TURKEY. BY J. LEWIS FARLEY, FELLOW OP THE STATISTICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUT EGYPTIEN OF ALEXANDRIA. AUTHOR OF "THE RESOURCES OF TURKEY," "TWO YEARS IN SYRIA," ETC., ETC. LONDON : SAMPSON LOW, SON, AND MARSTON, MILTON HOUSE, LUDGATE HILL. 1866. [The JiiyTit. of Translation i Iteierved.] I1ARII11.D, P^'Vtr'fr, LON1>O>', SRLE URL 5137261 TO HIS HIGHNESS FUAD PASHA, GRAND VIZIER, THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED, BY THE AUTHOR. PKEFACE. THE object which the Author proposed to himself in writing this volume, was to give the reader a fair insight into the rise, progress, and present position of Turkey ; and that, within a narrow com- pass. Conscious that much herein contained has been better said at different times, and in divers ways, by others ; and acknowledging in the fullest possible manner the assistance which he has derived from a perusal of their works, he is yet not without hope that a long residence in the Ottoman Empire, the intercourse which he has been permitted to hold with some of the most distinguished Turkish statesmen, and his more or less intimate acquaintance with the finances and commerce of the country, may be accepted as so many qualifications for the task he has undertaken. With him, Turkey is no new subject of conside- ration. He has sketched her rise and progress with a loving hand, and, whether in awarding praise or imputing blame, his aim has been to deal even-handed justice. LONDON, January, 1866. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Commencement of Ottoman rule in Asia Osman, the first of the Sultans Formation of the Janissaries Passage to Europe and conquest of Thrace by Orchan Fall of Adrianople Reign of Sultan Bajazet I. First siege of Constantinople, and capture of Bajazet by Tamerlane Capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II. Selim III., the first reforming Sultan His deposition by the Janissaries Accession of Mahmud II. Destruction of the Janissaries Closer relations of friendship with the Western powers Reschid Pasha and his measures of reform War with Mehemet Ali Death of Mahmud, and accession of Abdul Medjid The Tanzimat Internal reforms Settlement of the Egyptian question Aggressive character of Russian diplomacy The question of the holy places in Palestine Demands of Russia The war with Russia Hatti-Humayoun of 1856 The Peace of Paris Revolt of Mussulman fanatics in Syria Selection of Fuad Pasha for the task of pacification Assistance rendered by the Western Powers Accession of Abdul- Aziz to the throne Elevation of Fuad to the dignity of Grand Vizier Turkey progressing in the arts of Peace, and in the science of liberal government 1 CHAPTER II. Geographical position of the Empire Its area and climatic range Topographical characteristics Population Division of the Empire for the purposes of Government Turkey, an agricul- tural country Her agricultural products Cotton, wool, silk, mohair, opium, madder, valonia, tobacco, grain Her mineral deposits Coal, copper, lead, silver Vast extent of land not' under culture Her mineral wealth unproductive because neglected Place which Turkey is destined to occupy among the nations Probable revival of manufactures 41 CHAPTER III. State of the finances in the time of Mahmud II. Sources of revenue Tithe Verghi - Customs Sheep Exemption from military service Tribute Tobacco Salt Pigs Fish and fisheries Imperial farms Post-office Alcoholic liquors Mines Total Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE amount of revenue Depreciation of the currency Issue of paper money Issue of Government Bonds Amount of external debt Measures of retrenchment by the present Sultan Appointment of Fuad Pasha as Grand Vizier His reforms in the financial administration Introduction of ministerial respon- sibility to an administrative chief Opposition to reform Statement of the public debt The interior debt Fuad pre- pares for a financial coup The consolidation of the interior debt Principles on which it was based Its administration Guar- antees for the future Opposition to the scheme of consolidation in Constantinople, London, and Paris Personal character of the opposition Financial reforms necessitated by the consolidation of the public debt 87 CHAPTER IV.. Defective system of internal communication Want of good roads and serviceable canals Characteristics of a good road Diffi- culties in the way of their construction The rivers of Turkey : their condition Rivers suitable for canalization Defective state of the harbours Review of the state of public works in the Empire : Roads, Rivers, Harbours. TURKEY IN EUROPE : Bulgaria Roumelia Bosnia Albania. THE ISLANDS : Candia Cyprus Rhodes. TURKEY IN ASIA : First Division All the country north of the Euphrates from the Russian and Persian frontiers on the east to the thirty-seventh degree of east longi- tude on the west. Second Division The whole of Asia Minor west of the line just named. Third Division The area between the Euphrates and the frontier of Persia. Fourth Division Syria. Defective road system incompatible with good govern- ' ment General reflections 140 CHAPTER V. State of Banking in Turkey The Commercial Finance of the Empire Principal business centres Adrianople Aleppo Alexandretta Alia Avlona Beyrout Brussa Burgas Canea Constan- tinople Damascus Diarbekir Gallipoli Ghio - Jaffa Janina Kustendjie Larnaca Monastir Panorma Prevesa Rhodes Salonica Samsoun Scutari Smyrna Trebizond Varna Volo 192 CHAPTER VI. The Suzerain Provinces : Moldo-Wallachia Servia 253 CHAPTER VII. The Capitulations Conclusion 280 Appendices 289 TURKEY. CHAPTER I. Commencement of Ottoman rule in Asia Osman, the first of the Sultans Formation of the Janissaries Passage to Europe and conquest of Thrace by Orchan Fall of Adrianople Reign of Sultan Bajazet I. First siege of Constantinople, and capture of Bajazet by Tamerlane Capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II. Selim III., the first reforming Sultan His deposition by the Janissaries Accession of Mahmud II. Destruction of the Janissaries Closer relations of friendship with the Western powers Reschid Pasha and his measures of reform War with Mehemet Ali Death of Mahmud, and accession of Abdul Medjid The Tanzimat Internal reforms Settlement of the Egyptian question Aggressive character of Russian diplomacy The question of the holy places in Palestine Demands of Russia The war with Russia Hatti-Humayoun of 1856 The Peace of Paris Revolt of Mussulman fanatics in Syria Selection of Fuad Pasha for the task of pacification Assistance rendered by the Western Powers Accession of Abdul-Aziz to the throne Elevation of Fuad to the dignity of Grand Vizier- Turkey progressing in the arts of peace, and in the science of liberal government. THE history of the Ottoman Empire, the tale of her prowess, her abasement, and her regeneration, constitutes one of the most wondrous stories in the lives of nations. There is something startling l 2 TUEKET. in the reflection that a horde of Asiatic moun- taineers, from the fastnesses of the Altai range, should descend into the plains of Independent Tartary conquest inscribed on their banners, and lust of dominion in their hearts that they should adopt a creed, as yet barely consolidated into a system, and, professing its tenets with a fanaticism and persistance of purpose unsurpassed in their intensity, should overthrow the Byzantine Empire, obtain possession of its fairest provinces, displace the Christian in his most cherished land, and, crossing from Asia into Europe, strike dismay into the stoutest hearts, seizing the rich plains between the Carpathians and the sea, reducing the famous city of Constantinople by the sword, and, settling therein, finally enter into the family of European nations. The Ottomans, or Osmanli, derive their name from Osman, an Emir under Sedjuk, an inde- pendent military chieftain, who seceded from the Arabians, and ruled over a large portion of Western Asia. On the death of Sedjuk, and the dismemberment of his dominions, Osman carried on, from the Taurus Mountains, a war of pillage and rapine, but finally determined to engage in more distant expeditions, and found an inde- pendent dynasty. In the chronology of the Turkish Empire, Osman ranks as the first Sultan. He was a contemporary of Eodolph of Hapsburg, and his son Orchan, who succeeded to the throne FORMATION OF THE JANISSARIES. 3 in the year 1326, formed the first corps of Janis- saries, which, as a class, were suppressed by Mahmud II., the father of the present sultan, Abdul Aziz. To recount chronologically the events of Turkish history, in a brief retrospect like this, were not desirable, even if such a feat were within the limits of possibility. Extending from the year of the Hegira 699, A.D. 1300, to the present day, and embracing some of the most stirring episodes in historical annals, the historian who shall deal with the Ottoman rule will find an abundance of material for his work. He will have to consider the origin and spread of the creed of Islam, the decadence and ultimate extinguishment of Greek rule in Asia the effect produced in Christian Europe by the occupation of the Holy Places, resulting in the Crusades, undertaken by the flower of Western chivalry for their rescue from the hands of the Moslems ; as well as a multitude of other topics equally interesting and important. That, however, which more immediately concerns us, is to show by what rapid strides the Osmanli effected a lodgment on European territory, and subsequently to ascertain the position of the empire at the accession of Sultan Mahmud II., from whose reign the progressive life of the Turks as a nation may be more conveniently traced. It has been already stated that Orchan, the son of Osman, was the sultan who instituted the 4 TUBKEY. corps of Janissaries, formed and recruited from the youth of his Christian captives. He also formed several corps of regular infantry and cavalry, with stated pay, in contradistinction to the irregular troops, who existed mainly by plunder collected on their various expeditions. It was Orchan's son, Soliman, who planned and conducted the first expedition into Europe, re- sulting in the fall of G-allipoli." What might have resulted, had this daring prince lived to ascend the throne, it would be in vain to speculate ; but in the hands of his father and successors the results were sufficiently disastrous. A footing once ob- tained on the northern shore of the Hellespont, the rich plains of Macedonia and Thrace were prizes worth contending for ; and so we find that Murad I., who succeeded Orchan, conquered the whole country as far as the Balkans, and esta- blished the seat of government at Adrianople. The war was continued by his son, Bajazet L, and carried into Greece and Austria on the one hand, and Russia on the other, whilst in Asia his victorious standards were borne as far as the Persian Gulf. The atrocities that stained the rule of Ba- jazet, coupled with the rapid and important encroachments which the Turks were making on European territory, thoroughly roused the ire of Christendom. The worst fears as to Europe being overrun by the conquering Osmanli seemed THE CRUSADES. 5 on the eve of realization ; and, in presence of a common danger, party hatreds were tem- porarily buried, and the most incongruous ele- ments were banded together in defence of a common cause. Pope Eugene caused a crusade to be preached throughout the entire West. French, Germans, Genoese, Hungarians, and Poles flocked to the standard of that beau sabreur, Sigismund of Hungary, while the Christian fleets promised to do wonders on the sea ; but the in- dividual valour of the Christian, despising the orders of an experienced leader in the hour of trial, availed not against the disciplined courage of the Moslem, and the sun often sank over fields of carnage, the bare contemplation of which makes the blood run chill. The summum bonum of Bajazet's desires was the possession of Con- stantinople, but he was obliged to raise the siege of that city, in order to give battle to Tamer- lane, who was advancing from Asia as an ally of the Byzantine power, and died, miserably, in captivity. His successors, however, kept the re- duction of Constantinople steadily in view, until, at length, it was taken by Mohammed II., on the 29th May, 1453, Constantino Palaeologus, the last of the Byzantine emperors, perishing in its defence. From the fall of Constantinople to the accession of Sultan Selim III., A. D. 1789, the Ottoman dominion in Europe was subject to all the bewil- 6 TURKEY. dering fluctuations which attend upon a power at war with the whole of the political and civil insti- tutions by which it was surrounded. The doom of Damocles, in its torturing suspense, may fitly illustrate the fear with which the Christian powers regarded the Ottoman invasion, the astonishing vitality of which was demonstrated by the ability of the Osmanli to conquer in Asia whilst holding their own against the armies of Europe. The fall of Constantinople was followed by that of Belgrade, Bosnia, the Morea and Crimea, in Europe; of Trebizond, Bagdad, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Syria, in Asia ; and by the conquest of Egypt and the whole of the southern coast line of the Mediterranean, in Africa. This entire period of upwards of three centuries is a continuous record of successes and reverses, treaties and truces, international perfidy and internecine struggle. On the accession of Selim, however, Turkey had yielded many of her conquests to their former pos- sessors. Russia had not only regained her Tartar provinces, secured the independence of the Crimea and the protectorate of the Greek communion, but she had also obtained the right of navigating Turkish waters, and her influence at Constanti- nople consequently dominated that of the Western Powers, with whom the Government of the Sultan was now in continuous communication. The custom which has obtained in Turkey for several centuries, of secluding the heir to the ACCESSION OP SELIM III. 7 throne from any intercourse with the outer world, and confining him to the society of a jealously restricted entourage, may have its possible advan- tages ; but in times of civil strife, when sagacious valour in the field must be wedded to far-seeing wisdom in council, its efficacy as a means of edu- cation for exalted office is fairly open to grave suspicion. Selim, however, had been sedulously instructed in the traditions of his race, and had contrived, during his confinement, to surrep- titiously obtain a good deal of information re- specting the state of his own country, and the relation in which it stood to the Powers of the West. Possessed of considerable natural ability, he was not slow to appreciate the superiority of such a system of government as the French over that of the Ottoman, and the effect of his correspon- dence with Louis XVI., prior to the outbreak of the French Revolution, was amply evidenced by his subsequent determined attempts at the reform of effete and vicious institutions. That Selim was singularly unfortunate in his selection of an adviser, most students of history will readily admit ; and that he should have persisted in the attempt to revolutionize the habits and customs of his people by imposing upon them a new order of things, without previously preparing public opinion for their reception, does not induce a high estimate of his judgment. His reforms in the army were opposed by the Janissaries ; in the laws, by the 8 TTTEKEY. clergy ; and in the administration of public affairs, by the vested interests of the governing classes. He had many friends who zealously supported him in his schemes of reform, but his ostentatious preference for the French, and his substitution of new troops for the Janissaries in state cere- monials, induced a revolt of the latter, which, although temporarily suppressed, resulted in his being compelled to abdicate in favour of Mustapha, by whom he was assassinated. Mus- tapha lost no time in abolishing the reformed institutions of his uncle, and reinstating the Janis- saries in all their wonted privileges ; but he was overtaken by Nemesis, in the person of Mustapha Bairaktar, an ardent adherent of the new order of things, who marched upon the capital, seized Mustapha, put the principal instigators of the plot against Selim to the sword, and placed Mustapha' s brother on the throne as Mahmud II., A.D. 1808. What might have been the fate of the Ottoman dominion in Europe but for the overthrow of mo- narchical institutions in France, and the advent of Napoleon Bonaparte, is an abstruse speculation. But the fact is undoubted that to the invasion of Egypt by the French, and the terror inspired by the success of their arms on the continent of Europe, the Osmanli are indebted for their friendly recognition as a European power. Amongst the first acts of Mahmud, who had been won over to Selim' s ideas of reform, was to REVOLT OP THE JANISSARIES. 9 appoint Mustapha Bairaktar Grand Vizier, and to proclaim the re-institution of those measures which his uncle had inaugurated. That such a course of action could be pursued with impunity exceeded the bounds of reasonable expectation. The Janissaries again revolted, successfully at- tacked the regular troops, and compelled Bairaktar to take refuge in a building which, when no longer capable of defence against the fury of his assail- ants, he blew up with gunpowder, and so perished. The Janissaries then attacked the seraglio, com- pelling the Sultan to revoke his measures of reform and restore the status quo ante. But although tri- umphant for the moment, the Janissaries, by this last display of insolent intolerance, were unwit- tingly hastening their final overthrow. Eor cen- turies their very name had spread terror in the field; while, in the capital, as a numerous and privileged order, their arrogance had become in- sufferable. Usedj alternately by opposing factions in the state, their very existence had become a standing menace to public security, and Mahmud, therefore, resolved to break up their organization, and draft them into other corps. Against this decree the Janissaries rebelled. They rose in arms to the number of 25,000 at the least, but, Mahmud being prepared, they were exterminated by the regular army, the necessity for whose services had been anticipated. Thus, in a few hours, perished a body of troops which, by their 10 TURKEY. valour and repute, had reared the structure of Ottoman power in Europe, but which, by their intolerant bigotry, had done more to retard its consolidation than even their most devoted apolo- gists will care to admit. Mahmud's reign was both long and important. It constitutes a connecting link between compara- tive barbarism and modern civilization. In it, the independence of Greece was secured, the Russian frontiers rectified, the quasi-independence of the vice-royalty of Egypt practically settled, and the method arranged by which the Principalities of "Wallachia and Moldavia should be governed. Viewing the period through which he reigned as a whole, Mahmud must rank high in the list of Ottoman sovereigns for astuteness as an adminis- trator. His rule was not, certainly, conspicuous for any decided or lasting improvement in the economy of the state, but it will be marked, never- theless, as the period when Western institutions were first systematically studied by Turkish statesmen, and the groundwork laid for those relations of friendship with the Western Powers which have already borne their fruits, both in diplomacy and war. The intelligence of Mahmud's death, July 1st, 1839, at a time so critical for the future of his country, spread consternation amongst the friends of Turkey. An act of treachery on the part of the commander of the Turkish fleet, unparalleled ACCESSION OF ABDUL MEDJID. 11 in "the modern history of nations, had just been perpetrated, and the most justifiable fears for the safety of the empire were entertained. One of the first acts, however, of the new Sultan, Abdul Medjid, was to summon to his aid some of his late father's most trusted friends, and Rescind Pasha, who had fallen into disfavour with Mahmud, and was expiating his disgrace in foreign travel, was, consequently, summoned to Constanti- nople. When Abdul Medjid ascended the throne, the Ottoman empire was in a state of ferment. The determined efforts of Selim and Mahmud to re- form abuses in the administration of affairs, and ameliorate the condition of the agricultural popula- tion, had at length been productive of some perma- nent effect. The reforming party in the state were increasing both in numbers and influence, whilst the old Turkish party, who hated change as heartily as they loathed an infidel, could not boast of any accessions to their ranks. With the reins of power in the hands of a less resolute monarch, the labours, in the cause of improvement, of the two previous reigns might have been barren of ultimate result ; but Abdul Medjid, recognizing the necessity for progress, was made of sterner stuff than to prefer indolent repose to the active performance of the duties of his state. By investing Rescind with authority to resume his labours in the cause of reform, he infused 12 TURKEY. new vigour into the rising party in the governing class, and proved that Mahmud, baffled and at times defeated in the pursuit of his loftiest aspirations, had found a worthy successor in his son. There is something in these persistent efforts at reform, in these repeated attempts on the part of the ruler to overcome the vis inertia; of the subject, which extorts from us our admiration and respect ; for those only who have had practical ex- perience of Asiatic habits, can thoroughly appre- ciate the force of character which must be pos- sessed by the man who resolves to impose modern conditions of thought and action upon a people absolutely indifferent to external change, and clinging with tenacity to the traditions of the past. Reschid, however, set about his task with all the fervour of a'n enthusiast, and the commencement of the new reign was signalized by one of the most important public acts which ever emanated from the race of Osman viz., the solemn promulgation of a new constitution for the Empire, embodying the most advanced measures of reform of the two previous sultans. This edict, known as the Hatti-scheriff of Giilhane ordi- narily spoken of as the Tanzimat was read, and its strict execution ordained at the Court of Gulhane, on the 3rd November, 1839, with all the pomp and ceremonial observance possible on the occasion. The audience was one of the most illustrious that had ever assembled in the halls of A NEW CONSTITUTION. 13 the Sultans, comprising the high functionaries, civil, military, and legal ; the dignitaries of the different religious communions, and the diplomatic corps. The orator was Reschid Pasha, and before all stood the youthful Sultan, sanctioning by his presence, and prepared to ratify by act, the writing which his minister was reading as the emanation of his Imperial will. The fundamental changes which this ordinance introduced into the internal administration of the Ottoman empire, are of so startling a character, that its perusal in extenso is necessary in order that its provisions may be properly understood. The text is as follows : HATTI-SCHERIFF OF GULHANfi. " It is well known that during the early ages of the Ottoman monarchy, the glorious precepts of the Koran, and the laws of the Empire, were ever held in honour. In consequence of this, the Empire increased in strength and greatness ; and all the population, without exception, acquired a high degree of welfare and prosperity. " For one hundred and fifty years a succession of incidents and various causes has checked this obedience to the sacred code of the law, and to the regulations which emanate from it ; and the previous internal strength and prosperity have been converted into weakness and poverty, for in truth an empire loses all its stability when it ceases to observe its laws. 14 TUEKEY. " These considerations have been ever present to our mind, and since the day of our accession to the throne, the thought of the public good, of the amelioration of the condition of the provinces, and the alleviation of the national burdens, has not ceased to claim our entire attention. If we take into consideration the geographical position of the Ottoman provinces, the fertility of the soil, and the aptness and intelligence of the inhabi- tants, we shall attain the conviction that by applying ourselves to discover efficacious methods, the result which, with the aid of God, we hope to obtain, will be realized within a few years. " Thus, then, full of confidence in the help of the Most High, supported by the intercession of our prophet, we consider it advisable to attempt by new institutions to obtain for the provinces composing the Ottoman Empire, the benefits of a good administration. " These institutions will principally refer to these topics : " 1. The guarantees which will insure our subjects perfect security for their lives, their honour, and their property. "2. A regular method of establishing and collecting the taxes. "3. An equally regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing duration of the service. INTERNAL EEFORMS. 15 " In truth, are not life and honour the most precious blessings in existence? "What man, whatever may be his detestation of violence, could refrain from having recourse to it, and thereby injuring the government and his country, if his life and honour are exposed to danger? If, on the contrary, he enjoys perfect security in this respect, he will not forget his loyalty, and all his acts will conduce to the welfare of the government and his fellow subjects. " If there is no security for their fortune, all listen coldly to the voice of their prince and country ; none attend to the progress of the common weal, absorbed as they are in their own troubles. If, on the other hand, the citizen possesses in confidence his property, of whatever kind it may be, then, full of ardour for his own affairs, the sphere of which he strives to extend, in order to increase that of his own enjoyments, he daily feels the love for his prince and his country growing more fervent in his heart. These sentiments become within him the source of the most laudable actions. "It is of the highest importance to regulate the imposition of the taxes ; as the State, which in the defence of its territory, is forced into various expenses, cannot procure the money necessary for the army and other branches of the service, save by contributions levied on its subjects. " Although, thanks to God, our subjects have 16 TUKKEY. been for some time delivered from the scourge of monopolies, falsely regarded hitherto as a source of revenue, a fatal practice still exists, although it can only have the most disastrous consequences ; it is that of the venal concessions known by the name of Iltizim. "Under this system, the civil and financial administration of the province is entrusted to the arbitrary will of an individual ; that is, at times to the iron hand of the most violent and covetous passions ; for, if the administrator is not good, he cares for nothing but his own advantage. "It is therefore necessary that, in future, each member of the Ottoman society should be taxed in a ratio to his fortune and his ability, and that nothing further shall be demanded from him. " It is also necessary that special laws should fix and limit the expenses of our forces on land and sea. " Although, as we have said, the defence of the country is a paramount consideration, and it is the duty of all the inhabitants to furnish soldiers for this end, it is necessary to establish laws to regulate the contingent which each district should furnish according to the requirements of the moment, and to reduce the time of active military service to four or five years. For it is both com- mitting an injustice and inflicting a deadly blow on the agriculture and industry of the country, to take, without regard to the respective population INTERNAL EEFORMS. 17 of the districts, more from one and less from another, than they are able to furnish ; at the same time it is reducing the soldiers to despair, and contributing to the depopulation of the country to retain them during their whole life in the service. " In fine, without the various laws, the neces- sity of which has been recognized, the Empire can neither possess strength, nor wealth, nor prosperity, nor tranquillity : on the contrary, it may hope for them all from the existence of these new laws. " For this reason, in future, the cause of every accused party will be tried publicly, in conformity with our divine law ; and until a regular sentence has been pronounced, no one can put another to death, secretly or publicly, by poison, or any other form of punishment. " No one will be permitted to assail the honour of any one, whosoever he may be. " Every person will enjoy the possession of his property of every nature, and dispose of it with the most perfect liberty, without any one being able to impede him ; thus, for example, the innocent heirs of a criminal will not be deprived of their legal rights, and the property of the criminal will not be confiscated. " These imperial concessions extend to all our subjects, whatever religion or sect they may belong to, and they will enjoy them without any exception. " Perfect security is, therefore, granted by us 2 18 TUEKEY. to the inhabitants of the Empire, with regard to their life, their honour, and their fortune, as the sacred text of our law demands. " With reference to the other points, as they must be regulated by the concurrence of en- lightened opinions, our Council of Justice (aug- mented by as many new members as may be deemed necessary), to whom will be adjoined, on certain days, which we shall appoint, our ministers and the notables of the Empire, will meet for the purpose of establishing the fundamental laws on those points relating to the security of life and property, and the imposition of the taxes. Every one in these assemblies will state his ideas freely, and give his opinion. " The laws relating to the regulations of the military service will be discussed by the Military Council, holding its meetings at the palace of the Seraskier. As soon as a law is decided upon, it will be presented to us, and in order that it may be eternally valid and applicable, we will confirm it by our sanction, written above it with our imperial hand. " As these present institutions are solely in- tended for the regeneration of religion, govern- ment, the nation, and the Empire, we engage to do nothing which may be opposed to them. " As a pledge for our promise, we intend, after having deposited this edict in the hall which con- tains the glorious relics of the prophet, in the INTEENAL EE70EMS. 19 presence of all the Ulema and Grandees of the Empire, to take an oath in the name of the Almighty, and cause the Ulema and Grandees also to swear to that effect. " After that, any one of the Ulema or Grandees, or any other person whatsoever, who violates these institutions, will undergo, without regard to rank, consideration, or credit, the punishment appointed for his guilt when proven. A penal code will be drawn up to this effect. " As all the functionaries of the Empire will receive from this day a suitable salary, and those whose functions are not at present sufficiently rewarded, will be advanced, a rigorous law will be passed against the traffic in favours and appointments, which the divine laws reprove, and which is one of the principal causes of the decay of the Empire. " The enactments thus made being a complete renovation and alteration in ancient usages, this Imperial rescript will be published at Constanti- nople and in all the towns of our Empire, and will be officially communicated to all the ambassa- dors of friendly powers residing in Constantinople, in order that they may be witnesses of the conces- sion of these institutions, which, with the favour of the Almighty, will endure for ever. "May the All-powerful God have us all in His holy keeping ! " May those who commit any act contrary to 20 TUEKET. the present institutions be the objects of the Divine malediction, and eternally deprived of every kind of happiness 1" The Hatt having been read by Rescind in a clear and distinct voice, the proceedings were brought to a close with prayer by the Sheikh-ul-Islam, and thus, with the sanction of the Church, the concurrence of the high dignitaries of state, and in the presence of the foreign representatives, were the dreams of Selim and the labours of Mahmud brought to a definite and practical issue. It will be observed that from beginning to end there is no acknowledgment of the superiority of Western civilization over that of Islam ; the edict seems to be aimed solely at the eradication of abuses which, in a period of civil strife and foreign embroil- ment, had crept into the ancient system and corrupted its purity. But notwithstanding all that, it is abundantly evident that the whole tendency of the ordinance was towards liberal expansion, and the skilful engraftment of modern ideas on the original stock. The Sultan expressly limits his own power as an autocrat, manifestly desiring to be viewed in the light of a constitu- tional ruler, who must subordinate his will to the law, and consider the welfare of his people as a trust, for the faithful keeping of which he will be held responsible. Shortly after the period which we have been CLOSE OF THE EGYPTIAN WAR. 21 discussing, the Egyptian war was brought to a close in the interest of the family of Mehemet Ali ; and, immediately after the return of the fleet from Alexandria in March, 1841, Reschid who had been the unfortunate adviser of hostile measures was dismissed from office. In consideration of his past services to the state, he was accredited as ambassador to the French Government, for which post his previous residence in France, and his acquaintance with the leading members of the governing class, eminently qualified him. No man knew better than Reschid the wants of his country, and the sources of external danger. When his suspicion was aroused, there was no fear of a surprise in the region of diplomacy, although his bane through life had been an amiable weakness to repose too much trust in others, a weakness through which he had more than once fallen a victim to the wiles of his adver- saries. Russia has always been famous for the success of her diplomacy, and the restless, sleepless vigilance of her statesmen has stood her in good stead on more than one occasion in the conduct of her differences with Turkey. The dream of power on the Mediterranean in which Catherine indulged, has been the corner-stone of her policy ever since its conception, and the arrogance with which her pretensions have been urged, has resulted in one of the most humiliating diplomatic and material reverses which she has ever experienced. 22 TUEKEY. Rescind' s mission to Western Europe was re- ceived by the Sultan as perfectly successful. He had obtained from the governments both of England and France a distinct expression of opinion that the integrity of the Ottoman empire was a matter of European interest, which the great powers would not see disturbed with impunity. By his skill and address he secured much sympathy in powerful quarters on behalf of his country, and he was rewarded for his exertions, by the public enco- miums of his Imperial master, and by his elevation to the dignity of Grand Vizier. Whether, in this instance, Reschid was the right man in the right place is fairly matter of opinion. It may be urged that, having assisted in the inauguration of great constitutional reforms, he was the fittest instru- ment for directing their execution ; and that his knowledge of affairs, and his services abroad, not only entitled him to the distinction, but vouched for his ability to fill the office. Granting, how- ever, Reschid's distinguished services to the state, and his unimpeachable loyalty, it is doubtful whether he possessed sufficient strength of cha- racter, or rather, sufficient nerve, for the office of Grand Vizier, at a time when Europe was in a state of political ferment, and when the gravest apprehensions existed for the permanence of the reigning dynasties. The settlement of the Egyptian question, and the absence of any disturbing elements in the INTEENAL ADMINISTRATION. 23 foreign relations of Turkey with Europe, enabled the government of the Sultan to pay more at- tention to the internal administration of the empire. The European provinces, from their proximity to the seat of government, and from the circumstance of their being surrounded for the most part by elements of civil order, understood and outwardly obeyed by the people, were more amenable to the introduction of mea- sures calculated to advance the condition of the body politic, than the outlying provinces of Western Asia, where the worst traditions of Ottoman rule were frequently exemplified by dis- loyal and rapacious governors, to the material loss of the people and injury to the prestige of their sovereign master. The difficulty of dealing with a mixed population in every individual of which, race is a pride and religious belief a passion must be very great even under the most favour- able circumstances ; but a conciliatory bearing, coupled with a determination that right shall be done, rarely appeals in vain to that natural sense of equity which is implanted in the human race. On the other hand, let the virtues just enumerated be ignored, and the inevitable result will be civil strife and religious hatred. One of the greatest obstacles to the spread of the reforms embodied in the Tanzimat was the obstinate tenacity with which many of the officials charged with the administration of remote provinces clung to the 24 TURKEY. abuses of the past. Far removed from the centre of authority, and fearing that their adoption would cause a diminution in the amount of their illegal gains, the law remained a dead letter in their hands; and populations which the Sultan's en- lightened generosity was intended to benefit, were kept in total ignorance of the boon which had been conferred. Rescind, however, notwith- standing the vexatious character of the opposition which his measures received, persisted manfully in their development. No effort was spared in the discovery and punishment of backsliding offi- cials, and it is universally acknowledged that he exercised the extraordinary powers with which he was invested by the favour of his sovereign, with a steadfast moderation which did him infinite credit. But he had not long assumed the office of Vizier before external politics began to assume a threatening aspect the spirit of insurrec- tion against constituted authority, which had been seething in the west, suddenly acquiring force and elasticity, swept with alarming violence over the entire continent, and Turkey had to prepare to hold her own against its possible encroachments. The right of asylum which England extends to the oppressed, is most jealously guarded and highly prized. It is our boast that the political machinations of the despot are powerless for harm, when their object once stands under the AGGEESSIVE POLICY OF KUSSIA. 25 protection of our flag. And the rights of hospi- tality so extended and assured, have earned for this country the admiration and respect of every generous people. When the democratic wave which had traversed Europe in 1848 reached the Turkish possessions on the Danube although the government had demonstrated that the re- sources at its command were equal to the emer- gency Russia made the most indecent haste to occupy the principalities with her military forces, under the plea of maintaining the public security ; and when the leaders of the Hungarian revolution escaped to Turkey, she made common cause with Austria in demanding their expulsion. " The sick man " was, however, not yet sufficiently in- firm, nor so unmindful of its past as to trail its honour in the dust before the threat of a power- ful neighbour ; and the haughty reply, that Turkey knew how to protect the men who had claimed her hospitality, must yet dwell in the memory of every lover of freedom. To the menace of war, England ordered her fleet into the Dardanelles; and from that time forth many a man whose mind until then was, with respect to Turkey, a tabula rasa, marked her position, and earnestly watched the upward progress of her inner life. "We now approach the time when the aggres- sive policy of Russia on the Turkish frontier was to bear its legitimate fruits. The ultimate pos- 26 TURKEY. session by Russia of the old capital of the Byzan- tine empire, had become with the Emperor Nicholas a passion which obscured the usual clearness of his mental penetration. Not only did he persist in asserting on every practicable occa- sion that Turkey was destitute of vitality, but that her moribund condition constituted a European danger ; and, as a neat piece of induc- tive reasoning, arrived at the conclusion that she ought to be appropriated. Should a precedent be demanded, was not Poland a conspicuous ex- ample, not only of the incisive process, diplo- matically termed partition, but also of its charming results. In short, was not the man sick ? and who so skilful a physician as the Autocrat of all the Russias ? So argued Nicholas, and in such fashion did he endeavour to extract the views of the British cabinet from our minister at St. Peters- burg. Relying upon Austria as a willing con- federate, affecting to ignore France, and fearing England, he yet prepared to play the stupendous game in which he staked the prestige of his country against the chance of empire. The custody of the holy places in Palestine has always been a fruitful subject of dispute be- tween the Greek and Latin churches. Collisions between the zealous members of the two commu- nions have been of frequent occurrence, and their personal safety has often been seriously imperilled. France, as the first catholic power in Europe, cares THE HOLY PLACES. 27 peculiarly for the Latin Christians, and in the year 1852, considering that the occasion de- manded her interposition, made certain represen- tations to the Porte, as to the status of her co- religionists in Turkey. Russia, as the head of the Greek church, seeing that the vexed question of the holy places was again under discussion, con- sidered the time opportune for advancing her pretensions, and charged Prince Menschikoff to demand from the Porte the protectorate of the whole of the Greek Christians in the Turkish dominions. A'ali Pasha, then Grand Vizier a diplomatist both by nature and education divined the purpose of the Russian court, and counselled the Sultan to refuse a demand, which required him to abdicate his authority over 12,000 of his subjects. To the blustering and offensive manner of the Russian envoy, A'ali opposed an impassive- ness which was unassailable ; and, absolutely foiled by the magnitude and the audacity of his demands, Nicholas threw aside all reserve, and ordered his armies to cross the Pruth, an operation which was effected on the 3rd July, 1853. War has been fitly described as the last argu- ment of kings, and it is well for the aggressor when such a terrible alternative is only chosen in the assertion of indefeasible right. Had the territorial position of Turkey been such as to have entitled her to be considered as a ( geographical expression' by the diplomatists of Europe, it is within the 28 TURKEY. limits of possibility that her integrity might have been considered an affair of minor concern to the great powers ; but as she, on the contrary, is so situated as to oppose an effectual barrier to the ex- cessive and inconvenient preponderance of Russia, the passage of the Pruth by the forces of the Czar, was promptly accepted as a European menace to be at once vigorously repelled. Having once crossed the Rubicon, Nicholas never appears to have, for one moment, contemplated the possibility of halting in his daring enterprise. Within one week from the invasion of the Principalities he issued an address to his subjects, in which a modern crusade was preached against the Osmanli, who were charged with having deliberately broken, both in spirit and in letter, the rights secured by solemn treaties to the members of the Greek communion resident in the dominions of the Sultan. For such grievous wrong, guerre a I' entrance was the mildest remedy ; and the Russian people were enjoined, by an influential and wide- spread propaganda, to enrol themselves under the banner of the Cross in defence of their faith, and in assertion of the tra- ditions of their country. Hoping against hope that diplomacy might at the last moment avert the issue which Russia coveted, Turkey, in the pre- sence of the greatest difficulties, refrained from declaring the passage of the Pruth a casus belli ; until, finding her most strenuous efforts to be without result, she made a formal declaration of WAR WITH RUSSIA. 29 war on the 1st of October, and the armies of the Sultan marched forth to meet their natural enemy on their ancient battle-ground. The opportunity had now arrived when Turkey could prove to the world that her claim to be acknowledged as one of the Powers of Europe was founded in justice. The rapid strides which she had made in the improvement and reorganization of her internal affairs had not as yet been suffi- ciently appreciated even by her allies. No longer the bete noir of Europe, she had employed her period of repose from conflict, in remodelling her armies, and instructing them in modern tactics ; in improving her educational system, and gene- rally, in infusing new vigour into the mental habits of her people. The now famous motto of our volunteer corps, " Defence, not defiance," correctly expresses the change which had taken place in her external policy, and when Omar Pasha led the van of the Turkish army to victory at Oltenitza, in the month of November, and the garrison of Silistria compelled the Russians, who were besieging them in force, to recross the Danube in the follow- ing spring, the sympathy of the French and Eng- lish nations was beyond doubt secured ; and the Emperor Nicholas, wounded in his tenderest sus- ceptibilities, had to acknowledge a serious defeat by a power whose amour propre he had wantonly outraged, and whose ability to strike he had deliberately ridiculed. 30 TUEKEY. The war thus brilliantly inaugurated, was vigorously prosecuted. England and France de- spatched expeditionary forces in aid of Turkey ; and, the Principalities being temporarily occupied by Austria in the interest of Europe, Russia had to defend herself both in the Baltic and her southern provinces. The whole struggle, with its brilliant episodes, belongs to the domain of history. Valour afloat, and valour on shore ; deeds of individual daring on the outposts, and of combined prowess in the field; the standards of England and the eagles of France striving for the place of honour in the breach ; Russia's proud fortress a blackened ruin, and Russia's Emperor dead of a broken heart. Such are the incidents which fill up the interval between the commencement of hostilities and the time when the Emperor Alexander arranged with Austria the basis of terms on which peace might be restored. As regarded the Danubian Princi- palities, Russia consented to the complete aboli- tion of her protectorate, on condition that the population should have such an administrative organization as they desired, and that no state, on any pretext whatever, should interfere in their internal affairs, the suzerainty of the Porte to be always recognized, and the frontier of Turkey in Europe with Russia to be extended, in ex- change for the territory held by the allied armies. Secondly, that the freedom of navigation of the Danube be secured and placed under the police TEEMS OF PEACE. 