PREPARI H iifiiiiiiii- \ -^' .(UmHV IIM.|";ff li *M ■^ip*H«*l)i'|i>.»»,f^ PEEPAEIKG FOR CITIZENSHIP An Elementary Textbook in Civics BY WILLIAM BACKUS GUITTEAU, Ph.D. Author of Government and Politics in the United States Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY TO THE TEACHERS IN OUR SCHOOLS ON WHOM CHIEFLY DEVOLVES THE GREAT PRIVILEGE OF PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP THE YOUTH OF OUR LAND COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY WILLIAM BACKUS GUITTEAU ALL RIGHTS RESERVED SIXTEENTH IMPRESSION AUGUST I919 CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS U . S . A SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS At the close of each chapter in the text, the teacher will find questions and topics for further study and investigation. The more simple investigations only should be undertaken in classes composed of the younger pupils. Care should be exercised, also, in selecting only questions of especial interest to the particular community ; for example, rural schools will naturally omit many questions pertaining to urban conditions, and vice versa. As a rule, it will be best to assign one question to each pupil, or to a group of pupils, to be reported on at a future date. The teacher should suggest sources of information for pupils to make use of in their in- vestigations. Often the parents, or older brothers and sisters, can give the necessary help ; or, again, it may be advisable to consult local officials for information concerning^ their work. Members of the class should be encouraged to visit township, county, and municipal offices ; and local officials should be invited to come before the class and describe the business of their departments. Added interest may be secured by organizing the class into a town meeting, or as a city council. State legislature, or branch of Congress. A bulletin board in the classroom for newspaper clippings pertaining to governmental affairs will prove interesting and helpful. 4S0971 vi SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS In order to make the study of government concrete and vital, the largest possible use should be made of such material as town warrants, legislative bills, sam- ple ballots, presidential messages, and the like. A detailed list of material for this purpose is given in the appendix. In the appendix will also be found suggested read- ings, most of which are intended for older pupils, and for teachers who desire further information on topics discussed in the text. For each chapter, however, several elementary readings are cited, which may be undertaken by pupils in the grammar grades. Each room should be equipped with at least a few standard books on government, and pupils should be taught to consult these as reference works. At all times the teacher should bear in mind that government is to be studied as a living organism, stress being placed upon the spirit and functions of government rather than upon its form. Throughout this book, special attention has been given to the ac- tivities of government, and to the reciprocal obliga- tions of government and the citizen. Emphasis, too, has been placed upon the ethical side of civics, upon what is sometimes called political morality. For it is now generally conceded that the chief value in the subject of civics lies not in the mere teaching of facts about government, but rather in creating in the minds of the pupils high ideals of citizenship and of political conduct. Toledo, Ohio. February 18, 191 a CONTENTS GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN I. How AND Why Governments are Formed II. What Government Does for the Citizen, and What the Citizen Owes to his Government 13 III. The Selection of Public Officials .... 22 IV. Political Parties and their Work .... 31 STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS V. The Protection of the Public 41 VL Public Education 67 VII. Public Charities 70 VIII. Government and Industry 76 IX. Town and County Government 90 X. The Government of Cities 99 XL The State Governments 117 XII. How the Expenses of Government are Met.. . 136 THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT XIII. The Constitution of the United States . . . 152 XIV. Congress and its Work 163 XV. The President and his Cabinet 177 XVI. The Federal Courts 193 XVII. Commerce and Money 201 IVIII. Territories and Public Lands. . • . • . 217 XIX. Our National Ideals 220 viii CONTENTS APPENDIX A. The Constitution of the United States . . . . i B. Area and Population of Territories and Insular Possessions xrii C. Area, Population, Electoral Votes of the States . xviii D. Illustrative Material for the Study of Govern- ment xix E. Reference Books xx-xxxi Indbx xzxiii y ILLUSTRATIONS A River Bank in Wilkesbarre, Pa. . . . . . . 4 Another View of the Same Bank after Improvement . 4 Bank of St. Mary's River, Fort Wayne, Ind., before Improvement 5 The Same Spot One Year Later 5 A Congested Tenement-House Section in New York . • 16 A View in Central Park, New York 16 One of the Many Playgrounds in Chicago .... 17 One of the Reservoirs in Boston's System of Water Supply 17 Voters waiting at the Polls 26 Casting the Ballot 26 A Voting Machine 27 A Street-cleaning Squad at work 48 An Automobile Fire-Engine of the Latest Type . . 48 Milk Inspection at a Retail Store 49 Physical Examination for Working Papers .... 49 Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh 68 The New York State Education Building at Albany . 58 High School, Duluth, Minn 59 A Grammar School in Brooklyn, N. Y 59 A Planting Machine at work 76 The Dairy Car of the "Better Farming Special" . . 76 An Early Attempt at Irrigation 77 Present Methods of Irrigation 77 The Original Mulberry Street Bridge, Harrisburg, Pa. 82 The Present Mulberry Street Viaduct 82 The Result of Scientific Forestry 83 X ILLUSTRATIONS The Work of a Freshet 83 An Old-fashioned Country Road 94 The Same Road reconstructed and maintained by the State 94 The Old County Jail at Mobile, Ala 95 The New Mobile County Court House 95 "Before" and "After" the Park was built .... 102 The City Hall and Cook County Court House at CtiiCAGO 103 The City Hall at Portland, Maine 103 The New York State Capitol at Albany 120 The Ohio State Capitol at Columbus 120 The Colorado State Capitol, Denver 121 The Massachusetts State House, Boston 121 The Capitol of the United States, Washington, D. C. . 168 The Office Building of the Senate 168 The National Senate Chamber 169 Hall of the National House of Representatives . . 169 The White House 176 The State, War, and Navy Departments 176 The Post-0 ffice Department 177 The Treasury Department 177 Opening of the Panama Canal, August 15, 1914 . . . 202 A Lock in the Sault Ste. Marie Ship Canal. . . . 203 A Part of the Queensboro Bridge, New York . . . 203 Map of the United States 218 U. S. Battleship Oklahoma 219 The United States and its Possessions . . . . . 219 The publishers acknowledge the courtesy of The American City, New York, in allowing them to use the illustrations facing pages 5, 82, and 95. The illustra- tions facing page 26 are from photographs by Paul Thompson, New York. CASTING THE FIRST VOTE From mountain homes engirdled By shadowy gloom of pines, From hamlets whence the fisher's boat Sets sail o'er stormf ul seas to float ; From darkling depth of mines, A host come forth to cast their vote, A host in marshaled lines. Clear-eyed, strong-limbed, and sturdy. These honest sons of toil, — They hold the ballot like a prayer, Uplifted through the fateful air, That none our land may spoil. In their young manhood everywhere They rise to guard the soil. From cloistered halls of study, From classroom and debate, With chastened look and mien severe, Another army draweth near. In patriot hope elate, — The vote they drop, a pledge sincere To love and serve the State. Up from the busy cities, From many a thronging street, Come reinforcements brave and strong ; And, like the rhythm of a song, I hear their marching feet, — To aid the weak, to right the wrong, Nor meanly to retreat. rii CASTING THE FIRST VOTE God bless the pure endeavor, God guide the earnest thought ; God lead these youthful columns on, Where only Freedom's fights are won, And Freedom's glory sought, — Where Truth's light-bringers forward run, And Truth's brave deeds are wrought. Margaret E. Sangster. PREPAEmG FOE OITIZEKSHIP CHAPTER I HOW AND WHY GOVERNMENTS ARE FORMED 1. Organization of the School City. Ten or twelve years ago the pupils of a certain school, wishing to learn in a practical way something of the actual work- ings of government, decided to organize a " school city." Accordingly they selected several of their number as delegates to meet in convention, and draw up a plan for carrying on the work which the school city was to perform. Every boy knows that you cannot carry on a baseball game without certain rules for the players; and so the members of this school city, about to engage in a more seri- Theconsu- ous game, agreed to abide by certain rules Se^sciwoi which they called the constitution of their ^'"y city. In other words, their constitution established the rules of the game. 2. The Government of the School City. These rules provided that each room of the building should be organized as a ward, and that the pupils of each ward should elect one of their number to represent them in the council, or legislative hody, of Legislative the school city. This council was given *°*^ power to make rules or orders in matters which con- cerned the general welfare of the school. Then all 2 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP ^ ■ the ptijiils 'oL'the building assembled in their audito- !. : .i'ium;;andrchose'^ertain executive officers, whose duty ' Executive ' 'it'wa's'to Carry out the orders of the council, officers ^^^ ^Q conduct the business of the school city. The principal executive officer, or mayor, was a pupil in the highest class, chosen on account of his popularity and his excellent record. "Always truthful, always considerate of others, always earnest in his work, manly, and courageous," — these were the qualities pointed to by the boy who nominated the successful candidate as rendering him worthy of the highest office in the school city. After electing their mayor, this assemblage of young citizens proceeded to select other officials, one of the most important of whom was a sanitary officer. It was the duty of the sanitary chief, aided by his as- sistants, to look after the cleanliness of both building ^, ,. and pupils. If a boy came to his room with uleanlliiess *■ ^ j In all muddy shoes or dirty hands, the sanitary officers sent him down to the basement for improvement ; if pupils threw scraps of paper on the floor, instead of into the waste-basket, or had untidy coat-rooms, that ward was in disgrace with the sani- tary chief, who reported the situation to the council. Cleanliness, as next to godliness, was insisted upon throughout the school city. This meant moral clean- liness, as well as physical; and so impure words, im- pure thoughts, and falsehood in any form, were alike forbidden. Each day several of the city's officers were detailed to inspect the ranks as the pupils marched out of the building; and the class which marched in the HOW AND WHY GOVERNMENTS ARE FORMED 3 most soldierly fashion during the month was per- mitted to carry the school banner for the following month. The citizens of this city realized that Rewards jor pupils ought not to be tardy at school, and ®«eiieiice ought never to be absent unless ill ; and, accordingly, the council voted that special mention should be made each month of that ward or class which had the best record for attendance and punctuality. 3. The City's Watchword — Self-Control. And then, most important of all, the council decided that the watchword of the school city should be "self-control"; that throughout their en- the watch- tire school course pupils should keep this word before them as their ideal, beinir well-behaved and orderly, not because their teacher insisted upon it, but because without good order and upright conauet they could not master their lessons or be worthy citi- zens of their school city. If any pupil forgot this principle, his carelessness was promptly frowned upon by his fellow citizens, for they realized that the selfish- ness of an individual must not be allowed to interfere with the welfare of i he community. In this way the ideal of self-control and mutual helpfulness spread among the pupils of this school; they found that the hard lessons were mas- what seii- tered more readily when each citizen was Jo^he*^^? doing his full duty, no one shirking or idling. »"» Their teachers were enabled to do better work than ever before, for pupils and teachers alike were now in- spired by one spirit and purpose — unselfish devotion to the school city. And so the life of this school became more pleasant and effective in a thousand ways ; the 4 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP fame of the new school city spread over all the State, and finally throughout the entire United States. Hundreds of other schools, inspired by this example, organized similar school cities, and taught their citi- zens the great lessons of self-help and self-control. 4. Importance of Self -Control in all Communities. Now this principle of self-control is just as important in the lars^er w^orld outside, as in the little Why gov- IT- 1-1 T TPi emment Is school world in whicli you now live. If the necessary . . « -x 1 u • grown-up citizens oi a community should sim- ply follow their own inclinations without any regard for the public welfare, no man's life or property would be safe, and progress of any kind would be impossible. What inducement could there be for a man to labor, if any individual stronger than himself might rob him of what he produced ? Have you ever considered what anarchy would prevail, if there were no public agency to punish wrongdoers, and if each individual had to seek out and punish the man who stole his property or otherwise injured him ? Thus the protection of life and property is the first great need which must be met before progress of any kind is possible ; and it was to meet this supreme need that governments were first organized. In very early times, men were almost constantly at war, and naturally the best fighter was chosen as the Origin 0! chieftain or leader of his tribe. War demands government implicit obedience on the part of soldiers to the commands of their leader. Having accustomed men to obey him in war, the chieftain's authority be- comes established in time of peace as well, and this is the beginning of government. A RIVER BANK IN WILKESBARRE, PA. Neglected and used as a dump for rubbish. i ANOTHER VIEW OF THE SAME BANK AFTER IMPROVEMENT A promenade, flower-beds, and boat-houses make it an attractive spot. Courtesy, The American City. BANK OP ST. MARY'S RIVER, FORT WAYNE, IND., BEFORE IMPROVEMENT A rubbish dump, guarded by billboards. 1 IHH^^Bii^'' 11 — ' rr^j Courtesy, The American City. THE SAME SPOT ONE YEAR LATER HOW AND WHY GOVERNMENTS ARE FORMED 5 Gradually these early tribes became more civilized. They gave up their wandering mode of life as hunters and fishermen, settled upon a definite terri- tory, and commenced to cultivate the soil, ernments After much warfare and bloodshed, some strong chieftain would extend his authority over neighboring tribes, and become the acknowledged ruler of a large territory. In this way such countries as France and Great Britain had their orio-in. 5. Who is to nin the Government ? Thus we per- ceive that early government was something imposed from above. The strongest warrior became the ruler, and this authority became hered- single indk vldu&l itary in his family, so that on the death of the ruler or king, his power descended to his eldest son. We see, too, that the real governing authority was held by this single individual, the people as a whole having very little to say about the matter. As late as the seventeenth century, the French king, Louis XIV, is reported to have said : " The State ? I am the State ! " In other words, Louis XIV considered himself the government, and would not admit that the business of government concerned the people at all. In Great Britain the Stuart kings even claimed that they ruled by divine right — that God himself had ordained them rulers of the people. Now in early times it was necessary that order and law should be established in the person of a single individual, for even tyrannical government control by is better than no government at all. But «ie people after society had become accustomed to order and obedience, men were unwilling to submit to the ab- e PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP solute control of a single individual, and wished to have a voice in their government. Later you will learn that a great part of the world's history is made up of this struggle on the part of the people to secure in their own hands the control of government; while throughout the ages, kings and princes have striven to retain for themselves the ruling power. At the present time, even in most European monarchies, the actual power of government has been transferred from the king to the people themselves. Hence such countries as Great Britain, Germany, and Italy are called constitutional or limited monarchies, because the power of the rulers is limited by a constitution in which the will of the people is expressed. 6. Early Govenmient in America. In our own country, the control of government from the earliest NewBng- times has been in the hands of the people, lana towns rpj^^ sturdy piouccrs who came to the new world in the seventeenth century were seeking a land where they might have greater freedom — freedom to worship according to their own conscience, freedom to manage the business of government as best suited their own needs. The colonists who came to the New England coast settled in small, compact communities known as towns, each having its own church, and its blockhouse for defense against the Indians. The resi- dents of each town met together in tow7i-ineeting to pass rules for their government .and to elect local of- ficers. Since the residents of each town decided all important matters by their votes in town-meeting, the government was a pure democracy ; that is, it was 2l government carried on by the people themselves. This HOW AND WHY GOVERNMENTS ARE FORMED 7 feype of government is adapted only to small, com- pactly settled communities, in which the voters can readily assemble to decide matters of common concern. At the South, the early colonists did not settle in small communities as in New England, but scattered over a wide area. As the houses of the plant- ers were miles apart, it was impossible for emmentat them to manage their local affairs in town- meeting, as did the New England settlers. So these Southern colonists established county government for the management of their local affairs. The powers of government were not exercised directly by the voters, but were entrusted to eight men, who composed the county court. The counties were much larger than the New England towns, but performed similar work. They looked after local matters, such as education, the construction of roads, the care of the poor, and the levy and collection of taxes. Both the towns of New England and the counties at the South were under the control of colo- nial governments. Each of these thirteen govem- colonial governments had its legislature and its governor, in charge of matters of especial inter- est to that colony. All the thirteen colonies were subject to the au- thority of Great Britain. So the American colonist lived under three governments: first, ofgovern- his local government, that of his town or "^*^*' county; second, his colonial government; and third, the government of Great Britain. 7. The Declaration of Independence. Although Great Britain claimed supreme authority over her 8 PREPARING FOR aXIZENSHIP American colonies, and the British Parliament de- clared its right to legislate for them on all subjects, as Revolt of the ^ matter of fact the colonists managed their ooionies affairs largely as they saw fit. Great Britain was too far away and too busy with affairs in Europe to exercise much real control ; so that when she finally attempted to assert her authority on the subject of taxation, the colonists rebelled, and the Eevolution followed. By the Declaration of Independence, the adoption of which we celebrate every Fourth of July, the colonies became free and independent States (July 4, 1776). Shortly afterwards the colonies, now independent States, united under a form of union known as the Arti- cles of Confederation (March 1, 1781). This Articles of . \ .' ^ Oonfedera- union proved Weak and uiisatisiactory ; and so a few years later a new constitution was adopted, which established our government in its present form. 8. Our Three Sets of Governments. So the people of the United States to-day, like the early colonists, National, li^e under three governments. First, a na- focaigo?- tional government, which carries on affairs ernmemts which concern the nation as a whole — for- eign relations, the mail, control of territories, public lands, money, and commerce. Second, the State gov- ernments, which control such matters as education, contracts, the holding and transfer of property, regu^ lation of business, and the punishment of crime. Third, the local governments (counties, townships, villages, and cities), which are under the direct control of the State governments. These local governments have HOW AND WHY GOVERNMENTS ARE FORMED fl charge of affairs which directly concern the people of each local community, as the building of roads and bridges, the care of the poor, maintenance of schools, provision for water-supply, street paving and lighting. 9. The National Government. You have learned in your study of history that the constitution of the United States was framed in 1787 by a con- National vention which included many of America's constitution greatest leaders, and was afterwards ratified by con- ventions held in each of the thirteen States. Accord- ingly this constitution is the foundation on which our national government rests ; and, with the seven- teen amendments which have since been added, forms the supreme law of the land. Our constitution provides for a national govern- ment consisting of three departments, legislative, ex- ecutive, and iudicial. Lesfislative powers are . 1 , •' V • 1 • p ^^'®® depart- exercised by Congress, which consists 01 two mentsoi houses. The smaller house, or Senate, is ^°^®"^®^ composed of ninety-six members, two being chosen by the voters of each State. In the larger body, the House of Representatives, each State is represented in proportion to its population. Executive authority is vested in a President, who is chosen by indirect election for a term of four years. The President ap- points an advisory body of ten members, known as the cabinet. The judicial department consists of the Supreme Court of nine members, which sits at Wash- ington, together with lower courts which try cases arising in different parts of the Union. 10. The State Governments, In many respects the State governments (now forty-eight in number) re- 10 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSfflP semble the national government. Each State has its Tiiree de- ^^^ constitution, which establishes the three partmenta departments of government, — legislative, ex- ecutive, and judicial. The legislature, or law-making body, consists of two houses, and meets at the State capital. Its mem- , , , bers are elected by the voters from districts Loglslatuxe . . ... into which the State is divided. The chief executive officer of the State is the governor, whose position is similar to that of the Pre- sident. The s:overnor is assisted in his work of executing the laws by numerous officials, some of whom he appoints, while many others are elected by the voters. State courts of several grades are provided for the trial of cases arising under State laws ; so that if a ^ man steals the property of another, or if one state courts r r j 7 refuses to carry out an agreement or contract which he has made, justice may be obtained by the injured party through the aid of the courts. II. Local Governments. Nearer to the citizen than the government of his State, or the still more remote government at Washington, is the local government which supplies so many of our public needs. When you pass along a macadamized road or a paved street on your way to school, you are using a public con- venience provided by your local government. If you ask yourselves the questions, Who protects this com- munity from fire and theft? Who builds its roads and bridges? Who constructs and maintains its public schools and libraries ? Who provides its parks, boule- vards, and water-supply ? — the answer in every case HOW AND WHY GOVERNMENTS ARE FORMED 11 is, that these public necessities are supplied by your local government. If you live in a city or village, the local government of greatest importance to you is the city or village government. In rural communities, es- pecially in New England and the central States, much of the work of local government is performed by the town or township. All of us, whether residing in cities, villages, or in the country, live under county governments, which carry on such important functions as the recording of deeds and mortgages, the local administration of justice, and the collection of taxes. Since local governments supply the needs which concern us so greatly in our everyday life, it is of vital importance that the local of&cials whom we elect shall be honest and capable. Other- oiiocaigov- I 11 1 I 1 emment Wise we may have poor schools, neglected streets, an inadequate or impure water-supply; or worse still, dishonest officials may accept bribes and sacrifice the interests of the community in a thousand ways. The cost of this dishonesty and inefficiency is always paid by the taxpayers. Through the careless- ness of the voters of New York City, a group of dis- honest men, known as " The Tweed Ring," gained complete control of the city government during the years 1865 to 1871. As a result of their corrupt management, the debt of the city was increased by $81,000,000, for which the city received little return. The county building remains as a permanent monu- ment of their extravagance and dishonesty, still in- complete after having cost the taxpayers over thir- teen million dollars. 12 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. Explain why government is necessary. Why is the study of government important to every citizen ? 2. What are some of the obligations of the individual toward government ? Of government toward individuals ? 3. What is a constitution ? Who adopts it, and what is it for ? 4. What are the three departments of government, and what does each do ? 6. What work, in general, is performed by the national govern- ment ? By the State and local governments ? Make a list of the services performed by each of these governments. CHAPTER n WHAT GOVERNMENT DOES FOR THE CITIZEN, AND WHAT THE CITIZEN OWES TO HIS GOVERNMENT 12. Citizenship. Most boys find themselves obliged to give up the fond dream of some day becoming President, for they soon discover what a lot _ of men there are m the world, and how few wordim- Presidents we need. But there is one dignity to which every boy and girl is born, and which re- mains a life-long possession — that of being a citizen of this great Republic. The Roman orator, Cicero, once declared that the proudest boast which any man could make was that of being a Roman citizen. And so, in our own time, the greatest thing that any man can say is, that he is a citizen of the United States. Let us see who are entitled to claim this privilege of citizenship ; and next, what our government is doing for the citizen, and what the citizen, in turn, owes to his government. Who are citizens? This question is answered by our national constitution, which declares that every person born or naturalized in the United who are States, and subject to its laws, is a citizen.^ ciuzens So every child born in the United States thereby be- comes a citizen. Girls and women are of course citi- zens, as well as boys and men ; and are equally en- titled to the protection of government. But certain 1 Constitution, Amendment xiv. 14 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP privileges of citizenship, as the right to vote, to hold o£&cej and to serve on juries, are commonly reserved to men alone. These privileges are generally granted only to male citizens who have reached the age of twenty-one years. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants land upon our shores each year ; and many of these foreigners How lor- or aliens afterwards become citizens through bMome *^^ process of naturalization. In order to ciuzens becomca citizen, the foreigner (1) must have lived in the United States for a period of five years ; and (2) he must declare in court that he gives up his citizenship in the country from which he comes, and that he will support the constitution and laws of the United States. The court thereupon issues a certifi- cate of naturalization, whereby the foreigner becomes an American citizen. He is then entitled to the pro- tection of this government, and owes it his allegiance and support. 13. Government's Protection of the Public. Let us now consider what public services government per- Needoi forms for the citizen. So numerous are these protection gerviccs that it is only possible to mention the Inost important ones. We have seen that the first essential function of government is the maintenance of order, and the protection of life and property. A man's life must be safe, and what he earns by his labor must be his to enjoy ; this protection is, there- fore, the primary function of government. When you see the policeman on the corner, you know that he represents a part of the protection which govern- ment extends to every citizen. You know that he will GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN 15 use every effort to prevent crime and to arrest wrong- doers ; in short, to protect the rights of yourself and other law-abiding persons. So with the courts, which represent another agency provided by society for the protection of the pubhc Here those who have violated the laws of the Function oi State are tried, and punishments imposed. t^« courts Before these tribunals a man who has been injured or cheated by another may seek redress. I have the right freely to use and enjoy my own property, but it is also my duty to respect the property rights of my neigh- bor. If I go upon his premises without permission, pick flowers from his yard, injure or deface his buildings^ he may have me arrested, and that arm of government called the courts will punish me for the offense. But, you may ask, suppose a large number of per- sons are guilty of lawless conduct? Suppose a riot breaks out in which hundreds of men take other pro- part, so that the police are powerless? Back tective of the local police force is the State militia, which can be called out by the governor to aid in en- forcing the law; and back of the State militia is the entire army and navy of the United States, all of which, if necessary, will be used to maintain peace and order in every part of the Union. So we see that govern- ment has a strong arm when it comes to protecting the peace of the community, and the rights of the citizen. Moreover, this protection follows the citizen wherever he goes, even in foreign lands. If one of our citizens traveling abroad is mistreated, our gov- ernment will take up the matter, and insist that he be given justice. 16 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 14. The Maintenance of Education. Have you ever considered what an immense service government performs in providing free public education for every boy and girl in the land ? You belong to a vast army of twenty-one million pupils, for whose education gov- ernment expends each year nearly $800,000,000. In addition to more than 300,000 schoolhouses, govern- ment maintains numerous public libraries as an aid to its educational work. 15. Public Health and Charities. When an epi- demic of typhoid fever breaks out, one of the first Water- questious asked is, " What about the com- suppiy munity's water-supply ? Is it pure and free from contamination ? " This suggests another service which government performs, for in three fourths of our cities, the water-works system is owned by the public. Sometimes epidemics are caused by impure milk or other food ; so government employs inspect- ors of milk, meat, and other foods, in order to safe- guard the health of the citizens. For the same reason, government builds sewers, and provides public parks and playgrounds, thus creating sanitary and healthful conditions for the entire community. The paving of streets is another work carried on by government ; while street lighting is pro- ingand vidcd either by government, or by some company to which government has granted the privilege or franchise. Government also carries on the important work of Pnbuochar- public charities. Hospitals, asylums for the ***** insane, the deaf, and the blind, are main- tained at public expense. In its almshouses and poor- Courteay, Ttncment-House Department, iV. Y. A CONGESTED TENEMENT-HOUSE SECTION IN NEW YORK A VIEW IN CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORK Cities having congested sections should provide breathing spaces for the people Courtesy, Flayground Association oj America. ONE OF THE MANY PLAYGROUNDS IN CHICAGO A wading pool, and a house for indoor recreations are unusual featurea Courtesy, Metropolitan Water and Sewage Board. ONE OF THE RESERVOIRS IN BOSTON'S SYSTEM OF WATER SUPPLY Several acres of neighboring land serve all the purposes of a public park. GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN 17 farms, government takes care of those unfortunates who are unable to support themselves. All of these services are performed either by local or State governments. Thus we see how important is the work of these governments, and how necessary it is that honest and ef&cient of&cials be chosen to direct this work. i6. Work of the National Government. When you send a letter through the mails, you are making use of one of the most important services of the national government. When you pay for money, and something at the store, you make use of money, the circulating medium provided by the na- tional government, without which it would be impos- sible to carry on the business of the country. Busi- ness is also greatly aided by means of our national banking system ; and recently the post-office depart- ment has established a system of postal savings banks, intended primarily for depositors of limited means. When you travel on a ship, your journey is ren- dered more safe by means of the lighthouses which our federal government maintains to guide Aids to your ship safely to harbor. If you live upon commoroe a navigable river, you have probably seen dredges at work broadening and deepening the channel. This improvement of rivers and harbors is one of the most important services whereby the federal governrxant aids commerce. The Panama Canal, first opened to commerce in 1914, is the greatest work of this kind ever undertaken by any government. When the telephone was invented, the inventors applied to the national government for a patent, in 18 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP order to secure for themselves the exclusive right to make and sell their invention. So, too, when a man Encourage- writcs a book, he applies to the national gov- rcienwand emment for a copyright, giving him the sole uterature right to publish and scU it. Thus government aids inventors and authors by securing to them the fruits of their labor. In your study of geography, you learned that in the West and Southwest there are thousands of acres of land which cannot be cultivated because of the scant water-supply. By building im- mense dams and reservoirs, the national government has provided irrigation systems which are transform- ing these desert regions into fertile farms. Perhaps you have read of the forest rangers, men employed by the government to guard against Forest pro- forcst fires and timber thieves. This protec- tecuon ^JQjj Qf Q^p forests is a part of the all-important work which government performs in the conservation of our natural resources. 17. The Duty of paying Taxes. Such are the more important of the almost numberless services which gov- Taxesne- crnmeut performs for the citizen. Let us now supp^ort*° consider what the citizen, in turn, owes to his government government ; for the right to claim all these services surely must imply corresponding duties. First, it is the duty of all those who live under any govern- ment to aid in providing the finances by which gov- ernment carries on its work ; in other words, to pay taxes. The services which government performs cost immense sums of money ; and this money must come from the pockets of the citizens. It is the duty of every GOVEKJSTMENT AND THE CITIZEN 19 person to contribute this financial support according to his means. The man who seeks to evade his fair share of taxes is trying to cheat the entire com- munity. If a number of you should club together to buy a basket-ball, and a boy who could afford to pay should refuse to contribute his share, you would say at once that he ought not to use the ball. In the same situation is the man who evades his just share of thfr expenses of government. He deserves neither the pro- tection of government, nor the use of the many publio- conveniences which government provides. i8. The Duty of Military Support. Not only bj giving a portion of his property does the citizen support his government ; if necessary, he must take Muitary up arms in its defense. During the Civil ^^*JJ War, more than one milHon men left their oompuisorj homes to fight for the Union. Most of these were volunteers ; but before the war ended, the government was obliged to draft many men who did not volunteer to serve. When the United States entered the World War in 1917, a conscription law was at once passed. So we realize that in time of peril, government may claim the services of every able-bodied man. Every citizen, then, must be prepared to offer even his life in the support of his government. It is not from men alone that government receives military support. In the history of the Civil War, one reads of the devoted services and sacrifices of the noble women of both North and South. So women, as well as men, support their government in time of war. 19. The Duty of Voting. It may be that none of you will be called upon to take up arms in support 20 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP of your government ; for to-day men realize more than ever before the horror and the wickedness of Importance ^^^' ^^^ there is another all-important duty of tie bauot ^ych every voter should perform. He should cast his vote at elections for honest men, who will render honest and efficient public service. Your ballot is just as vital to government's support in time of peace as your bayonet in time of war. Remember that when public money is wasted, it is your money that is wasted. If public officials are incompetent, you help pay the bills. You should not be influenced by the example of those lazy and indifferent men who stay away from the polls on election day. You will per- haps hear these men say that " it 's all no use, the politicians will run things anyway." Older men some- times grow weary and pessimistic ; it is for you, the youth of the land, whose hearts are inspired with the golden ideals and hopes of youth, to enter on the path of progress, and fight the hard fight for good gov- ernment. Only in this way can our popular govern- ment succeed; and this duty to vote and work for the election of good public officials is the greatest service which you can render your country. 20. The Duty of Jury Service. Another duty which the citizen may be called upon to perform is that of jury service. This is not a pleasant duty, for one may be kept away from his business for several days, or even weeks. If the trial is a long one. But jury trial is an important safeguard of free govern- ment ; and every citizen should be willing to serve if called, even at a personal sacrifice. aio TheDutyof Officeholdingc Finally, citizens may GOVERNMENT AND THE CITIZEN 21 owe it to the community to accept public office, even when they prefer not to serve. Men of high talent and ability are often unwilling to give up the time necessary for public office ; but it is just this class of men that the public service needs. There are always numerous individuals who desire public office for what they can get out of it ; but it is not alone from those who seek office that officials should be chosen. Gradually we are coming to realize that the office should seek the man, not the man the office. Hence if a man's fellow citizens desire him to accept office, he should not decline the nomination. He owes the community a certain amount of public service, even at a personal sacrifice. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. Who are citizens of the United States ? 2. Why should foreigners who come to the United States be permitted to become citizens ? 3. Tell how government protects the people. 4. Describe the process of naturalization. 5. Enumerate some of the rights and duties of citizenship. 6. How does government protect the public health ? 7. Who looks after street paving in your community ? Street lighting ? 8. What is irrigation, and why is it important? 9. How are the forests protected ? Why is this protection ne- cessary ? CHAPTER III THE SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 22. Election-Day Scenes. Probably every boy and girl in your class is familiar with some of the scenes on election day. Perhaps you recall the small red flags placed near each voting booth, marking off the space within which it is forbidden to solicit votes. You may have seen a line of voters at some booth, each man awaiting his turn to enter and cast his ballot. You know that in the evening these ballots are counted ; and crowds of men, women, and children assemble in front of the newspaper offices, eagerly watching the election returns flashed on the screen. Probably most of the boys have helped contribute to the noisy en- thusiasm over the outcome. Sometimes, if the election is a close one, the result is not known until the next morning. Then newsboys are on the streets at an early hour, calling " Extra ! Extra ! All about the election ! " It is natural that there should be a good deal of excitement on election day ; for at this time the voters Repre- choosc the men who make and enforce our laws. Ours is called a representative govern- ment, because its officers are chosen by the people to represent them in the management of public affairs. Good government is impossible unless good representatives are chosen; hence election day is the most important of all days in our national life. It is sentative govern- ment THE SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 23 really the nation's birthday ; the day when the voters make or mar their government. 23. The Right to Vote. Who may vote at elections? The answer to this question depends upon the State in which you live, since each State deter- Manhood mines for itself who may exercise this privi- ^^^*se lege. As a rule, all male citizens, twenty-one years of age or over, may vote. A certain period of residence within the State — ranging from six months to two years — is always required. So the four common re- quirements for voting are : (1) citizenship in the United States ;^ (2) male sex; (3) twenty-one years of age ; (4) residence within the State. Nearly one half of the States do not limit the right to vote to men, but permit women also to exercise this right. Moreover, Congress in 1919 woman's voted in favor of the proposed nineteenth *^*^*s» amendment to the national constitution, granting the ballot to women throughout the Union on the same terms as to men. This amendment is now before the States for ratification. In nearly all the States, persons convicted of a se- rious crime, paupers, and the insane, are forbidden the right to vote. You will readily under- classes ex- stand why these persons should be debarred. ^^^^^^ Thirteen commonwealths ^ withhold the right to vote from those who are illiterate; that is, who are unable to read or write. These States have adopted an edu- cational qualification in order to protect themselves 1 In eleven States aliens are permitted to vote, provided they have declared their intention of becoming citizens. 