 
 
 Agricultural productiveness, comparative, of 
 Nova Scotia, 635. 
 
 Agricultural products exported from Can- 
 ada, 291. 
 
 Agricultural School at St Anne, in Lower 
 Canada, 39. 
 
 Agricultural societies in Lower Canada, 
 87-39. 
 
 Agricultural societies in Upper Canada, 
 89-50. 
 
 Agriculture in Canada, history of, 32-64; en- 
 couragement of, by government, 42. 
 
 Agriculture in New Brunswick, 627-658. 
 
 Agriculture in Newfoundland, 749, 751-753. 
 
 Agriculture in Nova Scotia, 6S4-688. 
 
 Agriculture in Prince Edward Island, 73'B. 
 
 Ague and fever unknown in New Bruns- 
 wick, 556. 
 
 " Albert"' coal of New Brunswick, remark- 
 able properties of^ 361. 
 
 Albert county. New Brunswick, description 
 of, 636. 
 
 Albertite, where found in New Brunswick, 
 591. 
 
 Albion coal mines of Nova Scotia, 350. 
 
 Alewife fishery on the St. John River, 580; 
 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 583. 
 
 Alluvial soils of Nova Scotia, 671. 
 
 Alluvium, two kinds of tn New Bruns- 
 wick, 589. 
 
 American clergy In Canada, restrictions 
 on, 376. 
 
 American common school system, remarks 
 of Mr. Duncombe on, 396. 
 
 American railroad contractors in Canada, 
 extensive operations of, 222-224. 
 
 Anecdotes of an American railroad con- 
 tractor. 222-224, 
 
 Anticosti, island of, immense peat bog in, 846. 
 
 Anticosti, ship route from, to Superior 
 City, 19. 
 
 Apatite, importance of, as manure, 838; 
 where found in Canada, 889 ; value of per 
 ton in England, 339. 
 
 Architects of the Government buildings at 
 Ottawa, 98. 
 
 Area of Upper and Lower Canada, 14 ; of 
 New Brunswick, 562 ; of Nova Scotia, 
 660; of Prince Edward Island, 728; of 
 Newfoundland, 744 ; of the Labrador pen- 
 insula, 81 ; of the Ottawa valley, 96 ; of the 
 great basin of Lake Winnipeg, 75; of the 
 timber territories of Canada, 67 ; of sed- 
 imentary and crystalline rocks in Canada, 
 28 ; of Lake Superior, 14 ; of Lake Huron, 
 14 ; of Lake St. Clair, 15 ; of Lake On- 
 tario, 16. 
 
 Arichat Academy in Nova Scotia, 707. 
 
 Ascott copper mine, near Sherbrooke, 326. 
 
 Ash, two species of, in New Brunswick, 570. 
 
 Atlantic and Pacific, importance of a prac- 
 ticable route between, through British 
 territory, 372. 
 
 Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, soils of, 668. 
 
 Authors, distinguished, of Nova Scotia, 
 724. 
 
 Bakks, Grand, of Newfoundland, 751. 
 
 Banks in Newfoundland, 759. 
 
 Banks in Nova Scotia, 704. 
 
 Baptist Church in Canada, Literary Insti- 
 tute of, at Woodstock, 439 ; theological 
 text-books adopted by, 442. 
 
 Baptist Church in Nova Scotia, 718. 
 
 Baptist Seminary at Fredericton, 614. 
 
 Bark (lanoe, how constructed, 131-133. 
 
 Bark jf the birch-tree, numerous uses of, 183. 
 
 Barley, production of, in Canada, 69. 
 
 " Baj'on of Eenfrew," the great timber ship, 
 286. 
 
 Barytes, sulphate of, where found in Can- 
 ada, 334, 
 
 Basswood-tree in New Brunswick, 572. 
 
 Batiscan, Eadnor forges at, 819. 
 
762 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Battean, description and history of the, 
 133, IM. 
 
 Bay of Chaleur cod, superiority of the, 581. 
 
 Bay of Chaleur, description o^ 602.. 
 
 Bay of Fundy, sea fisheries in. 574-6S0 ; 
 foes on, 566. 
 
 Bays of Nova Scotia 661 , Prince ESward 
 Island, 728 ; of Newfoundland, 747. 
 
 Beauharnois canal, length and course of, 167. 
 
 Beaver-skins, early tax on, 275. 
 
 Beaver, the, the present symbol of Canada, 
 275. 
 
 Beech, two soecies of, in New Bronswick, 
 568. 
 
 Belleville Seminary near Pictou, 483. 
 
 Bichromate of potash, how manufactured in 
 Norway, 332. 
 
 Birch-bafk canoe, how constructed, 131-138. 
 
 Birch, four species of, in New Brunswick, 
 563. 
 
 Birch-tree and bark, value of the, 133. 
 
 Birds of Nova Scotia, 675. 
 
 Bishop's College, Lennoxville, history of, 
 520 ; faculty of arts in, 521 ; faculty of 
 divinity in, 522. 
 
 Blind in Nova Scotia, 683. 
 
 Board of Works in Newfoundland, 758. 
 
 Boards of Agriculture in Upper Canada, 43. 
 
 Bobcaygeon colonization road, 305. 
 
 Bog iron ores of Canada. 819. 
 
 Bof soils of Nova Scotia, 673. 
 
 Bots bruUs, or half breeds, Canadian, 87. 
 
 Books, value of, imported into Canada in 
 1850-61,476. 
 
 Botanical Society of Canada, 51, 472. 
 
 Boundaries of Canada, 13. 
 
 Boundary of New Brunswick settled by 
 treaty, 1842, 551. 
 
 Breadth of beam of vessels admitted by the 
 St. Lawrence and Welland canals, 182. 
 
 Bridge over the St. Lawrence, plans, fur, 265. 
 
 Bridges in Canada, cost of construction of, 
 127. 
 
 Bridge, the Victoria, origin of, 257; de- 
 scription of, 258-263; cost of, 263. 
 
 Bridle and winter roads in Canada, 116-119. 
 
 British Columbia and Vancouver Island, 
 mineral resources of, 365-871. 
 
 British Columbia, influence o^ on the set- 
 tlement of the Saskatchewan, 78, 80 ; com- 
 munications with, 79. 
 
 British government, early policy of, in re- 
 gard to education in Canada, 875. 
 
 Brothers of St. Joseph, 537. 
 
 Bruce copper mines, 322, 328. 
 
 Buffalo, Brantford and Goderich Eailway, 
 history of, 284-286. 
 
 Buildings in Newfoundland, 757. 
 
 Buller, Arthur, remarks of, on education in 
 Lower Canada in 1838 {note), 501. 
 
 Burlington Bay, railway from, to London, 
 190. 
 
 Bush, list of articles necessary for a settler 
 going into the, 804. 
 
 Butternut tree in New Brunswick, 669. 
 
 Caleohe, description of the, 111. 
 Campbell, Mr. John, gold found by, near 
 
 Halifax, 867. 
 Camping in the Canadian woods in winter, 
 
 9L 
 
 Canada, physical features of. 18-31; geo- 
 graphfbal surface of, 20 ; soils of, 22 ; cli- 
 mate of, 27 ; agricultural history of, 82- 
 64; forest industry of, 64-74; Northwest 
 Territory of, 74-80 ; agricultural produc- 
 tions of 52-64 ; travel and transportation 
 in, 99-268 ; roads in, 102-128; water com- 
 munications of, 129-185; history of rail- 
 ways in, 190-256 ; action of, in favor of an 
 inter-colonial railway, 241 ; electric tel- 
 egraph in, 266 ; trade and commerce of; 
 268-307; present trade of, 292-296; im- 
 migratioa into, 801-303 ; mineral resources 
 of; 808-350 ; historical sketch of education 
 in, 878-541. 
 
 Canada Gold Mining Co., operations of, 330. 
 
 Canada Presbyterian Chm-ch. college of, at 
 Toronto, 438'; text-books adopted by, 442. 
 
 Canadian age of iron and brass, 221. 
 
 Canadian guarantee law of 1849, unguarded, 
 220. 
 
 Canadian Institute at Ottawa, 471. 
 
 Canadian Institute at Toronto, 471. 
 
 Canadian Literary Institute at Woodstock, 
 484. 
 
 Canadian railway gauge, 253-255 ; advantage 
 of, in case of invasion, 255. 
 
 Canadian railway statistics, 193-196. 
 
 Canadian securities in England, 200. 
 
 Canadians, not "morally responsible" for 
 the failure of the Grand Trunk Kailway, 
 205, 211. 
 
 Canadian tariffs, 300. 
 
 Canadian trade, total tonnage engaged in, in 
 1858-61, 295. 
 
 Canals in Canada, 149-156, 158-185; table 
 showing dimensions and cost ot; 177; re- 
 marks on the system of, 181. 
 
 Canals in connection with the St. Lawrence, 
 16, 19, 20. 
 
 Canals in Nova Scotia, 697. 
 
 Canoe, bark, description of the, 131-183. 
 
 Capes cf Prince Edward Island, 729. 
 
 Capital of the Hudson's Bay Company in 
 1856,281. 
 
 Carboniferous districts of Nova Scotia, boUb 
 of; 670. 
 
 Cariboo district on Frazer Eiver, 867. 
 
 Carioles, description of and mode of travd- 
 ling in, 90. 
 
 Carleton, county. New Brunswick, descrip- 
 tion of, 649. 
 
 Carleton, Sir Guy, governor of New Brims- 
 wick in 1785, 544. 
 
 Cartier, Jacques, the St. Lawrence discov- 
 ered by, 268. 
 
 Catalogue of useful minerals found in Oaa 
 ada, 818-815. 
 
 Catholic college of Regiopolis opened at 
 Kingston in 1846, 895. 
 
 Cattle, climate of New Brunswick favorable 
 to the rearing of, 660. 
 
 Cedar, the white, in New Brunswick. 671. 
 
 Census, religious, of Nova Scotia, 680. 
 
 Chair of agi-iculture in Upper Canada, 51. 
 
 Chambly canal, when projected, 150. 
 
 Chamblv Industrial College, 525. 
 
 Channefs of Canadian trade, 298. 
 
 Characteristics and cost of Canadian canals, 
 177. 
 
 Charlotte county. New Brunswick, descrip- 
 tion of. 640. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Y63 
 
 " Charlotte," the first river steamer In Upper 
 Canada, 141. 
 
 Charlottetown, P. E. I., description of, 736. 
 
 Chauditire Falls, 95. 
 
 Chauveau, Dr., appointed superintendent 
 of education in Lower Canada in 1866, 
 606 ; important services of, 606, 607. 
 
 Chlorite, where found in New Brunswick, 
 695. 
 
 Christian Brothers' Schools in Canada, 686. 
 
 Chromic iron, where found in Canada, 371. 
 
 Church of England parochial schools in 
 Upper Canada, 429. 
 
 Church of England Schools of theology in 
 Canada, 435 ; text-books used in, 441. 
 
 Church of Rome, schools of theology of. In 
 Upper Canada, 437 ; text-books used in 
 the theological schools of, 441. 
 
 Church of Scotland, university of, at King- 
 ston, 438 ; theological text-books of, 441. 
 
 Churches in New Brunswck, 613 ; in Nova 
 Scotia, 1V2, 713 ; in Prince Edward Island, 
 738 ; in Newfoundland, 757. 
 
 Civil List, revenue, and expenditure of New 
 Brunswick, 617. 
 
 Classical and Industrial College of Ste. 
 Amie de la Pocati^re, 525; of Ste. Marie 
 de Mannoir, 527. 
 
 Claasical College and Theological Seminary 
 of Montreal, 523; of Nioolet, 524; of St. 
 Hyacinthe, 524; of Ste. Th6r^se deBlain- 
 ville, 525. 
 
 Classical College of Three Rivers, 580. 
 
 Classical schools in Canada in 1786 and 1789, 
 376. 
 
 Clay, plastic, where found in New Bruns- 
 wick, 694. 
 
 Clearing wild land in New Brunswick, 621. 
 
 Clergy, American, in Canada, restrictions 
 on, 376. 
 
 Clergymen, ntlmber of, ia "New^Brunswick, 
 613. 
 
 Climate of Canada, 27-31 ; of New Bruns- 
 wick, 656; of Nova Scotia, 663-666; of 
 Prince Edward Island; 736; of Newfound- 
 land, 750. 
 
 Cloth manufactured in Upper Canada, 68. 
 