31 of the European powers. Thirdly, that neutrali- zation of the Black Sea be declared, that it should be closed to war navies, and that no fortified places, to be used as military arsenals, should be either created or maintained within its limits. Fourthly, that the status of the Christian subjects of the Porte should be preserved, " without in- fringement on the independence and dignity of the Sultan's crown ; " and lastly, that on the making of peace, Russia should be invited to participate in the deliberations which were then taking place touching the religious and political rights of the Christian subjects of the Sultan. Such were the propositions which Austria sub- mitted to a conference of the belligerents as- sembled at Paris, and the text of which was substantially incorporated in the treaty of peace signed on the 30th March, 1856. The baptism of fire through which Turkey had just passed, worked a lasting and substantial good. The Osmanli were suddenly confronted on their very threshold by a new order of things, of which they might have heard, but the practical effect of which they had never experienced. On the water and on the plains they beheld the proof of a regal power, which, in grandeur and puis- sance, passed their understanding, and in course of time, through sheer force of contact, the subjects of the sultan began to appreciate the sterling characteristics of their allies, and extended 32 TUEKEY. to them the right hand of fellowship. In the interior, wherever the allied troops penetrated, the same silent revolution was inaugurated. Three years of intimate communion with Western habits of thought and action, did more in pre- paring the Ottoman mind for the reception of internal reform than centuries of abstract legis- lation ; and Abdul Medjid, considering the oppor- tunity favourable for the extension of the prin- ciples of reform embodied in the Tanzimat and doubtless, also, moved by a desire to show to his allies that the amelioration of the condition of his subjects was, next to the preservation of the national honour, the one thing nearest to his heart promulgated a second great decree of organic reform on the 18th of February, 1856, with such circumstances of ceremonial pomp and religious observance, as was calculated to impress his subjects with the solemnity of the act. The Hatti-Humayoun is addressed to A'ali Pasha, the Grand Vizier. After stating his uniform desire to improve the condition and well-being of all his subjects, and giving praise to the Most High for the success of his efforts, he acknow- ledges that, by the exertions of his subjects and allies, the external relations of his Government have acquired " new force," and then proceeds to confirm all the privileges and immunities which had been previously conferred on the Christian and other communities in the Ottoman dominions. SECOND DECEEE OF REFORM. 33 Freedom of education, worship, and interment are ordained; all classes of his subjects to be eligible for government employment, on passing a stated examination ; all causes, civil as well as criminal, between members of different religious communities to be heard before a mixed commission in open court, and the wit- nesses to be sworn according to their belief. A commercial and criminal code to be compiled and promulgated; the police force to be remodelled, the state of the prisons ameliorated, and corporal punishment, or torture in any shape, abolished; the mode of election to the municipal councils to be revised, so as to secure an equal representation of the mixed elements in the population; the right to possess real estate to be extended to foreigners, when their governments shall acknow- ledge the obligation of their subjects to contribute their quota to the revenue of the country ; privi- lege of speech, without risk of offence, is conceded to the members of the State Council ; and the Hatt winds up with a general engagement to facilitate the means of transport in the interior, and to remove all obstruction to the development of the agricultural resources of the country. It has been objected by the detractors of the Ottoman rule, that whereas the constitutional reforms promulgated by Abdul Medjid have not received the full measure of their application, and that because wayward, and at times turbu- 3 34 TURKEY. lent, administrators in remote districts have chosen to retard the operation of measures which would have shorn the dimensions of their despotic power, the whole scheme, so carefully elaborated and judiciously matured, may be considered as a State performance for the edification of foreign nations, but, in fact, destitute of reality. To reason with such were worse than useless. It would be idle to assert that the new laws have the same measure of effect on the borders of the Persian Gulf as they have on the shores of the Marmora, or that the hill tribes of Kurdistan have been able to appreciate their beneficial influence as much as the agricultural population of the plains of Thes- saly; but it may be most emphatically stated, that at the extremest confines of an empire, re- markable for its extent and the variety of its subject races, the legislation of the last reign has been felt for good, and is producing its natural fruit. Intolerance of the assertion of equality by other races has at all times been a prominent characteristic of the Moslem educated, as they have been, in the belief of their own superiority in every attribute of manhood and it cannot, therefore, be matter of surprise that in remote places, and among a primitive people with whom the very existence of the Padisha is a matter of speculation, and the in- fluence of the Ulema dominant and unquestioned, the beneficent laws of the Tanzimat should be re- ceived as heresies of the most pernicious character. D1STUBBANCES IN THE LEBANON. 35 There has always existed a mysterious bond of union between the Mohammedan nations, impenetrable as yet to the world without. Mes- sages of fearful import have been carried, as it were, on the wings of the wind ; the pas- sage from hand to hand of a brazen pot may have a terrible significance, and in history there is no more remarkable instance of this peculiar intelligence than the mutiny in British India, which the whole civilized world has so recently deplored. A religious teacher of great reputed sanctity gives utterance to some mystic platitude, and forthwith the latent fires of fana- ticism kindle into a blaze. A Marabout, whose memory is enshrined in tradition, has prophesied the downfall of the Christian in the year of grace 1864, and forthwith the Moslems of North Africa hasten to execute their undoubted mission. A wandering Fakir foresees the resuscitation of Mus- sulman dominion in British India in a certain decade ; the tradition is secretly and sedulously inculcated, a symbol passes rapidly over the land, and an empire is bathed in blood. An enlightened ruler decrees the end of dominant privilege in one class of his subjects, and the expiring flame of intolerance sheds a sickly gleam of fitful light on deeds of unutterable horror. Early in the year 1860, the Government of the Sultan were apprised that the peace of the Lebanon was seriously disturbed ; that the Druses 36 TURKEY. and Maronites, contiguously located on the slope of the mountain, but differing in race, creed, and habits of life, had broken out into open warfare, and that the Druses, always distinguished for their fierce and aggressive character, were receiving the countenance and passive support of the Ottoman functionaries and the Moslem population. Almost simultaneously with the receipt of this grave in- telligence, messages were forwarded from Da- mascus, to the effect that a serious uprising of the Mussulman population was apprehended, in defence, as was asserted, of their cherished in- stitutions. The gravity of the situation was at once comprehended by the Sultan and his advisers. The summary extinction of class legislation, and the elevation of the Christian population to the same subject rank in the State as the Moslem, had aroused the worst passions of the old Turkish party. The leaders saw that their day of violence and unmitigated extortion was doomed, and the uneducated populace, under their influence, were not slow to believe that the expulsion of the infidel from the land, in whatever way attained, would be a service to the State, and a meritorious act in assertion of their faith. In short, if a stand was ever to be made against the innovations of the West, and the ancient traditions of the Osmanli as a governing race preserved, the time for action could no longer be delayed. And so, between the undisguised disloyalty of some high FUAD PASHA IN SYRIA. 37 officials, and the contemptible pusillanimity of others, the scabbard was thrown aside, and deeds were perpetrated which aroused the manly indig- nation of the majority of the Osmanli, and brought on the miserable instruments of religious hate a terrible retribution. The war in the Crimea had been instrumental in bringing into public notice many men of dis- tinguished natural ability ; and, at this trying moment, the Sultan with a wise discrimination worthy of all praise selected his Excellency Fuad Pasha, Minister of Foreign Affairs, for the difficult and onerous duty of quelling the disturbance in Syria, and punishing the offenders. His Majesty the Sultan, bowed down with grief, invested Fuad with plenary powers, and despatched him in a steam-frigate direct for Beyrout, on the 12th July, 1860 charging him, at the same time, to do justice without fear, favour, or affection. "Tell the ambassador," said Fuad to the chief dragoman of the French Embassy, " that at the peril of my life I shall wipe out the stain which rests upon the honour of the army, and that the troops will do their duty." And nobly did he fulfil his promise. The sword of justice and the sword of the avenger were for the time, terms synonymous. In the prosecution of his mission, functionaries of high rank were dragged from power, dispossessed of every symbol of authority, and consigned to the scaffold by the same stern authority which doomed 38 TURKEY. the miscreant of a meaner order. Mixed commis- sions heard the evidence and awarded punishment. In this great assize, justice was largely tempered with mercy, the majesty of the law was amply vindicated, and in the end the power of the sovereign to punish the wrong- doer terribly ex- emplified. It was natural that in such a trying emer- gency the powers of Europe, allies of the Sultan, should tender him their aid in the permanent settlement of the mountain; and on the 5th September a convention was signed between Turkey, France, Austria, England, Prussia, and Kussia, providing for the landing of a stated number of European troops in Syria, in order to aid the Sultan in his task of pacification his Majesty the Emperor of the French fur- nishing the first contingent whilst England sent a special commissioner to the spot. The execution of this arrangement was productive of the best possible results. The Ottoman troops received their old allies with every demonstration, of respect and good-will. In due time peace reigned among the heterogeneous tribes on the Lebanon. A Christian governor, of distinguished attainments, was appointed by the Porte, the expe- ditionary troops re-embarked and the temper of the people chastened by the lesson of tolerance so dearly bought Turkey emerged from the struggle with an improved morale and re-awakened energies. ACCESSION OP ABDUL AZIZ. 39 The ability and tact with which Fuad Pasha acquitted himself in the execution of his important mission brought him immediately into European notice, and he was rewarded for the distinguished services he had rendered to his country, by being raised to the dignity of Grand Vizier on the accession of the present Sultan, in the year 1861 ; and, although the lines of Abdul Aziz have, in com- parison with those of his brother, fallen in plea- sant places, Fuad has had ample scope for the exercise of his varied talents, in the consolidation of the internal affairs of the empire. Probably no sovereign who has ever occupied the Ottoman throne has been surrounded by so many able and remarkable men as the present Sultan number- ing, among others, Fuad, as Grand Vizier ; A'ali, as Minister of Foreign Affairs ; Kiani, as Minister of Finance; and Kibrisli, in council. His high- ness Fuad Pasha is essentially the man of modern ideas, whose influence pervades every department of the Government. Knowing his country, and understanding the wants of its conglomerate population, his whole energies have been devoted to the advancement of the empire in the arts of peace, while his varied information, and frank courtesy to strangers conciliate prejudices, and induce personal esteem. The house of Osman is one of the most ancient reigning families in Europe ; but in criticizing its performances by the light of the 40 TURKEY. advanced systems of government prevailing in the West, we must remember, however great the paradox, that the country is yet young. Founded on the ruins of a civilization which they despised, professing a creed and recognizing a system of social obligations utterly at variance with those which they superseded, the Osmanli carved an empire out of the most ancient monarchies, re- tained it by their inherent force of character, and have only within living memory fairly taken their place in the dynastic councils of the European continent. The Turkey of to-day and the Turkey of twenty years ago present two very different aspects to the mind of the observer. In the army, the navy, in education, in social science, public works, and in everything which indicates the progressive tread of a beneficent and enlightened legislation, she has made important progress ; and, with faith in an exalted destiny, with an intelligent people, and a fertile soil, we believe that there remains for Turkey a future of usefulness, honour, and power. CHAPTER II. Geographical position of the Empire Its area and climatic range Topographical characteristics Population Division of the Empire for the purposes of Government Turkey, an agricultural country Her agricultural products Cotton, wool, silk, mohair, opium, madder, valonia, tobacco, grain Her mineral deposits Coal, copper, lead, silver Vast extent of land not under culture Her mineral wealth unproductive because neglected Place which Turkey is destined to occupy among the nations Probable revival of manufactures. THE territorial area of the Turkish Empire may be roundly stated at 1,800,000 square miles ; but as it is impossible to ascertain the limitations of the tributary provinces in Africa with any degree of exactness, and as those portions of Arabia over which Turkey claims the right of sovereignty including within their limits the cities of Mecca and Medina cannot be described, owing to the indefmiteness of their boundaries, the state- ment of square mileage given above must be taken only as an approximate estimate. TURKEY IN EUROPE comprises Thrace, Bulgaria, Bosnia, the Herzegovina, Roumelia, Thessaly, Albania, Servia, the Principalities of Wallachia 42 TURKEY. and Moldavia, and the Ottoman Archipelago. This division of the empire is watered by the Danube and its tributaries, the Maritza, the Koralu, the Iris, the Vojussa, the Narenta, and other streams of a secondary character, and has a seaboard on the Adriatic, the ^Igean, the Marmora, and the Black Sea. TURKEY IN ASIA consists of Anatolia, Armenia, Syria, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. The principal rivers are the Euphrates and its tributaries ; but the country is also watered by a considerable number of small streams, having their outlets in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. This portion of the Empire has a seaboard on the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, the Eed Sea, and the Persian Gulf. TURKEY IN AFRICA is composed of Egypt, Tripoli, and Tunis, with an immense extent of seaboard on the Mediterranean, Egypt being watered by the Nile and its tributaries. The population of the Ottoman Empire may be estimated at 40,000,000 of souls, distributed in the following proportions : Turkey in Europe 17,000,000 Asia 18,000,000 Africa 5,000,000 And is composed of Osmanli, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Sclaves, Koumains, Albanians, Tartars, DIVISIONS OF THE EMPIRE. 43 Arabs, Syrians, Chaldeans, Druses, Kurds, Turco- mans, and Gipsies. As regards religion, the Mussulmans are numerically dominant, the Greek and Latin churches, following in the order in which they are named, the Jews constituting a very insignificant minority. For the purposes of administration, the Ottoman Empire is divided into thirty-six Eya- lets, or Governments ; one hundred and thirty- eight Livas, or Provinces ; and one thousand three hundred and twenty Kazas, or Districts. Each Eyalet is the subject of an independent administration, and the functions of the Gover- nors are, as nearly as may be, vice-regal in their character. In Europe, there are fifteen Eyalets, viz., Edirne (Thrace), Silistria, Boghdun (Moldavia), Eflak (Wallachia), Widdin, JSTisch, Uskup, Syrp (Servia), Fortress of Belgrade, Bosnia, Eoumelia, Yania, Selanik (Salonica), Dyizair (the Islands), and Kyrt (Crete). Their chief towns being respectively Adrianople, Silis- tria, Jassy, Bucharest, Widdin, Nissa, Uskup, Belgrade, Serajevq, Monastir, Janina, Salonica, Rhodes, and Candia. In Asia, the number of Eyalets is eighteen, viz., Kustamuni, Khowdaven- dguiar, Aidin, Karaman, Adana, Bozok, Sivas, Trabezoun, Erz-rum, Kurdistan, Khabrout, Mos- sul, Bagdad, Haleb( Aleppo), Saida, Scham,Habesh, and Haremi-Nahevi. Their chief towns being respectively Kastamun, Brussa, Smyrna, Koniyeh, 44 TURKEY. Adana, Angora, Sivas, Trebizond, Erz-rum, Diar- bekir, Kharput, Mossul, Bagdad, Aleppo, Bey- rout, Damascus, Djedda, and Medina. In Africa, there are three Eyalets, viz., Misr (Egypt), Tharablousi Garb (African Tripoli), and Tunis, with Cairo, Tripoli, and Tunis as their principal places. The topographical and geological characteris- tics of the Ottoman Empire are eminently suited to the successful pursuit of agriculture. Hill and dale are pleasantly alternated, whilst the climatic range is so varied as to include the products both of the temperate and torrid zones. In Europe, the first mountain ranges are the Balkans and Carpathians ; and in Asia, the Taurus and Lebanon. They are mostly of volcanic origin, and enclose valleys unsurpassed not only for their fertility, but also with the exception of the vast prairies of the western hemisphere for their extent. The uplands both in Roumelia and Asia Minor, abound in fine pasturage for sheep and goats. The wools of Roumelia, the goats' hair of Anatolia, the silk of the Lebanon, have all world-wide reputations. Egypt is one vast hotbed for the production of grain and cotton, which latter is also produced in abundance, in Asia Minor, Roumelia, and the Islands of the Archipelago. The fine-flavoured tobaccos of European Turkey are held in high estimation, whilst Asia Minor is the home, par excellence, of the opium of the Pharmacopoeia, and LAND TENURE. 45 is equally celebrated for her fruits, dye stuffs, and tanning substances. It is quite impossible to form any reliable estimate of the agricultural capabilities of the Turkish empire, the only certain information we possess being, that success has at all times crowned well-directed effort in new fields of agricultural industry. Notwithstanding, however, the fertility of the soil, and the equability and variety of climate with which the country is favoured, and, in fact, mainly owing to the exist- ence of these blessings ignorance of husbandry, rudeness of implements, and hatred of innovation in the guise of improvement, are painfully cha- racteristic of the Turkish farmer, who, in the majority of cases, holds his land from middle men, on uncertain tenure, borrows the money where- with to defray the cost of cultivation, and surrenders an inordinate proportion of his produce as an equivalent for the advantage he enjoys a system which naturally results in the enrichment of the proprietor, and the impoverishment of the cultivator. The tenure by which land is held in Turkey is of a very complicated character. The general principle upon which all tenure is based being, that the land belongs to God, whose vicegerent on earth exercises a deputed authority to administer it for the benefit of the State, the occupiers being simply tenants, either for life or at will. And this abstract doctrine as to title has largely 46 TUBKEY. influenced the whole of the legislation on the question of land tenure. The Osmanli divided the lands which became subject to their rule by right of conquest into three categories. The first were bestowed upon the church for the support of religion and education ; the second upon indivi- duals as recompense for their services in the field ; and the third or remaining portion was vested in the State, which was considered the de facto owner of the entire freehold. The ecclesiastical tenure or vacouf includes all those lands originally appropriated to the use of the State Church, as well as land bequeathed to it for pious purposes, and nominally held by it for the benefit of others. Like many other institutions of the Ottoman Empire, the tenure of vacouf, which, in its origin, was the expression of one of the worthiest sentiments in our human nature, has become, in course of time, so overloaded with abuses, as to constitute a real grievance both to the State and the community. The vacoufs are free from taxation, are inalienable, and have been estimated to include three-fourths of the landed property of Turkey. Doubtless the amount is greatly exaggerated, but the fact is indisputable that an inequitable portion of the land in private hands is enabled, by means of this title, to claim immunity from State burdens, and even from ordinary legal process, whilst the loss to the government by the vacouf administration is as LAND TENURE. 47 nearly as possible double the income derived from them in every shape. The whole system, as it at present exists, is opposed to public policy, and notwithstanding the protecting influence of the Ulema cannot be much longer upheld in its in- tegrity. The lands originally apportioned to private individuals, and constituting the second description of tenure were divided into two classes, those held by Mussulmans, which had to contribute a tenth of the produce of the soil to the State, and those held by subjects not professing the creed of Islam, which were liable, if so required, to con- tribute one-half of their gross revenue. The only well denned tenure now remaining in this category is that known as Malikaneh, extending to lands granted to the old spahis, chiefly for services rendered in the protection afforded to the caravans on the pilgrimage to the holy places. This pro- perty is exempt from tithe, and is hereditary, with a fine on succession ; but the tenure is fast be- coming obsolete, owing to the failure of direct heirs, and as the malikaneh, like the vacoufs, do not contribute to the expenses of the government, it is more than probable that the original grants will, ere long, be revoked. The State domain, or crown lands, known as the Niri, have been largely increased since their first apportionment, by the absorption of grants in possession of the high military and civil officers of the State, and which were obnoxious to the reforms which Mahmud II. 48 TURKEY. desired to introduce. That sovereign concentrated the revenue in the public treasury, at the same time ordering all the expenses of the State to be disbursed thereout, and the whole of the territorial grants held by functionaries, civil and military, for the nominal benefit of the State, to revert thereto. At present the Miri are held direct from the crown, the imperial Toughra, or cypher being attached to the deed of title. The lands are in- alienable, although the tenant claims the right to transfer the usufruct, and the grant lapses if the holder fails to cultivate the land for a period of three years. The only other description of tenure requiring notice is a freehold title, known as Mulkh. This title is held in much estimation, and is steadily increasing, especially in the vicinity of centres of population. If foreigners could hold real estate in Turkey, and exercise the rights of ownership, it would, besides being an exceedingly profitable in- vestment for the purchaser, work an incalculable amount of good to the country. The Ottoman government would readily confer this privilege, but insist on the laws of the Empire being acknow- ledged, and the taxes being paid. To these con- ditions foreign governments demur ; but the de- mands of the Porte are certainly equitable, and, in exact proportion as Turkey progresses in liberal government, so must the system of foreign state as distinguished from consular protection yield the pas. HUSBANDEY. 49 " Man hath nothing to expect save from the fruit of his labour." "The husbandman is re- warded by God." So saith the Koran, and the followers of the Prophet, wherever they may be found, are tillers of the soil, and, among the Osmanli, the practice of husbandry has always been held in honour. Tickling the earth for one's daily bread in Turkey partakes more of the cha- racter of a pastime than of physical labour. The richness of the soil, and the geniality of the climate demand from the cultivator a minimum of experience, and do not entail the forethought, practical knowledge of culture, and expense for implements and enriching substances, which is the inevitable burden of the Western farmer. The natural advantages enjoyed by Turkey are pos- sessed by very few countries in the world. The ordinary products which form everywhere the great staples of food and manufacture are raised in abundance, in addition to which there are few of the rarer and more valuable articles known in commerce which do not find a congenial home in some part of her extensive territory. A bare enumeration of the various products which enter into the external trade of Turkey would fail to impress the mind of the' general reader with an adequate idea of its importance. Some things there are which Turkey alone produces, and which are essential to the industrial populations of the West ; whilst there are other articles in the 4 50 TURKEY. economic production of which she is competing with nearly every other country in the world possessing a similarity of climate. It is therefore important that some notice should be taken, how- ever brief, of those articles which enter most largely into her export trade. COTTON. In the palmy days of the American trade, before the idea of secession which found expression in the aphorism, " Cotton is King,'* had taken complete possession of the Southern mind, American cotton, for uniformity of staple and relative cheapness, was unsurpassed by the production of any other country in the world; and so fully was this superiority recog- nized, that an overwhelming proportion of the machinery employed in the cotton manufacture was specially adapted for the working of American sorts. To cotton produced in the East, a certain dislike was entertained, not without some foundation in fact, the bulk of the imports from India and Egypt being characterized by a feeble- ness of staple which entailed a greater amount of waste in the process of manufacture than was experienced in the working of the American article. The extraordinary cheapness of American cotton, resulting from the perfection to which the culti- vation of the plant, the cleaning of the wool, and its preparation for export had been brought, pre- cluded all expectation of inducing other countries to bestow that requisite amount of attention and COTTON. 51 care in its production, which might enable them to enter into successful competition with the United States. The consequence was that mil- lions of human beings, and millions of capital, were practically dependent on the continued pros- perity of the Southern States of the North American continent. No sooner, however, was the blockade of the Gulf ports by the Executive authority of the United States an accomplished fact, than the consumers of the staple in the great manufacturing centres of Europe began to look to the East as the only source from which an adequate supply could be drawn for their future wants. Cotton meanwhile rose rapidly in market value, and nowhere was a more determined attempt made to meet the altered circumstances of the case than in the Ottoman Empire, which, from its proximity to the consumer, and the known capability of its soil in the successful growth of the plant, possessed manifest advantages over almost every other country. Before the end of the last century the exports of cotton from Turkey were of a very important character. Italy, France, and Germany were the principal consumers, the latter country giving a decided preference to the best Turkish sorts, and it may be stated as showing the mag- nitude of the trade at a period so remote as the beginning of the present century that the annual export of cotton from Smyrna alone was estimated 52 TOBKE7. at 200,000 bales one house shipping from 50,000 to 60,000 bales annually. The first half of the present century, however, witnessed a marked diminution in the cultivation, owing to the quan- tity, excellence, and cheapness of the cotton ex- ported from the Southern States of America ; while previous to the outbreak of the Civil War in that country, Smyrna sorts had almost disappeared from the market quotations, a fact which makes the present activity in the production of the article all the more apparent to those whose acquaintance with the country, by years of residence, have habituated them to the ordinary course of her ex- port trade. In Roumelia, in the Islands, in Asia Minor, and in Syria, the cotton crop is watched, and the probability of its out-turn speculated upon with the utmost keenness and anxiety ; whilst the production of the staple in Egypt has worked a complete revolution in her agricultural routine. Year by year the breadth of land under cultivation is increased through the fostering influences of short supply and high prices, until the mania, especially in Egypt, has attained such gigantic proportions as to induce grave apprehensions for the con- sequences, should the market suddenly revert to the old quotations. Concurrently with extended growth, the utmost care has been bestowed on the improvement of the staple by the introduction of American seed, deep cultivation by means of steam implements, more effective ginning than was pre- COTTON. 53 viously practised, and sounder packing for export. The importance of securing a character for cotton grown in certain districts has given rise to a healthy spirit of emulation among the planters ; and the hope is entertained by those best qualified to form an opinion on the subject, that no matter what turn affairs may ultimately take in the United States, Turkey will remain as a permanent source of supply. Her geographical position is not the least of the many advantages which Turkey enjoys in her competition with other countries. A telegraphic message can be transmitted from Liver- pool to Constantinople and answered in the same day. The state of the crops, stocks, and markets can thus be easily and regularly ascertained. Her extensive seaboard and numerous harbours facili- tate the shipment of produce, and a personal supervision, on the spot, of European interests, is not only practicable, but easy of attainment. Above all, labour is cheap and abundant, and the government of the Sultan is disposed to concede unusual privileges to the cotton cultivator. It was not to be expected that the present degree of prosperity could be attained without some dis- heartening failures in the outset. When the Ottoman Empire was mentally appropriated by the Cottonocracy of Europe, no limit could be set to their expectations, and the most adventurous schemes for the cultivation of the cotton plant found ready support from Western capitalists ; but 54 TURKEY. whether from a deficiency of knowledge of the country, from inexperience in the minutiae of cul- tivation, from unsound estimates of results, or the inadequacy of means to effect the end desired, most of the schemes designed for the cultivation of cotton under the direction of foreigners, by means of associated capital, have resulted in failure. It is, however, satisfactory to know that the disasters to which allusion has just been made, cannot be charged on either the soil or climate of the country, or on the want of skill in the agricultural population. The revival of the cotton cultivation has been a source of wealth to the pro- prietors of the soil, fortunes passing expectation have been realized in the commercial world in the ordinary course of trade, and a spirit of enter- prise arising therefrom has been spread through- out the land, which will not readily die out. In Egypt alone there are not less than two hundred steam ploughs at work in cotton cultivation, and the annual yield in some instances has been as high as nine hundred pounds of clean cotton per acre. Every modern mechanical aid to production has been pressed into the service with a far-sighted liberality, which effectually disposes of ungenerous detraction, and the result is that whilst all well prepared Turkish cotton fetches a good relative price, some descriptions vie with the choicest American sorts. At the International Exhibition, 1862, the exhibits of cotton were much commended WOOL. 55 four medals being awarded, one to the Governor of Latakia, for a sample grown from Egyptian seed, valued at twelvepence per pound ; one to the Governor of Drama, for a sample valued at eleven- pence three farthings; one to the Governor of Cavalla, for a sample valued at elevenpence half- penny ; and the fourth to the Governor of Adana, for a fine short staple variety with good colour and even fibre, valued at tenpence halfpenny. A medal was also awarded to the Pasha of Egypt, for a fine sample from indigenous seed, valued at one shilling and eightpence per pound. WOOL. Turkey has always been celebrated for the quality of her fleeces, and the original stock (ovis aries) from which our sheep are descended, is still found in a wild state in some parts of the mountains of Asia Minor. In Roumelia, Thrace produces annually about six million pounds. Macedonia, Thessaly, and Albania combined, a like quantity. The produce of the Dobrutscha being estimated at about four million pounds. The wools of Upper Asia are highly esteemed, but it is impossible to arrive at even an approximate idea of the weight annually produced a remark which applies in an equal degree to Syria. Eou- melian wool usually contains sixty per cent, of white, twenty per cent, of first quality black, and twenty per cent, of second quality grey. The supply of Turkish wool in the English market is by no means steady as regards quantities, values 56 TUBKEY. on the spot ranging at times so high as to pre- clude its purchase. MOHAIR is the fleece of the capra angorensis, a goat which inhabits the plains of Angora and its neighbourhood. The fleece is locally called Tiftik, and has a staple averaging five inches in length, of a white colour and a fine silky texture. , Angora hair was formerly spun into yarn by the natives, and exported in that state, under the general impression that the mechanical structure of the hair rendered it unfit for spinning by ma- chinery. But since the great improvements which have been made, more particularly at Bradford, in the spinning and manufacture of the article, the hair is now exported in bales, and the manufacture of the yarn has almost ceased to be a local in- dustry. The goats are clipped in April and May, the finest quality being obtained from the female animal, but the fleeces from both sexes are usually mixed for export. In sorting the hair, about seventeen per cent, is thrown out as being too short in the staple for combing, which, with the other refuse, is sold for various purposes of manu- facture ; while the long hair is extensively used in this country as a mixing material in the production of light fabrics for ladies' dresses, tailors' trim- mings, and light clothes for gentlemen's summer wear. It also enters largely into the composition of some descriptions of lace shawls, Utrecht velvet, and a great variety of articles of utility. The SILK. 57 annual production at Angora is estimated at three million pounds, but the exports from Turkey are swelled by a considerable quantity of an inferior quality from other districts in Asia Minor. SILK. The culture of silk was unknown in Europe until the sixth century, when the Emperor Justinian encouraged the propagation of the worm from seed which had been brought from the East; so that Turkey may without impropriety be termed the home of the silk trade in the West. The rearing of the silkworm and the unwinding of the cocoon constitute at the present time one of the most important industries in the Ottoman Empire. Adrianople, Volo, and Broussa are all largely engaged in the business, whilst Syria is famous for the quality of her productions. The rearing of the silkworm is a very delicate opera- tion, demanding much experience on the part of the farmer, and the business has been rendered even more precarious and disheartening through a disease, by which the constitution of the worm is enfeebled, and immense numbers are annually destroyed. Healthy seed is a great desideratum in every place where the culture of silk is carried on, and until that is supplied, the trade will remain in its present depressed state. The silkworm is extensively reared in Syria, and the Lebanon is invested with breeding- sheds and reeling factories. The moth deposits its eggs in midsummer, and they are collected and stored at 58 TURKEY. a low temperature until the following spring, when they are hatched, so as to make the process concurrent with the appearance of young foliage on the mulberry-trees. In about one month the formation of the cocoon commences, and in about three weeks, or less, the cocoon is finished. The chrysalis is destroyed by fumigation, and the peasant, or proprietor, is then possessed of a marketable article, worth, according to quality, from one to two shillings per pound. The great bulk of Syrian silk is exported to Marseilles ; and so large is the demand for this article wherever it is produced, that the crop is generally secured by anticipation. At the International Exhibition of 1862, Turkey was awarded seven medals for raw silk of superior quality, one medal for silk fabrics, and a like number of " honourable mentions." TOBACCO (nicotiana rustica) flourishes both in European and Asiatic Turkey, and is much esteemed for its delicacy of aroma. The districts of Cavalla in Macedonia, and Latakia in Syria, are famous for the production of the plant, and these names are generally used in distinguishing be- tween the Syrian and Macedonian varieties. The district of Cavalla comprises the Liva of Drama, nearly one-tenth of the arable acreage of which is under tobacco cultivation ; and it is stated on official authority, that there is scarcely a family in a population of 250,000 souls which is not more or less dependent on the tobacco industry for a TOBACCO. 59 means of livelihood. The tobacco of the Cavalla district is of two distinct sorts viz., Drama leaf and Yenidgeh leaf. The Drama variety, grown in the western part of the district, is a large stout leaf, strongly narcotic in quality, and dark reddish-brown in colour; the Yenidgeh variety is, on the contrary, a small delicate leaf, mildly narcotic, and of a golden yellow colour. The marked difference between the two varieties would appear to be solely due to the constitu- tion of the soil, as the golden leaf will quickly degenerate into the Drama variety if transplanted into the western district. The yield per acre varies, in different districts, according to the mode of transplanting which is adopted. The Drama leaf is usually planted close, and yields about eight hundred pounds per acre ; whilst the Yenidgeh leaf, which is planted wide, only yields on an average about four hundred pounds ; but the conditions are hardly equal, as the Drama leaf attains a length of from seven to ten inches, while six inches is the maximum length of the finer sort. The district of Latakia Proper embraces the whole of the plains and mountain- slopes sur- rounding the town of that name, which is built on the site of the ancient Laodicea. The plain is watered by the Nahr-el-Thebir, and the district is inhabited by the Ansairiyehs, a peculiar people, numbering not more than one hundred thousand, who from the peculiarity of their religious 60 TUKKEY. doctrine, which seems to be allied to the ancient worship of Adonis, live in social distinction from the other tribes in the province. The finest quality of Latakia tobacco is called Abu-Richa, or Father of Perfume ; Scheik-el-Bent is as nearly as possible equal to the finest ; Dgidar including all the medium and inferior sorts. The first-named variety is nearly all sent to Egypt, the latter being reserved for exportation. Latakia leaf has a peculiar smoky flavour, which is much admired by connoisseurs, and a curious story is told of the origin of the name Abu-Richa, similar in many respects to that which is related of the now world- renowned Lundy-foot snuff. It is stated that being at one time greatly harassed by the Turks, the Ansairiyehs left the plains which they inhabited, and took up their abode in the mountains ; and that out of revenge to the inhabitants of Latakia, they stored the whole of the year's crop of tobacco in their mountain huts, where it was subjected dur- ing the entire winter to the smoke from the wood fuel used by the peasants. This wood is a species of oak (Quercus ilex), and not only was a peculiar flavour imparted to the leaf, but the colour, from a fine yellow was converted into a dark brown nearly resembling a black. When the tobacco reached Egypt, the flavour was so greatly admired that the name Father of Perfume was at once be- stowed upon it, and the smoked leaf speedily sup- planted the yellow in the Egyptian markets. In TOBACCO. 61 the culture of tobacco, patience and watchfulness are virtues not to be lightly disregarded. The seed is raised in beds, and is afterwards transplanted. The sowing takes place in February or March, and as soon as the young shoots show above the layer of dung with which the bed is covered, they are overlaid with faggots and other stuff of a like character, to guard against possible injury from the spring frosts. Towards the beginning of June the process of transplanting commences, and the harvest begins in July, terminating either in Sep- tember or the early part of October. The leaves ripen from the bottom upwards, and it is owing to this peculiarity that the period of the harvest is so prolonged. Tobacco is considered by the farmers of Turkey to be the most profitable article which they produce in bulk, and some idea may be formed of its desirable character from the fol- lowing calculation, with respect to the cultivation of five acres of land by two families in Macedonia, the landlord assisting, as is customary : OUTLAY. By the Landlord s. d. Tillage 5 acres at 12s. . . . . .300 Manure, 400 loads at 2d. . . . .360 Folding flocks on the field . . ..200 Part maintenance of the two peasants' families . 500 Sundries . ... .... . ". 3 14 17 62 TURKEY. Brought forward . . 17 By the Peasant Quota of outlay for maintenance of families . 15 Total outlay . . . . 32 RETURN. Average yield, 500 Ib. per acre . . 2500 Ib. Less tithes 250 2250 at Is. 112 10 Nett profit . . . . 80 10 s. d. Landlord's moiety . . . 40 5 Peasants' . . . 40 5 80 10 Profit per acre 16 2*. As a rule, tobacco lands are kept on the plant without intermission of fallow, the tilth being maintained by deep ploughing and abundance of manure, to which the practice of folding sheep and goats on the land previous to transplanting, materially contributes. Turkish tobacco is coming into more general use in this country owing to the short supply of American leaf, and there were six medals awarded at the late International Exhibi- tion for excellence of quality. The Governors of Drama, Latakia, and Lebanon being numbered among the recipients. MADDER. The root of the Rubia Unctorum is a dyeing material of great importance, which is grown extensively in France, Holland, Spain, and Italy, on the Continent of Europe ; in Asia Minor MADDER. 63 and Syria, in the Ottoman dominions, and in British India and other countries in the East, but the finest quality of the root is grown in Turkey, and is chiefly exported from Smyrna. The mystery of dyeing Turkey-red was long practised in Asiatic Turkey previous to its introduction into Europe. With us the extractive matter is employed in the production of a variety of colours, from reds to chocolates and blacks; and the investigation of the Conditions under which the colouring matter is found in the root, as well as the different methods of utilization, constituted for a long time one of the most difficult problems in organic chemistry. The madder plant is easily propagated from shoots, the roots striking both vertically and laterally, and should remain in the ground for three years in order to attain its greatest excellence by the for- mation of woody fibre in the centre of the fleshy tap-roots of the plant. When the root is dug up, and a section examined, it is found that the cellular matter is of a yellowish colour, the red colour supervening as the result of oxidation after a pro- longed exposure of the root to atmospheric influ- ences, not the least of the peculiarities for which this plant is remarkable being the continuous for- mation of the colouring matter in the root under some conditions of packing, and its degeneration in others. Turkey madder is exported in the root, and so even is the quality that it is generally ground without or with very little sorting. The 64 TURKEY. cultivation of the plant is very profitable, owing to its prolific nature, notwithstanding the large outlay per acre, in tillage and manure, which is extended over an unusually lengthened period between planting and fruition. YALONIA. This valuable tanning material con- sists of the acorn-cups of the Quercus algilops, which grows abundantly in Asia Minor as well as in most countries bordering on the Mediterranean. The principal market, however, is Smyrna, the valonia exported from thence being of excellent quality, containing from thirty-four to thirty- seven per cent, of tannin. After the acorns are gathered, they are partially dried, and then stacked in warehouses until the scales have lost their contractile power, thereby liberating the acorn. The large quantity of tannin in valonia makes it an article of the first importance in all tanning operations. OPIUM, the most valuable of the gum resins, is the inspissated juice of the poppy, which is extensively cultivated in Asia Minor, as well as in European Turkey and in Egypt. Smyrna opium is, however, most esteemed on account of its con- taining a larger percentage of morphia than any other opium known in trade, and for that reason it is used in pharmaceutical processes to the exclu- sion of other descriptions less rich in the principal alkaloid. Brande states : " The quantity of mor- phia obtained from opium is variable : the produce MINERALS. 