2 Alabama, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Hampshire, North Carolina, South Carolina, Washington, and Wyoming. 24 PREPARING FOR aXIZENSHlP against ignorant voters, who could not be expected to cast an intelligent ballot. 24. Time of holding Elections. In most common- wealths, the State and county officers are state and . "^ county eiec- elected ou the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. These elections are generally held in the even-numbered years, so that they are hiennial elections (held in every second year). Township, village, and city officers are also com- monly elected once in two years. These elections are Local eieo- generally held in the odd-numbered years, or ^°^^ else in the spring, so as to separate them from other elections. The object of this separation is to have local issues considered upon their merits, apart from other questions. The election of a President occurs once in four years, and is held on the first Tuesday after the first National Monday in November. A presidential elec- eiections |.j^j^ ^^g \^^^ ^^ November 7, 1916, and oc- curs every four years thereafter. Members of the House of Representatives are chosen in November of the even-n umbered years. 25. The Steps in Popular Election. When voters cast their ballots at the polls they vote for men who have been nominated for office. These nominations are made several weeks or months before the election, usually through the agency of political parties. In the interval between the nominations and the election, each party carries on a campaign in order to win votes. In order to determine beforehand who is en- titled to vote, voters are required to register their names several weeks before the election. Then comes THE SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 25 the casting of the ballots on election day ; and finally, the counting of the votes, and announcement of the returns. Of these steps in a popular election, the ones which you should remember are: (1) the nomination of candidates ; (2) the registration of voters ; (3) cast- ing and counting the ballots. 26. Registration of Voters. For convenience in car- rying on elections, the counties and townships of each State are subdivided into small election dis- object of tricts or precincts, each containing a few hun- "e^s^ration dred voters. Each of these precincts has an election booth, where voters are commonly required to register their names before election. A voter registers by giv- ing his name, age, place of residence, length of resi- dence in the State and in the election district, and other information establishing his right to vote. Fre- quent registration is seldom required in villages and towns, where voters are well know^n to each other ; but in the cities, annual registration is generally neces- sary in order to prevent dishonest men from voting in more than one precinct. 27. Casting and counting the Ballots. On election day the voter goes to the election booth in his pre- cinct, which is usually kept open from six process ei o'clock in the morning until six in the even- ^°^^ ing. He gives his name and address to the election clerk, who records both, and ascertains whether the voter has duly registered. The voter then receives an official ballot from the election officials, and takes it into one of the several little booths or stalls arranged so as to insure complete privacy. All the States ex- cept five have adopted a form of ballot similar to that 26 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP used in Australia, hence known as the Australiaa ballot. On this ballot the names of candidates of each party are printed, generally in parallel columns under- neath the party name and emblem. ^ In some States, a man may vote a " straight ticket" by placing a cross- mark in the circle at the head of the party column ; in others, he must place a cross-mark opposite the name of each candidate for whom he wishes to vote. He then folds his ballot with the names hidden, and hands it to an election officer, who deposits it in the ballot box. The clerk thereupon makes an entry in his books, showing that the person has voted. As soon as the polls close, the ballots are counted, and the results certified to the proper county or city Examination officer. This official examines the returns for oi returns ^j-^g entire county or city, and issues certifi- cates of election to the successful candidates. When State officers, presidential electors, or congressmen are voted for, the county authorities certify the result in their respective counties to a State officer, who exam- ines the returns, and issues the election certificates. 28. Election Safeguards. Under our system of popular government, a secret ballot and an honest Australian couut of the vote are all-important. Before ballot ^[jg adoption of the Australian ballot it was possible for corrupt party managers to purchase votes. They placed the party ticket in the hands of men who would sell their votes, and since party workers had ^ Another form known as the "Massachusetts" ballot is used in eleven States. This omits the party emblem entirely, the names of the candidates being arranged in alphabetical order under the title of each office, followed by the name of the party; and the voter must have sufficient intelligence to read the ballot and select the candidates for whom he wishes to vote. VOTERS WAITING AT THE POLLS In many cities and towns, conveniently located shops and offices are chosen as voting placeeu Others have specially constructed " election-booths," and still others hold elections in school- houses, town-halls, etc. CASTING THE BALLOT The election ofQcers are about to check off the voter's name. His ballot may then be placed in the ballot-box. ^5 ■52 is o II ^1 ■3.S e u •S « Is THE SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 27 free access to the voting booth, they could see these purchased votes deposited in the ballot box. But at the present time, a voter can use only the official bal- lot given him by the election officials after he enters the booth. Since this ballot contains the names of all candidates, and is marked in secret, it is impossible to be sure that the corrupt voter "stays bought," even if he accepts money for his vote. There can be no greater crime against our government than the attempt to influence elections corruptly ; and many States have passed " corrupt practices acts," providing severe penalties for this offense. These acts also re- quire candidates for office to file an itemized sworn statement of their expenses in the election. Other important precautions are taken to secure a free and honest expression of the will of the voters. Each party is permitted to have watchers at ii'ii • • 1 Fair and the election booth to witness the casting and impartial counting of the votes, and to challenge any * *** °^ person whom they believe not qualified to vote. Elec- tioneering is forbidden within a certain distance of the polls ; and careful precautions are taken to secure an honest count of the ballots. Every possible legal safeguard has been devised to protect the ballot ; but the strongest bulwark against dishonest voting is public sentiment. Every citizen should insist upon fair and honest elections in his community. He should regard as a traitor to his country the man who, by fraud or intimidation, seeks to defeat the will of the people. 29. The Voter's Responsibility. But the voter's duty does not end here. In order to cast an intelligent 28 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP vote, he should inform himself concerning the char- acter of the candidates, and have a clear idea of the Independent principles for which they stand. Too often voting jjjgjj ^Q^Q ^ straight party ticket, without much consideration either of candidates or principles. A man should always vote for the best candidates, re- gardless of whether they belong to his own political party. It is of little consequence whether a candidate calls himseK a Democrat or a Republican or a Pro- gressive ; but it makes all the difference in the world whether our public officials are honest and capable men. Party emblems mean little to the intelligent voter ; men and principles mean everything. By re- fusing to support candidates whose records are bad, voters can compel the nomination of men who will prove honest and efficient public servants. You may be surprised to learn that a large propor- tion of voters fail to go to the polls at all on election stay-at- ^^J' Thcso men have only themselves to homevoters blame if the business of government is badly managed. The men who believe in good government and in the enforcement of law are always in the major- ity ; bat on election day many of them do not take the trouble to vote. On the other hand, the men who are trying to elect dishonest or incompetent candidates never fail to put their ballots in the box. It has been suggested that some plan should be devised which would compel every man to vote; certain it is that the voter who does not exercise this privilege fails in his supreme duty as a citizen. 30. Direct Legislation. Sometimes voters do more than select public officials. Frequently they are asked THE SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 29 40 vote directly whether a certain measure shall be- come a law. This is called direct legislation, because the voters are acting directly, instead of through their representatives. In the New England town- meeting, we have an example of direct voting upon proposed laws by the individual voters. In other sections of the country, this form of direct legislation is employed only in the case of important measures. For example, from early times it has Reierendum been customary to refer proposed constitutions or con- stitutional amendments to a vote of the people. Refer- ring a proposed measure to popular vot^ for approval or rejection is called a re/erencZi^m. It is often em- ployed in case of a proposed bond issue; or to deter- mine whether liquor shall be sold in a certain locality; or whether a franchise or privilege shall be granted by government to a corporation. The great value of the referendum is that it affords a definite means of as- certaining public sentiment on a proposed measure. Another form of direct legislation is the initiative, which empowers a certain percentage of the voters to propose laws. For example, the constitution iniuauve of Oregon provides that eight per cent of the voters may propose a measure, which must afterwards be sub- mitted to the voters at election. If approved by them, it becomes a law just as if passed by the legislature. The great value of direct legislation is that it gives to voters themselves the final authority to decide upon important measures. Then if lesrislators be- , ^ . 1 1 T 1 Advantages tray their trust, the people have the remedy of direct leg- in their own hands. Through the referendum they may demand a popular vote on the measure, and so PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP defeat it. Or if the legislature should refuse to pass a measure clearly desired by the voters, the initiative enables them to legislate for themselves. Thus the referendum and the initiative serve as valuable checks upon the action of legislative bodies, making it easier for the voters to control their government. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. Distinguish between an inhabitant, a citizen, and a voter. 2. Are all citizens voters ? In your State must a voter be a cit- izen? 3. What are the qualifications for voters in your State ? What classes of individuals are expressly disqualified, and why ? 4. Examine the report of the last census, and ascertain the total number of citizens and the number of voters in your city or county. How many votes are usually cast in your city and county elections ? 5. In the last State election, how many votes were cast in your county for governor ? What number of voters failed to ex- ercise the right of suffrage ? Should a man without property be allowed to vote ? Should a man without education be allowed to vote ? 6. Give the chief arguments for and against woman's suffrage. 7. Is registration required in your State ? In all communities, or in cities of a certain size ? What are the advantages of registration ? 8. Is the system of registration annual as in New York, or per- manent as in Massachusetts ? Describe the process of regis- tration in your community. 9. Give the time of holding local. State, and national elections in your commonwealth. What are the reasons for holding these at the same or different times ? 10. State the advantages and disadvantages of frequent elections. 11. Which form of the Australian ballot is used in your State ? 12. Where is the polling-place in your precinct ? How many votes were cast there at the last election ? During what hours were the polls open ? 13. In your State what candidates are nominated by conventions ? By direct primaries ? By petition ? What are the advantages of each method ? CHAPTER IV POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR WORK 31. Origin of Political Parties. At the very begin< ning of our national government, the question of the adoption of the federal constitution led to the forma- tion of political parties. The group of men who favored the adoption of the new constitution called themselves Federalists; those who opposed it were known as Anti-Federalists. After the constitution had been adopted (1789), the Federalists urged that the new national government should have large powers; while their opponents, the Republicans, held the opposite view. As new ques- tions came up in our national history, it was natural for men holding similar views to unite in order to support the policies in which they believed; so the party system continued. The questions of a federal bank, of a protective tariff, of internal improvements by the federal government — these were subjects on which men held diverse views ; and so we find the political parties opposing each other on these issues. The slavery question was of such overwhelming im- portance that it finally led to the rise of a new party, composed of men opposed to the extension of slavery. 32. Functions of Political Parties. Thus we see that political parties are made up of men holding similar views on political questions, who have united in a party in order to act more effectively. The most 82 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP important work of the political party is the noml* nation for public office of candidates who are pledged to carry out certain policies. Parties also Three Im- *' ■*■ . portantserv- adopt platforms, or declarations of princi- ples, which are placed before the voters for approval or rejection. You of course know that another function of parties is to carry on political campaigns, by which they endeavor to secure sup- port for their candidates and policies. Thus the four functions which political parties perforin are: (1) uniting in one group large numbers of men who hold similar political views ; (2) the nomination of candidates; (3) the adoption of platforms; and (4) the management of campaigns. 33. How Political Parties are Organized. To carry out these functions, party members must work tosfether under some plan or or2:anization. Conventions *-' . ■*• . . . and commit- Accordingly, party business is carried on: (1) by nominating conventions, which meet before elections to name candidates and adopt plat- forms ; and (2) by party committees, permanent bodies which arrange for the conventions, conduct political campaigns, and have the general management of party affairs. Each party has a national committee for the entire United States, a State committee in each State, and a local committee for each county, city, and township. 34. Party Primaries. One method of nominating candidates for office is by means of the party conven- purposooi tion, which may be either a local, State, or the primary national assembly, depending upon whether the officers to be nominated are local, State, or POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR WORK 33 national officials. A nominating convention is a meet- ing of delegates chosen by the members of a party for the purpose of nominating candidates for office, adopting platforms, and transacting other party busi- ness. If a State election is to be held, the State com- mittee of each party sends out a written notice or call for the convention.^ This call tells when the con- vention is to be held, and the number of delegates to be chosen from each city, township, or county. Delegates are then elected at party primaries held in each of the small election districts into which town- ships and city wards are divided. These primaries are similar to regular elections, except in one important particular : only those who belong to the party may vote at its primaries. Of course, only members of the party should have the privilege of selecting the dele- gates who are to nominate the party's candidates. Accordingly, only Republicans vote at the primaries of their party, only Democrats at the Democratic primaries. It is of the greatest importance that every voter should cast a ballot at his party primary, and thus help choose ofood men as delegates to his ^ ^. ^ . ° Importance party convention. Otherwise party affairs ofthepn- may be badly managed, and unworthy can- ^^^ didates nominated. Notwithstanding the importance of the primaries, the majority of voters do not take the trouble to attend them. They leave the selection of delegates to the party managers, who are actively * In a similar way, the local party committee has charge of local conventions, and the national party committee, of the national con« Tention which nominates presidential candidates. 34 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP interested. Then if unworthy delegates are chosen, and poor nominations made, they denounce the poli- ticians and the party system ; whereas they should blame themselves in having failed to fulfill an all-im- portant duty. " The prime thing that every man who takes an interest in politics should remember is, that he must act, and not merely criticize the action of others. It is not the man who sits by his fireside read- ing his evening paper, and saying how bad our poli- tics and politicians are, who will ever do anything to save us ; it is the man who goes out into the rough hurly-burly of the caucus, the primary, and the politi- cal meeting, and there faces his fellows on equal terms. The real service is rendered, not by the critic who stands aloof from the contest, but by the man who enters into it and bears his part as a man should." ^ 35. The State Convention and its Work. On the day appointed for the State convention, the delegates chosen at the primaries assemble. The con- oi the con- veutiou is Called to order by the chairman of the State committee, and the secretary of that committee reads the call. Prayer is then offered by a local clergyman. Motions are carried for the ap- pointment by the chair of a committee on credentials, a committee on permanent organization, and a com- mittee on resolutions. Permanent officers of the con- vention are elected, including a president, a secretary, a sergeant-at-arms, and numerous vice-presidents. The president of the convention is generally a prominent party leader, and upon taking the chair he delivers a "keynote " speech upon the issues of the campaign. 1 Roosevelt, Theodore, American Ideals, p. 37. POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR WORK 35 Then follows the report of the committee on cre- dentials, stating the number of delegates present, and rendering a decision upon contested seats. The plat- form is next read by the chairman of the committee on resolutions, and ordinarily is accepted without amendment. The convention then takes up its most important work — the nomination of candidates. The chair ap- points a committee of tellers to take charge candidates of the ballots, and nominations for the office ^^^ platform of governor are declared in order. After the nomi- nating speeches have been made, the balloting com- mences. When one candidate receives a majority of all votes cast, it is customary to move that his nomi- nation be made unanimous. The convention then pro- ceeds with the nomination of candidates for other State offices. Toward the close of the proceedings, all the nominees are sometimes escorted to the platform by a committee appointed for that purpose i and after being introduced by the chairman, each candidate in turn responds with a short speech. State conventions usually select the members of the State committee to serve until the next conven- tion, and in presidential years nominate the four dele- gates at large to the national convention. 36. Direct Primary System. The convention method of nominating candidates is the older plan, still widely used : but in most States, candidates are . , -11 T Eliminate! nominated not by conventions, but by a di- the conven- rect vote of the members of their party. This is known as the " direct primary system." The names of persons who desire to be nominated are placed S6 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP on the ballot, and on a certain day an election is held. This is similar to a regular election, except that voters declare to which party they belong, and vote only for candidates of that party. In each party those indi- viduals are nominated who receive the largest number of votes cast by the party members. The great merit of this plan is that it does away with the abuses of the convention system, especially machine control, and makes the party more responsible to its members. At first used only for local offices, direct primaries have grown in favor until now, in addition to local Favored by Candidates, State officers and United States voters Senators are often nominated in this way. Oregon and Wisconsin took the lead in adopting the new system ; and their example has since been fol- lowed by many other States. Party leaders generally oppose this plan, since it lessens their power. On the other hand, voters are inclined to favor the plan. It enables them to vote directly for the party's nominees, instead of entrusting this duty to delegates who some- times fail to carry out the wishes of the voters. 37. Nomination by Petition. Another method which likewise does away with the convention is nomination by petition ; this is commonly used for the Encourages . . Independent nomination of members of boards of educa- tion, and other non-partisan candidates. Un- der this plan, a candidate may be nominated by filing with the election officers a petition, signed by a cer- tain number of voters, who are usually required to pledge that they will support the candidate named in the petition. Some States permit all local officers to be nominated POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR WORK 37 by petition. Then if both parties nominate undesir- able candidates, independent voters may organize, and name a good man. The petition method thus furnishes independent voters with a powerful weapon, and aids in securing good nominations by the political parties. 38. The Party Committees. Since the convention is only a temporary body, a permanent agency is needed to carry on the everyday business of . TT .1 J' Functions party management. Hence the convention elects standing committees — national, State, and lo- cal — which manage party affairs until the next con- vention. It is the business of the standino^ committees to issue calls for primaries and conventions, to manage campaigns, organize political clubs, and in general to advance the party's interests. The entire group of party committees is spoken of as the " machine " or " organization." We often hear the party machine severely denounced, espe- The party cially when it dictates nominations, thus dom- "^acMne inating instead of serving the party. To accomplish this result, the machine must control the primaries; for only in this way can delegates be chosen who are favorable to the wishes of the orofanization. Local committees often make up a ticket or slate previous to the primary, and endeavor to secure the election of " hand-picked " convention delegates. This usurpa- tion of power is frequently successful, owing to the lack of interest taken by the ordinary voter in party management. Thus control of nominations and party policies is largely in the hands of committees, which are supposed to be only agencies for carrying out the will of the voters. 38 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP Within recent years there has been a marked tend- ency for political organizations to pass under the con- trol of a sins^le person. Owins^ to his superior The "Boss" . . . skill and sagacity, some leader often wins the title of party " Boss " by establishing himself as the chief controlling factor in local or even in State party affairs. Large cities have commonly been the most favorable fields for the " Boss '' and for machine con- trol generally, because of the numerous ofi&ces and the frequent opportunities to secure illicit gains. Some- times the sphere of the "Boss'' is larger than the city ; he may control the party organization of the entire State, thus establishing himself as a State " Boss." 39. Party Responsibility. The great problem in American politics is to make the political party in fact, as well as in theory, responsible to its must con- members. Too often the ordinary citizen is ^° ^ ®* compelled to choose between candidates for office who have been nominated by the small group of politicians in control of each party. The right to choose between two candidates in whose nomination the voter has had nothing to say may be democratic government in form, but it is not in substance. Since the parties control the government, it is essential to representative rule that the parties themselves be effectually controlled by their members. Serious abuses on the part of the machine some- times end in a revolt within the ranks of the party. The rebellious members may support the candidates of the opposing party as a rebuke to machine methods, or else form an organization within their own party POLITICAL PARTIES AND THEIR WORK 39 with which to fight the machine. Direct nominations constitute the most promising means of checking high-handed methods of the party organization ; but up to the present, no remedy has been found which will effectually prevent the tendency of party organi- zations to dominate, rather than to serve their party. Thus we see that the man who does his full duty by his country must take an active part in political life. Practical results can be accomplished only when a man acts in combination with duty in others. " If he is a Republican, let him join his local Republican association ; if a Democrat, the Democratic association; if an Independent, then let him put himself in touch with those who think as he does. In any event, let him make himself an active force, and make his influence felt. Whether he works within or without party lines, he can surely find plenty of men who are desirous of good government, and who, if they act together, become at once a power on the side of righteousness." ^ QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What is a political party ? Describe the functions which it performs. 2. Prepare a report upon the principles and leaders of the Fed- eralist party. 3. Describe the principles of Jefferson and the Democratic-Re- publican party. 4. AVhat were the political principles of the Whig party ? 5. Give an account of the rise of the present Republican party. 6. Describe the political parties and issues in the campaign of 1860. 7. How many members compose the Democratic State commit- ^ Roosevelt, Theodore, American Ideals, p. 39. 40 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP tee in your commonwealth ? The State committee of the Re« publican party ? How are the members of each committee chosen ? 8. Who are the members of the local county committees in your county, city, ward, and precinct ? How are they chosen ? 9. What do you understand by the party machine ? The party boss ? Name the chief party leaders in your community. 10. Describe the work performed by the party machine. (Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth, ii, pp. 90-96.) 11. What were the principal issues between the two parties at your last State election? Who were the leading candidates of each party ? Results of the election ? 12. Give the same facts with regard to your municipal election. 13. In the choice of local officers, which is of greater importance to the voter — that a candidate belongs to a particular party, or that he possess a high degree of honesty and ability ? 14. Are memcers of your board of education chosen on a party ticket, or nominated by petition and chosen by ballots which contain no party emblems or names ? Give arguments iu favor of the latter method. 15. Answer the same questions with regard to candidates for the judiciary in your State. 16. What are the arguments in favor of fewer elective offices and short ballots ? (Kaye, P. L., Readings, pp. 384-391.) 17. In your State are candidates for office required to file a state- ment of their election expenses ? What is the object of such a requirement ? CHAPTER V THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 40. Why Protection is Needed. We have learned from Chapter II that the most important function which government performs is the protec- Qovern- tion of its citizens. No matter what other SJert^S- services it might render, no one would care ^^^^^ to live under a government which did not protect the lives and property of its citizens. You have no doubt read of those misguided men called anarchists who are opposed to all government on the ground that it interferes with the liberty of the individual. As a matter of fact, men can enjoy real liberty only under the protection which government affords ; for without that protection no one would be secure in the enjoyment of his life and property. Suppose your teacher should tell you that hereafter there are to be no rules in your school, and that pupils may do just as they please : study or not, as they prefer ; talk or play games whenever ment in the they like; come to school or not, as they ^^^°^^ choose; destroy their textbooks or carve up their desks, if the fancy pleases them. What kind of school do you imagine you would have ? Perhaps some of you might enjoy this school for a little while ; but is it not likely that the more sensible members of your class would soon decide that rules are necessary for the school if it is to serve its purpose as a place for 4« PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP your education ? Would you not in all probability agree that rules forbidding whispering, requiring earnest effort from each pupil, and demanding regu- lar and punctual attendance on the part of all, are necessary for the common good of your school? 41. Laws and Lawmaking. Equally necessary are laws, which in fact are only rules that have been adopted for the common good of society. Even if all men were honest, and truthful, and well disposed toward one another, laws would still be needed for our mutual guidance ; how much more necessary are they when some men are false, and dishonest, and malicious ! Who makes the laws or rules by which our conduct must be regulated? Under our republican form of How laws government, the people themselves, acting axe made through their representatives. We elect the members of the legislature which meets at the State capital and passes our laws ; and we elect the gov- ernor, the sheriff, and the other principal ofl&cers whose duty it is to see that these laws are enforced. Hence the policeman who arrests a thief, or who breaks up a disorderly crowd, is not enforcing his own ideas of what is right or proper; he shonid oDey is enforcing the rules which the citizens of the law ^Y^^ community have adopted for their com- mon protection. Respect for the law and prompt obe- dience to its commands is the first and greatest duty which each citizen owes to his country. If the law seems unwise or unjust, let him seek to have it re- pealed ; but so long as it is the law, he should obey it. Otherwise he does not deserve the protection of the THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 43 government whose laws safeguard our lives, our pro- perty, and our homes. 42. Local Peace Officers and their Duties. The preservation of public peace and order is primarily a function of local officials. In rural communi- ties, the constable is the officer who enforces law and order; while in the cities this duty is per- formed by policemen who patrol regular routes or ^' beats." The chief duty of the police is to prevent crimes and to arrest offenders ; but they perform many other important services, such as controlling traffic on crowded streets, holding back the crowds which gather at fires, giving help in case of accidents, and answering the questions of strangers or other persons who need to be shown their way. The police* men are under the direction of a chief of police, who is generally chosen by a board of police commission- ers, or appointed by the director of public safety. ^ Each county has an important peace officer known as the sheriff, elected by the voters. The office of sheriff is of very ancient orio^in; it dates •^ ^ T}ie sheriff back more than fourteen centuries to Anglo- Saxon England. In those early days, the counties of England were called shires, and the chief military officer of the shire was the shire-reeve, or sheriff. This officer led the shire's fighting men in time of war ; in time of peace it was his duty to execute the laws of the land and to maintain order throughout the shire. Similar powers to enforce the law and to arrest offenders are to-day vested in our sheriff, aided ^ In New York City the police force numbers 10,000 men, a larger army than the one commanded by Washington during the Kevolution. 44 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP by his deputies. If necessary he may call upon any able-bodied men in the county to assist him in making arrests ; this is called summoning a posse. The sheriff also has charge of the county jail, and the prisoners confined there. 43. How the State and National Governments help preserve Order. If a riot breaks out of so serious a The state character that the sheriff and the police find °^*^* themselves unable to suppress it, the sheriff may request the governor of the State to send the militia to his aid. All able-bodied men in the State between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years belong to the militia, and may be called upon for military service if needed. But under ordinary cir- cumstances only two or three companies of the or- ganized militia or national guard are called out to suppress a riot. If the State militia cannot check the rioters, the governor may request the President to send federal troops to the scene ; and if necessary, the President will use the whole military power of the national government to suppress the outbreak. During the great railway strike of 1894, President Cleveland sent federal troops into Illinois to end the lawlessness which the State authorities could not suppress. The worst cases of rioting and lawlessness soon disappear when the regulars arrive on the scene. 44. The Courts and Law Enforcement. One of the most dangerous foes to popular government is the mob which seeks to lynch some person accused of crime. Lynching is as lawless as the offense which the mob seeks to punish ; it substitutes the passion THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 45 of the mob for the procedure of the courts, and denies its victim the fair trial to which he is entitled under the law. Only the courts have power to decide whether a person is guilty of crime; and it is before these tribunals that accused persons should be brought to trial. The accused must have a accused copy of the formal charge or " indictment " against him ; he is entitled to an attorney for his de- fense ; and to be confronted by the witnesses who testify against him. His trial must be a public one, and his guilt must be proven to the satisfaction of each member of an impartial jury of twelve men. Such are the safeguards approved by the wisdom of the ages as necessary to prevent injustice. The welfare of society demands that no guilty per- son should escape punishment for his offense ; guard our but it is even more important that no innocent man should suffer for the crime of another. The courts and the laws constitute the great safeguards of indi- vidual liberty, as well as the chief agency for the sup- pression of crime and disorder. The man who breaks the laws, the mob which seeks to lynch a criminal, the anarchist who would overthrow organized govern- ment, all are in the same dishonorable class : they are traitors to our country, like the Benedict Arnold whose name stands for infamy in American history. 45. The Punishment of Offenders. Persons ac- cused of crime are taken to the police station, and unless released on bail, they are placed in the county jail to await their trial. If convicted of a minor offense, they are imprisoned in the city 46 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP workhouse; but if the offense is a serious one, called a felonjj they are sent to the State penitentiary. The object of punishment is to protect society by deter- ring others from committing similar acts ; and if pos- sible, to reform the offender and induce him to become a law-abiding citizen. In many States, special prisons known as reforma- tories are provided for youthful offenders, to prevent Juvenile them from coming in contact with hardened offenders criminals. For similar reasons, special juve- nile courts are provided in many cities, separate from the regular police court, for the trial of boys and girls who have broken the laws. These youthful offenders often err from ignorance rather than from malicious intent; and the object of juvenile courts and juvenile homes is to show them the error of their ways before it is too late ; otherwise the petty offender of to-day may become the hardened criminal of to-morrow. 46. Protection from Fire. But you are not to sup- pose that the prevention and punishment of crime is Losses 1)7 the only way in which government protects ^* us. This is a fundamental service, but there are many other ways by which government protects our lives and property. You are all familiar with the work of the noble firemen who risk their lives to put out fires. In spite of their efforts, the loss by fire in the United States is more than $250,000,000 each year. To cope with this destroying element, nearly all cities have a force of regular firemen organized into companies, and equipped with modern apparatus for fighting fires. All of you know about the fire alarm system, by THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 47 which a fire can be immediately announced to the nearest station. Within a minute after the alarm is received, the steam fire engines, the m«ntand hook and ladder, and other equipment of the fire department will be driven down the street at full speed, with the firemen ready for aay emergency.^ Fire towers have been invented to aid in throwing water on high buildings; and some cities located on rivers have fire tuo-s which throw immense streams of water. In equipment and efficiency, the fire depart- ments of the United States are far in advance of those of any other country. Many fires would not occur, or could be checked with less difficulty, if the building rules of the city were more strictly enforced. Generally the Buuding construction of wooden buildings within the "prevent* central part of the city is forbidden, this be- *^" ing known as the " fire limits." Before a building is constructed anywhere in the city, a permit must be secured from the city's building inspector, whose duty it is to see that only safe structures are erected. But these rules are often disregarded, sometimes with ter- rible consequences. The horror of the Iroquois theatre fire in Chicago might have been averted if the fire rules had been enforced ; the school children at Col- linwood, Ohio, would not have perished had the doors of their schoolhouse opened outward.^ Proper con- 1 In larger cities having the most modern equipment, fire " autos " are used. ^ The Iroquois theatre fire, which caused the death of 531 persons, occurred in 1903. At the CoUinwood school fire (1908), 160 pupils lost their lives. To guard against another catastrophe of this kind, the State of Ohio has nassed strict laws governing the construction of school buildings 48 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP struction of buildings, safe and adequate means of exit — these simple precautions you might think every- one would observe ; but they are often overlooked or ignored, criminal carelessness which results in the loss of thousands of human lives. 47. The Importance of Public Health. As you will learn in your later study of history, ancient Greece gave to the world magnificent achievements in ideal -a sculpturc, architecture, philosophy, and liter- ature; so that the world of to-day still turns for inspiration to the master minds of classic Greece. The Greeks also taught the world the importance of physical training and physical well-being, the need of sound and well-developed bodies in order that each individual might fulfill his part in doing the world's work. The Greek nation believed one of the chief purposes of government to be the care of the physical health and well-being of its citizens. To-day we realize more fully than ever before that the Greeks were right in attributing so much import- ance to physical well-beinff. In our schools School 1. J o medical in- we give morc attention than formerly to spec on physical training and education ; we recog- nize the truth of the maxim " a sound mind in a sound body." Medical inspection of school children is now carried on in many cities by physicians employed bv the board of education, or by the board of health. The object of this inspection is to prevent the spread of contagious disease, and to induce parents to cor- rect such physical defects as adenoids and enlarged tonsils, which interfere with the child's physical and mental growth. A STREET-CLEANING SQUAD AT WORK In New York, the force of laborers in the street-cleaning department is uniformed; the sweep- ers wearing white duck suits and helmets, — whence the nickname "white wings"; the men employed on the carts, brown ; and the foremen and superintendents, gray. This force totals considerably over 5000. The total length of paved streets under their care is about 2000 miles, and the area in square yards over 30,000,000. The streets are swept and scraped for the most part by hand, although machines also are used, especially for flushing and sp'rlnkling the roadways. The sidewalks are cared for by the owners of abutting property. Courtesy, Knox Automobile Company' AN AUTOMOBILE FIRE-ENGINE OF THE LATEST TYPE Co!irt''si/, Department of Health, New York. MILK INSPECTION AT A RETAIL STORE An examiner is testing the quality and purity of the milk before allowing its distribution to consumers. m^:%^f ' Courtesy, Child Weljare Exhibit ana JJepartineut oj Heaitn, i\eu; 1 orK. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION FOR WORKING PAPERS The laws of many States require that all children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen shall have certificates of good health before they can be employed in business. Any em- ployer who hires a child without «uch a certificate is liable to a fine. The certificates are sometimes granted by the Board of Health or in some States by an officer of the Board of Education. THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 49 48. Protection of Public Health by the Local Community. In each community the protection of public health is primarily a duty of local Locaineaith officials. These generally include a board o^^^ciais of health, chosen by the voters ; a chief health officer, aided in the larger cities by a force of sanitary police ; and a number of city physicians, who care for persons too poor to employ medical aid. The board of health has power to adopt rules to prevent the spread of contagious disease; these rules are enforced by the chief health officer, who is generally a physician of wide experience. Every physician in the city must report to the health depart- ment all cases of contagious disease under his care. The houses of these persons are then placarded, and all children who live there must remain away from school until the health officer permits them to return. The sanitary officers of the health department in- spect the milk, meat, and other foods offered for sale in the city ; they examine the kitchens of 1 -I T I . Duties of hotels and restaurants to see that sanitary sanitary conditions prevail ; and they visit the pre- mises of individual citizens if conditions seem to de- mand an investigation. Surface wells are commonly prohibited in cities, because they are often responsible for epidemics of typhoid ; compulsory vaccination is generally insisted upon as a protection against small- pox ; and many other sanitary regulations are adopted by local health boards, and enforcer! by their officers.. Lack of proper sanitation in a single home may in- volve the health of an entire community, and so the 50 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP community may rightly insist upon controlling the conditions that affect its physical welfare. 