 Cloudy days at Toronto, table of, 30. 
 
 Coal, not found in Canada, 309; extensive 
 fields of, in Nova Scotia, 360 ; amount of; 
 exported at Pictou in 1858; important 
 mines of, at Cape Breton, 851; amount 
 raised in Nova Scotia in 1861; in New 
 Brunswick, 362, 360, 363; in Newfound- 
 land, 360 ; found in British Columbia and 
 Vancouver Island, 369; mining for, at 
 Naniamo, 370; amount exported from 
 Naniamo, 371. 
 Coal, bituminous, where found in New 
 
 Brunswick, 690. 
 Coal measures of New Brunswick, 360, 588. 
 Cobalt, traces of, found in Canada, 329. 
 Cod fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 676 ; on 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 580 ; of New- 
 foundland, 758. 
 Coins, value ot, in New Brunswick, 618. 
 Colborne, Sir John, endowment obtained by, 
 
 for Upper Canada CoUege, 392. 
 College preparatory schools in Canada, 483 
 Colleges in Lower Canada, 508-640. 
 Colleges in Upper Canada, 431-467 ; theologi 
 cal text-books adopted in, 441-443. 
 
 Colleges in Nova Scotia, TOT. 
 
 Colonization roads in Canada, 61, 805. 
 
 Colored separate schools in Canada, 428. 
 
 Columbia, British, gold discoveries in. 365- 
 367. 
 
 Commerce and navigation in New Bruns- 
 wick, 606-609. 
 
 Commerce and trade of Canada, 268-307; of 
 Nova Scotia, 690 ; of Prince Edward Is- 
 land, 737 ; of Newfoundland, 766. 
 
 Common School Act of Upper Canada, the 
 first appropriations under, 384. 
 
 Common Schools in Canada, from 1816 to 
 1822, 384; in New Brunswick, 615-617; 
 in Nova Scotia, 705; in Upper Canada, 
 grants for, 419 ; increase in the number ot 
 420. 
 
 Common school system of America, re- 
 marks of Dr. Duncombe on, 396. 
 
 Common school system of Upper Canada, 
 distinctive features of, 409 ; permanency 
 of, 411 ; support of, not compulsory on the 
 municipalities, 412 ; text-books, maps, &c., 
 used in, 418-415; religious character ot 
 416. 
 
 Communications of Canada, by water, 129- 
 183. 
 
 " Company of Canada," 270. 
 
 " Company of One Hundred Partners," 269. 
 
 Conference at Toronto, in relation to an inter- 
 colonial railway, 239. 
 
 Congregational Church in Nova Scotia, 718. 
 
 Congregational College of British North 
 America, 440 ; text-books used in, 448. 
 
 Constitution of Nova Scotia, 716. 
 
 Continental Church and School Society, 636. 
 
 Convents in Upper Canada, 430, 435. 
 
 Contractors, American railroad, extensive 
 operations of, 222-224. 
 
 Contractors of the Grand Trunk Co., gov- 
 erument controlled by, 210. 
 
 Contracts of the Grand Triink Co., defective 
 provisions of, 209. 
 
 Contracts, railroad, item, and per mile, com- 
 pared, 232. 
 
 Copper Bay mine, 323. 
 
 Copper, gray sulphuret of, found in Nevr 
 Brunswick, 592. 
 
 Copper mines of Lake Huron, produce o^ 
 323; at Acton, 825-328; Ascot, 326. 
 
 Copper mining in the'lake region, 321-323 , 
 in Canada East, 324-827. 
 
 Copper on Lake Superior, found in 1687, 271. 
 
 Copper ores found in great abundance in 
 Canada, 321 ; discoveries of, in New Bruns- 
 wick, 362; in Newfoundland, 364; in 
 Vancouver Island, 867. 
 
 Copper pyrites, deposits of, in New Bruns- 
 wick, 363. 
 
 Corduroy j-oads in Canada, 119. 
 
 Corn Indian, production of, in Canada, 60. 
 
 Cornwall canal, history of the, 167. 
 
 Corporate names of railways in Canada, 
 193-196. 
 
 Cost of public works connected with inland 
 navigation in Canada, 179, 180. 
 
 Cost of railways in Canada, 195. 
 
 Coteau locks, tolls taken at, in 181S-'24, 148 
 
 Cottages, French Canadian, on the St Law 
 rence* 35. ^ ^ , ^ 
 
 Counties, description of New Brunswick bj, 
 627-653. 
 
764 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Counties in Nova Scotia, agricultural rank of, 
 
 6S8; rank of, in fishing industry, 689.. 
 County grammar scliools in Upper Canada, 
 
 4.32. 
 Coureura du Boi«, Canadian, mode of life 
 
 of, 87. 
 Course of study in the faculty of arts in 
 
 Canadian universities, 468. 
 Course of the seasons in New Brunswick, 
 
 657. 
 Courts of New Brunswick. 610: of Nova 
 
 Scotia, 717 ; of Prince Edward Island, 740 ; 
 
 of Newfoundland, 758. 
 Criminals, juvenile, schools for, in Upper 
 
 Canada, 468; reformatory school for, at 
 
 Isle aux Noix, 538. 
 Cronyn, Dr., Bishop of Huron, theological 
 
 college, proposed by, 437. 
 Crooks, Mr. Wm., remarks of, on the state 
 
 of education in Canada in 1818, 387. 
 Crops in New Brunswick, average produce 
 
 0^560. 
 Crosby iron mine, on the Rideau Canal, 816. 
 Crown lands of Nova Scotia, 702. 
 Crown lands surveyed and for sale in Can- 
 ada, 803. 
 Crystalline rocks in Canada, area of, 28. 
 Culture of wheat in Canada, 53. 
 Currency, provincial, of Nova Scotia, 708. 
 Customs revenue of Canada in 1861-61, 800. 
 
 DALHOtrsiE College in Nova Scotia, 708. 
 Dams suggested as a means of flooding 
 
 shoals on the St. Lawrence, 169. 
 Dawson, Dr., remarks ot, on the iron ore of 
 
 Nova Scotia, 364-856. 
 Day in the wilderness of Canada, 88-90. 
 Deaf and Dumb Asylums in Lower Canada, 
 
 58S. 
 Deaf and Dumb in Nova Scotia, 688; insti- 
 tutions for, 711. 
 Deaf and Dumb School in Upper Canada, 467. 
 Deaths in Nova Scotia, 681, 682. 
 Debt, public, of Nova Scotia, 708; of Prince 
 
 Edward Island, 741. 
 Defence, importance of an inter-colonial 
 
 railway for, 246-247. 
 Denonville, M. D., hostility of, to English 
 
 trading in Canada in 1686, 271 ; letter of, 
 
 to Gov. Dongan, 272. 
 Deposits, superficial, of Canada, 818 ; tertiary, 
 
 of New Brunswick, 689. 
 Descriptive account of New Brunswick, 
 
 662 ; by counties, 627-668. 
 Destroyers of wheat in Canada, 54-67. 
 Directness of Canadian navigation, 180. 
 Discovery and early fortunes of Nova Scotia, 
 
 654-659. 
 Diseases, ordinary, in New Brunswick, 623; 
 
 in Nova Scotia, 681, 682. 
 •'Documents de Paris,'' early history of 
 
 Canada contained in, 27. 
 Dogs, employment o{, in winter travelling 
 
 in Canada,'90-94. 
 Doolittle, Rev. L., Bishop's College, Len- 
 nox vi lie, projected by, 620. 
 DoDgan, Governor, letter of, to Denonville 
 
 (note), 272; letter ot, on be»ver hunting, 
 
 276. 
 Dorchester, Lord, action ot, In relation to 
 
 «dacation in Canada, 877. 
 
 Douglas, Sir Howard, governor of New 
 Brunswick, 1824^ 546. 
 
 Douglastown, destruction o^ in the great 
 Miramichi fire, 650. 
 
 Duncombe, Dr., remarks o^ on the Com- 
 mon Schools of America in 1836, 396. 
 
 Dundas Street, established by Governor 
 SImcoe, 118. 
 
 Durham boat, history and description of 
 the, 134. 
 
 Durham boats, expenses of, from Lachine 
 to Kingston, 148; capacity ot 149: time 
 and expense of, from Kingston to Lachine, 
 149 ; U-ade done in, 149. 
 
 Durham, Lord, inter-colonial railway pro- 
 
 Eosed by, 238 ; remarks of; on education 
 1 Lower Canada, 502. 
 
 Eaklt educational efforts in Upper Canada, 
 374; in Lower Canada, 1632-1759, 485-4Sa 
 
 Early history of New Brunswick, 642-646 ; 
 of Nova Scotia, 654-659; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, 729-733 ; of Newfoundland, 
 744-747. 
 
 Early navigation of the St. Lawrence, 146- 
 150. 
 
 Early roads in Canada, 111, 112, 116. 
 
 Early trade of Canada, 268-275. 
 
 Earnings and expenses of railways in 
 Canada, 196. 
 
 Ecclesiastical condition of Nova Scotia, 
 711-734. 
 
 Educational communities in Lower Canada, 
 534. 
 
 Educational department for Upper Canada, 
 421. 
 
 Educational legislation in Upper Canada, 
 from 1806 to 1816, 381. 
 
 Educational statistics of Lower Canada, 640. 
 
 Education in Lower Canada, historical 
 sketch of, 486-642; indebted to the Catho- 
 lic Church, 488; from 1759 to 1800,485- 
 491 ; progress of, from 1801 to 1818, 491- 
 495; from 1819 to 1835, 49^499; from 
 1836 to 1840, 499-508 ; progress of, from 
 1841 to 1845, 503-606; from 1866 to 1862, 
 606-608; public aid to, in 1862, 540; table 
 showing the progress of, in 1868-'61, 641 ; 
 
 fiarliamentary grants for, 541. 
 ucation in New Brunswick, 614-61'!. 
 
 Education in Newfoundland, 767. 
 
 Education in Nova Scotia, 704-711. 
 
 Education in Prince Edward Island, 789. 
 
 Education in Upper CiUiada, historical 
 sketch of, 878-tSl ; history of, from 1783 
 to 1805, 374; legislation in regard to, 
 from 1806 to 1816, 881 ; remarks of Mr. 
 M. Smith on the state of, in 1808-12, 
 888; popular, from 1816 to 1822, 884: 
 Mr. Gourlav's remarks on, in 1817, 886; 
 letter of Mr. Wm. Crooks in relation 
 to, in 1818, 887; fitful progress of, from 
 1822 to 1886, 890; parliamentary inquire 
 as to, and its results, from 1836 to 1848, 
 896; progress of, from 1844 to 1858.399; 
 higher and intermediate, from 1858 to 
 I860, 401 ; summary of institutions for, 
 407 ; progress ot, 419 ; government office 
 of, 421 ; additional supplementary aid* 
 to, 476; endowments for, 477; number, 
 character, and yalae of institutions for. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 765 
 
 478, 479 ; tables showing the progress of, 
 
 from 1842 to 1861, 480, 481. 
 Education office in Upper Canada, 421. 
 Electric Telegraph in Canada, 266 ; in New 
 
 Brunswick, 267, 605 ; in Nova Scotia, 267. 
 
 701; in Prince Edward Island, 742; in 
 
 Newfoundland, 759. 
 Elementary Schools in Lower Canada, 534. 
 Elgin colonization road in Lower Canada, 
 
 62, 806. 
 Elgin, Earl o^ remarks by, on the educational 
 
 system of Canada, 416. 
 Elm. the white and red in New Brunswick, 
 
 566-668. 
 Emigration of American loyalists to Canada, 
 
 101. 
 Endowments, educational in Upper Canada, 
 
 477. 
 England, discreditable railroad transactions 
 
 in, 225. 227. 
 Enniskiiien. petroleum found at, 846; yield 
 
 of oil at, 849 ; export of petroleum from, 
 
 to England, 350. 
 Episcopal Church in Nova Scotia, 712. 
 Episcopalians in Prince Edward Island, 739. 
 Europe, large export of lumber to, 68. 
 Exhibitions of the Agricultural Association 
 
 of Canada West, 44-48. 
 Expenditure and revenue of Canada, 161, 
 
 162, 800, 301 ; of New Brunswick, 617; of 
 
 Nova Scotia, 702; of Prince Edward Is- 
 land, 741. 
 Exports and imports between Canada and 
 
 the United States in 1850-60, 299. 
 Exports and imports of New Brunswick, 
 
 from 1828 to 1860, 607; of Nova Scotia, 
 
 690, 691; of Prince Edward Island, 738; 
 
 of Newfoundland in 1845-1859, 756. 
 Exports from Canada, in 1852-'61, value of, 
 
 294. 
 Exports from Canada to the United States 
 
 in 1861-61, 297. 
 Exports of fish from New Brunswick, in 
 
 1850-1865, 585; from Newfoundland, 756. 
 Exports of lumber from Quebec, 287. 
 Exports of planks and boards from Canada 
 
 to the United States, 69. 
 Exports of wheat from Canada, 52, 63, 290, 
 
 291. 
 Exports to Great Britain from foreign and 
 
 Colonial ports in 1830, 292. 
 Exports, total, from Quebec, in 1808, 292. 
 Exports via the St Lawrence in 1857-61, 
 
 value of, 298. 
 Express Companies in Canada, 248-251. 
 Extravagance of the Grand Trunk Kailroad 
 
 Company, 212. 
 