65 is greatest from Turkey opium, and least from the East Indian and Egyptian. The average is gene- rally estimated at one ounce from the pound." GRAIN. Principally wheat, barley, and maize, is produced in abundance for export over the whole extent of the Ottoman Empire. DRIED FRUITS form a very considerable item in the exports, particularly from the Port of Smyrna, which is celebrated for the quality of its figs. MINERALS. It is usual for publicists to speak of a country as either agricultural or manufacturing ; implying by the former, that the soil, climate, and genius of the people by which it is inhabited, con- stitute so many disqualifying elements to the suc- cessful prosecution of creative industry. That Turkey is at present, eminently, an agricultural country, it would be idle to dispute. So is India, and so are many other countries which could be mentioned, but the dictum, once an agricultural country always an agricultural country, no longer finds acceptance. The manufacturing capabilities of any country must be primarily based on its mineral resources, which, when abundant and diverse in character, are the sure presage of a splendid future. They may be neglected for ages, and their very existence may, from long abandonment, be entirely ignored, but the irrepressible demand for the pro- ducts of creative industry, following in the wake of the genius of civilized improvement, will inevi- tably find them out ; and the coal which has been im- 5 66 TURKEY. mured for centuries will blaze in the furnace, the iron will melt, and from the anvil and the lathe there will emerge the constituent parts of one of those magnificent specimens of human constructive skill, a steam-engine. The mineral wealth of Turkey is undoubtedly very great, and of an exceedingly varied character. The mines of Roumelia and Asia Minor are famed in history for their richness and productiveness, and, although their prosperity declined with the civilization to the necessities of which they ministered, the strata in which the ores are imbedded remain, and only await the advent of the steam pump and the modern genii of the lamp to furnish tangible proof of their unquestion- able value. Coal is found in the mountain ranges of Roumelia, as well as in the districts of Asia Minor forming the southern coast of the Black Sea. The Taurus range is celebrated for the rich- ness and abundance of its copper. Silver and lead are extensively found both in the European and Asiatic divisions of the empire, while gold is stated to be not an uncommon product of the mines of Thessaly. The islands of the Ottoman Archipe- lago, once famous for their mineral riches as well as for the rarity and value of their gems, form so many reserves of mineral treasure, nothing being wanted but steam, skill, and capital to make their hidden wealth available. Turkey is indebted to the exigencies of the allied navies during the Crimean War, for the informa- COAL. 67 tion which has been elicited respecting her coal- field in the neighbourhood of Heraclia in Asia Minor. This coal-field, which forms part of the Sultan's private domain, was discovered about the year 1841, and at the commencement of the war with Eussia, the mineral was being extracted by the Turkish Government, under the superintendence of two English engineers, or rather, under their nominal direction, as they were not furnished with the labour, material, and funds requisite to the proper development of the coal, and could not, therefore, in common fairness, be held responsible for the indifferent results. If properly worked, the mineral was reputed to be of excellent quality, and the attention of the British Government hav- ing been directed to the district as a profitable source of economical supply for the fleet, an in- quiry was directed, which resulted in their leasing the Heraclia coal-field for the term of the war, and working it for the joint benefit of the allies. It is impossible to estimate the extent of the coal-measures in Asia Minor. In the Heraclia district, the mineral crops out on the surface ; and the seams, which vary in thickness from three to eighteen feet, have been inexpensively worked by adits into the sides of the mountain. The best coal has hitherto been procured from the Valley of Kosloo, which is in immediate proximity to the coast, and is most eligibly situated for coaling ves- sels from shoots, without intermediate boat- carriage. 68 TURKEY. The mines of the Kosloo are capable of yielding, without any extraordinary effort, thirty thousand tons of coal per annum, of a quality which is described by the chief engineer of H. M. S. " Spitfire" as " equal to the very best New- castle coal, having a loss of about seven per cent, only in clinker and ashes." In the Valley of Soungoul, which adjoins Kosloo, the coal- seams are reported by the government surveyor to be from nine to twelve feet in thickness, and the coal quite equal in quality to, and much harder than, the Kosloo ; at the same time he considers the whole of the Soungoul valley contains ex- cellent coal, which might be shipped in the same way as at Kosloo, without the necessity of boat- ing off. This important coal district is situated about one hundred and thirty miles from the entrance of the Bosphorus, and is in every respect most eligibly placed for water transport, but the unhealthiness of the district, arising from malaria, generated by the undrained lands, is a serious drawback to continuous operations. The dense forest undergrowth, or jungle, presents obstacles of a very formidable character to the proper examina- tion of the country, and until that is got rid of, either by burning or some less summary process, and arterial drains cut to assist in carrying off the surplus water, all mining operations will con- tinue to be suspended for a few months dur- ing the hot season in every year. The coal at COAL. 69 Kosloo is. brought to Grass at a cost of about six shillings per ton, but, being rather soft in grain, is much deteriorated in quality when it reaches market, owing to the clumsy and unworkmanlike way in which it is manipulated by the only natives who are available for the work. The relative value of the coal of this district in Asia Minor, to Newcastle coal, with which it has been compared, will be apparent from the fol- lowing statement : Spec. Clinker Grav. Coke. Ash. NEWCASTLE HaswellWallsend... . T28 6270 Hedley's Hartley T31 72'31 4'2 Carr's 1-25 60'63 514 N. Percy T25 57-18 Broomhill 1/25 59'20 HERACLU Average of 2 Samples 1'32 72 '5 7'0 In forming an opinion as to the value of Heraclia coal from the foregoing figures, it is necessary to remember the surface- character of the mineral, and the mixture of inferior with superior sorts inseparable from an extensive employment of unskilled labour. The coal is easy to win, and is turned out large and merchantable. In depth, the quality will, without doubt, improve ; and if steam colliers were employed in its transport, instead of the small sailing craft at present in use, a marked difference would be observable, both in 70 TURKEY. the size and general appearance of the coal, when finally delivered for consumption. The metalliferous minerals of Asia Minor are comparatively unworked. The Taurus is known to contain great quantities of copper ore, a small portion of which is stated to be brought down to Tokat for refining ; but the -quantity of mineral unworked, because beyond the reach of superficial exploration, must be very great. The silver mines are miserably represented by an annual production of about five hundred thousand okes, and the copper mines by about one million okes, a quantity which a single mine in Great Britain would turn out in one month. In Europe, as in Asia, the mines are all but neglected ; and the transparent absurdity of leasing the whole of the mineral deposits of two entire provinces embracing about three hundred miles of sea coast, and containing an almost incredible amount of mineral wealth in consideration of an annual payment of six hundred and fifty pounds by way of commutation of all burdens, both state and local, is not calculated to mend the matter. The fortunate proprietor of this valuable grant is said to have expended not less than fifty thousand pounds in works for smelting and refining the metal which he obtains from Mount Pelion alone the lead ores from which are exceed- ingly rich both in lead and silver, yielding, on an average, thirty-five per cent, of produce. It is abundantly evident that such a huge monopoly as NATURAL RESOURCES. 71 that just described, in the hands of a single in- dividual, must be exceedingly detrimental to the mining interest, and will favour a wasteful system both of mining and smelting, such as existed at one period in this country, when vast deposits of " deads," slime, and slag were left by the old miners and smelters, and which are to this day yielding satisfactory profits from their re-manipulation. To those who take a sincere and practical interest in the fortunes of the Ottoman Empire, there is no more encouraging subject of contempla- tion than the vast natural resources of the country. The difficulty, it is true, with which a revenue is collected sufficient to meet the outgoings of the State, is matter of every-day comment ; from which premiss, the inference is easily deducible, that Turkey is poor, and consequently, as a Govern- ment, doomed to extinction. But when her rolling, untilled plains her vast, untrodden mountain- slopes her waste of waters, lazily flowing through her alluvial valleys her unhewn forests of oak, and walnut, and box, and beech her unworked mine- rals and her range of climate, are weighed in the balance, the conclusion is irresistible, that Turkey is destined yet to hold a place among the nations second to none in natural wealth and individual influence. No country can be really poor when coal and iron are numbered with its minerals ; no country can be divested of international importance the soil of which is capable of ministering to the 72 TURKEY. prime necessities of the human race; and that country cannot be deprived of commercial rank which possesses a sea-board on three continents. In framing a code of laws applicable to the deve- lopment of the mineral resources of the Empire, the Government of the Sultan have not, however, been able to divest themselves of the bureaucratic idea which finds acceptance in the majority of Continental States. In Turkey, the right to all minerals is vested in the State ; and permission to search for mineral deposits, and to work them when found, is hedged in by so many restrictive formalities, as to present a serious drawback to legitimate enterprise. The rule that permission to search for minerals, and to extract the same, shall be accorded only to subjects of the Empire, is, under present circumstances, founded in justice, foreigners only being able to share in the risk and profit attending on mining adventure, as share- holders in companies. But the rule against either increasing the number of the partners or the original capital of any society, without the consent of the State, is so unreasonable, as to make any benefit arising from participation in the work altogether inoperative. To those who know how minerals are inter- stratified, the condition prece- dent to the grant of permission to mine that the minerals which have been found, and which it is proposed to work, must be accurately specified in the official application for a firman is, in the last MINING CODE. 73 degree, oppressive, as no minerals unless those named in the original demand can be worked without special authorization. The rule that, at the expiration of the time accorded in the firman, the whole of the immovable property on a mine becomes the property of the State, and must be paid for at a valuation by Government officials, even if the right to work is re-accorded to the original grantee, is a measure of peculiar severity. The State, by its officers, claims the right to supervise the administrative details of any mine, and must be furnished with working plans, and statements of expenditure and income, at certain intervals. For this duty, a corps of engineers is formed, and on an unfavourable report from the engineer of the district, the permit to work is liable to be cancelled. The executive control is vested in a Council of Mines ; and when it is con- sidered that a clear majority of the engineering staff must sit for the half of each year as members of the executive body, it will be granted that the system which constitutes them judges in their own cause is radically unsound a conclusion which applies with equal force to the rule by which the value of the interest which the State holds in the minerals is left for regulation in every firman, and rising, of course, with the amount of perseverance, skill, and capital brought to bear on the preliminary researches. The greatest mistake which proprietors of minerals can possibly commit is to render the pre- 74 TURKEY. liminary search for the ore difficult and onerous. It is bad enough to encumber the matter at the outset with official routine and an expense dis- proportionate to the circumstances of the case, but it is still worse, that when the efforts of the explorer are crowned with success, he is not sure of receiving the inevitable firman which alone can enable him to reap his reward. The mere receipt of compensation, arbitrarily fixed, is but indifferent solace for a period, more or less pro- longed, of patient observation and steady dis- bursement of means. The proprietor of minerals, whether the title be vested in individuals or in the State, should remember that until their locality is discovered and their value proved, the whole of the onus rests on the shoulders of the explorer. He it is who is the loser in the event of failure, and the utmost latitude should consequently be given to him consistent with the preservation of the rights of ownership. Permission to search for minerals within certain stated limits, and for a stated period of time, should be accorded to every person of undoubted respectability applying for the same, with the right, should success crown their efforts, of demanding and receiving a fir- man conveying the right to work the minerals for a term of years, on condition of the payment of certain dues to the proprietor, and of opening the ground in a workmanlike manner. There are no better miners to be found in the world than those MINING CODE. 75 in the British Islands. The extent and variety of our mineral deposits are, in their combined aspect, beyond all comparison greater than are to be found elsewhere in an equal area ; and countries younger in the application of modern science to the development of their mineral deposits, may study with advantage to themselves the causes which have produced such marvellous effects. First among these causes is equity as distinguished from law, in the adjustment of disputes. Second, the liberality with which the searcher for minerals is treated by the proprietor. Third, the absence of all vexatious interference with the conduct of the works ; and, lastly, the justness of the mode in which the royalties or dues are levied. To con- struct a system of law which shall, in its applica- tion to mining disputes, satisfy the ends of justice, is beyond the limits of reasonable expectation. The causes of disagreement are so various, both in their origin and the circumstances by which they are surrounded, as to present insuperable obstacles to the application of any legal code not susceptible of individual appli- cation. In mining for coal and iron, litigation assumes an even aspect, but in working copper, lead, and tin, it has been found necessary to sustain an independent jurisdiction suited to the peculiarity of mining for metallic minerals, in which, as a rule, the workmen have equitable rights in the produce distinct from those of either 76 TUEKEY. the grantees or the proprietor ; the accidental mixture of two piles of ore being a fertile cause of dispute between the working miners themselves, whilst an unsatisfactory assay or analysis of the metal contained in the ore occasions at times serious differences between the workmen and the grantees. In the county of Cornwall, which is inter- sected in every direction by veins of copper, tin, and lead, the miners were at one period accustomed to hold parliaments for the settlement of serious disputes and the framing of regulations for their own guidance. At that time, tin was the principal mineral sought for, and the whole district was called the Stannaries of Cornwall. After the lapse of years, these regulations began, from long usage and their equitable character, to have the force of law, and the legislature, recognizing their importance, created a separate jurisdiction both in law and equity for the mines of the district, under a warden and vice- warden ; extended the application of the system to the neighbouring mining county of Devon, and gave the Stannary Courts power to give effect to their process throughout the whole country by means of the superior courts of law at Westminster. No better example than this could be adduced in proof of the peculiar requirements of mining industry ; and, although Turkey must for all practical purposes be classed as a new country, a careful consideration of the legal system under which the mining industry of Great Britain GEOLOGICAL EXPLORING. 77 has attained its present pitch of prosperous develop- ment, can only be productive of the best results. It has been already stated that the utmost consideration should be extended to persons un- dertaking to search for minerals, and this can- not be too strongly impressed on the minds of those who are responsible for the proper develop- ment of the mineral resources of any country. The Government of the Sultan would appear to be fully sensible of the great value of the mineral deposits which undoubtedly enrich the soil of Turkey, but they hardly seem to adequately realize the axiom that the value of a mineral deposit dates from its discovery, and that in order to realize that end, inducements of a most liberal character should be offered to those who are sufficiently enterprising to accept the task. In a country like Turkey, the geological characteristics of which are undefined, the search for metallic ores en- tails no ordinary amount of labour and expense, and implies on the part of the explorer, the pos- session of an amount of enterprise and deter- mination which cannot be estimated at too high a value. Even in countries thoroughly settled and geologically mapped, the business of an explorer is one of no common difficulty, and hence the liberality with which he is treated by the pro- prietors of subterranean deposits. In England, the preliminary formalities as regards copper, lead, and tin are exceedingly simple. An individual 78 TURKE1T. desirous of searching for minerals is usually granted, at an expense of a few shillings, per- mission to search, within certain limits, for a stated period ; at the expiration of which, should his efforts have been successful, he has the right to obtain a lease of the district for a term of years, on the condition of paying a small amount by way of rent per annum to the proprietor, until the mine is sufficiently developed to yield an equi- valent amount in the shape of royalty, or oftener dispensing with rent, and making the income of the owner of the mineral dependent on the success of the works from the commencement of operations. Of course the conditions inserted in leases vary with the custom obtaining in different districts, but as a rule, there is no more onerous stipulation than that the miner shall develop his grant to the best of his ability. In mining for coal and iron, the value of which does not fluctuate materially, a fixed royalty of so many pence per ton is the general rule. But in mining for copper, lead, and tin, which vary in richness and in quantity with every fathom worked, the pro- prietor stipulates for a certain portion of the ores which may be raised ; so that, if the ore be poor and the returns of the grantee small, the income of the proprietor is proportionately low, and if the ore be rich, his income is increased in a like ratio. From one fifteenth to a twenty-first of the gross value of the ore raised is the usual amount of ROYALTIES. 79 dues or royalty, a twenty-first being the least exceptional ratio. It is obvious that such a system as this does not unduly weigh upon the resources of the grantee, and is the best which could be possibly devised to meet the varying fortunes of metalliferous mining. To charge a fixed rate per ton on the ores of copper brought to the surface would, in an equitable view of the case, be an impossibility, as the proprietor would naturally desire to fix the amount at a sufficient height to cover a maximum of richness, whilst the grantee would only consent to a rate which would cover a minimum. It being practically impossible to state a mean, the difficulty would be insurmount- able, but by making the interests of the proprie- tor and the grantee equally dependent on the value of the ore, the interests of both parties are fully conserved. A most objectionable feature in the Turkish mining code, is the grant of permission to work only such minerals as may be specified in the original demand ; so that, should tin be found below copper, a separate requisition and autho- rization would be requisite before its extraction could be proceeded with. How such an impracti- cable condition as this could have been inserted in any modern mining code passes comprehension, and its rectification should receive the immediate consideration of the department. It may be argued that in practice, individual hardship would be 80 TURKEY. avoided in cases where a strict compliance with the letter of the law would work an obvious wrong, but the very existence of such a condition in the code is pregnant with possible evil, and the clause should be unconditionally expunged as being contrary to public policy. A like fate should befall the condition requiring the deposit of caution money against possible damage to property from the prosecution of the works. Either the law of the empire is strong enough to protect the rights of property, or it is not. On the first hypothesis, the parties wronged should be left to their legal remedy ; and in the second, the advisers of the Sultan should impose upon themselves the duty of revising the general legal code, with the view of correcting so manifest a defect. The deposit of caution money is at the best an ill-devised expedient for securing the fulfilment of a contract. Its lodgment is no proof whatever of the means of the individual, and disputes arising from its deten- tion almost invariably tend to bring the detain- ing Government into disrepute. In contracts the breach of which might injuriously affect the public service, the demand for bonds from second and third parties, for the due fulfilment of his engage- ments by a contractor, may be necessary and even laudable : but both parties should be left simply to their own legal remedy, in cases where the whole of the risk is on the side of the contractor, MINERALS. 81 and the whole of the power, with a large share of contingent benefit, is on the side of the grantor. Administrative centralization is the great bane of most European governments, and it is not sur- prising that the statesmen of Turkey, in endea- vouring to form their institutions on established models, should follow in their wake. The Council of Mines, if discreetly worked, may be productive of some good ; but the utility to the State of an addition to the administrative hierarchy of a corps of mining engineers is not equally apparent. To each district there is appointed an officer .with the rank of chief mining engineer, whose duty it is, by himself and his subordinates, to see that the mines of the district are properly worked, both as regards underground exploration and surface plant ; and whose report to the Council of Mines, if of an adverse character, may seriously affect both the property and prospects of the grantee. No doubt the Porte considers such supervision to be neces- sary in order to secure the proper development of the minerals of the country, but the fallacy lies in the assumption that any single individual, no matter what may be the measure of his scientific attainments, can possibly form a correct opinion on the proper mode of working such varied mineral resources as Turkey possesses. If all mineral deposits were found under similar condi- tions, the case might be different. But whereas the average experience of a life is barely sufficient 6 82 TURKEY. to master the science of mining for coal in all its mechanical and excavating details ; and a man, whose days from boyhood to maturity have been passed in the observation of mineral strata, and in acquiring the knowledge necessary to enable him to direct the underground works of a copper mine, as well as the complicated mechanical con- trivances for dressing the ore at surface, does not consider himself equally competent to conduct similar operations for tin, it is too much to expect from any scientific officer of the Turkish Government that he can possibly be able to pronounce a safe judgment on the various details of every branch of mining enterprise. He may be able to say whether a steam-engine is in proper working order; whether the shafts are properly secured and the levels adequately timbered ; whether the hauling gear be sound and the pumps sufficient ; he may even be able to judge as to whether the work of exploration be in proper proportion to the quantity of mineral ground exhausted ; but the same individual cannot say whether coal is properly won, and whether the strata being worked for copper are correctly diagnosed. Mining for coal is with us a science, mining for copper an art: the former admitting to a large extent of a fixed curriculum of study ; the latter demanding from the student strictly regulated habits of observation, in addition to a large amount of practical information, which can only be acquired . in a severe course of actual subterranean work. MINERALS. S3 The legal principle which finds acceptance with us, that whatever is attached to the freehold belongs thereto, has been applied to the adminis- tration of mines in Turkey in rather an extended sense. At the expiration of the privileged term stated in the firman, the whole of the immovable property on a mine is vested in the State, and must be purchased from it by the grantee of every new firman, whether he be the old conces- sionaire or not; but as "immovable " is taken to mean everything from a steam-engine to a pick- axe, the astounding character of this tax will be at once apparent. It is possible that the appropriation and sale of the working plant on a mine, the firman for which has expired, may be viewed by the Government of the Sultan in the same light as a fine for renewal would be with us, the difference being that with us wherever there is no renewal there is no fine. The Government should make it a condition of the grant that, at its expiration, the whole of the underground works and surface buildings should be surrendered to the State in good condition ; but that the entirety of the pro- perty of the grantee should be sequestrated to the State, is a policy so short-sighted as to be in utter opposition to the well-known sagacity of the leading statesmen of Turkey. That any man of average intelligence should subject his property to such a contingency is beyond belief. The exist- ence of such a regulation must operate as a bar to 84 TURKEY. the progress of mining enterprise in Turkey ; and, in connection with the rule prohibiting companies from either increasing the number of their partners or the amount of their capital, evinces such a total misconception of the whole subject as to induce the belief that a code containing such clauses has been promulgated in error. The importance to the state of a good mining code cannot be over-estimated, as on the founda- tion of her valuable mineral resources must be reared the edifice of her future greatness. The dormant agricultural resources of Turkey are so vast as to be indeterminate. The whole stretch of country between the Syrian coast range and the Euphrates is capable of cotton production to an extent hardly conceivable, except to those who are acquainted with the topography of the district. The uncultivated area of Asia Minor is sur- prisingly large, while in European Turkey and the islands the same state of things exists ; and when the time shall come in which even a moderate percentage of her soil shall be brought under pro- duce, Turkey will hold an enviable position in the hierarchy of nations. No mere agricultural state can, however, hope to occupy such a commanding position as a manufacturing one. Turkey was at one time noted for the cunning and skill of her handicraftsmen, but since the invention of the power- loom, and the application of steam to nearly every department of manufacturing industry, she FUTURE OF TURKEY. 85 has been outdistanced in the race, and has relapsed into a purely agricultural condition. How long this will continue remains for her statesmen to deter- mine. There is probably no country in the world possessing the raw material of national greatness, in such abundance as the Ottoman possessions in Europe and Asia. Fuel and iron she has in common with every industrial centre of the West. She possesses also the facility of producing the various substances to be spun and woven into the cloths of commerce; and, forming the connecting link between two continents, with ports both in eastern and western waters, her natural advantages are overwhelmingly great. In order, however, to realize this bright vision of the future, Turkey must throw down at once and for ever the wall of exclusiveness which her people have so sedu- lously reared. She must invite the enterprise and capital of other nations to settle on her soil, and develop her products ; she must inaugurate a policy of freedom for industrial pursuits, and make the law, from the Euphrates to the Darda- nelles, effective for the protection of the stranger that is within her gates. The bare supposition that Turkey can ever hope to become a manufacturing country will doubtless be received with incredulity by many, and may be ridiculed by not a few ; but these doubters should remember that where such un- bounded natural wealth exists, a way and means 86 TUKKEY. can always be found for its utilization. The spinning-jenny and the power-loom have already reached the shores of India, and, although the Anglo-Saxon element is not so prominent in Turkey as in that distant possession of the British crown, we yet entertain an earnest belief, that ere long the flames of the blast-furnace will illuminate the spurs of the Anti-Taurus, and that Turkey, starting on a new course, under the vigilant care of her modern statesmen, will again send the products of her skill into the marts of the world. CHAPTER III. State of the finances in the time of Mahmud II. Sources of revenue Tithe Verghi Customs Sheep Exemption from military service Tribute Tobacco Salt Pigs Fish and fisheries Imperial farms Post office Alco- holic liquors Mines Total amount of revenue Depre- ciation of the currency Issue of paper money Issue of Government bonds Amount of external debt Measures of retrenchment by the present Sultan Appointment of Fuad Pasha as Grand Vizier His reforms in the finan- cial administration Introduction of ministerial responsi- bility to an administrative chief Opposition to reform Statement of the public debt The interior debt Fuad prepares for a financial coup The consolidation of the interior debt Principles on which it was based Its administration Guarantees for the future Opposi- tion to the scheme of consolidation in Constantinople, London, and Paris Personal character of the opposition Financial reforms necessitated by the consolidation of the public debt. PREVIOUS to the reign of Sultan Mahmud II., A.D. 1 808, the finances of Turkey were in a state of the direst confusion which it is possible to imagine. For all practical purposes, the public treasury might have been a non-existent institution, in such irregu- lar fashion did it receive the income of the state, and in so irregular a manner was the public cash 88 TURKEY. disbursed. At that time the consolidation of the political power existed more in name than in fact, whole provinces being governed by high officers of state, who habitually set the authority of the central Government .at defiance, and levied and disbursed the taxes according to their own irre- sponsible will. For every one of these high offenders whom the authority of the Govern- ment could reach, there were -ten who luxuriated in wrong-doing with impunity; and, although nominal accounts were rendered to the treasury, apparently supported by regular vouchers, only a small proportion of the revenue collected found its way thither, the vouched expendi- ture being regularly and systematically falsified. Troops, having only an existence on paper, were certified as paid ; abundant crops were made to appear as poor by reason of force mqjeure ; and, whilst the administrators were fattening on their ill-gotten gains, the public service was demoralized and the public exchequer impoverished. It is true that all these misdeeds were perpetrated under a guise of legality. To certain governors were assigned the revenues of certain districts in trust for the State, authority being delegated to pay the expenses of government and remit the balance to the treasury ; and it cannot be wondered at that a system so vicious should have borne its legiti- mate fruit. Fully sensible of the iniquitous manner in FINANCES. 89 which the public revenue was appropriated, Mahmud determined to strike at the root of the evil ; and, as has been elsewhere stated, he ordered the whole of the revenue to be paid into the treasury, and the disbursements of the State to be made therefrom. It would be incorrect to assume that at this period Turkey had any system of finance, properly so called. Such a thing as a budget of receipts and expenditure was unknown, while fresh imposts were either ordered, or existing burdens augmented, according as the necessity for cash arose. Turkey had not then any foreign creditor knocking at her gates, and so long as a sufficiency of income, in money and in kind, could be wrung from the miserable peasantry, to minister to the wants of a sensuous hierarchy, her ministers were satisfied. In the pride of their hearts, the old Turkish party spurned the idea of national decadence ; and it was not until the question of life or death, as a state, was made clearly to depend on the maintenance of things as they existed, or the adoption of measures of reform, that the necessity for setting their house in order was correctly appreciated. Since the reign of Mahmud one sultan only has come and gone ; but in the interim, Turkey has progressed with giant strides. The taxes are collected with regularity, and with increasing regard to the equity of their distribu- tion. An annual budget of receipts and expendi- ture is regularly published, and her credit is 90 TURKEY. established on the bourses of Europe. The ma- chinery of government has, even within the last few years, been wonderfully improved, and a deter- mination to bring the country up to the par of modern states is evinced by her rulers. In dealing with the finances of Turkey, it may be proper to describe the sources from which the public income is derived, previous to entering upon a general consideration of the national balance-sheet. These are as follow : Tithes, Verghi, Customs, Sheep, Exemption from Mili- tary Duty, Tribute, Tobacco, Salt, Pigs, Fish, State Farms, Transfer of Property, Postal Service, Alcoholic Liquors, Rentals of State Property, Stamps, Contracts, Mines, Printing, Forests, Sales of State Property, etc. TITHES. Dimes, or Aashr, is a tax of one- tenth on all agricultural produce raised in the country, and constitutes the most considerable item in the revenue of Turkey. An impost of this character, if levied with fairness and with a due regard to the interests of the farmers, would, in a primitive country, not be an objectionable mode of recruiting the public purse ; but when the State, for the purpose of anticipating the revenue, sells the probable produce of the tax by public tender, handing thereby the entirety of the agricultural population over to the mercies of ordinary speculators, the impost which might be easily and cheerfully borne, is in too many in- TITHES. 91 stances converted into an insufferable burden. Why a government like that of Turkey should continue to farm the most important portion of its revenue, is not easy of conjecture. The loss to the State, the injury to the farmer, and the class animosity which the system engenders, are all sufficiently patent ; nor is the Government without experience of the benefits which accrue to the treasury from its direct collection. The loss to the State is manifold, as in the first instance it cannot expect to receive the amount which the tax may fairly be expected to yield. The tithe of a whole district is usually sold either to one individual or a company of contractors, who split up the district into divisions, which they sublet at a profit ; and in this way the process of subdivision continues, until the tax is vested in the parties who collect the proceeds. On each of these sales and subsales profits have been made, until the ultimate proprietor holds it at a price very different from that originally paid to the govern- ment. The profits made in this way by the higher contractors are known to be enormous, and con- stitute in reality so much revenue diverted from the public treasury. Should a season prove unfavourable, and the gross result fall short of the expected amount ; or should the value of the tithe be affected by any sudden fall in the produce markets, the valuation for the ensuing season will be proportionately low ; and. although there may 92 TURKEY. be every indication of an abundant harvest, the Government must submit to a heavy discount on the price of the previous year. Thus, looking at the mere monetary aspect of the case, the system is a most disastrous one, as far as the Government is concerned, the only persons who really derive any benefit being a few wealthy Turks, Armenians, and Greeks, who by their command of money and social influence, secure a practical monopoly of the business. But apart altogether from what may be termed the treasury aspect of the ques- tion, the Government suffers in the diminished attachment of the population to the institutions of the country, consequent upon its abnegation of direct action in such an important matter as the collection of the public revenue. Love of country is happily everywhere a sentiment of indigenous growth, but loyalty to certain institutes of govern- ment is easily enfeebled, when the fulfilment of incumbent public duties is delegated to individuals having interests opposed to the equitable exercise of the function. The policy of the State is to levy only such contributions on the population as may be requisite for the efficient upholding of its sovereignty, the administration of justice, and the general promotion of the public weal ; and it is moreover the interest of the State to see to the equitable character of their incidence. The interest of the farmer of the revenue is, on the contrary, to enhance by every means in his power the value TITHE-FARMING SYSTEM. 93 of the privilege which he has purchased, irre- spective of any consideration affecting either the rights or well-being of the population ; and when it is considered how completely the agriculturist is in the power of the farmer, the only wonder is that the system has not been summarily stopped through a complete cessation of cultivation, ex- cept for the production of the necessaries of life. By way of illustration, let us state a possible case. A is a farmer of tithes, is a merchant, and, as a banker, makes advances on produce. B is a small cultivator, growing cotton and grain; poor, and in debt to a native saraff for the cash wherewith he has defrayed the expenses of the season. The harvest-time comes round, but B cannot touch his standing crops until they have been assessed to the tithe. Meanwhile the state of the crops has been accurately noted, and B being too poor to offer A any special inducements to assess and collect his tithe, sees the price of produce fall, and is tormented by the saraff for the repayment of his advances. An unfavourable change occurs in the weather which damages the outstanding crops, in addition to loss from over-ripening; still B is without remedy. A, who meanwhile has been oc- cupied with more weighty matters, appears on the scene, and collects his tithe of what would have been the value had the crops been seasonably reaped ; and B, having suffered both in the quantity and quality of his produce, and moreover having lost 94 TURKEY. his opportunity of sale, is either hopelessly ruined, or is obliged to submit to such onerous terms for new loans, granted either by A or the saraff, as practically to render him their bondsman for an in- definite period. As a possibility, the case just stated is an exposition of the worst feature of the tithe- farming system. It is, however, gratifying to know that the subject of a direct collection of the tithes by a money equivalent, based, on an average of seasons, has seriously engaged the attention of the advisers of the Sultan for some considerable time. But although they may have the will to abolish a practice which they know to be pernicious, the urgent and ever-recurring necessities of the trea- sury have hitherto presented obstacles in the way of reform not easily surmountable ; in addition to which, the great influence of the leading purchasers of the dime is brought to bear on the Government through a multitude of channels, in support of things as they exist. Even in a country like our own, with government by parliament, and the whole system of finance in the hands of the re- presentatives of the people, the influence of wealth and station in support of effete institutions is too well known to need demonstration. How much more effectual, then, must the same influence be in a country like Turkey, the government of which is absolute, and the councils of which are too often influenced by the seductive blandishments of the seraglio. The tithe of such a country as VEBGHI. 95 Turkey is too important a branch of revenue to be dissipated by mismanagement, and no more deservedly popular act could be credited to the Grand Vizier than the collection of the tithes in cash by the agents of the State, for the sole benefit of the treasury. A weaker man than Fuad might hesitate to strike the blow, but, although his downfall would be sought by every means known to court intrigue, so high an opinion have we of the Sultan Abdul Aziz, that we believe he might rely on the unswerving support and countenance of his Imperial master. VEKGHI is a tax on income and property, and in importance ranks next to the tithe. It may with more propriety be termed an impost than a tax, as the gross amount required is first decided, after which a certain amount is apportioned to every province in the empire, and levied in the most primitive fashion imaginable. The appor- tionment of the impost is not a periodical opera- tion, but was fixed in 1844 on the results of the census taken in that year, and has so continued, irrespective altogether of altered circumstances either in the property of individuals or communi- ties ; so that, even supposing the impost to have been justly apportioned at the outset, the changes occurring during a term of years have materially altered the conditions which governed the primary division. Some communities have become poor and others rich ; in the individual, straitened 96 TURKEY. circumstances have taken the place of wealth, and competence that of poverty ; yet the same amount is exacted from the same community, whether its former wealth may have departed, or whether opulent importance may have supervened on insig- nificant poverty. It is obvious that a tax so col- lected must be productive of great individual hard- ship, and must be levied most unequally on the property of the country. A tax on property and income is one of the most legitimate sources of revenue at the command of a minister of finance ; and if it were consistent with the proverbial frailty of our human nature to make a true return of that which we receive, in order that it might be assessed to the revenue, it would be one of the most satis- factory state burdens which could be imposed. Unfortunately, however, it has been found impos- sible in practice to secure true returns of in- come from individuals, especially from the class which should most largely contribute ; and were it not for the power which is usually reserved by governments to surcharge suspected offenders, and the opportunity which the tax affords for the ostentatious display of personal vanity, the results might be of an eminently unsatisfactory character. The Osmanli, however, have solved the difficulty by a method peculiarly their own ; fixing each dis- trict with a stated annual contribution, and throw- ing the onus of its collection on the local authorities, who are not at all times very scrupulous as to the THE VERGHI ITS INCIDENCE. 97 mode in which the tax is levied. Property, pre- viously assessed to the dime, is continually reassessed to the verghi, and its incidence is so unequal, even in the presence of facts which should lead to different results, that the most widespread dissatisfaction exists with respect to the collection of the verghi over the whole of the empire. Wherever irresponsible power is found, there will be found corruption, and its most objectionable features are exemplified when petty administrators are invested with authority over their equals and inferiors. Tyranny towards the weak and truckling to the strong are qualities always more or less developed, breeding discontent on the one hand and contempt on the other. It is difficult to understand what serious obstacles there can be to an equitable collection of a tax on property and income in the Ottoman empire. A common observance of recognized fixed rules would only appear to be necessary in order to secure a large revenue from this source. It is useless for the Government to try a change of system in different districts by way of experi- ment ; for so long as it is understood that such measures are of a temporary character, the efforts of the administration will be thwarted, and can only result in disappointment. Any population, however mixed, can always appreciate sound statesmanship when their pockets are affected ; and if the Government of the Sultan would only 98 TURKEY. determine, once for all, to abandon the barbarous system of imposts of which the verghi is an example, and levy a fixed percentage on the property and income of the country, based on a valuation which could be easily arrived at, an important branch of revenue would be secured, which could be periodically increased or diminished according to the necessities of the treasury. CUSTOMS. The Custom-Houses of the Ottoman empire should yield a much larger revenue than is at present received, considering the geographical position of Turkey and the value of the merchan- dise which annually passes through her territory in transit ; but the ruinous system of farming has obtained here, as in every other department of any importance, with the usual result of loss to the treasury and the demoralization of the mercantile community. The principal custom-houses in Turkey are those of Constantinople, Salonica, Trebizond, and Smyrna ; and until the installation of his Excel- lency Kiani Pasha, late Minister of Finance, in the control of the customs at Constantinople, the most barefaced system of fraud on the revenue was openly practised at every custom-house in the empire. The all but total absence of any check on the proceedings of the collectors conduced alternately to extortion and favouritism. The employes, badly paid and imperfectly supervised, were notoriously open to bribery, from whatever source it came. Goods in transit, either into Europe or Persia, con- CUSTOMS. 99 stantly passed through without the payment of dues, whilst the merchant who could afford a liberal backshish } always managed to cheat the Government of a greater or lesser proportion of the duties. In cases where the custom-houses were farmed by traders, the grossest injustice towards independent importers was of frequent occurrence, consisting of vexatious delays, op- pressive surcharges, and arbitrary confiscations ; the farmer, being enabled to import his own mer- chandise practically duty free, competed with other traders on unequal terms the effect being that the customs duties were almost invari- ably vouched at a figure greatly below their real value ; and whilst the farmers received the cash and traded with the national capital, the Govern- ment not unfrequently suffered serious loss from their inability to meet their engagements. If such malpractices as these could exist within a short distance of the capital, and even at the Golden Horn itself, what could be expected from such out- lying districts as Bagdad and Aleppo ! The whole system was, in fact, a gigantic sham, so far as the State was concerned a sham, in the working of which the farmers accumulated wealth and the State accumulated debt, in which the morals of the trading community were systematically sapped, and the estate of the citizen systematically plundered. It is hardly conceivable that such a system as that just described could exist in a country in 100 TURKEY. immediate contact with fiscal systems of a more or less advanced character, involving the econo- mical and rigid collection of customs duties on merchandise. It may, however, be objected that of so unimportant a character is the commerce of Turkey, that the State in all probability does not lose in any material degree by the farming of the duties. Statements of which this is a type are by no means uncommon ; and it may help to enlighten such superficial observers if only one instance be cited in proof of the assertion, that the State is a serious loser by the farming of the customs. The customs duties of Bosnia and the Herzegovina for the year 1852-3 were sold by auction to a native company, and realized to them the sum of six thousand seven hundred and seventy-six pounds. The duties for the following year were collected by the Government, and realized to the treasury the sum of twenty-three thousand nine hundred, and eighty pounds; and as proof that such an amazing increase was not due to excep- tional causes, the following year showed a small increase. In presence of such facts as these, it is useless to argue in support or even in palliation of the practice of farming the duties ; particularly as the Government is fully alive to the necessity of establishing a direct collection of duties over the whole of the empire. Constantinople and its associated custom-houses are all managed by the State, a result which is mainly owing to the BONDING WAREHOUSES REQUIRED. 