49. Health Services of State and National Gov- ernments. Control of public health is left primarily state health ^^ local boards and officials; but in order boards ^j^^^^ important regulations may be uni- formly enforced, there is a State board of health which aims to protect the health of the entire State. The State board of health adopts regulations designed to prevent the pollution of rivers and other streams ; it enforces the laws concerning adulteration of foods ; and it administers the quarantine measures necessary to protect the people of the State from contagious disease. The national government also performs important services in protecting the public health. Immigrants Services oi landing in this country are inspected by ^veni^°^*^ physicians in the employ of the federal gov- ment. ernment. If found to be suffering from con- tagious disease, they are quarantined, and in case of certain diseases, returned to their foreign homes. Na- tional health officers sometimes cooperate with State officials in stamping out dangerous epidemics, such as yellow fever or smallpox. A most important step in the protection of the public health was recently taken by Congress in passing a pure food law. All foods and drugs offered for sale in receptacles must have their contents plainly marked on the outside, and if adulterated in any way, that fact must be stated. " Pure i^.aple sugar," in other words, must be in fact pure ; this law therefore protects honest manu- facturers as well as the public. THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 51 50. Important Aids to Public Health. One of the most important factors in the health of any community is a water-supply free from the germs of dis- ^^^ ^^ter- ease. Costly filtration plants are sometimes ^^^^^'^ necessary to insure this ; while other cities are able to secure pure water from mountain streams, or from the Great Lakes or rivers. In most of the larger cities of the United States, as well as in many smaller ones, the waterworks system is owned by the municipality. The cost of operation is paid from rates or charges levied against users of the water. A sanitary sewerage system is likewise of great im- portance to the health of the city. Sewers ge^er are constructed under the supervision of city *^^*®°^ officials, the cost being assessed against the owners of adjoining property. Street cleaning, and the removal of waste and gar- bage, are other functions of vital concern to the pub- lie health. This service often involves the street employment of a large force of men, the work <'i«"^«^ being carried on under the direction of city officials. 51. Street Lighting. Street lighting serves to pro- tect the public, for darkness is the friend of crime. In a number of cities, the lis^htins^ plants are the property 01 the municipality ; but more and their 1 ,1 -I « . , Importance commonly they are owned oy private com- panies which the city has authorized to perform this service. This permission is granted in the form of a franchise or contract between the city and the com- pany. The franchise regulates the rates which may be charged, and defines the rights of the company on the one hand, and the city on the other. Since the 52 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP franchise gives the company a monopoly, or exclusive right to render this service, it is essential that its terms shall safeguard carefully the rights of the com- munity. Franchises are granted by the city council ; but in many cities, these grants must be submitted for approval to a popular vote, provided a certain num- ber of voters request this referendum, 52. Public Parks and Playgrounds. Those of you who have yards about your homes will know how to Municipal Sympathize with the thousands of boys and playgrounds g'j^jg j^^ many of our cities who have no place to play except the streets. Everyone agrees that child- ren should have outdoor play, in order that they may have a healthy and happy childhood ; but in the rapid building up of our cities, provision for public play- grounds has often been overlooked. Within recent years, men have begun to realize that in many cities children are being deprived of their natural birthright — a place in which to play. So a national playground association has been formed, which aims to arouse public interest and to secure playgrounds in every city. Over two hundred cities have now set aside pub' lie playgrounds, equipped with gymnastic apparatus, swimming pools, and ball grounds. In many cities the board of education aims to provide a playground in connection with each school building ; these are used by the children before school and during recess, and sometimes are kept open in the afternoon and during vacations. Playgrounds are intended only for boys and girls ; but both old and young may enjoy the beautiful parks which are provided by our city governments. Parks THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 5S are especially necessary in the larger cities, with their congested population ; but in smaller cities as well, they afford a much-needed opportunity for rest p^uuc and recreation, for the enjoyment of fresh ^^^^ pure air, and grass and trees and flowers. The botani- cal garden and zoological museum — better known to children as the " zoo " — are sometimes features of the pubHc park; and provision is frequently made for outdoor sports, swimming pools, and park gymnasiums. 53. Regulation of Business and Occupations. Cer- tain kinds of business are regulated by government for the sake of the public health or safety. Thus the manufacture of explosives is prohibited in cities ; slaughter houses are permitted only in certain sec- tions of the city, where the business will not become a public nuisance ; and factories are often required to use smoke consumers, which aid in consuming the smoke that otherwise pours out of the factory chim- neys over the city. The liquor traffic has been regulated in various ways in order to protect the public welfare. Before the adoption of national prohibition, thirty- Theiiauor one States had prohibited the manufacture ^^^^ and sale of intoxicating liquors. Others permitted the voters of local areas to decide by popular vote whether saloons should be licensed. Finally, the supporters of prohibition secured the passage by Congress of a constitutional amendment providing for national prohibition. This amendment was rat- ified by three fourths of the State legislatures, and became part of the national constitution in 1919. 54. The Need of Capable Officials. From thia 64> PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP chapter we have seen that government protects the Important citizens from the perils arising from disease, joTafgov- f^o^^ losses by fire, and from the criminals ernments ^^}^Q ^re a constaiit menace to life and pro- perty. This protection is generally afforded by local governments ; the State government acts only when the welfare of the whole State demands it, and the national government only when national interests are at stake. So the matters w^hich concern us most are in charge of our local governments. That our streets shall be clean, and safe, and well lighted, our police and fire departments honestly and efficiently man- aged, our water-supply pure and adequate — these are matters more vital to us than the issues of State and national politics, which generally attract so much more attention. Fortunately, men are coming to pay less attention to the question whether a street commissioner is a Democrat or a Republican, and more to the Independent question of his honesty and efficiency ; and this independence in the selection of local offi- cials should prove the salvation of our local govern- ments. James Bryce, our most kindly foreign critic, has said that " the government of American cities is the one conspicuous failure of the United States." ^ In so far as our city governments have failed, the fail- ure has been largely due to the fact that our city offi- cials have been chosen because of their party standing, rather than because of their record for honesty and efficiency. The remedy consists in greater watchful- ness on the part of each individual citizen, and abso* 1 Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth, i, p. 637. THE PROTECTION OF THE PUBLIC 55 lute independence in voting for local officials. The cities of Europe have set us a good example in this respect ; the mayor of the European city is generally chosen because of his qualifications for the position, not because of his views on national politics. The great need of our American cities is less politics and more efficiency in their management. 55. Responsibility of the Individual. But while we look to government for the protection of life, health, and property, we must not overlook our own responsi- bility in the matter. We should remember that the health of the whole community depends largely upon the watchfulness and care of each individual. If each one of us keeps his own premises clean, he is protect- ing the health of the entire neighborhood as well as his own. The boy or girl who throws waste paper or rubbish upon the lawn or the street is making needless work for the community which is striving after clean- liness and health. The man who spits on the sidewalk or in any public place is not only indulging a filthy habit, but by example if in no other way he may be adding to the danger from tuberculosis — the dread disease which destroys thousands each year. Govern- ment can do much, but it cannot make all individuals careful of the rights of others, clean in their personal habits, painstaking in the care of their surroundings, and at all times scrupulously obedient to the laws. For this result it relies on the boys and girls whom it is educating at the public expense, and who will some day be responsible for all the conditions that sur- round them. 66 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What authorities have charge of the maintenance of public peace and order in your community? How are these officers chosen? Term? How removed? 2. Explain how the federal government cooperates in maintain- ing order in your commonwealth, both in suppressing crimes against federal laws, and in supporting the authority of the State government. 3. How many men are included in the national guard of your State? What is the period of enlistment? Where are the men drilled ? 4. Under what circumstances may the governor of your State call out its militia for active service ? Has it been necessary to call out the militia within recent years ? 6. Give instances of important health regulations adopted by your local health department. 6. Does regulation of the liquor traffic in your commonwealth take the form of State prohibition, local option, or the license system? What are the principal arguments in favor of State prohibition ? Of the local option system ? 7. What is a felony under the laws of your State ? Name several crimes which are felonies. 8. What industries are carried on in your State penitentiary ? Explain the advantages to the State and to the prisoners of keeping the latter employed at useful labor. What argu- ments are sometimes urged against prison labor ? 9. What industrial or reform schools are there in your State? Are they accomplishing good results ? 10. Is there a juvenile court in your community ? If so, describe its work, and that of the probation officers. CHAPTER VI PUBLIC EDUCATION 56. Attitude of the Community toward Education. No doubt all of you know something about Shake- speare, the greatest dramatist of the English-speaking world ; and some day you will probably read his great plays. In one of these, As You Like It, this great author represents the life of man as a drama in seven acts, from infancy to old age. The second act in life's drama is the school age; and Shakespeare pictures for us ; — " The whining schoolboy, with his satchel, And shining morning face, creeping like snail Unwillingly to school." Each September when school opens, the men who draw cartoons for our newspapers use Shakespeare's idea for their inspiration ; they picture the schoolboy torn away from his vacation joys, and dragging his unwilling steps toward school. It is an interesting question whether the cartoonists are right, or whether boys and girls have changed their attitude toward school since Shakespeare's time. 57. What it means not to have Public Schools. What is the use of going to school? To-day some boys and girls, like the schoolboy of Shake- speare's play, still go because they are sent ; upon edu- but most of them go for a better reason. Why not let children go to school or not, as they 58 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP prefer? Why compel all parents, even the poorest, to send their children to school? Why should the people be taxed each year immense sums — equal to the value of all the gold taken from all the mines in the world — in order to provide free public schools? Why not let each parent pay for the education of his own children, provided he desires to educate them? Suppose all the public schools of the land were to be closed to-morrow, and the twenty-one million pupils Results oi who attend them were allowed to remain at Ignorance j^ome, or Were put to work in stores, facto- ries, and on the farms, and only those were educated whose parents could afford to send them to private schools. What kind of country do you think we should have? You do not need to use your imagina- tion to picture this — you can read for yourselves the story of life in Turkey, or Russia, or Africa, or Mexico. In these countries, the great mass of the people grow up in dense ignorance; and as you know, these are the countries where crime abounds, where government is despotic, where the people are so wretchedly poor that they are in constant danger from famine and pestilence. Should you say that these people live, or that they merely exist? 58. First Purpose of Education — Material Pro- sperity. So the first great purpose of public edu- Education catiou is to increase the material prosperity earning" ^^ ^ nation ; to raise its standard of life, so power j^i^g^j^ j^s people shall have comfortable homes, and lead happy lives. Education means power — power to earn money, power to make a living. The man who cannot read and write finds a hundred doors of CARNEGIE INSTITUTE, PITTSBURGH These buildings, presented to the city by Andrew Carnegie, contain a public library, a museum of natural history, an art gallery, and a concert hall. THE NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION BUILDING AT ALBANY This edifice houses the State Library, and contains the administrative offices of the Depart- ment of Education, the State Museum, and an auditorium seating one thousand persons. ^^HUH^oir^SS- ^^■>ds i * lliii rffrnp HIGH SCHOOL, DULUTH, MINN. Courtesy, Superintendent of Public Schools, J^ew I'ork. A GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN BROOKLYN, N. Y. PUBLIC EDUCATION 59 employment shut in his face. Employers who manage great industries want workers who can think; they need active brains as well as strong arms. The igno- rant man will always do the hardest and most poorly paid kind of work. He is the unskilled laborer who digs the ditches, and lays the railroad ties, and mines the coal, and cleans the streets. His labor is both necessary and honorable, and if you wish to join him in his work, you can readily do so. Thousands of boys leave school each year for this very purpose; and by this action they may forever close behind them the door to progress and to a fair living wage. When they grow to manhood, they are likely to be- long to that part of our industrial workers who earn less than eight hundred dollars a year. And the girls who are without educational training may look for- ward to joining that large class of wage-earning women who make less than six hundred dollars a year.* 59. Second Purpose of Education — Enjoyment of Life. But education means more than the power to earn a living ; it is tlie power to enjoy those things in life of greatest value. The educated of the edu- A n ^ • . j_ 1 ,1 catedman man has tor his companions not only the men and women of the world about him, but also the mas- ter minds of all ages and countries. Homer and Yirgil^ Shakespeare and Goethe, Tennyson and Longfellow,, are his friends. For him Gibbon and Macaulay and 1 The federal census places the number of wage earners employed in all manufacturing industries at 7,036,337. The largest numbers are in the following industries: cotton goods, railway-car construction, printing and publishing, clothing, and boots and shoes. In every industry, trained and educated workers command a better wage. 60 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP Green and Parkman and Motley paint with inspired brush the picture of the storied past. He hears again the voices of Demosthenes and Cicero, and Mirabeau and Fox, and Webster and Clay, the great orators who swayed men's hearts in ages past. For him, Hugo and Thackeray and Dickens, and Lowell and Emer- son and Hawthorne, and all the great authors of the world, have a special message. His friends, too, are the artists and sculptors who have made canvas and marble to live and breathe through all the countless centuries — Phidias and Michelangelo and Donatello keeping coble company with Rubens and Rembrandt, and Van Dyke and Titian and Raphael. He listens to symphonies clear and sweet, silvery notes sounded upon the harp of life by the master hands of Mozart and Beethoven, and Bach and Schubert and Wagner, the mighty musicians whose majestic melodies still linger in human ears. To him Science opens her won- derful storehouse, and discloses the achievements of Bacon and Newton and Laplace, and Darwin and Huxley and Pasteur, and Koch and Thomson and Edison, the giant minds who have looked deep into the soul of things with the inspired intellect of human genius. Last, but greatest of all sources of enjoyment to the educated man, there is the wonderful world of nature about him, whose mysteries he learns to read until he knows the hidden secret of flowers and trees, of birds and animals, the movement of the planets, and the solemn march of the stars. Then, like the banished duke in the forest of Arden, he who has been trained to understand the wonderful works of nature : — PUBLIC EDUCATION «l '^ Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stones, and good in everything." 60. Third Purpose of Education — Training for Citizenship. Power to earn a living and power to enjoy life : these are two reasons for public educa- tion. To them must be added a third, of es- ^ , . , . . ,., , Popular pecial importance in a country like ours where Bovenunent the people govern themselves : that is, training upon for citizenship. The revolutions so frequent in the countries of Central and South America teach us the dangers from ignorant citizens. Popular gov- ernment can succeed only when voters are intelligent enough to think for themselves, to know for what they are voting. Knowledge means power to see what is good for the city, the State, and the nation. History and civics, language and literature and mathematics, — all the studies of the public schools broaden the indi- vidual, and develop an all-round manhood and woman- hood. Thus the public schools prepare boys and girls to do well their future part as citizens of our great Republic. 61. Education in Charge of State and Local Gov- ernments. In our country, control of education is in charge of the individual States, instead of the na- tional government. The States have in turn placed this duty largely in the hands of local communities -^ the school-district, township, city, and county. 62. The District School System. Our common school system dates from colonial days, when Massachu- setts provided that in every town of fifty inhabitants there should be an elementary school. As population moved westward, a similar district system was estab- eS PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP lished in other States ; for the people of each locality naturally desired a school close at hand for the educa- tion of their children. So the western pioneers built the little red schoolhouse which has played so promi- nent a part in our national history. As you travel through our country to-day, you will find a school- house every two or three miles, each the center of a small school district. The control of the district school is in the hands of a board of trustees, generally three or five in num- oharacteris- ^^^9 ^^^ employ a teacher, levy the school ?i*'l.?.^* tax, and look after school affairs. The num- alstrict ^ sciiooi ber of pupils is small in most districts; and usually one teacher instructs all classes in the same room. If you have not attended such a school, per- haps your father or mother has done so, and can tell you all about it. If you live in the city, you may have more educational advantages than country child- ren ; but many of our greatest men were educated in the district school, and it has been one of the chief factors in our national progress. 63. Advantages and Disadvantages of the District System. The great merit of the district school system centrauaa- ^s, that it placcs elementary education easily ^°^ within reach of all. Its drawback is that pupils of all ages and stages of advancement are taught by a single teacher, who can give only a small amount of time to each class. To overcome this disadvantage, all the district schools of the township are sometimes consolidated in one centrally located building, with several teachers. ^ By this plan pupils * In six States the district system has been abolished in favor of tic PUBLIC EDUCATION 63 can be graded, and the different classes placed in separate rooms. Moreover, with the expenditure of less money, better paid and more efficient teachers can be employed. Township or " union " high schools are also established on this plan, since it is impos- sible for each small district to support a separate high school. The disadvantage of consolidating rural schools is the distance which pupils must travel to reach the centralized school. This difficulty has been Transporta- met in many communities by providing a ^^onofpnpiis stage which transports pupils to and from school. In order to keep the rural schools up to a certain standard of excellence, the voters of each Q^^^y^ g^. county generally elect a county superintend- P«rvision ent, who supervises all the district and township schools within his county. 64. Administration of City Schools. Each city or- dinarily constitutes a separate school district, with its own board of education chosen by the voters. Board oi The city board of education employs teach- •*'^«**i°^ ers, purchases school sites, erects and maintains build- ings, and sometimes furnishes all the textbooks and other supplies used by the pupils. Members of city school boards generally receive no pay for their serv- ices, but the office is a most important one. The efficiency of the schools in any city depends in large measure upon the men who compose the board of education ; for they have control of the schools, and expend the large sums of money necessary for their township system ; and in at least twenty others this action may be taken if the voters desire. e4. PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP support. In order to keep the management of schools out of polities, members of the board of education are often elected on nonpartisan tickets. The import- ant question is not whether a board member is a Democrat or a Republican, but whether he is broad- minded, honest, and capable. The board of education employs a superintendent superin- whose busincss it is to supervise the work tdndeat q£ ^^^q schools, appoint teachers, recommend textbooks, prepare courses of study, and devise plans for improving the school system. Each city school building ordinarily contains from eight to twenty-four rooms ; classes are graded from Work oi oity ^^^ primary room through the eighth grade, schools eacii having its own teacher; kindergartens are commonly provided for children four and five years of age ; special instructors supervise the work in manual training, domestic science, sewing, draw- ing, music, physical training, and penmanship ; play- grounds are equipped in connection with each build- ing; special classes are provided for children who are backward or mentally defective ; medical inspect- ors are sometimes employed to guard against conta- gious disease, and to raise the physical standard of pupils ; open-air schools are maintained for children who have tuberculosis ; night classes are conducted for employed persons who cannot attend day schools, — these are some of the educational functions of progressive city school systems. Recently many cities have adopted the Junior High School plan, under which the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades are or- ganized as separate schools. PUBLIC EDUCATION 65 65. City High Schools. In addition to a number of elementary schools, each city maintains one or more high schools. These are housed in splendid buildings, which cost from one hundred thousand dollars in smaller cities to nearly one million dollars in the larger ones. The modern high school has been called the "people's college"; and the work of these schools to-day is more than equivalent to that of the colleges forty years ago. Most high schools offer several courses of study, from which the pupil may choose the one which he wishes to follow ; as, the manual training course, the commercial course, the college preparatory course, and many others. Well-equipped laboratories are provided for work in chemistry, phys- ics, physiology, and other sciences ; and some high schools have a splendid equipment for work in man- ual training, domestic science and art, and other practical subjects which are beginning to receive the attention they deserve. Fortunate is the pupil who has such opportunities within his reach ; yet thousands of children fail to take advantage of them. Only a small proportion of all the pupils in our public schools enter the high schools; but this number includes the boys and girls who will be best fitted to make their way in the world, and who will do most for themselves, their city, and the Republic. 66. Public Libraries. Close allies and friends of the schools are the public libraries maintained in almost every city of the United States. Here boys and girls may obtain books on any subject about which they wish to learn. Contrast your opportunities in this re- ee PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP spect with those of Lincoln, who walked many miles to borrow the book which he read by firelight after his hard day's toil. Are you as anxious to improve your mind as Lincoln was to improve his ? 67. The State Educational Department. In most commonwealths there is a State superintendent or state super- Commissioner of schools, commonly elected intendent ]^j ^j^g ^^^^^^ of ^l^^ State. This officer col- lects statistics, inspects school systems, reports to the legislature concerning the needs of the schools, and in general looks after the educational interests of the entire State. In some commonwealths there is a State board of state board education with important duties, such as of education preparing CO iirses of study, examining teach- ers, and sometimes selecting uniform textbooks for use throughout the State. 68. Compulsory Education Laws. We have seen that, in our country, education is considered not only a privilege but a duty. Nearly all the States have com- pulsory education laws. These commonly require all children from eight to fourteen, or from eight to six- teen years of age, to attend school. The employment of children under fourteen or sixteen years is gener- ally prohibited ; and a fine may be imposed upon par- ients or employers who do not observe this law. The object of compulsory education is to protect the State from ignorance by assuring each child at least the elements of an education. Hence the boy who "plays truant " is not only violating the law of the State, but he is placing himself in the foolish position of one who steals from himself. PUBLIC EDUCATION 6? 69. State Universities. In addition to the many private colleges and universities throughout the Union, forty commonwealths maintain State univer- sities which students may enter upon completion of their hio^h school course.^ The State universities offer a wide variety of courses, in order to fit students for many different pursuits — for business life, teaching, law, medicine, pharmacy, engineering, forestry, and agriculture. They are open to both sexes, and tuition is usually free to all residents of the State. These institutions aim to make their work practical, directly related to the life of the people of the State. They seek to improve agricultural methods, to practical advance manufacturing interests, to raise the <^^"*°*" standard of education and health among the people; in short, to do all that can be done by an educational institution to promote the welfare of the State. 70. The Cost of Public Education. Many commun- ities spend almost as much on their public schools as for all other local purposes combined. Our public schools are maintained at an annual cost of nearly $800,000,000. About eighty per cent of this im- mense sum is raised by taxation. You may judge what a high value the American people place upon education, since they are willing to tax themselves so freely in order that you may have the best education which money can provide. 71. The National Government and Education. We have seen that education is primarily in the hands of the individual States, which delegate this work to ^ The forty State universities enroll about one third of the entire number of university students. Six of the ten largest universities ia this country are State institutions. 68 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP local communities ; but the national government has given valuable assistance. By a law passed in jorMgiier 1862, Congicss provided that each State should receive 30,000 acres of public land for each Representative and Senator in Congress, the proceeds to be used for the support of agricultural and mechanical colleges. In addition to this gift, the national government makes an annual appropriation for each State agricultural college. For the support of the common or elementary schools, Congress has likewise made substantial gifts. Grants for ^^gi^^^^^g wi^^i C)hio in 1802^ each State ad- eiementary mittcd received one section of land in every township for the support of its common schools ; and each State admitted after 1848 received two sections. The income from the sale of these lands is apportioned each year upon the basis of the num- ber of children of school age within each township. In 1917 Congress passed the Smith-Hughes Act, which provides federal aid for vocational education. Each State accepting its provisions must es- Hughes tablish a State board of control of day-indus- trial, evening, part-time, continuation, and agricultural and home-making schools. Each State must also agree to appropriate, either through the State or locally, an amount of money equivalent to the sum received from the federal government. The amounts appropriated under this act are to be in- creased each year until 1925, when the States will receive $7,000,000 from the national treasury in support of vocational education. The national government maintains at Washington PUBLIC EDUCATION 69 a bureau of education, in charge of the United States Commissioner of Education. This officer col- Bureau of lects statistics and other information con- Education cerning pubUc and private schools throughout the Union, publishes valuable reports on educational top- ics, and informs school officials concerning important work which is being undertaken in various communi- ties. Thus the Commissioner and his Bureau promote the educational interests of the entire nation. The national government has charge of the city schools of Washington, D. C. ; provides schools for the Indians ; and supports the academies at Annapolis and West Point. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What are the boundaries of the school district in which you live ? How many children of school age within this district ? How many are enrolled in the public schools ? 2. How many members comprise your board of education or school trustees ? How are they chosen ? What is their term of office ? Name the members. 3. What amount of school revenue is derived from local taxation in your district ? What is the rate of the local tax for school purposes ? 4. Is there a law in your State compelling children of a certain age to attend school ? If so, during what ages is such attend- ance required, and for what term each year ? What is the penalty for the violation of this law, and upon whom imposed ? Who enforces the compulsory education laws ? 5. Explain the importance of public education in a democracy. 6. What obligations do pupils owe to their school ? Do they owe any obligation to the community which provides them with free public education ? 7. Is there county supervision of rural schools in your commun- ity ? How is the county superintendent chosen ? How are schools supervised in your district ? CHAPTER VII PUBLIC CHARITIES ^2. The Relation of Government to Charity. In every community there are certain members of society who are unable or unwilling to provide for and depend- themselvcs. Thcsc pcrsons may be grouped in two classes : (1) the defectives, or those suffering from a serious physical or mental disability which incapacitates them from work, as the insane, the blind, the crippled, and the hopelessly diseased ; (2) the dependent class, including those who through poverty are a burden on the community. For its own protection, as well as from humanita- rian motives, society must make provision for both the defective and the dependent classes. In Public and . . . ^ private earlier times, the relief of the destitute and helpless members of society was left to the church and to private charity. These agencies still cooperate in the work of charity, especially in caring for the sick and the destitute; but at the present time, government bears a large part^of the burden of charities, including poor relief, and the care of the insane, the blind, deaf-mutes, and other defectives. The State and local governments cooperate in pro- Work of viding relief for these unfortunate persons. foMUo^v- Poor relief is given by the local community, emments ^]^g township, city, or county ; but so great is the expense of caring for the insane and other PUBLIC CHARITIES 71 defectives that this duty is generally performed by the State government. Accordingly, each State main- tains numerous large asylums and homes, to which defective persons are brought from all parts of the commonwealth. 73. Care of the Defective Class. Insane persons are ^metimes cared for in local poorhouses; but the more pro2:ressive States provide separate asy- ^.^.- ^ . ^ y The Insane lums or hospitals, where patients may receive humane treatment and the best medical care. In order to prevent the confinement of persons who are not actually insane, the question of insanity must be passed upon by expert physicians, generally acting under the direction of the probate judge of the county. Feeble-minded children are sometimes cared for in State schools. Here they are trained to •^ ^ Feeble - become at least partly self-supporting; and minded they often do a large part of the work on farms maintained in connection with these schools. The blind and the deaf-mutes are commonly edu- cated and cared for in State institutions. Special methods of instruction enable them to over- TheWlnd come, in part, the terrible handicap resulting and the from their physical disability; so that they often become useful and self-supporting members of society. You may have read of the wonderful attain- ments of Helen Keller, who, although both blind and deaf, has succeeded in obtaining a college education. Her splendid perseverance shows how nobility of soul and heroic courage can triumph over physical infirm* ities. W PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 74. Care of the Dependent Class. We come now to the dependent class — those who through poverty The vagrant are a burden on society. This poverty may '°°' be due to misfortune : hard-working men are sometimes thrown out of work, and need temporary relief. More often it is due to disease, or drunken- ness, or shiftless habits, and a desire to live at the expense of the community. The tramp who comes to your door asking for food or money, as well as his companion, the street beggar, generally belongs to this class. To give the relief asked for, without in- vestigating to find out whether it is deserved, merely encourages these vagrants in their shiftlessness. In many cities there are charity organization societies, which investigate persons who ask for relief, and provide employment for those who are able and will- ing to work. But most tramps and beggars do not want work ; they prefer to live at the expense of the kind-hearted but foolish persons who encourage them by indiscriminate almsgiving. But there are other cases of actual destitution which society must relieve. For this reason there is in nearly every county an almshouse or poor- house or farm, which is maintained by the local gov- ernment. Here those who cannot provide for themselves are supported at public expense. Some- times the inmates are able to do considerable farm work; but more often they are so crippled or infirm or shiftless that the community bears the entire burden of their support.^ ^ It is estimated that nearly one half of the inmates of almshousea in the United States eould work if compelled to do so. PUBLIC CHARITIES 78 The local overseers of the poor sometimes supply provisions, fuel, and clothing for families who are temporarily in need of assistance. This is outdoor called outdoor relief, because it is granted to ""®* destitute persons in their homes, without sending them to the almshouse. The great danger of outdoor relief is that shiftless persons soon form the habit of looking to government for help, instead of helping themselves. For this reason, outdoor relief is gener- ally left to private charitable organizations, which are better able to investigate each case, and determine whether aid should be granted. Many of our cities and counties maintain public institutions for homeless children. Here these little ones, who have never known what it means children's to have a comfortable home and kind par- ^°™" ents, are trained and educated at public expense in order that they may become useful citizens. 75. Care of the Sick Poor. Each local community ordinarily employs one or more physicians to care for persons who are too poor to employ medical aid. Public dispensaries are also provided anddispen- where the needy poor can obtain free medi- cal treatment. More serious cases of illness or injury are cared for in public hospitals, maintained by the city or county; here those unable to pay receive free care and treatment. 76. Cost of Charities. The cost of public and private charities in the United States is enormous, amount- ing to over two hundred million dollars each year, or one third the cost of our public schools. It is esti- mated that three million persons, or one thirtieth of 74 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP the entire population of the country, receive some form of public or private relief. All of this expense must be borne by the productive members of society ; this is why it is so important to investigate every request for aid, and grant relief only to those who deserve it. 77. Charity Organization. In nearly every large city, there are charity organization societies, private organi- zations which aim to secure cooperation among the various relief agencies of the city. These societies expose impostors, of whom there are many ; refer ap- plicants for relief to the charitable organization which can best provide it; find employment for those who are able and willing to work; and endeavor to ascer- tain and remove the causes of poverty, instead of merely relieving temporary needs. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What provision is made in your State for the defective claasee, the deaf, blind, insane, feeble-minded ? 2. Make a list of the institutions and associations in your com- munity for the care of the poor. Which of these are public and which private ? 3. Where is your almshouse located? Is any attempt made to separate the different classes of inmates? Is it well managed ? 4. How are the vagrant poor or tramps dealt with in your com- munity ? 5. If a street beggar should ask you for money, would you give him any ? What are the arguments against promiscuous alms- giving? 6. How are dependent children cared for In your community ? Is the plan a satisfactory one ? 7. Does your community employ physicians to care for those too poor to afford them ? Is there a free dispensary in your com- munity ? 8. Enumerate some of the principal causes of poverty. Ask local officials what causes are chiefly responsible for pauperism in vour community. CHAPTER VIII GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 78. The Production of Wealth. In future years you will probably realize more fully than you do at present that most of the activities of men are Economic caused by the need of making a living. In acuvities this respect we are not so far removed from the prim- itive man who spent most of his time in obtaining; food with which to sustain life. On all sides we see men engaged in hundreds of different callings, in banks and offices and stores, in field and mine and workshop. All are producers, for all are performing services which have an exchangeable value. All are engaged in the creation of wealth ; that is, the pro- duction of goods which have an economic value, which are desired by society. The farmer says : " I will till the soil, raise the wheat needed to supply the markets of the world, and exchange it for the clothing, furni- ture, implements, and other articles that I need." The manufacturer produces clothing, shoes, or furniture, which in turn he exchanges for the food products and other commodities necessary to his existence and comfort. The merchant creates values by exchanging goods ; if it were not for him, the farmer would have to leave his work, and go to the manufacturer and the clothier, for the necessaries which they produce. The day laborer receives, in return for his labor, food from 76 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP the farmer, shoes and clothing from the factory, and fuel from the mine. 79. How Government aids Industry. Thus all the members of modern industrial society are dependent Services oi upou cach other for their daily needs, and all g^veni-°"^ are working in cooperation for the common ment good. All are engaged in the world's great workshop which we call industry; and the most im- portant services which government performs are those which relate to industry, to the activities of men in making a living. For example, the national govern- ment provides the circulating medium or money for which men exchange their services ; and our national government likewise carries the mails, makes river and harbor improvements, protects commerce by means of lighthouses and life-saving stations, sends consuls abroad to promote our trade with foreign countries, and grants copyrights and patents to encourage au- thors and inventors. Our State and local governments also perform many services in aid of industry. They build the roads and brido^es necessary for the transportation of Services of ^ ^ .