 " Fabbiqub" School Act in Lower Canada, 
 
 provisions of, 498, 
 Faorique Schools in Lower Canada, 586. 
 Failure of the Grand Trunk Railway, causes 
 
 of, 206-214. 
 Fall of rain at Toronto, 28, 31;tat Montreal, 29. 
 Fares, cheap, influence of, on railroad travel, 
 
 248-250. 
 Farm practice In Lower Canada, 34. 
 Farms, French Canadian, divisions of, 33. 
 Farms in Upper Canada, value of, 63. 
 Felspar, where found in New Brunswick, 
 
 695, 
 
 Fertile Belt of the North-West Territory. 
 76-78 ; fertility of, 80. 
 
 Fever and ague unknown in New Bruns- 
 wick, 556. 
 
 Fire, great destruction of pine forests by, 70 
 
 Fire, the great Miramichi, on826, 546-551. 
 
 First establishment of comjaon schools in 
 Canada, 884. 
 
 Fish cured in Nova Scotia in 1851 and 1861. 
 688. ' 
 
 Fish, dried, exported from Newfoundland In 
 1849 and 1867, 754. 
 
 Fish exported, from New Brunswick, in 
 1850-1865, 686. 
 
 Fish, fresh-water, of Newfoundland, 749. 
 
 Fish ofNova Scotia, 675. 
 
 Fisheries of New Brunswick, 574-585; of 
 Nova Scotia, 688 ; of Prince Edward Island, 
 736, 737 ; of Newfoundland, 753-756. 
 
 Fitful progress of education in Canada from 
 1822 to 1836, 890. 
 
 Fogs on the Bay of Fundy, 556. 
 
 Forest, tables of the produce of, in Canada, 
 71, 72 ; Canadian, value of the products of, 
 from 1853 to 1861, 287; product of, in 
 New Brunswick m 1849-1856, 574; in 
 Prince Edward Island, 734. 
 
 Forest industry of Canada, 64-74. 
 
 Forest-trees in New Brunswick, 501-674. 
 
 Forges, iron, at Three Kivers and in Batis- 
 can, 319. 
 
 Form of government of New Brunswick, 
 609; of Nova Scotia, 714; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, 739 ; of Newfoundland, 758. 
 
 " Forty Thieves," the, in the American Con- 
 gress, 225. 
 
 Fossiliferous rocks of Canada, area of, 27. 
 
 Frazer river, gold discoveries on, 366. 
 
 Fredericton, in New Brunswick, settlement 
 of; 544. 
 
 Free grants of lands in Canada, 803; condi- 
 tions of, 806. 
 
 Free ports, Canadian, value of imports at, 
 299. 
 
 Freight traffic on Canadian railroads, 250. 
 
 French Canadian farms, divisions of, 88. 
 
 French population removed from Nova 
 Scotia in 1756, 658. 
 
 French Eiver and Ottawa navigation, 159- 
 161. 
 
 Friends' Seminary, near Picton, 898-483. 
 
 Frontenac and Madawaska colonization 
 road, 806. 
 
 "Frontenac," the first steamei on Lake On- 
 tario, .38. 
 
 Front roadP in Lower Canada, 105. 
 
 Frost and snow, travel and transport facili- 
 tated by, in Canada, 117-119. 
 
 Frosts in New Brunswick, effect of, on th© 
 land, 568. 
 
 Fruit-growers' Association for Upper Can- 
 ada, 48. 
 
 Fruits and vegetables in New Brun8wick,623. 
 Fulton, how far indebted to Symington, 137. 
 Furs and skins exports of, from Canada in 
 
 1863-61, 284. 
 Fur trade of Canada, 275-284. 
 
 Galena, where found in Canada, 820. 
 Game and wild beasts in 2iew Brunswick, 
 624. 
 
766 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gasp6 Basin, in the Qulf of St. Lawrence, a 
 free port, 299 ; value of imports at, 299. 
 
 Gaspe, steam and sailing vessels built at, 186. 
 
 Gauge on Canadian railways, 253-255. 
 
 Genenil Mining Association of Nova Scotia, 
 860, 852. 
 
 General Kailroad Law of New Tork, 234. 
 
 Geographical surface of Canada, 20-22. 
 
 Geological structure of Canada, 810-313. 
 
 Geology of New Brunswick, 585-590. 
 
 Gloucester county, New Brunswick, descrip- 
 tion of, 629. 
 
 Gk)derich, Brantford and BuflPalo Railway, 
 history of, 234-236. 
 
 Gold, discoveries of, in Canada, 880; in Nova 
 Scoti^ 356-369; amount of, obtained by 
 the Canada Gold Mining Co., in 2861-2, 
 831 ; amount obtained, in Nova Scotia, 359 ; 
 discoveries of, in British (k)lumbia, 865- 
 867 ; dtscoveries of, in Vancouver Island, 
 867; yield o^ in British Columbia, 868, 
 869 ; discoveries of; in the North- West Ter- 
 ritory, 371. 
 
 Gold-fields of Nova Scotia. 857, 858; sur- 
 veyed and divided, 859; advantages of, 
 860 ; of British Columbia, 866. 
 
 Gore, Governor, trustees of public schools 
 in Upper Canada appointed by, in 1807, 
 {noU\ 882. 
 
 Gourlay, Mr. Robert, remarks ot, on the state 
 of education in Canada in 1817, 885. 
 
 Government buildings at Ottawa, 96. 
 
 Government, form of, in New Brunswick, 
 609; in Nova Scotia, 714; in Prince tEd- 
 wai;d Island, 739 ; in Newfoundland, 758. 
 
 Government, imperial, action of, in i-elation 
 to an inter- colonial railway, 242. 
 
 Governors of Nova Scotia, list o^ from 1710 
 to 1858, 726. 
 
 Governors of Prince Edward Island, list ofi 
 from 1770 to 1859, 741. 
 
 Graded roads in Canada, 120 ; length and cost 
 of, 127, 128. 
 
 Grain portage railways in Canada, 236-238. 
 
 Grammar schools in Canada, letter of the 
 Duke of Portland in relation to, 879; ef- 
 forts of government for the establishment 
 o^ 879 ; Dr. Baldwin's and Mr. Strachan's, 
 881; masters of, in 1818 {note\ 889; dis- 
 trict schools converted into, in 1839, 897; 
 Improvements made in, in 1858, 402. 
 
 Grammar schools In New Brunswick, 614. 
 
 Grammar schools in Nova Scotia, 706. 
 
 Grand Banks of Newfoundland, 751. 
 
 Grand Lake, New Brunswick, 601. 
 
 Grand Seminaire at Montreal, 528. 
 
 Grand Seminary at Quebec, 513. 
 
 Grand Trunk Railway, history of the, 19T- 
 206; causes of failure of the. 206-214; 
 amount of aid granted to by government, 
 218 ; no return traffic on, 247 ; connection 
 of express companies with, 260-258. 
 
 Granite, where lound in New Brunswick, 
 692. 
 
 Grantp, ftree, of lands In Canada, 808 ; con- 
 ditions of, 806. 
 
 Grants made by Canada to the Grand Trunk 
 Railway Co., 208. 
 
 Grants, parliamentary, for educational pur- 
 poses in Canada, from 1882 to 1861, 541. 
 
 Grnnhite, where found in New Brunswick, 
 691. 
 
 Gravel roads in Canada, 122. 
 
 Great Western Railway, account of govern- 
 ment aid granted to, 218 ; history of the, 
 229-233 ; items of the cost of, 230 ; un- 
 necessary cost of, 231 ; defects in the lo- 
 cation of, 231 ; excellent equipments and 
 management of, 233; gauge adopted by, 
 254. 
 
 Grenville College, building ei-ected for, «i 
 Prescott {note\ 894 
 
 " Griflfon," the, La Salles ship on the lakea, 
 270. 
 
 Grindstones, where manufactm*ed in New 
 Brunswick, 593. 
 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, fisheries in the, 580- 
 688. 
 
 Gypsum, where found in Canada, 840 ; in 
 Nova Scotia, 863 ; uses of, 340 ; agricul- 
 tural and commercial value of, 341 ; re- 
 marks of Sir W8i. Logan on, 841 ; amount 
 of, annually raised in Canada, 341 ; value 
 per ton, 842 ; where found in New Bruns- 
 wick, 692. 
 
 Habitans, tenacity of, for old customs, 105l 
 
 Hackmatack, or American larch, in New 
 Brunswick, 562. 
 
 Haddock fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 577. 
 
 Hake fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 676 ; in 
 the Gulf of St Lawrence, 581. 
 
 Halibut fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 6T8. 
 
 Halifax, history and description of, 721-723. 
 
 Harbors of New Brunswick, 627-653; of 
 Nova Scotia, 662; of Prince Edward 
 Island. 729 ; of Newfoundland, 747. 
 
 Harvey Hill copper mine, 326. 
 
 Hastings colonization road, 805. 
 
 Hay, production o^ in Canada, 60. 
 
 Healthfulness of New Brunswick, 656 ; of 
 Nova Scotia, 666. 
 
 Hemlock spruce of New Brunswick, 668. 
 
 Herring fishery of the Bay of Fundy, 677 ; in 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 682. 
 
 Herring fishery of Newfoundland, 765. 
 
 Hessian fly, ravages of; in Canada, 66, 
 
 Highlanders, settled on Prince Edward 
 Island by the Earl of Selkirk, 781. 
 
 Hind, Professor, remarks of, on the value and 
 uses of gypsum, 840; on slate, 348. 
 
 Historical sketch of education in Upper Can- 
 ada, 878-481 ; in Lower Canada, 485-^3. 
 
 History, early, of New Brunswick, 642-62; 
 of Nova Scotia, 654-659 : of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, 729-783 ; of Newfoundland, 
 744-747. 
 
 History of the Hudson^s Bay Company, 279- 
 284. 
 
 Horustone, where found in New Bruns- 
 wick, 696. 
 
 Horseboat, no longer used in Canada, 186. 
 
 Horse railways In Canadian cities, 266^ 
 256. 
 
 Horticultural Societies in Upper Canada, 60. 
 
 Horton Academy in Nova Scotia, 707. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company, history of the, 
 279-284. 
 
 Hull iron mine in Canada, 816. 
 
 Humidity of climate of Toronto, table of, 80. 
 
 Huronian system of rocks in Canada, 811 ; 
 iron ores found in, 816 ; cupriferous veins 
 in, 822. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 767 
 
 Hydraulic cement, materials for, where 
 found in Canada, 842. 
 
 IcELAN© spar, where found in New Bruns- 
 wick, 593. 
 
 Idiots and lunatics in Nova Scotia, 683. 
 
 Immigrant agencies in Canada, 302, 
 
 Immigrants, number arrived at Quebec, in 
 1850-61, 801 ; arrival and distribution of, 
 in 1861, 302 ; tax on, 302 ; number of, ar- 
 rived in New Brunswick in 1844-60, 627. 
 
 Immigrants to New Brunswick, information 
 for, 619-623. 
 
 Immigration, expenditure in 1861, 302. 
 
 Immigration into Canada, 301-803. 
 
 Immigration, total, from Great Britain, from 
 1815 to 1858, 303. 
 
 Imperial government, action of, in relation 
 to an inter-colonial railway, 242. 
 
 Imports and exports between Canada and 
 the United States in 1850-60, 299. 
 
 Imports and exports of New Brunswick, 
 from 1823 to 1860,607; of Nova Scotia, 
 690, 691 ; of Prince Edward Island, 738 ; 
 of Newfoundland, in 1845-1859, 756. 
 