101 integrity and vigour which Kiani Pasha introduced into the internal administration. He demonstrated to the Government, by the collection of a largely increased duty, what could be achieved by the unsparing correction of abuses ; and his success in the customs was the stepping stone to those higher offices of State which he has since enjoyed. No system of customs duties on merchandise can flourish unless it be allied to a good system of warehousing in bond ; but of that Turkey is at present destitute. Stocks of goods will always be low, markets unsettled, and prices relatively high, when the trader is compelled to import from hand to mouth. The import duty is eight per cent, ad valorem ; the export duty eight per cent, ad valorem, diminishing by a sliding scale to one per cent. ; and there is also a transit duty of two per cent., which is to be ultimately reduced to one per cent. A good bonding sys- tem introduced into Constantinople and the prin- cipal outports, would give an impetus to Turkish trade such as the authorities do not dream of. It would encourage imports ; and besides being a great convenience to importing merchants, would very materially aid in the just collection of the duties. A good dock, surrounded by a range of bonding warehouses, in Constantinople, would be a public work of which the Sultan might well be proud, and its existence would do more to satisfy the friends of Turkey in the West, that she 102 TURKEY. had really entered on a career of substantial pro- gress, than the most glowing professions of liberal government which have ever emanated from the imperial will. SHEEP. The tithe on sheep is an important source of Turkish revenue. Formerly collected in kind, it is now estimated to produce an average of three piastres per head, as an equivalent for one-tenth of the annual value. Under the present system of farming, the sheep-tax yields about one million sterling per annum, an amount which might be greatly increased could a reliable return of numbers be even approximately obtainable. It would, however, be unreasonable to expect from a country situated like Turkey, that which is found to be all but impossible in countries highly cul- tivated, and with systems of government thoroughly engrafted in the affections of the people. A per- fect system of agricultural statistics is the aim of the Executive in every wisely governed State ; but whether the object has been the imposition of fiscal burdens, the better to care for the public health, or to enable them more accurately to guage the national wealth, the end has in scarcely any instance been attained. Turkey, however, can- not with propriety Joe called a settled country. In Asia, there are vast tracts of pasture land in the occupation of nomad tribes, who own no direct allegiance except to their sheikhs, and whose wandering habits render the task of Government EXEMPTION FROM MILITARY SERVICE. 103 supervision for revenue purposes a practical nullity. In such a case as this it is in the power of individuals to enter into compacts which the Government could not recognize without derogation of dignity, and the farming of such a tax may, under such circumstances, be considered the best available mode of obtaining its collection. These remarks, however, do not apply with the same force to European Turkey where the inhabitants are more localized, and the same difficulties in the way of direct collection, which obtain in the Asiatic division of the empire, do not exist. The tax upon sheep may with truth be denominated a quit rent, which the proprietors of the flocks pay to the State; but although the tax is small, and would seem to be easily borne, it is questionable whether the Government would not derive a larger income from a small rental on large tracts of land, parcelled out in similar fashion to our own Aus- tralian sheep runs. The average of grass required for a given number of sheep is a known quantity, and it would be more satisfactory both to the Government and the flockmasters if this revenue were raised in a manner about which there could not be^any dispute, either as regards the mode of collection or the amount returnable. EXEMPTION FROM MILITARY SERVICE, or Rachat Militaire, is an impost levied on the Christian sub- jects of the Porte, in consideration of their non- liability to serve in the army. The gross amount 104 TURKEY. is fixed and collected, and is obnoxious to the same deprecatory remarks respecting its incidence and mode of collection, as the verghi. The Eachat Militaire is a burden imposed by a dominant on a subject race ; and, as a consideration for exemption from military service, is not open to adverse criticism ; but the method of col- lection is quite another matter. Nearly every objection urged against the collection of the verghi applies to the Rachat Militaire with equal force. If the whole of the population of the Ottoman empire was liable to conscription, the fines for exemption would yield a tolerable revenue, in all probability much larger than the amount at present received, and if the whole of the non- Mussulman subjects of the Porte were liable to pay a tax of a fixed amount per annum between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, or between the ages when man is considered most fit for military ser- vice, there can be no doubt whatever that a larger amount would be annually realized to the revenue than the Rachat Militaire at present yields. The vil- lage councils could have no difficulty in conducting the assessments, as the ages of the members of any family are matters of public notoriety, whilst the possibility of discontent at such an equitable mode of paying the indemnity would be avoided. Youth and age should not in common justice be sub- jected to such an impost as this. The most the Government can reasonably expect being that TOBACCO. 105 those who are qualified for the army by their years and freedom from physical defect should pay for exemption. It would not require any great stretch of liberality on the part of the Government to make this tax, however great the paradox, popular with the rayahs. All that is required being faith in the elasticity of the revenue, based on a practical consideration for the prejudices of the people. TRIBUTE. Under the head of tribute is included all the fixed contributions received by the Porte in its quality of suzerain, and amounting annually to three hundred and seventy-fourthousand pounds sterling. TOBACCO is clearly an article of luxury, and one of the fittest natural products for heavy taxation which any state could select. In no sense can it be considered a necessary of life, and it has con- sequently been made the subject of a stringent revenue by every civilized country. In Turkey, tobacco is a government monopoly, and, as the export duty on the article has been abolished, the Government would be justified in levying a heavy tax on its production; but in this as in many other instances, the Ottoman Government would seem to give this important source of revenue very inadequate consideration. It has been estimated that the whole of the tobacco grown in Turkey does not pay more than one piastre per oke to the state, an amount so ridiculously small as to excite involuntary surprise ; but the duty is farmed, and the consequence is that the difference between. 106 TURKEY. one piastre and three, fairly represents the loss to the treasury, There is something absolutely in- comprehensible in this deliberate waste of abundant resources, and it is painful to contemplate a coun- try so exceptionally favoured in her natural pro- ducts weighed down by an incubus of unprincipled self-seeking. The duty on tobacco varies from one and a half to six piastres per oke, accord- ing to value, and is assessed on the leaf as it is purchased from the cultivators. The estimated production is thirty millions of okes annually, and as the demand for tobacco is steadily increasing, its proper assessment to the revenue is a matter of the greatest importance. It has ever been found that with the most perfect organization that could be devised to protect the duty on tobacco, its evasion has been largely practised, mainly owing to the high rates of duty im- posed. In Turkey, if the duty were only rigidly collected, the amount could be trebled, and there can be no sufficient reason why the duty should not be largely increased. The diffi- culties in the way of graduating the duty to a sliding scale of value are such as to preclude the adoption of any elaborate scheme having that end in view, but some steps should be taken to ensure the application of the higher duty to the finer qualities of leaf. The matter would be very much simplified if there were only two rates of duty, a maximum and a minimum ; the former applying to SALT. 107 all tobacco of a quality fit for use among the middle and higher classes of society, as well as to tobacco exported, the latter applying to the lower quality used by the labouring population. The minimum rate including all tobacco under the value of fifteen piastres per oke, the maximum applying to all leaf above that value. The difficulty lies in deciding the value, and the only way to obviate that would be the imposition of a uniform rate of duty irrespective of quality, which is really the only plan by which a revenue could be satisfactorily collected from tobacco ; a low rate of duty, say two and a half piastres per oke would substantially increase the amount at present derived from the tax, and the rate could be gra- dually raised, as the dealer and consumer became accustomed to the increased duty. In any case, the Government should without delay devise such a scheme for the utilization of the tobacco crop to its utmost limit, consistent with unfettered pro- duction, and freedom from provocation to fraudu- lent evasion of the duty. SALT like tobacco is treated as a government monopoly, the whole of the saline deposits be- longing to the State. It is one of the first necessaries of life, and as such should be exempt from taxation, unless under circumstances of ex- treme urgency. From the proprietary right to the salt works being vested in the State, a considerable profit must accrue from the sale of the article, and 108 TURKEY. it would be in the last degree impolitic for the Porte to run the risk of endangering the public health by raising the price of salt, in order to swell the annual receipts. In the report made to the Sultan by Fuad Pasha, on the financial situation of the empire in the year 1862, his Highness is made to say, " As regards salt, it is true that it constitutes one of the urgent wants of the people, but its consumption per head is insignificant. This article is in other countries heavily taxed. In Turkey the salt pits belonging exclusively to the State, the sale of salt will also be very productive, although it might be much less than the quantity made." It will be seen from the foregoing, that while salt is recognized as an urgent want of the people, still its small consumption per head, is cited in proof of the ease with which an increase in price could be borne. Now all experience teaches that the consumption of salt in a population increases with a diminution of price ; so that although it may be a necessary of life, salt follows the usual economic law of increase and decrease in consumption in proportion to the ease with which it can be acquired. It is, moreover, an important agent in the preparation of animal food for export. Turkey could supply a large quantity of salted provisions, and the aim of her statesmen should be not to snatch an inconsiderable revenue from an article of the first necessity, but by every means in their power to encourage the rural population to employ PIGS. 109 the means at their command, in the utilization of their surplus stock by curing for foreign markets. In France where the price of salt is twopence per pound, the annual consumption per head of the population is about seventeen pounds, whereas in Great Britain with salt at less than one farthing per pound, the annual consumption may be reckoned at twenty-two pounds per head. In all countries where salt is taxed, whether heavily or otherwise, the quality of the culinary article does not come up to the same average of excellence as in countries where the industry is free. Improve- ments in the manufacture are only fostered by freedom from state impost, and Great Britain, which annually exports one half of her produce, is a conspicuous example of the benefits to be derived from an unrestricted trade in salt. If on no other ground than a consideration for the public health, the Ottoman Government should strike salt from the category of articles which contribute to the revenue. PIGS. In a Mussulman country it is not surprising that pigs should be specially noticed by the Minister of Finance. Among all Chris- tian nations the breeding of the hog is looked upon as a matter of national interest, especially in connection with the food supplies of the labouring population. In Ireland " the gentleman who pays the rent" is housed and fed with peculiar care, and in all western countries the economical qualities of 110 TUEKET. the pig, as, an abundant source of wholesome animal food, are fully recognized. Previous to the year 1858 the tax upon pigs was three piastres per head. In that year, however, it was raised to ten piastres per head, the tax becoming operative at the age of three months. In European Turkey the pig is bred in large numbers by the peasantry, who rely on it almost solely for their supply of animal food. Such a large increase in the tax as that from three to ten piastres was felt as a mea- sure of peculiar hardship, and has been productive of much dissatisfaction. Ten piastres is certainly not a large amount if chargeable on a fatted hog, but it does seem unreasonable that the tax should be levied at the age of three months. As in all cases where a government commits itself to im- perfectly considered measures, the increase of the duty on pigs has, to a large extent, defeated the object it was calculated to serve. In European Turkey the decrease in the numbers bred has been fully fifty per cent. The peasants will not risk the payment of the increased tax on so young an animal, and the consequence is that large numbers are annually killed shortly after birth solely to avoid their liability to the exchequer. Does the Porte consider that every animal so prematurely de- stroyed is an item of wealth lost to the country ? Does it consider that in making the food of the peasantry more difficult to obtain, they are de- teriorating their physique and fostering discontent ? FISH AND FISHEEIES. Ill or, again reverting to the public health, do they not see that the consumption of immature animal food, which must necessarily follow such wholesale slaughter, has a tendency to lower the character of the vital statistics of the nation? Surely such considerations as these have not been adequately weighed by the Government, or it would never have incurred such grave responsibility for the chance of adding a paltry amount to a tax which, what- ever were its abstract merits, was cheerfully borne. Should the difficulties in the way of lowering the tax be too great for removal, then let its incidence be modified, so as to avoid the tax on an animal so young as to be liable to all the risks of disease which attend upon immaturity. FISH AND FISHEEIES. The tax on fish and the rental of the fisheries in Turkish waters contribute important items to the national revenue. The duty is twenty per cent, ad valorem, but the rental which the fisheries yield is nevertheless quite dis- proportionate to their value. There is no branch of a country's resources which is so liable to be disre- garded as its fisheries, and this is the case even in densely populated states, where the importance of fish as an article of food is more or less fully recog- nized. In Turkey while the river fisheries are sub- jected to a close surveillance, the deep sea fisheries are greatly neglected. Efforts are being made, how- ever, to remedy this state of things, so far as the open waters are concerned, by parties acquainted 112 TURKEY. with their value ; and if a uniform mode of collecting the duties on the produce of the river fisheries was introduced over the whole of the empire, the consumption of fish would be largely increased. An ad valorem duty on fish is just one of those impossible imposts which are continually met with in the Ottoman Empire, opening a door for every description of oppression and fraud. As much as seventy per cent, of the gross produce is not unfrequently levied on the fishermen in one shape or another. What would an English trawler say if, when he came into port with a cargo offish, the excise were to seize two out of three for the benefit of the revenue ? And yet that is done in some parts of the Ottoman empire, and is quietly regarded by the impoverished fishermen as one of those inevitable curses which by preordination cling to the race of Adam. The best mode of collecting a revenue from these sources would not be from the fish, but from the waters ; care being taken to pre- vent the whole of the waters in a province from coming under the control of a single individual, so as to avoid as much as possible the vicious system of subletting, which is a characteristic feature of all monopolies. The income derived from the rental of the waters might be supplemented by a licence to fish, which every person exercising the vocation should be compelled to apply for annually to the Government. If such licences were granted at a moderate price, an increasing income would IMPERIAL FARMS POST-OFFICE. 113 be secured, and the authorities would be able to exercise a direct control for the prevention of prac- tices which might injure the spawning beds, and so interfere with the regular supply. IMPERIAL FARMS. An income of about sixty thousand pounds per annum is derived from the rental of farms belonging to the State, a small sum being also realized annually from the sale of State domains. The rental just stated is very insignificant in amount when the extensive acreage of the State farms is considered ; but owing to the reluctance of the Government to grant long leases to eligible tenants, anything like thorough cultivation is out of the question. Men will not expend their time, energy, and capital on land which may pass from their possession at the caprice of ministers. Hence the smallness of the rental which is realized. This system of yearly tenure is the worst thing possible for the Government, as the land is cropped without regard for the future, and in the course of time becomes so impoverished as to be comparatively worthless. POST-OFFICE. Nothing tends so surely to the internal consolidation of a country as a well organized postal service a convenience in which the Ottoman Empire is sadly deficient. Even in Constantinople there is no system of letter delivery, the want of which is severely felt by the residents in that city. Turkey presents the singular anomaly of having distinct postal estab- 8 114 TURKEY. lishments in its capital, severally belonging to the principal foreign Governments with which the Porte is in diplomatic relation, each of which forward their mails in closed bags to their own post-office for distribution, and using the stamps of their respective countries in pay- ment of the postage outward from Constanti- nople. The English post-office in Turkey is an exceedingly well managed institution, receiving and despatching a closed mail, via Marseilles, weekly. Previous to the year 1840 there was no regular postal organization in Turkey, and the use of adhesive stamps in the payment of postage is only of very recent date. The stamps are of four denominations, viz., twenty paras, and one, two, and five piastres. The design is exceedingly artistic, but owing to the arrangements of the Turkish post-office not extending beyond the empire, very few people have as yet been able to make themselves acquainted with their appearance. Between Constantinople and London, there are three postal routes, viz., Marseilles, Trieste, and the Danube, of which the last-named is the most expeditious ; but as it is only available during the summer months, Marseilles is the great trunk route, both for passengers and mails. It is, perhaps, too much to expect, at all events for some time to come, that the Turkish Government will be able to work their post-office at a profit. The bulk of the correspondence within the Empire is ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS STAMPS. 115 of a mercantile character. Communication by letter is rarely resorted to by the subjects of the Porte, except in the higher circles of society ; and a social revolution, albeit of a quiet character, will require to be worked, before a rayah in Magnesia will address a letter to another rayah on the banks of the Tigris inquiring into the state of his crops, and the condition and price of seeds, in which they may be mutually interested. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. An inconsiderable amount is annually derived from the excise on alcoholic liquors ; but as the consumption of ardent spirits is very small in Turkey, the Government is deprived of one of the principal sources of revenue on which other States depend. STAMPS. The revenue from stamp duties is exceedingly small, but with a better system of organization throughout the country, it might be largely increased. Possibly it has been owing to the absence of such an organization that the Government have not more fully developed the system of collecting a revenue from stamps. A moderate stamp duty is capable of such various application, and is withal so easily collected, as to commend itself to the attention of every financier with a difficult budget. It is. astonishing, therefore, that in Turkey, where so much ingenuity has been displayed in the imposition of petty taxes, the system has not been more fully developed. The collection of the revenue, moreover, might 116 TURKEY. be greatly simplified by the use of adhesive stamps, a view of the case which the Ottoman Government might study with advantage. MINES. The mines of the Ottoman Empire have been already so fully considered when treat- ing of the mineral resources of the country, as to leave little to be said on the subject here. The revenue derived from mines is so small as not to be worthy of separate mention, were it not to afford occasion for the statement that the royalty from the working of a single copper mine in England yields a larger annual revenue to the proprietor of the soil than that which the Ottoman Government derives from the whole of their vast mineral treasure. The total amount of the revenue of Turkey is about fourteen millions sterling, the expendi- ture being rather in excess of the receipts ; but until the whole system of taxation is revised, both as regards its incidence and collection, the difficulties in the way of constructing a budget, the debtor and creditor sides of which shall balance, are all but insurmountable. The financial year begins and ends on fixed dates, but the revenue for the year cannot be estimated within ordinary limits, owing to the practice of farming, which makes its receipt dependent on the continued solvency of the contractors, and on the absence of causes which may enable them to plead force majeure in mitigation of their payments. Against THE REVENUE. 117 such contingencies no amount of forethought can provide, and to such causes may be traced the bulk of the evils with which Turkish finance is afflicted. Previous to the Crimean war, Turkey had no foreign creditor to question the soundness of her financial system. The collection of the revenue was then in a state of infinite confusion, and it is marvellous how any country could have maintained an independent position for so long a time with an exchequer in a condition of such chronic insolvency. At no period of their history can it be fairly said of the Osmanli that war was made to support war. The resources of the empire were made to bear the brunt of military operations ; .and it is surprising, considering the treasure which has been lavished on her military expeditions, that the country is not in a more backward state. One favourite mode the early Sultans had of providing for extraordinary ex- penditure; and that was by depreciating the currency a practice which has prevailed at one time or another in all old countries ; but it is questionable whether a parallel instance of depre- ciation can be found to compare with the Turkish piastre, which, from four shillings and fourpence, has dwindled to the paltry value of twopence, one hundred and ten piastres being the equivjlent of one pound sterling. At the conclusion of the war with Russia, in 1774, Turkey agreed to pay Russia an indemnity of seven million five hundred 118 TURKEY. thousand piastres, and in order to obtain the funds, the piastre was depreciated from four shillings and fourpence to two shillings and two- pence. In the year 1829 Turkey had to pay another indemnity to Russia, but the piastre, which in 1774 had been two and twopence, was in 1829 at its present value, and the indemnity was paid in beschliks a coin representing five piastres. From this period the financial difficulties of Turkey may be said to have commenced. The value of the currency had sunk to a point below which it was impossible to go, and in order to meet the outgoings of the State, the advisers of the Sultan had recourse to the dangerous expedient of using paper money, or rather Treasury bonds, bearing a high rate of interest, simply secured on the general revenue of the Empire. These bonds were the Caimes, a name which is familiar to the ear of every financier in Europe. The first issue was made in the year 1841, from which time until the present, the issue of Caimes has been resorted to in every emergency by Turkish statesmen, and has been attended by consequences of the most per- nicious character. It would be absurd to state that the issue of Treasury bonds is pernicious per se. It is the abuse, and not the use of such obligations to which exception is taken ; the abuse consisting in converting that which should be a temporary and, in that sense, a justifiable expedient for the THE REVENUE. 119 assistance of the Treasury into a perpetual annuity on the Imperial revenue. If it be prac- tically impossible to estimate the income of the State, the measure of the expenditure is equally difficult to guage. The domestic institutions of the Osmanli, and their characteristic carelessness of the future, so long as the necessities of the moment are met, account in a large measure for the disorganized state of their finances. Expen- diture without limit is, if anything, worse than uncertainty of income ; but when the two are combined, in the case of a people deficient in method and fatalistic in mind, the difficulties of the situation are indefinitely increased. To re- model the fiscal system, so as to ensure a suffi- ciency of revenue, would be a work of time and in- volve an amount of labour which few men would care to undertake ; whereas the issue of a few Treasury bonds is an operation which commends itself for its simplicity and facility of execution. Turkish statesmen are not all cast in the Spartan mould which is honourably charac- teristic of a few ; and, so long as men were to be found ready to trade on the necessities of the Government, to abet departmental extravagance, and minister to the expensive follies of the seraglio, Cannes issued from the Treasury and serghis from the Ministries, Galata loans increased, and palace debts augmented. How long such a system, if left undisturbed, might have continued, 120 TURKEY. it is impossible to say. At all events, Turkey was unable to bear the extraordinary expenditure con- sequent upon the Crimean war, and, for the first time in her history, was obliged to hypothecate certain branches of her revenue to Western capitalists, and enter into obligations both as to the punctual payment of interest and redemption of capital, such as she had been previously unac- customed to discharge. In the course of ten years from 1854 to 1864 Turkey borrowed on the bourses of Europe rather over thirty- one millions sterling, in six loans, all of which are secured on special branches of revenue; and it may well be supposed that such large operations were not effected without a knowledge, however imperfect, of the state of Turkish finance, on the part of the British and French investing public. No sooner did it become the interest of Western capitalists that Turkey should be wisely governed, her natural wealth conserved, and her finances discreetly administered, than the whole of her institutions were suddenly discovered to possess an interest for the student of political economy previously undreamed of ; and public opinion, through the columns of the newspaper press, was brought to bear on the statesmen of Turkey, in favour of enlightened and progressive reform. The spirit of inquiry thus newly awakened, and the desire which was uniformly evinced to assist in the consolidation of the empire, must have FUAD's FINANCIAL REFORMS. 121 been highly gratifying both to the Sultan and his advisers, while it tended materially to strengthen the hands of those ministers who, having the future of their country near at heart, were labour- ing at the correction of abuses in the administra- tion. The accession of the present Sultan was marked by a determined effort at curtailment in the palace expenditure, which astonished the people of Constantinople, and made the usurers of Galata and Stamboul tremble for the safety of their balances. The departmental expenditure of the Government was at the same time sub- mitted to a searching scrutiny, and the Sultan, while using the pruning-knife freely, dealt even- handed justice among the official hierarchy a task in which he was ably assisted by his highness Fuad Pasha, the Grand Vizier, who occupied him- self incessantly, from the time of his appointment, with the improvement of the financial system. How well Fuad understood the duty and the obligations of a State to the public creditor, may be inferred from the able report which he addressed to the Sultan, in anticipation of the financial year 1861-2, wherein he says, " Public credit is the lever of all the wonders of our age, and the terms on which kingdoms obtain it, are, first, economy in their administration that is to say, the employment of the public money in matters useful to the State; and, secondly, the faithful fulfilment of all obligations entered into.'* 122 TURKEY. To those accustomed to financial systems of a more or less perfect order, such utterances as these are simply the repetition of a thrice-told tale, but they are nevertheless truths which are seldom so plainly told in courtly phrase to an abso- lute monarch. With reference to the Cannes, Fuad says, " Your Imperial Majesty is well aware that paper money, which has no real equivalent value, is but a fictitious means of credit. It is equal to the depreciation in the value of the exchange, and incessantly disturbs all commercial affairs. This, reacting on the credit of the State, never fails to ensure the most distressing results. It is, there- fore, undoubted that the issue of paper money is not a wise financial measure on the part of the Government of your majesty, but evidently a dangerous expedient, to be adopted only in cases of emergency." Of course, from the efforts of such a man as Fuad Pasha great results were expected, especially by those who were not in a position to estimate the herculean character of the task which, as a reforming minister, he had undertaken. Much may be done in the way of amendment, with a reliable income on which to work ; but in the absence of that great deside- ratum it is hardly possible to estimate the difficulties by which he was surrounded. Re- trenchment in the expenses of the Civil List was stoutly opposed by vested interests. The intro- duction of the doctrine of ministerial responsibility FINANCIAL EEFOEMS. 123 in departmental administration, was viewed with coldness and suspicion by statesmen unaccustomed to the restraint on the free exercise of their will which responsibility to a chief inevitably imposes. The endeavour to provide the ways and means for the national expenditure, without having recourse to the bankers of Gralata for usurious loans, was attempted to be defeated by every means known to the unscrupulous, while his efforts in the direct collection of the revenue were systematically marred by a clique whose enormous fortunes had been amassed from the spoils of the Treasury. Fuad was in the position of a man who, with a depreciated currency, a foreign debt charged on the most remunerative and most certain sources of the revenue, a home debt which, to understand, was about as easy a task as the quadrature of the circle, and a revenue which might or might not reach the Imperial Treasury, was expected to present to the eyes of an admiring world a system of administration based on the most advanced models of modern statesmanship. The public debt of Turkey is divided into two categories, viz., the exterior debt, composed of loans contracted in London and Paris, between the years 1854-64 ; and the interior debt, which is composed of a variety of Government obliga- tions, the most considerable of which is the Consolides. The present position of the two categories is as follows : 124 TURKEY. EXTERIOR DEBT. Loan 1854 2,655,300 1855 4,605,100 1858 4,651,300 1860 1,931,000 1862 7,575,300 ] 863-4... 7,686,500 29,104,500 Consolidated 1865 36,363,610 65,468,140 The annual charge on the budget for the exterior debt is, in round numbers, 2,284,900 ; and, as the operation of the sinking fund is accumulative, the charge on the budget will remain without alteration until the year 1883, when it will be reduced rather more than one-fifth, and be extinguished in the year 1889. The whole of these loans are secured on special branches of revenue, such as the Egyptian tribute, and the customs of Constantinople; and consequently possess the most solid guarantees for the payment of the interest, as well as the application of the sinking fund. Should the Porte be able to keep the revenue at present hypothecated free from extra charge, the Minister of Finance will, about thirty years hence, have an amount of revenue at his disposition equal to one-fifth of the present annual income of the State. The interior debt, the consolidation of which THE PUBLIC DEBT. 125 has recently been decreed, consists of the Eshami- Djedides, (consolides), the Tahvilati-Mumtaz6 (Hasne Tahvilis), and the Serghis of ten years (on Seneliks). The first of these three categories is by far the most considerable in amount, consist- ing of four issues of six per cent, bonds, having a sinking fund of two per cent., the whole charged on the general credit of the empire. The first three issues of Consohdes, only represent small amounts ; the fourth issue (the Azizies), being that which is known in the markets of Europe. By far the largest proportion of the Azizies are held in England, France, and Germany, where they have always been favourably looked upon by specu- lators, on account of the fluctuations in value to which they were liable. They were issued to replace the depreciated Caimes, and amount at the least to a capital sum of 12,500,000 Turkish lire. The Consolides are purely an internal stock. The interest is payable only in Constantinople, the bonds of the fourth emission alone being negotiable without the limits of the empire. The second category, or Tahvilati-Mumtaze, is a six per cent, stock, representing the funded Hasne Tahvilis, or Treasury bonds. The amount does not exceed 2,500,000 Turkish lire, and under the operation of an accumulative sinking fund ot five per cent., should be extinguished in about ten years from the present time. The third category, on Seneliks, is the largest in amount of the inferior 126 TURKEY. classes of the consolidated debt. They repre- sent old Palace debts, bearing interest at the rate of six per cent, per annum, and have nominally the large sinking fund of twenty per cent. In addition to the foregoing, which constitute the Consolidated debt, the Government have contracted temporary loans secured on portions of the Tithe ; there are also the serghis which were issued to compensate the sufferers for the disturbances in Syria, in the year 1860, the repayment of which, both principal and interest, is secured on the Syrian customs duties. The original amount of these bonds was 1,060,000 Turkish lire, nearly one-half of which has been already liquidated. The practice which had obtained previous to the reign of the present Sultan, of issuing Govern- ment bonds for the purpose of covering every paltry deficit, whether departmental or general, however convenient in practice, was radically un- sound in principle. Apart from the irregular character of the burdens which were thus thrown upon the State, the system generated in the ad- ministrators a spirit of dependence on extraneous aid, fostered a passion for speculative gambling in the population of the capital, caused a gene- ral depreciation in the value of Government securities, and impaired the confidence of the people in the general administrative system. Sensible of all this, Fuad introduced the publica- tion of an annual budget, setting forth the pro- FUNDING OP GOVEENMENT OBLIGATIONS. 127 bability of receipts and expenditure for the coming year. The estimated expense of each department of the Government was categorically stated, and, by withdrawing the power of issuing serghis, or obli- gations, which individual ministers had previously exercised, the expenditure was kept within stated limits. Another step in the right direction was the funding of the miscellaneous Government obliga- tions, a proceeding which accorded with the well- known liberality of the Osmanli, although repudia- tion would, in many cases, have been a more right- eous course. Beyond all this, however, Fuad was convinced that some decisive step should be taken in order to raise the credit of the State, and infuse confidence into the minds of the population in the provinces. The internal debt was composed of several categories of bonds, varying in the rate of interest with which they were charged, as well as in the mode of their amortization. Outside the limits of Stamboul and Galata they were unknown, and not only did their value deteriorate by restricted dealings, but their depreciation reflected inju- riously on the credit of the State. The com- plexity of their character acted as a deterrent against investment by the saving classes ; while their amount represented so much capital locked up and unavailable. Fuad's desire was, in the first place, to bring within the grasp of the Treasury the whole of the Government un- funded bonds, so as to realize the exact position 128 TURKEY. of the exchequer in its relation to the public creditor ; and, in the second place, to devise some means by which the stagnant portable wealth of the Empire should be brought into circulation for the common benefit. The latter was, of course, the great aim of the Grand Vizier. He was aware that confidence is not a plant of fungus growth, but that the soil in which it takes root must be cultivated, and the atmosphere in which it grows must be genial. Fuad was too well versed in the official tactics of his countrymen to suppose that any great scheme of financial reform could be brought to a successful issue by slow degrees, and he also knew that, without some radical improvement, the credit of the State could not be placed in a satisfactory position. During the autumn of last, and the early months of the present year, the public, both in Turkey and this country, were aware that Fuad contemplated some great financial operation in the interest of Turkey, but they were not prepared for the coup de main implied in the success of the scheme for the unification of the internal pub- lic debt of the empire, the law authorizing which was promulgated on the 30th day of March last. By the law to which reference has just been made, there is created a GREAT BOOK OF THE GENERAL DEBT OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, in which is ordered to be inscribed a sum of Forty Millions CONSOLIDATION OF THE INTERIOR DEBT. 129 Medjidies in Gold, represented by bonds of three categories, viz. : Pounds Sterling. Francs. Bonds of 110 Gold Medjidies = 100 = 2,500 55 = 50 = 1,250 11 = 10 = 250 Suchbondstobear an annual interestof fivepercent., guaranteed by the general revenues of the empire, with a sinking fund of one per cent, per annum on the original capital of the debt. The whole amount of the debt is disposed as follows : Medjidies. For the Consolidation of the interior debts . . 29,000,000 To be offered for Public Subscription for the benefit of the Treasury, being the capitalized difference of interest between the old rate and the new 4,000,000 To constitute a Reserve for the execution of Public Works, to be issued at stated periods hereafter 7,000,000 40,000,000 The conditions of the conversion of the internal debt being, that for every 100 gold Medjidie's nominal in each of the first two categories, and for every 11,000 piastres in the third, there will be delivered bonds of the general debt as follows : Pounds Sterling-. Francs. In Eshami-Djedides 121 Gold Medjidies = 110 = 2,750 In Tahvilati-Mumtaze 143 = 130 = 3,250 In Serghis of ten years 110 = 100 = 2,500 It will be observed that the price of conversion is, in the cases of the Eshami-Djedides and the 9 130 TURKEY. Tahvilati-Mumtaze, higher than the par of the bonds to be converted; the difference being in- tended to compensate the holder in the first category, for the reduction in the rate of interest, and in the second category, in consideration of the highness of their market value, owing to the ex- ceptionally large percentage of their sinking fund. The par of the Medjidi6 in gold is 100 piastres, and the name applies to the new coinage which was struck in gold, silver, and copper, in the year 1844. By the scheme of conversion just described, Turkey obtains some manifestly great advantages. In the first place, the whole of the internal debt is made to assume a uniform character in every particular ; in the second place, she obtains a suffi- cient sum of money to tide her over the difficulties incidental to a state of transition ; and in the third place, she opens the whole of the European mar- kets to the bonds of the entire public debt of the empire. With the view of affording every facility for the attainment of the latter object, the bonds have been printed in Turkish, French, and English, while the interest will be paid half-yearly in London, Paris, Amsterdam, and Frankfort, as well as in Constantinople, and any other important towns in Turkey which the Government may designate. It is calculated that the entire debt will, by the operation of the sinking fund, be extinguished in the space of thirty- seven years, and the greatest care has been taken to insure its proper administration. ADMINISTKATION OF THE GENEEAL DEBT. 131 The administration of the general debt is con- fided to a state functionary, with the title of ESHAMIE OMMOUMYIE EMINI (Governor of the Gene- ral debt of the Empire) and it is assuring to find that his Excellency Kiani Pasha, Minister of Finance, has been selected for the office. Fuad must have been greatly indebted to Kiani's knowledge of detail in making out the prelimi- naries of the unification, and he is assuredly the most proper man for the position. Although the Governor of the debt is intrusted with its general administration, he is in many things subordinate to the Grand Council ; for an efficient check is established by the appointment of a board of sur- veillance, consisting of a minimum of five, or a maximum of nine members selected from the most eminent merchants and bankers of Constantinople, whose duty it is to audit the books of the general administration of the sinking and reserve funds, and verify the bills and cash, in the month of February in every year. They have, besides, the right of doing so at any time when they may think fit. The Board of Surveillance must publish in the official journals a report of their annual inspec- tion, and, from the character of the gentlemen nominated to the council, there can be no doubt whatever that the duty will be faithfully performed. Any law having for its object the unification of the internal debt, would have been incomplete without regulating the mode in which an addi- 132 TURKEY. tion to the public debt should be made. This is a point, however, which has not escaped the attention of .the Government, as the new law declares that every " inscription of a debt must be authorized by a special law, which will be pub- lished in the newspapers of the capital ; " and further, that " no inscription in the great book of the general debt shall be decreed unless the pay- ment of the interest, and of the sinking fund of that new inscription, shall be provided by means of equivalent resources in the general revenues of the empire, resulting either from the augmentation of receipts, or from savings realized in the ex- penses." These clauses in the new law are a dis- tinct pledge on the part of the Government not only that the irregular practice of contracting loans in Galata shall cease, but that the debt of the empire shall not be increased without the existence of a sufficient surplus revenue to insure its proper liquidation. Notice has, moreover, been given to the holders of concessions for public works, on which the State has guaranteed a minimum in- terest, that failing the ability of their proprietors to carry out their contracts, the Porte will not renew its liability by granting extension of such privileges. The whole scope of the new law indi- cates a determination on the part of the adminis- tration to set their house in order, and is the best piece of practical legislation with which the Porte has ever been identified. OPPOS1TJ.ON TO THE CONSOLIDATION SCHEME. 