-^ i • • i 1 State gov- people and products; and it is to them that we look for the protection of property and contract rights, for educational facilities, and for the restriction of industries which, like the liquor traffic, threaten the public welfare. Both State and national governments aid industry by protecting the natural resources of the country in lands and forests ; by legislation designed to safe- guard the lives and health of laborers in mines and factories; and by laws which regulate corporations, A PLANTING MACHINE AT WORK On the farms of the experiment station of the University of Wisconsin. Observe that each plot of ground is labeled to show the source of the seed used. Tlie investigations made at such stations serve the combined purpose of adapting methods to local conditions, and of stimu- lating the farmers of the surrounding country to introduce the best seeds, and new methods of tillage and the care of crops. The agricultural colleges of many States maintain stations of this sort. ^^IM H "M ' -< . f 1 h ^ '■ ■ 1 1 M ^ f : ' "« \^ 1 f 1 4 '* m n* THE DAIRY CAR OF THE "BETTER FARMING SPECIAL' The " Better Farming Special " is a train equipped by the Boston and Albany Railroad with the cooperation of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. At appropriate seasons it is sent through the agricultural districts of the State, and lecturers address the farmers. There are several cars in the train, devoted to crops, forestry, and other agricultural interests. In many States similar traveling exhibits are sent out each year by the State Agricultural Col- lege. AN EARLY ATTEMPT AT IRRIGATION Before the National Government took up this work, methods were crude and results imsatisfactory. Courtesy, Department of Agriculture. PRESENT METHODS OF IRRIGATION GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 77 the capitalistic organizations which to-day control the larger part of our manufactures and commerce. 80. Why Government aids Agricultixre. The boys ■who live on our farms have at least one advantage over city boys — each year they have a com-rais- chance to win a trip to Washington at the ^« contest expense of Uncle Sam. They may win this prize by raising more corn on an acre of land than is raised by the other boys who compete in the annual corn- raising contest carried on by our national govern- ment. The successful boys also have the distinction of seeing their names published in the list of youth- ful farmers who have raised a larger corn crop than that secured by other boys, — often larger, indeed, than their own fathers can raise. Why does our national government encourage this competition in corn-raising? The fathers of these boys now raise more corn and more wheat than any other farmers in the world; so that the of scientific United States holds first place as an agricul- **^ ** tural country, producing the largest part of the world's supply of breadstuffs, meat products, raw cotton, lumber, and Indian corn. But among the 49,000,000 people who comprise our rural population, there are many farmers who are ignorant of the best methods of production. These men do not sow the best seed, or cultivate their fields properly ; perhaps they do not appreciate the necessity of rotating crops and apply- ing fertilizers to the soil, in order to secure the largest returns. Hence our national and State governments endeavor in every possible way to educate farmers and their sons in scientific methods of agriculture. In 78 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP other words, we cannot afford to rely solely on our fertile soil and broad valleys in order to retain our rank as the foremost agricultural country in the world. We must have men trained to make the most of these natural advantages by adding to them intelligent labor and intelliofent methods. 8i. How Government promotes Better Farming. This corn-raising contest is only one of the many Agricuitnr- nieans by which government encourages ment's^ta- better agricultural methods. In nearly every *^» State there is an experiment station, generally connected with the State's agricultural college, which carries on experiments in order to determine which crops and methods of cultivation are best for the farmers of each locality. At these stations, new vari- eties of cereals are originated, and old ones improved; model farms are maintained, which furnish instruct- ive examples to the farmers of the State, and serve as laboratories for the education of thousands of young men in scientific agriculture. By means of bulletins and reports sent out to the farmers of the State, these institutions render a still broader service; for example, Wisconsin's aiexten- high rank as a dairying State is due largely sonwor ^^ the enterprise of the agricultural depart- ment of her State University. For those who desire information on farm problems, but who are unable to leave their work, Cornell and several other uni- versities carry on reading courses for farmers and their wives. Practical lessons are published each month ; questions are answered by mail, and individ- ual instruction and advice given. GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 7« Some agricultural colleges send out special trains, known as " better farming specials," one car being devoted to a dairyino^ exhibit, another to •^ o 7 BettM* crops, another to forestry, and so on. These fanning trains are sent through the agricultural dis- tricts, and expert practical farmers are employed to accompany them and give lectures. 82. Irrigation Work of the National Govemment. Irrigation is another important aid to agriculture, especially in the arid lands of the West and Raciaiming Southwest. By the construction of irrigation "**i*^*<^ dams and reservoirs, the federal government has trans- formed millions of acres of desert land into fertile farms. These lands are sold to settlers upon small annual payments which will ultimately cover the cost of constructing the irrigation works. Within the last twenty years, the amount of land irrigated in the United States has been increased from three million to more than thirteen million acres. These great irri- gation projects have cost over $110,000,000, but this cost is small in comparison with the values created by transforming desert wastes into fertile farms. 83. The Destruction of Our Forests. In your study of American history, you have learned that our country was originally covered with vast forests. From the valuable storehouse thus provided by na- ture, the settlers drew materials for houses, schools, churches, ships, furniture, and fuel. Unfortunately, the descendants of those settlers have acted as if the storehouse could never be exhausted. Our great forest areas were ruthlessly stripped of trees by owners who cared only to make money as fast as 80 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP possible. Young trees which should have been spared were taken for telegraph poles or railroad ties, and no effort was made to replace them by planting. Terrible forest fires which swept away millions of dollars worth of valuable timber continued the work of destruction. 84. The Establishment of Forest Reserves. At last we beo^an to realize that the destruction of our forests meant even more than the loss of our timber supply. The fertility and productiveness of our farms were seriously threatened, for forests preserve the rain- fall and make it regular. They also protect the head- waters of our great rivers, thus securing a uniform flow throughout the year, and providing water for irrigation and for carrying lumber and other produce to market. Finally, in 1908, President Roosevelt in- vited the governors of all the States and territories to meet and discuss the conservation of our natural resources in forests, land, water, and minerals. As a step toward this policy of conservation, the national government has set aside a vast area of over 100,000 square miles known as the " forest Protecting >» rr?i the forest reserves. These reserves, m extent as large as the States of Wisconsin and Illinois taken together, are to be held in trust by the government for the welfare of the entire country. The reserves are located so as to protect the headwaters of our great rivers ; and they are guarded by men called forest rangers or foresters. These men ride through the forests on horseback, on the lookout for fires and timber thieves. A large amount of timber is sold each year from the reserves; but government officials de- GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 81 termine what trees may be cut. New trees are planted in place of those cut down, so that the supply shall not become exhausted. Many of the States have likewise set aside large tracts of forest reserves. These are managed in the same way as the national reserves, and are guarded by forest rangers. About one half of the States have forest commissioners, charged with the care of the State's forests. 85. The Improvement of Highways. One writer has said that the civilization of a country can be meas- ured by the excellence of its roads. Undoubtedly the improvement of highways is one of the most import- ant means whereby government aids industry; for each year the products hauled over our roads exceed in value all the freight carried by all the railroads of the country. The construction of wagon roads was begun in colonial times ; these were dirt roads, or corduroy roads where swamps were to be crossed (constructed by felling trees and laying the trunks side bj side). With the advent of the sawmill came the plank roads; and these were followed by the pikes, or roads covered with broken stone. Next came the macadam- ized road, the most approved method of modern road- building. The macadamized road derives its name from John Macadam, a Scotch engineer who origin- ated this method of construction. It consists of a foundation of large crushed stones, on top of which are placed additional layers of smaller stones. Each layer, after being moistened, is repeatedly rolled with a steam roller. A top layer of asphalt or pitch is com* 88 PREPARING tX)R CITIZENSHIP monly used as a binding material, and the result is a smooth, hard, and durable wearing surface. As a rule, the construction of roads is a function of local government, generally entrusted to the county or township commissioners. The cost of im- A function ^. . oi local gov- provement is borne, at least in part, by the property owners along the road.^ In times past it has been customary to permit farmers to work out their road tax by giving several days' labor with their teams, instead of paying the tax in money. Poor roads have often resulted from this haphazard method of construction ; so that more progressive communi- ties now have their roads built under the supervision of skilled engineers, who make use of modern meth- ods and machinery. Our roadmaking has improved during the last twenty years, but our roads are still inferior to the splendid highways built by the pro- gressive countries of Europe. In the cities, the large amount of heavy traffic makes the question of street pavement a most im- streetpavB- portant One. The principal materials used ments f^j. q^j.qq^ pavements are cobblestones, gran- ite and Belgian blocks, wooden blocks, bricks, and asphalt (sheet and blocks). No single material is best in all respects, and ordinarily the choice is largely influenced by the question of cost. The cost of street improvements, including paving and sewers, is gener- ally assessed upon the adjoining property owners. ^ In a number of commonwealths the State aids the local community by bearing a certain proportion of the expense of improving highways. In many Southern States, convict labor is being utilized for the pur- pose of improving highways, the work being carried on under the di- reotion of government officials. Courtesy, The American City. THE ORIGINAL MULBERRY STREET BRIDGE, HARRISBURG, PA. The result of that city's first campaign for a municipal improvement. Courtesy, The American dtp. THE PRESENT MULBERRY STREET VIADUCT An imposing structure of reinforced concrete has replaced the old bridge of iron and wood. Cmtrtetrif, The fiorest Service, Washington, D. C. THE RESULT OF SCIENTIFIC FORESTRY These hills have been reclothed with trees, although during many years after a lumber company had worked this section they had been left denuded and neglected. THE WORK OF A FRESHET One result of the destruction of forests; for without trees on the hills, the streams are liable to swell rapidly during the spring. Once overflowing their banks, they can do great damage- GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 88 86. Waterways. Nearly all the canals in the coun- try have been constructed by the State governments, or by companies chartered by them. The period of canal construction dates from 1825 (when the Erie Canal was completed) to about 1840, at which time attention was diverted to railroad building. The con- struction of canals contributed greatly to the early development of the commonwealths in which they were located, as for some time their competition served as a check upon railroad rates ; but with f e^ exceptions they have now been abandoned, the rail- way having proved too formidable a competitor.^ 87. The Factors in Production. The promotion of better agricultural methods, the conservation of our forests, the improvement of roads and ^and, laDor waterways, — these services of government °*^^**^ all relate to land, one of the three factors in produc- tion. There are two other important factors, namely, labor and capital; and we shall now consider the services which government performs in relation to each of these agents. You will learn in your later study that most of our manufactured products are made in large fac- tories, by means of machinery; and that this Large «caie method of production involves many far- i'"'^^<'**°* reaching consequences. Production on a large scale, 1 Since 1850 the only important canals constructed are the Illi- nois and Mississippi, and the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal ; but Jarge sums have been spent in improving the Erie Canal. In all there are forty-two hundred miles of canals in the United States, located in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan; but many of these have fallen into disuse. Besides those mentioned, the other principal canals are the Illinois and Michigan, the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Wabash and Erie, and the Saulfc Sainte Marie. 84 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP by means of machinery, has taken industry out of the home into immense workshops called factories; it has led to the growth of great cities; it has brought about the organization of large corporations to furnish the capital necessary for these colossal in- dustrial enterprises ; and it has , drawn a sharp line of division between the employing class, and the laborers or men who are employed. 88. Labor and Factory Laws. Nearly one fourth of all the people in the United States are employed by others, many of them in hazardous occupations. To protect these workers, the State governments have passed measures known as factory laws, which are enforced by inspectors who travel over the State, visiting and inspecting factories and mercantile estab- lishments. Factory legislation has three principal objects: (1) The protection of the health of employees, by securing: proper ventilation, heatins^, lio^ht- mg, and good sanitary conditions generally. (2) The prevention of accidents, by requiring guards on dangerous machinery, elevators, and hoistways; also by requiring the inspection of boilers, and the construction of suitable exits and fire-escapes. (3) The regulation of the conditions of employment, especial^ in the case of women and children, by restricting the hours of labor, prescribing intervals of rest during the working-day, prohibiting night work, and fixing a minimum age limit for the em» ployment of children — usually fourteen years.^ ^ Social welfare imperatively demands the restriction of child labor, and in recent years much has been accomplished in this direc- GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 85 Many commonwealths have provided that eight hours shall constitute a day's work for all laborers employed by the State or local governments, th© .ight- In private industry, the hours of labor have ^^^^^'^ been reduced from twelve or fourteen hours in the early part of the nineteenth century to eight or ten at the present time ; and one of the principal aims of labor unions is to secure universal acceptance of the eight-hour day. To aid in the settlement of industrial disputes, many States have established boards of arbitration. These sfenerally consist of three or five mem- . . , ^ . "^ Arbitration bers appomted by the governor, employers oi labor dis- and employees being equally represented. When strikes or lock-outs occur, it is the duty of these boards to investigate the situation, and if possible to bring about an amicable settlement. They may arbi- trate the controversy, providing both parties consent. 89. Characteristics and Development of Corpora- tions. Capital is the third great agency in the production of wealth. Perhaps the most character- important economic function of State gov- **^°* ernments is exercised through the power to create and regulate corporations, the capitalistic organiza- tions which control the greater part of the commerce and manufactures of the country. A corporation may be defined as a legal person, distinct from the mem- bers who comprise it, having a special name, and the capacity of acting for various purposes as a single individual. fcion, largely owing to the activity of the General Federation of Women's Clnbs and other organizations. In 1907, measures restrict- ing the employment of children were passed in twenty-eight States. 86 PREPAHING FOR CITIZENSHIP The private corporation is of ancient origin, but its remarkable development in the nineteenth cen- Deveiop- ^^U ^^J ^® traced to the industrial revolu- ^^^ tion of the eighteenth. That revolution was characterized by the change from hand to machine labor, from production on a small scale to the factory system. The partnership was at first employed as a means of obtaining the larger capital demanded by the new industrial methods ; and this continued the common form of business association until the middle of the nineteenth century. But even the partnership was inadequate for the colossal industrial develop- ment of the age of steam and electricity; and hence about the middle of the nineteenth century, the cor- poration came into general use for larger industrial enterprises. 90. Organization and Control of Corporations. In order to form a corporation, a number of men, gen- erally five or more, apply to the State govern- organiza- ment f or a charter ; that is, for permission t» organize a corporation. The application must state the names of the incorporators, the amount of the capital stock, and the purpose for which the corpora- tion is formed. If the secretary of State finds that the application is in due legal form, he issues a charter authorizing the corporation to do business. The capital of the corporation is fixed at a certain Amount, divided into a number of small shares, usu- stockhoid- ^^ly fifty or a hundred dollars each, which ®" are sold to different individuals. Each per- son who purchases a share thereby becomes a stock- holder in the corporation, and is entitled to vote for GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 87 members of the board of directors, who manage the corporation's business. Corporations are commonly required to make an an- nual report to the secretary of State, setting q^j^^^^q. forth the amount of their capital stock, vol- corpora- ume of business done, and the indebtedness. They must also pay taxes, and submit to such. regu- lations as the State legislature may find necessary. 91. Trusts and Industrial Combinations. Within recent years large corporations have united to form what are called trusts. The trust or indus- , . . , . •11 Necessity ol trial combination has an immense capital, and government generally aims to produce commodities on so large a scale that it will be enabled to control the market. Both the State and national governments have passed laws designed to control these large com- binations, for their methods have often been unfair toward other producers, as well as to the consumers who use their products. For example, in times past the Standard Oil Company has been able to secure from the railroads lower rates for shipping oil than were granted to its competitors ; and through its con- trol of the market, it has been able to fix the price to the consumer. 92. Regulation of Banks and Insurance Companies. Certain classes of corporations, such as banks, insur- ance companies, and railroads, come into the closest relations with the people, so that the management of these corporations is a matter of vital public concern. For example, the whole community is interested in the management of its banks. If a bank fails on account of dishonest or unwise manage- 88 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP ment, the loss falls not on the depositors alone, but on the entire community ; for the effect of a bank failure is to discourage habits of saving among the people. Likewise it is of the utmost importance that insur- ance companies be managed on sound financial princi- ittsurance P^^s ; f Or the man who takes out an insur- companies ^^^^ policj generally does so for the benefit of his wife and children, or for others dependent on him for support. In order to protect the policy hold- ers and the public generally, most States have passed laws regulating the management of insurance com- panies ; and State inspectors are appointed to see that these laws are properly enforced. 93. Regulation of Railroads. The railroad business Is likewise of vital public interest. It is of the highest importance that fair and uniform freight way com- rates shall be charged to all shippers, for otherwise the prosperity of a community may be checked or destroyed. Hence, many States have established boards of railway commissioners, charged with the duty of protecting the public and the ship- pers. Laws have been passed designed to prevent dis- criminating rates and unreasonable charges. State regulations concerning railroads apply only to the traffic wholly within the boundaries of the in- dividual commonwealth. The railroads now Rogulation «i interstate derive most of their revenue from traffic be- tween different States, called interstate traf- fic ; and this can be controlled only by the federal government. This control is exercised by means of an Interstate Commerce Commission, which has gen- GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY 80 eral supervision over railways engaged in interstate traflSc. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What public lands are now owned by your State ? Have any steps been taken toward forest preservation ? 2. Explain the object of fish and game laws. Who enforces these measures in your commonwealth ? 3. What restrictions does your State government place upon the labor of women and cliildren ? 4. What is meant by a strike ? Lock-out ? Boycott ? Picketing? 5. Explain how a strike affects many more people than the em- ployer and employees in the particular industry. 6. Is there a State board of arbitration in your commonwealth? How is it composed ? Has it been successful in settling indus- trial disputes ? 7. What are the common hours of labor in the various industries in your State ? What are the chief arguments in favor of an eight-hour day as compared with one of ten or twelve hours ? 8. Is there a free public employment office in your community ? What work does it perform ? 9. Prepare a report showing (a) the wastes of excessive compe- tition, and (b) tlie advantages of large-scale production. (Jenks, J. W., The Trust Problem.) 10. Name several partnerships in your community ; several cor- porations. Name five of the largest industrial combinations (commonly called trusts) in the United States. 11. Who has charge of roadmaking in your commonwealth? Does the State supervise road construction or bear part of the cost? 12. Are there any canals in your State ? What officers have charge of them ? When were they constructed ? What was the cost of maintenance last year ? CHAPTER IX TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 94. The Work of Local Govemments. In preceding chapters we have studied the work performed by our State and local erovernments. We have seen Relation to . ^ . State gov- that such important duties as the protection of the people, public education, and the build- ing of roads and bridges, are entrusted chiefly to local governments, although the State government cooper- ates in the work, and supervises the way in which it is carried on. We should bear in mind that these local governments (towns, counties, villages, and cities) are merely subdivisions of the State, created for the performance of this work. Just as a manu- facturing concern employs men to carry on its busi- ness, directing and controlling them as the manager sees fit, so the State government creates these local units as its agent, and may regulate and control them in the performance of their work. 95. Classification of Local Govemments. Local gov- ernments are of two kinds, rural and urban. Rural lo- Ruraiand ^^^ governments include towns or townships, "^*^ and counties; urban governments comprise cities and villages. Rural and urban governments perform many similar duties, such as maintaining order and providing education ; but you will readily see that where population is massed in cities, there are many additional duties for the city governments TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 91 to perform. Suppose you try to think of several things done by city governments which are not necessary in the case of rural communities. 96. Three Types of Rural Local Government. Of rural local governments there are three different types in the United States. In one section of the Town, Union, the town performs most of the work cJ^p^o^g^g of local government ; in another, the county; types while in a third, the business of local government is about equally divided between the two areas. Hence the three types of rural local government are called : (1) town government, (2) county government, and (3) the township-county, or compromise type. If a map of the United States were to be marked off into three sections, you would readily see where each type prevails. You would find the town system in the six New England States; the county system in the South and the Far West ; and the compromise type in the Middle and North Central States. Let us now trace the historical origin of each of these types of local government. 97. Establishment of Towns in New England. As you have learned in your study of history, the colo- nists who first settled New England came coioniai as church congregations, each headed by its c®^'*"^®^ minister. Hence they naturally wished to have their homes near together, so that all might worship at the common church. Then, too, the Indian tribes of New England were hostile, and the colonists could defend a compact community more readily than a widely scat- tered population. Frequently each little town was surrounded by a stockade, and provided with a block- 9« PREPARING FOR CITIZENSfflP house in which all might take refuge in case of a sud- den attack. The " town " included not only the group of dwell- ings within the stockade, but also the outlying fields Meaning oi Cultivated by the colonists. So we must re- "town" member that the word "town" as used in New England denotes not a small village, but a dis- trict with an area of from twenty to forty square miles. The government of the town was then, as it is to- day, a pure democracy ; that is, the laws were made Town gov- ^y the people themselves, instead of through «nmient their representatives. All the men of the town met in town-meeting for the discussion of mat- ters of common concern, such as the defense of the community, the construction of roads, the support of the school, and the care of the poor. On these and many other matters, the town-meeting passed laws called " by-laws " ; Mt also levied taxes, and elected the town officers. 98. County Government at the South. Very differ- ent were the conditions in the Southern colonies. Conditions The men who came to Virginia did not at the South come as church congregations seeking a land where they might worship freely ; the first settlers, especially, came in the hope of finding gold. The soil at the South was very fertile ; and the slave sys- tem tended to create large plantations. The houses of the planters were miles apart, so that it was impracti- cable for them to meet in town-meeting, as did the New England colonists. Hence the planters at the South adopted a system ^ From the Danish word by which means toion. TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT » of county government similar to that which prevailed in England. The Southern colony was di- countygoT- vided into a number of counties, each gov- «"^®^* erned by a county court. This body was composed of eight justices, appointed by the governor of the colony. Thus local government at the South was much less democratic than in New England, where the people met in town-meeting to pass their own laws and choose their own local officials. Jefferson, himself a Virginian, praised the democratic govern- ment of the New England towns, and declared it an ideal plan of local self-government. 99. Township-County System of Local Government. The Middle Colonies were situated between New England and the South, and hence they bor- Acompro- rowed some features of their local govern- ^^^sepian ment from each section. From New England they took the township ; from the South, the county. The functions of local government were divided be- tween these two areas ; hence this is called the town- ship-county, or compromise type, of local government. The system of local government in the Middle Colonies was adopted many years later by the men who moved west to settle the Mississippi Valley. As a result, this township-county the Middle system now prevails throughout the great group o£ States extending from New York to Ne- braska, which together include more than half the population of the country. It is thus our most repre- sentative type of local government. 100. Town Government at Present. The most im- portant feature of New England's present system 94 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP of town government is the town-meeting, held regit larly once each year in the town hall. Special meet' The town- i"gs are called from time to time, as needed, meeting rpj^^ town-mecting regulates practically all local affairs, including taxes, schools, poor relief, high- ways, police, and public health. All voters may at- tend, take part in the discussion, and vote upon all questions. By enlisting the individual citizen in the discussion and management of public affairs, the town- meeting affords a valuable school of political training. The town-meeting also elects the town officers. The most important of these are the selectmen, an execu- Townotti- ti'^^ board of from three to nine members, **•" who exercise a general supervision over town affairs. Other officers are the clerk, who keeps the records, issues marriage licenses, and registers vital statistics; the treasurer, the collector of taxes, the school committee, assessors, constables, highway offi- cers, library and cemetery trustees, and overseers of the poor. loi. County Government at Present. All the States of the Union are subdivided into counties,^ but, as Work 01 ^® have learned, the functions performed county gov- by the county vary widely in different parts of the Union. In New England the county has few powers, the town being the important unit. At the South and in the Far West, on the other hand, the county performs most of the work of local gov- ernment. In the States of the Middle West, it divides this work with the township. ^ In Louisiana the division corresponding to the county is called a parish. AN OLD-FASHIONED COUNTRY ROAD Crudely built, uuskillfully cared for, and, in stormy seasons, well-nigh impassable. Courtesy, Massachusetts Highway Commissio'i THE SAME ROAD RECONSTRUCTED AND MAINTAINED BY THE STATE Modern methods give good roads at all seasons. 1 ^ T Courtesy, The American City. THE OLD COUNTY JAIL AT MOBILE, ALA. Courtesy, The American City. THE NEW MOBILE COUNTY COURT HOUSE This dignified building accommodates tlie jail and the sheriff's office, and also the offices of the County Court and the County Assessor and Collector. TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 96 The most important officers are the members of the county board of commissioners or supervisors, elected by the voters, and entrusted with general su- pervision over county affairs. This board oommis- constructs bridges and highways, looks after super- the poor, maintains the jail and other county buildings, divides the county into school and road districts, and levies county taxes. Other important officers are the sheriff, who is the chief executive officer of the county court, charged with the general preservation of law and ^^ order throus^hout the county. A prosecuting otmaty °T . . , "^ ^ . 1 officers attorney conducts criminal prosecutions, and represents the county in civil suits. Cases of violent or mysterious death are investigated by the coroner, usually with the aid of a jury. Public records are kept by the county clerk ; and deeds and mortgages are made a matter of public record by the recorder. The treasurer and auditor have charge of the collec- tion and expenditure of public funds ; and a county superintendent supervises the work of the schools. As a rule, all of these officers are elected by the voters, for terms varying from two to four years. 102. Township-County Government. Under the township-county plan, the powers of local govern- ment are divided between county and town- ©ivision of ship. In general, the same county officers are i^^®" elected as under the county system ; but each county is subdivided into a number of smaller townships. These have charge of such affairs as the maintenance of schools, the construction of roads, and the care of the poor. 96 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP General oversight over township business is exer- cised by the township trustees, who correspond to the Townsup selectmen of the New England town. Other ^*°®" township officers are the clerk, who keeps the records; the treasurer, who is also tax collector ; jus- tices of the peace, who try minor cases ; tax assessors, constables, school trustees, and overseers of the poor. The present tendency is to give the county larger powers over such local affairs as the schools and road County building. The townships are too small to supervision q^j>j.j q^ ^his work in the most efficient way ; hence county governments exercise more supervision than formerly over township administration. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION (^Questions 1-7 are for pupils living in New England) 1. How many towns in your State ? What is the population of the largest ? Of the smallest ? 2. Does town government in New England tend to decrease in importance ? 3. How many representatives has your town in the legislature ? Has this apportionment been made in accordance with the population of the town ? 4. Prepare an account of a town-meeting, discussing the follow- ing topics : {a) how composed ; (b) method of calling same ; (c) how conducted; (d) functions, including election of town officers, making of appropriations, enactment of by-laws. 6. Organize the class into a town-meeting, and discuss live local questions in accordance with articles in a warrant. 6. Describe the board of selectmen in your town, giving theii names, term, and functions. 7. Give the same facts concerning the other executive officers of your town. (^Questions 8-18 are for pupils living in the Central and Middle Western States') %. How many townships in your county ? Name them. TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT 97 9. If there is a township board, give the number of menabers, term, and functions. 10. If supervisory authority is vested in a single officer, give his title, term, and powers. 11. If there is a town-meeting, answer question 4, above. 12. Give the names, term, and functions of other township officers. 13. How are justices of the peace chosen ? What cases are tried before them ? (Questions I4, 15 are for pupils in the South and Far West) 14. What is the name of the subdivision of the county correspond- ing to the township in the Central States ? 15. Give the names, method of selection, and functions of the officers chosen within this area. (The remaining questions are for pupils in all sections) 16. Draw an outline map of your State, and mark with different colors the boundaries of the county in which you live, and also the boundaries of the townships (or towns) within your county. 17. Give the area and population of your county. 18. How many counties are there in your State ? Name the five counties having the largest population at the last census. Name the five counties having the largest area. 19. What is the county seat of your county? Is it centrally located ? Is it the largest city in the county ? 20. Visit your courthouse and other county buildings, note the uses to which they are put, and prepare a class report upon any facts thus learned. 21. What is the area of your town or township? Its population? 22. Which of the following functions pertaining to local needs ar*^ performed by your county ? (a) Levy and collection of local taxes; (b) administration or supervision of schools; (c) construction and maintenance of local public works *, (d) administration of charities and corrections ; (e) holding of local elections ; (/) enactment of local police regulations. 23. Are your roads laid out and maintained by the county or township ? What amount was expended for this purpose last year ? Are the roads well improved and cared for ? Should the State aid in roadmaking ? 24. Who is the sheriff of your county ? How chosen ? Term ? Authority ? 25. Other judicial officers of the county generally include a coio- 98 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP ner, prosecuting attorney, and clerk of the court. Give the names, method of selection, term, salary, and duties of each. 26. Give the method of choosing, term, and duties of each of the following officers (if found in your county) : clerk or auditor, treasurer, recorder or register of deeds, surveyor, assessor, 27. Are your county officers paid by fees or salaries ? By whom is the remuneration determined .'' Which are the most lucra tive offices ? CHAPTER X THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 103. Position of the City in History. In your later study you will learn how largely history has been in- fluenced by the srreat cities of the world — •^ " , Cities the Athens, Sparta, Rome, Naples, Paris, Lon- home of ud- don, and Berlin. You will find that such ancient cities as Athens and Rome were all-powerful, that they governed the surrounding territory as well as the area within the city walls, and were indeed the seats of mighty empires. You will learn that from early times, cities were the cradle of liberty ; that during the oppression and despotism of the Middle Ages, only the men living within the strong walls of the city were able to maintain their liberties, while the inhabitants of the surrounding country were the serfs of some feudal lord. You may read much of the history of the old world in its cities, with their temples, and statues, and cathedrals, and other monu- ments of a past civilization. 104. The Life and Individuality of the City. Our American cities are indeed less picturesque than the older cities of Europe, but they too are more miiuences than mere crowds of people who choose to JJi^^Jy^*"* live together. Like the great cities of Eu- !"• rope, they have a life and an individuality of their own. We who live in a city form a part of that life ; by our thoughts and deeds, we help make the city's 100 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP life what it is. Is a city orderly, well-governed, pro* gressive ? Are its streets clean and well-paved ? Are the city officials honest and efficient ? Are the people proud of their public buildings and their schools ? Are the homes of the city attractive, the yards well- kept, and adorned with trees and flowers ? Then you may be sure that the people of that city are law-abid- ing, considerate of the rights of others, intelligent and prosperous ; for the city's life reflects the lives of the people who dwell within its limits. So each of us has the power to help make his city the ideal place in which we should all like to live. 105. Remarkable Growth of American Cities. The rapid growth of cities in the United States is one of the most striking facts in our history. In 1790 only about three per cent of the population lived in cities ; to-day nearly one half of our people are city residents.^ In 1790 there were only six cities with over 10,000 population ; now there are 603 such cities. At the outbreak of the Ke volution, Philadelphia was the largest city, with about 30,000 people ; the last census gave greater New York a population of 4,766,483, and eighteen other cities a population of over 250,- 000. During the decade from 1900 to 1910, the ur- ban population of the United States increased more than three times as fast as the rural population.^ This remarkable increase in urban population has been due largely to the development of great manu- facturing industries, which employ thousands of work- 1 The last census shows an urban population of 42,623,383, or 46.3 per cent of the entire population. 2 Urban population increased 34.8 per cent ; rural population, 11.2 per cent. THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIIES IQl men. In addition to large numbers of native labor- ers, these industries attract to the United States a vast army of immigrants, many of whom causes oiur- obtain employment in the cities, and thus ^^n growth greatly increase the population of our industrial cen- ters. Then, too, great numbers of people are attracted from the country to the city on account of the larger business opportunities which city life seems to pro- mise ; while many others come because of the better educational and social advantages of city life. 1 06. Problems confronting our Cities. Many serious problems have resulted from this wonderful growth of our cities. First, there is the question of pro- , •*• . The educa- viding school accommodations for the rapidly tionai pro- increasing number of city children. In our large industrial cities, the problem of education is rendered more dif&cult by the arrival each year of thousands of illiterate immigrants, whose children must be transformed through the public school system into intelligent and loyal American citizens. Then, especially in larger cities, there is a serious housing problem. In great centers of population like New York and Philadelphia, a thousand peo- Tenements pie sometimes dwell in a single city block, ?JJi|J® and there are hundreds of families each liv- ^®^"^ ing in a single room. This congestion of population in the tenements invites disease, and is a constant menace to the health and morals of the entire city. Hence the question of regulating tenements, and in- deed the whole problem of protecting the city's health, becomes a matter of vital public concern. Another difficult municipal question is that of trans- JOS PJl^PARING FOR CITIZENSHIP portation. Our rapidly growing cities require enlarged Transport- transportation facilities, in order that the **^^ thousands of toilers may be able to reach their work with the least possible loss of time. Other difficulties arise from the rapid growth of cities to a size not anticipated when the city was Rebuilding founded. The lack of adequate provision for the city parks and public squares, the failure to pro- vide wide business streets and boulevards, and to reserve land for public buildings, often necessitates reconstructing certain portions of the city at an enor- mous public expense. 