 Imports from the United States into Cana- 
 da in 1851-61, 297. 
 
 Imports into Canada from British and for- 
 eign ports, in 1852-61, 293 : value of; 293, 
 294. 
 
 Imports, value of, at Gasp6 Basin and Sault 
 Ste. Marie, 297. 
 
 Imports ma the St. Lawrence, in 1857-61, 
 value of, 298. 
 
 Improvement of the river St. Lawrence, 
 161-169. 
 
 Incas, of Peru, magnificent roads construct- 
 ed by, 103. 
 
 Indian corn, production of, in Canada, 60. 
 
 Indian salmon-spearing in Labrador, 83-87. 
 
 Indians in Upper Canada ; benefits of the 
 Common School Act extended to, in 
 1824, 391 ; schools for, 377, 429. 
 
 Indians, Montagnais, of Labrador, 82. 
 
 Indians, tribes of, in New Brunswick, 624- 
 626. 
 
 Industrial and Commercial College of St. 
 Michel, 527; of Notre Dame de Levis, 
 523; of Laval, 528; Ste. Marie de la 
 Beauce, 523; of Vercheres, 529; St. Ger- 
 main de Rimouski, 529; of Sherbrooke, 
 529; of La Chute, 529; of Longueuil, 
 530. 
 
 Industrial resources of Nova Scoti-i, 684; of 
 Prince Edward Island, 786 ; of Newfound- 
 land, 751. 
 
 Information for immigrants to New Bx'uns- 
 
 wick, 619-623. 
 Inheritance, law o£ in New Brunswick, 
 
 612. 
 Inland hills of Nova Scotia, soils o^ 669. 
 Institute of Prince Rupert's Land inot6\ 
 
 474. 
 Institutes, scientific, in Upper Canada, 473. 
 Inter-colonial Railway, proposed, 238-247. 
 Interest, rate of in New Brunswick, 619. 
 International communication in New Bruns- 
 wick, 600-605. 
 Invasion of the wilderness in Canada, 61. 
 Invasion, value of an inter-colonial railway 
 in case of, 245-247. 
 
 Iron ochres of Canada, where fnund, 332 ; 
 remarks of Sir William Logaa on, 833. 
 
 Iron ores, where found in Canada, 315-320 ; 
 characteristics of Canadian, 317-318 : 
 where found in Nova Scotia, 354, 856: cost 
 of, in various localities, 855. 356; discov- 
 eries of in New Brunswick, 862; abun- 
 dant in New Brunswick, 591. 
 
 Iron pyrites, remarkable lode of, in New- 
 foundland, 864 : abundant in New Bruns- 
 wick, 594. 
 
 Iron steamers on ChaudiSre and Chats LakeSk 
 154. 
 
 Iroquois Indians, in possession of Upper 
 Canada in 1777, 100. 
 
 Iroquois river, navigation of, 151. 
 
 Jade, found in New Brunswick, 595. 
 
 Jasper, where found in New Brunswick, 595. 
 
 Jesuit Collesre de Ste. Marie, Montreal, 526. 
 
 Jesuits, forfeited estates of, in Lower 
 Canada, 489. 491 ; educational eff'orts of; 
 in Canada, 534. 
 
 Johnston, Prof., on the agi-icultural capa- 
 bilities of New Brunswick, 554. 
 
 Joliette Industrial College, 526. 
 
 Judicial institutions in New Brunswick, 
 610 ; in Nova Scotia. 717 ; in Princ»i Ed- 
 ward Island, 740 ; in Newfoundland, 758. 
 
 Keefer, Mr. Thos. C, the originator of the 
 Victoria Bridge, 257. 
 
 Kennebecasis river, in New Brunswick, 601. 
 
 Kent county, New Brunswick, description 
 of, 632. 
 
 Kings College in New Brunswick, 614. 
 
 Kings College in Nova Scotia, 707. 
 
 Kings College, Toronto, charter obtained for 
 in 1827, 391 ; charter of, amended in 1887, 
 397; foundation stone of, laid in 1842, 399; 
 name of, changed to University cf To- 
 ronto. 400. 
 
 Kings county. New Brunswick, description 
 oi;'642. 
 
 Knox's Theological College, 399, 488. 
 
 Labor, demand for, in New Brunswick, 620. 
 
 Labrador, Peninsula, 80-88. 
 
 Lachine Canal and French River, proposed 
 canals between, 158-161. 
 
 Lachine Canal, when projected, 150 ; con- 
 struction and enlargement of, 166. 
 
 La Chute, Industrial and Commercial Col- 
 lege of, 529. 
 
 Ladies of Ste. Croix, 537. 
 
 Ladies of the Congregation of Notre Dame, 
 schools of, in Canada, 530. 
 
 Ladies of the Sacred Heart, 537. 
 
 Lake Champlain, importance of a large canal 
 connecting it with the St Lawrence, 182. 
 
 Lake Champlain route of navigation, 151. 
 
 Lake Huron and Ottawa canals, proposed, 
 158-161. 
 
 Lake Huron, description of, 14; importance 
 of a railway to, from Quebec, 247. 
 
 Lake Nipissing, i)roposed canals to, 159-161 ; 
 iron ore found near, 816. 
 
 Lake Ontario, description of, 15, 16; the first 
 steamboat, on, 138-141 ; railway from, to 
 
768 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 the Falls of Niagara, 191 ; system of rocks 
 on the north shore o^ 312. 
 
 Lakes, the great, 14-20 ; comparative area, 
 elevation and depth of, 20 ; influence ot, 
 on the climate of Canada, 27; early navi- 
 gation ot, 186; number and tonnage of 
 Canadian vessels on, in 1850-1861, 136; 
 steam vessels on, 141 ; passenger steamers 
 on, no longer sustained, 238. 
 
 Lake St Clair, description of^ 15. 
 
 Lake St. Peter, channel o^ deepened by 
 dredging, 165. 
 
 Lakes of New Brunswick. 601 ; Nova Scotia, 
 661 ; Prince Edward Island, 729 ; New- 
 foundland, 748. 
 
 Lakes on the Ottawa river, 94, 95. 
 
 Lake Superior, description o^ 14; commu- 
 nications with, 78 ; copper treasures oi^ 
 known in 1687, 271. 
 
 Lake Winnipeg, great inland basin of^ 74 
 
 Lamberville, Father de, on the prices of 
 beaver skins, 216. 
 
 Land, tenure o^ in New Brunswick, 612; 
 clearing wild, in New Brunswick, 621; 
 granted and ungranted in Nova Scotia, 702. 
 
 Land question, the, the standing grievance 
 of Prince Edward Island, 732, 742. 
 
 Lands, free grants of, in Canada, 303 ; en- 
 dowments of, for educational purposes in 
 Upper Canada, 477. 
 
 Lands, crown, in Canada, 803; In New 
 Brunswick, how sold, 553 ; in Nova Scotia, 
 702. 
 
 Lands set apart for educational purposes in 
 Lower Canada, 540. 
 
 Land under cultivation In Newfoundland, 
 752. 
 
 Laprairie, railway from, to St. John's, 190. 
 
 Larch, American, in New Brunswick, 662. 
 
 La Salle, voyage of, on the Lakes in the 
 " GriflFon," 270. 
 
 L'Assomption Classical and Industrial Col- 
 lege, established in 1832, 526. 
 
 L'Assomption College established at Sand- 
 wich in 1855-d, 402. 
 
 Laurentian series of rocks. 28, 27. 
 
 Laurentian system of rocks in Canada, 810. 
 
 Laurentide Mountains, 21. 
 
 Laval, Bishop de, seminary founded by, at 
 Quebec, 1678, 486. 
 
 Laval, Industrial and Commercial College 
 of, 528. 
 
 Laval, University of, at Quebec. 508-512. 
 
 Law course in the Upper Canada Universi- 
 ties, 444 
 
 Law,, disregard of railroad companies for, 227, 
 
 Law of inheritance in New Brunswick, 612. 
 
 Law school of Osgoode Hall, 448. 
 
 Law schools in Lower Canada, 538. 
 
 Law Society of Upper Canada when es- 
 tablished (note), 444 ; law course o^ 444- 
 448. 
 
 Laws of Nova Scotia, 71T. 
 
 Laws respecting repair of roads In Lower 
 Canada, 104-108 : in Upper Canada, 109, 110. 
 
 Lead mine, the " Ramsay," 820. 
 
 Lead ores, where found in Canada, 820. 
 
 Lead ores, where found in New Brunswick, 
 591. 
 
 Le Jeune, Father, first Canadian school 
 opened by, at Quebec, 1682, 486. 
 
 Length of railways in Canada, 198, 194 
 
 Letters transmitted In Canada in 1S62 and 
 1860, 115; carried by Canadian ocean 
 steamers, 144: received at and sent from 
 the Education Office m Upper Canada, 422. 
 
 Libraries, collegiate and other, in Upper 
 Canada, 474; in Lower Canada, 539, 
 
 Library system of Upper Canada, 414, 421. 
 
 Life in the Canadian wilderness, 87. 
 
 Lighthouses in Canada, cost o^ 178. 
 
 Limestone where foimd in New Brunswick, 
 592. 
 
 List of articles necessary for a settler going 
 into the bush, 804 
 
 Literary associations in Upper Canada, 470 ; 
 iq Lower Canada, 589. 
 
 Lithographic stone, where found in Canada, 
 834 
 
 Liverpool and N. A. Steamship Co., 142. 
 
 Live stock in Upper Canada, 63; in New 
 Brunswick, 627-653; in Nova Scotia, 687; 
 in Prince Edward Island, 736 ; in New- 
 foundland, 752. 
 
 Loan fund, municipal, in Canada, amounts 
 taken from, for railway purposes, 216, 217. 
 
 Local works in Canada, cost of, 178. 
 
 Locks for canals, advantages of timber in 
 the construction of, 161, 175. 
 
 Locks for batteaux constructed by tho 
 French, 147. 
 
 Locks on Canadian canals, 151-156. 
 
 Locks on the Welland canal, not adapted to 
 side-wheel steamers, 180. 
 
 Locomotives and cars on Canadian rail- 
 ways in 1860, 196. 
 
 Locomotives, improvements made in, by 
 George Stephenson, 187-189; the first 
 used in Upper Canada, 192. 
 
 Logan, Sir Wm., provincial geologist for 
 Canada, 310; remarks ot, on Canadian 
 iron ochres, 883; on mica, 835; on slate, 
 848 ; on petroleum, 848 ; value of the re- 
 searches of {note), 472. 
 
 London.railway from, to Burlington Bay, 190. 
 
 Longevity in Nova Scotia, 666. 
 
 Longevity, instances of, in Newfoundland, 
 750. 
 
 Longuenil, Industrial and Oonunerclal Col- 
 lege of, 680. 
 
 Lost ChaudiOre, 96. 
 
 Lower Canada, area of, 14^* agricultural his- 
 tory of, 32-39 , tables of agricultural pro- 
 ducts of; 35, 36 ; comparative progress of 
 in agriculture, 41 ; falling off in the pro- 
 duction of wheat in, 52; in 1777,100; 
 revenue of, between 1791 and 1841,162; 
 historical sketch of education in, 485-542 ; 
 academies in, 530. 
 
 Loyalists, American, emigration of; to Can- 
 ada, 101. 
 
 Lumberers, operations ot, in Canada, 67, 72. 
 
 Lumbering in Nova Scotia, 698. 
 
 Lumber trade of Canada, 67-74 284-289. 
 
 Lumber, value of exports of, from Canada, 
 66; large export of, to Europe, 68. 
 
 Lunatics and Idiots in Nova Scotia, 6S3. 
 
 Lutheran Church in Nova Scotia, 713. 
 
 Macadam roads in Canada, 128 ; length and 
 
 cost of, 127, 12& 
 Macfarlane, Mr. Thomas, on the manu&o- 
 
 ture of bichromate of potash, 882. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 769 
 
 McQill Collegje at Montreal, founded by Hon. 
 James McGill, 516; characteristics of; 615 ; 
 statistics of, 516; course of study in, 517; 
 honors in, 518; faculty of arts in, 516- 
 519 ; faculty of medicioe in, 519 ; faculty 
 of law in, 519. 
 
 McGill, Hon. James, founder of McGill Col- 
 lege at Montreal, 616 ; biographical notice 
 of (note), 516. 
 