133 Of course such a large and sweeping measure of financial reform has been productive of much opposition from interested parties. In Constanti- nople, during the early days of the project, the dissatisfaction amounted to a perfect furor, and among the quidnuncs of the capital the fall of Fuad was confidently prophesied. So long as consolides were saleable in London and Paris, the habitues of Haviar Khan were enabled to play with the market value of the stock to their hearts' content. The circumstance of the dividends being only payable in Constantinople was so much in favour of specu- lative dealings, and this, combined with the no- toriously low condition of the treasury, gave to speculators on the spot a decided advantage over those at a distance ; whereas the manifest result of the scheme of unification would be to place the speculator in London and Constantinople on an equal footing. To such persons the credit of the State was a matter of not the slightest moment. For many long years they had flourished on its necessities. The ruinous practice of granting options in consolides to bankers in the capital for temporary financial aid, had enriched them to an enormous extent, and it was therefore only consonant with experience that the opposition to the new measure should be both influential and prolonged. One feature there was, however, in connection with the launching of the project, which attracted the attention of the London and conti- 134 TURKEY. nental markets, and that was the hostile front shown by the Imperial Ottoman Bank, and the Societe Generale ; both of which declined to associate themselves with the contractors in effecting the conversion. The bank, by its charter, has the sole right of conducting any State financial operation of an external cha- racter. It was, no doubt, annoyed at finding other capitalists willing to grant assistance to the Porte on terms more acceptable than their own ; and, although their right to participate in the operation was expressly reserved in the convention between the contractors and the Porte, they resolutely refused to give the scheme the benefit of their co-operation. For the Societe Generale and their opposition there was more excuse. Principally composed of capitalists to whom the Turkish treasury had been a mine of wealth, it is questionable whether their ability, cash, and credit, would ever have been associated, if they had been aware that such a bold financial measure as that under review was in contemplation. It is, however, to their honour, that when a fiasco was no longer to be apprehended, they lent a qualified assistance in working out the business details. As far as Constantinople was concerned, it is evident that a certain amount of opposition to the progress of conversion was inevitable, and its pro- bable effects were consequently discounted ; but in OPPOSITION TO THE CONSOLIDATION SCHEME. 135 Europe, particularly in London and Paris, the Porte had a right to expect that its efforts in the cause of improvement would meet with average appreciation. As far as the great majority of the public press was concerned, the expectation was justified by the result. But the Porte could not have expected that the personal character of the G-overnment, and the merits of the Unification Scheme would be attacked through one of the most unscrupulous cabals which has ever endea- voured to mar the success of a public measure. Evidently of Gallic origin, and couched in a style compounded of confused antithesis and exag- gerated metaphor, these pamphleteers denounced the conversion as a measure of spoliation, and Fuad as the sinister genius of Turkey ; pitied the Sultan as the dupe of his minister, and mirabile dictu, in this general onslaught while praising the Imperial Ottoman Bank for its abstention, blamed it for not embodying its objections in a public protest. With these persons, good faith on the part of a Turkish statesman was an assertion of the most marvellously jocular character, and the existence of any hoarded wealth in the Otto- man Empire as worthy of belief as the fabled treasure in Aladdin's cave ; while the whole mea- sure was amusingly described as an effort on the part of Turkey to get rid once for all of the whole of her home debt, and then laugh at the completeness of the deception. Such an open 136 TUBKEY. exhibition of rancorous hate towards a man in power, has seldom been seen in financial circles as that which characterized these attacks on Fuad, and, through him, on the Turkish Administration; while the limits of honourable criticism were so far exceeded, as to lend force to a suspicion that the intriguers of Constantinople, failing to prevent the consummation of a well-considered plan, had employed the agency of Western pamphleteers, in their endeavour to undermine a great reputation. To the habitual detractors of Turkish statesmen, it is of no use to point out the beneficial character of the consolidation scheme ; but it is important that those persons who take a candid interest in the welfare of the Ottoman Empire should tho- roughly comprehend the nature of the contingent benefits which will flow from its adoption. It has been unhappily the case that, for a long series of years, the Christian and other subjects of the Porte have, on account of the prevailing insecurity, looked with the greatest distrust on State securities as a channel for the investment of their savings and inherited wealth. Money, instead of being put out at interest, as with us, is invested in gems and expensive jewellery, on account of their por- tability. The wealth so invested is unproductive, and the integrity of the circulating medium is by this process of hoarding seriously compromised. If, by the consolidation of the internal debt, the people of Turkey can be induced to invest their PROGRESSIVE REFORM A NECESSITY. 137 surplus cash in a State security which shall have a steady market value, and yield a fair per centage of annual interest, the result would amply justify any reasonable sacrifice which the Porte could make. Accumulated wealth is worthless unless it circulates. In a country like Turkey, there is an abundance of good investments for capital* but so deep-seated is the distrust, and so dire the apprehension of danger in the minds of the rural population, that industry languishes for lack of the superabundant wealth which is sedulously hidden from observation. To overcome this evil has been the desire of the modern school of Turkish statesmen. And, by putting the finances of the State in order, so far as they relate to the public creditor, the first step has been taken to secure that stability which is essential to all good government, and by which alone the confidence of a people can be permanently secured. That the Porte can stop short at the consoli- dation of the public debt is simply impossible. If it surrender the power to contract small loans on the security of the Treasury, it must provide against an ever-recurring deficit in the budget by a thorough revision of the fiscal system. Unlike the consolidation of the debt, which could only be effected at one bound, any change in the fiscal system must be so managed as not to throw too great a strain on the Treasury. For example, if the farming of the Tithe in Asia Minor and Syria 138 TURKEY. were abolished in favour of direct collection by the State, an addition to the revenue would be secured of so substantial a character as to com- pensate for any temporary inconvenience which might arise from the non-receipt of the early in- stalments from the contractors in the first year of the collection. The Tithe of European Turkey might be similarly treated in the following year ; after which other branches of -revenue could be subjected to the same process. It is important that the collection of the revenue should be put on a sounder footing previous to any alteration of the system of taxation. Turkey, in relation to her population and area, is the most lightly taxed country in Europe, and, although some of the taxes may fall heavily on certain districts, and on certain classes of the people, the mode in which they are collected has been the most ob- jectionable part of the system. By the substitu- tion of direct collection for farming, the treasury would be largely benefited, while a check would be put on the petty tyranny which is so generally practised in the realization of the taxes by the farmers. The government of a State cannot be too much en rapport with the people. Many an evil is corrected, and wrong redressed, through their simply coming under the observation of a subordinate official ; and, although the visits of an officer of the revenue are not as a rule considered agreeable, experience teaches that his appearance PROGRESSIVE REfc'O&M A NECESSITY. 139 is welcome in comparison to that of a neigh- bour who may be called upon to supplant the regular officers, by collecting a tax in consideration of receiving a percentage on the proceeds. All considerations of public policy point to the direct collection of revenue by the State. The tax farmer is an effete relic of a civilization which has departed, and the day on which his functions shall cease will be celebrated throughout the land as an epoch, from which shall date the rising fortunes of the Empire. The great party cry of " Ketrench- ment and Reform," which has ere this rung like a clarion note through the length and breadth of our own favoured land, should be adopted by the modern statesmen of Turkey as their shibboleth of action, and they will find their reward in the contem- plation of a country prosperous, and a people contented, because freed from the tyranny of an oligarchy of wealth. CHAPTER IV. Defective system of internal communication Want of good roads and serviceable canals Characteristics of a good road Difficulties in the way of their construction The rivers of Turkey : their condition Rivers suitable for canalization Defective state of the harbours Review of the state of public works in the Empire : Roads, Rivers, Harbours. TURKEY IN EUROPE : Bulgaria Roumelia Bosnia Albania. THE ISLANDS : Candia Cyprus Rhodes. TURKEY IN ASIA : First Division All the country north of the Euphrates from the Russian and Persian frontiers on the east to the thirty-seventh degree of east longitude on the west. Second Division The whole of Asia Minor west of the line just named. Third Division The area between the Euphrates and the frontier of Persia. Fourth Division Syria. Defective road system incompatible with good government General reflections. THE most serious hindrance to the development of the resources of a new country, is a defective system of internal communication. Rivers, har- bours, and highways there may be in abundance, but if the rivers be simply tortuous torrents, the harbours a compound of mud banks and gullies, and the highways mere bridle-paths composed of iron-bound ruts in summer, and all but impassable sloughs of mud in winter, their utility in any sense INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. 141 is a questionable matter. Good roads and service- able canals are civilizing agents of the very highest order ; and no country in the world stands more in need of both than Turkey. Their absence restrains enterprise, retards cultivation, and diverts trade. When locomotion is slow, expensive, and, at times, impossible, community of interest and sentiment in the population is effectually prevented; the different parts of the machinery of govern- ment cannot work in unison, and the entire com- munity languishes for lack of arterial circulation. Of what value are bursting fields of cotton if the cost of transport to market exceeds the value when delivered ? None ; for in such case poverty must be the lot of the cultivator. It is in vain for a government to fulminate edicts, having for their object the amelioration of the common lot, if the producer is unable to place his property within the reach of the consumer ; and it is equally futile to expect any material increase in the revenues of the State, when merely the fringe of the empire literally the hem of the garment is capable of effective utilization. A ten years' use of one of the splendid military roads of the first Napoleon if transplanted to Roumelia, Ana- tolia, or Syria would be worth more to the government and the people, in the solid blessings which flow from a rewarded industry, than its cost twofold. As sure as discontent is the offspring of penury, so are order and content the fruit of com- 142 TURKEY. petence ; and any measure which could effect the promotion of the one by the mitigation of the other, should in the present state of the empire largely engross the attention of the advisers of the Sultan. A string of laden camels wending their way from the interior of Anatolia to the coast is not an edifying spectacle in these modern days ; nor is one of the loaded skin rafts of the Tigris floating on the current from Diarbekir to Bagdad, in any sense a decent substitute for the means of carriage which engineering science could provide ; but both the camels and the rafts, as means of transport, could be rapidly superseded, if the Porte would only grant liberal terms to foreign capitalists to tempt them to do that, which neither the Govern- ment nor the people are capable of effecting in a thorough manner. The recent efforts of the Porte at the construction of roads in different parts of the Empire have, as might have been expected, resulted in disappointment. The prin- ciple that each province should bear the expense of its own improvements, is no doubt sound in the abstract ; but it does not appear equitable to ex- pect a sparse population to supply the whole of the intelligent labour necessary for the construc- tion of trunk roads, which shall have the effect of attracting settlers, who, finding the work done, will not be subject to the exaction. The great mistake, however, made by the Porte has been in under-estimating the difficulties of the task. EIVEES OF TURKEY. 143 The characteristics of a good road are, width, soundness of bottom, and easy gradients, and no mean amount of engineering skill is requisite for their attainment ; an intimate acquaintance with the best available materials, and thorough drainage in construction are, however, necessary to secure a sound substratum. The engineer must be pre- pared to cope with swamps and bogs, and must moreover be an adept in the construction of strong but inexpensive bridges, and in order to gain easy traction, steep declivities have to be avoided or overcome. To fill up the holes in a widened horse track with loose rubble, and call it a road, is simply a misuse of the term. The labour so expended is profitless and vexatious, and to dignify such re- pairs by the name of public works can only result from self-delusion on the part of the Government. The rivers of Turkey are, as a rule, wide, lazy, shallow streams, overflowing their banks in the winter season, and playing havoc with everything in their course. In such a state they are useless for the purposes of navigation, although their canalization would be a boon of infinite worth to the residents in the interior. It is too much the fashion in these days of steam to underrate the intrinsic value of good canals ; and yet in nearly every young country the water has been utilized, both for carrying goods and passengers, until sufficient traffic was developed to profitably occupy a railway. Let any individual acquainted with 144 TUEKEY. Turkey try to imagine the probable effects of a good canal running from Smyrna back two hun- dred miles into the interior, and say whether such a work would not double the quantity of the produce brought into the town for export, in- crease at its remotest extremity the value to the grower two-fold, and proportionately increase the revenue derived from the tithe. Let him imagine a single horse easily towing the load of two hundred camels, the produce free from damage, and the grower journeying without fatigue to meet the merchants in the bazaars of the entrepot, and say whether such a public work would not surely compass a beneficent social revolution. Yet such a work is not only possible, but, in the hands of a competent engineer, would be easy of execution. Turkey is not yet sufficiently ad- vanced for the introduction of expensive railways, such as compose the European systems, unless at exceptional points, where they would either effect a through communication with lines already in operation, or supply the means of rapid transit to districts contiguous to the principal ports. Canals, by traversing the water sheds, would per- meate the areas under cultivation in the interior, and besides furnishing the means of transport for produce at remunerative, but comparatively inex- pensive rates, could also be used for the carriage of passengers at a fair rate of speed. Those who have travelled in the fly-boats on the canals of the HAEBOURS. Bridgewater Trust in the North of England, will not readily forget the pleasant, cheery journey, which was at one time the only alternative to stage-coach travelling, and will at once recognize if they be at all acquainted with the interior of Roumelia or Anatolia the fitness of such a means of transport for such a country. In short, with well-made roads, good canals, and inexpensive tram-roads for special situations, Turkey could afford to wait for the gradual introduction of rail- way communication. A Turkish grandee could lay down a tram to aid in the development of his estates, or the Government could promote a like work on a common road for the benefit of a pro- vince, at a cost which would be lost in the earth- work of a modern railway. It consequently behoves them to choose the most available means within their grasp for the improvement of internal communi cation . When a country is notoriously deficient in roads, it is easy to predicate the state of her har- bours. With her splendid seaboard, on which are some of the finest natural harbours in the world, the vessels visiting the shores of Turkey are not only restricted in tonnage, but there are few ports which they can safely enter, and fewer still in which a cargo of merchandise can be safely discharged. Even Constantinople, with a fair depth of water in the Golden Horn, is deficient in nearly every requisite of a good sea-port, with 10 146 TURKEY. the sole exception of safe anchorage. In nearly every case, cargo has to be discharged into boats in open roadsteads, and, until it can be received into the warehouses of the merchants, is exposed to all the chances of damage consequent on incle- ment weather ; while, besides, there are difficulties either connected with the navigation or with con- veniences necessary for the proper loading and discharging, which are most harassing to all con- cerned. Great improvements have recently been made in the lighting of the coasts, the effect of which is to improve the navigation of the archipelago, but much remains to be done in order to satisfy even the most moderate requirements of external trade. There are harbours at present in use which do not possess a single feature to justify their retention, whilst there are others having every characteristic of good ports, silted up and uncared for. It is to be feared that in too many instances imperial interests are made subor- dinate to individual aggrandisement ; but even when some allowances are made for corrupt administration, the extent of the neglect indicates a deficiency of information respecting the require- ments of the trade and commerce of the Empire, for which it is difficult to suggest an excuse on the part of the Porte. The inefficiency of internal transit, coupled with the wretched condition of her harbours is a matter of serious moment for Turkey. In Roumelia, Anatolia, and Syria, the REVIEW OF PUBLIC WORKS. 147 want of efficient transit and transport is every- where apparent, the only remedy lying in the employment of engineering science and the in- vestment of foreign capital, for which Turkey pre- sents an unexampled field. In order the better to realize the extent to which Turkey is deficient in works of public utility, it may be useful to make a rapid survey of the country, commencing with European Turkey on the Danube, and thence westward to the Adriatic, returning through the archipelago to Anatolia, Kurdistan, and Syria. BULGARIA. Varna, the port of Bulgaria on the Black Sea, is the natural outlet for the extensive corn-growing district which extends northwards by the Danube. There is a railway at present in course of construction from Varna to Rutschuk, an important town on the Danube, oppo- site Giurgievo, the port of Bucharest ; the total length of the line being about one hundred and forty miles. When completed, this railway will be a great boon both to the cultivators on the line of route, as well as to the exporters of grain. The intermediate stations will be Pravady, Jenybazar (for Schumla), Rasgrad, and Pizantia. Concurrent with the con- struction of the railway, the harbour of Varna has been rendered much more secure by the extension of a jetty for a considerable distance in an easterly direction ; several other important works are in contemplation, not the least of which is a break- water for the purpose of affording protection from 148 TUBKEY. the north-east. Strategically considered, Bulgaria is one of the most important provinces of the empire. In it are situated the strong places of Schumla, Rutschuk, Silistria, Widdin, Nikopoli, Rassova, and Varna. There are some good mili- tary roads in the province, but these roads are, however, few and far between, and both agricul- ture and trade are kept at a very low ebb indeed for want of means of internal transport. In the towns, want of drainage, water, and artificial light- ing, are everywhere apparent, and notwithstand- ing its advantages of position, Bulgaria is in a very backward state. ROUMELIA is the name generally applied to that portion of European Turkey which includes Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly. Properly speaking, there are only three divisions south of the Balkans, viz., Thrace, (extending over the valleys of the Maritza), Macedonia, and Albania; but by common consent the whole of the country between Albania and the Balkans is called Rou- melia. The principal ports in Roumelia are Con- stantinople, Rodosto, Gallipoli, Salonica, and Volo ; the chief inland centres being Adrianople, Philip- popoli, Tatar-Basardschik, Eski-Sagra, Selimnia, Kuraferia, Seres, and Tricula. Some of the places mentioned are populous trading centres, and all of themare possessed of considerablelocal importance. Yet, for the purposes of ordinary intercommunica- tion, they might as well be severally scattered over ROUMELIA. 149 the desert of Sahara. Constantinople is absolutely cut off from all efficient land communication with the rest of Europe, although numerous schemes have, from time to time, been formed for effecting so desirable an object as its connection with the Austrian system of railways. The result is, that if the traveller wishes to approach the city of the Sultans, he must do so either by the Dardanelles and the Marmora on the one side, or by the Black Sea and the Bosphorus on the other. Several years have elapsed since a line of railway was pro- jected between Constantinople and Adrianople, pri- marily with the view of connecting the ancient and modern capitals, as well as of affording an outlet for the trade of the rich country which intervenes ; and secondarily to form a substantial step towards effecting a junction with the European lines. But after the promoters had incurred the expense of a complete survey of the whole route, the concession fell into other hands, and the Adrianople railway is at this day one of the day-dreams of the pro- ject-mongers whose lives are passed in one vain attempt to master the intricacies of Turkish official routine. The complete state of isolation in which Turkey continues to exist is one of the strangest political and social problems which can pos- sibly be imagined. Within one hour of London by electric telegraph, the traveller who arrives at Vienna in the winter season, is further removed by time from Constantinople than he is from 150 TUBKEY. St. Petersburg; and if he once finds himself safely housed near the sweet waters of Europe, he will hesitate long before a journey to such an important place as Adrianople would be under- taken ; while no one but an inveterate equestrian would ever dream of attempting a journey from Stamboul to Salonica. In every district there exists a capital, towards which the whole of the trade of the surrounding towns and villages gravi- tate, and each provincial centre, with its radius of feeders, constitutes a world apart. The produce of the interior which is intended for export, instead of being forwarded to a good port by means of trunk roads intersecting the country, finds its way to every indent on the coast which can by possibility be styled a port, and is stowed in small craft that play the part of jackals to larger vessels. It is obvious that such a plan not only greatly increases the risk of damage, to which all descriptions of pro- duce are necessarily subjected by transhipment, but prevents any one place from attaining the impor- tance which alone would be held to justify a liberal expenditure on works of improvement. Gallipoli, which is one of the best ports in Thrace, has no means of communication with the interior worthy of the name. Its distance from Adrianople is considerably under one hundred miles, and, although the country teems with natural riches, the exports are scattered over a number of small ports to the westward, whilst the imports GALLIPOL1 AND ITS APPROACHES. 151 are mainly introduced by way of Rodosto. A good road, starting from Gallipoli, and running through the districts of Bulair and Ibridge to Keshan, thence by Ipsala and Demotika to Adrianople, would open up some wonderfully fertile districts, afford easy access to a capital port of shipment. The annual loss of grain from the wreck of rafts on the Maritza, between Adrianople and Enos, would go a long way to- wards paying interest on the cost of constructing such a road. The anchorage at Enos is two miles in the offing, and the labour of ship- ping a quantity of grain under such conditions may be easily imagined ; whereas, with a carriage road to Gallipoli, the whole of the produce, or nearly so, which at present finds outlet at Enos, Seros, and Rodosto, would be taken to Gallipoli. From Keshan to Gallipoli is thirty-six miles ; for this short distance, the carriage of grain is five shillings per quarter, whereas to Rodosto in the east, and the G-ulf of Saros on the west, it is only three shillings and sixpence to the first, and two shillings. to the second. Ibridge, on the Gulf of Saros, cannot be called a port at all, while Rodosto is an open roadstead, far from safe in the winter season. Moreover, the freights range from one shilling and sixpence, to two shillings and sixpence higher than at Gallipoli. It will be readily understood that such large places as Adrianople, Philippopoli, etc., consume a very considerable 152 TUEKEY. quantity of imported goods ; but it will hardly be credited that vessels with cargoes for merchants in the interior of Thrace, sail past Gallipoli the natural port of the province, and discharge the merchandise into coasting craft at Con- stantinople, whence it is carried to Rodosto, situated midway between Constantinople and Gallipoli. From Rodosto the road runs back again half way to the capital, and then wends northwards through Silivia, Tchorlou, and Burgas, to Adrianople, continuing in a north-westerly direction through Hermanly and Ouzondjavo to Philippopoli. The whole of the coast line of Roumelia from Rodosto to Cavalla, including of course the promontory forming the north shore of the Dardanelles, is cut off from the existing road system. Thus, for the want of a good road, every interest is injuriously affected, from the member of Lloyd's who writes a line on a policy of insurance, to the farmer who threshes out his grain in the Thracian valleys. Salonica is the principal port in Macedonia, yet, with the exception of the road which skirts the north-western shore of the Gulf, it has no effective means of transit with the interior. Mo- nastir is connected with the port of Durazzo on the Adriatic, by means of a road which runs * t/ through Albania by Ochrida and El-Bassan, having also a communication more or less direct with Servia. Seres is also situated on the Servian ROADS OP MACEDONIA. 15-3 road, but Salonica, which is the great outlet on the Mediterranean for the produce of Seres, Drama, and other well known centres of produc- tion, is left in as helpless a state as can be well imagined. A little engineering would do Wonders in the southern districts of Macedonia. The dark- ness of night has settled on Orphano, which might be rendered one of the most important places in the province. The produce of Seres and Drama has to be dragged across the base of the peninsula to Salonica, while, between that place and Monastir, it is perfectly marvellous how the people manage to effect the transport of large quantities of grain, cotton, silk, and other articles of commerce. The rivers of Macedonia could be canalized with ease, and tram-roads might also be advantageously in- troduced. From Menlik and Drama on the east, to Monastir and Astrova on the west, there is not a single track which by its directness is of the slightest value. For want of roads three- fourths of Macedonia, the garden of Roumelia, are as a wilderness, and in these days of short food supplies and scarcity of manufacturing staples the spectacle is a melancholy one. Nevertheless, with all its drawbacks, Salonica is an important town, and is destined to become the first port in European Turkey. It is impossible that this fertile region can remain much longer in its present miserable state of road destitution, and Salonica will require to extend her stakes when the farmers 154 TURKEY. in the valleys of the Mermere and Nardar are furnished with the necessary means of transport for their produce. Thessaly, considering its area, is better sup- plied with the means of internal transit than Mace- donia. The coast road, which passes through Salonica, continues in a southerly direction through Calerina, Stan Dia, Plata Monos, and Yan to La- rissa from which place two roads -run close to each other southward into Greece, one of them passing through Pharsala, while another road branches due west to Tricula, after which it assumes a northerly direction until it reaches Metzovo, whence it bends southward into Epirus, or Southern Albania. By this arrangement the whole of the valley of the Epideno, a tributary of the Salampria, the entire northern half of Thessaly, from the last named river to the frontier, as well as the south-eastern corner, in which is situated Yolo, the port of the province, are left destitute of even the miserable tracks which in Turkey are dignified by the name of roads. Larissa, Pharsala, and Tricula, are all important inland places, particularly the former, owing to the circumstance of the whole of the Thessalian roads converging at that point, and of all the public works of which Thessaly stands in need, the most urgent is a good road from Larissa to Yolo, over which the produce of the interior could pass for shipment. A line of telegraph is working between Salonica, Larissa, Janina, and THESSALY. 155 Volo. The telegraph is undoubtedly one of the most wonderful results of modern science, playing an important part as an aid in the work of civiliza- tion, but it would have been more satisfactory to find that the merchants of Thessaly had possessed sufficient public spirit to have erected their tele- graph posts on the margin of a road between Volo and Larissa, over which the merchandise to which their telegrams relate could have passed with safety and expedition. The everlasting " to- morrow " of the Osmanli would appear to have entered into the soul of the Levantine, and until the Government choose to turn the Imperial troops into excavators, the plains of Thessaly, as regards the bulk of their acreage, are apparently destined to lie fallow ; the peasantry to remain in a state of all but abject poverty; and the wealth of the province to steadily flow into the coffers of a few exporting merchants. In Great Britain it excites our surprise when we hear of a landowner preventing the extension of population in his village by restricting the erection of habitations ; but surprise would give place to the most bewildering consternation were the Govern- ment to assume the power of saying that no more houses shall be erected here, and no vessels larger than jollyboats be built there. And yet these are precisely the class of measures which Conservative Turkish statesmen, at a period not far removed from the present, thought it right, in the interests of the 156 TTJEKEY. empire, to put in force. Yolo was one of the places at which buildings were interdicted, but the recent removal of the prohibition has given rise to a great deal of enterprise in the erection both of commodious warehouses and dwelling-houses. From its proximity to Salonica, the Piraeus, and Smyrna, Volo is likely to increase in importance, as the harbour is good, and the channels, by which it is approached, safe for navigation. There is no other port in Thessaly at all likely to interfere with its progress ; the only danger being the possible diversion of a considerable proportion of the export trade to ports in Albania and Greece, consequent on the absence of transit facilities. BOSNIA is entirely dependent on neighbouring provinces for outlet to the sea, and is one of the most primitive components of the Ottoman Em- pire in Europe. Its trade is principally with Austria, the Sclavonic provinces of which constitute its northern boundary. A branch from the great northern road of Roumelia enters Bosnia near Novi Bazar, where it is joined by a road from Tater Bazargick and Monastir. The Albanian road effects a junction with that from Novi Bazar at Sienitza, proceeding thence in a northerly direction to Bosnia Serai, from which place it radiates to the Croatian, Sclavonian, and Servian frontiers. In this remote province the Govern- ment is making most praiseworthy efforts in the construction of roads, without which it is BOSNIA ALBANIA. 157 found impossible to transport the produce of the interior to the frontiers ; but unless some- thing be done to prevent the inundations which follow upon every heavy fall of rain, the efforts of the provincial government at road-making will continue to be seriously marred. It is not at all uncommon to find the labour of a whole season rendered nugatory by a sudden overflow of one of the great rivers, a catastrophe which a little civil engineering might effectually prevent. In its present state, Bosnia could better afford to dispense with additional roads than with a good canal, which, traversing the country from Priepol on the south, might debouch into the Save on the north, with lateral branches from the Drina to the Bosna. The Bosnians have more advanced ideas of social economy than the inhabitants of the Turkish pro- vinces generally, and an enlightened governor consequently receives important aid in the execu- tion of public improvements ; but the difficulty which of old accompanied the command to make bricks without straw, is reproduced, in these modern days, by the expectation of the Porte that the provincial authorities shall make roads, im- prove rivers, build bridges, and construct harbours without the necessary practical acquaintance with engineering science; with what result let the harbours, the bridges, the rivers, and the roads everywhere testify. ALBANIA and Bulgaria, for similarity of con- 158 TURKEY. tour, geographical position, and physical charac- teristics, may be described as the supporting walls of Turkey in Europe. Albania possesses a sea-board on the Adriatic, extending over three degrees of latitude, and carries on a considerable export trade. The towns of Scutari, Alessio, El Bassan, Berat, Avlona, Janina, and Arta, are con- nected by a road which, starting at Scutari, tra- verses the whole coast line of Albania, passing into Greece round the head of the Gulf of Arta. Southern Albania, or Epirus, is tolerably well intersected by roads, but the whole of Middle and Northern Albania, from the line of the Drina, is destitute of roads with the exception of that which passes through El Bassan, from Monastir to Durazzo, and two subsidiary routes from Gortza to Berat, and from Prisrend to Scutari respectively. The ports are Prevesa, Sayada, Avlona, Durazzo, and Antivari, but there are a number of smaller places, such as Gomenitza, and Santi Quaranta scattered up and down the coast. Scutari and Durazzo are the two principal outlets for the produce of Northern Albania, but the bad state of the roads greatly hinders agricultural operations. " The roads in the province of Scutari are all natural." Such are the words of a competent authority, and a more pungent satire could hardly have been written. Without railways or canals, with roads that are mere bridle paths, and with bridges, to cross which on foot is a service KOADS BETWEEN BEE AT AND AVLONA. 159 of danger, it is wonderful from what quarters the steamers that regularly touch at Antivari and Durazzo derive their freights. It has been recently stated that the Government has engaged an Austrian engineer to lay out and superintend the construction of a road from Scutari to Antivari. Should this prove to be the case, and no mis- carriage of intention occur, the work will materially increase the commerce of the port, and, on its completion, the Government may be induced to order its extension inland. Avlona is the port of Middle Albania, and to it the bulk of the produce of the fertile district, of which Berat is the capital, as well as a considerable proportion of the merchandise of Northern Epirus is brought for shipment. The distance from Berat to Avlona is only forty-five miles, yet such is the wretched character of the roads that everything has to be carried on horse-back, the journey occupying from three to four days in the winter season, always supposing that the Yiossa can be safely crossed. The ferryboat by which the river is crossed, is just as likely to capsize as to float, and considering the number of accidents which annually occur, it is strange that no steps have been taken to secure better accommoda- tion. A horse-load is two hundredweight, and the rates from Avlona to Berat vary from sixteen piastres in summer to sixty piastres in winter. There is nothing whatever to prevent the con- 160 TUEKEY. struction of a tram road from Berat to the port, as the country is level for the whole distance ; but there does not appear to be any prospect of im- provement in the matter of transit. If the road to Berat be in the state just described, it may easily be supposed what are the means of communication with the agricultural villages at the back of the province. Avlona was brought into European notice, not long, ago, by a project for a railway between it and Adrianople, and is situated vis-d-via to Brindisi on the Italian coast, to which latter place the Italian system of railways has just been extended. It is predicted that, owing to its more southerly position, Brindisi will super- sede Ancona as the mail station for the Eastern route, a prognostication which no doubt influenced the projectors of the route from Avlona to Adrian- ople. Some minds, however, ignore roads, canals, trams, and all the lesser but more inexpensive means of communication, in favour of railways. If an oke of tobacco has to be carried from Drama to Avlona, such people would immediately provide ballast, sleepers, metals and rolling stock in order to effect its transport ; and it is such as they who are continually knocking at the door of the Porte, praying for concession of privileges, which, to be of any value, should come half a century hence. It is not sufficient that the Porte should be satisfied as to the pecuniary ability of the speculators to perform their contracts ; ministers should also THE IIABBOUK OF PREVESA. 161 look to the probability of a project being imme- diately remunerative, in however small a degree, before enabling professional projectors to obtain subscriptions from the public towards the execu- tion of works on which no return could be reason- ably expected for a course of years. The Govern- ment of the Sultan owes it to itself, no less than to the investing public of Western Europe, to steadily discountenance any project for a public work which shall not, while benefiting the country, be remune- rative to the capitalists by whom it is executed. Salahora and Prevesa are the principal ports of Epirus, the first-named being that which receives the commerce of Arta, and the last that of Janina, the most considerable town in Epirus. If the harbour of Prevesa was properly surveyed and the channels correctly laid down, it would, as regards the essentials of easy approach, safe anchorage, and freedom from dangerous navigation in the offing, rank second to no other port in Albania. The greatest known depth of water on the bar is eighteen feet, but this might doubtless be im- proved. In Epirus some attention is being given to the improvement of existing road communica- tion. That between Arta and Salahora has recently been put in a state of repair, to the manifest joy of the carriers, while the larger work of improving the road between Arta and Janina is actually in progress. The works are under the direction of gentlemen, who, whatever their other qualifications 11 162 TURKEY. may be, do not pretend to any experience in the science of road-making, and, judging from the work already finished, apprehensions are expressed with regard to that which remains to be done. But whatever the result may be, it is better to have indifferent roads than none at all, and it is just possible that repeated evidence of their short- comings in the matter of road-making, may at last awaken the Government to the necessity of calling in assistance from without. The principal islands in the Mediterranean belonging to Turkey are Candia, Cyprus, and Rhodes. Scio and Mytelene are of secondary im- portance, while there are a number of smaller islands not sufficiently considerable for notice, the three first-named only requiring mention in this place. CANDIA. The principal ports in this island are Canea, Candia, and Retimo ; but Spinalonga and Messarea, the one on the north and the other on the south side, are both places of some import- ance. There is only one road in Candia, which starting from Kisamo, passes by Canea, Retimo, and Candia to Girapetra, with a branch that crosses the island from Canea to Castel Sfaccia. The peculiarity of Candia is that the ports all lie on the north side of the island, and as the road has been made to connect the ports, the whole of the middle and south side of the island are destitute of that convenience. A few THE PORTS OF CYPRUS. 163 inexpensive roads opening up the interior would greatly promote cotton cultivation. The harbours might be much improved by judicious dredging and the erection of works to protect the entrances. A dredging machine has been at work at Retimo with the most satisfactory results ; but it is to be hoped that the authorities will not rest satisfied with less water at either Canea, Retimo. or Candia, than will safely admit the steamers of the various Mediterranean companies. CYPRUS is the largest of the islands in the Mediterranean, Sardinia and Sicily alone ex- cepted, and possesses two ports viz., Larnica and Limasol.. The old port of Famagusta, on the eastern side of the island, is entirely neglected, notwithstanding the spaciousness and safety of the harbour, in favour of Larnica, which has simply an open roadstead. It is strange that any government should allow a port like Famagusta to sink into decay. If the marshes in its vicinage were drained, the harbour cleared, and the old works to seaward reconstructed, Cyprus would possess one of the finest harbours in the Levant. Larnica is some fifteen miles nearer to Nicosia, the capital of the island, but such a trifling distance should have no weight when the difference between the two is so great. The roads in Cyprus are rather better than the generality in the Otto- man Empire, but still fall far short of the require- ments of the island. From Nicosia, which is cen- 164 TURKEY. trally situated, roads, varying in importance from bullock tracks to bridle paths, radiate to different parts of the island, one going through Larnica, Limasol, and Famagusta. A good road from the capital to Larnica is greatly needed, and before any important expansion of the trade of the island can take place, the whole of the roads will require to be substantially improved. At present with only one-fifth part of the arable area under cultivation, and with even that small proportion considerably undercropped, the existing roads are altogether inadequate. Cyprus is a repository of agricultural and mineral wealth. The centre of the island is one vast plain, presenting no obstacles whatever to the construction of either roads or tramways; but in addition, drainage, harbour works, and town improvements are urgently required. These things the Cypriotes will not do. At one time the granary of the Levant, it is a reproach that Cyprus should be so much neglected. If this island were only fairly cultivated, and its resources fully developed, it would yield a revenue to the State which would justify a large expendi- ture on works of public improvement. RHODES was at one time a prosperous island, ship-building and sponge-fishing being its staple industries. The prohibition to build ships, which was issued by the Porte some years ago, was a severe blow to the inhabitants of Rhodes, from the effects of which the island has not yet recovered. THE PORTS OF EHODES. 165 The interdict against ship-building has, however, been withdrawn within the last three years, but it is questionable whether, as a local industry, it will ever assume the importance which it at one time held. Rhodes possesses two harbours, the Liman and the Dersanah, but they are so choked up with silt and rubbish, wantonly thrown overboard from the shipping, as to seriously threaten their extinc- tion. The small harbour is the only one which can be safely used, but with seventeen feet of water inside there are only eight feet on the bar. That such a harbour as Rhodes should be allowed to silt up in such a manner, is a matter which it is difficult to understand. Owing to the deficiency of the lights, to make the port at night is attended with danger ; and from the same cause the navigation of the channel between the island and the mainland is rendered unneces- sarily difficult. The Ottoman Government could advantageously employ a dozen good dredging machines beyond those already in use, and two of the number might be stationed at Rhodes for a lengthened period. Not only does the harbour need a thorough cleaning, but the bar must be deepened, and works carried out for its protection. These things done and the lighthouse system thoroughly remodelled, the traffic of this port would double within a very short space of time. At present, steamers which would gladly call at Rhodes, have to run past the port, if there is 166 TURKEY. much wind on from south or south-west, and it is impossible, in any case, for a vessel much larger than a coaster to cross the bar. Open roadsteads are much too frequently met within Turkish waters, considering the fine natural harbours with which the latter abound ; and the attention of the Govern- ment should be steadily directed to their improve- ment in the interests of the State as well as of the population. Asia Minor, including Anatolia, Armenia, Kur- distan, and Mesopotamia, occupies so vast an area as to render its intelligent comprehension a matter of some difficulty. Instead of treating it as a whole, therefore, which would be difficult, it will be found more convenient to consider its present condition and requirements, in the matter of public works, in four divisions. First, all the country north of the Euphrates from the Russian and Persian frontier on the east to the thirty- seventh degree of east longitude in the west. Second, the whole of Asia Minor west of the line just mentioned. Third, the area between the Euphrates and the frontier of Persia ; and Fourth, Syria. FIEST DIVISION. This portion of Asiatic Turkey has a practical monopoly of the transit trade with Persia, through the ports of Trebizond and Batum. and includes in its coast line, in addition to the two places just mentioned, the best and safest winter anchorage on the Anatolian coast of the ROUTE BETWEEN PERSIA AND EUROPE. 