107. Our Most Serious Municipal Problem. The solution of these, and many other municipal problems, is complicated by the fact that city residents IndlHerence ^ • i • i 1 of citizens are not acquainted with one another, as in city gov- the country. Even candidates for the ward "^*^ offices are often unknown to the great ma- jority of voters within the ward ; and too often voters blindly cast a partisan ballot, regardless of the merits of the candidates. So numerous are the officials, and so complicated the question of responsibility for re- sults, that voters cannot readily detect extravagance and mismanagement of the city's business. Hence, although our municipal governments spend more money in proportion to population than either the State or national governments, city residents often become indifferent concerning the management of public affairs. Frequently they permit professional politicians to run the government of the city to please themselves. If this management becomes very in- efficient and corrupt, the voters may arouse themselves Courtesy, S. H. Allen, Supervisor of Parks, Enid, Okla. "BEFORE" AND "AFTER" THE PARK WAS BUILT Showing how a useless piece of woodland was made into a most attractive spot. THE CITY HALL AND COOK COUNTY COURT HOUSE AT CHICAGO THE CITY HALL AT PORTLAND, MAINE THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 103 for the time being, and through a temporary "reform movement " wrest control of the city from the hands of the poHticians. Then the voters usually go to sleep again, and the former managers of the city's affairs quietly resume control. These are some of the reasons why the question of city government is to-day the most difficult, as well as the most important, of all our government pro- blems. 1 08. Incorporation and Charters. Like counties and townships, cities receive their right of self-govern- ment from the State. This is grranted in the n f, , ir>» I'j'i Cities con- lorm 01 a charter, denning the city s rights troiied Dy and powers. On receiving its charter, the city is said to be incorporated ; that is, it has become a municipal corporation. Frequently the State legislature passes new laws changing the terms of this charter, often without reo^ard to the wishes of the people of the city. . . ft r r J State Inter- This interference on the part of the State ferencein legislature tends to destroy local self-govern- ment, and is one of the chief obstacles to municipal progress. Hence a majority of the State constitutions now prohibit the legislature from passing laws which apply to a single city ; in other words, all laws con- cerning cities must be general, and apply to all cities in the State. Several States* have gone still farther in endeavor- ing to assure self-government to their cities. Homo rui* These commonwealths permit cities to frame *" ®^^®* ^ Including California, Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Oregon, Oklahoma, and Washington. 104 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP and amend their own charters, providing these are not inconsistent with the general laws of the State. 109. The Three Departments of City Government. Except in those cities that have adopted the commis- Legisiative, sion plan, the form of municipal government "Sdlciai is in general like that of the States and of inanches ^\^q nation. There is a legislative department, the city council ; an executive department, consisting of the mayor and the administrative officers; and a judicial department, comprising the municipal and police courts. no. The City Coimcil. Legislative authority is vested in a city council, generally a body of from five to thirty members. In three fourths of the cities, the council consists of a single chamber ; in others there is an upper and a lower branch, as in the State legislature. Members of the council are sometimes elected by the voters of the entire city, each voter casting his Election and ^^^l^t for all the members. More commonly term the city is divided into wards, each of which is represented by one or more councilmen ; so that the voter helps select only the representative from his own ward. The term of councilmen is short, gen- erally one or two years. Members are usually unpaid, or receive only a small salary. III. How the City Council transacts Business. Regular meetings of the council are held every week. The commit- Or once in two weeks, special meetings being tee system called as needed. Like Congress and the State legislatures, the city council is divided into committees for the consideration of business. For THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 105 example, there is a committee on streets and side- walks, one on sewers, a committee on markets, a finance committee, and so on. Measures introduced into the council are referred to the appropriate committee ; if the committee ap- proves the proposed ordinance, it makes a Passing favorable report to the council, whereupon o'*^""^*'®^ the measure is voted upon by that body. If approved by a majority of the council, the act is signed by the presiding officer ; and unless the mayor has the veto power, it thereupon becomes an ordinance or by-law, binding upon all persons within the city. Frequently the city charter gives the mayor power to disapprove any measure passed by the council. If the mayor disapproves or vetoes the act, it The mayor's does not become effective unless the council ^®*° again passes it, this time by a two-thirds or three- fourths vote of all members. 112. Financial Powers of the City Council. The most important powers of the council relate to the city's finances, and include the power to ^^ levy taxes, to make appropriations, and to appropria- borrow money by issuing bonds. iLstimates of the amount of money necessary to run the city's business are furnished to the council by the different city departments; and the council passes upon these estimates, determines the necessary appropriations, and fixes the tax rate accordingly. Hence the im- portance of choosing honest and competent men to serve in the city council ; for if unwise expenditures are voted, the tax payers of the city suffer a direct financial loss. 106 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP When large public works are to be built, as water* works or lighting plants, it is usually necessary Municipal ^^^ *^^ council to borrow money through bonds ^i^Q issue of bcTuds. Bouds are really the promissory notes of the city; they are generally issued in amounts of $500 or $1000 each, for a period of twenty, thirty, or forty years, at four to six per cent interest. Municipal bonds are sold to bankers or other persons who offer to pay the high- est premium for them; and the money received is used for the purpose named in the bond issue. On account of the large expenditures involved, many city charters require all proposed bond issues to be submitted to the voters for approval. 113. The Council's Power to grant Franchises. Another important power of council is that of grant- ing franchises. When a company wishes to chisesaro supply gas, electricity, or telephone service to the people of the city, or desires to con- struct and operate a street railway system, it applies to the city council for the privilege. If the council approves the request, it grants the company a fran- chise, which is in the nature of a contract between the city and the company. Generally one company is granted the exclusive right to furnish the particular service ; for it is not desirable to have different com- panies furnishing telephone service, or operating rival street railway systems.^ Hence the company ^ Street railway systems, telephone plants, and waterworks require a large outlay for construction and operation. Competition means building two plants where one would answer, and generally results in poor service at high rates. Sooner or later, the competing companies combine, and then the public has to pay the cost of the formet- wastef ul competition. THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES lOT which receives a franchise has a valuable mono- poly ; and in granting franchises, the council should insert provisions which will safesruard the ^ . . . ^ . . The puWic'sr rights of the public. This is done by limit- interest in ing the rates to be charged for the service, by reserving to the council the right to require addi- tional facilities, and sometimes by providing that the city may take over the plant upon payment of a fair valuation. In granting franchises, our councils have often been heedless of the interests of the city, and have failed to secure an adequate return for the popular privileges granted. In some cases, unscrupu- J.°^c^ge lous men have bribed council members in e^^^nts order to obtain valuable franchises on their own terms. To prevent this, many city charters now require that all franchises granted by the council shall be submitted to the voters for their approval. 114. Miscellaneous Powers of the Council. The re- maining powers of the city council are in general like those which the county board exercises for the county. These include the purchase of property for public uses, the construction of public buildings, the preserv- ation of order, the protection of the public health, the power to issue licenses, and the general control over the city's local affairs. 115. The City's Executive Department. The execu- tive branch of the city government comprises the mayor, aided by a number of administrative The mayor boards or chiefs ; and a large number of sub- ^^'^^l* ordinate officials. The mayor is elected by ^^^^^ popular vote for a term varying from one to five years, 108 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP two years being the common term. He receives a sal* ary which ranges from a few hundred dollars in the smaller municipalities to $15,000 in New York City. The authority of the mayor varies greatly in dif- ferent cities. Generally he has power to appoint the Themayor's heads of the administrative service, subject administta- *^ confirmation by the council. For the ra- tion moval of of&cers thus appointed, the consent of council is also necessary ; so that responsibility for the administration is divided between the mayor and the council. This divided authority makes it almost impossible to locate the responsibility for inefficient service. In other words, while the mayor is in theory responsible for the administration of the city's busi- ness, he cannot be held actually accountable, for many of the city officials he cannot possibly control. His powers are not equal to his responsibility. Eecent charters, especially in the larger cities, give the mayor power to appoint the heads of the admin- istrative departments without the approval of sponsible council; and also the rigrht to remove them mayor" ... . at his discretion. Under this plan, the mayor becomes the actual and responsible head of the city administration. In all cities, the mayor is the chief guardian of the Mayor's pcacc of the city, as the sheriff is for the feaureuie county, and has similar powers with regard peace ^q quelling riots and calling upon the gov- ernor for the State militia. In many cities, the mayor has the important power of vetoing or forbidding ordinances which have been passed by the city council (Sec. 111). THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES lOd In this way he exercises an important control over city legislation. ii6. Administrative Departments of the City. In order to carry on the large volume of business per- formed by the city government, administrative depart- ments are organized, under the control of boards or departments chiefs. In the larger cities, for example, there are departments of public works, of police, fire, health, law, elections, education, libraries, parks, finance, and charities. If the city's business is to be efficiently managed, it is necessary, (Ij that there shall be a single indi- vidual who can be held definitely accountable ^ Essentials for the work of all these departments ; (2) that of good the various departments work together in har- adminis- mony ; and (3) that the numerous subordin- ate employees be chosen on the basis of merit, rather than because of services rendered to some political party. 117. Selection of Administrative Boards and Offi- cers. The method of selecting the chief administrative officers and boards varies widely in different cities. Sometimes they are elected by the methods oi council ; or they may be appointed by the mayor, with or without confirmation by council ; and again, they are often elected by popular vote. Appoint- ment by the mayor, with confirmation by council, is the common method ; but the present tendency in the large cities is to give the mayor exclusive power to appoint and remove the principal administrative officers. In most cities, the treasurer, comptroller, and mem* 110 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP bers of the board of education are elected by pop- ular vote; and generally the police judge, boards and the city solicitor, and the tax assessor are officials 1 • ji • chosen m this way. The library and park departments of the city are sometimes under the control of boards, instead of ad- Libraryand uiinistrativc chiefs. Members of these boards park boards usually scrve without pay, the routine work of the department being performed by salaried officials. In some cities, the police, fire, and health depart- ments are managed by boards, which are generally appointed by the mayor ; but in many others, andheaitii each of these departments is under the con- departments . 1 n • • 1 • * X 1 1- trol or a commissioner, who is appointed by the mayor, or elected by popular vote. Sometimes these three departments are combined under the supervis- ion of a board of public safety, or a commissioner of public safety. The street and the building departments are also sometimes united under a board of public street and , . . t-, i • • building works, or a commissioner. £5y combining departments gg^^j.^^ departments under a single board or commissioner, it is easier to locate responsibility for their management. ii8. The Commission Plan of City Government. We have seen that the large number of city officials, and the distribution of authority among many vested ma administrative boards and officers, makes it small board ^'£^^^^1^ ^^ j^qI^j g^j^y q^q responsible for the management of the city's business. One of the most promising plans for correcting this condition is known THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 111 as " the commission system " of city government. Under the commission plan, the entire city administra* tion is entrusted to five commissioners, elected by the voters of the city. One of the commissioners has the title of mayor, and has general supervision over the entire administration. Each of the other four com- missioners has charge of one of the four city depart- ments : (1) the department of finance, (2) that of water- works and sewers, (3) police and fire protection, and (4) streets and public property. The five commis- sioners meet as a body to pass ordinances, to make important appointments, to vote appropriations, and to award contracts. The commission plan eliminates the city council, and makes the government of the city more like that of a business corporation, which entrusts popularity large powers to a small board of directors. miMJo^"^' Thus it has the great merit of definitely p^"^ locating responsibility for the city's administration. Over five hundred cities have now adopted some form of commission government; and the system seems to be rapidly growing in public favor. A recent modification of the commission form of government is known as the "city-manager" plan. This provides for a small elective commission, but the commission does not itself carry on manager" the work of government. For the general ^^"^ management of the city's affairs, the commission ap- points an expert administrator, or city manager. The city-manager plan aims to secure permanent, expert service for the city's administration, in the same way that a large corporation selects an expert and capable 112 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP manager for its affairs. Responsibility for the city's administration is centered chiefly in the manager, since the commission usually gives him large author- ity. If the city's affairs go wrong, the voters know whom to blame. Dayton is the only city with over 100,000 population that is governed by a city man- ager, but the plan has been adopted by more than one hundred smaller cities. 119. Civil Service Reform in Cities. City govern- ments have suffered greatly from the spoils system. The spoils Under this system, men are appointed to system office bccause of their services to a political party, or because they are friends of the successful candidates, rather than on account of their ability to perform the duties of the office. The great national parties wage vigorous political campaigns in the cities, and seek to elect their candidates on partisan issues which have no bearing upon local affairs. It is of no practical consequence to the residents of the city whether the street commissioner is a Democrat or a Republican ; the important consideration is his hon- esty and ability. But the national parties insist upon electing local candidates upon the basis of their Demo- cratic or Republican politics, so that they can use the city offices as rewards for faithful party workers. Now the work of paving and cleaning the streets, providing a water-supply, and constructing public City affairs buildings, is a business matter, and has no ^l^^^tl relation to a man's views on the tariff. The ness, not politics policeman, the fireman, the clerk in the water- works office, ought to be selected because of ability to do the work well; and they should not be turned THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 118 out of office except for incompetency. In other words, the subordinate city officials should be appointed and should hold their positions on the same basis as the employees of a private business concern. The man- ager of such a company does not inquire about the politics of his employees : he is interested only in the question of their honesty and efficiency. In order to eliminate from our municipal govern- ment the spoils system, with the inefficiency and cor- ruption which it involves, many cities have civiiserv- established a merit system for the selection ice reform of subordinate city employees. Under this plan of civil service reform, competitive examinations are held, and appointments are made on the basis of merit. More- over, employees thus appointed cannot be removed from office except for incompetency. This reform of our civil service is one of the most promising means of securing better city government; it makes appoint- ment to office, tenure, and promotion depend upon as- certained merit, rather than upon political inlluencer 120. City Elections. Another means of eliminating the evil of partisan politics in our city affairs is by separatinsT municipal from State and national /^ . ^ ^ 1.1 •. 1 Whysepa- elections. in many commonwealths, city elec- rate elec- tions are held in the spring, or in the odd- numbered years, so that municipal questions may be considered on their merits, apart from the issues of State and national politics. In separate municipal elections, voters are less likely to support the entire ticket of their party; and they are more inclined to exercise discrimination in favor of the best men. Nomination of candidates by petition has also 114 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP proven an effective means of securing good candi- Nomination dates, and is especially valuable as a check toy petition ^pQ^ the nominations made by political par- ties (Sec. 37). 121. Summary of Municipal Functions. In other chapters we have studied the many important func- tions performed by city governments. These are as follows : — (1) The city must protect the lives and property of its citizens ; this it does by means of its police and fire departments (Sees. 42-46). (2) It safeguards the health of city residents through its health department (Sees. 47-48). (3) The city government provides public parks, playgrounds, and boulevards for the enjoyment and recreation of the people (Sec. 52). (4) The city maintains schools and libraries for the great purpose of free public education (Sees. 64-66). (5) The city government has charge of the streets. This duty includes the paving and lighting of streets, the construction of sewers, street cleaning, and the removal of waste (Sees. 50-51). (6) The city provides a water-supply, or author- izes some company to perform this important service (Sec. 50). (7) The city should regulate transportation on street railways in such a way that the people will secure low fares and good service (Sec. 113). (8) The city government, aided by private charita- ble organizations, must care for the poor, always more numerous in cities than in the country (Chap. vii). (9) Through public taxation, the city council ^.ust THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES 115 obtain the funds necessary for all these purposes, and expend them wisely and economically (Chap. xii). In order that all of these great public services may be properly carried on, the city needs the intelligent cooperation of every citizen. By watchful care of his conduct, by constant regard for the rights of his neighbors, and by taking an intelligent interest in municipal affairs, every boy and girl can help the city in its great work. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What is the area of your city ? Its population ? 2. Was your charter granted to the city by the State legislature ? How may it be amended ? 3. Into how many wards is your city divided ? In which on« do you live ? 4. Draw an outline map of your city, marking the boundaries of the wards. 6. Does your council consist of one chamber or of two ? How many members are there in the council? 6. Are the members elected from wards or from the entire city ? Which is the better method ? 7. Give the qualifications, term, and salary of members of the council. 8. Are members nominated by party conventions, direct pri- maries, or by petition (nomination papers) ? Which method is preferable ? 9. How many committees in your city council? How chosen? Name the important ones. 10. When does your council meet? Where? Visit a council meeting and write an account of it. 11. State the following facts concerning your mayor : how elected, term, qualifications, salary, how removed. 12. What administrative officers does the mayor appoint? Can he remove these officers? Is the consent of the council neces- sary in either case? 13. How many persons are employed by your city government? What departments employ the largest number of persons ? 116 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 14. Is there a civil service commission in your city ? If so, de. scribe its duties. 15. Has your mayor the veto power ? If so, what vote is neces- sary to pass an ordinance over his veto ? 16. In case of serious disorder or riot in your city, what would be the duty of the mayor ? 17. Make a list of the other important executive officers in your city. State how they are chosen and describe their duties. Do these officers belong to the same political party as the mayor ? Are they subject to his control ? 18. Name the courts in your city. How are the judges chosen? Is there a juvenile court ? If so, describe its work. 19. What is your city tax rate ? What was the total amount of taxes collected for city purposes. last year? 20. What is the total debt of your city ? How is this debt to be paid ? In what way was the money borrowed? !^1. Describe the organization of the fire department in your city. How many firemen are employed? What was the cost of police and fire protection last year ? 22. Are the police and fire departments under civil service rules ? Give arguments in favor of this plan. 23. How many members on your board of education ? Are they chosen from wards, districts, or at large ? Term of members ? What are the duties of the board of education ? 24. What officials manage the park system of your city ? Locate the principal narks. Are they placed so as to be easily acces- sible to the public ? 25. Does your city maintain public playgrounds for children ? Does it provide municipal baths? 26. Is the cost of street paving paid out of the general fund, as- sessed upon property owners, or is a combination of the two methods employed ? 27. Are the streets well-paved ? What materials are chiefly em- ployed? Are the streets kept clean and in good repair? What was the cost of maintenance last year ? 28. Is your water-supply under municipal or private control ? If the former, name the authority in charge. How is the cost met? 29. Are your streets lighted by gas or by electricity ? Is the plant under private or public control ? 30. Give arguments for and against municipal ownership of waterworks and lighting-plants. 31. What body has the power to grant franchises? Why are franchises so important to the people of a city? CHAPTER XI THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 122. Origin of the State Governments. In your study of American history, you have learned that all of the original thirteen States except IiSta1)lls]i> Georgia were established as colonies dur- mentoi ing the seventeenth century. These colonies were usually founded by companies or individuals who had received a charter from the British crown, authorizing them to settle certain parts of America. The early scattered settlements grew rapidly, and developed into the thirteen sturdy colonies which from the outset were exceedingly jealous of their rights and privileges. In each of these colonies, there was a governor, generally appointed by the king, or by the proprietor ; ^ a legislature, the lower house of which was elected by the people ; and a system of courts for the trial of civil and criminal cases. You all know the story of the brave struggle of the people of these thirteen colonies against the gov- ernment of Great Britain ; of their resistance colonies to taxation without representation ; of the JependeS" final appeal to arms, and the glorious con- ^^^^^ elusion of the seven long years of warfare. So the close of the Revolution found the thirteen colonies transformed into thirteen independent States, which ^ In Connecticut and Rhode Island, the people elected the governor, and also both branches of the legislature. 118 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP soon afterwards united to form a nation under the federal constitution. To this union of States new com- monwealths were admitted one by one, as the pioneers moved westward to settle the unbroken wilderness. As each State was admitted, a new star was added to the blue field of the flag, until to-day we have forty-eight States, each a partner in the great Union of which we are justly proud. 123. The Formation of State Constitutions. You have learned that many of the original thirteen col- « .... .. onies were e^ranted charters by the British Modification mi i in oi colonial crowu. The charter defined the territorial limits of the colony, and outlined the general form of the government, consisting of legislative, exe- cutive, and j udicial departments. When independence was declared in 1776, the colonies made over their charters into State constitutions, or framed new con- stitutions patterned after the colonial charters. These early constitutions have now been replaced with more recent ones ; but at least three of the New England States continued under their original constitutions for many years. When the people of a State desire to adopt a new constitution, the initiative is usually taken by the State legislature, which passes a resolution tionaicon- calling for a Constitutional Convention.^ This resolution is submitted to popular vote at the next election; if the voters approve the proposal, arrangements are made for the election of delegates. The legislature designates the time and place for the meeting of the convention; and the State is divided ^ A two-thirds vote of the members of each branch of the legisla- jture is generally necessary to pass this resolution. THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 119 into districts, in each of which the voters elect one or more delegates to represent them. After due dis- cussion and deliberation, the convention frames a new constitution, which is then submitted to the voters o£ the State for approval or rejection. When territories apply for admission to the Union, a constitution is prepared in the manner described above, by a convention chosen for the pur- Admission pose; but this constitution must be submit- o* territories ted to Congress for approval, as well as to the voters of the territory. Congress may then pass a resolu- tion admitting the territory to statehood. 124. Authority of State Constitutions. The consti- tution expresses the will of the people in a solemn and deliberate ag^reement; and it cannot be Supreme or changed in any way except by a direct vote fundamental of the people. Hence the constitution is the supreme or fundamental law of the State, the law of highest authority.^ All laws passed by the State legis- lature, all ordinances of city councils, and all actions of executive officials, must be in accordance with its terms; otherwise these laws or actions are null and void, and may be so declared by the courts. 125. Parts of the State Constitution. The State con- stitutions differ in detail, but follow the same general plan, and ordinarily include three main divis- r -r,. . 1 -n P • 1 • BiU Of rights ions. First, there is a bill or rights, setting forth certain fundamental principles of government, and enumerating important rights of the individual ^ That is, supreme as compared with laws passed by the State legis- lature, or actions of State executive officials. We shall see later that tiie national constitution is of still higher authority, and State consti- tutions must not conflict with its provisions. 120 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP with which government may not interfere. For ex- ample, the bill of rights usually guarantees freedom of speech and of the press, provides for a fair and impartial trial of persons accused of crime, prohibits any law interfering with religious freedom, and se- cures other important civil and political rights. The second division of the constitution establishes _ the sreneral framework of sfovernment, con- Pramework . . ° p i i • i • • , . ,. of govern- sisting 01 the legislative, executive, and judi- cial departments. It sets forth the powers of each of these departments, and the method of choos- ing government officers. The third part includes a large number of miscella- neous provisions, such as the articles upon suffrage, education, local government, corporations, provis- taxation, and public lands, together with the method of amending or revising the consti- tution. As a rule, a two-thirds vote of each branch of the legislature is necessary to propose a consti- tutional amendment. If ratified by a majority of those voting upon it at the following State election, the amendment becomes a part of the constitution. 126. The State Legislature. The lawmaking power of the State is vested in a legislature, which consists of two houses or branches. The upper house or Senate is the smaller body, generally about one third the size of the lower branch, called the house of representatives or assembly. The two houses have practically the same powers,^ and every bill must pass each house separately before it can be- ^ In most States, bills for raising revenue must originate in the lower house. ons Ions THE NEW YORK STATE CAPITOL AT ALBANY THE OHIO STATE CAPITOL AT COLUMBUS THE COLORADO STATE CAPITOL, DENVER WTi^iiW n 1 *'*'" JiB i jM THE MASSACHUSETTS STATE HOUSE, BOSTON THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 121 come a law. The idea in having two branches is that each may act as a check upon the other, so as to pre- vent hasty or ill-considered legislation. We shall find many other examples in our government of this sys- tem of " checks and balances," whereby one branch of the government has powers which operate as a check upon some other.^ Members of the legislature are always chosen by popular vote from small districts into which the State is divided for thispurpose.^ Thus each voter Election oi casts his ballot only for the members from ^e"^^®" his own district. The constitution of each State fixes the qualifications necessary to entitle one to vote for members of the legislature, and for other officers of government. Male citizens who have reached the age of twenty-one years, and who have lived in the State for at least a year, are generally entitled to vote. As a rule, a person qualified to vote is eligible to mem- bership in the legislature. In two thirds of the States, senators are elected for four years, while the common term for repre- , . ■*■ Tenn and sentatives is two years. Members of each compensa- branch receive the same compensation, either a small annual salary, or a fixed sum for each day the legislature is in session. In most States, regular sessions of the legislature ^ For example, the power of the governor to veto bills is a check upon the legislature. Again, the power of the courts to declare laws unconstitutional, and to pass upon the constitutionality of executive acts, serves as a check upon the legislative and executive departments. 2 Every ten years, after the census is taken, the State legislature draws new district lines. The State is divided into senatorial districts, as nearly equal in population as possible; and into a larger number of representative districts. 122 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP are held once in two years ; but special sessions may be called by the governor in case of emergency. In order to prevent too much lawmakinef. Sessions ■*■ . , . . the length of the session 2s often limited to forty, sixty, or ninety days. The legislature meets in the capitol or Statehouse, each branch having its separate chamber. The lieutenant-governor ordinarily presides over the senate, while the house of repre- sentatives elects its own presiding officer, called the speaker. 127. The Process of making Laws. The process of legislation is similar to that in the city council, and Committee ^s we shall scc later, resembles that in Con- system gress. There is a group of standing com- mittees in each house, appointed by the presiding officer, or elected by the members. The most important committees are those on taxation and appropriations, education, banking, roads, elections, corporations, manufactures, and agriculture. A bill may be introduced by any member ; its title is read, and it is referred to the standing committee appointed to consider legislation on this sub- mentoi ject. If unfavorable to the measure, the com- mittee ordinarily does not report upon it at all ; in other words, the bill is " killed in committee." If the committee approves the bill, it reports the measure back to the house, with the recommendation that it be passed. The bill then receives a second and a third reading, is discussed and perhaps amended. Upon being put to vote, a roll-call is usually taken ; and in order to pass, the bill must receive the votes of a majority of the members voting. THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 123 If passed, the bill is signed by the presiding officer, and sent to the other house. Here the same process is repeated ; and if the other branch passes the meas- ure, it is sent to the governor for his consideration. If the other house makes any changes or alterations in the bill, it must be sent back to the house where it originated ; and that body must agree to the change before the bill can be submitted to the governor. The governor generally has a period of ten days to decide whether he will sign the bill.^ His signature makes the bill a law. If he does not approve Thegov- the measure, he may veto it ; that is, send it ©'nor'sveto back to the house in which it originated, with his reasons for vetoing it.^ The bill cannot then become a law unless it is reconsidered in each house, and passed " over the veto " by a majority of two thirds or three fourths of the members. 128. Powers of the State Legislature. The lawmak- ing power of the State legislature embraces a large number of subjects. It includes such import- Manypow- ant matters as the making and enforcement ®" i^^ciuded of contracts, the transfer of property, marriage and divorce, the punishment of crimes, the prevention of disease, the general control of education, the in- corporation and government of cities, taxation and appropriations for State purposes. In fact, the legis- lature may pass laws upon any subject not prohib- ited by the State or the national constitution. In view of these broad powers, we see how important it ^- If he does not sign or return it within this period, it becomes a law without his signature. 2 North Carolina is the only State where the governor does not have the veto power. 124 PKEPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP IS to choose as members of the legislature men of honesty and ability, who will legislate with a single purpose in mind — the best interests of the State. As a check upon the powers of the legislature, and in order to secure laws desired by the people, sev Direct 6^^1 constitutions authorize direct legislation legislation j^y ^y^^ votcrs themselvcs, through the initia- tive and referendum (Sec. 30). 129. State Executive — The Governor. The chiet executive officer of the State is the governor, who Election is elected by the voters, generally for a and term ^q^,^ ^f ^^^ qj, f^^. years.^ In most States, the election of the governor and other State officials is held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Vigorous campaigns are waged by the political parties in the State elections, especially in close States; so that this election is second in import* ance only to the presidential election. The State constitution prescribes the qualifications for governor. As a rule, he must be at least twenty- five years of age ; he must have been a citizen tionsand of the United States for five years, and a resident of the State for the same period. The average salary of the governor is about five thousand dollars a year. 130. The Governor's Powers. The principal duty of the governor is to see that the laws of the State Executes ^^^ faithfully executed. But as we have seen, state laws ^\^q actual execution of State laws is entrusted largely to local officials, over whom the governor has ^ In Massachusetts and Rhode Island the term is one year; twenty- two other States have a term of four years, the remainder a two-year term. THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 125 little or no control ; hence it is often impossible to hold him responsible for the execution of the laws. Like the mayor in many cities, his actual powers are not equal to his responsibilities. One writer has compared the governor to a passenger on board a ship navigated by a crew which he does not select, and over which he has few powers of command. The governor has the power to appoint many minor State officials, usually subject to confirmation by the Senate; and some of these he may also re- Appoint- move. A few commonwealths ^ have adopted "^®^** the merit system for the appointment of minor State officials ; but in most States, the spoils system prevails. In other words, the successful political party distrib- utes the public offices among faithful party workers (Sec. 119). The governor is commander-in-chief of the State militia, and may call them out to protect the Military State, or any local community, from disorder, p°^®'* riots, or insurrection. In extreme cases he may ask the President of the United States for federal troops (Sec. 43). The most important powers of the governor are those relating to lawmaking. At the beginning of each session of the legislature, he sends to Legisiauva that body a message, recommending the '°^®" changes in legislation which he thinks should be made. If the governor is a man of considerable tact and ability, he may influence legislation to a large degree. He has power to summon the legislature to meet in special session in case of emergency; and he * New York, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin. 126 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP may adjourn it if the two houses are unable to agree upon a time for adjournment. Most important of all, he may veto any bill passed by the legislature ; and only in rare cases will it be possible to secure the large majority necessary to pass a measure over his veto. The governor usually has power to pardon crimi nals who have been convicted in the courts^ although Power over ^^ some States this action can be taken only pardons ^^ recommendation of a board of pardons, or of the executive council. In rare instances, new evi- dence is discovered after the trial, which shows that the convicted man is in fact innocent. More often the pardoning power is used in cases where the original penalty seems to have been unduly severe ; or where the prisoner appears to have fully expiated his offense, and seems deserving of his freedom. 131. Other Important Executive Officers. Besides the governor, six other important executive officers are usually elected by the voters of the State. Being chosen in this way, they are responsible to the people, rather than to the governor; so that he can exercise little control over them. The lieutenant-governor ordinarily presides over the senate, and succeeds the governor in case of the latter's death, resisrnation, or disability. The (Alef state , . . officials, and Secretary of State is the chief clerical officer of the State government. He keeps the offi^ cial records, publishes the laws of the commonwealth^ and takes charge of election returns. The auditor or comptroller supervises the financial business of the State. He issues warrants to the treasurer, instructing him what money is to be paid by the latter from State THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 127 jfunds. The attorney-general is the legal adviser of the governor and other executive officers, and, aided by district attorneys, represents the commonwealth in criminal and civil cases in which the State is a party. The superintendent of public instruction, also called the commissioner of schools, supervises the educa- tional interests of the commonwealth (Sec. 67). 132. Appointive Officers and Commissions. Besides these principal executive officers, there are many less important officials, generally appointed by Administra- the governor with the consent of the senate. *^^® o«iciaia These include the commissioner of agriculture, the food and dairy commissioner, the commissioner of banking, insurance commissioner, superintendent of public printing, State librarian, factory inspector, fire marshal, and many others. A large part of the business of the State is carried on by boards or commissions, the members of which are usually appointed by the governor. For example, there are boards of agriculture, of oroommis- public health, of charities and corrections, railway commissions, public utilities commissions, and boards of trustees for the numerous State institutions (State university, and asylums for the blind, the deaf, and the insane). These boards act under the authority conferred by the legislature, and the governor exercises little con- trol over them. Some of them have important powers. For example, the State railway commission is some- times authorized to regulate the charges of railways for the transportation of passengers and freight. The public utilities commission regulates the charges made 128 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP by corporations which furnish such public utilities as telephone service, gas, and electric lighting. 133. The Judicial System. Courts are tribunals for the administration of justice ; they decide upon the Courts exist meaning of the law, and its application to in- incuviduai dividual cases. Our courts are the great bul- rights wark for the protection of individual rights ; for they afford redress to persons who have been in- jured by the unlawful acts of others. If the wrongful act is one that affects the general public as well as the person directly injured, it is considered a public wrong or crime. For example, murder, burglary, and arson are crimes, and will be redressed by government in a criminal proceeding. On the other hand, if the wrong is one which chiefly concerns the individual, and af- fects the public only indirectly, the injured party must himself seek redress through a civil suit. An example of such a private wrong would be the failure of one person to carry out a contract which he had agreed with another to perform. 