 McGregor, Mr., on the beauty of American 
 forests, 567. 
 
 Mackerel fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 678; 
 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 682. 
 
 Madawaska river, 600. 
 
 Mails, remuneration for carriage of; to the 
 Grand Trunk Co., 253. 
 
 Maitland, Sir Peregrine, efforta of, for the 
 promotion of education in Upper Canada, 
 390, 891. 
 
 Manganese ores, where found in New 
 Brunswick, 591. 
 
 Mania, railroad, in England, 225, 227. 
 
 Manufactures in New Brunswick, 599 ; in 
 Nova Sytia, 694; in Prince Edward 
 Island, 737 ; in Newfoundland, 753. 
 
 Manures, mineral in Canada, 338. 
 
 Maple sugar, manufacture of, in New Bruns- 
 wick, 565. 
 
 Maple-trees of New Brunswick, 564. 
 
 Marble, where found in New Brunswick, 
 593. 
 
 Marmora, beds of iron ore at, 816. 
 
 Masscichuaetts Teacher, opinion of the 
 editor of, as to education In Canada {note), 
 874. 
 
 Masson Indu strial College, 626. 
 
 Matane and Cape Chat colonization road, 306. 
 
 Mechanics' institutes in Upper Canada, 468; 
 in Lower Canada, 539. 
 
 Medical course in the Upper Canada Uni- 
 versities, 452. 
 
 Medicine, schools of, In Upper Canada, 450. 
 
 MelUeur, Dr. J. B., appointed superintend- 
 ent of education in Lower Canada in 1886, 
 508. 
 
 Merrltt, Hon. "W. H., projector of the Wel- 
 land canal, 173. 
 
 Metalliferous rocks of New Brunswick, 863. 
 
 Metapedia colonization road, 306. 
 
 Meteorology of Canada, 28-81; of New- 
 foundland, 751. 
 
 Methodist Churches In Canada, have no the- 
 ological school, 439. 
 
 Methodists, Wesleyan, academy of the, in 
 Upper Canada, 892, 393 ; female college of, 
 at Hamilton, 434; theological text-books 
 of, 442 ; academy of the, in New Bruns- 
 wick, 615. 
 
 Mica, where found in Canada, 335 ; remarks 
 of Sir Wm. Logan on, 335 ; value of, in 
 the London market, 336. 
 
 Micmac Indians of New Brunswick, 625. 
 
 Michigan line of railway, leased by the 
 Grand Trunk Co., 204. 
 
 Mlchlplcoten Island, nickel found on, 822. 
 
 Miles of railway In Canada, 192, 196. 
 
 Mllicetes, an Indian tribe of New Bruns- 
 wick, 625, 626. 
 
 Millerite found at Brompton lake, 829. 
 Mills and manufactories in New Brunswick, 
 
 599. 
 Mills In Newfoundland, 758. 
 
 Mineral manures of Canada, 838. 
 
 Mineral resources of Canada, 308-850; of 
 Nova Scotia, 350-860 ; of New Brunswick, 
 860-368, 590-599 ; of Newfoundland, 363- 
 865 ; of British Columbia and Vancouver 
 Island, 365-371; of the Noxth-West Ter- 
 ritory, 371, 372. 
 
 Mines, minerals, and quarries in New 
 Brunswick, 590-699. 
 
 Mining in Canada and in England, 827. 
 
 Minor Seminary at Quebec, 518. 
 
 Mlquelets, French fisheries at the, 760. 
 
 Mlramlchl, description of the great fire In, 
 646-551. 
 
 Mlramlchl river, 602. 
 
 Missionaries, early Frencli, traders in furs, 
 277. 
 
 Mlste-shlpu river, of Labrador, 82. 
 
 Model grammar school for Upper Canada, 
 422-456; regulations of, 456. 
 
 Model Schools and Normal College in Nova 
 Scotia, 709. 
 
 Model Schools In Lower Canada, 583. 
 
 Molsic Elver, of Labrador, 82. 
 
 Molson, Hon. John, builder of the first 
 steamboat In Canada, 140. 
 
 Molson, the brothers, munificent donations 
 of, to M'GIU College, 515. 
 
 Montagnais Indians, of Labrador, 82. 
 
 Montreal, situation of; 13 ; climate of, 28-81 ; 
 water communications of, with New 
 York, 131; disadvantages of, compared 
 with New York, 179 ; street railway in, 
 255; Classical College and Theological 
 Seminary of, 628. 
 
 Montreal Copper Mining Co., 822, 823. 
 
 Montreal ocean steamships, table of ton 
 nage, power, and capacity of, 145. 
 
 Montreal Telegraph Co., progi-ess of, 266. 
 
 Moose, Factory, 282. 
 
 Morality, railway, in America, England and 
 Canada, 221-228. 
 
 "Moral responsibility" of Canadians for 
 the failure of the Grand Trunk Eailwav. 
 205, 211. 
 
 Morrln Classical College, Quebec, 530. 
 
 Mountains of Canada, 21, 22; of the North- 
 West Territory, 75; of Newfoundland, 748. 
 
 Municipalities In Canada, amounts taken by. 
 from the loan fund for railways, 216, 217* 
 disregard of obligations by, 217. 
 
 Municipalities in Upper Canada, number 
 of, 409. 
 
 Municipal railways in Canada. 214-221. 
 
 Museums in Upper Canada, 473. 
 
 Muskoka colonization road, 306. 
 
 Naniamo, "Vancouver Island, coal mining 
 operations at, 370 ; coal exported from, in 
 1861, 371. 
 
 Natural resources of New Brunswick, 626; 
 of Nova Scotia, 666; of Prince Edward 
 Island, 784 ; of Newfoundland, 747. 
 
 Navigation and commerce In New Bruns- 
 wick, 606-609 ; in Nova Scotia, 690-693 : 
 of Prince Edward Island, 787; of New- 
 foundland, 766. 
 
 Navigation In Canada, progress of, 131-141; 
 the three great routes of, 161-156; cost 
 of public works for tho Improvement of, 
 178; railways cannot compete with, 206 
 
770 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Navigation between Montreal and Quebec, 
 opening and closing ol^ 274. 
 
 Navigation between the Ottawa and French 
 River, 159. 
 
 Navigation of the St. Lawrence, directness 
 of, 130 ; early, 146-150. 
 
 " Navvy," the English, during the railway 
 mania, 226. 
 
 Newark, early classical schools opened at, 
 078. 
 
 New Brunswick, action of, with regard to 
 an inter-colonial railway, 238. 240 ; min- 
 eral resources of, 360-363 ; 590 ; early his- 
 tory o^ 542-646 ; descriptive and statis- 
 tical account of, 552; climate of^ 556; 
 course of the seasons in, 557 ; the forest 
 in, 561 ; fisheries of, 574 ; geology of, 5S5 ; 
 mines, minerals, and quarries in, 690; 
 ship-building in, 697; mills and manu- 
 factories in, 599 ; internal communication 
 in, 600; railways in, 604; electric tele- 
 graph lines in, 267,605; commerce and 
 naviaation o^ 606; form of government 
 of; 6U9; judicial institution of, 610 ; tenure 
 of land and law of inheritance in, 612; re- 
 ligions Avorshipin, 613; education in, 614; 
 civil list, revenue and expenditure in, 617; 
 banks for savings, value of coins, and rate 
 of interest In, 618; information for immi- 
 
 f rants into, 619 ; fruits and vegetables in, 
 23; aborigines of, 624; natural resources 
 of, 626 ; progress of population in, 627 ; 
 description of, by counties, 627-653. 
 
 New Brunswick telegraph, 267. 605. 
 
 Newcastle, destruction ol, in the great Mi- 
 ramichl fire, 549. 
 
 New England, railroad passenger trafllc in, 
 how sustained, 252. 
 
 Newfoundland, Grand Banks of, 751. 
 
 Newfoundland, mineral resources ot, 868- 
 865; situation, discovery, and early his- 
 tory ol^ 744; topography, natural re- 
 sources, climate, &c., of, 747 ; industrial 
 resources of, 751 ; population, civil and 
 religious institutions, «fec., of, 756. 
 
 New Parliament Building in Ottawa, 94, 
 96-98. 
 
 Niagara Falls, descent of, 15. 
 
 Niagara Library at Newark in 1801, 881. 
 
 Nickel, where found in Canada, 328. 
 
 Nicolet, Classical College and Theological 
 Seminary of, 524. 
 
 Normal College and Model Schools in Nova 
 Scotia, 709. 
 
 Normal School for Upper Canada, 456; con- 
 ditions of admission into, 456. 
 
 Normal Schools in Lower Canada, 507, 682. 
 
 Northern Railway, amount of aid granted 
 to, by government, 218-220 ; cost less than 
 was estimated, 220. 
 
 North Saskatchewan valley, 76. 
 
 Northumberland county. New Brunswick, 
 description of, 680. 
 
 Northwest Company of Montreal, when 
 formed, 278; incorporated with the Hud- 
 son's Bay Co. In 1821, 279, 280. 
 
 North-West Territory, description of; 74- 
 80 ; mineral resources of, 871, 872. 
 
 Norway House, 282. 
 
 Ndtre Dapie de Levis, Industrial and Com- 
 mercial College of, 528. 
 
 Notre Dame Mountains, 22. 
 
 Nova Scotia, action ot, in favor of an int«p 
 colonial railway. 233, 240 ; telegraph in, 267, 
 701; mineral resources of, 350-360; dis- 
 covery and early fortunes of. 664 ; posi- 
 tion, extent, and natural featm-es of, 660 ; 
 climate of, 668 ; natural resources of, 666 ; 
 population, statistics, &c., of, 677; in- 
 dustrial resources of, 684; commejcial in- 
 dustry, 690 ; public works of, 695 ; crown 
 lands of, 702 ; revenue and expenditure of; 
 702 ; educational institutions of, 704; aca- 
 demies in, 707; ecclesiastical condition 
 of, 711; political state of, 714; general 
 civilization of, 719; literature of, 723. 
 
 Nuggets of gold found in Canada, 380, 331 ; 
 in Nova Scotia, 853 ; in British Columbia, 
 867. 
 
 Oak, the red and gray In New Brunswici:, 
 572. 
 
 Oats, production of, in Canada, 59. 
 
 Observatories, scientific, in Upper Canada, 
 472. 
 
 Occupations, professions, and trades in 
 Nova Scotia, 680. 
 
 Ocean steamers of Canada, 141-146 ; lines 
 of, from Halifax, 698. 
 
 Ochres, Canadian and French, 833. 
 
 Ochres found in New Brunswick, 595. 
 
 Oil-stone, where found in New Brunswick, 
 693. 
 
 Orphan children in Canada, legislative pro- 
 visions for the education of, in 1799, 880. 
 
 Orphan schools in Upper Canada, 467 ; in 
 Lower Canada, 538. 
 
 Osborne, Captain, first civil governor of 
 Newfoundland, 747. 
 
 Osgoode Hali, law-school, of, 448. 
 
 Ottawa, growth of the city of, 96 ; new par- 
 liament buildings at, 94, 96-98. 
 
 Ottawa and Lake Huron Canals, proposed, 
 158-161. 
 
 Ottawa aid Opeongo colonization road, 61, 
 805. 
 
 Ottawa River, source and tributaries of, 94; 
 directness of, 130; route of navigation, 
 152-154; timber slides on, 156; table 
 showing extent and cost of canals on, 177. 
 
 Ottawa valley, resources of, 96. 
 
 Pacifio and Atlantic, importance of a prac- 
 ticable route between, through British 
 territory, 372. 
 
 Palaeozoic rocks of Canada, 24-27. 
 
 Parish schools in New Brunswick, 615-617. 
 
 Parliamentary grants for educational piur- 
 poses in CaJiada, from 1832 to 1801, 541. 
 
 Parliament Buildings at Ottawa, 94. 
 
 Parliament, first, of Nova Scotia. 659. 
 
 Passengers' act, provincial, provisions <>f,808. 
 
 Passenger steamers on the lakes, business 
 of, spoiled by the railroads, 233. 
 
 Pattei-son, Walter, first governor of Prince 
 Edward Island, 781. 
 
 Pearlash, production oi; in Canada, 70. 
 
 Peas, production of, in Canada, 60. 
 
 Peat, important uses of, 845; abundance o^ 
 in Canada, 846; immense bog of, in 'the 
 island of Anticosti, 846; where found lo 
 New Brunsvtick, 584. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 771 
 
 Pemberton, Mr., on the product of gold in 
 British Columbia, 868. 
 