167 Black Sea viz., the Bay of Vona. The principal towns are Trebizond, Batum, Erz-rum, Kars, Bayazid, and Tireboli. Occupying a central posi- tion of this splendid country, is the city of Erz-rum, from which, roads of the usual Asiatic type radiate in every direction. Here is the old Pontic route between Persia and Europe; and, notwith- standing that the transit trade yields an important revenue to Turkey, and that the country, if even partially cultivated, would largely increase the income from the dime, there is not a road even from Trebizond to Erz-rum over which a ton of produce could be safely transported during the winter months. There is a road which enters Kars from Russia, passes thence to Erz-rum, and then dividing branches north to Trebizond, and in a westerly direction to Tokat, but these are at the best but bridle-tracks, carried sometimes through swamps, and sometimes over mountain summits. The expediency of rounding the shoulder of a hill, with the view of securing easier travelling, never seems to have entered into the minds of the cameleers and drovers of Armenia and Kurdistan, although the country abounds in valleys, which offer every facility for substantial road-making, without an excessive amount of deviation. The valleys of the Tcharaki and Raibut are all that could be desired, and, at intervals not far removed, there are depressions in the mountain chains, through which roads could be carried without 168 TURKEY. involving the necessity for expensive works ; yet nothing has been done to cheapen the cost of transit, or open up the internal resources of these provinces. For the last twenty years the Porte has had the necessity of a road from Trebizond to Erz-rum forced upon its attention. Offers for its construction, by European companies, have been made and rejected. Orders have been repeatedly issued to the provincial authorities to see to it, but without avail ; and now, like a spectre of the past, the intelligence comes that the Trebizond road has been commenced. For the Persian trade, it is questionable whether the route from Batum to Kars, and thence by Erivan to Tabriz, be not preferable to that by Trebizond to Erz-rum, and thence by Van or Bayazid. The route by Batum and Kars is, if anything, the nearest ; while, if a road were made from Kars to Bayazid, it would have the advantage which the Erz-rum route now enjoys namely, direct transit across the Turko- Persian frontier. Viewed as ports of shipment, there is not much difference between Trebizond and Batum. The former is built on the slope of a hill ; the anchorage is bad ; the east port being the best and most frequented. At one time there must have been a good harbour on the site of the present anchorage, as the remains of a pier, now entirely under water, constitutes one of the dangers in making the port. Batum is rather a better harbour than Trebizond, but cannot PRIMITIVE TRAVELLING. 169 accommodate so many vessels, The deficiency of good harbours is a great drawback to the exterior trade. Much, however, might be done to alleviate some of the worst features, both of Trebizond and Batum, by dredging and such works as are calcu- lated to secure a greater or lesser amount of scour in the channels. At Batum, where several rivers discharge into the bay, the depth at one place sud- denly varies from five to forty-eight fathoms a difference so enormous as to excite curiosity as to the causes to which it is referable. Of bridges the camel-driver in Asiatic Turkey is perfectly independent. Bestriding a donkey so small as to be lifted with ease, he ambles along at the head of a string of laden camels, and, when a stream is encountered which it would be incon- venient for him to cross, he simply elevates the donkey on to the back of the leading camel, clam- bers up himself, and passes the mountain torrent in safety; a mode of travelling which is sufficiently primitive to satisfy the most inveterate lover of the picturesque, but is not conducive to the progress of a country. The expense of transport- ing heavy merchandise is an addition to the original cost, of so serious a character, as to restrict commercial intercourse within the nar- rowest bounds, while it constitutes an effectual barrier to the development of the national wealth. Agricultural operations are necessarily confined to the immediate districts surrounding centres of 170 TURKEY. population, and the exports are made up of a miscellaneous variety of articles individually of insignificant proportions. In the valleys and mountain slopes of Armenia, Turkey possesses one of the finest countries in the world. Excellent forests of useful timber, fine alluvial bottoms, and a temperate climate, are its characteristics ; but without roads over which a waggon can be drawn, without bridges to span its rivers, without sea- walls to protect its harbours, and without the most ordinary sanitary conveniences in its popu- lous places, to guard against encroachments on the public health, progress is obviously impossible. If Turkey does not look to it, the transit trade will assuredly pass from her hands into that of Russia, which does not tarry when a great public work, calculated to benefit the country, requires to be executed ; and when once the course of trade is altered, attempts at its recall are vain. Persia is a neighbour in whose good opinion Russia would stand well. The merchants of Tabriz and Teheran are showing signs of an awakening energy, and to them the journey to Europe is no longer an insurmountable obstacle in the pursuit of gain. So long as the field of a man's observation is not enlarged by foreign travel, old associations and habits will do much to reconcile him to great inconvenience. But the time is rapidly passing away when even the caftan' d habitue of a Persian bazaar can afford to ignore RIVERS ADAPTED FOR CANALIZATION. 171 the advantages of cheap and rapid transit for his wares. Politically, Persia has less to fear from Turkey than from Russia ; but so urgent are the requirements of modern trade, that were Russia to offer greater transit facilities than Turkey, the merchants of Trebizond and Erz-rum might in- scribe on their doorposts that their glory had departed. SECOND DIVISION. This portion of Asia Minor is that from which the bulk of the exported pro- duce is drawn, and it is consequently better known to Europeans than the country last described. Samsoun, on the Black Sea, and Smyrna, on the Mediterranean, are the principal shipping ports ; but Brussa, Sivas, Tokat, Kaisarieh, Adana, Konieh, Aidin, and Kutaieh, are all important centres of population. The Kasalmack, the Kizil- Irmak, the Sakaria, the Sarabat, and the Bojuk Meinder, by which the country is watered, are every one more or less adapted for canalization ; and there is, probably, no portion of the empire in which the benefit of effective water transport would be more apparent. The roads, as every- where else, are wretched apologies ; and although the principal towns are connected by a network of bridle-tracks, such is their condition, that during the whole of the winter season they are almost entirely unavailable. The whole of the Samsoun district, which may be described by straight lines drawn from Samsoun to Sivas, 172 TURKEY. thence to Angora, and northward again to Sinope, is celebrated for its fertility ; yet there is not a single trunk road in the entire area. The work of this character most immediately required is a good road from Samsoun to Sivas, which latter would then become a collecting centre for the surrounding country. Immense quantities of grain, as well as tobacco and other produce, could be raised in the interior ; but without the means of transport, profitable cultivation is out of the question. The port of Samsoun is capable of being made one of the best in the Black Sea, and its exports should vie in importance with those of Odessa; but, in order to effect any great improvement in the harbour, so as to render it commodious and safe, engineering works of rather a formidable character would be necessary. With numerous roadsteads on the south side of the Black Sea, Turkey -does not possess one good harbour ; and although roads from the interior to the coast would be, in themselves, an inestimable blessing to the Rayah population, they would be to a large extent useless, without proper harbours for the shipment of surplus produce. The energies of the Government should be con- centrated on Samsoun and Trebizond, to the exclusion of all other places of minor importance. To these two places the whole of the surplus pro- duce of the northern half of Asia Minor would come for shipment, if good roads were projected BEUSSA AND ITS APPROACHES. 173 from the interior centres, such as Sivas and Erz- runij and tram-ways laid down from them to the ports. If it were only possible to complete a road such as that from Samsoun to Sivas ; to clear out such a river as the Sakaria, which waters a country between Angora and the Black Sea, abounding in natural riches of the most varied character ; or to canalize fifty miles of such a river as the Sarabat, which flows into the Gulf of Smyrna the resulting advantages both to the people and the Government would be so over- whelmingly apparent, that less difficulty might be experienced in the initiation of works of a similar character elsewhere. The principal north road, which starts from Alexandretta, forms a junction at Kutaieh with those from Brussa and Angora, and continuing thence in a northerly direction to Ismid, skirts the north-eastern shore of the Sea of Marmora to Scutari, on the Bosphorus. Next to the capital, Brussa is the most advanced inland city in Turkey. Situated in the midst of one of the richest districts of Anatolia, and not far removed from a good port for the shipment of her produce, Brussa should be a more considerable place than it really is, but the want of roads over which merchandise can be transported has hitherto seriously dwarfed the proportions of her trade. The port of Brussa is Ghemlik, on the Gulf of Mundania, to which place a good road is now in course of construction. The 174 TURKEY. .authorities are also energetically engaged in improving the approaches to the city, and in the execution of public works in connection with its internal embellishment. When the road to Ghemlik is completed, it is thought that the Government will make a vigorous effort to improve the others leading into the interior, and, in short, do everything in its power to increase the pro- sperity and importance of Brussa. That such a scheme, if successfully carried out, may ultimately interfere with the prosperity of Smyrna is within the limits of possibility. It is true that Smyrna, as a port on the Mediterranean, will always, on account of its position, maintain a certain superi- ority over Brussa, which is an inland city with a port on the wrong side of the Dardanelles ; but if the intentions of the Government are such as have been suggested, and the roads leading into the southern and western districts are put into a good state of repair, the trade of Smyrna must assuredly suffer in respect of some articles, such as opium, of which she now enjoys a monopoly. The port of Ghemlik is capable of easy improvement ; and as the town itself is a rising place, its importance as the only good harbour on the south side of the Sea of Marmora is not likely to be overlooked. The whole, or nearly the whole, of the pro- duce and merchandise of Anatolia, intended for export is brought to Smyrna for shipment. The main east road from Smyrna passes through AIDIN AND CASSABA RAILWAYS. 175 Alah Shehr to Sandukli and Aufioum Kara Hisar, from which place it branches in a north and north-easterly direction to Ismid and Angora, and in a south-easterly direction to Konieh and the Syrian frontier. Notwithstanding the bulk of the produce annually exported from Smyrna, the roads into the interior are at times impas- sable. At the best, they are quite unsuited to any other than camel transit ; and but for the construction of two lines of railway one to Aidin and the other to Cassaba the prospects of the Smyrna trade would be anything but satisfactory. The line to Cassaba is intended to collect the traffic of the Magnesia district, and to be ulti- mately pushed as far as Ushuk, one hundred and eighty miles from Smyrna ; but the probability is that a considerable time will elapse before such an important extension into the interior is realized. The distance to Cassaba is fifty-eight miles, through a country some parts of which are in a high state of cultivation. The works on the line were only commenced last year by a company of English capitalists, and it is expected that it will be ready for through traffic within six months from the pre- sent time, or in about two years from the com- mencement of operations. The other line, from Smyrna to Aidin, is the property of the Ottoman Eailway Company, and has now been eight years in course of construction. The entire distance is only eighty-three miles, little more than half of which 176 TURKEY. viz., from Smyrna to Ephesus is open for traffic. Unlike the country traversed by the Cassaba Rail- way, which is easy for the whole distance, that through which the Ai'din line is being carried is at places very difficult, necessitating heavy engineering works, which involve a large expen- diture of time in their execution. Whether the traffic on this line, when completed to Aidin, will prove remunerative to the proprietors, remains to be seen. At present the receipts are small from that portion which is open, but the amount de- rived from the existing traffic can hardly be taken as a criterion of what may be expected when com- munication shall have been effected between the termini. The traffic receipts of both these lines of railway will be watched with interest by western capitalists (both of them simply prick the Smyrna district), and should the results be financially satisfactory, other short lines may be undertaken. Whatever may be the result of the Cassaba and Aidin railways, in respect of the profits which may be earned, the policy of encouraging the formation of railways, while the roads in the interior remain in such wretched plight, is, to say the least, ques- tionable. A sum of three millions sterling will be required for the construction of one hundred and forty miles of railway, whereas the same sum, if applied to the construction of first-rate roads, would have sufficed for one thousand seven hun- dred miles, which, as regards profit, would have TOWN AND BAY OP SMYRNA. 177 been a first-rate investment for capital. Putting railways before roads is very much like reversing the natural order of things. Such a line as that from Smyrna to Cassaba may prove an exception to the rule, but before railways can possibly be remune- rative in Turkey the trade of the interior will require to be stimulated. If the same amount of energy and capital had been spent on road con- struction, as have been expended on the Cassaba and Ai'din railways, the trade of Smyrna would, ere this, have been sensibly increased by an influx of produce from districts which are at present practi- cally shut out from external intercourse. In the town of Smyrna there is ample scope for public works, capable of yielding substantial returns on the capital which may be invested. The Bay of Smyrna, at the head of which the town is built, affords capital anchorage for shipping, and there is good depth of water alongside the wharves; but a quay, to which vessels could make fast and discharge or load cargo, is greatly needed, as are also some works to protect the channel from the silt of the Sarabat, at the point where that river discharges. The streets of Smyrna are in as bad a state as they well can be, and the town is most inadequately supplied with water, although there is an abundant supply in the immediate vicinity. None of these improvements will the Smyrniotes effect for themselves. Foreign capital albeit there is abundance in the town is required to 12 178 TURKEY. construct their quays, build their warehouses, pave and drain their streets, and supply them with water. Unbelievers in the adage that God helps those who help themselves, they are content to wait for the labour of others, and the chances are that in the long run they will not be disappointed. South of Smyrna, the only shipping places worth mentioning are Scala Nova, and Adalia; but the former is too near Smyrna to affect its trade, and the latter, although eligibly situated for the reception of produce, is too small and unim- portant to require extended notice. Whenever the southern districts of Anatolia shall be opened up for commerce, some good port south of Smyrna will be a great convenience to merchants. At present only a narrow belt of country on the north- west corner of the continent contributes to the export trade, and so long as this is the case Smyrna will suffice. THIED DIVISION. This portion of Asiatic Turkey is magnificently watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, with their confluents, but is not so well provided with roads as the country to the north and west. One trunk road there is, which runs in a northerly direction from Bagdad, passing through Kerkuk, Erbil, and Mossul, to Mardin, whence it branches in a north-westerly direction to Diarbekir, and south-west through Birt, on the Euphrates, to Aleppo. This, with the addition of inferior tracks from Diarbekir to Erz-rum, and from VALLEYS OP THE EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS. 179 Mossul to some places adjacent, is the only beaten track in the whole of this splendid country. It is melancholy to gaze on the fertile valleys of the Euphrates, the Tigris, and their tributaries fit for the production of grain, cotton, oil, and other articles of merchandise in the condition of waste, uncultivated deserts ; to look upon broad rivers lazily flowing onward to the sea, their waters unruffled, except by an occasional raft, and unused for any of the purposes of civilized in- dustry; and to see a people, handicraftsmen by nature, vegetating in a state of comparative in- digence, because deprived of the means of exter- nal communication. Diarbekir, Mossul, and Bagdad, on the Tigris, and Lysa, Semisat and Kerkisieh, on the Euphrates, are the principal places in the division ; but the trade mainly centres at Diar- bekir, from which goods are transported to Mossul and Bagdad by rafts, mules, and camels, and to Erz-rum, Samsoun, and Aleppo by the two latter means only. The raft business on the Tigris is a Government monopoly, and is annually sold to the highest bidder. Each raft is composed of one hundred and fifty skins, framed with six light poles, and floored over. They carry fifteen cantars of goods, equivalent to about three and a half tons avoirdupois, and occupy an ave- rage of five days in spring and twenty days in autumn in making the journey from Diarbekir to 180 TURKEY. Mossul, a much longer period being of course consumed in the journey to Bagdad. The rates paid for the transport of goods from Diarbekir to the places undermentioned, in the year 1863, were, per cantar of 506 lb., as follow : By Raft to Mossul . . 10 11 Mule . . 4 10 Camel . . 119 Raft Bagdad . . 17 3 Mule Aleppo . - . 3 12 8 Camel . . 1 16 Mule Erz-rum . . 419 Samsoun . . 419 The cantar by mule between Diarbekir and Mossul, is about 600 lb., and the rate from Aleppo to Alexandretta, the port of shipment, is, by camel, eighteen shillings and twopence per cantar. A good road between Diarbekir and Aleppo is absolutely essential to the well- being of this division of country. The distance is two hundred and sixty miles. In winter the camel track is a quagmire, and the Euphrates at times impassable. To transport any consider- able quantity of heavy merchandise under such conditions would be a simple impossibility. The Pashalic of Diarbekir is situated on the confines of Ottoman rule, and the peace of the district is fre- quently disturbed by predatory Arabs, whose looting propensities it is hopeless to suppress while the existing state of internal communication re- mains unimproved. As a practical exemplification DIARBEKIR MARAUDING ARABS. 181 of the evil effects resulting from the want of roads, it may be stated that in the year 1863, when the necessaries of life were excessively dear in some parts of the country, very inferior wheat was sell- ing at Diarbekir at two pounds sterling per quarter, while a very superior article could not be sold at Mossul for more than fifteen shillings the conse- quence being that, failing the means of transport for the wheat to Diarbekir, the poor people were obliged to migrate to Mossul. The central posi- tion of Diarbekir nearly equi-distant from Aleppo, Mossul, Erz-rum, and Trebizond marks it as a spot from whence a system of good roads should radiate into Kurdistan and Mesopotamia ; its situa- tion on the Tigris, at the part where the river first becomes navigable, lending it additional importance. The rivers of this division should also be utilized, both for purposes of navigation and irrigation. Before the march of civilization the marauding Arabs would be forced to retreat, or submit to the alternative of acknowledging its sway. A traction engine, with half a dozen loaded waggons, travelling from Diarbekir to Aleppo, on a macadamized road, would effectually astonish these sons of the Desert, who look upon the plundering of a caravan as a perfectly legitimate occupation. At a time not far hence, the Euphrates valley will in all probability be selected as the route for a new line of communication with British India ; but any such scheme, however great the benefits which it 182 TURKEY. would be calculated to confer on the country, will prove impracticable until the roving Bedawin tribes are subjected to constituted authority. To this end nothing would be more effectual than the making of a good road from Bagdad, through Mossul, to Diarbekir, and from thence to the Black Sea, through Erz-rum and Trebizond, and to the Mediterranean, through Aleppo and Alexandretta. Such a road would intersect some of the most troublesome haunts of the Bedawin, and by increasing the intercourse between the cities of the interior and the coast, would materially inter- fere with the success of their marauding expedi- tions. FOURTH DIVISION. This portion of the Ottoman Empire is at once the best and the least known of any of the magnificent possessions of the House of Osman. With the names of its mountains and rivers the Christian world is perfectly familiar, but there are few among the millions to whom Jeru- salem, Damascus, Antioch, and Jaffa are house- hold words who could, without special reference, describe the topography of these storied places. There are only two inland centres of trade in Syria viz., Aleppo and Damascus the port of the former being Alexandretta, and those of the latter Beyrout and Acre. Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem, is also rising into notice as a port of entry for goods destined for the southern districts of the interior. It has been already stated that the greater portion POET OF ALEXANDEETTA. 183 of the export trade of Diarbekir is sent by Mardin and Orfa, through Aleppo, for shipment at Alexandretta. From Aleppo main roads branch to Damascus and Bagdad, as well as to Lata- kiah and Alexandretta the former taking a direction, as near as may be, south-west, the latter passing through Antakia, on the river Assey. The town of Alexandretta may, without exaggeration, be characterized as the most un- healthy on the whole coast of the Ottoman pos- sessions in Asia. Situated on the east side of a capacious bay, tolerably well protected from pre- vailing winds, and possessing a good anchorage, it is, nevertheless, surrounded by marshes, which constantly emit, under the influence of a Syrian sun, exhalations of the most pernicious character. At some time far removed from the present day, Alexandretta must have been a commodious har- bour, with deep water up to the rock that sur- rounds the basin in which the present town is built. In the face of the rock, traces of ring- bolts may still be seen, as well as a num- ber of disjecta membra connected with the mooring of vessels a.t that now inland point. Commercial records establish the fact that the sea is gradually receding from the Bay, and that it has so receded, the marshes by which the exist- ing port is surrounded fully testify. It is justly to be regretted that the most eligible port between Smyrna and Beyrout should 184 TURKEY. be permitted to remain in the condition of a fever den, when, by a judicious system of drainage, it could be converted into a place of comparative salubrity. Merchants will not of choice select a pestilential marsh as a place of residence. Faci- lities for the transaction of external business are consequently limited, and the effects of a restricted commerce are felt as far as the Tigris. The recla- mation of the marshes and the construction of a good and well-protected harbour are public works which the Porte should seriously consider. If Alexandretta were only improved, and the roads leading from it into the interior rendered fit for the transport of heavy merchandise at a reasonable cost, the export trade of a vast extent of country would be attracted thither. As things are, the port, in the absence of a better, is largely used ; and if the Government do not see their way to the construction of a harbour, they should, at all events, in consideration of the public health, abate the malaria which renders the place uninhabitable to Europeans. Damascus, the capital of Syria, is in direct communication with Aleppo on the north, and Bagdad on the east. The principal north road from Arabia, which traverses the entire length of the Pashalic, runs through the city, which has also road communication with the ports of Acre and Beyrout. This last is the port of Damascus, and between the two places, a distance of about seventy FIRST-RATE ROAD TO DAMASCUS. 185 miles, a first-rate carriage road has been recently constructed by a company of French capitalists, to whom the Government had the wisdom to cede the privilege. The making of this fine road has been of the greatest possible benefit not only to its terminal cities, but to the whole district through which it runs. Viewed as a specimen of civil engineering the work is highly creditable, it being carried across the range of the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon, by easy gradients, at the respective elevations of 6000 and 4000 feet, and at a cost which makes the working of the road a highly remunera- tive business to the proprietors, notwithstanding the fact that a considerable number of the cameleers prefer using the old road to paying the toll which 'the company demand. The company have the monopoly of all wheeled conveyances over the road for a term of fifty years, and if they are bound to supply the demand of the district for carriage transport, the Government and the concessionaires will have equal reason to be satisfied with the compact. The traveller between Beyrout and Damascus is now able to engage a seat in a well- appointed "diligence," and the merchant who wishes to forward a parcel of goods can send them on the company's waggons without entertain- ing a doubt as to their arriving at their destination in a short space of time and in good condition. At Damascus the authorities have been for some time engaged in public works of an important 186 TURKEY. nature, such as draining the marshes in the neigh- bourhood of the city, improving the security of the roads in the Pashalic, by a thorough re-organi- zation of the military posts, and by widening the streets in the town so as to promote internal cir- culation. Sanitary works of an advanced character are also in contemplation, but it is evident that without scientific assistance from without, the results will be of an eminently unsatisfactory character ; with the drainage of the marshes this is already the case. At first sight, to draw the superabundant water from a piece of land may seem the easiest thing possible to accomplish. In reality, however, it is far otherwise. Some of the most extensive reclamations of land from a marshy state have been made in Great Britain and other countries in the North of Europe, but it has always been found that special scientific knowledge on the part of the director of the works was an invariable condition antecedent to success. Filling in a marsh with earth and rubbish in order to get rid of the water, is an operation which may possess the merit of novelty, but it is none the less wrong in theory and absurd in practice. Misdirected effort in the path of improvement is a waste of energy which might, in all probability, be otherwise more profitably employed, and although vigorous administration may make Damascus a more beauti- ful city, engineering skill can alone render it and its vicinage more salubrious. POETS OF BEYEOUT AND JAFFA. 187 Now that the road is finished to Damascus, the state of the harbour of Beyrout should be looked to by the authorities at Constantinople. The port is simply an open roadstead, from which vessels have frequently to run for shelter ; all goods require to be lightered from vessels at anchor, and there is not accommodation at the Custom House for a fraction of the merchandise which is at times discharged. Nothing would be easier than the construction of an efficient break- water and a commodious quay, to the cost of which the merchants of Beyrout would doubtless contribute ; but the Government must concede the privilege necessary to make it a paying specula- tion. The damage to which property is subjected by reason of insufficient landing accommodation, is at times a severe tax on importing merchants, whilst the risk consequent on the lighterage of cargo is such as should not be imposed on any mercantile community. Jerusalem cannot, in any sense, be considered a trading centre ; but the Port of Jaffa is a rising place, being the southernmost port in Syria, and the entrepot for Jerusalem, Nablous, Gaza, and the interior of Palestine. One branch of the great coast road terminates at Jaffa. To it is brought the whole surplus produce of the valley of the Jordan for shipment, and as cultivation is largely on the increase, it is clear that unless some steps be taken to improve the port, shippers will be compelled to 188 TURKEY. look out for another transit route. A modern road, on the model of that from Beyrout to Damascus, has been projected between Jaffa and Jerusalem, and will, when executed, be a great boon to the travelling public, as well as to the myriads of pilgrims who annually toil over the wretched track by which the two places are already connected. As the attrac- tions of an easy pathway to the Holy City are very great to the devout of all Christian nations, the Turkish Government would probably look with increased favour on a well-digested project for the improvement of the port of Jaffa, at which the only landing-place both for passengers and goods is a crazy erection about eleven feet long, while a natural breakwater of rock, 800 feet in length, protects the harbour, which is so silted up as only to be available for coasting craft ; larger vessels being obliged to anchor in the roadstead. That the port of Jaffa is capable of being made good and safe for vessels of average sea-going tonnage does not admit of doubt, and if it be true that the Porte has conceded the terms which were demanded by some resident merchants for the improvement of the harbour, works of a sub- stantial and enduring character may be anticipated. A good road is much wanted from Nablous on the north, and from Kerek across the ford of the Dead Sea, through Gaza on the south ; such roads as these running into Jaffa would be of material service in the transport of produce. If the port GENERAL SURVEY. 189 of Jaffa be promptly put in good condition, and a road were driven in a north-easterly direc- tion by way of Nablous into the Pashalic of Damascus, Beyrout would require to look to her laurels. The thriving industrial population of the Lebanon are justly proud of their beautiful sea- port, and may be excused if they are inclined to overlook its manifest defects as a mercantile har- bour. Jaffa may not compare with Beyrout in its present condition ; but if she be provided with a new breakwater and serviceable quays, alongside which vessels of moderate tonnage can moor be- fore Beyrout can boast of any one of these things the merchants of Beyrout may depend upon it that their trade will be diverted, and the commercial prestige of the place be irretrievablydamaged. In the foregoing survey of the state of the empire in respect of public works, no notice has been taken of the united Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, nor of the Principality of Servia, as in these provinces the works of internal improve- ment are not under the control of the Porte. As regards, however, the whole of the empire under review, it is evident that the roads and harbours are everywhere in a lamentable 'state of deficiency. Effective administration of the internal affairs of an empire, and grossly defective means of com- munication between its several parts, cannot co- exist. Practically, justice cannot be administered 190 TUEKBT. in a community where an appeal to the source from which it flows is a physical impossibility ; while without transit facilities for barter, the intelligent skill of a people is worthless, and the accumulation of individual wealth impossible. Such reflections as these should be pondered over by Turkish statesmen. The canker ol isolation is surely destroying the industrial capabilities of the people, and unless some- thing be done to rouse them from a lethargy, alike destructive of their individual interest and injurious to the state, all the hopes of a regene- rated Turkey, worked for and hoped for by her modern statesmen, will prove but the baseless fabric of a vision. The first duty of a prince is to his people, and on him the obligation lies of so opening up his country to well-ordered enterprise, as to mitigate and equalize the incidence of the public burdens, and increase the general prosperity and power of the state. The greatest happiness of the greatest number should be the steadfast aim of him who wields the sceptre. The well-being of a nation is a sacred trust, and much as the reigning family of the House of Osman has already done to attract the admiration of its com- peers and deserve the homage of its subjects, the kingly privilege of ameliorating the condition of isolated communities has yet more than sufficient scope for beneficent exercise. So evenly balanced are the topographical advantages of the Turkish GENERAL SURVEY. 191 Empire that there is no one spot so situated as to preclude the transport of its produce to a profitable market, provided that there existed good roads, serviceable canals, and renovated sea-ports. For lack of these, whole provinces teeming with natural wealth are but so many smiling wildernesses; miasma exhales from untilled savannas ; and the greater proportion of one of the fairest countries on God's earth ceases to minister to the wants and the pleasures of his creatures. The Sultan's writ should run without let or hindrance on his own highways, and his flag be floated securely in his havens ; until these conditions shall exist in fact and not in name, lordly ease and indigent vassalage will be the condition of his people, and an embarrassed exchequer will be the heritage of his ministers. CHAPTER Y. State of Banking in Turkey The Commercial Finance of the Empire Principal business centres Adrian ople Aleppo Alexandretta Arta Avlona Beyrout Brussa Burgas Canea Constantinople Damascus Diarbekir Grallipoli Grhio Jaffa Janina Kustendjie Larnaca Monastir Panorma Prevesa Rhodes Salonica Samsoun Scutari Smyrna Trebizond Varna Volo. THE trade of Turkey, both internal and foreign, is, notwithstanding the disadvantages treated of in the preceding chapter, very considerable. An utter absence of roads and navigable rivers is sufficient to damp the ardour of the most enthu- siastic trader ; but that such an extensive foreign trade as that of Turkey should be possible, with a system of finance so ill adapted to international mercantile operations, is simply astonishing ; and says much for the enterprising character of her people. Between England and Turkey there is no regular monetary exchange. The balance of trade being against the latter, her merchants have to remit in payment of manufactured and other goods ; an operation which is always more or MONETARY EXCHANGE. 193 less difficult, and at times impossible, owing to the scarcity of paper on Europe for exported produce. In years of scarcity, when the yield of particular crops has been reduced by untoward and uncon- trollable influences, the inconvenience of having no available medium of exchange is severely felt. Under such circumstances, neither money nor convertible property are of the slightest value ; and although the markets in the interior may be bare of Manchester goods and colonial produce, merchants are unable to purchase, being destitute of the means of cash transmission. Of course this is a question of degree. At Constantinople, paper on London, Marseilles, and Trieste, can always be purchased at a variable exchange. In a less absolute degree is this true of Smyrna; whilst at Aleppo, the chances of being able to operate at any time of the year are, to say the least, precarious. This is a state of things that seriously interferes with the legitimate expansion of trade, and for which the only remedy is the establishment of a Banking Institution which shall conduct the monetary operations of the mercantile community. There is only one Joint- Stock Bank in Turkey. Started as an English Company, in aid of the trade and commerce of the empire, the Ottoman Bank had a field of usefulness and profit that left nothing to be desired ; but, after a short and successful career, the blandishments of the Government Delilah proved too much for the con- 13 194 TURKEY. tinence of the youthful but untitled giant, and that which, under the name of " The Ottoman Bank," was started with an English constitution for the transaction of mercantile banking business in Turkey, now exists as a Turkish Societe Anonyme, under the title of " La Banque Imperiale Ottomane," having the management of the national cash at Constantinople, and conjoining the busi- ness of bankers and commission-merchants at the branches which they have established. It is to be regretted that the Ottoman Bank did not continue under its original constitution and na- tionality ; as the alteration to a State Bank under French management, has diverted the operations of the institution, to some extent, from their original channel. That which is required in Turkey is a mercantile bank, under English management, which shall, by means of its branches and agencies, conduct the financial operations of the commercial community between the principal places in the interior, as well as between business centres in Turkey and Western Europe. The city of Aleppo, for instance, which receives the merchandise of half a continent, is as innocent of a bank as if it were a^collection of huts in the plains of Chinese Tartary; and such considerable places as Bagdad, Diarbekir, and Erz-rum, in Asia, and Adrianople, Philippopoli, and Rodosto, in Europe, are in a like predicament. Everywhere Turkish trade is in fetters for want of good roads and reliable banks ; BANKING. 195 but if not a piastre were spent in the formation of roads for years to come, the establishment of an English bank, by facilitating the settlement of ac- counts, would give a notable impetus both to the home and foreign trade of the empire. At present the Armenian saraffs have a monopoly of the busi- ness. For ordinary commercial discounts they demand the most usurious rates ; while for small sums, at short dates, and with first-rate security, they do not hesitate to charge from three to six per cent, per month ; to which terms, merchants of good credit are obliged to submit, in default of a system more in accordance with modern usage. For the employment of foreign capital in a way which shall be highly profitable to the banker, and of inestimable benefit to the merchant, there is abundant opportunity, and it is surprising that a field so directly indicated should have been left so long unoccupied. Bank- ing with foreign capital, and under foreign direction, is the only cure for the manifold evils of the" 1 saraff system : until this remedy is adequately supplied, the profits derived from trade will continue to flow into the coffers of the money-lenders, to the manifest impoverishment of the native trader. In order correctly to appreciate the mercantile capabilities of the Turkish Empire, something should be known of the actual state of trade and manufactures in the different places of importance 196 TURKEY. both in Europe and Asia. Even among educated people, the geographical position of the principal cities and towns is very imperfectly understood. Men, otherwise well informed, do not hesitate to talk of the contiguity of Aleppo to the Persian frontier, and of wool which has been shipped at an Asiatic port as coming from European Turkey. To persons engaged in business pursuits, an approximately correct idea of the situation and trading capabilities of the leading places is be- coming daily a matter of more obvious necessity ; and in order, as much as possible, to facilitate reference, it has been deemed best, in presenting some particulars relating to the trade of the ports and large internal centres, to arrange them in alphabetical order, and consequently without regard to topographical relation. ADEIANOPLE, lat. 41 41' 26" N., Ion. 26 35' 41" E., the ancient capital of the Empire, is the chief city of an extensive and fertile province in Roumelia. The occupations of the people are mainly pas- toral and agricultural ; the manufactures, such as those of leather and saddlery, being confined to the large towns in the district. The estimated total value of the principal products of the sand- jak for the year 1862, was 1,300,000, the articles enumerated being chiefly cereals ; composed of wheat, barley, rye, oats, and maize ; silk, wool, and tobacco. The export of grain, the produce of Adria- nople, is conducted at several ports, both in the ADETANOPLE. 197 , the Sea of Marmora, and the Black Sea ; Burgas in the latter being really the port of Adria- nople. The country is well adapted for cereal crops; and at times, when prices are more than ordi- narily remunerative, the quantities exported are very large. The annual production of silk has of late years seriously declined, notwithstanding the utmost care in the management of the worms ; the weight of dried cocoons in the year 1864 being only 250,000 Ibs., against 855,000 Ibs. in 1856 ; and until the prevailing disease, which for several years has been decimating the silk- worm all over the world, be arrested, no hope can be enter- tained of the recovery of the trade. Wool is one of the principal articles exported from the province, and the quality of the staple is much esteemed. The bulk of this article is exported to Marseilles ; very little, if any, being bought on English account. The cultivation of tobacco is declining in this province, as it is in several others, on account of the increased excise which is now levied by the Government. The annual produc- tion at present, is about 1,500,000 Ibs. With the decrease of tobacco, it is satisfactory to notice a decided increase in the cultivation of cotton. The acreage under this plant in the year 1863 was 3625, against 1650 in the previous year, showing an increase of more than double in the space of a single season. American seed thrives well in the Adrianople district ; and the cultivators find that 198 TURKEY. the extra care required in the proper growth of the plant is amply compensated by the price which they obtain for clean cotton the staple being good, and, when well ginned, eagerly sought after. A large number of hides, both raw and dried, are annually sent from Adrianople to the coast for shipment to Trieste. It has been already stated that the manufacture of leather, chiefly for saddlery purposes, is a considerable industry. The number of animals slaughtered in the pro- vince is very large ; the skins, not retained for the native tanneries, are exported along with the horns and bones, and form an important item in the seagoing trade with Austria. The bulk of the imports for Adrianople are brought thither from the coast by land carriage, a small proportion reaching the city by small boats on the Maritza, when that river is swollen. Manchester goods and British Colonials con- stitute the bulk of the foreign import trade. English manufactures are held in high estimation by the inhabitants, and if the means of communica- tion with the coast were improved, the commercial intercourse between England and Thrace would be materially increased. ALEPPO, lat. 36 II' 0" N., Ion. 37 10' 0'' E., the capital of Northern Syria, is situated on the confines of the great plain which stretches from inhabited and cultivated Syria to the Euphrates. At one time Aleppo was an exceed- ALEPPO. 199 ingly populous and opulent city; and although the feet of many a conqueror have left their im- print in diminished splendour and decayed institu- tions, the city is at this day the centre towards which the trade of a vast extent of country as far north as Tokat, east as Van, and south as Mossul converges, and is in turn dispersed to Anatolia, Syria, and foreign countries by the port of Alexandretta. The cloths of Aleppo were at one time in great repute through the whole of the Ottoman Empire, mainly on account of the bril- liancy of their dyes. In the year 1850, not less than 10,000 looms were employed in the produc- tion of textile fabrics ; but the comparatively recent disturbances on the Lebanon inflicted an amount of injury upon nearly every branch of native manufacture, from which they have not yet, and, as regards woven fabrics, probably never will recover. European goods are rapidly supplanting those of native production in the estimation of the people, there being greater variety both in texture and patterns, while the cost is, if anything, less, and the durability equally great. The manufac- ture of gold thread for embroidery and other fancy purposes is still a speciality of the city, as are other trades of a comparatively unimportant character ; but in respect of the great staple, the manufacture of articles of the first necessity, Aleppo has lost her prestige. The principal articles of foreign export are cotton, galls, wool, 200 . TURKEY. mohair, silk, sesame seed, yellow berries, madder roots, and gum. The cotton grown in the Pasha- lie is very inferior in quality. For a great many years there has been an export of cotton from Aleppo to France for upholstery purposes, the staple being too short to command a market for spinning. On the outbreak of the Civil War in the United States, however, cotton- spinners became less fastidious ; a demand arose for manufacturing purposes, but the agriculturists have not hitherto been very successful. It is stated by some, that the most suitable lands for the growth of cotton are so subject to Arab depredations as to deter the country people from the enterprise. Others affirm that the Pashalic of Aleppo has not been afforded the same measure of assistance, in the shape of good seed and modern implements as other districts ; but, from whatever cause arising, the fact is indisputable that the cotton grown in the Pashalic of Aleppo is poor in quality and short in staple. The galls are chiefly ex- ported to England and France, and the wool is > nearly all sold on French account. The same is the case with the sesame seed ; but England takes a considerable quantity both of madder-root and yellow berries. The course of the foreign trade of Aleppo, and particularly that with England, has been gradually changing for several years. Instead of native houses working on credit fur- nished by Houses in Manchester and London, the ALEXANDEETTA AETA. 201 Syrians are beginning to establish branches of their firms in the manufacturing centres of Europe, by which means they can effect a saving in commissions, select their own goods with a cer- tainty of suiting the Syrian market, and, by ob- taining consignments of produce from their friends, contrive to establish a system of credit of a highly advantageous character. As far as the transit trade of Aleppo is concerned, it must in the nature of things steadily increase, and with it the importance of the city as a centre of mer- cantile finance. ALEXANDEETTA, lat. 36 35' 3" N., Ion. 36 9' 0" E., is the port of Aleppo, and the entrepot for the whole of Northern Syria. The immediate district of Alexandretta does not contribute much to the trade of the place, which almost entirely consists of goods in transit to and from Aleppo and the cities east of the Euphrates. The whole of Northern Syria would seem to be in a state of mercantile stagnation the configuration of the country, the richness of its soil, and the plenteous- ness of its streams, to the contrary notwith- standing. AETA, lat. 39 8' 0" N., Ion. 20 59' 0" E., is situated near the northern shore of the gulf of Arta, and within a short distance of Salahora, which is the port. The gulf is a long indent opening into the Ionian Archipelago, between the islands of Corfu and Santa Maria, and constitutes 202 TURKEY. one-half of the southern boundary of Epirus. The external trade of Arta is carried on by vessels sailing under the Ottoman, Greek, and Austrian flags ; and, while the imports from England and other places is considerable, the local exports have for many years been chiefly directed to the Ionian Islands. The total tonnage of Arta at the port of Salahora in the first six months of 1864 was 2,763 tons in 390 vessels, one-half of which sailed under the Ottoman flag ; the value of the imports being 38,352, of which 30,331 represented the imports from Great Britain, the principal items being Manchester goods, 21,000 ; colonials, 6,000; and metals, 2,500. The total value of the exports from Arta during the same period was only 14,000, principally consisting of articles of food, sheep, and mules ; the great dif- ference between the values of the exports and imports arises from the circumstance, that whereas the bulk of the imports is sent into the interior on account of merchants there, the exports, with few exceptions, are the produce of the districts immediately contiguous to the port. AVLONA, lat. 40 27' 2" N., Ion. 19 26' 7" E., is the most northerly port of Epirus on the Adriatic ; and, although not much frequented at the present time, it is destined to become, at no distant period, a maritime place of considerable importance. The bay is spacious and well-pro- tected on the south-east by a long and narrow AVLONA BEYEOUT. 