134. Procedure in Civil Cases. The person who seeks redress for a private wrong by bringing suit against another is called the plaintiff; the suits are party asrainst whom the suit is brought is the defendant. Through his attorney, the plain- tiff files in the court a statement of the grounds of his suit, this being known as his declaration, petition, or complaint. The defendant then files his reply or answer, setting forth any defense which he has against the charges made by the plaintiff. The suit will then be tried by the judge ; or in some cases, by the judge and jury. Evidence is presented first by the plaintiff, THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 129 then by the defendant. Witnesses are called by each side, who give their sworn testimony, and are cross- examined by the opposing attorney. The attorneys then argue the case. If it is being tried before a jury, the judge instructs the members on the points of law involved ; for the jury decides only questions of fact. The jury then retires for deliberation, and endeavors to arrive at a verdict; that is, to decide whether the plaintiff has proved the claims made in his petition. If the verdict is in favor of the plaintiff, the judge issues an order or judgment, directing the defendant to pay the damages awarded by the jury. If the money is not paid, the sheriff will take possession of the. defendant's property, and sell enough of it to satisfy the judgment of the court. 135. Procedure in Criminal Cases. If n crime has been committed, government itself acts as tlie plaintiff. The proceeding commences with the arrest warrant of the accused person upon a warrant issued "^'i arrest by the proper magistrate.^ In case of petty offenses or misdemeanors, the accused will be at 0)ice tried in the police or justices' court. If found guilty, judg- ment will be rendered and a penalty imposed; if in- nocent, the prisoner will be immediately discharged. But if the offense is a felony, that is, one punishable by death or imprisonment in the State penitentiary, the accused ordinarily cannot be put on trial unless the grand jury finds sufficient evi- dence against him to warrant this action. The grand 1 An arrest may be made without warrant (1) by a police officer on suspicion ; or (2) by an officer or private individual, if a crime is being committed in bis presence. ISO PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP jury is a body of from twelve to twenty-three men, chosen from the people of the county for the purpose of investigating serious offenses which have been com- mitted. If a majority of the grand jury believes that the accused should be held for trial, it returns an indictment, or iormal accusation against him. Pending the action of the grand jury, and until his trial begins, the suspected person is held in jail, unless he can fur- nish bail or security that he will appear for trial. The trial is begun by reading in court the charge or indictment, whereupon the prisoner is asked to plead guilty or not guilty. Twelve men sat- isfactory to both sides are selected as a jury, and are sworn to try impartially the case between the government as a prosecutor and the defendant. From this point on, the procedure resembles that in civil cases, and consists of the introduction of evidence, the arguments of counsel, the instruction of the judge, the deliberation and verdict of the jury, and the judgment of the court. The verdict of the jury must be unanimous ; and if they are unable to agree, a new trial will be ordered. If the verdict is "not guilty," the prisoner is at once discharged, and cannot be again tried for the same offense. If found guilty, the defendant's attorney may take the case to a higher court, where the points of law involved in the case will be reviewed. The State constitutions contain numerous provis- ions which safeguard the rights of a person accused of crime. He is entitled to reasonable bail,^ to a ^ Except for capital offenses where gailt is evideut, or the presump' tion great. THE STATE GOVERNMENTS ISl speedy public trial before an impartial jury, and to counsel for his defense. He may testify in his own behalf, but cannot be compelled to take the ^^^^^^^^ stand unless he chooses to do so ; the court tionai will compel the attendance of witnesses whose lor accused testimony he desires; persons who testify ^"^*^ against him must do so in his presence. He is pre- sumed to be innocent until he is proven guilty ; and his guilt must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, otherwise the jury will be instructed to render a ver- dict of acquittal. 136. The System of State Courts. Most civil and criminal cases arising in the United States are tried in the State courts, which usually comprise Three three grades : (1) inferior courts, or those of *^**'* lowest grades ; (2) intermediate courts, or those with general power to try most cases ; and (3) supreme courts, or those of last resort. The courts of lowest grade include those presided over by justices of the peace in rural districts, and the police and other municipal courts in the inferior cities. These courts are established in every °°"^ local community, each township having its justice of the peace, and each city its municipal and police courts. In them are tried petty offenses against law and order, and disputes over property or contracts which involve only a small amount of money. The intermediate or county courts are the ordinary tribunals for the trial of civil and criminal cases. Parties who are not satisfied with the judg- intermedi- ment of the inferior courts usually may carry **® courts their cases up to the county court for decision by a 1S2 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP higher authority. The county courts also try for the first time the great number of cases which are too im- portant to be heard by inferior courts. The third and highest State court is the supreme court, which meets at the State capital. It consists o!: Thesu- from three to nine judges, whereas one judge preme court presides over the lower courts. Cases of suffi- cient importance may be carried up to the supreme court for final decision ; ^ and some very important cases may be tried there in the first instance, without being taken through the lower courts. The supreme court has the important power of de- ciding whether a law passed by the legislature is in accordance with the State constitution. If it tionauty of finds that this is not the case, it declares the ^* law unconstitutional, or of no effect ; for the constitution is the supreme law of the State, and what- ever conflicts with it is null and void. In addition to the three grades of courts described, Special many States have a special court in each ®°^* county, called the probate or surrogate's court. This tribunal has jurisdiction over the prob- ate of wills, the appointment of administrators and guardians, and the care of the estates o± wards. 137. Judges of State Courts. The judges of the lower courts are elected by the voters in each local community, for a term varying: from two to Selection jo term, and four ycars. Supreme court justices are gen- erally elected by the voters of the entire State, and serve for a term which averages about 1 In exceptional cases (where a national law, treaty, or the national eonstitiition is involved), the decisions of the State supreme court may be reviewed by the Supreme Court of the United States. THE STATE GOVERNMENTS 1311 eight years. ^ Salaries are small in comparison with the income of prominent attorneys, so that the honor of the ofBce is chiefly relied on to secure judges of ability. No office in our government is of greater importance than the judiciary. If judges are ignorant or corrupt, our whole plan of government fails ; for the courts have final decision upon the meaning of judicial of the laws, and upon all questions of indi- vidual rights. If men feel that they cannot obtain justice in the courts, disorder and revolution are almost certain to follow. It is customary to elect judges on party tickets, as the other State officers are chosen. This practice is unfortunate, for the judge should not owe his nomina- tion or election to any political party. We have had instances in our history where a corrupt party machine has controlled judges, and compelled them to do its bidding. This would not have occurred had the judges owed their election to the people, rather than to a party faction. But as a rule, our judges have refused to be controlled by parties or individuals. Generally they have set a high standard of that impartial, fearless, and upright conduct which must characterize the judiciary, unless our government is to be a failure. * In Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, snprem* court justices are appointed for life ; elsewhere the term ranges from two years in Vermont to twenty-one years in Pennsylvania. 1S4 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. When, by whom, and under what circumstances was the con- stitution of your State made ? 2. Was it ratified by popular vote? Why should the people vote upon this question? 3. How many constitutions has your State had in all ? Has any proposed constitution ever been rejected by the voters ? 4. How many amendments have been added to your State con- stitution ? 6. Describe in detail the method by which your State constitu- tion may be amended, giving (a) the method of proposing amendments, and (b) the method of ratification. 6. What is the official name of your State leg^islature ? Of each house? How many members in each house? What are the qualifications for membership ? 7. For what term are members of your legislature chosen ? What salary do they receive ? Is the senate a continuoui body? 8. Does your district frequently return the same members to the legislature, or is rotation in office customary? Who are the present members from your district? To which political party do they belong ? Which party has a majority in your legis- lature ? 9. How often does your legislature meet ? Is the length of tha session limited by the constitution ? 10. How many committees in each branch of your legislature ? Name the most important ones. 11. Organize your class into a house of the State legislature, and draw up and pass a bill in due form. (If possible obtain the assistance of your local representative.) 12. Make a list of the chief subjects with which your State legis- lature may deal. Compare this with the list of subjects over which a city council or town-meeting has authority. 13. Give the term, qualifications, and salary of the governor of your State. 14. Is the governor of your State eligible for a succeeding term ? If so, is reelection customary? 15. Are candidates for governor in your State nominated at primaries or by conventions ? When does the State election occur ? 16. What officers may your governor appoint ? Is the consent of the Senate necessary? THE STATE GOVERNMENTS IM 17. Examine the provisions of your State constitution concerning the governor's legislative powers, including his power (a) to convene the legislature in extra session, and to adjourn it under certain conditions ; {b) to recommend legislation ; (c) to veto legislative acts. 18. How may the governor's veto be overcome in your State ? 19. Has the governor of your State had occasion to call out the militia within recent years ? If so, under what circumstances ? 20. Who would succeed the governor in the event of a vacancy in this office ? 21. In most commonwealths the seven principal executive offi- cers are the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of State, treasurer, auditor or comptroller, attorney-general, and super- intendent of education. Prepare an outline giving the follow- ing facts concerning each of these officers in your State : how chosen, term, qualifications, salary, duties, how removed. 22. Name the several grades of courts in your State, beginning with the lowest. 23. Do you favor appointment or election of judges ? Short or long terms ? Give reasons. 24. Describe the kind of man who you think would make a good judge. 25. What are the advantages and defects of trial by jury ? 26. In your community what court has jurisdiction over misde* meanors ? Over felonies ? 27. Describe the first steps in a criminal action under the laws of your commonwealth ? 28. How is the grand jury chosen ? Of how many men does it consist ? What does it do ? 29. Explain the importance of jury trial to one accused of crime. dO. Giye arguments for and against capital punishment. CHAPTER XII HOW THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT ARE MET 138. How Government pays its Bills. In previous ehapters we have seen the important services which ooveniment government performs to aid the individual *o"thro*ugi*^"d to promote the public welfare. These uxes services involve vast expenditures, and the cost must come, directly or indirectly, from the pockets of the citizens. It comes from the wages of the poorest laborer, as well as from the income of the capitalist ; from the earnings of the professional and business man, from the salaries of those who are em- ployed, from the income of all the people. It is paid by means of taxes, which may be defined as compul- sory contributions of wealth levied upon individuals in order to meet the expenses of government. 139. Need of Honesty and Economy in Government Expenditures. Everyone is eager to have his share of the services which government provides — the public oostoidis- schools, the libraries and parks, the streets Sorafby ^^^^ highways, the protection of the police taxpayers ^j^^j firemen; but as a rule, men are not so easier to contribute their share toward the cost of providing these services. People usually grumble a good deal about taxes, and pay them grudgingly; but they have no real cause for complaint provided government performs it work with economy and ef- ficiency. But if public money is wasted, the taxpayers EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 18T have a right to object. If dishonest contractors do poor work for the city, and incompetent city of&cials accept and pay for this work, the entire community is being cheated. Hence all government expenditures should be carefully scrutinized; public contracts should be let to the lowest bidder who will do the work well; honest and competent men should be chosen for the management of the city's business, so that it may be carried on with the same efiiciency that successful private enterprises are managed. If this is not done, the taxpayers have only themselves to blame; for ours is a representative government, and the people are responsible for the character of the men who hold public office. 140. Taxes must be authorized by the People. Our forefathers waged a successful revolution to estab- lish the principle that taxation and repre- cause oit]» sentation must go hand in hand ; for other- ^^oiuSn wise taxation is oppression. The taxes which Great Britain levied on her colonies in America were not heavy or burdensome ; but the colonists consid- ered them unjust because they were not represented in the British parliament. The principle that taxes shall be levied only with the consent of the people, given through their representatives, is older than the American Revolution. It dates back to Runny mede, where the victorious barons compelled King John td recognize, as a fundamental principle of English lib- erty, that taxes may be levied only with the consent of Parliament.^ ' Magna Charta, or The Great Charter, signed by King John m L215, was the first great Bill of Rights in English history. 138 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP Upon this principle of taxation by the people oui government was founded. Our national constitution authorizes Congress to levy taxes, but pro- andrepre- vides that all biUs for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives, which is chosen directly by the people. The same principle prevails in our State and local governments. State taxes are levied by the State legislature, local taxes by city councils and county commissioners, all elected directly by the people. Thus in our national, State, and local governments, the power to tax is lodged with the representatives of the people; in other words, the people tax themselves. 141. Evasion of Taxes. Hence a man who tries to evade his taxes is not cheating that intangible thing which we call government ; he is really cheat- oheatthe ing his neighbors and fellow citizens. He is accepting the benefits of community life while seeking to avoid its burdens. If a number of boys should club together to build a tennis court, and then, after it is built, two or three of them should refuse to contribute their share, you would at once say that these boys ought not to play on the tennis court. In the same position is the man who accepts the benefits of government, and then tries to evade his share of the cost. 142. Taxes proportioned to Abilityto pay them. How much taxes oue^ht each individual to pay ? are taxed This depends upon how much wealth a man to their ^ has, for you will readily agree that a man property ^j^ose iucomc is $1000 a year ought not to pay as large a tax as one whose income is $10,000, EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 1S9 In every case, taxes should be levied in proportion to the individual's ability to pay them ; and the measure of this ability is the amount of property that he owns. 143. Purposes for which Governments eicpend Money. The total amount raised by taxation for our national, State, and local governments is over two billion dollars each year. Of this im- state, and mense sum, the national government expends about thirty-five per cent ; the State governments, ten per cent ; while local expenditures, or those of cities, counties, and townships, comprise about fifty-five per cent of the total. Of the federal expenditures, about seventy per cent are for military purposes; that is, they are due to the cost of the army, navy, and pensions. Pen- National ex- sions are classed as military expenditures be- p6" • i oinomina- the party s attitude on questions or the day. After the adoption of the platform, the next step is the selection of candidates. Usually eight or ten names are placed before the contention, each name being received with prolonged cheering on the part of the delegates and spectators. The roll of the States is then called alphabetically, and the chairman of each State delegation in turn announces the vote of his State. Sometimes a candidate is nominated by accla- mation, but as a rule many ballots are necessary to decide the contest. If none of the leading candidates is successful on the first few ballots, a "dark horse" or comparatively obscure man may finally be named as a compromise candidate. After the pandemonium which follows the nomina- tion has subsided, — generally after a recess, — the convention proceeds in the same manner to avice-Pre- nominate a candidate for the vice-presi- dency. This nomination seldom receives the careful consideration which it deserves. It is often given to a man in the hope that he may be able to THE PRESIDENT AND mS CABINET 179 carry a doubtful State, or to placate a faction in the party which has been opposed to the presidential nominee. 194. The Presidential Campaign. After each party has nominated its candidates for President and Vice-President, popular interest centers in the cam- paign waged from the time the convention adjourns until the election in November. Campaign funds which run into the millions are raised, political meet- ings are held in every State and city, stump speakers address the voters, the newspapers take sides and often become bitterly partisan, an immense number of circulars, campaign " text-books," and other adver- tisements are sent out from the national headquarters, political clubs are organized, and every effort is made by each party to influence the voters in favor of its candidates. All of this work is carried on by the national party committee chosen by the nominating convention to manage the political campaign. 195. Election of a President. Following the nomi- nating convention and the campaign, there are three steps in the election of a President. The first presidential takes place on the Tuesday following the «^®''^°" first Monday in November. On this day the voters cast their ballots for presidential electors, each State having as many electors as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. In each State, the official ballot contains two or more lists of presidential electors, generally printed beneath the party name and emblem. If the Republican electors in Pennsylvania, for example, receive a plurality of the popular vote in that State, it is understood that they will cast the thirty-eight 180 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP electoral votes of Pennsylvania for the Republican can- didates for President and Vice-President. If Demo- cratic electors are chosen in Texas, they will of course cast the twenty electoral votes of that State for the Democratic candidates. 196. Second Step in electing a President. Since the electors are nominated for the express purpose of Meeting of voting for the party's candidates, the presi- the elector! (Jential election is really decided when the electors are chosen. But the framers of the constitu- tion expected that the electors would deliberate, and select from the principal candidates for the presidency and the vice-presidency, the men best qualified for the office. They could not foresee the rise of political parties, or anticipate that the party system would prevent the electors from using any discretion in casting their votes. Accordingly, the electors meet and cast their votes as prescribed by the constitution, even though their voting is a mere form. In each State, the successful electors meet at the State capital about two months after the presidential election, and cast the vote of their State for President and for Vice-President. Or- dinarily this meeting of the electors attracts little attention, for the outcome is usually known the day after the electors are chosen in November. 197. Third Step in electing a President. Finally, the third step consists in counting the electoral votes at Washington, the vote of each State hav- the electoral ing been forwarded for that purpose. On the second Wednesday in February, both houses of Congress assemble in the hall of the House of Repre- THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET 181 Bentatives; and in the presence of both houses, the electoral vote of each State is opened by the Presi- dent of the Senate, and counted. The result of the election is then formally announced, a majority of all the electoral votes being necessary to a choice.^ 198. Election by the House of Representatives. If no candidate has a majority of the electoral voteSr the House of Representatives proceeds to votei)y elect a President from the three candidates ®**^®* having the highest number of electoral votes. The vote in the House is taken by States, the delegation from each commonwealth having one vote ; and a majority of all the States is necessary to a choice.^ In case the House does not choose a President before the 4th of March, the newly elected Vice-President becomes President. If no candidate for Vice-President receives a ma- jority of the electoral votes, the Senate elects a Vice- President from the two candidates having the largest electoral vote. 199. The Inaugural Ceremony. The President- elect usually goes to Washington a short time before March 4th, on which day the inaugural ceremony occurs. On the day of the inauguration, he is escorted by the committee in charge to the Executive Mansion or White House; and then, accompanied by the out- going President, he proceeds to the Capitol. The constitution requires that before entering upon ^ At present the total number of electoral votes in 531, so that 266 Totes are necessary to elect a President or a Vice-President. 2 Jefferson in 1800, and John Quincy Adams in 1824, were elected by the House of Representatives, no candidate having been chosen by the electors. 18« PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP his duties the President shall take the following oath : Oath oi " I ^o solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will office faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." A platform is erected on the east front of the Capi- tol, and here in the presence of immense throngs of Inaugural people the oath is administered by the Chief address Justice of the United States. The President then delivers an address outlining his proposed poli- cies. This concludes the inaugural ceremony proper, after which the President returns to the White House, and reviews a procession which is generally several hours in passing. 200. Presidential Term, Salary, and Qualifica- tions. The President is elected for a term of four years, and popular Presidents are sometimes chosen for a second term.^ Both Washington and Jefferson refused a third term, thus establishing a precedent which probably will prevent any President from being chosen for a third term. The President receives a salary of $75,000 a year, and Congress makes an appropriation for cer- tain expenses incidental to the presidential office. The annual salary of the Vice-President is $12,000. The constitution requires that the President shall 1 Nine Presidents have been reelected as their own successors, namely : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Jackson, Lincoln, Grant, McKinley, and Wilson; President Cleveland was reelected after an intervening term ; and Roosevelt was elected President after he had succeeded to the office upon the assassination of McKinley. THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET 183 be a native-born citizen of the United States, at least thirty-five years of age, and a resident of the Quaiuica- United States for fourteen years.^ As a rule, **°^" only men of proven ability and experience in political life are chosen for this high office. On a few occa- sions, the great prize has gone to a prominent general because of his military record, and sometimes to a comparatively obscure candidate nominated because it was thought that he could probably win the elec- tion. 201. The Presidential Succession. If the Presi- dent dies, his place is taken by the Vice-President, who is chosen at the same time, and who The vice- usually belongs to the same political party. P"si* commerce agencies for the protection of commerce. The Secretary of Labor collects and publishes infor- mation upon all subjects connected with labor, espe- cially its relation to capital, the hours and Department wages of labor, and the means of advancing °* ^^^" the interests of the laboring classes. The department serves the general public, as well as labor and capital, by endeavoring to preserve industrial peace, and to adjust labor disputes through conciliation. In this de* partment is the bureau of immigration, which supervises the administration of our immigration laws. There is also a children's bureau, which investigates matters pertaining to the welfare of children and child life, such as the employment of children in industry. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. Which method of electing the President do you consider best ? Give reasons. 2. How many members in the electoral college at present ? How- ls this number fixed ? What number of electoral votes is necessary to a choice ? 3. How many electors has your State ? Which political party generally carries your State in presidential elections ? 4. What qualifications are required in your State to entitle one to vote at presidential elections ? 5. Who were the candidates at the last presidential election ? How were they nominated? Who were the candidates for Vice-President ? 6. What electoral vote was received by each of the three prin- cipal candidates ? What was the popular vote for each ? 7. What was the previous public service of our President before his election to the presidency ? Are successful governors often nominated for the presidency ? 102 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 8. Name the Presidents who received a minority of the popular vote. 9. Prepare a report upon the presidential elections of 1800 and 1824. 10. Prepare a report upon the disputed election of 1876. 11. Explain how the President may involve the country in war, notwithstanding the right to declare war is vested in Con- gress. 12. Report upon the President's power to suppress domestic vio- lence, as shown by President Cleveland's action in 1894. (McClure's Magazine (1904), xxiii, pp. 227-240.) 13. Has the Senate any control over removals ? Why should the President alone exercise the power of removal ? 14. Compare the President's power of appointment with that of your State governor ; of your mayor. 15. Make the same comparison with regard to the President's power of removal. 16. May an official of the United States at the same time hold office under a State or territorial government ? 17. Prepare a report upon the Spoils System. 18. Prepare a report upon Civil Service Reform. J9. May the President sign a bill after Congress adjourns ? 20. What would be the advantage of giving the President power to veto part of a bill ? How could this power be granted ? 21. How are cabinet officers appointed and confirmed ? How may they be removed ? 22. Name the members of our present cabinet. 23. Name several of our greatest Secretaries of State. 24. Describe the work of the secret-service bureau. (Wilkie, John E., in History-Making, pp. 21-28.) 25. Report upon the work of the bureau of the mint. (Leach, Frank A., in History-Making, pp. 133-137.) 26. Describe the work of the reclamation service. (Newell, E. H. in History-Making, pp. 188-190.) 27. Describe the work of the weather bureau. (Moore, W. L., in History-Making, pp. 149-154.) 28. In what ways does the federal government promote agri- culture ? 29. Prepare a report upon the Congressional Library. (Putnam, Herbert, in History-Making, pp. 138-148.) 30. Discuss the work of the Civil Service Commission. (Kaye, P. L., Readings in Civil Government, pp. 232-242 ; Reinscl^ P. S., Readings, pp. 683-702.) CHAPTER XVI THE FEDERAL COUBTS 213. The Supreme Court Chamber. One of the most interesting and impressive sights at Washington is the Supreme Court of the United States in session. This court meets amid historic surroundings ; for its chamber in the Capitol was the meeting-place of the United State Senate during the first fifty years of our national life. Here Thomas JefPerson, the first Presi- dent to be inaugurated at the Capitol, delivered his address and took the oath of office. Here in October, 1803, the Senate confirmed the treaty with Napoleon by which we acquired the imperial domain known as the Louisiana Purchase. Here the Senate met when war was declared against Great Britain in 1812, and against Mexico in 1846. Here on December 2, 1823, the celebrated Monroe Doctrine was first proclaimed to the world in a messagfe from President Monroe. This hall was also a silent witness of the memorable debate between Webster of Massachusetts and Hayne of South Carolina, in which the eloquent advocate of State rights was pitted against the great apostle of " the Union, one and inseparable." 214. Sessions of the Supreme Court. Since 1859 this old Senate chamber, remodeled, has Ceremony been used as the Supreme Court room. Here of opening sessions of the Supreme Court are held daily, from the second Monday in October until late in the 194 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP following spring. At precisely twelve o'clock noon on the days that court is in session, nine venerable jus- tices in black robes enter the chamber, and the court crier announces: ^'The Honorable the Chief Justice and the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States!" Officials, attorneys, and specta- tors respectfully stand until the court is seated, when the crier calls : " Oyez,^ oyez, oyez ! Ail persons hav- ing business before the Honorable the Supreme Court of the United States are admonished to draw near and give their attention, for the Court is now sitting. God save the United States and this Honorable Court ! " 215. How the Court hears and decides Cases. Only attorneys who have practiced at least three years in the courts of their own States may argfue Fresenta- *^ P tion of ar- a case before the Supreme Court of the United States. In presenting an argument, counsel addresses the court in a voice seldom raised above a conversational tone ; for this tribunal is not moved by oratory. After counsel for each side has presented his argument, the court takes the case under considera- tion, and announces its decision at a later day. In addition to hearing the oral arguments of counsel, each justice has before him a printed copy of the briefs,^ and the entire record of the case. Saturday of each week is conference day, on which Conference ^^ Open sessions of the court are held. At ^^ these conferences, the cases which have been 1 Oyez : Old French for " Hear ye." 2 The "brief" is the argument of counsel, supported by citation of legal decisions and authorities. In cases carried up to the Supreme Court, the brief is printed, and a copy submitted to each justice for his consideration. THE FEDERAL COURTS 195 submitted are called by the Chief Justice, and dis- cussed fully and freely. Each justice is expected to have examined the record and briefs, and to be pre- pared to state his individual opinion. After the case has been fully discussed, the roll is called by the Chief Justice, and a vote is taken on affirming or reversing the decision of the lower court. After the conference is over, the Chief Justice as- signs to individual justices the duty of preparing the written opinions. Each justice to whom a writing tin case has been assigned writes an opinion in op^*°^ accordance with the views of the majority of the court, supporting it by arguments and citation of authorities. This opinion is afterwards read and dis- cussed in conference, and if approved by a majority 'of the justices (at least five of the nine concurring), it is announced as the decision of the court. These decisions are published in volumes known as the United States Reports, which are consulted by at- torneys and judges throughout the Union ; for they contain the opinions of highest authority upon the meaning and interpretation of our laws. No other court in the world has so much power as the Supreme Court of the United States : for ^ . . Power ol tits as we shall see later, this tribunal may set supreme aside even the acts of Congress, as well as the laws of any State, if these are in conflict with the national constitution, our supreme law. 216. The Three Grades of Federal Courts. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the land, the court of last resort. Below it are nine circuit courts of appeals^ and seventy-eight 106 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP district courts. The district courts are the lowest courts of the federal judicial system, and in them most cases coming before the federal courts are begun and first tried. The decisions of the district courts are subject to correction by the next higher court, the circuit court of appeals. As a rule, the decrees of this court are final; and only the most important cases may be carried up to the Supreme Court. 217. Cases Tried in the Federal Courts. Ordi- narily the national courts do not try the same kind irine classes ^^ cascs as the State courts, but only those of cases ^^ which the nature of the controversy makes it desirable to have the final decision made by a na- tional, rather than by a State, tribunal. For example, suits between citizens of different States, cases arising under the revenue, patent, and copyright laws, and all cases involving the meaning or constitutionality of a law of Congress, may be brought before the na- tional courts for decision. In all, there are nine classes of cases which the national courts hear and decide; these are enumerated in the federal constitution (Art. Ill, Sec. 2). 218. Deciding whether Laws are Constitutional. Courts of justice exist primarily to protect individual Unique rights, and to punish those who break the American l^^^s. In our couutry, the courts exercise an- conrts other power which gives them a position of great importance. If an act passed by the legislature is involved in a case brought before it, the court will decide whether the act is in accordance with the con- stitution. In other words, the court sits in judgment on the so-called law, and decides whether it is in fact THE FEDERAL COURTS 197 a law, or a measure which is void and of no effect because in conflict with the constitution. This power makes the courts the guardians and defenders of the constitution, our supreme law, with which all acts of the legislature and executive must be in accord. This function of the judiciary was clearly stated by Chief Justice Marshall in one of the earliest cases ^ brought before the Supreme Court : " It is owef emphatically the province and duty of the ^Mshlu's judicial department to say what the law is. ovunon Those who apply the rule to particular cases must of necessity expound and interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide on the operation of each. ^^ So if a law be in opposition to the Constitution ; if both the law and the Constitution apply to a par- ticular case, so that the court must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the Consti- tution, or conformably to the Constitution, disregard- ing the law, the court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the case. This is of the very essence of judicial duty. " If, then, the courts are to regard the Constitution, and the Constitution is superior to any ordinary act o£ the legislature, the Constitution, and not such ordinary act, must govern the case to which they both appiy." Each year many State laws, and even provisions of the State constitutions, are declared void by the United States Supreme Court because tntionai ' of conflict with the federal constitution. In ®^®'*'®" this way the States are prevented from encroaching ^ Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch, p. 137. 198 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP upon the powers of the national government. From time to time, acts of Congress are set aside by the Supreme Court for the same reason, thus keeping our national legislature and executive within the bounds prescribed by the constitution. Two of the most famous decisions disallowing acts of Congress are the Dred Scott Case, decided in 1857, denying the power of Congress to prohibit slavery in the territories ; and the Income Tax Case (1895), in which the federal tax on incomes was declared unconstitutional. 219. Federal Judges. Judges of the federal courts are appointed by the President with the approval of Independent ^^^ Senate. It is of the utmost importance position ^jjg^i; ^j^g judiciary be fearless and impartial in all of its decisions ; and hence provisions were inserted in the constitution designed to make the judges in- dependent of both Congress and the President. Fed- eral judges hold office for life, or during good be- havior; they cannot be removed from office except through the process of impeachment; and their com- pensation cannot be decreased during their term of office. The Justices of the Supreme Court are paid $14,500 a year (the Chief Justice receiving an additional oompensa- $^^^) ? circuit judges receive $7,000; and *^*^ district judges $6,000. Any federal judge who has served at least ten years may resign on at- taining the age of seventy years, and draw full salary during the remainder of his life. 220. Other Judicial Officers. In each of the sev- enty-eight judicial districts, there is a district attorney, a marshal, and a clerk. The district attorney prose- THE FEDERAL COURTS 199 cutes offenders against the laws of Congress, and defends cases to which the United States is District a party. The marshal, like the sheriff, en- ^^®^; forces the decrees of the court. If resisted, ^lerk he may call a posse of citizens to his aid, or he may ask for federal troops if necessary. District attorneys and marshals are under the direction of the United States Attorney-General, as head of the Department of Justice. Throughout the country at suitable points, and mainly in the principal cities, there are United States commissioners, who are federal officials cor- ,. ', . . „ , . United responding to the justices or the peace in our states com- State governments. Persons accused of vio- lating federal laws are brought before the commis- sioners, who decide whether they shall be held to await the action of the federal grand jury. The com- missioners also have certain powers in maritime cases. 221. The Court of Claims. Suit cannot be brought against the United States as in the case of an individ- ual ; but persons having claims against the national government may present them to the Court of Claims. This is a special tribunal consisting of five judges, who sit at Washington. If the decision of this court is in favor of the claimant, the award may be authorized by Congress, and the money paid from the federal treasury. QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What territory is included in your federal judicial district? Where is the court held? Name the district judge, the district attorney, and the marshal. For what term and by whom is each appointed? 200 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 2. Name the justices of our present Supreme Court. Name the men who have held the position of chief justice. Who are the most famous? 3. Compare the method of appointment and the term of federal judges with that of the judges of your State supreme court. 4. What are the advantages of life tenure for judges? (Kaye, P. L., Readings m Civil Government, pp. 247-250.) 5. Describe the process by which the United States Supreme Court renders a decision. By whom is the decision written, by whom reported, and where published? (Reinsch, P. S., Mead' ings, pp. 716-717.) CHAPTER XVII COMMERCE AND MONEY 222. Commercial Powers of Congress. Our na- tional constitution vests in Congress the power " to resfulate commerce with foreira nations and „ 1 in 1 • 1 1 T Foreign and among the several fetates, and with the in- interstate dian tribes." ^ Under this provision, each State retains control of the commerce wholly within its boundaries. But commerce which passes beyond State boundaries into another State, called interstate commerce, is controlled by the national government; and the same is true of foreign commerce, or that carried on with other countries. The term '' commerce " as used in the constitution has been broadly construed by the Supreme Court. It includes traffic, or the purchase and sale Definition of of goods, and also navigation and inter- ''o"^"^®"® course whether by land or water, together with all the means or agencies by which such intercourse is carried on. Transportation of persons, as well as freight, is included within its terms. 223. Subject-Matter of this Chapter. The control of foreign commerce by Congress has been exercised chiefly with reference to three subjects, — navigation, the tariff, and immigration. Besides these three topics, we shall study in this chapter three of the 1 Constitution, Art. I, Sec. 8, Par. 3. 202 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP most important agencies by which commerce is carried on, namely, railroads, money, and the post-office. 224. Navigation. Navigation between the United States and foreign countries, as well as between the „ , States of the Union, is subiect to the con- Hffeans of . ^ protecting trol of Congrcss. Accordingly, Congress has established rules of navigation, including the law of the road at sea, the maritime system of lights and signals, port and quarantine regulations.^ Coast surveys are made, and dangerous reefs charted; lighthouses and life-saving stations are maintained for the protection of commerce. You have no doubt read of the heroic work of the life-saving crews which are ready at a moment's notice to rescue the passengers of ships in distress. 225. River and Harbor Improvements. The im- provement of rivers and harbors is another important means of aiding navigation, and for this purpose the national government spends many millions each year. Each member of Congress naturally desires to secure the improvement of the navigable waterways in his dis- trict; and a great deal of money has been wasted on the improvement of streams of slight importance to the commerce of the country. On the other hand, many extensive improve- ments have been undertaken which have greatly Aids to aided commerce. Examples of these are the commerce breakwaters and piers at Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Milwaukee; the jetty system at the mouth of the Mississippi, and other gulf ports ; and ^ For example, numerous ports along our seacoast are designated as ports of entry for the collection of customs ; and at these ports all vessels are required to enter and clear. (By cuurteay of the Isthmian Canal Commission) OPENING OF THE PANAMA CANAL S.S. Ancon in the AVest Chamber, Gatun middle locks, Aujrust 15, 1914. (,By courtesy of the Isthmian Canal Commission} OPENING OF THE PANAMA CANAL S.S. Ancon on Gatun Lake, August 15, 1914. A LOCK IN THE SAULT STE. MARIE SHIP CANAL The canal connects Lake Superior with St. Mary's River and Lake Huron. It is about three miles in length and has two locks. The depth of water is sufficient to allow the passage of vessels of about 12,000 tons displacement. ^- 1 t 1 4 i 1 1 i i .