 Pembina Mountain, in the North- West Ter- 
 ritory, 75. 
 
 Peninsula of Labrador, 80-88. 
 
 Peninsula, western, of Canada, rocks of the, 
 813. 
 
 Peru, magnificence of the ancient roads of, 
 103. 
 
 Peticodiac river, in New Brunswick, 601. 
 
 PeUt Seminaire at Montreal, 523. 
 
 Petroleum, where found in Canada, 25, 846 ; 
 origin of, 347 ; discovery of, 347 ; flowing 
 wells of, 348 ; commercial value o^ 349 ; 
 exportation of, from Enniskillen to Eng- 
 land, 350. 
 
 Phosphate of lime, importance and uses of, 
 888 ; where found m Canada, 339 ; value 
 of, per ton in England, 889. 
 
 Physical features of Canada, 18-81. 
 
 Pictou Academy in Nova Scotia, 706. 
 
 Pictou coal mines, 850; coal raised at, 851. 
 
 Pine, white, of New Brunswick, 561. 
 
 Pipe-stone, Indian, where found in New 
 Brunswick, 695. 
 
 Plank roads in Canada, 122 : length and cost 
 o<; 127, 128. 
 
 Planks and boards, export of, to the United 
 States from Canada, 69. 
 
 Plants and trees of Nova Scotia, 666. 
 
 Plates in the tubes of Victoria Bridge, 261, 
 262. 
 
 Ploughs used in Canada, description ot, 40. 
 
 Plumbago, where found in Canada, 834-387 ; 
 uses of, and modes of purifying, 887'; 
 where found in New Brunswick, 591. 
 
 Political state of Nova Scotia, 714-719. 
 
 Pollock fishery in the Bay of Fundy, 576. 
 
 Population of Canada, 82, 99, 102, 
 
 Population of New Brunswick, progress ot, 
 627. 
 
 Population of Newfoundland, 756. 
 
 Population of Nova Scotia, in the years 
 1755-1861, 678; comparative increase o^ 
 
 ' 679 ; by counties, 679 ; origin of, 679. 
 
 Vopulation of Prince Edward Island, 738. 
 
 Portage railways for grain, in Canada, 236- 
 288. 
 
 Portland, Duke of, letter of, in fevor of the 
 establishment of schools in Canada, 879. 
 
 Portland railway, leased by the Grand 
 Trunk Co., 208. 
 
 Portland railroad gauge, how forced on Can- 
 ada, 254 
 
 Post-offices in Canada, table showing the in- 
 crease of, 115; revenue and expenditures 
 of, in 1852 and 1860, 115. 
 
 Post-offices in Nova Scotia, 701; in New- 
 foundland, 758. 
 
 Post roads in Canada, table showing the 
 progress o^ 15, 115. 
 
 Post travelling in Lower Canada, 110. 
 
 Potash, production of; in Canada, 70. 
 
 Potatoes, production of, in Canada, 60. 
 
 Potsdam sandstone, Parliament houses at 
 Ottawa constructed of, 97. 
 
 Prairie Plateau of Rupert's Land, 75. 
 
 Prairies, winter Journey on the, in Canada, 
 90-94. 
 
 Presbyterian Academy at Halifax, 707. 
 
 Presbyterian Church in Nova Scotia, 712. 
 
 Pr«»byterian Colleges in Nova Scotia, 708. 
 
 49 
 
 Presbyterians, College established by, at 
 Kingston in 1841, 897,438; text-books 
 adopted by, 442. 
 
 Prescott, roads of Peru described by, 104. 
 
 Present trade of Canada, 290-294. 
 
 Prices of timber at Quebec, in 1858-61, 287. 
 
 Prince Edward Island, extent and general 
 features of, 728 ; early history of, 729 ; nat- 
 ural resources of, 784; industrial re- 
 sources of, 736 ; population of, 738 ; re- 
 ligious denominations in, 738; education 
 in, 739; civil government, 739 ; revenue 
 and expenditure of, 741. 
 
 Prince of Wales, donations made by, to 
 educational institutions in Canada in 1861, 
 407. 
 
 Private schools in Upper Canada, 430 ; in 
 Lower Canada, 534. 
 
 Prizes awarded at agricultural and cattle 
 shows in Canada, 45-47. 
 
 Produce trade of Canada, 290, 291. 
 
 Productions of the forest in Canada, 71 : ia 
 New Brunswick, in 1849-1855, 574. 
 
 Products, agricultural, exported from Can- 
 ada, 291. 
 
 Products, agricultural, of Lower Canada, 85i, 
 86 ; of Upper Canada, 61, 62 ; of New 
 Brunswick, 560, 627-653 ; of Nova Scotia, 
 687; of Prince Edward Island, 786; of 
 Newfoundland, 752. 
 
 Professional schools in Upper Canada, 485; 
 in Lower Canada, 582. 
 
 Professions, trades, and occupations in Nova 
 Scotia, 680. 
 
 Progress of Canada, 99 ; of New Bruns- 
 wick, 542-653 ; of Nova Scotia, 654^727; 
 of Newfoundland, 744-760 ; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, 728-743. 
 
 Progress of education in Upper Canada, 419. 
 
 Progress of navigation in Canada, 181-141. 
 
 Progress of population in New Brunswick, 
 627; in Nova Scotia, 678. 
 
 Progress of roads in Canada, 116-124. 
 
 Progressof travel in Canada, 110-115. 
 
 Proposed Ottawa and Lake Huron Canals, 
 158-161. 
 
 Prospectus of the Grand Trunk Co., de- 
 ceptive statements o^ 202, 209. 
 
 Protestant separate schools in Canada, 427 ; 
 section of the law authorizing {note),. 
 
 Provincial agricultural association of Upper 
 
 Canada, 44-48. 
 Provincial Passengers' Act, provisions of, 
 
 808. 
 Provisions necessary for a settler's family 
 
 going into the bush, 804. 
 Public elementary schools in Canada, 409 ; 
 
 not receiving legislative aid, 429. 
 Public Works of Nova Scotia, 695-702. 
 
 QtrADKTTPsns, nativs, of Nova Scotia, 674. 
 
 Quarries, minerals, and mines in New 
 Brunswick, 590-699. 
 
 Quarternary deposits of CanadSy 24 
 
 Quartz gold veins ot Nova Scotia, 353. 
 
 Quartz, milk-white, abundant in New Bruns- 
 wick, 595. 
 
 Quebec, climate of, 27, 29 ; steam and sail- 
 ing vessels built at, 136 : importance of a 
 railway from, to Lake Huron, 247; abip- 
 
772 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 bnlWitig at, in 1T16, 284; tonnage of ves- 
 sels arrived at Quebec from 1764 to 1861, 
 274 ; tonnage of vessels built at, from 
 1791 to 1861, 286; exports of lumber from, 
 287 ; shipments of timber from, in 1860- 
 62, 289 ; export of wheat from^ 290 ; total 
 exports from, in 1808, 292; number of im- 
 migrants arrived at, in 1860-61, 801. 
 
 Quebec group of rocks, 812. 
 
 Quebec Seminaries, 512-516. 
 
 Queen's county, New Brunswick, descrip- 
 tion of; 644 
 
 Eafts on the great lakes, 15T. 
 
 Kailway charters granted in Canada, 191, 
 192. 
 
 Eaihvay contractors, American, extensive 
 operations of; in Canada, 222-224. 
 
 Kailway contractors in England, extensive 
 operations of, 200. 
 
 Railway magnates and railway passengers, 
 213. 
 
 Eaiiway monopoly, danger from, to the 
 western peninsula of Canada, 236. 
 
 Eaiiway morality in America, England, and 
 Canada, 221-228. 
 
 Kailway passengers in Canada, annoyances 
 occasioned to, by express companies, 250. 
 
 Eaiiway passenger traffic, influence of cheap 
 fares upon, 248. 
 
 Eaiiway passenger traffic in New England, 
 249. 
 
 Eaiiway policy in Canada, 247-248; injurious 
 effects of, 169-179. 
 
 Kailways, early, in England, 187-190. 
 
 Railways, grain portage, in Canada, 236-288. 
 
 Kailways in Canada, history of, 190-266. 
 
 Kailways in New Brunswick, 604. 
 
 Kailways in Nova Scotia, 695-697. 
 
 Railways, municipal in Canada, 214-221. 
 
 Kailway traffic in Canada, how limited, 248. 
 
 Kailway transactions in England, discredit- 
 able, 225-227. 
 
 Rain, fall of; at Toronto, 28-81 ; at Mon- 
 treal, 29. 
 
 Rains in New Brunswick, 658. 
 
 " Ramsay" lead mine, 820. 
 
 Rapids on the St. Lawrence, efforts made to 
 clear the channels of, 162, 163, 168 ; de- 
 scent 0^ by steamers, 168. 
 
 Reciprocity treaty, leading points of the, 
 296; table of imports showing the effect 
 oi; 297. 
 
 R^coUets, or Franciscans, the first mission- 
 aries and teachers in Cana4a. 534. 
 
 Regiopolis College (Catholic), opened at 
 Kingston in 1846, 895 ; founded by Bishop 
 McDonnell, 487. 
 
 Religious census of Nova Scotia, 680. 
 
 Religious statistics of Newfoundland, 757. 
 
 Religious teaching in the public schools of 
 Canada, 416-419. 
 
 Religious worship in New Brunswick, 618. 
 
 Repair of roads In Canada, 105-110. 
 
 Reptiles of Nova Scotia, 676. 
 
 Resources, natural, of New Brunswick, 626; 
 of Nova Scotia, 666; of Prince Edward 
 Island, 784; of Newfoundland, 747. 
 
 Restigouch6 county, New Branswick, de- 
 scription of, 627. 
 
 Bestigouch6 river, 602. 
 
 Revenue and expenditures of Canada, KtL 
 162, 800, 801; of New Brunswick, 607, 
 617; of Nova Scotia, 702; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, 741. 
 
 Revenue of Canada from customs in 1851- 
 61, 800. 
 
 Revenue of Canadian post-offices in 1852 
 and 1860, 116. 
 
 Revenue of New Brunswick, from 1837 to 
 1860, 607. 
 
 Richelieu river, directness of, 130 ; naviga- 
 iffbn of; 151 ; extent and cost of works on, 
 177. 
 
 Richibuct6 river in New Brunswick, 602. 
 
 Bideau canal, route of navigation of; 154; 
 constructed by the imperial government, 
 155; cost o^ 162 ; length of and locks on, 
 177. 
 
 Rigaud Industrial and Commercial College, 
 627. 
 
 River fisheries of New Brunswick, 688. 
 
 Rivers of Canada, peculiarities of, 129-181; 
 of New Brunswick, 600 ; of Nova Scotia, 
 661; of Prince Edward Island, 729 ; of 
 Newfoundland, 747. 
 
 Road policy in Upper Canada, 125. 
 
 Roads, colonization, in Canada, 61, 805. 
 
 Roads in Canada, progress of, 116-124. 
 
 Roads in Lower Canada, 104-108. 
 
 Roads in New Brunswick, 603. 
 
 Roads in Nova Scotia, 699. 
 
 Roads in Prince Edward Island, 742. 
 
 Roads in Upper Canada, 109, 110, 125-128; 
 tables showing the length and cost ot 127, 
 128. 
 
 Roads of antiquity, remarks on, 102-104. 
 
 Eobb, Professor, on the amount of coal in 
 New Brunswick, 860, 861, 
 
 Roberval, first viceroy of Canada, 268. 
 
 Robinson, Major, on the soil, climate, Ac, 
 of New Brunswick, 555. 
 
 Robinson, Sir John B,, remarks of, on the 
 study of law in Canada (note), 446. 
 
 Rochefoucault, Duke le la, remarks of, on 
 education in Canada, in 1795, 876; on 
 education in Lower Canada, 490. 
 
 " Rocket," Stephenson's, speed attained by, 
 in 1880, 187. 
 
 Rock formations of Canada, 28-27. 
 
 Rocks, Laurentian system of in Canada, 28, 
 27,810; Huroniau system of, in Canada, 
 811 ; of the western peninsula of Canada, 
 818. 
 
 Rocks of New Brunswick, primary, 686; 
 trap, 686 ; lower Silurian, 687 ; upper Si- 
 lurian, 687 ; red sandstone, 688 ; carbon- 
 iferous, 588. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, principal northern passes 
 in, 79. 
 