203 promontory, terminating in Cape Linguetta. A submarine electric cable has been recently laid between Avlona and Otranto, on the Italian coast ; and, as the port is nearly vis-a-vis to Brindisi, to which the Italian lines of railway have been com- pleted, it is surmised that the first railway com- munication with the interior of European Turkey from the Adriatic, will start from Avlona in cor- respondence with the Italian lines. The total tonnage which entered the port in the first six months of 1864 was 20,356, of which 16,000 was allocated to Austrian steamers ; the total value of the cargoes being 13,296 ; while the value of the exports was only 27,491. These figures exhibit, in connection with previous returns, a steady decline in the trade of Avlona for which it is difficult to account, except on the hypothesis of imperfect means of carriage for produce from the interior. The navigation has been greatly im- proved by the recent erection of a good light- house at the entrance of the port, which, all its advantages considered, must be pronounced, as far as its external trade is concerned, in an abnormal condition. BEYEOUT, lat. 33 54' 5" N., Ion. 35 28' 2" E., is the port of Damascus for all light and valuable merchandise, and the entrepot for goods intended for consumption in Central Syria. The Mussulman outbreak in 1860 seriously inter- fered with the progress of the port, by the disor- 204 TUEKEY. ganization which was for the time-being infused into business operations; but since the appoint- ment of the present Governor- General of the Lebanon, the prosperity of the town has greatly increased, a state of things which is partly due to the increased facilities for rapid intercourse with Damascus. Grain, silk, olive oil, and tobacco are the principal products of the district, the imme- diate export trade being silk the produce of the Lebanon which is shipped chiefly to Marseilles. There is a considerable miscellaneous trade coast- wise to Turkish ports ; but the largest business is in imports of piece goods, hardware, and colo- nials. The average annual yield of produce in the District of Beyrout and Mount Lebanon was last estimated as follows wheat and barley, 35,000 qrs. ; cocoons, 2,200,000 Ibs. ; oil, 5000 tons ; and tobacco, 1,500,000 Ibs. ; the trade has, however, much improved within the last year or two. Whether the Beyrout district will produce cotton as a staple article in large quantities, remains to be seen. If the harbour was more suitable for the shipment of heavy goods, there exists sufficient enterprise among the merchants of the town to promote the cultivation of the plant on a large scale ; but so long as the port is permitted to remain in its present state, the chances are against any permanently large production of the article. BEUSSA, lat. 41 11' 0" N., Ion. 29 0' 0" E., a thriving city in the north-western part of BBUSSA. 205 Asia Minor, is the capital of one of the most fertile provinces in Asiatic Turkey. The bulk of the opium sent to Smyrna for export, is produced in the Brussa district ; and the culture of the silkworm is largely practised by the rural population. Silk, wool, and Angora hair, are the leading articles supplied for export ; the latter being drawn from contiguous provinces in the interior. Brussa was at one time the seat of an important cloth manufacture ; the products of her looms have, however, been gradually displaced by imported fabrics, and are now but scantily re- presented in the Turkish markets. The principal woven articles are cotton, silk, and gauze dress pieces, cotton bournouses, bath wrappers, and silk handkerchiefs, suited to the requirements of the local markets, but the quantity is unimportant. The silk filatures, of which there are ninety-two scattered throughout the province, furnish tolerably constant employment to upwards of 6000 persons. In Brussa and its environs, the total weight of silk calculated as reeled for the year 1863 was 230,000 okes, valued at 798,000. The silkworm seed is replenished from Roumelia, Persia, and China; but of all the extraneous sources of supply, the seed imported from Albania has hitherto proved the most healthy and productive. The bulk of the silk produce of Brussa is exported to Marseilles for account of French Houses ; it is, however, well suited in quality for the English market, and 206 TURKEY. when better facilities are afforded for its export to Great Britain, English Houses will compete with the French in the native markets. An extensive trade in salted olives is carried on in this district. Along the whole coast-line olives are produced in abundance, but it^ is not a little singular that, although the oil which they yield is of excellent quality, nearly the whole of that article consumed in the province is imported ; Candia furnishing a large annual supply. In 1863, the olive crop on the coast district realized 7,600,000 okes, the greater proportion of which was salted and despatched to ports on the Black Sea and Danube. Cotton is still an experimental crop in the Brussa district, notwithstanding the proved capabilities of the land for its profitable production ; while grain is not raised for export in any great quantity. The whole of the wool is exported to Marseilles ; 448,000 Ibs. having been sent for shipment to Panorma in the year 1863 ; the clip at Mikalitz where this article is a staple being in that year 210,000 Ibs., costing in the grease from nine and a half to ten piastres per oke. Of opium, 1800 baskets were exported from Karra- hissar, each basket weighing 150 Ibs. Wine of a fair quality is made to some extent in different parts of the province, but the prevailing disease in the plant greatly interferes with its profitable culture. As a grazing country, the sandjak of Brussa is capa- ble of furnishing extensive supplies both of sheep BBUSSA BURGAS. 207 and cattle ; but the proportions of the trade have been much curtailed in recent years by the ravages of disease among the flocks and herds. The city of Brussa suffered very severely from earthquake in the year 1855, as well as from a most destruc- tive fire in the autumn of 1863. Viewed in a sanitary light, these terrible visitations have been productive of some good, as they destroyed many of the overcrowded fever dens which are the bane of every oriental city, and cleared the way for a series of modern improvements, which, when completed, will render Brussa a healthful and pleasant abode, apart from the architectural em- bellishments, of which the grand mosque and other public buildings are the subjects. The great Khan is undergoing a thorough course of renova- tion and structural improvement, while the city is being intersected at right angles by broad streets, which will greatly facilitate internal cir- culation, and promote the general health of the inhabitants. The ports of entry are Ghio, Mundania, and Panorma. The first, the seat of a government establishment for ship-building, is the principal, although the latter albeit further removed from Brussa engrosses nearly the whole of the foreign export trade. BURGAS, lat. 42 30' 40" N., Ion. 27 30' 6" E., is a port on the Black Sea, immediately south of the Balkans, in the sandjak of Shimnia and 208 TURKEY. Pashalic of Adrianople. It is situated at the head of a gulf of the same name, and much frequented as a port for the shipment of grain, in the production of which the whole of the country in the rear is remarkably prolific. In the year 1862, the number of grain ships cleared from the port was 180, of which 21 were for the United King- dom ; the number of freighted ships of all sorts during the same period being 220. The quantity of grain exported in 1862, was 250,000 imperial quarters, valued at 300,000; in addition to which, there was a large provision trade carried on coast- wise with Constantinople and ports in the Black Sea. The total value of the imports in 1862, was estimated at 200,000, mostly British manufac- tures and colonials, Burgas being the entrepot for all merchandise intended for the villages on the slopes of the Balkans, as well as for Carnabat and other important places between Adrianople and the coast. The population of the town is small, not exceeding 5000 souls, but it is a busy place notwithstanding, especially in the winter season, when there is nearly always a fleet of vessels at the anchorage which have run into the Bay for shelter. The port is well protected on every side, has good depth of water, and is a rising place, particularly in respect of its foreign export trade. CANEA, lat. 35 30' 8" N., Ion. 24 0' 0" E., the principal port in the island of Candia, CANEA. 209 for a long time enjoyed a practical monopoly of the best portion of the maritime trade ; now, however, Candia nearly equals it in the number and tonnage of vessels entering that port, while Retimo is rapidly rising into importance, con- sequent on the improvements which have been effected within a recent period, principally by dredging. The shipping returns for the ten years ] 854-64, incontestably prove the rapid pro- gress which Candia has made during that time ; the number of vessels entered inwards in the year 1864, being double that for the year 1854 ; the same result being observable in the gross ton- nage ; whilst the statistics of Canea show scarcely any perceptible increase, and this, notwithstand- ing the fact that Canea possesses a good harbour, well buoyed, and lighted with more than average efficiency. The only returns of British shipping in the island are obtained from Canea, which would doubtless be more largely patronized were the foreign trade carried on direct ; as it is, the bulk of the imports are brought to Syria, and from thence, conveyed in small coasters to Cauea, Candia, or Retimo, as best suits the con- venience of importing merchants. During the last ten years, the external trade of the island has greatly increased. The exports in 1854, were declared at 231,752, and in 1864, at 344,407 ; whilst the imports, which in 1854, were only valued at 205,191, had risen in 1864, to 446,760. The 14 210 TURKEY. island exports olive oil, and imports grain. The quantity of oil exported in 1864 being 2825 tons, as against 5747 tons in the preceding year; show- ing notwithstanding an advance of 5 per ton in price a gross falling off in value of about 88,000 ; while the quantity of soap exported in 1864 although exhibiting a slight decrease in weight, 5029 tons against 5291 tons in 1863 shows an increase of gross value of about 12,000, consequent on the enhanced value of oil. It will be seen, from the weight of soap exported, that the manufacture is one of some importance ; there are about fifty soap-works on the island, and the manufactured article is much esteemed throughout the Levant. In the production of soap, alkali is an important ingredient. At one time, British soda ash was in great favour with the soap-makers, mainly on account of its superior strength; but the consumption of British alkali has greatly diminished in favour of a weaker, and in some places indigenous, chemical, classed in the list of imports as natron; the value being not quite half that of soda ash. Nearly three-fourths the total value of the imports belongs to manufactured goods ; butter, tobacco, and grain alkali excepted being the next most consi- derable items. The cultivation of cotton on the island is as yet an experiment, that derived from American seed giving the best results. An attempt is now also being made at the production CONSTANTINOPLE. 211 of coffee : some trees having been imported from Mocha, for the purpose of testing the capabilities of the soil in the commercial growth of this profitable article. CONSTANTINOPLE, lat. 41 0' 3" N., Ion. 28 59' 2" E., the capital of the Turkish Empire, is situated on the north-east shoulder of the Sea of Marmora, at its junction with the Bosphorus. The city is built on the Golden Horn, which is a bold indent of the Marmora, terminating a short distance above Constantinople at the sweet waters of Europe. On the east side of the Golden Horn are situated the Frank quarters of Pera and Galata, and on the west side is the Mussulman quarter of Stamboul, where is situated the Porte and other government establishments. The Frank and Mussulman quarters are connected by bridges across the Golden Horn, which is the harbour of Constantinople. On the opposite shore of the Marmora is Scutari, one of the suburbs of the capital, others extending for some considerable distance up both shores of the Bosphorus. For salubrity of situation, security from external foes, and great natural advantages as a commercial port, Constantinople is unsurpassed by any other capital city in the world. DAMASCUS, lat. 33 27' 0" N., Ion. 36 23' 0" E., the principal city in Syria distant 180 miles from Aleppo, and 60 miles from Beyrout is the seat of a considerable manufacture 212 TURKEY. of brocaded and other stuffs, as well as tlie point of departure of the great Hadji caravan, which annually proceeds to Mecca. The city has sustained repeated acts of pillage and devastation at the hands of merciless conquerors; but, al- though shorn of a portion of her ancient splendour, is, to-day, the largest and most opulent place in the Asiatic dominions of the Osmanli. Previous to the fanatical outbreak by which Syria was over- run in 1860, nearly the whole of the local manu- factures were in the hands of the Christian popu- lation. In the year 1859, there were 3436 looms ; in the following year there were only 700, nearly 3000 looms belonging to Christians having been destroyed by the Mussulman fanatics. In 1861, the number of looms had been still further reduced to 550 ; since when the trade has been gradually passing into Mussulman hands, the number of looms at work in 1864, being 3,156, or nearly as many as existed in the year 1859 ; the difference being that whereas in 1859, nearly the whole of the looms belonged to Christians, in 1864, upwards of 2,000 had become the property of Mohammedans. The manufactures of the city mainly consist of silk and mixed fabrics for dresses, cloaks, and handkerchiefs; the total number of pieces made having fallen from 307,235 in 1859, to 142,909 in 1860. In the year 1863, the latter number was, however, doubled ; and it is satisfactory to find that, in 1864, the DAMASCUS. 213 manufacturing industry of Damascus had nearly recovered its former level. The exports chiefly con- sist of wool, madder roots, cotton, and dried fruits; the ports of shipment being Acre and Beyrout. Beyrout, however, absorbs the bulk of the trade, as being, more than Acre, a place of residence for foreign merchants, and as being connected with Damascus by means of a first-rate road, over which the produce of the interior can be conveyed with security and speed. The quantity of wool exported in 1864, only amounted to 862,500 Ibs., the weight being much reduced by the operation of disease in the flocks. Of madder-root, there was also 862,500 Ibs. exported, a quantity in excess of the usual annual production. The weight of madder-root usually raised in the dis- trict for foreign markets, is about 550,000 Ibs., or 1000 cantars; but, on account of prices being low in 1862, only one-tenth of that quantity was sold for exportation, the remainder being stored in the village magazines ; a circumstance which may account for the large quantity sold in 1864. The bulk of the cotton grown in the district is a short staple variety, of which, in the year 1864, 7000 cantars, or 4,025,000 Ibs., were exported, against 60 cantars in 1862. There can be no doubt what- ever, that large quantities of cotton could be produced at a reasonable price in the Pashalic of Damascus ; the soil is suitable, and the climate congenial, whilst the agriculturists are readier, 214 TUEKEY. than in some other districts, to turn their attention to whatever crop offers the greatest expectation of profit. The import trade of Damascus is very large, as, in addition to the local consumption, her markets supply those of Arabia and Southern Persia. From England, France, and Belgium, she imports manufactured goods, ranging from cali- coes to brocaded silks, yarn, colonial produce, metals, hardware, and arms ; from Italy, satins and marble; from Switzerland, merinoes; from India, indigo and shawls ; and from Persia, carpets. Every year, on the return of the caravan from Mecca, Damascus is a rendezvous for traders, from every part of the country, desirous of pur- chasing the merchandise with which the Hadjis are always abundantly supplied ; while they them- selves do not come empty-handed. From north, south, east, and west, products, both of agricul- ture and handicraft, foreign to the district, are poured into the bazaars of Damascus, which thus becomes a distributing centre for merchandise of the most varied character. DIAEBEKIR, lat. 37 55' 30" N., Ion. 39 52' 0" E., situated on the Tigris, is the principal place in the province of Kurdistan. It is dis- tant by Tatar post, four days from Aleppo, three from Mossul, and seven from Bagdad, and is the seat of a considerable and rapidly-increasing trade. Kurdistan is one of the provinces of Turkey which is perhaps least known to foreigners, DIARBEKIE. 215 and yet is one of the most important, both as regards the variety and value of its indigenous products suitable for European markets, as well as the quantity and character of its imports. The total value of the vegetable and animal produce for the year 1863 was, in round numbers, 800,000, made up of wheat, 214,000 qrs. ; barley, 295,000 qrs. ; maize, 85,000 qrs. ; rice, 93,000 bushels ; oil-seeds, 12,000 qrs. ; peas, 2,000 qrs. ; tobacco, 4,000 cwts. ; madder roots, 100 tons ; olive oil, 27 tons ; sesame oil, 340 tons ; clarified butter, 1,500 tons ; cheese, 400 tons ; wool, 1000 tons ; mohair, 120 tons ; galls, 680 tons ; silk, 9,000 Ibs. ; wax, 60 cwts. ; tallow, 1,500 cwts. ; arrack, valued at 8,000 ; dried fruits, 6,000 ; honey, 3,000 ; and cotton, 124,000. The foreign exports are composed of madder roots, cotton, wool, mohair, furs, skins, galls, saltpetre, orpiment, wax, and gums, the total value of which was estimated, for the year 1863, at 330,000. The imports from abroad during the same period, were valued at 114,000, of which the large sum of 100,000 was represented by Bri- tish manufactured goods. Apart altogether from the import trade, and omitting all mention of an extensive native manufacture which chiefly finds a domestic sale, a mere glance at the character of the indigenous products first enumerated, must satisfy any person, accustomed to commercial pursuits, as to the extraordinary natural wealth of this beau- 216 TTJKKEY. tiful country. In another part of this work, the position and relative situation of Diarbekir has been more or less fully described, and the diffi- culties in the way of transporting produce to the seaboard, commented on. It cannot reasonably be supposed that the level country between Diarbekir and Aleppo will be permitted to remain for many years longer destitute of roads, for the want of which, a surpassingly fertile province is covered except in isolated places with little but wild her- bage ; and an industrious population held in mer- cantile bondage. When the change which is so earnestly desired shall be wrought, no more profit- able field will be invitingly laid open to "Western capital and enterprise than the sandjaks of Diarbekir, Saert, and Mardin. The production of grain in this province could be greatly increased, were an export trade, under the present transit conditions, at all possible. The crops are at present devoted to domestic consump- tion, and at times, subject to the devastations of locusts ; but both the wheats and barleys are exceedingly good, and, with a little more atten- tion in the selection of seed, might be greatly improved. The quantity of Oil annually made, is sometimes barely sufficient for the consumption of the province. The production of olive oil is not easily increased, as time is a material ingre- dient in the perfecting of an olive-grove ; but there is no reason why the quantity of sesame DIARBEKIE. 217 should not be much enlarged. In Wool, the finest fleeces are got from the flocks of the pas- toral Bedawin tribes, who roam over the plains between Mardin and Bagdad; the coarser sorts being the produce of the Koords' flocks. The value of wool to the native merchants has of late years been much enhanced, chiefly in consequence of the Arabs becoming better acquainted with the estimation in which their fleeces are held. The quality of the Koord staple might be sensibly raised, if a little enterprise were infused into the business by the choice of good breeds of sheep. At present the supply of the first quality is rather precarious, the Arabs being at all times more or less engaged in internecine feuds, during the progress of which the seizure of flocks is a common occur- rence. There is an abundance of good pasturage on the great plains of Mesopotamia, without en- croaching on the tracts at present traversed, and no speculation could be expected to yield better and steadier returns than the introduction of a few selected flocks under skilful management. Mohair, although always used in the manufacture of native textiles, has only been recently appre- ciated, as it deserves, in Europe and America, Neither in length of staple nor silkiness of appear- ance can the mohair of Kurdistan compare with that of Angora, but the quality is good neverthe- less, and the best or white hair is nearly all ex- ported. Persistent attempts have been made, 218 TURKEY. in different parts of the world, and not without success, to acclimatize the best merino breeds for the purpose of crossing with the native. Some of our Australian colonists thoroughly understand the subject. Jezirah, on the eastern border of Kurdistan, is certainly a long way to go; but an enterprising and adventurous Briton might find his reward in improving the breed of the Angora goat, in a fine climate, and with peaceful surroundings. Galls, albeit not a cultivated product, are collected in abundance from the extensive oak forests in the province. The best are found in Bohtan. The descriptions are blue, white, and red. The best qualities, or seyfee, are those which are gathered previous to rain ; the second quality, or shitwee, being those collected after the rain, and consequently of an older growth. About half the annual quantity of blue and white galls is exported direct to England, the bulk of the remainder going to Marseilles ; whilst the red description is almost exclusively exported to Persia. Several other tanning sub- stances, notably Hantoof, a species of valonia, are obtained from the oak trees ; but their con- sumption is purely local, Diarbekir, and its asso- ciated sandjaks, having extensive manufactures of morocco and other leathers. The right to collect the galls in every district is conceded to the in- habitants on rendering to the Government a tithe of the produce, and the most usual method DIARBEKIE. 219 of securing their delivery is by the merchants making cash advances during the winter season in anticipation of the crops. Cotton has not been produced as yet in any considerable quantity, nor do the cultivators seem at all inclined to bestow the required amount of attention on the growth of this staple which it imperatively requires. In respect of climate, soil, and capability of irrigation, there are few countries in the world which could compete with Kurdistan, in the production of good middling cotton, were energy, skill, and capital brought to bear on the enterprise ; but the Koordish farmers are either wretchedly lazy, or unaccountably oblivious to the profit which they might derive from this particular crop. As the case stands, cotton seed appears only to be used on patches of land, for the time being, not under any other crop, and is not viewed in the light of an important article of export. Relatively to the quantity of seed used, the weight of clean cotton does not average more than one-half what it ought to be, owing to want of care in the cultivation of the plant, and, for the same reason, the quality is exceedingly low. That really fine cotton can be grown in Kurdistan has been repeatedly demonstrated. With care, and an ordinary amount of skill, an immense quantity could be raised in the splendidly watered valleys of the Koordish mountains ; but in order to make them remuneratively available, an efficient system 220 TFEKET. of transport would require to be organized between Diarbekir and Aleppo, and from thence to Alexan- dretta. Silk is only produced in very small quantity, although the climate is well suited to the propagation of the worm. There is an extensive native manufacture of woven silk goods, princi- pally of dress pieces for local consumption, but the silk so used is a wild variety, the worm differing in almost every essential particular from the com- mon silk worm; the silk is, however, exceed- ingly strong, has a good colour and brilliant lustre. Orpiment, or yellow sulphide of arsenic, is found in great perfection in some of the mines in the Koord mountains. The quantity annually exported to Europe is insignificant when compared with that sent into Persia by way of Mossul and Bagdad. There is no doubt whatever about the extent and value of the deposits of orpiment owned by the Turkish Government, but like the rest of the mineral wealth of the Empire, its importance is not sufficiently appreciated. The lead which is brought into Diarbekir is found in the vicinity of Eggil, where there are some exceedingly rich deposits of the mineral. . The mines are aban- doned, but the peasantry roam about in the de- serted excavations, from which they extract small quantities of ore, the smelting and sale of which is deemed a profitable occupation. Some of the products of Kurdistan, both DIARBEKIE. 221 animal, vegetable, and manufactured, might be introduced into the export trade with advantage ; for example, beeswax, of a superior quality, is pro- duced in large quantities all over the northern part of Kurdistan, but so deficient are the peasants in the knowledge of its commercial preparation, that the quantity annually wasted and used in the manufacture of articles for which a cheaper sub- stitute could be found, would figure as a consider- able item in the list of exports. Madder roots, again, are almost entirely neglected, notwithstand- ing the facilities that exist for the growth of the article in great perfection. The whole of the madder roots brought to market are consumed in the country, only a very small proportion of the bulk being cultivated in the best manner. It is admitted that the cultivation of madder roots in Anatolia is sensibly declining, and there is no rea- son why Kurdistan should not take up the culti- vation. Madder-root is a bulky article, and it may be argued that the distance to a port of ship- ment is too great, the present state of the roads considered, to make the trade sufficiently remune- rative ; but, on the other hand, the roots could be prepared on the spot, and either the ground root, or the extractive matter, sent to market. Eventually, this must be done with all raw produce of a bulky character, containing only a small percentage of valuable material. Economy in manufacturing pro- cesses is being pushed to such an extent, by the 222 TURKEY. force of competition, as to render the cost of transit, on what ultimately becomes a waste residuum, matter of serious moment ; and it would be well, if producers of such articles as madder-root would seriously direct their attention to the subject. Among the native manufactures suitable for export, the morocco leather of Diarbekir is the most im- portant. The tanneries of Mardin and Saert cannot compete with those of Diarbekir in the quality of these products, some of which are apparently well-suited for bookbinding, and other similar purposes. Goat and sheep are the descrip- tions of skins used in the tanneries, the leather being sent as far as Trebizond on the one hand, and Kharput on the other. The manufacture of textiles for local and home consumption is very considerable ; the annual value of the goods sent out of the pashalic being estimated at 70,000. In the production of woven fabrics about 5500 looms are employed. The goods vary in character from common cotton cloths to rich embroidered silks ; in the weaving of some stuffs mohair is largely used, particularly in cloaks for females ; the latter are very elegant, and might be introduced with profit into the fashionable emporiums of Paris and London. GALLIPOLI, lat. 40 24' 0" K, Ion. 26 39' 1" E., is situated on the eastern base of a long promontory which constitutes the European shore of the Dardanelles. It is the natural outlet GALLIPOLI. 223 for the produce of the Maritza valley, but its many advantages are completely neutralized by the absence of practicable roads for the transit of merchandise. On this account, the export trade is largely diverted to such ports as Rodosto, Ibridg and Enos ; leaving Gallipoli, which is a good port, in the fair way of commerce, in a state of un- merited decadence. The bulk of the exports mainly consist of the surplus produce of the villages on the peninsula, as well as of that portion of the mainland in immediate contiguity ; but the pro- vince, of which Gallipoli is unquestionably the port, is one of the most fertile and variously productive in European Turkey. Cotton, grain, and tobacco are produced in abundance ; the uplands, both in climate and soil, being especially favourable to the profitable cultivation of the first-named staple. The barley is quite equal in quality to that of the Danube, and the wheat of the district bears a high character in western markets. Of seeds there is a large variety ; but linseed is the staple, there being a considerable native manufacture of oil and cake for exportation, notwithstanding the fact that, owing to the inefficiency of the pressing apparatus employed, an inadequate percentage of oil is extracted from the seed. Wool is also a staple article of export ; but the quality is not well- suited to the English market, on account of the admixture of rough hairy fleeces with the better qualities produced in the district. The breed of 224 TURKEY. sheep demands closer attention from the flock owners, if they would produce a wool of really even good quality; at present, the flocks are so mixed as to render anything like a fine clip, in large quantities, an utter impossibility. Hides, skins, and horns are annually exported in considerable quantities. At Keshan there is an extensive manufacture of hung beef called bastoorma, which is principally sent coastwise for home consump- tion. The hides go mainly to the islands for tanning purposes ; a large quantity of hides are also regularly received from Adrianople, but the car- cases are skinned in so slovenly a manner as to render the hides unfit for foreign markets. Sheep and lamb skins are exported to the western markets in considerable numbers, and are much esteemed in England ; but the horns are almost exclusively sent to Marseilles. The silk produced in the dis- trict between Adrianople and Gallipoli is held in high estimation, but the demand which the farmers have experienced, in late years, for cocoons and seed on French account, has materially interfered with the prosperity of Adrianople, in which city a large quantity of raw silk used annually to be spun. The vineyards of Grallipoli were at one time famous for the quality of their wine, and their produce still ranks high in local estimation ; but, owing to the ravages of disease among the plants, the quantity now made is inconsiderable, and its consumption is principally local. The only GALLIPOLI. 225 manufacture of which the district of Gallipoli can boast, is that of abba, a description of felt, much in request for winter clothing, carpets, and other purposes of a kindred character. It is, how- ever, only suited for home consumption, and, consequently, does not contribute, in any way, to what may be correctly styled, the export trade of the place. Many ingenious calculations have been made, of the quantities of produce which would be brought to Gallipoli for shipment, in the event of that port being connected with Adrianople by rail- way. On the policy of railway construction in Turkey at the present time, an opinion has already been expressed elsewhere, and there does not appear any reason to alter it in the present instance. Galli- poli is undoubtedly the most eligible port for the produce of the extensive country watered by the Maritza and its tributaries. It lies in the direct track of seagoing vessels; and, apart from the produce of the district, both agricultural and animal, the Thracian Chersonese alone, is cap- able of producing, under proper management, a very large quantity indeed, of good merchantable cotton annually. What is really required, is*a sound serviceable road, which, once completed, will cost little for repair and shall connect Gallipoli with the productive region in her rear. Consider- ing the advantages of position, safety for anchorage, and facilities for shipment which she enjoys, the annual exports are ridiculously small. In the 15 226 TURKEY. year 1864, the exports to Great Britain consisted of 1450 bales of cotton, 650 bales of rags, 4700 sacks of seeds, and 3000 bales of tobacco ; these, with the exception of an inconsiderable quantity of sundries to Marseilles and Trieste, constituting the entire foreign export trade of the port. It will be observed that during the whole period over which these returns extend, not a single quarter of grain was brought to Gallipoli for shipment ; any practicable indent on the coast being selected for the export of grain and other produce coming from the interior, in preference to incurring a liability for transit, incommensurate with the profit accruing on the merchandise. By the construction of roads into the interior, Gallipoli is capable of being raised to the rank of a first-rate port ; but, if the public works just indicated be much longer delayed, her decay into a mere coasting station wih 1 have become complete. Gmo, or Ghemlik, lat. 41 25' 0" N., Ion. 29 13' 0" E., at the head of the Gulf of Mundania, is considered as the port of Brussa. The town was destroyed by fire in the year 1856, afld has since been only partially rebuilt. Although the* roadstead is exposed to some of the pre- vailing winds, the anchorage is good, and there is sufficient depth of water, in a completely shel- tered bight, for vessels of large tonnage to discharge and load without much inconvenience. The Government have, moreover, a shipbuilding OHIO JAFFA. 227 establishment, of considerable size, at Ghio, which is also the regular port for steam communication with the capital. In the vicinity of the town, the culture of silk, olives, and grapes is extensively carried on. The yield of cocoons in 1863 being 142,000 okes, and of olives 2,800,000 okes, repre- senting a total value of 80,500. The manu- facture of salt is carried on in the neighbourhood, but the produce is stated to be so fine and deliques- cent as to be unfit for the olive salting, for which purpose salt has to be imported. The whole of the silk exported from Ghio goes to Constantinople. Nearly 2000 bales of 218 Ibs. each, valued at half a million sterling, having been so cleared in 1863, irrespective of cocoons. The only export to England being 2500 tons of chrome, valued at 18,000. In course of time, Ghio must become a place of considerable importance, owing to the capaciousness of its harbour and its proximity to Brussa. JAFFA, lat. 32 3' 4" N., Ion. 34 44' 0" E., the port of Jerusalem, is the entrepot for the whole of the southern portion of the Pashalic of Acre from Nablous to Hebron, including the Valley of the Jordan. The gigantic works now being carried on in the construction of the Suez Canal have greatly benefited Jaffa, between which and Port Said, a large and lucrative trade in provisions exists. The total exports for the year 1863, were estimated at 200,286, against 228 TUKKEY. 178,072 in that preceding; but there is an item of 14,800 in the return for 1863, for cattle exported, which has no counterpart in 1 862 ; thus leaving the value of the ordinary trade for the two years pretty evenly balanced. The exports of fruit were entirely directed to Turkish ports, and were valued at 12,000 ; of wheat the quantity exported was 22,000 qrs., worth 29,800, two-thirds of which were shipped to France. Of barley there were 24,000 qrs., value 14,700; two-thirds of the whole going to Great Britain ; of dari 14,000 qrs., value 10,500, nearly the whole for British ports; sesame seed 3 COO tons, value 66,700, prin- cipally to France ; olive oil 318 tons, value 15,000, in equal proportions to French and Turkish ports; soap 87 tons, value 3,200, entirely to Turkish ports. Cotton 524,354 Ibs., value 20,300, wholly to France; as was the case with wool weighing 106,000 Ibs., value 3000. Of colocynth the quantity was 2750 Ibs., valued at 46, entirely to Great Britain. Hides to Turkish ports and cattle bones to England, valued, the first at 200, and the second, at 400 ; and 50 tons of rags to Italy, valued at 230, com- plete the list. The value of the imports cannot be estimated even approximately, but it must be very considerable. The goods imported by the steamers of the Messageries Imperiales, in 1863, were valued at 40,000 ; by those of the Austrian Lloyd's, JAFFA. 229 49,000, and by those of the Russian Company, 35,000. In addition to which, the goods im- ported in British bottoms were estimated at 9000, and in Greek bottoms, 1200. The number of sailing vessels cleared with cargo in 18G3, was 99, of a total burden of 13,651 tons ; 25 sailing under the British flag, 24 French, 9 Italian, and 38 Greek. The number of steamers during the same period being 148, of which 48 belonged to the Messageries Imperiales, 46 to the Austrian Lloyd's, 49 to the Russian Company, 3 to the French Company Regis, 1 English and 1 Turkish. The coasting trade was conducted in 395 vessels of 12,000 tons burden. It will be seen from the foregoing, that the carrying trade for light and valuable merchandise is monopolized by the French, Austrian, and Rus- sian lines of steamers, to the almost total exclusion of British vessels. It is stated that the Govern- ment has sent a corp of engineers to survey and lay out a road between Jaffa and Jerusalem, and the improvement of the port is under the serious consideration of resident merchants. When these two objects are accomplished, the trade of Jaffa will greatly increase, as, in addition to the admitted fertility of the soil of southern Syria, the culti- vators are exceedingly enterprising, and the pro- duction of cotton may be expected to increase with better facilities for shipment, and the larger demand for the article which will consequently 230 TURKEY. ensue. The staple of the cotton shipped at Jaffa is good, but its effective ginning is as yet imperfectly understood. In this particular, however, the peasantry are improving year by year, and, as the profitable nature of the crop is thoroughly appreciated, an increasing quantity of clean cotton may be expected from this district. JANINA, lat. 39 47' 0" N.,lon. -20 55' 0" E., is the capital of Epirus, or Southern Albania. Of old, it was one of the most strongly fortified cities in Euro- pean Turkey, and is famous in Ottoman history, as the place where A'ali, at once the most ambitious and rebellious of the Sultan's lieutenants, for a considerable period held almost royal state. As long as the external trade of Epirus remained without stimulus, and previous to the demand for cotton from Western markets, Janina was the great trading centre of the province. In this respect, however, although still recognized as the seat of monetary exchange, it has for a lengthened period been steadily declining in favour of other places more conveniently situated. It is here that any banking institution, calculated to meet the requirements of the trading classes in Epirus, should be located. The city is in direct telegraphic communication with Arta and the port of Prevesa, and, when the roads of the province shall be put in a state of decent repair, so as to facilitate communication with the most fertile dis- JANINA. 231 tricts in the interior, Janina may be expected to recover some portion of her ancient prestige. The products of the province are grain, cotton, tobacco, silk, and wool. The country is well watered, and contains large tracts of the finest grass land in Albania. The principal cereals are Indian corn, barley, and oats ; the first, as regards breadth of land under cultivation, predominating. In the raising of good merchantable cotton, the farmers of Epirus have been very successful. Much judi- cious care has been bestowed on the culture of this staple, and with the most gratifying results. Of silk, the quantity produced is at times considerable ; but so precarious an industry is the rearing of the silkworm, that any community mainly relying on it for support, necessarily experiences considerable vicissitudes of fortune. In 1863, the total pro- duction in seed and silk was valued at 9580 against 2982 in 1864, the difference being caused by inclemency of weather. The wool exported from this province is mainly shipped to Trieste, on account of German Houses. In 1864, the entire clip, was estimated at 3,437,500 Ibs., two-thirds of which was retained for home consumption. The quantity just named is the average annual weight, and the quality is much esteemed in Germany. The whole province of Janina is ex- ceptionally fertile, the rural population is intel- ligent, and, were it not for the absence of transit facilities, there is no reason why the agricultural 232 TURKEY. produce of the district should not be largely in- creased. KUSTENDJIE, lat. 44 10' 15" N., Ion. 28 41' 25" B., is a port of Bulgaria, on the Black Sea, a little to the Eastward of Varna, and is one of the termini of the Danube and Black Sea Rail- way, which is' carried in almost a straight line from Kustendjie to Tchernavoda on the Danube, The object of this undertaking is to convey grain and other produce from the Danube to a port of ship- ment on the Black Sea, with the view of avoid- ing the dangerous navigation of the mouths of the river, and of effecting a material saving in the time occupied in transit, as well as in the freight of merchandise. Kustendjie was at one time a place of considerable importance, and, although the harbour, previous to the commencement of the present works had, from long disuse, become in- eligible as a port of entry, the extensive remains of protecting sea- works which are still visible, amply attest the consideration in which it was held at a former period. The Danube and Black Sea Rail- way Company started with the determination of making Tchernavoda a first-rate emporium for the receipt of grain on the Danube, as well as of convert- ing Kustendjie into a grain port, of the first rank, on the Black Sea ; and, although these enterprising efforts may not have been so far productive of the immediate success which was originally contem- plated, there can be no doubt whatever of the ulti- KUSTENDJIE 233 mate result. At present, the port is chiefly known in connection with the fast postal route by way of the Danube to Basiasch, and thence by railway, through Hungary, to Vienna. This route is, on account of the closing of the Danube during the winter season, only available throughout a portion of the year, but, while practicable, it attracts a large proportion of the through passenger traffic. When the new railway shall be completed from Varna to Rustchuk, it is apprehended that the prospects of the Kustendjie route will be seriously marred ; as the Varna line, in addition to traversing a larger extent of produce-bearing country, will strike the Danube at a point much higher up than its com- petitor, and consequently further removed from Ibraila and Gralatz, the great grain ports of the Principalities. Whether any damage will result to Kustendjie, from the connection of Varna with Rustchuk, remains to be seen. At present, the advantage of a completed line is with the Kustendjie Company, and, if they make good use of their opportunity, the Varna Company may find it a difficult matter to divert any portion of the trade which they may have secured. The number of vessels cleared out of the port of Kustendjie in the year 1864, was 283, with a gross burden of 118,680 tons, of which 88 ships of 48,500 tons were British. The total quantity of grain exported during the year was 576,444 quarters, three-fifths of which was the produce of 234 TURKEY". the Principalities, the remainder being the surplus production of the district. LAENACA, lat. 34 55' 2" N., Ion. 33 37' 7" E., is the principal port in the island of Cyprus. In addition to Larnaca, there are the subsidiary ports of Famagusta#ndLimasol, but, from them, the ex- ternal trade is so insignificant, that it will be more convenient to speak of the trade of Cyprus as pass- ing through Larnaca alone. Th number of foreign vessels entered in the year 1863, was 853, burden 110,339 tons, being a considerable increase on the return of the preceding year, the difference in favour of British shipping alone, being thirty ships of 7000 tons. The import trade of Cyprus is conducted, indirectly, through Turkish and Greek ports, so that it is difficult to estimate the value of the trade with any specified country ; but the export trade is more direct, and it is satisfactory to note an increase, in the total value, of 88,000 over that of 1862, chiefly due to an increased ex- port of cotton on English account. The only article in the production of which the Cypriotes excel is olive oil. Their wool is coarse, their madder-root uncertain in quality, and their grain small in quantity. The cultivation of carobs, or locust beans, is a speciality of the island, as many as 9000 tons having been exported in 1863. The trade between Larnaca and Turkish ports is large, but will in all probability be diminished in proportion to the rapidity of the increase in the MONASTIR PANORMA. 