^^fetesai i 1 ^ ^^^fc MMMHI „||^ ^ ,s«rn • >^^^^H; : 9^1^ 5-^ L -,*,«■ '".a#^*'^ I ,^. .^- .ygf ""^""^ ... li Courtesy, Commissioner of Bridges. A PART OF THE QUEENSBORO BRIDGE, NEW YORK This bridge connects Manhattan Borough and Queen's Borough. The total cost of real estate and construction was $17,000,000. The bridge is of the cantilever type, with three spans, of which the longest is 1182 feet. The total length of the bridge, including approaches, is 7449 feet. The bridge carries roadways, trolley tracks, and elevated railway tracks. Its clear height above high water is 135 feet. The flag poles on the towers are 406 feet above the river. COMMERCE AND MONEY 20S the levees or artificial dikes along the Mississippi. Canals have been constructed to connect interstate waters, and to permit navigation around waterfalls. The largest of these is the Sault Ste. Marie Ship Canal, which connects the waters of Lake Superior with those of St. Mary's River and Lake Huron, around the falls in the river. All river and harbor improvements are carried on under the direction of the Secretary of War, aided by engineers of the United States Army. 226. The Panama Canal. The Panama Canal is the greatest project yet undertaken by the United States for the promotion of commerce. The canal is about fifty miles in length, from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. This great waterway shortens the distance between the eastern and western coasts of the United States,, and in this way aids commerce. It also affords better naval protection by permitting the quick passage of our warships from coast to coast. Our work on the Panama Canal was begun in May, 1904 ; the Canal was opened to commerce in August, 1914. 227. Tariff Duties. Tariff duties constitute one of the most important means by which Congress regu- lates our forelsrn commerce. Tariff or cus- . 1 • 1 11 Revenue toms duties are taxes levied on goods brought andprotect- into the United States from abroad. These duties may be levied solely to secure revenue for the government, in which case they are called revenue tariffs. More often they are designed to protect do- mestic industries from foreign competition ; such a «04 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP system o£ duties is called a protective tariff. For ex- ample, if a suit of clothes made in London must pay a duty of fifty per cent of its value on being imported into the United States, the importer adds the amount of the duty to the price of the garments. So the for- eign manufacturer is placed at a disadvantage in his effort to compete with the American manufacturer in our markets ; and the American manufacturer is pro- tected to the extent of the duty levied. 228. The Policy of Protection. Throughout a great part of our history, especially since the Civil War, it has been the policy of the United States to levy high protective tariffs. Many persons believe that our indus- tries are now so well established that they no longer need the protection afforded by a high rate of du- ties; and that the great body of consumers would be benefited by lowering the rates. They argue that the American manufacturer can produce goods as cheaply as his foreign competitor ; and that our manufacturers — in many cases immense corporations — are reaping the benefit of the tariff duties, since they can add the amount of the duty to the price of the product. In many campaigns this question of a protective tariff has been an issue between the political parties, as it was durins^ the last presidential cam- Attitude of . ^ p -, ' political paign. A low rate 01 duties, or a revenue tariff, has generally been favored by the Democratic party. The Republican party has been the champion of the protective tariff, although some Republicans believe that on many commodities, high rates of duty are no longer necessary. 229. The Control of Immigration. Commerce in its COMMERCE AND MONEY 205 broadest sense includes the transportation of persons as well as commodities ; hence under its commercial power, Congress regulates immigration to the United States. It has always been the policy of this coun- try to welcome to our shores the honest men and women of other lands who wish to come here ; and our country's wonderful development would have been impossible without the brain and muscle of the mil- lions of immigrants who have turned to America as to the land of opportunity. At times this hospitality has been abused; Eu- ropean governments have been known to use the United States as a dumping-ground for con- classes victs, paupers, anarchists, and other unde- ®"i^^®^ sirable citizens. Hence in 1882 Congress passed laws excluding from this country the pauper, criminal, and insane classes of aliens, also anarchists, persons suffer- ing from contagious disease, and Chinese laborers.^ These restrictions are little more than sanitary meas- ures necessary to protect this country from the immi- gration of the diseased and criminal classes ; or, in the case of the Chinese, from a people of a different race and standard of living.^ 230. General Characteristics of Immigration. Cer- tain general characteristics of our immigration are especially important. Foremost among these increase la is the great increase in the number of immi- ^^^^^^^ grants. Since 1820 there has been a steady increase, until prior to the World War, nearly a million immi- grants entered our country each year. 1 Inspection by United States officials is provided for both at the point of departure and at the port of entry in this country. 2 Both Japanese and Chinese laborers are now excluded. 806 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP Even more important than this large increase in numbers is the marked change in the source of our Change in immigration. Formerly the great majority of sonrce immigrants came from countries allied to us in race or language — from Great Britain, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. Only a small propor- tion came from the peoples of southern and eastern Europe who are allied to us in neither language nor race. But since 1880, the immigration from southeastern Europe has rapidly increased, while that from northern Europe has relatively declined. At pre- sent northwestern Europe sends only about eighteen per cent of our total immigration, while southeastern Europe sends nearly seventy-six per cent, most of which comes from Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia. With this change in the sources of our immigra- tion, there has been a corresponding change in the Change in character of the immigrants themselves. The character immigrants from northern Europe were bet- ter educated, more familiar with representative gov- ernment, and in many cases were skilled artisans and mechanics. In contrast with them, a large proportion of the immigrants from southeastern Europe are illit- erate, that is, unable to read and write their own lan- guage ; and nearly all are unskilled workers. The demand for the exclusion of illiterate immi- grants led Congress in 1915 to pass a bill debarring aliens who could not read, but the measure was ve- toed by President Wilson. Finally, enough votes were secured in Congress to pass this measure over the veto, so that illiterate immigrants are now excluded. Another serious problem arises from the tendency COMMERCE AND MONEY 207 of immigrants to concentrate in large cities. Of our total population, about 14 per cent is foreign- concentra- born ; while in cities of over 25,000 people, tio^i^^itiea 26 per cent of the population is foreign-born. Indeed, in six of the principal cities of the United States, the number of foreign-born males of voting age is greater than the number of native-born. It is much more difficult to assimilate and educate this mass of foreign population when concentrated in our large cities, than would be the case if the immigrants were scattered over a wider area. 231. Railway Transportation. The period follow- ing the Civil War was marked by a rapid develop- ment of the railway industry. Many new lines were built, and an era 01 excessive com- way man- petition followed, which proved injurious both to the roads and to the communities which they served. Between two points with a single line of railroad, rates were often exorbitant; whereas if com- peting lines connected two cities, the rates were some- times below cost — the railways compensating them- selves by heavy charges between points where there was no competition. Not only were there discrimina- tions as between localities, but lower rates were often granted to favored shippers, thus making possible the creation of monopolies in certain industries. As a result of these conditions, the shippers and the public demanded that government take steps to regulate the railway traffic. Relief was first gt^te eontiBi sought from the State governments, many of *"®"®o*i^e which established railway commissions, with power to fix maximum rates. But State regulations applied only 208 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP to the business wholly within the boundaries of the individual State, whereas two thirds of the revenues of the railroads were derived from interstate traffic, that is, the traffic between different States. Hence it became necessary for the federal government to regulate interstate transportation. 232. Interstate Commerce Act. Accordingly, in 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act. This act prohibits discriminating charges in favor of individuals or localities; requires the railroads to pub- lish their rates for carrying passengers and freight; and forbids changes in these published rates except with the approval of the Commission. To enforce the provisions of this act, the Presi- dent appoints an Interstate Commerce Commission of nine members. This commission has power Interstate . • p -i Commerce to require reports as to the operation 01 rail- Oommission i . i i • , roads, to near compJamts, summon witnesses, make investigations, and under the Hepburn Act of 1906, to fix maximum rates. The commission may for- bid railroads to continue actions which it deems illegal, and may establish maximum rates by which the roads are bound ; but its decisions are not final, being sub- ject to review by the courts. 233. Sherman Anti-Trust Act. One of the most important regulations of interstate commerce is the federal Anti-Trust Law of 1890. This act declares illegal all trusts or combinations which aim to secure a monopoly, as well as any agreement in restraint of in- terstate or foreign trade. Persons who violate the law are subject to punishment by fine or imprisonment or both, at the discretion of the court. A supplement- COMMERCE AND MONEY 209 ary act passed in 1914, establishes a Federal Trade Commission of five members, appointed by the Pres- ident. This commission supervises the activities of large corporations, so as to prevent unfair competi- tion. The Clayton Anti-Trust Law (1914) seeks to check monopoly by specifying the particular acts which are in restraint of trade, and therefore illegal. 234. Money. One of the most important aids to commerce is money, or the circulating medium pro* vided by the national government. Money Kinds and is of two kinds, coins and paper money. °^a^«^iai« Our more valuable coins are made of gold and silver, because these metals possess high value in small quantities. Then, too, they are hard and durable — qualities which are increased by adding another metal as an alloy. The nickel and the cent, or minor coins, are made from the less valuable metals. Money is " legal tender " if the law says it must be accepted in payment of debts. The gold L^gai coins and the silver dollar are legal tender *®"^" to an unlimited amount, the minor coins only for smaller sums.^ 235. The Process of making Coins. The different coins in use in the United States are coined at the mints operated by the government at Phila- „ , ^ . Preparing delphia, San Francisco, Denver, and New the coin Orleans. The gold and silver is first refined so as to be absolutely pure, and then mixed with alloy to give the proper hardness.^ This mixture is * The half-dollar, the quarter, and the dime are legal tender to the amount of ten dollars ; the nickel and the cent to twenty-five cents. ^ The proportion is nine parts of the precious metals to one part of alloy. 210 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP molded into bars or ingots, which are rolled until they are strips several feet long, and of the required thickness for the several coins. These strips are fed into cutting machines, which cut out the disks in sizes suitable for the different coins. The disks are then placed in the milling machine which raises the edges so as to prevent wear upon Miuing, t^6 surface of the coin. Next they are aMM^t- placed in the coining machines, in which dies ^s from above and below are pressed simultan- eously against the disks with tremendous force. In the counting room the more valuable coins are counted by weight, the minor ones by being placed in grooves which hold only a certain number of coins. 236. Paper Money — The Greenbacks. Our paper money is of four kinds: (1) United States notes, called greenbacks; (2) gold and silver certificates; (3) national bank notes; (4) federal reserve notes. United States notes or greenbacks are issued by the national government, which promises to pay to Govern- ^he bearer the amount named on the face of promissory ^^^ note. Thesc were first issued during the Botes Civil War when our government was in great need of money, and were made legal tender in pay- ment of debts. Since these notes have no intrinsic value, they circulated at a discount during the war ; at one time (July, 1864) they were worth only thirty- nine cents on the dollar. The close of the war restored our nation's credit, and the greenbacks now circu- late as freely as any other form of money. There are about $346,000,000 worth of greenbacks in circula- COMMERCE AND MONEY 211 tion, which will be redeemed in gold coin by the Sec- retary of the Treasury.^ 237. Gold and Silver Certificates. Since silver dollars are less convenient to handle than paper money, the government issues silver certifi- cates in denominations o£ one, two, five, and metallic ten dollars. These certify that the number of °^°"*^ silver dollars named on the face of the note have been deposited in the vaults of the treasury, payable to the bearer on demand. That the silver certificates are popular is shown by the fact that many millions of silver dollars are piled up in sacks at the treasury, for which silver certificates have been issued. Gold certificates are issued on the same plan, in denomina- tions from $10 to $10,000. 238. National Bank Notes. National Bank notes resemble other forms of paper money in size and ap- pearance, but they are issued by the national banks chartered by the federal government. The notes are printed by the government, and sent to the banks as requested; but the banks must first deposit United States bonds with the Treasury Department, equal in value to the amount of bank notes issued. Hence na- tional bank notes are readily accepted, for even if the bank should fail, its notes would be redeemed by the sale of the bonds. Federal reserve notes are issued to banks belonging to the federal reserve system, in return for collateral deposited by them. 239. Bureau of Engraving and Printing. All paper money is designed, engraved, and printed at the Bu- reau of Engraving and Printing at Washington. The 212 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP peculiar silk-fibered paper used is made at Dalton, Massachusetts, the process of manufacture being a closely guarded trade secret. This paper is counted into bundles of one thousand sheets of the exact size for printing four notes each, and is then sent to Washington. Here, in the process of manufacture, each note passes through the hands of about thirty different employees; and an elaborate system of checks and countings makes theft almost impossible. 240. The Postal Service. The postal service main- tained by the national government is an invaluable aid to the commerce of the country. The letter carrier in his gray-blue uniform is a familiar sight in every city and village of the land ; and if you go out into the country, you may meet the rural carrier driving along his route, delivering mail to the farmers so that they need not go several miles to the post-of&ce. You all know how convenient it is to drop a letter into the mail box, and have it go to any part of the Lowrates United States for a two cent stamp. Five o« postage cents will carry your letter as fast as modern steam cars and steamships can speed anywhere in the civilized world ; for all the nations are united in a Universal Postal Union for the delivery of mail. In the United States the rates for carrying the mail are so low that there is often a deficit of from ten to fifteen million dollars in the postal budget, the loss being chiefly on newspapers and periodicals, called second-class matter. Our postal service is to-day the largest business machine in the world. In Washington's time there were seventy-five post-offices and 1800 miles of post- COMMEKCE AND MONEY 213 routes. To-day there are about 55,000 post-offices, and 480,000 miles of post-routes ; several billion pieces of mail are handled each year at a cost of $325,000,000. By this tremendous expansion, the postal service has kept pace with the wonderful growth of our country. 241. Postmasters and Employees. We have seen that the Postmaster-General has the management and control of the postal service, subject of course to the direction of the President as Chief Executive. Post- offices are divided into four classes, according to the amount of business transacted. Postmasters of the the first three classes are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate ; while the fourth-class postmasters have recently been placed under the rules of the Civil Service. Most of the employees, including postal clerks, railway mail clerks, and letter carriers, are appointed on the basis of merit, as evidenced by civil service examinations. Numerous inspectors in the employ of the department inspect the work of the employees in order to insure honest and efficient service. 242. Money Orders and Registry Departments. You are no doubt familiar with the system whereby money may be sent through the mail by money means of money orders. These may be pur- "'^®" chased at any post-office for a small fee ; and it is very foolish to inclose coin or paper bills in a letter, when government has provided such a cheap and safe method of transmitting money. Valuable letters and packages may be registered upon payment of eight cents in addition to the regu- 214 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP lar postage, thus insuring a careful record of the parcel and a receipt for its delivery. You and special may securc immediate delivery of your letter by paying a special delivery fee of ten cents, in addition to the regular postage. 243. Dead Letter OflBlce. If the name and address on the envelope cannot be deciphered, or if the person to whom it is addressed cannot be found, the letter v^^ill be returned to the sender, provided his name and address are placed on the upper left hand corner of the envelope. Otherwise it is sent to the Dead Letter Office, where it is opened and returned to the sender, if his name and address are found within. 244. Recent Developments of the Postal Services Within recent years the postal service has undertake* three new services of great importance. (1) A system of rural free delivery has been provided, making it possible for the people in the country to share in the benefits of our free delivery system. (2) In 1910 Con- gress authorized a system of postal savings banks, which pay two per cent interest on deposits. This plan encourages saving by the investor of small means; for he can deposit his money in the government's postal bank, and know that his savings are absolutely secure. (3) Finally, the latest service undertaken by the post- office is the carrying of packages weighing not over fifty pounds by means of a parcel post, such as is found in nearly all European countries. COMMERCE AND MONEY «15 QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. What was the amount of our foreign commerce last year ? Did the exports exceed the imports ? 2. Erom which five countries do we buy the most goods ? Which five are our best customers ? 3. Prepare a report on the Panama Canal. Give an account of the acquisition of the Canal Zone and of the work accom- plished ; state how the canal will benefit commerce. 4. What amount did the federal government appropriate last year for river and harbor improvements? What part of this was for your State ? Do inland cities receive any benefit from these improvements ? 5. Prepare a report upon the Erie Canal, paying especial at- tention to its effects on our commerce. 6. Examine the map of the United States, and suggest canals which would aid commerce. 7. Name the great inland centers of commerce in the United States. Explain how the commerce and industry of each has been aided : (a) by canals ; (b) by rivers , (c) by railroads. 8. Has the commerce of your city been aided by any of these means of transportation ? 9. Why do business men object to frequent changes in tariff rates ? 10. Give arguments for and against an educational test for im- migrants, such as the ability to read and write their own language. 11. Is there a railway commission in your State ? How do its powers compare with those of the Interstate Commerce Com- mission ? 12. Name five great railway systems engaged in interstate com- merce. How are they controlled by the federal government ^ 13. May Congress forbid the transportation across State lines of goods manufactured by child labor ? 14. In what ways has the federal government aided the construc- tion of railroads ? 15. Should Congress purchase all telegraph lines and make a gov ernment monopoly of the telegraph business ? 16. In what denominations are the different coins and paper money issued by the government ? 17. Bring to class each of the various forms of currenQy for -careful examination. 216 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 18. How does the amount of gold in circulation compare with the amount of silver (or silver certificates) ? 19- Where is gold produced in large quantities '' Where are the largest silver-mines ? What was the total production of each metal last year ? 20. What is the essential difference between United States notes or " greenbacks," and other forms of paper money ? 21. Explain the causes of the fluctuations in value of United States notes during the period 1862-1879. 22. From your examination of a United States note, answer tho following •, (a) In what year did Congress authorize its issue? (b) Is it a legal tender? (c) Penalty for counterfeiting it ? {d) What did the words " will pay the bearer five dollars " mean when the note was issued ? (e) What do these words mean now ^ 23. Name the national banks in your city. What is the capita) of each? Why does the public ordinarily have entire confi dence in their management ? 24. What forms of credit are largely employed as a substitute for money ? CHAPTER XVm , TERRITORIES AND PUBLIC LANDS 245. The United States in 1789. At the time our national constitution was adopted (1789), the United States was only about one fourth as large as it is to-day. Its boundaries were the Great with pro- Lakes and Canada on the north, the Atlantic **^ "*^ on the east, the Floridas on the south, and the Mis- sissippi River on the west. Since that time our bound- aries have been repeatedly extended, until to-day we possess an immense territory reaching from coast to coast, besides Alaska, the Philippines, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and several smaller islands in the Pacific. In 1789 the area of our country was 892,135 square miles; to-day the United States with all outlying possessions has an area of 3,743,306 square miles. 246. Expansion of the National Area. Briefly, the story of this expansion is as follows : — (1) In 1803 the vast territory known as Louisiana was purchased from France for $15,000,000. Louisiana This territory included all of the western ^^^^^^* Mississippi valley and the Isle of Orleans, an imperial area of nearly a million square miles. (2) The second annexation was that of Oregon, the territory west of the Rocky Mountains between par- allels forty-two and forty-nine desfrees north Otocoii latitude. Title to this region was by discov- ery and exploration, based partly upon the voyage of 218 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP Captain Gray in 1792, but chiefly upon the overland expedition of Lewis and Clark in 1805. Our title to Oregon was for a time contested by Great Britain, Spain, and Russia. Great Britain did not relinquish her claim until 1846, when the treaty was signed establishing the present northwestern boundary be- tween the United States and Canada. (3) In 1819 Florida was purchased from Spain for $5,000,000, thereby giving the United States a natural boundary on the southeast. (4) In 1845 the independent State of Texas was admitted to the Union by a ioint resolution of Congress. (5) In 1848, by the treaty which closed the Mexican First Mexi- War, wc acquired the immense area south of can cession Qrcgou and west of Texas, including Cali- fornia and what was then called New Mexico. (6) In 1853 the second Mexican annexation, known Gadsden ^s the Gadsdcn Purchase, added a narrow pnrchase g|.j.jp j^ ^j^^ southern parts of Arizona and New Mexico, at a cost of $10,000,000. (7j In 1867 the vast territory of Alaska, compris- ing nearly 620,000 square miles, was pur- chased from Russia for $7,200,000. (8) The Hawaiian Islands, over which a protectorship had virtually existed since 1851, were annexed by a joint resolution of Congress in 1898. (9) By the treaty which closed the Spanish-Ameri- can War (December, 1898), Spain ceded to fortoRlco, , . ^ ^ '_,. V>t 11 Guam, this couutry rorto Kico, Guam, and the pp es pyijppjQg Islands, receiving in return the sum of $20,000,000. U. S. BATTLESHIP OKLAHOMA 4 R C J' I C OC BAN v"^ \^A V THE UNITED STATES AND ITS POSSESSIONS Shown by shading, and by names in heavy type. TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES With Comparative Areas. Area of the Original Thirteen States 1789 892,135 Austria-Hungary, German Em- pire, France and Spain Louisiana Purchase 1803 . Oregon 1805-1846 . . . Sweden and Norway . . Florida Purchase 1819 . . England and Scotland . Texas Annexation 1845 Austria-Hungary, Italy Switzerland .... Mexican Cessions 1848-1853 8U,801t 827,986 286,541 297,005 72,101 88,739 389,166 and 367,583 558,860 Mexico 767,005 Alaska 1867 590,884 German Empire- France and Spain 603,862 Hawaiian Islands 1898 6,449 Connecticut and Jthode Island . 6,213 Porto Rico 1898 3,435 Delaware 2,370 Guam, Wake and Tutuila Islands 1898-1899 287 Philippine Islands 1898 .... 115,026 Italy 110,550 Panama Canal Zone 1904 .... 436 Total Area of United States and its Possessions 1913 3,743,306 Total Area of Europe S,75k,282 TERRITORIES AND PUBLIC LANDS 2ls (10) In addition to these important annexations, the United States has acquired title to a number of small islands, including a few guano islands off the coast of South America and in the Gulf of and minor Mexico ; also Midway, Baker, and Wake Is- * ^ * lands in the Pacific ; and (in 1899) several of the Samoan Islands, the most important of which is Tutuila. (11) In 1904 the Republic of Panama ceded to the United States perpetual control of a strip of Panama land extending across the Isthmus of Panama, ^"^^^ ^°^^ five miles in width on either side of the canal route .^ 247. Territorial Policy of the United States. These are the annexations which have pushed our frontier farther and farther westward, until to-day our great Republic has the Pacific for its lor state- western boundary ; and instead of the orig- inal thirteen, forty-eight stars shine in the clear blue of our flag. With few exceptions, the States which have entered the Union since 1789 were first governed by Congress as territories.^ Sometimes statehood ha& been granted almost immediately, so rapidly has the territory developed in population and resources; while again, as in the case of Arizona and New Mexico, Congress has insisted upon a long period of tutelage before admitting the territory to the family of States. When a new territory is organized. Congress at first holds the reins of government firmly in its own hands. 1 The price paid by the United States was $10,000,000. 2 The States which hav« never been ttrritories of the United States include, besides the original thirteen, Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, West Virginia, Texas, and California. 220 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP After a few years, important powers of self-govern- ment are granted, in order that the people of the territory may have the political training necessary for citizens of a future State. Our policy in this respect dates back to a famous territorial ordinance, older even than our national constitution itself. This is the Ordinance of 1787, concerning which Daniel Webster said that he doubted " whether any single law of any lawgiver, ancient or modern, has produced effects of more distinct, marked, and lasting character." 248. The Ordinance of 1787. This ordinance was adopted by Congress for the government of the ^ reo-ion north and west of the Ohio River, The North- , . , . , , p i • i i westTerri- which in the latter part of the eighteenth century was known as the Northwest Terri- tory. Under the Treaty of Paris which closed the Revolutionary War (1783), Great Britain relinquished her title to this region. A number of the States, in- cluding New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Virginia, asserted their claims to the territory; but it was finally agreed that it should be formed into a public domain to be held by Congress for the com- mon benefit of all the States. The Ordinance of 1787 provided that for the first few years the Northwest Territory should have a temporary government, the laws to be made of Ordinance by the govemor and three judges appointed by Congress. As the population increased, this temporary government was to be replaced by a representative territorial government, the people choos- inof the lower house of the lesfislature. Not more than five nor fewer than three States were to be TERRITORIES AND PUBLIC LANDS 221 formed from this region ; and statehood was promised as soon as any district had 60,000 inhabitants.^ The ordinance prohibited slavery in any form; guaranteed reHgious freedom ; and declared that " re- ligion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." 249. Later Territorial Legislation. Since this first great ordinance. Congress has passed many acts for the government of territories. In all, twenty- Temporary nine territories have been organized within ^^ent" the boundaries of the United States, all of go^e^^ent which have now been admitted as States. In nearly every case, the same general plan has been followed as with the Northwest Territory. There have been two stages of government : (1) a temporary organiz- ation over which the people of the territory have little or no control; and (2) a more permanent gov- ernment in which the people elect the legislature and most of the local officials. 250. Representative Territorial Government. Prior to their admission to the Union, twenty-nine of our forty-eight States were governed under this Executive second type of territorial government. ^ Un- o"^*'®^* der this plan, executive power is vested in a gov- ernor, appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. The powers of this governor are quite ^ Five States were formed from this region : Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Minnesota also received a portion of the old Northwest Territory. 2 For example, Arizona and New Mexico, the two States last ad- mitted, were under territorial government for over half a century. 222 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP similar to those of the governor of a State, but he is directly responsible to the President, to whom he reports annually on the condition of affairs in the territory. Other officers are the secretary, the treas- urer, the auditor, and the superintendent of public instruction. The territorial legislature consists of two houses, an upper house or council, and a house of representa- tives. Members of both branches are elected LGglsl&turo by the qualified voters of the territory for a term of two years. The powers of the legislature are substantially the same as those of the legislatures of the several States. Judicial power is vested in a supreme and several district courts, the judges of which are ap- pointed by the President. The territorial legislature has power to establish such inferior courts as are found necessary. Each territory sends to the House of Represent- Territoriai ativcs a delegate, who has the salary and Aeiegate other privileges of a member, except the right to vote. 251. Admission to the Union. The territorial form of government is always regarded as preparatory for statehood, admission to the Union depending statehood . r n and its con- ou the will of Congrcss (Sec. 123). Once ad- mitted, the new State is on the same footing as every other State, with equal rights and powers. Moreover, once in the Union, a State cannot under any circumstances withdraw or secede ; for the Civil War has forever settled the principle that ours is " an indestructible Union of indestructible States." TERRITORIES AND PUBLIC LANDS 22S 252. Continental and Insular Territories. The ter- ritories now belonging to the United States may be divided into two groups : first, the continental terri- tories ; and second, the insular territories or depend- encies. The continental territories include Alaska and the Panama Canal Zone. Since 1912, Alaska has had a representative territorial government, similar to that described in Sec. 250. The Panama Canal Zone is governed by a commission of seven members. 253. The District of Columbia. Among the powers which the constitution confers upon Congress is the risrht "to exercise exclusive les^islation in all ^ , 1 1- • / Seat of the cases whatsoever over such district (not ex- national T , •! X 1 . government ceedmg ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States." In 1790 the States of Maryland and Vir- ginia ceded to the United States a district ten miles square lying upon the banks of the Potomac ; but the part upon the south bank was given back to Vir- ginia in 1846, reducing the district to its present area of about seventy square miles. The government of the district differs radically from that which prevails in other territories, since the residents are completely disfranchised. They , t , Governed have no vote in the election of either local bycommia- or national officials, nor are they represented in Congress by a delegate. The District is governed by three commissioners appointed by the President, who are responsible for the administration of local affairs. «24 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 254. Insular Territories or Dependencies. The in- sular dependencies of the United States include Hawaii, Acduisition ^^^^^^^ i" 1898; Porto Rico, the Philip- pines, and Guam, acquired in 1899 as a re- sult of the war with Spain ; a few islands of the Samoan group acquired by treaty with Great Britain and Germany in 1900 ; and three small Pacific islands — Wake, Midway, and Baker Islands, claimed by right of discovery since 1898. Of these dependencies, Hawaii, Porto Kico, and the Philippines possess representative territorial gov- Pormof ernments, similar to that which has been government gj-^nted to our Continental territories. Such minor dependencies as Guam and the Samoan Islands are under the control of the officers commanding the naval stations; while Midway, Baker, and Wake Is- lands require no government, being practically unin- habited. 255. Hawaii. Hawaii is governed under an act of Congress passed in 1900. This act confers citizenship in the United States upon the citizens of Hawaii. The President appoints the governor ; and this officer, with the consent of the territorial Senate, appoints the chief executive officials. 256. Porto Rico. Porto Rico is governed under an organic act passed by Congress in 1917. This law Represen- granted representative territorial government territorial *^ Porto Rico, and made the people of the government island citizeus of the United States. The President appoints the governor of Porto Rico ; and this officer appoints all except two of the heads of the executive departments. The legislature consists of two TERRITORIES AND PUBLIC LANDS 225 houses, both elected by the Porto Ricans, all male citizens over twenty-one having the right to vote. 257. The Philippine Islands. The problem of es- tablishing a suitable government for the Philippines has proven a difficult one, because these is- 1 1 • 1 1 • 1 1 PI A difficult lands are mhabited by races or almost every prowemof . p 1 1 J p i • government stage 01 development irom savagery to civ- ilization. The United States took control of the Phil- ippines with the idea of educating their people so that they would become capable of self-government. Great progress has already been made in this direction, and the Filipinos have been promised independence when they show that they are capable of managing their own affairs. The present government is in accordance with an act passed by Congress in 1902, and consists of a central government over the entire archipelago, with subordinate provincial and municipal governments. Executive powers are vested in a governor-general appointed by the President, and serving during his pleasure. This officer has the usual powers of a territorial governor ; he appoints the heads of the executive departments with the consent of the Philippine Senate, and may veto any act of the terri- torial legislature. The President also appoints an audi- tor and deputy-auditor for the Philippines, besides a vice-governor who serves as head of the department of public instruction. The legislature consists of two houses, a senate and a house of representatives. Members of both houses are elected by the people, except from a single district inhabited by the more backward tribes. no PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 258. The Public Domain. More than two thirds of the present area of the United States has at one Howdis- ti^6 ^^ another formed a part of the public posed of domain belonging to the national govern- ment. The greater part has been disposed of in vari- ous ways, chiefly by sale at a nominal price to indi- vidual settlers, or as bounties for military or naval service, or as grants to promote the construction of railroads, or in aid of education and internal improve- ments. About 682,000,000 acres of public lands are still owned by the national government, over one half of The Home- which is in Alaska, and most of the remain- stead Act ^Qj, -jj ^]^g States west of the 104th meridian. Under the Homestead Act, any adult citizen of the United States who is the head of a family, and is not already the proprietor of 160 acres of land, is entitled to enter a quarter-section (160 acres) of unappropri- ated public land. He may acquire title by maintaining his residence upon it, improving and cultivating the land for a period of three years, and the payment of nominal fees. Within the last few years, several million acres of arid land have been reclaimed through irrigation pro- irrigation jccts Constructed by the national govern- frojects ment. Lands thus made available for agri- culture are open to settlers upon payment, in small annual installments, of a sum which will ultimately cover the cost of the irrigation projects. 259. National Real Estate. The national govern- ment is our largest owner of improved real estate, holding two thousand separate pieces of property. TERRITORIES AND PUBLIC LANDS 227 There are several hundred military posts, such as the Jefferson Barracks, near St. Louis, Fort Snell- ing, near St. Paul, and Governor's Island, asaiand- in New York Harbor. There are also many arsenals, armories, and ordnance depots; nine navy yards at various points along the coast; and 1250 lighthouses. The United States owns hundreds of public buildings, including post-offices, custom houses, and federal court buildings. We have seen that the national government has set aside large areas of public lands for forest reserves. The most famous of these reserves are Yellow- Forest re- stone Park, the Upper Yosemite Reservation, ^®^®* the Big Trees of California, and the Arkansas Hot Springs in the Ozark Mountains. All of these reserves are kept up as national parks, and policed by national authority. 260. Indian Reservations. There are numerous Indian reservations, most of them west of the Missis- sippi, with a total area of 40,000,000 acres, and a population of 300,000 Indians. Generally, the In- dians on these reservations maintain their tribal organ- ization ; but a large degree of control is exercised by the federal government through the Indian agents, one of whom exercises supervision over each tribe. Nearly three hundred reservation schools are main- tained by the federal government, besides twenty-five Indian schools in other parts of the country, the most famous being Hampton and Carlisle. PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP QUESTIONS FOR INVESTIGATION 1. On an outline map of the United States mark off with different colors the various territorial annexations. 2. Discuss the method of admitting a State into the Union. 3. Give an account of the Louisiana Purchase. What States were formed out of this territory ? 4. What States, besides the original thirteen, have never beer national territories ? 5. Bound your State. Has it ever been part of, or has it eve^ included, another State ? 6. How did your State receive its name ? Its nickname ? 7. When was your State admitted to the Union ? Describe its territorial government prior to admission. How long was it an organized territory ? Give a history of the steps by which admission was secured. 8. Why was the capital of the United States placed under the exclusive control of Congress ? Why was the present form of government established for the District of Columbia ? What political rights are denied to residents of the District ? 9. Describe the city of Washington — street plan, principal pub- lic buildings and places of interest, monuments, and surround- ings. 10. Name any public buildings, forts, or reservations in your community which belong to the federal government. 11. Why are not the same political rights accorded to our insular possessions as to continental territories ? 12. Is it likely that any of our insular possessions will ever be admitted as States ? 13. Under the provisions of the constitution, could Texas be di- vided into four states ? Could Indiana and Illinois be united into a single State ? CHAPTER XIX OUR NATIONAL IDEALS 261. Why we should study History and Civics. We have studied the organization of our government, and the work which it performs. We have seen that it is a representative government, that its welfare de- pends upon the interest which the citizens take in it. Do you not think, then, that every young citizen should be familiar with the history of our country, which abounds in glorious deeds and great achieve- ments? Should you not also study our country's government and institutions, since you will one day help to carry on that government? Then, too, do you not wish to understand clearly the great ideals for which our nation stands — the ideals which throw so much light upon our national development ? 262. Self -Reliance as a National Ideal. Foremost among the ideals which have characterized our na- tional life is the spirit of self-reliance. The very first chapter of our national history records the story of a man who arose from among the toilers of his time, and whom eighteen years of disappointed hopes could not dismay. It tells how this man, holding out the promise of a new dominion, at last overcame the oppo- sition of royal courtiers, and secured the tardy support of reluctant rulers. And when, at Palos, Columbus flung to the breeze the sails of his frail craft, and ventured upon that unknown ocean from which, ac- «0 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP cording to the belief of his age, there was no hope of return, he displayed the chief characteristic of the American people — the spirit of self-reliance. 