 Rolph, Dr. Thomas, remarks of, in relation 
 to common schools in Canada in 1882-3, 
 898. 
 
 Roman Catholic Church in Nova Scotia, 
 712. 
 
 Roman Catholics in Prince Edward Island, 
 788, 
 
 Roman Catholic separate schools in Canada, 
 422; sections of the act authorizing 
 {notes), 428^25. 
 
 Eoman roads, ancient, remarks on, 108. 
 
 Roofing slate, important uses of, 848; re- 
 marks of Profl Hind and Sir Wm. Logan 
 
INDEX, 
 
 Y73 
 
 on, 843 ; where fonnd in Canada, 844 ; 
 
 sizes and prices of, 345; where found in 
 
 New Brunswick. 390. 
 Roof of Victoria Bridge, 263. 
 Root crops in Canada, "in crease in, 68. 
 Root crops, large, in New Brunswick. 559. 
 Royal Grammar School at Toronto, 431. 
 "Royal Institution for the Advancement of 
 
 Learning" in Lower Canada, 492, 494; 
 
 powers of, how limited, 535. 
 Rupert's Land, description of; 74-80. 
 Rust, damage done by, to the wheat-crops of 
 
 Canada, 57. 
 Rye, production of, in Canada, 60. 
 Ryerson, Rev. Dr., charter obtained by, for 
 
 Upper Canada Academy at Cobourg, 393 ; 
 
 biographical notice of (note), 893 ; remarks 
 
 of, on American teachers and text-books 
 
 (note), 894 ; appointed superintendent of 
 
 schools in Upper Canada in 1844, 399. 
 
 Sable Island, a dependency of Nova Scotia, 
 description of, 726. 
 
 Sackett's Harbor, steamer launched at, in 
 1816, 139. 
 
 Sackville Academy in Nova Scotia, 707. 
 
 Sailing vessels, Canadian, registered in 1861, 
 295. 
 
 Sailing vessels on the great lakes. 185 ; table 
 of number and tonnage o^ built in Canada, 
 136. 
 
 Sailing vessels, total tonnage of, engaged in 
 Canadian trade in 1858-61, 295. 
 
 St Andrew's, New Brunswick, vessels en- 
 tered and cleared at, in 1849-55, 641. 
 
 St. Anne, in Lower Canada, agricultural 
 school at, 89. 
 
 Ste. Anne de la Pocatifire, Classical and In- 
 dustrial College of, 525. 
 
 Ste. Marie de la Beauce, Industrial and Com- 
 mercial College of, 528. 
 
 Ste. Marie de Monnoir, Classical and Indus- 
 trial College of, 527. 
 
 Ste. Th6r6se de Blainville, Classical CoUege 
 and Theological Seminary of, 525. 
 
 St. Francis Classical College, 528. 
 
 St. Francis Xavier's College in Nova Scotia, 
 708. 
 
 St. Germain de Rimouski, Industrial and 
 Commercial College of, 529. 
 
 St. Hyacinthe, Classical College and Theo- 
 logical Seminary of, 524. 
 
 St John, city of, in New Brunswick, 637- 
 640 ; shipping and commerce of, 638. 
 
 St John county, New Brunswick, descrip- 
 tion of, 637. 
 
 St John river in New Brunswick, 600; fish- 
 eries on, 580. 
 
 St John's City, Newfoundland, description 
 of, 760. 
 
 St John's, railway from, toLaprairie, 190. 
 
 St Joseph's College at Ottawa, 400, 487. 
 
 StLawrence and Atlantic line of railway pur- 
 chased by the Grand Trunk Company, 208. 
 
 St Lawrence canals adapted to side-wheel 
 steamers, 180. 
 
 St Lawrence river, description ot, 16, 20; 
 appearance of French Canadian settle- 
 ments on, 85 ; early navigation of, 146- 
 150 ; improvement oi^ 161-169 ; table show- 
 ing extent and cost of works on, 177; 
 
 adapted to steam navigation, 181; value 
 of trade ma the, 298. 
 
 St Lawrence rivor compared with the Mis- 
 sissippi, 129, 130. 
 
 St. Lawrence route of navigation, great ad- 
 vantages of for ocean steamers, 145 ; pro- 
 spective value of, to Canada, 298. 
 
 St Mary's College in Nova Scotia, 708. 
 
 St Michael's College at Toronto, 401,438. 
 
 St. Michel, Industrial and Commercial Col- 
 lege o^ in Lower Canada, 627. 
 
 St Peter's Canal in Nova Scotia, 698. 
 
 St Sulpice, theological seminary ofl at Mon- 
 treal, 487. 
 
 Salaries, extravagant, of the officers of the 
 Grand Trunk Railroad Co., 212. 
 
 Salmon fisheries on the St John river, 580 ; 
 in the Gulf of St Lawrence, 588. 
 
 Salmon fishery of Newfoundland, 756. 
 
 Salmon-spearing in Labrador, 83-87. 
 
 Salt-springs, where found in New Brans- 
 wick, 596. 
 
 Sandstone, where found in New Brunswick, 
 598. 
 
 Saskatchewan river, gold found near the 
 head waters of, 871. 
 
 Saskatchewan valleys, account of the, 76-78. 
 
 Sault Ste. Marie, a free port, 299 ; value of 
 imports at, 299. 
 
 Sault Ste. Marie colonization road, 806. 
 
 Savings Bank in Newfoundland, 759. 
 
 Savings Banks in New Brunswick, 618. 
 
 Saw-mills in Canada, 68; in New Brnns- 
 wlck, 599 ; in Nova Scotia, 698. 
 
 Scenery of Nova Scotia, 663. 
 
 School, agricultural, at St Anne, L. 0., 89. 
 
 School apparatus, how supplied in Canada, 
 415. 
 
 School-books, American, remarks of Dr. 
 Ryerson on (note), 894. 
 
 School-books, uniform series of; adopted In 
 Canada, 412. 
 
 School for the deaf and dumb In Upper 
 Canada, 467. 
 
 School-houses in Nova Scotia, 705, 706. 
 
 School libraries in Canada, 414, 421 ; in Nova 
 Scotia, 706. 
 
 Schools in Canada, 873-541. See Edfoa- 
 
 TION. 
 
 Schools in Lower Canada, 485-541. 
 
 Schools in New Brunswick, 615-617. 
 
 Schools in Newfoundland, 757. 
 
 Schools in Nova Scotia, 705. 
 
 Schools in Prince Edward Island, 739. 
 
 Schools in Upper Canada, 878-481. 
 
 Scientific institute in Upper Canada, 470. 
 
 Scientific observatories in Upper Canada,472. 
 
 Screw steamers, first lines of, between Liver- 
 pool and Canada, 142, 148. 
 
 Sea-going vessels built at Quebec, between 
 1791 and 1861, 286. 
 
 Seal fishery of Newfoimdland, 754 ; statis- 
 tics of, 765. 
 
 Seaports, Canadian and American, compe- 
 tition between, 178. 
 
 Sea-shad fishery of the Bay of Fundy, 678. 
 
 Seasons, course of the, in New Brunswick, 
 557. 
 
 Seasons in Nova Scotia, 666t 
 
 Sedimentary rocks in Canada, area of, 28. 
 
 Seed necessary for a settler going into the 
 bush, 804. 
 
774: 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Selkirk, Earl of; Highlanders settled by on 
 Prince Edward Island, Tbl. 
 
 Seminariee and academies in Canada, 4S8. 
 
 Seminaries at Quebec, 612-516. 
 
 Separate schools in Canada, 422-429. 
 
 Separation of Canada into Upper and Lower, 
 102. 
 
 Settlement of New Bmnswick, 643; of 
 Nova Scotia by English and Germans, 
 658 ; of Prince Edward Island, 780-738 ; 
 of Newfoundland, 744. 
 
 Settlers going into the bush, provisions, 
 seeds, and implements necessary for, 804 
 
 Sexes, relative proportion of, in Nova 
 Scotia, 688. 
 
 Shale, bituminous, where found in New 
 Brunswick, 694 
 
 Shareholders, English, In the Grand Trunk, 
 self-deceived, 202-211. 
 
 Shell-flsh in the Bay of Fundy, 579. 
 
 Shell-fish of Nova Scotia, 676. 
 
 Shell marl, where found in Canada, 342. 
 
 Sherbreoke, Industrial and Commercial Col- 
 lege o^ 529. 
 
 Ship-building in Canada, 284-286; in New 
 Brunswick 597 ; in Nova Scotia, 692 ; in 
 Prince Edward Island, 787; in New- 
 foundland, 758. 
 
 Shipping of New Bmnswick, in 1854-1860, 
 599; of Nova Scotia, 692; on the great 
 lakes, 135, 141. 
 
 Ships built in Nova Scotia, In 1853-1861, 
 693. 
 
 Shows, agricultural, in Lower Canada, 88 ; 
 in Upper Canada, 45-47. 
 
 Shubenacadie Canal in Nova Scotia, 697. 
 
 Shubenacadie, gypsum found on the banks 
 of; 363. 
 
 Side-wheel steamers admitted by the St 
 Lawrence canals, 180. 
 
 Silver fir in New Brunswick, 573. 
 
 Silver, where found in Canada, 829. 
 
 Simcoe, Governor, roads opened by. In Can- 
 ada, 112 ; biographical sketch of (note), 
 876 ; letter of, to the Bishop of Quebec, in 
 relation to education in Canada, 878. 
 
 Simpson, Sir George, governor of the Hud- 
 son's Bay Co., 281. 
 
 Sisters de TAssomptlon, 587. 
 
 Sisters of Providence, 687. 
 
 Sisters of St Anne, 587. 
 
 Sisters of the Presentation, 63T. 
 
 Six nation Indians, school for In Upper 
 Canada, 877. 
 
 Sketch of the early history of New Bruns- 
 wick, 642-546. 
 
 Slate, important uses of, 848 ; remarks of 
 Prof Hind and Sir William Logan on, 
 843 ; where found in Canada, 844 ; sizes 
 and prices of, 346 ; where found In New 
 Brunswick, 598. 
 
 Slides for timber on the Ottawa, 156. 
 
 Slides on Canadian rivers, cost of, 178. 
 
 Smelting works in Canada, 816-818, 819. 
 
 Smith, Mr. M., remarks of, on the state of 
 education In Canada in 180S-12, 8^3. 
 
 Smyth, Maj.-Gen., governor of New Bruns- 
 wick, 1817, 546. 
 
 Snow at Toronto, fall of; 28-81. 
 
 Snow in New Brunswick, 667. 
 
 Boapstone found in New Brunswick, 596 ; 
 where fouitd in Canada, 884 
 
 Social progress of Nova Scotia, 719. 
 
 Societies, agricultural, in Lower Canada, 8T; 
 in Upper Canada, 42-51. 
 
 Societies, literary, of Upper Canada, 470 ; 
 of Lower Oanada, 539. 
 
 Soil, deterioration of, in Canada from over- 
 cropping, 54 
 
 Soils of Canada, 22 ; of New Brunswick, 565 ; 
 of Nova Scotia, 667-678 ; of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island, 734 ; of Newfoundland, 749. 
 
 "South Joggins Section" of New Brunr- 
 wick, 862. 
 
 South Saskatchewan valley, 77. 
 
 Spearing salmon by torch-light in Labrador, 
 88-87. 
 
 Special schools in Lower Canada, 682. 
 
 Springs, mineral, abundant in New Bnms* 
 wick, 596. 
 
 Spring wheat, yield of; per acre in Canada^ 
 58. 
 
 Spruce, black and white, in New Bruns- 
 wick, 661-678. 
 
 Square timber, amount brought to market 
 in Canada in 1846 and 1847, 289. 
 
 Stage-coaches in Nova Scotia, 699. 
 
 Stages, the first established in Canada, 118- 
 115. 
 
 State endowments of educaQon in Upper 
 Canada, 481. 
 
 Statistical accoimt of New Brunswick, 652. 
 
 Statistics of Canadian railways, 198-196. 
 
 Statistics of education in Upper Canada, 
 479-481 ; in Lower Canada, 540. 
 
 Statistics, population, &c., of Nova Scotia, 
 677-638. 
 
 Statistics, religious, of Newfoundland, 
 757. 
 