263. Self-Reliance of the Early Pioneers. What is this spirit ? Emerson has expressed it in a sentence : " We will walk on our own feet ; we will work with our own hands; we will speak our own minds." This was the spirit which animated that little group of colo- nists who preferred the unknown hardships of the new world to the certain tyranny of the old ; who chose to break old ties, to brave the sea, to face the loneliness and perils of life in a strange land — a land of difficulties and dangers, but a land of liberty and opportunity. 264. Our Revolution a Demand for Home Rule. If we follow these pioneers in our fancy, we see them clearing the unbroken wilderness, and dotting the clearings with homes and churches and schools. We understand, too, how inevitably the sturdy self-reli- ance of these early pioneers led to the revolt against the mother country. The taxes levied by Great Britain upon her colonies in America were not excessive or burdensome; but underlying the dispute over taxa- tion was the fundamental issue of home rule. Were the colonies to be governed by a Parliament across the sea, whose laws regulating commerce and trade were framed primarily in the interest of the mother country ? Or were they to regulate their own affairs and to map out their own destinies? This was the real issue underlying the Stamp Act and the Town- shend Acts, the Non-Importation Agreement and the Boston Massacre, the burning of the Gaspee, and the five Intolerable Acts. It was this issue of self -govern* OUR NATIONAL IDEALS 231 ment and self-control that finally led the little group of colonies scattered along the Atlantic coast to throw down the gage of battle to the mistress of the seas. 265. How Self-Reliance has influenced Our His- tory. Later chapters of our national history record the same story of sturdy self-reliance. The Barbary pirates levied tribute upon our merchantmen : we be- came a naval power. France and Great Britain struck at our commerce : we fought a second war for the freedom of the seas. Three powerful European mon- archies united to crush the spirit of liberty in South America : our country announced the famous Monroe Doctrine, a declaration of home rule, that the Ameri- can continents were henceforth to be ruled by the people of America.^ Mexico declared war upon Texas : she lost California. Spain waged a cruel and useless conflict in Cuba : she was driven from the western hemi- sphere, and from the Philippines as well. Meantime our population has increased from three to ninety millions: instead of thirteen, forty-eight States are members of our federal Union, and the feeble third-rate power of Jefferson's day has developed into one of the fore- most nations of the world. 266. How Each Citizen may promote this Ideal. In order that our country may continue this proud record of self-reliance, each one of us has a special obligation. Every citizen in his individual life should live up to the same ideal of self-reliance. The young 1 The Holy Alliance, formed in 1815, included the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, France being soon after- wards admitted. The real object of the Alliance was to support the despotic powers of the several sovereigns, and to repress movements looking toward the establishment of constitutional government. 232 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP citizen who relies on himself, who does honest work in school, never cheating or shirking, who is always ready to do a little more than is actually required of him, who thinks for himself, acts rightly because he loves right actions — such a citizen is doing his part in helping to achieve our national ideal of self-reliance. 267. Second American Ideal — The Spirit of De- mocracy. No doubt many of you have read the De- claration of Independence, the great charter which declared the United States a free and independent nation ; and as you may remember, the Declaration asserts that " all men are created equal." This does not mean that all men are equal in property or wealth, or that all have equal abilities ; for we have only to look about us to know that this is not the case. The equality asserted in the Declaration of In- dependence is equality before the law, the democratic equality of rights and privileges as citizens. In our free country, all men, whether rich or poor, have the same political and civil rights. All are equally entitled to the protection of government, to the use and en- joyment of their property, to help elect the officers who make and enforce our laws. These rights are not based on wealth, or talent, or station in life, but on the fact of manhood alone. They belong to men as human beings. This is the spirit of true democracy ; and this equality of man is the second of America's national ideals. With us there can be no titled aris- tocracy with special privileges : ours is the democracy of Robert Burns : — " Tlie honest man, tho e'er eae poor, Is king o' men, for a' that." OUR NATIONAL IDEALS ^S a68. Democracy means Equality of Opportunity. Our history is filled with examples of men like Jack- son, Lincoln, and Garfield, who availed themselves of this democratic equality of opportunity, and rose from humble origin to the highest of&ce in the Republic. Few of us, indeed, may ever attain high honors as statesmen, and perhaps none of us may acquire great wealth, measured in dollars and cents. But every young citizen has an equal opportunity to do all that his abili- ties permit : his talents are the only measure of his opportunities. In this country, we do not ask who is backing the young man, or what are his family con- nections, or what is his religion, or his politics. We ask only, what can the boy do? What has he learned, and how has he prepared himself to fulfill his part as a worker in the great world-hive of industry? If a man is dishonest and tries to get without toil what is not rightly his, or if he is an idler, a drone in the hive, we call him an unworthy citizen, no matter what his wealth or social position. But if a man is hard-working, pure, and honest, we respect and honor him, whether he is a day laborer or a wealthy manu- facturer. For all honest labor is equally honorable ; and the test of good citizenship is not what kind of work a man does, but how well he does the work that is given him to do. And the true measure of success in life is not how great a thing we do, but how well we do the thing that is to be done. 269. The Ideal of Free Public Education. The most effective means of securing this equality of opportunity is through our system of public schools ; hence free public education is one of the ideals most cherished 234 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP by the American people. In earlier times, and through* out the greater part of the world's history, it was only considered necessary to educate the leaders of society, leaving the mass of the people in dense ignorance. Schools were for the wealthy classes, who alone could afford to pay for the privilege of education. But in America we believe that education is not the privilege of the few, but the right of all. In our public schools, the son of the poorest laborer has equal opportunities with the child of the wealthiest capitalist. Here child- ren from every walk of life are associated under one roof, studying the same text books, instructed by the same teachers, living the life of that greatest of de- mocracies, the American public school. You all know that poverty does not prevent any boy from being at the head of his class ; and, indeed, it often happens that children from the humblest homes make the best record in school. No matter how much money a man may have, it will not give his son an education unless the boy has the ability and the desire to apply himself to his studies ; and unless he does this, he will be outdistanced by the son of the poor man who realizes that education is the key which unlocks the door to most of the opportunities of life. 270. The Ideal of Common Humanity. Another characteristic of our national life is the ideal of com- mon humanity, the spirit of social cooperation which springs from the desire that all members of society shall lead happy and comfortable lives. You will learn in your later study of history that for countless cen- turies it was only the few who shared in the happiness and comforts of civilization, while the great dumb OUR NATIONAL IDEALS 235 multitude toiled in misery and want and ignorance. But to-day we realize that it is not enough for a small group of men to be educated, comfortable, and happy. Our modern ideal of humanity requires that all men shall share in these benefits. So the one supreme ob- ject of our American civilization is to give every man, woman, and child equal opportunity in striving for comfort, happiness, and culture — for all in life worth seeking. 271. Influence of this Ideal upon Our National Life. This ideal of common humanity compelled the abolition of slavery, the institution so inconsistent with the principles of free government. In our own time, the same ideal of humanity is manifest in a thousand ways. It has led to the laws prohibiting child labor in mines and factories ; for even the poorest children must share in the benefits of our modern civilization. They are entitled to an education which will develop their abilities and enlarge their opportunities; and they are protected in this right by laws which compel parents to send their children to school. In many other ways society endeavors to bring the comforts of life within reach of all. The laws regulat* ing the construction of tenements in our large cities, the legislation intended to safeguard the conditions of labor and to improve the position of the worker, the many voluntary efforts of employers to cooperate in every movement for the benefit of the employed, the support given to such institutions as our public schools, libraries, art-galleries, and hospitals, — all bear witness to this ideal of common humanity. To-day we are beginning to realize that every man is his brother's 236 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP keeper; that each should share with his fellowmen the good things o£ life, and cooperate in the great work of uplifting the less fortunate. Those of you who have read that beautiful poem of Lowell in which he describes the search for the Holy Grail, will recall that the quest ended when the knight shared his own cup and crust with the beggar at his gate : — "In many climes, without avail, Thou hast spent thy life for the Holy Grail ; Behold it is here, — this cup which thou Didst fill at the streamlet for Me but now ; This crust is My body broken for thee, This water His blood that died on the tree ; The Holy Supper is kept, indeed. In whatso we share with another's need ; Not what we give, but what we share, — For the gift without the giver is bare ; Who gives himself with his alms feeds three, — Himself, his hungering neighbor, and Me." 272. The Ideal of International Peace. Another characteristic of our national life is the ideal of inter- national peace. No country has done more than our own toward promoting the movement which aims at the abolition of war, and the establishment of inter- national justice and fraternity. In the Geneva Arbi- tration Treaty of 1872, the United States and Great Britain gave to the world the splendid example of friendly arbitration of a dispute which most countries would have settled by war. When The Hague Court was established as a means of adjusting international controversies, the United States and Mexico submit- ted the first case for decision. During the war be- tween Russia and Japan, our President ofPered the UUK NATIONAL IDEALS 237 friendly services of this government toward bringing about the cessation of hostilities ; and the result was the Treaty of Portsmouth, which ended the war. 273. The Cost of War. So terribly destructive is modern warfare, so burdensome to the people the ex- pense of armies and navies, that the world is slowly turning toward arbitration as a substitute for the blind and terrible decision of war. You may form some idea of the cost of warfare from our Civil War, which cost the nation 700,000 human lives and more than seven billion dollars in property. 274. Agencies in Promoting International Peace. The establishment of The Hague Tribunal, and the proposed League of Nations, are the expression of a desire to secure peace and friendship among nations. To-day the world is counting the terrible sacrifices resulting from its necessary war to crush militarism. Intelligent public opinion is determined to make war with all its horrors a thing of the past. The young citizens of our schools should remember that there is a higher and a nobler ideal than to die for one's country ; and that is, to live for one's coun- try. A few years ago a vote was taken in the schools of France upon the question, " Who is the greatest hero of France?" The highest vote was given, not to Napoleon, the greatest soldier of history, but to Louis Pasteur, who gave his life to help cure the suf- fering of the world. If a similar vote were taken in our own schools, may we not hope that first place would be given not to Washington the general, but rather to Washington the President, first in peace rather than first in war? 238 PREPARING FOR CITIZENSHIP 275. The Ideal of Patriotism. Patriotism, the greatest of our national ideals, comprehends all the rest. Love of country is a sentiment common to all peoples and ages ; but no land has ever been dearer to its people than our own America. No nation has a history more inspiring, no country has institutions more deserving of patriotic love. Turning the pages of our nation's history, the young citizen sees Colum- bus, serene in the faith of his dream ; the Mayflower, bearing the lofty soul of the Puritan ; Washington, girding on his holy sword ; Lincoln, striking the shackles from the helpless slave ; the constitution, organizing the farthest west with north and south and east into one great Republic ; the tremendous en- ergy of free life trained in free schools, utilizing our immense natural resources, increasing the nation's wealth with the aid of advancing science, multiplying fertile fields and noble workshops, and busy schools and happy homes. This is the history for which our flag stands ; and when the young citizen salutes the flag, he should think of the great ideals which it represents. The flag stands for democracy, for liberty under the law ; it stands for heroic courage and self-reliance, for equal- ity of opportunity, for self-sacrifice and the cause of humanity; it stands for free public education, and for peace among all nations. When you salute the flag, you should resolve that your own life will be dedicated to these ideals. You should remember that he is the truest American patriot who understands the meaning of our nation's ideals, and who pledges his own life to their realization. APPENDIX A THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Preamble We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per- fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America. Article I. Legislative Department Section I. Congress in General All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section II. HoiLse of Representatives 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have at- tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citi- zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, ac- cording to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Repre- sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enume- ration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled ii APPENDIX to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five. New York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, A^or^A Carolina five, Soi^^A Carolina five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section III. Senate 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi- dent pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concur- rence of two thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to in- dictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Section IV. Both Houses 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Sena* APPENDIX ,Ti tors and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Sen- ators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section V. The Houses Separately 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- stitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, pun- ish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section VI. Privileges and Disabilities of Members 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu- ments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a mem- ber of either house during his continuance in office. Section VII. Mode of Passing Laws 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. iv APPENDIX 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representa- tives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by tw Tha clause of the constitutioB hai been snpeneded hj the twolfth amendment* viii APPENDIX 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation : "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." Section IL Powers of the President 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant re- prieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the ad- vice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting conmiis- sions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Section III. Duties of the President He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public minis- ters; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section IV. Impeachment The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and con- APPENDIX ix viction ot treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemean- ors. Article III. Judicial Department Section I. United States Courts The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continu- ance in office. Section II. Jurisdiction of the United States Courts 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- suls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to con- troversies to which the United States shall be a party; to contro- versies between two or more States; between a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. ^ 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases be- fore mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdic- tion, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section III. Treason 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levy- ing war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on con- fession in open court. ^ Thia clause has been amended. See Amendments, Article XL X APPENDIX 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. Article IV. — The States and the Federal Government Section I, State Records Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section II, Privileges of Citizens, etc, 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having juris- diction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such serv- ice or labor may be due.^ Section III. New States and Territories 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the juris- diction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junc- tion of two or more States or parts of States, without the con- sent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this con- stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular State. Section IV. Guarantees to the States The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them > This clause has been nullified by Amendment xm, which abolishes slavery. APPENDIX xi against invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the Executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against do- mestic violence. Article V. Power of Amendment The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which in either case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress, provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. Article VI. Public Debt, Supremacy of the Constitu- tion, Oath of Office, Religious Test 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution as under the Confedera- tion. 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. Article VII. Ratification of the Constitution The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suf- ficient for the establishment of this constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of xii APPENDIX the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Oilman. Massachusetts — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. New York — Alexander Hamilton. New Jersey — William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. Pennsylvania — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared IngersoU, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. Delaware — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickin- son, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. Maryland — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. Virginia — John Blair, James Madison, Jr. North Carolina — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. South Carolina — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinck- ney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. Georgia — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. AMENDMENTS i Article I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re- ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peace- ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Article II A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Article III No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a man- ner to be prescribed by law. 1 The first ten amendments were proposed by Congress, September 25, 1789, and de- clared in force December 16, 1791. APPENDIX xiii Article IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon prob- able cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article V No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. Article VI In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which dis- trict shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be in- formed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Article VH In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the com- mon law. Article VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article IX The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. xiv APPENDIX Article X The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively or to the people. Article XI * The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Article XII * 1. The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each; which lists they shall sign and certify, and trans- mit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-Pre- sident shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a * Proposed by Congress March 5, 1794, and declared in force January 8, 1798. ■ Proposed by Congress December 12, 1803, and declared in force September 25, 1804. APPENDIX XV majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a ma- jority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice/ 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Pre- sident shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Article XIII ^ 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. Article XIV * 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and sub- ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or en- force any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any per- son of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representa- tives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citi- zens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par- ticipation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who, hav- ing previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legisla- ture, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support * Proposed by Congress February 1, 1865, and declared in force December 18, 186fl. * Proposed by Congress June 16, 1866, and declared in force July 28, 1868. xvi APPENDIX the constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insur« rection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur- rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. Article XV ' 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Article XVI' The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on in- comes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration. Article XVTI' 1. The Senate of the United States shall be "composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the legisla- ture of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 1 Proposed by Congress February 26, 1869, and declared in force March 30, 1870. 2 Proposed by Congress July 12, 1909, and declared in force February 25, 1913. 8 Proposed by Congress June 12, 1912. and declared in force April 8, 1913. APPENDIX xvii Article XVIII Sect. 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territories subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Sect. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have con- current power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. APPENDIX B AREA AND POPULATION OF TERRITORIES AND INSULAR POSSESSIONS TERRITORY Date of Acquisition Date of Organization Area Square Miles Population, 1910 Alaska District of Columbia . . Guam Hawaii Panama Canal Zone . . Philippine Islands . . . Porto Rico Tutuila Group, Samoa Virgin Islands .... 1867 1904 1899 1899 1900 1917 1868 1791 1900 1902 1900 590,884 70 210 115,026 3,435 77 150 64,356 331,069 9,000 191,909 7,633,426 1,118,012 3,750 33,000 Total 716,737 9,384,522 xyiii APPENDIX APPENDIX C AREA, POPULATION, AND ELECTORAL VOTES OF THE STATES, 1912 STATS Alabama . . . Arizona . . . Arkansas . . . California . . Colorado . . . Connecticut . . Delaware . . . Florida . . . Georgia . . . Idaho . . . . Illinois . . . Indiana . . . Iowa .... Kansas . . . Kentucky . . Louisiana . . Maine .... Maryland . . Massachusetts . Michigan . . . Minnesota . . Mississippi . . Missouri . . Montana . . . Nebraska . . . Nevada . . . New Hampshire New Jersey . , New Mexico New York . . North Carolina North Dakota . Ohio .... Oklahoma . . Oregon . . . Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina . South Dakota . Tennessee . . . Texas .... Utah Vermont . . . Virginia . . . Washington . . West Virginia . Wisconsin . . . Wyoming . . . Total . . SS-2 1819 IQI2 1836 1850 187s 1788 1787 1845 1788 1890 1818 1816 1846 1861 I79I 1812 1820 1788 1788 1837 1858 1817 182I 1889 1867 1864 1788 1787 I9I2 1788 1789 1889 1802 1907 1859 1787 1790 1788 1889 1796 184s 1894 I79I 1788 1889 1863 1848 1890 Area Square Miles SI .998 113.950 53.335 158,297 103,948 4,965 2,370 58,666 59.265 83,888 56,66s 36,354 56,147 82,158 40,598 48,506 33.040 12,327 8,266 57,980 84,683 46,865 69,420 146,997 77,520 110,690 9,341 8,224 122,634 49,204 52,426 70,837 41,040 70,057 96,699 45,126 1,248 30,989 77,615 42,022 265,896 84,990 9,564 42,627 69,127 24,170 56,066 97,914 3,026,719 POPULATION 1900 1,828,697 122,931 1,311,564 1,485,053 539,700 908,420 184,73s 528,542 2,216,331 161,772 4,821,550 2,516.462 2,231,853 1,470,49s 2,147,174 1,381,625 694,466 1,188,044 2,805,346 2,420,982 1,751,394 1,551,270 3,106,665 243,329 1,066,300 42,335 411,588 1,883,669 195.310 7,268,894 1,893,810 319,146 4,157.545 790,391 413.536 6,302,115 428,556 1,340,316 401,570 2,020,616 3,048,710 276,749 343.641 1,854,184 518,103 958,800 2,069,042 92,531 75,715.857 1910 2,138.093 204,354 1,574.449 2,377.549 799,024 1,114,756 202,322 752,619 2,609,121 325,594 5,638,591 2,700,876 2,224,771 1,690,949 2,289,90s 1,656,388 742,371 1,295,346 3,366,416 2,810,173 2,075,708 1,797,114 3,293.33s 376,053 1,192,214 81,875 430,572 2,537.167 327,301 9,113,614 2,206,287 577.056 4,767,121 1,657.155 672,765 7,665,111 542,610 1,515,400 583,888 2,184,789 3,896,542 373,351 355.956 2,061,612 1,141,990 1,221,119 2,333,860 145.965 91,641,197 APPENDIX xix APPENDIX D ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE STUDY OF GOVERNMENT Local Governments. 1. A map of the pupil's State, showing the counties. 2. An enlarged map of the pupil's county, showing its subdivisions. 3. Reports of county and town or township oflBcers. 4. Ballots used at county elections. 5. A collection of legal notices from the local papers. 6. Copies of the more common legal blanks (deeds, mortgages, etc.). 7. Town-warrants, tax-bills, and other town documents. 8. The State constitution and revised statutes. 9. The manual of the State legislature. 10. The city charter and ordinances. 11. A copy of the city manual for each pupil. 12. A map of the city showing ward lines and election precincts. 13. The city council calendar. 14. Copies of measures introduced into the council, and of ordinaneei published in the daily papers. 15. Reports of the several municipal departments and officers. 16. A declaration of taxable property and a tax-bill. 17. Copies of tally-sheets used at elections. 18. Copies of nomination petitions, if used. 19. Copies of the ballots used at municipal. State, and national elections* £0. A copy of the jury list. 21. A set of the forms used in civil and criminal actions. State Governments. , 1. Copies of the constitution and revised statutes of the pupil's own SUte. 2. A collection of the constitutions of all the States. The most recent and complete is F. N. Thorpe's The Federal and State ConMitutionSy Colonial Charters^ and other Organic Laws (1909). 3. A good text-book on the government of the pupil's own State, such as the Handbooks of American Government, edited by L. B. Evans. 4. The manual of the State legislature. 5. A volume of the laws made during a legislative session. 6. A volume of the reports of the Supreme Court. 7. A map of the pupil's State, showing the representative and soiatorial election districts. 8. Copies of the ballots used at State and national elections. 9. Copies of bills which have been introduced into the legislature. ' 10. Copies of the calendar and the journal of each house of the legislft" ture. APPENDIX The National Government. 1. A large political map of the United States, showing territorial ac- quisitions. 2. A good physiographic map of the United States. 8. Abstract of the Twelfth Census, and the statistical atlas of the Twelfth Census (same for the Thirteenth Census, as soon as pub- lished). 4. The Statistical Abstract of the United States. 5. The United States Revised Statutes. 6. Copies of the House Manual and the Senate Manual. 7. Latest copy of the Congressional Directory. 8. The Congressional Record. 9. Reports of the federal departments and bureaus, especially those of the Civil Service Commission, the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion, the Commissioner of Education, the Commissioner of Immigra- tion, the Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance, the Year- Book of the Department of Agriculture, the Consular Reports, and the Labor Bulletins. 10. The Executive Register (Government Printing Office). 11. Thorpe's The Federal and State Constitutions. This contains also the early charters and plans of Union. APPENDIX E REFERENCE BOOKS Chapter I. How and why Governments are formed References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), pp. 1-4. Dunn, Arthur W., The Community and the Citizen (1907), chs. I, II. Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), chs. ii-v. Keinsch, Paul S., The Young Citizen's Reader (1909), eh. i. References for Teachers Ashley, R. L., The American Federal State (1903), ch. i. Boynton, F. D., School Civics (1904), chs. i-ii. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), sees. 14, 15-26. Hinsdale, B. A., The American Government (1900), Introduction. Willoughby, W. W., The Rights and Duties of American Citizenship (1898), part i. APPENDIX xxi Wilson, Woodrow, The State (1906), ch. i. Woodburn, James A., The American Republic and its Government (1903), chs. i-xxi. Chapter II. What Government does for the Citizen, and what the Citizen owes to his Government. References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), pp. 9-12. Dunn, Arthur W., The Community and the Citizen (1911), chs. IX-XV- Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), ch. xiii. Reinsch, Paul S., The Ymng Citizenh Reader (1909), ch. ii. References for Teachers Fiske, John, Civil Government in the United States (1904), ch. IV. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), ch. VI. Chapter III. The Selection of Public Officials References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. i. Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth (1907), ii, chs. LXVI, LXIX-LXXIII. Dunn, A. W., The Community and the Citizen (1907), pp. 168-175. Ford, H. J., The Rise and Growth of American Politics (1898), ch. xvi. Guitteau, W. B,, Government and Politics in the United States (1911), ch. xxxvii. Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. iv. References for Teachers Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), chs. Vii, xxx. Fuller, Robert H., Government by the People (1908). Goodnow, F. J., City Government in the United States (1904), ch. vi. Merriam, C. E., Primary Elections (1908). Meyer, E. C, Nominating Systems; Direct Primaries vs. Conventions in the United States (1902). Schouler, James, Constitutional Studies (1904), pp. 231-249. xxii APPENDIX Stanwood, Edward, A History of the Presidency from 1788 to 1896 (1898). Stanwood, Edward, A History of the Presidency from 1897 to 1909 (1912). Woodburn, J. A., Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States (1909), chs. x, xii, xx. Chapter IV. Political Parties and their Work HefevencGS for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. ii. Ford, H. J., The Rise and Growth of American Politics (1898), chs. VII, XXIII-XXV. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), ch. XXXVI. Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. V. Wilson, Woodrow, Constitutional Government in the United States (1908), ch. VIII. References for Teachers Beard, C. A., The American Federal State (1903), ch. xxni. Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth (1907), ii, chs. Liil-LVI, LIX-LXV. Fuller, Robert H., Government by the People (1908), ch. XI. Johnston, Alexander, History of American Politics (1902). Macy, J., Party Organization and Machinery (1904). Macy, J., Political Parties in the United States (1900). Woodburn, J. A., Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States (1909). Chapter V. The Protection of the Public References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), chs. IV, V. Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), ch. li. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), chs. VI, XII, XIII. Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. xxx. References for Teachers Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), pp. 568-577. Bliss, W. D. P., Encyclopedia of Social Reform (1908) ; articles on Temperanee, Prohibition, Faotory Legislation, and Tenements. APPENDIX xxiii McClain, E., Constitutional Law (1905), ch. ix. Wright, Carroll D., Outline of Practical Sociology (1899), chs. xii, xxni. Chapter VI. Public Education Meferences for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. vi. Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), ch. xlvi. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), ch. XVI. Wright, Carroll D., Outline of Practical Sociology (1899), ch. XI. References for Teachers Ashley, R. L., The American Federal State (1903), pp. 371-375. Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), pp. 624-627, 746-751. Bliss, W. D. P., and others. Encyclopedia of Social Reform (1908) ; article on Education. Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth (1907), ii, ch. cv. Dexter, E.G., History of Education in the United States (1906). Draper, A. S., American Education (1909). Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1900), ch. lvi. Chapter VII. Public Charities References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. vil. Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), ch. xlvi. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911^ ch. XIV. Riis, Jacob A., Children of the Poor (1892). References for Teachers Addams, Jane, Philanthropy and Social Progress (1894). Alden, Percy, The Unemployed (1905). Davenport-Hill, Florence, Children of the State (1899). Devine, Edward T., The Practice of Charity (1904). Devine, Edward T., Principles of Relief (1904:). Henderson, C. R., Modern Methods of Charity (1904). Henderson, C. R., Dependent, Defective^ and Delinquent Classes (1906), pp. 1-209. xxiv APPENDIX Hobson, J. A., Problems of Poverty (1899). Hunter, Robert, Poverty (1904). Warner, Amos G., American Charities (1894). Wright, Carroll D., Outline of Practical Sociology (1899), chs. xviii, xx. Chapter VIII. Government and Industry Heferences for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. vili. Blackmar, F. W., Economics for High Schools (1907), ch. xxxi. Burch, H. R., and Nearing, Scott, Elements of Economics (1912), chs. VII, VIII, IX. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911i. ch. XV. Wright, C. D., Outline of Practical Sociology (1899), part v. References for Teachers Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), pp. 721-742. Bullock, C. J., Introduction to the Study of Economics (1900), chs. xi^ XIV, XVI. Ely, R. T., Monopolies and Trusts (1900). Fiske, A. K., The Modern Bank (1909). Hadley, A. T., Railroad Transportation (1903), ch. VI. Jenks, J. W., The Trust Problem (1909). Johnson, Emory R., American Railway Transportation (1909), chs. vi, XV-XVIII, XXV, XXVII. Johnson, Emory R., Ocean and Inland Water Transportation (1909), chs. xxiv-xxix. Chapter IX. Town and County Government References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. ix. Dunn, Arthur W., The Community and the Citizen (1907), ch. xxi. Fairlie, John A., Local Government in Counties^ Towns, and Villages (1906), chs. i-iii. Fiske, John A., Civil Government in the United States (1904), chs. ii-iv. Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), chs. xxvi-xxviii. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), chB. n-iii. APPENDIX XXV References for Teachers Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), ch. xxix. Bryce, Jiimes, The American Commonwealth (1908), i, clis. xlviii-xlix. Fairlie, John A., Local Government in Counties^ Towns, and Villages (1906), chs. iv-xvi. Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. x. Wilson, Woodrow, The State (1906), sees. 1209-1259. Chapter X. The Government of Cities Heferences for Pupils Ashley, Roscoe L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. x. Dole, Charles F., The Young American (1899) , chs. ii, xiii-xiv. Dunn, Arthur W., Jlie Community and the Citizen (1907), ch. xxii. Fiske, John, Civil Government in the United States (1904), pp. 115-140. Willard, Charles D., City Government for Young People (1906), chg. ix-xxix. References for Teachers Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth (1908), i, ch. L. Fairlie, John A., Municipal Administration (1901), chs. vin-xii, xvn- XX, Goodnow, J. F., City Government in the United States (1904), chs. iv- XIII. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), chs. v-vi. Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. xi. Rowe, L. S., Problems of City Government (1908), chs. vi-ix. Wilcox, Delos F., The American City (1904), chs. iv-xxix. Chapter XI. The State Governments References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), chs. xi-xil. Clark, S. S., The Government (1902), chs. 20, 28. Dole, C. F., The Young American (1899), ch. xxi. Dunn, A. W., The Community and the Citizen (1907), ch. xxin. Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1908), chs. xxii-xxiv. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), chs. vn-xi. xxvi APPENDIX References for Teachers 1. Origin of State Governments: Fiske, John, The American Revolum Hon (1891), I ; Greene, E. B., Provincial America (1905), chs. i-v, xi, XVI ; Howard, G. E., Preliminaries of the Revolution (1905); Thorpe, F. N., Constitutional History of the United States, n, pp. 1-165; Thwaites, R. G., The Colonies (1904) ; Woodburn, James A., The American Re- public and its Government (1908), ch. i. 2. State Constitutions: Ashley, R. L., The American Federal State (1903), pp. 344-350 ; Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), pp. 78-98, 445-460 ; Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. in; Landou, J. S., The Constitutional History and Government of the United States (1905), ch. iv ; MeClain, E., Constitutional Law in the United States (1905), ch. ii ; Thorpe, F. N., Constitutional History of the United States (1901), I, pp. 166-184 ; Woodburn, James A., The American Republic and its Government (1908), pp. 342-348. 3. The State Legislature: Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), ch. xxv; Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), ch. XXII; Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. vii ; Reinsch, P. S., American Legislatures and Legislative Methods (1907), chs. iv-x. 4. The State Executive : Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), ch. xxiv ; Finley, J. H., and Sanderson, J. F., The American Executive and Executive Methods (1908), pp. 1-184 ; Fiske, John, Civil Government in the United States (1904), pp. 175-179 ; Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), ch. viii ; Wilson, W., The State (1906), sees. 1174-1208. 5. The State Judiciary: Baldwin, Simeon "E., The American Judi- ciary (1905), chs. vn-viii, x-xi, xiv, xxii ; Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), ch, xxvi ; Bryce, James, The Amer- ican Commonwealth (1907), i, ch. xlvii ; ii, chs. ci, cii ; Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), ch. xxiv ; Hart, A. B., Actual Govern- ment (1903), ch. IX ; Wilson, Woodrow, Constitutional Government in the United States (1908), ch. vi. Chapter XII. How the Expenses of Govern- ment ARE MET Heferences for Pujnls Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. ill. Blackmar, F. W., Economics for High Schools (1907), ch. xxxii. Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth (1908), i, chs. xvii, XLm. Forman, S. E., Advanced Civics (1905), chs. xxxv-xxxvii. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), chs. xvn, XXIX. APPENDIX xxvii Heferences for Teachers Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics (1910), chs. xvni, XXXI. Bullock, C. J., Introduction to the Study of Economics (1900), ch. xvii. Daniels, W. M., The Elements of Public Finance, pp. 30-38, 167-170, 186-191. Dewey, D. R., Financial History of the United States (1903), chs. iii, XXI. Ely, R. T., and Wicker, G. R., Elementary Principles of Economics (1904), pp. 327-363. Hart, A. B., Actual Government (1903), chs. xxi-xxu. James, J. A., and Sanford, A. H., Government in State and Nation (1903), ch. XVII. McClain, E., Constitutional Law in the United States (1905), pp. 137- 142. Plehn, C. C, Introduction to Public Finance (1897). Woodburn, J. A., The American Republic and its Government (1908), pp. 287-298. Chapter XIII. The Constitution of the United States References for Pupils Ashley, R. L., Government and the Citizen (1911), ch. xin. Fiske, John, The Critical Period of American History (1888), chs. VI- vn. Forman, S. E., History of the United States (1910), ch. xx. Guitteau, W. B., Government and Politics in the United States (1911), chs. xviii-xix. Hart, A. B., Formation of the Union (1893), chs. iii-v. Woodburn, J. A., and Moran, T. F., Elementary American History and Government (1910), chs. xi-xn. References for Teachers 1. Origin of the Federal Government : Beard, C. A., American Gov- ernment and Politics (1910), ch. ii ; Channing, Edward, Student\-191. Commission government, in cities, 11&- 111. Commissioner of Education, federal, 68. Commissioners, county, 96, 148; United States, 199. Committee system, in city councils, 104r- 105; in State legislatures, 122; in Con- gress, 170-171 ; conference committees, 172. Committees, party, 37. Commons, House of, 167. Compromise type of local government, 93, 95-96. Compromises of the constitution, 165- 156. Comptroller, State, 126. Compulsory education, 66, 235. Confederation, Articles of, 8 ; defects of, 153; contrast with federal consti- tution, 153. Conference committees, 172. Congress, the Second Continental, 152. Congress, United States, home of, 163- 164; term and sessions, 168-169; pre- siding officers, 169 ; process of legisla- tion, 170-173; committee system, 170; debate in Congress, 171 ; relations with the President, 172-173; powers of, 174. See Senate, House of Representa- tives. Congressmen. ,m,mimm~