 Steamboats, Introduction of, on Canadian 
 waters, 118, 114, 187-141; number, ton- 
 nage, and value of, on the great lakes, 
 141; Canadian, registered in 1861, 295; 
 table of number and tonnage of, built in 
 Canada, 186, 141 ; Canadian, registered in 
 1861, 295; total tonnage of, engaged in 
 Canadian trade in 1858-61, 295. 
 
 Steamers, ocean, Canadian, 141-146; lines 
 of, from Halifax, 69a 
 
 Steatite, where found in Canada, 834. 
 
 Stephenson, George, improvements made 
 in locomotives by, 187-189. 
 
 Stephenson railway gauge, sufficiency of; 
 255. 
 
 Stone, Lithographic, where found In Can- 
 ada, 834 
 
 Strachan, Dr. (Bishop of Toronto), bio- 
 graphical notice of {note), 380; grammar- 
 school opened by, at Cornwall, in 1804 
 881 ; theological college established by, at 
 Cobourg, 485. 
 
 Street railways In Toronto and Montreal, 
 255; of little value in winter, 256. 
 
 Subsidies granted by the government of 
 Canada to ocean steamship companies, 
 148,144, 
 
 Sugar, maple, manufacture of; In New 
 Brunswick, 666. 
 
 Sugar maple of New Brunswick, 564. 
 
 Sulphate of Barytes, where found in Cmi- 
 ada, 884; where found in New Brunswick, 
 696. 
 
 Summary of educational isstitationa b 
 Canada, 407. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 775 
 
 Sunbury cotmtv, New Brunswick, descrip- 
 tion of, 646. 
 
 Bnnbury, the first English settlement in 
 New Brunswick, 543. 
 
 Bunday schools in Upper Canada, 429. 
 
 Superintendents and visitors of schools In 
 Canada, 410. 
 
 Superior schoola in Canada receivine legis- 
 lative aid, 481 ; not receiving public aid, 
 438. 
 
 Supplementary educational agencies In 
 Upper Canada, 467, 468, 476. 
 
 8ui"vey for an inter-colonial railway made 
 under imperial direction, 238. 
 
 Sydney, coal mines o^ 361. 
 
 Symington, William, the first steamboat 
 constructed by, 187. 
 
 Synopsis of Plans for a bridge at Montreal, 
 
 Tablb land of Labrador, 88. 
 
 Tache colonization road, 306. 
 
 Tangier river, gold found on, 857. 
 
 TariflFs, Canadian, 800. 
 
 Taxes, direct, in New Brunswick. 621. 
 
 Teachers, American, in Canada, remarks of 
 Dr. Eolph on, 893. 
 
 Teachers, number of, employed In the com- 
 mon schools of Canada, 419 
 
 Teachers, worn-out, pensioned ia Canada, 
 415. 
 
 Teaching, schools of, in Upper Canada, 458- 
 457. 
 
 Telegraph, electric. In Canada, 266 ; in Nova 
 Scotia, 267, 701 ; in New Brunswick, 267, 
 605; in Prince Edward Island, 742; in 
 Newfoundland, 759. 
 
 Temiscouata colonization road, 806. 
 
 Temperature, comparative, at Hamilton, 
 Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec, 29 ; table 
 of, at Toronto, 80 ; influence of the rivers 
 upon, in Canada, 129 ; ranges of, in New 
 Brunswick, 556, 557; comparative, of 
 Nova Scotia, 664; in Prince Edward 
 Island, 735; in Newfoundland, 751. 
 
 Tenure of land in New Brunswick, 612. 
 
 Territories of the Hudson's Bay Co., 282, 
 273. 
 
 Text-books, Irish national series of, adopted 
 in Canada, 414. 
 
 Text-books, theological, in use In Upper 
 Canada colleges, 441-443. 
 
 Theological Institute, established by the 
 Congrcgationalists at Toronto, in 1840, 
 898. 
 
 Theological Schools in Lower Canada, 682. 
 
 Three Elvers, St. Maurice forges at, 819. 
 
 Timber, Canadian, prices ol^ 65 ; quantity 
 and value of exports of; 66 : British Amer- 
 ican, whither exported, 288; shipments 
 of, from Quebec in 1860-62, 289; prices of 
 at Quebec, in 1858-61, 289. 
 
 Timber rafts on the great lakes, 157. 
 
 Timber slides on the Ottawa, 156. 
 
 Timber territories of Canada, 67. 
 
 Timber trees of New Brunswick, 561-664. 
 
 Titanium, ore of, found at Bay St. Paul, 
 819. 
 
 Toll-gates on roads in Upper Canada, 124, 
 
 Tonnage of vessels at Canadian ports in 
 1853-61, 294. 
 
 Torch-light, spearing salmon by, in Lab- 
 rador, 83-87. 
 
 Toronto, climate of, 28-81; street railways 
 in, 255. 
 
 Toronto an Indian village in 1777, 100. 
 
 Toronto School of Medicine, 452, 458. 
 
 Towns and villages in Nova Scotia, 720. 
 
 Tracks of wild animals the first roads, 116. 
 
 Trade of Canada, early, 268-276; with 
 France, 273; total value of, 294; total ton- 
 nage engaged in, 295; with the United 
 States, 299; total amount of, with the 
 United States, 277; channels of, 29a 
 
 Trades, professions, and occupations ia 
 Nova Scotia, 680. 
 
 Transportation, ancient modes oi^ 102 ; (kcil- 
 ities for in winter in Canada, 117. 
 
 Travel and Transportation in Canada, 99- 
 256; in New Brunswick, 600-606. 
 
 Travel in Canada, progress of, 110-115 ; fa- 
 cilities for, in winter, 117. 
 
 Traveller, American, remarks of, in relation 
 to education in Canada in 1794-9, 875. 
 
 " Trawl" fishing, injurious results of, 689. 
 
 Treaty, the Keciprocity, leading points of; 
 296; table of imports showing the effect 
 of, 297. 
 
 Trees, enormous destruction ofl In Canada, 
 64,70. 
 
 Trees, forest, in New Brunswick, 561-574, 
 in Newfoundland, 749. 
 
 Trinity College University, faculty of di- 
 vinity established in, 485 , regulations of 
 the theological faculty in, 486. 
 
 Trustees of public schools in Upper Canada 
 in 1807 (note), 882. 
 
 Tubes of the Victoria Bridge, 259-268. 
 
 Turnips, production of, in Canada, 60. 
 
 Turnpike roads in Canada, 122. 
 
 UNrTED States, education in, compared 
 with education in Canada, 373; imports 
 from into Canada in 1851-61, 297. 
 
 Universities in Canada, 457-467. 
 
 Universities in Lower Canada, 508-^80. 
 
 University of Bishop's College, Lennox- 
 ville, 520-623. 
 
 University of Laval at Quebec, 508-^12; 
 course of instruction in, 509 ; requisites 
 for degrees in, 510, 611. 
 
 University of McGill College, Montreal, 616- 
 528. 
 
 University of Queen's College, at Kingston, 
 charter granted to in 1841,897; remarks 
 on, 460 ; course in the faculty of arts in, 
 466; law course, 447, 449 ; medical course 
 of, 451, 453. 
 
 University of Trinity College law course, 
 447; remarks on, 461; course in the 
 faculty of arts in, 466, 
 
 University of Toronto, buildings of, com- 
 pleted in 1859, 404; comftnissioners' re- 
 commendations for the reform and re-or- 
 ganization of, 405-407 ; law course in, 446, 
 448; remarks on, 457; course in the 
 faculty of arts in, 468 ; medical course of; 
 450, 452. 
 
 University of Victoria College, Cobourg, 
 opened in 1841, 898; nemarks on, 459 
 course ia the faculty of arts in, 465 ; law 
 course in, 447 ; medical com*se of 451, 45S. 
 
776 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Upper Canada, area of, 14; history of agri- 
 culture in, 89-41; forest industry in764- 
 74; travel and transportation in, 99-256* 
 history of railways in, 190-256; com- 
 merce and trade of, 268-307; mineral re- 
 sources of, 308-350; education in, 873- 
 
 Fpper Canada College at Toronto, 431 ; en- 
 dowment obtained for, by Sir John Col- 
 borne, 392. 
 
 CTrsulines, convent of; founded by Mme. La 
 Peltrie in Quebec, 1639, 685. 
 
 Valley of the Ottawa, resources of, 96. 
 
 Valley of the Saskatchewan, 76-80. 
 
 Vancouver Island and British Columbia, 
 mineral resources of, 365-371. 
 
 Varennes, Industrial and Commercial Col- 
 lege o^ 530. 
 
 Vegetables and fruits in New Brunswick, 
 
 Vercheres, Industrial and Commercial Col- 
 lege o^ 529. 
 
 Vessels arrived at Quebec between 1764 and 
 1861, 274 
 
 Vessels belonging to New Brunswick, in 
 1864-60, 599. 
 
 Vessels built at Quebec, between 1791 and 
 1861, 286. 
 
 Vessels built In New Brunswick, in 1825- 
 1860, number and tonnage of; 598. 
 
 Vessels, Canadian, registered in 1861, 296. 
 
 Vessels engaged in Canadian trade, total 
 tonnage o^ m 1858-61, 295. 
 
 Vessels entered and cleared at Canadian 
 ports in 1853-1861, 294; at ports of New 
 Brunswick in 1849-1854, 607; at St. John, 
 New Brunswick, 1850-1855, 638; at St. 
 Andrew's, New Brunswick, in 1849-1865, 
 641; at ports of Nova Scotia, in 1861, 
 691, 692. ^ 
 
 Vessels, number and tonnage of, owned In 
 New Brunswick in 1848-56, 606. 
 
 Vessels on the great lakes, number, value, 
 and tonnage o^ 141. 
 
 Vessels, sailing, on the great lakes, 186; 
 table of number and tonnage ofl built in 
 Canada, 136. 
 
 Victoria Bridge, account of the origin of, 
 267; description of, 258-263; cost of; 268. 
 
 Victoria county, New Brunswick, descrio- 
 tion 0^ 651. ^ 
 
 Villages and towns In Nova Scotia, 720. 
 
 Voting for a *' consideration" in Congress, 
 
 Washadbmoak Lake. New Brunswick, 601 
 
 Water communications of Canada, 129-186. 
 
 Water of the great lakes, purity of, 19. 
 
 Welland canal, when projected, 150 ; history 
 of the, 171-176 ; table showing dimensions 
 and cost of, 177; locks on, not adapted to 
 side-wheel steamers, 180. 
 
 Welland Railway, importance of, for grain 
 
 Eortage, 236 ; amount of grain transferred 
 y, from lake to lake, 287. 
 
 "Wellington" copper mine, 828. 
 
 Wf sleyan Academy opened at Cobourg ia 
 1836, 398. 
 
 Wesleyan Academy in New Brunswick, 615, 
 
 Wesleyan Female College at Hamilton, 484. 
 
 Wesleyan theological text-books, 442, 
 
 Wesleyans in Prince Edward Island, 739. 
 
 Westmoreland county, New Brunswick, de 
 scription o^ 633. 
 
 Wheat, product of; in Upper and Lower 
 Canada, 52-59; exports of, from Canada, 
 290, 291 ; transportation of by portage rail- 
 ways, 236, ^ f "-» 
 
 Wheat midge, ravages of In Canada. 64 66: 
 description of, 66. "» "^ » 
 
 Wild beasts and game In New Brunswick, 
 
 Wilderness of Canada, Invasion of the. 61: 
 life in, 87; day in the, 88-90. 
 
 Williamsburg canals, when constructed, 167. 
 
 Winds at Toronto, table of direction and 
 velocity of, 81. 
 
 Windsor Academy In Nova Scotia, 706. 
 
 Winter roads in Canada, provisions relating 
 to, 106 ; advantages of; 117. 
 
 Winter travel in Canada, 117; on the Prai- 
 ries of Canada, 90-94 
 
 Winter wheat, yield of, per acre, In Canada, 
 68. 
 
 Wire- worm, ravages of; In Canada, 57. 
 
 Woods, Canadian, table of average prices ot 
 65 ; table of export o^ 66. 
 
 Worship, religious, in New Brunswick, 618. 
 
 TONGE Street, the portage from Toronto 
 to Lake Simcoe, when constructed, 112. 
 
 York county, New Brunswick, description 
 of, 641. 
 
 Toung Men's Christian Associations ia 
 Upper Canada, 470. 
 
 Zinc ore, no available deposits ot found in 
 
 Canada, 820. 
 Zoology of Nova Scotia, 67i-«7T. 
 
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