235 direct trade of the island with foreign coun- tries. MONASTIC lat. 41 V 0" N., Ion. 21 18' 0" E., is a large town in Roumelia, and the capital of one of the richest Pashalics in European Turkey. Durazzo, on the Adriatic, is the port of Monastir, but a considerable proportion of the merchandise, exported and imported, passes through Salonica. The internal trade of the town with Servia, Wal- lachia, and Roumelia is exceedingly large, prin- cipally in articles of ready-made clothing ; while its exports of grain, wool, and furs constitute so many important items in the trading statistics of Macedonia. The population of the Pashalic of Monastir is, all things considered, the most enterprising, both in commercial and manufacturing pursuits, of any in European Turkey ; and, if good roads were only made to Salonica and Durazzo, the wealth of the district would find better vent for its exercise in the cultivation of business rela- tions with foreign countries. PANORMA, lat. 41 19' 30" N., Ion. 27 56' 9"E., situated in a bight on the southern shore of the Sea of Marmora, is the port from which foreign exports of the Brussa district are prin- cipally shipped. The anchorage is well protected on the landward from southerly winds, but is open to those from the north-west and north-east, the latter, while blowing with any severity, rendering the port very insecure. The depth of water close 236 TURKEY. in shore ranges from nine to ten fathoms, and the harbour can accommodate about thirty sea-going vessels of moderate tonnage. In the year 1863, there were exported to Marseilles, in French and Greek ships, 38,550 Ibs. of cocoons, 800 Ibs. of filature silk, 448,000 Ibs. of wool, and 13,000 bushels of beans. To England, in British ships, 17,000 bushels of barley and 670 tons of valonia; to Italy and Trieste, in Italian and Greek ships, 51,000 bushels of grain ; and to Constantinople, for transhipment, 192,000 Ibs. cotton and 8280 Ibs. of opium. There were also cleared to Ottoman ports for internal consumption, 180,400 bushels of grain, 9550 bushels sesame, 110 tons valonia, 15,125 Ibs. common reel silk, 228,000 gallons wines and spirits, 130,000 sheep and lambs, together with a considerable quantity of salted olives. The native imports are soap and oil, of which there were 170 tons of the former, and 228 tons of the latter. PREVESA, lat.38 56' 2" N"., long. 20 44' 7" E., is situated on a promontory at the mouth of the Gulf of Arta, and may, without impropriety, be styled the port of Janina. The whole of the shipping passing through the straits of Prevesa into the Gulf of Arta is registered at this port, and, by a customs regulation, vessels, loading at some of the Ottoman and Greek ports in the Gulf, are cleared at Prevesa, although the number is not large. The total number of vessels entered in the first six months of 1864 was 640, viz., 347 Greek, 173 PKEVESA EHODES. 237 Ionian, 84 Ottoman, 34 Austrian (of which 26 were steamers), one Italian, and one British. The value of the cargoes was 29,750, the largest proportion of which, 15,000, being carried by the Austrian steamers. The value of the exports for the half-year was 30,496, and, considering that the first half of the year is always the lowest, on account of grain being only shipped between July and December, the amount is comparatively satis- factory. The entry to the port of Prevesa might be greatly improved, were the authorities only to take a little pains in buoying the channel on the bar. There are only fourteen feet of water in the channel which is ordinarily used, a depth that has hitherto proved sufficient for the craft fre- quenting the port, but there exists another channel, with eighteen feet of water, which was discovered by an English surveying party, and there may be others offering still greater advantages to the navigator. The object of the Government should be to make the port eligible for the entry of the largest class of vessels that can possibly enter, and, with that view, the harbour should be re- surveyed, and the deepest channels buoyed and laid down in the usual sailing charts. RHODES, lat. 36 26' 9" N., Ion. 28 16' 2" E , the capital of the island of the same name, is much frequented by vessels engaged in the direct and coasting trade, as well as by the boats employed in the sponge fishery 238 TURKEY. belonging to the small islands of the archipe- lago but resorting to Rhodes as a general rendezvous, and also by steamers as a coaling station. The total value of the exports from the island in 1863, from whatever source de- rived, was 158,400; of which 28,750 was allocated to Great Britain, 26,417 to France, 34,250 to Austria, 57,416 to Turkey, 8500 to Italy, 2750 to Egypt, and 317 to Greece. The agricultural produce of the island forms a very small proportion of the general exports grain, cotton, valonia, and madder-root are sent in small quantities to ports in Anatolia, whence they are exported to foreign countries- the sponge trade being the great staple of Rhodes ; this article representing at least three-fifths of the entire value of the exported merchandise. Sponges are classed as fine, common, and coarse; each of which is again divided into five qualities. The fishing stations are at Bengazi and Mandruha on the African coast; Syria, embracing the whole line of coast from Egypt to Alexandretta ; Cara- mania, comprising the district from Alexandretta to Castel Rosso; Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes, and the adjacent coast of Anatolia, the islands of the Archipelago, and Greece. The finest sponges, both as regards texture, colour, and form, are procured in the Mandruha district, which extends from Egypt to Cape Rassem ; and the worst, are the common sponges found on the south coast of RHODES. 239 the island of Cyprus. It is not a little singular, that no fine sponges are found in the vicinity of islands; being all obtained from the open coast fisheries of Africa, Syria, and Caramania. Sponges used to be sold from all the fisheries, except those of Mandruha and Bengazi, by weight, until a systematic fraud was discovered on the part of the divers, who loaded the sponges with sand in order to increase their value ; for a long time after this the merchants refused to purchase by weight ; but this system proving disadvantageous to the divers, the old practice is being again re- sorted to, under more careful supervision on the part of the buyers. The finest sponges, as regards size and form, are sent to Great Britain; the smaller sizes of the same sorts, to France and Italy; and the coarsest of ah 1 to Austria and Turkish ports. The total number of boats em- ployed in the sponge fishery in the year 1863, was 607 ; in the outfit of which a very considerable capital is invested. The imports of Rhodes in the year 1863, were valued at 152,000 ; only 2833 being allocated to Great Britain, and the large sum of 123,000 to Turkey. Like Cyprus, the import trade of Rhodes is indirect ; goods being shipped to ports on the mainland, and afterwards sent coastwise to the island. A large proportion of the imports from Great Britain are so treated, a fact which accounts for the disproportionate totals exhibited in the returns. The external 240 TURKEY. trade of Ehodes might be greatly increased if the landed proprietors so willed. Not long ago, the merchants were importing corn for home con- sumption, whereas they have now a surplus to send elsewhere; an observation which equally applies to other articles. More attention has been recently paid to agricultural pursuits than formerly, and, as a natural consequence, the wealth of the island is steadily increasing. Good cotton from American seed has been produced in well- sheltered situations, and an increasing breadth of land is being put under cultivation; but the island is too much exposed to high winds for cotton growing to become general. At present, the farmers are stimulated by the high prices which continue to rule. Let cotton, however, once more find its level in price, and it is questionable whether Ehodes will contribute a single bale to the general out-turn. SALONICA, lat. 40 38' 8" K, Ion. 22 57' 2" E., the principal port in Macedonia, is in import- ance the second in Roumelia. The greater portion of the imports for the populous towns with which Macedonia is studded, pass through Salonica, which is equally the port of shipment for the varied productions of the provinces. The exports consist of cotton, wool, silk, lambskins, oil seeds, and grain. The quantity of cotton exported in the year 1864, was 800,000 kilos., valued at 112,000 ; of wool, 90,000 kilos., valued at 8300 ; SALON1CA. 241 lambskins worth 3200 ; silk and cocoons, 44,000; oleaginous seeds, 8000 ; and grain, 12,000. The imports, consisting of manufactured goods and twist, were valued at 261,000 ; iron, 1060 tons; tin plates, 12,000 boxes; tin in ingots, 250 barrels ; alum, 200 barrels ; arsenic, 120 barrels ; copper, 250 tons; indigo, 45 casks; crushed sugar, 26,000 barrels ; coffee, 13,000 bags ; spirits of wine, 3000 barrels ; and a miscellaneous list, made up of carpets, coverlets, leather, etc. ; in addition to which the value of French wines and liqueurs is considerable. The quantity of grain exported from Salonica and the subports to ports in Great Britain, for the nine months from September, 1864, to June, 1865, was of wheat, 3500 imperial qrs. ; oats, no return available ; barley, 72,000 qrs. ; rye, 2700 qrs. ; Indian corn, 27,500 qrs. The principal part of the export trade of Salonica is carried on with Marseilles ; cotton, wool, and silk being sent thither almost without exception ; but, since the character of Macedonian cotton has become better known to English manufacturers, a disposition is evinced to open up a direct trade in Macedonian products in competition with Marseilles houses. The trade of Salonica with Mediterranean ports is very large ; cattle being exported to Egypt, grain to Italy, and assorted cargoes to Turkish ports in Roumelia and Ana- tolia. The whole of the country between Salonica, Monastir, and Seres, is exceedingly productive. 16 242 TURKEY. The Jenidge district is famous for the quality of its tobacco, northern Thessaly for its silk, and Seres for its grain. In the course of time the ports between Salonica and Gallipoli, such as Orphano, Cavalla, and Enos, must be greatly improved, in order to accommodate the local trade ; but, until that is done, Salonica will continue to monopolize the external commerce of Macedonia. SAMSOUN, lat. 41 18' 59" N., Ion. 36 21' 0" E., is, next to Trebizond, the principal port of Turkey on the Anatolian coast of the Black Sea. Considering the vast extent of territory in its rear, the trade of Samsoun is exceedingly small. The exports consist of grain, tobacco, metals, dried beef, a miscellaneous list of fruits, skins, tallow, and wax, and a few articles of native manufacture, including carpets. It is the port of entry for Sivas and the surrounding district, to which the bulk of the merchandise passing through Samsoun in reality belongs. The total value of goods and specie exported in the year 1861, was 516,429 against 510,182 in the preceding year. The imports being estimated at 450,613 against 451,858 for the same period, showing the trade to be in a stationary condition, as far as the merchandise carried in steam vessels was concerned. In the first six months of 1862, how- ever, there was a remarkable increase in the export of grain, that of wheat and barley being 24,712 quarters, against 28,939 quarters for the whole of SAMSOUN SCUTAEI. 243 the two years 1860 and 1861. The export of wheat has entirely arisen since the year 1859, and an annually increasing quantity is expected to be raised. As a counterpoise to the increase in the grain trade, a falling off in the cultivation of tobacco has been caused by the high rates of duty recently imposed; but it is expected that, in lieu of tobacco, an increased breadth of land will be sown with Indian corn the quantity of which has hitherto been both small and stationary, notwithstanding that there has always been a good demand for this description of grain for the English markets. When proper roads are constructed into the interior, Samsoun, despite the natural impediments in the way of its be- coming a first-rate port, may be expected to assume a high degree of prosperity. SCUTAEI (in Albania), lat. 42 1' 0" N., Ion. 19 28' 0" E., situated on the river Boyana, near the frontier of Montenegro, is the capital of an agricultural province in the north of Albania. The port is Antivari, from which it is not far distant ; but Durazzo, further south, is the most important seaport of the province. The Boyana is, in its present neglected state, an incon- siderable stream up which the smallest coasting craft can only go within ten miles Of Scutari. The consequence being that the whole of the merchandise, exported and imported, has to be conveyed between Antivari, Durazzo, and 244 TURKEY. Scutari on the backs of horses, a mode of transport which greatly enhances its value. The principal cereals are maize, wheat, and barley; but the arable lands are sparsely brought under cultivation by the agriculturists, owing to the impossibility of conveying the pro- duce to market. The production of silk was at one time a staple industry, but the disease among the worms has greatly reduced its importance. The present backward state of the province of Scutari is directly attributable to the want of practicable roads. It is lamentable to see a fine country, in the possession of good harbours, well watered by improvable streams, kept in a state of stagnant decay, simply for the want even of tracks over which a team of bullocks could draw a wheeled conveyance. Within one day's journey of its seaport, the imported articles of necessity are dearer at Scutari than at any other city similarly situated in Albania a fact which does not say much for the enterprise of its inhabitants. SMYRNA, lat. 38 26' 5" N., Ion. 27 9' 7" E., is the principal port of Anatolia, on the Mediterranean. The harbour is spacious and thoroughly protected. The navigable channel at the entrance of the port is greatly narrowed by the silt of the Sarabat, which discharges into the north side of the bay ; but, although only half a mile wide, it is well buoyed and perfectly safe. The town is situated at the head of the bay, and SMYRNA. 245 there is deep water alongside the wharves, which in the absence of serviceable quays, is of great convenience to shippers. Smyrna, always a thriving place, has of late years been steadily in- creasing, both as regards population and trade. The surrounding district is the most highly cultivated of any in the Ottoman Empire, and the town enjoys the distinction of being the only place in Turkey containing the termini of two railways, one to Cassaba and the other to Aidin. As showing the increasing prosperity of the port, the revenue which in 1861-2, was only 145,000, was in 1863-4, 342,000; the imports and exports for the latter year being 8,563,502, an amount greatly in excess of any former state- ment. The exports for the year 1863-4, in the order of their gross value, were cotton, fruit, valonia, drugs, wool, silk, seeds, lamb skins, sponges, gum, galls, grain, wine, carpets, tobacco, olive oil, and miscellaneous, such as rags, emery, and liquorice, valued at 4,832,979 ; of which more than one half, or 2,857,520, was the value of the exports to Great Britain alone. During the same period, the imports from Great Britain only amounted to 806,831, out of 3,730,523, the gross value of the imports for the year. There is a large trade carried on with Smyrna, in fruits, by the United States of America, as well as by France, Austria, and Holland ; but, as has been shown, England is the great market for the bulk 246 TUKKEY. of her produce. The opium and madder roots of Smyrna are unsurpassed in quality, and some of the land, especially in the Magnesia district, is capable of producing very superior cotton. If the interior were only accessible in a greater degree than at present for the transport of pro- duce, the commercial importance of the town would be greatly increased. Much is expected in this direction, from the two lines of railway now in course of construction ; but at the best, they can only carry the produce of a limited district. In the present state of the country, a few good waggon roads would meet the case in a much more effectual way not to mention the canalization of the Sarabat, with which it would be impossible for any railway to compete in the carriage of mer- chandise. The Smyrniotes should remember that each decade, as a rule, witnesses a fall in the value of produce. No sooner does any article come into general use and consequent demand, than new fields of production are sought, with the ultimate certainty of reducing the level of prices. The industrial arts are becoming every year more advanced in the economic uses of expensive aids, and it is consequently time that the people of Smyrna should be looking to their means of transport, with the view of lessening the cost of produce in their market. For example, it is to the value of the alkaloid morphia in the Smyrna opium that that drug owes its high market value ; TREBIZOND. 247 and it is to the high percentage of tannin in her valonia, and of colouring matter in her madder roots, that these articles owe their preferential position in foreign estimation. It is obvious that a single discovery in applied chemistry, which may be hourly made in any of the thousands of laboratories in Western Europe or America, might have the effect of reducing the value of one or all of these articles just enumerated an event which would most seriously disturb the equanimity of the merchant princes of Smyrna, who have not as yet seriously learned the meaning of the word competition. In such an event, good roads would acquire some value in their eyes, and the canali- zation of their river would be an object worth attempting. It is possible that the day of such a change in the value of their special produce may not be far distant; and the merchants of Smyrna would do well to contemplate such an eventuality, by enterprise in works of local and general improvement, calculated among other things to lessen the cost of carriage from the interior to the port. TREBIZOND, lat. 41 1' 0" N., Ion. 39 46' 0" E., is, with the exception of Batoum, the most easterly port of Turkey on the Asiatic coast of the Black Sea. Notwithstanding that the Pashalic is of considerable extent, and the country capable of almost anything in the way of production, the trade is principally composed of goods in transit 248 TURKEY. to and from Persia, and the interior. The pro- ducts of the Trebizond district are chiefly agricul- tural, and are mainly confined to cereals. The manufactures, with the exception of the fine linens produced at Rizeh, not being worth enumeration. VARNA, lat. 43 12' 17" N., Ion. 27 56' 31" E., is a port of Bulgaria on the Black Sea, but, not- withstanding the importance of its position as a place of shipment for grain and other descriptions of produce to Western Europe, it is little better than a coasting station between the Bosphorus and the Danube. The works now in progress a railway to Rustchuk, and harbour improvements will, when completed, entirely alter the aspect of the town, by attracting vessels of heavier tonnage than can at present venture into the road- stead. The total number of vessels cleared from the port in the year 1864 was 621, with a tonnage of 169,913 ; coasting craft, and the steamers of the Austrian Lloyd's, and Messageries Imperiales, constituting a large proportion of the clearances ; only four British sailing vessels having entered during the whole year. The value of the exports, which in 1859were348,515, had increased in 1864 to 702,704, the same rates of increase being ob- servable in the imports, which from 259,394 in 1859, had risen to 496,800 in 1864. The exports mainly consist of grain, cattle, wool, and farm produce, the latter being made up of poultry and dairy produce for the Constantinople market. The VAENA VOLO. 249 wool is principally exported to France, and of this article, 15,000 cwts. were entered outwards in 1864. Although the declared value of the imports and exports has doubled between the years 1859 and 1864, the number of vessels cleared in the former year was rather more, both as regards keels and tonnage, than in the latter, the average rela- tive tonnage remaining the same ; a statement which is not sufficiently explained by the higher rates current for all descriptions of grain in 1859 than could be obtained in 1864. An unsuccessful attempt has been made at the cultivation of cotton in the neighbourhood of Varna. The atmospheric conditions are not favourable to the growth of the plant ; the season for sowing and picking being too cold for the proper starting of the seed on the one hand, and the maturing of the pod on the other. The periodical closing of the Danube to navigation, renders the completion of the railway and harbour works a matter of the greatest im- portance, not only to the resident traders, but also to foreign merchants interested in Bulgarian produce. VOLO, lat. 39 24' 0" N., Ion. 22 56' 5" E., is the port of Thessaly, and is situated at the head of a well-protected bay on the southern coast of the province. The harbour is entered by the Strait of Trikeri, and, notwithstanding the intricate character of the navigation, the approaches are insufficiently lighted. The port is regularly en- 250 TURKEY . tered by steamers belonging to the French, Aus- trian, Greek, and Turkish lines, but the export trade is exceedingly small when the extent and fertility of the country, of which Volo is the natural port, are considered. The fact is, that owing to the want of good roads for the transport of merchandise, the town is cut off from all effective communication with the inland towns and produce- bearing districts. Telegraphic intercourse with Pharsala, Larissa, and Salonica it has, and even a railway to Larissa is spoken of, but, at the risk of being tedious, we would repeat that a good road branching into the country in the rear, would be of more service to Yolo than any railway could possibly become for a long series of years. The number of vessels entered and cleared in the year 1864 differs in no material degree from that of 1863, being 482 vessels of 72,667 tons entered, and 379 vessels of 45,238 tons cleared ; the greater pro- portion of the ships being navigated under the Greek and Ottoman flags. The gross value of the imports in 1864, was 120,000, against 100,000 in each of the two preceding years. They consist principally of Manchester and Bradford goods, hardware and colonials. The chief products of Thessaly are cereals, sesame seed, tobacco, olive oil, and cotton. With the exception of tobacco and olive oil, the production of which in 1862 was very large, the annual quantities of the other articles enumerated has increased. In 1864, the VOLO. 251 leading produce was estimated as follows : Wheat, 205,700 qrs. ; barley, 91,430 qrs. ; rye, 22,582 qrs. ; Indian corn, 57,144 qrs. ; sesame seed, 5715 qrs. ; tobacco, 4,125,000 Ibs. ; olive oil, 60,000 gals. ; cotton, 1,650,000 Ibs. The produc- tion of silk in 1864 was exceedingly small, owing to the prevalent disease ; the weight of cocoons being only 165,000 Ibs., and of seed 825 Ibs., against 302,500 Ibs. of cocoons, and 1375 Ibs. of seed in 1863. The wools of Thessaly are mainly sold for French account, but the weight and quality of the clip have been lessened for several years by disease in the flocks. In 1862, the weight was 1,375,000 Ibs., in 1863, 1,100,000, and 1864, 1,237,500 ; the increase since 1863, arising from the disappearance of the cattle disease. A variety of fruits and wine are shipped coastwise for con- sumption in the islands and places adjacent, but Volo does not absorb much of this trade. The province of Thessaly would appear to be well adapted for cotton cultivation, and great care has been bestowed on the rearing of the plant by the agriculturists ; but something infelicitous has hitherto always occurred to mar their best endea- vours. At one time hot dry winds, such as are frequently met with on the African Continent, sweep over the young plant, withering the buds, and at another, torrents of rain rush down the mountain slopes, devastating as they go ; but in spite of such discouragements the quantity of 252 TdEKEY. cotton sent to market is very creditable. Much care is bestowed on the ginning process, and the character of Thessalian cotton consequently stands high. The whole of the province is exceedingly fertile, and if only ways and means could be pro- vided for the carriage of produce, the annual yield of every variety could be increased tenfold CHAPTER VI. The Suzerain Provinces : Moldo-Wallachia Servia. IN the preceding chapters of this work, attention has been mainly directed to Turkey proper, or, in other words, the territories immediately under the government of the Sultan; but the subject would be incomplete were not some notice taken of the suzerain provinces Roumania and Servia. In strict parlance, Egypt should be included in the same category ; but the field is so large, and its political and commercial importance so con- siderable, as to justify a separate and extended review. Wallachia and Moldavia were, until the joint election of Prince Couza in the year 1862, separate principalities in everything appertaining to self-government. Since that time, the name of Roumania has been assumed for both provinces, their official designation being Principatelor- Unite- Roumane. Wallachia, on the Moldavian fron- tier, is bounded by the rivers Milcow and Putna ; the former province is frequently described as Roumania- cis-Milcow, Moldavia being similarly known as Roumania-trans-Milcow. Both pro- 254 TURKEY. vinces, however, are better known by the old names of Wallachia and Moldavia, or, conjointly, as the United Danubian Principalities. Servia is a principality of minor importance in comparison with either Wallachia or Moldavia. With a weak Government, a fluctuating and non-industrial population, and a trade of the most contracted dimensions, the province de- mands, however, a certain amount of attention on account of its geographical position ; the boundaries being Austria, Bosnia, Roumelia, Bulgaria, and the Danube. Like Roumania, Servia is tributary to the Porte, and exists as a separate Government under the guarantee of the great Powers. WALLACHIA. This principality is bounded in a southerly direction by the Danube, northerly by the Banat and Transylvania, and easterly by the Milcow, which separates it from Moldavia. The area of Wallachia is 27,500 square miles, with a popula- tion, according to the last census, of 2,500,000. For administrative purposes it is divided into seventeen districts viz., Jalomitza, of which the chief town is Calarush; Dolju, Crajova ; Braila, Ibraila ; Mehedinti, Turnu Severin ; Buzeo, Buzeo ; Prahova, Ploesti; Argesu, Pitesti; Ilfov, Bucha- rest ; Romanatza, Caracal ; Vlasca, Giurgevo ; Dimbovitza, Tirgovist ; Teleorman, Turnu Magu- rele ; Oltu, Slatina ; Rimnic Sarat, Eimnic ; WALLACHIA. 255 Gorgu, Tirgu Jin; Yilcea, Rimnic Vilcea; and Muscalu, the principal town in which is Campu- lungo. The foregoing districts have been enume- rated in the order of their importance as regards superficial area, a weighty consideration in an agri- cultural country. The district of Ilfov, which is eighth in the list in respect of area, would be first was the order of the districts regulated by popu- lation ; a circumstance which is accounted for in some measure by the chief town being the seat of Government. If the total area of this province were divided by the number of separate properties or estates into which it is partitioned, the result would give 90 acres to each estate ; but as the maximum size of large estates, more particularly in the plains, is 30,000 acres, and the minimum 200 acres, it follows that the number of small hold- ings in the districts furthest removed from the Danube must be very large. In Gorgu, for instance, with a population of 146,000, and an area of 51 German square miles, there are no less than 20,401 separate estates, or one to every seven of the population ; while in Braila, with a population of 66,500, and an area of 108 Ger- man square miles, there are only 85 separate properties, strongly illustrating the proposition that, in an agricultural country, accessibility to an outlet for produce is inimical to the existence of a class of peasant proprietors. As regards the means of internal transit, Wai- 256 TURKEY. lachia is in as backward a state as any of the pro- vinces which have been previously mentioned. From Giurgevo to Bucharest there is a tolerably good road, branching from thence in a north- westerly direction, through Pitesty and Argis, to Hermanstadt, in Transylvania, and in a northerly direction, through Tergovista, to Kronstadt ; but with these exceptions, the roads mostly consist of natural tracks, available for the carriage of produce only in the fine seasons of the year. One of these tracks leaves Bucharest in an easterly direction, and joins the north road from Jalomitza, atZilawa; from which place it branches in a northerly direction, through Ploesti, into Transylvania, and easterly, through Buzeo, Rimnic, and Folsiani, into Mol- davia. Another connects Jalomitza with Ibraila. There is also one which traverses the valley of the Olt from Torna to Hermanstadt, a branch from which goes in a westerly line from Slatina, through Crajova, to New Orsava, on the Danube ; but to call any of these, roads, in the ordinary accepta- tion of the term, would be a misnomer ; they are simply primitive lines of communication, and nothing more. The river systems of the province are good if only properly utilized. Running from the Carpathians to the Danube, there are the Zyos, with its numerous tributaries, the Olt, the Argis, and the Pracova. Apart from which, as natural lines of transit, the configuration of the country is admirably adapted for the construction of inex- WALLACHIA. 257 pensive tramroads ; but there is little likelihood of anything being done which would be so im- mediately serviceable to the country, as long as the Government lends countenance to the host of speculators by whom every official avenue at Bucharest is invested, with the view of obtaining concessions for expensive lines of railway, which in the nature of things can only prove remunera- tive at a period far removed from the present time. A Government guarantee of 6^ per cent, has not yet proved sufficient to tempt contractors to under- take the immense network of railways for which a concession was granted in 1864. It is just pos- sible that a short line of railway, connecting Ibraila with one or two contiguous centres of production, might prove a good speculation, notwithstanding the necessarily heavy cost of construction ; but, as regards tramways, there can be no doubt, what- ever, that their extensive use would prove highly remunerative to the capitalists by whom they were put down, and at the same time prepare the way for the introduction of more costly railways. The total acreage of Wallachia is 13,154,457 acres, of which 4,760,190 acres were under seed in the fall and spring of 1862-3, the breadth of land under each description of produce being esti- mated as follows : Maize, 2,339,316 acres ; wheat, 1,422,668 ; barley, 534,647 ; millet, 232,020 ; oats, 76,612; beans and lentils, 69,712; rye, 47,724; rape, 20,892; tobacco, 14,209; and 17 258 TUKKEY. potatoes, 2,390. The quantity of produce in the year 1863 being : In quarters : Maize, 3,783,026 ; wheat, 2,460,390; barley, 961,985; millet, 279,557; oats, 127,312; rye, 77,457; rape, 26,250; and buck wheat, 5,862. In hundredweights : Beans and lentils, 291,771 ; potatoes, 19,501 ; hemp, 12,328 ; and flax, 1,197. In pounds : Tobacco, 4,919,903 ; silk cocoons, 316,293 ; and silk- worm seed, 168,435. In imperial gallons : Wine, 15,591,357; prunes, 11,142,335. It will be ob- served that one- third of the total area of the pro- vince is under active cultivation, principally with cereals, the only exception of any consequence being tobacco, the quality of which is quite up to a good average. The production of flax is small, but could be almost indefinitely increased were a commensurate demand to arise for the article. The great staple, however, is corn, the annual growth of which for export might be doubled, without any difficulty, if an efficient system of transit to the shipping ports were only organized. MOLDAVIA. This principality is bounded on the north and west by Austria and Wallachia, and on the east and south by Poland and Bessarabia. The old boundary line, on the Russian side, was the River Pruth, but, by the Treaty of Paris, a portion of Bessarabia was ceded to Moldavia. The area of Moldavia is 18,142 square miles, with a popula- MOLDAVIA. 259 tion of 1,463,927, and is divided into thirteen dis- tricts viz., Suceava, the chief town of which is Suceava ; Bacau, Bacau ; Jassy, Jassy ; Covurlu, Galatz ; Neamtsu, Neamtsu ; Vaslui, Vaslui ; Fal- ciu, Falciu; Putna, FocJcshani ; Tutova, Berlad ; Dorohoi, Dorohoi ; Tecuci, Tecuci ; Eoman, Roman ; and Botosani, the principal place in which is Botosani, the town from which the district derives its name. The administrative divisions in Bessa- rabia are Cahul, Bolgrad, and Ismail. The total area of this recent addition to the principality being only 222 German square miles. For the purposes of government, Moldavia is much more equally divided than the sister province, Wallachia. Although the distribution of population in the two principalities is relatively similar in respect of numbers, the population of the northern half of the province predominates over that of the southern ; the figures, according to the last census, being as follow : In the district of Jassy, 148,795 ; Botosani, 121,251 ; Dorohoi, 103,671 ; Suceava, 96,224 ; Neamtsu, 114,065 ; Roman, 86,139; Bacau, 139,009; Tutova, 84,864; or a total of 894,018 for the north. In the district of Tecuci the numbers were92, 255; Putna, 104, 156; Falciu, 71,195; Vaslui, 88,328; and Covurlu, 75,454 equal to 431,388 for the southern division, exclusive of Bessarabia, the population of which is estimated at 138,521. Like Wallachia, Moldavia is destitute of 260 TUBKET. decent roads, either for the transport of pas- sengers or merchandise. The principal track is that which, passing from Fockshani to Tecuci, traverses the eastern side of the province by Vaslui and Jassy, and crosses the frontier into Russian Poland at Lipozane ; such an important town, for instance, as Roman, situated on a fork of the Siret with the Moldava, having no adequate means of communication with Jassy and the other large towns in the northern districts. The rivers of Moldavia are few, but the importance of the prin- cipal streams compensates for paucity of number. The Pruth, which takes its rise in the Carpathians, is the natural boundary of Moldavia proper on the east and south, while the Siret, with its tribu- taries, waters the central and western districts. The configuration of the country considered, Mol- davia stands in greater need of effective transit to the Danube than Wallachia. The southern divi- sion of the principality gradually narrows to a point between the Pruth and the Siret, on which Galatz is situated, thus making the carriage of grain and other produce from the northern districts a matter of very serious moment. As in Wallachia, railways have been projected to meet the difficulties of in- land transit, but with greater show of reason, as a junction might be effected with the Gallician lines on the northern frontier ; common roads, however, which would really benefit the country, are never thought of, or, at all events, meet with no consi- MOLDAVIA. 261 deration, as their construction would not involve an outlay of capital sufficiently large to remune- rate the capitalists whose business it is to deal with considerable public works. The total acreage of Moldavia is 8,671,876, of which 2,547,911 acres, or thereabouts, are under cultivation ; the number of acres devoted to each crop in the year 1863 being as follows : Maize, 1,628,300; wheat, 854,700; barley, 321,700; rye, 155,500 ; oats, 96,300 ; millet, 45,400 ; beans and lentils, 23,200 ; potatoes, 17,200 ; tobacco, 3,200 ; and rape, 2,400. The quantity of produce being : In quarters : Maize, 2,482,153 ; wheat, 1,543,978; barley, 638,341; rye, 296,378; oats, 189,796; millet, 49,046; rape, 3,090; and buck wheat, 1,106. In hundredweights : Potatoes, 342,969; beans, etc., 134,051; hemp, 24,543; and flax, 6,882. In pounds : Tobacco, 1,977,229 ; cocoons, 28,426 ; and silk-worm seed, 326. In gallons : Wine, 8,802,490 ; and prunes, 166,046. From the foregoing figures it would appear that a greater quantity of maize per acre was produced in Moldavia than in Wallachia, whilst four times the quantity of land was sown with rye, and eight times the quantity planted with potatoes. In oats, there is also a preponderance ; but as regards the ratio of production per acre, with the exception of maize, the difference is not worthy of notice. Apart from the agricultural capabilities of the 262 TTJKKEY. Principalities, their mineral resources, with one or two exceptions, remain undeveloped. It is known that coal, iron, and lead exist in the Carpathian range; that gold is obtained from working the drift in the mountain torrents ; and that, having regard to geological facts, quicksilver should be found. Salt is the only mineral, however, which is worked, the other excepted substance being petroleum, which may be more correctly described as a mineral pro- duct. As in Turkey proper, salt, in the Princi- palities, is a Government monopoly. The mines at present in work are four in number, three being situated in "Wallachia, and one in Moldavia. The gross yield in the year 1862, was 63,391 tons ; of which 27,282 tons were sold for home consump- tion, and 18,750 tons for exportation through the ports of Galatz, Pichetto, Giurgevo, and Oltenitza. The expenses of administration and working the mines, for the same year, 'were stated as 21,744, and the sum realized on sales as 111,847, leaving a nett balance to the credit of the revenue of 90,103. The policy of retaining salt as a Government monopoly has already been sufficiently discussed in another place, and there is, therefore, no necessity for raising the question here. It might however, be to the interest of all parties if, while the State retained the right of property in the mines, their working and commercial management should be entrusted to private enterprise. The price charged on salt for consumption within the Prin- PETROLEUM IN THE PRINCIPALITIES. 263 cipalities viz., 20 paras per 100 okes is not excessive ; but the export trade might be greatly stimulated, if the value of the article was made solely to depend on the operation of the laws of supply and demand. Although the existence of petroleum in the Principalities has been long known, and the article used for lighting purposes in some of the Wal- lachian villages ; it does not seem to have occurred to the mind of any practical person that the liquid hydro-carbon, which oozed into the surface wells at Ploesti, might be obtained, in very much larger quantities, by the aid of deep boring machinery. The startling results, both financial and material, which ha,ve accrued from the discovery of petroleum in the United States and in Canada, are too well known to need recapitulation. Instead of being confined, as was at first supposed, to a single district, petroleum has been demonstrated to exist in so large an area, as to justify the belief that no country in the world is destitute of this valuable natural product. In America, the trade has assumed gigantic proportions, and in Canada, the business is extending with astonishing rapidity. In Eng- land, Germany, the islands of the Ottoman Archi- pelago, and in Syria, earth oil has either been found in abundance or is known to exist, and, in all probability, it will be discovered in Russia, Persia, India, and China ; but there is no country in the old world which has been so plainly proved 264 TUEKEY. to be a land flowing with petroleum as the United Principalities of Roumania. Over the whole of the valleys of the Carpathians it oozes through the soil, pollutes the water springs, and offends the nostrils. Associated capital has been brought to bear on its extraction and export, but, strangely enough, the mechanical appliances, by which alone success has been achieved in other countries, are only at this moment being introduced in Wal- lachia. Ignoring the experience of others, the Roumanian petroleum companies have been con- tent to adopt the primitive mode of collection in vogue with the peasantry, by making excavations in the soil, into which, the oil, saturating the surrounding strata, could flow. By this means large quantities of petroleum have been obtained ; but the continual necessity for making fresh holes or wells with risk of the surrounding land turn- ing out to be unproductive not proving con- ducive to profitable commercial working on a large scale, attention is now being, almost exclu- sively, directed to deep boring, with every indica- tion of success. The value of petroleum, to such a country as Turkey, cannot well be over-estimated, as the demand for the article is steadily increasing, and the knowledge of its uses is daily extending. Burning spirits and lubricating oil have heretofore been the principal products of distillation, but a new use seems likely to be found for crude petro- PETROLEUM IN THE PRINCIPALITIES. 265 leum as a steam fuel. In America, it has sup- planted coal in some manufacturing establishments, while the Governments both of the United States and Great Britain have been experimenting, with the view of determining its relative superiority over coal, in war vessels. The results of the trials, with a specially-constructed furnace and a porous vehicle for the oil, at Woolwich Dockyard, are said to be very satisfactory ; one pound of oil evaporating thirteen pounds of water, with a gain of something like forty per cent, in the power of the engine. The advantages claimed for petroleum, as a steam fuel, are cheapness as a generator, economy of space for stowage, and greater simplicity in the arrangement of the furnace. It is need- less to say that every one of these propositions is combated by some scientific men on theoretical grounds ; but, even assuming that the experiments directed by the British Government have proved as satisfactory as is stated, it does not necessarily follow that petroleum could supersede coal in a country where the latter mineral is plentiful, and the former article scarce. In a country like Turkey, however, where the coal measures are undeveloped, and steam fuel has to be imported, the value of a large supply of native petroleum is of the highest possible kind. In the Principalities of Wallachia and Mol- davia, there are about 7,000 flour mills, only thirty of which are worked by steam, and the 266 TURKEY. remainder by water, wind, horses, and oxen. There are also 1,687 distilleries ; 608 saw-mills, only one of which is worked by steam ; 72 breweries ; 145 soap and candle manufactories ; besides oil mills, etc., most of which require power in the different manufacturing processes. To such a country, the possession of an abundant supply of native petroleum is obviously of the very highest importance. The increase of- wealth which would result from the substitution of steam for water and wind as motors in Roumania would be difficult to calculate. The advantages claimed for water as a motor are, in the majority of cases, more apparent than real. The situations are few, indeed, where a steady supply of water can be relied upon during the whole year, undisturbed by either floods or droughts ; and they are fewer still where an ex- traordinary run of water can be carried off without interfering with the driving machinery. If, there- fore, the uncertainty of being able to work, through the operation of the two causes named, be consi- dered, and the average expense of sustaining the banks of streams, and maintaining the walls of reservoirs and sluices, be taken into account in comparison with cheap steam, which can be gene- rated at will and maintained during pleasure there cannot be a doubt, if judged by the necessities of modern trade, that steam is the most economical of the two. The subject is not unworthy the attention of the Government of Prince Couza, and TRADE OF THE PRINCIPALITIES. 267 deserves the best consideration of the scientific officers of the Porte. The external trade of the Principalities is greatly interfered with by the freezing of the Danube, which is generally closed during two or three months of the year. Galatz and Ibraila are the principal ports for the shipment of grain and other produce, the latter being situated only a few miles above the former. A few ships load in the harbour of Sulina, but Ibraila and Galatz are generally recognized as the Danube ports. The official value of the exports for the year 1863 was 4,527,889, those to Great Britain being only stated at 342,744; but as a large proportion of the exports, declared for Constantinople, were designed for England, the value would thus be considerably increased. The imports for the same period were valued, ad valorem, at 2,572,435 ; but the designation of the countries from which they came is no reliable guide, as a large quan- tity both of British and French manufactures, passing through Austria, in transit, are entered as from that country. It is curious to note the determined efforts which are rendered neces- sary on the part of manufacturers and traders, in order to keep pace with modern competition. For example, England has obtained a just cele- brity for the variety and efficiency of her agri- cultural implements, and as the vast corn-growing countries east and west of the Danube require a 268 TUKKEY. large supply, an eminent firm of English engineers have established a manufactory at Vienna under the direction of one of the partners, where all implements intended for the east of Europe are manufactured, to the manifest convenience of the purchaser, and at a considerable saving of trans- port charges. The number of vessels cleared from the Danube in 1863, was 3,099, of a gross burden of 519,332 tons ; among which, there were only four British sailing vessels over 500 tons, and eighteen steamers of the same size. The steam-packets to the Danube ports sail under the flags of Austria, France, and Russia ; Greece, however, has the preponderance both in number and tonnage of sailing craft. SERVIA. The principality of Servia is an unfortunate example of a province, erected into an independent state under guarantee of the European Powers, making abortive experiments in the science of Government, with a population indisposed either to agricultural, industrial, or mercantile pursuits. Bounded on the north, by the rivers Save and Danube, on the east, by Bulgaria, on the south, by Roumelia, and on the west, by Bosnia and Slavonia, the geographical situation is one of the best that could possibly be desired. The configuration of the country is undulating, sur- SERVIA.. 269 rounded by high ranges of mountains on every side, east, west, and south. The climate is variable, the heat being, generally, very great in summer, and the cold, very severe in winter, it being not at all un- usual for the thermometer to register three degrees below zero, Fahr. The principal rivers are the Danube, the Save, the Drin, the Morava, and the Timok, but there are a number of inferior streams, unimportant as regards their size, and in capable of utilization for the purposes of navigation. The area of the principality is 21,000 square miles, with a population of 1,080,000. For adminis- trative purposes it is divided into 19 districts, 60 cantons, and 1,059 communes ; the seat of Go- vernment being at Belgrade, a fortress jutting into the Danube, at the junction of that river with the Save. Previous to the year 1861, the revenue of Ser- via amounted to 250,000, of which 200,000 was the result of an assessment in the nature of a poll-tax, the remaining 50,000 being derived from imposts on trade. On the occasion of any extraordinary expenditure, the custom was to levy forced contributions from the people wherewith to provide the funds a course which, though pro- ductive of a good deal of dissatisfaction, was quietly submitted to so long as the calls were not either frequent or heavy. How long the modest sum of 250,000 a year might have sufficed for the wants of the Servian Government if they had 270 TUEKEY. held the even tenor of their way, it would be impossible to guess ; but the probability is, that the status quo would not even yet have been disturbed, had the Servians not discovered that, as a nation, they were without a specialty. Not being a trading people, nor an agricultural people, in the sense of supplying more than domestic wants, they must needs be a military people ; and consequently in the year 1863, or thereabouts, a militia was enrolled, equipped, and drilled at an expense which sorely tried the temper of the non-military members of the body politic. The primitive simplicity of Servian finance having departed, the occasion arose for laying an annual budget of expenditure and revenue before the Skupstchina, or National Assembly ; and as the details of a Servian financial statement may serve to throw some light on the condition of the people, that for the year 1864 has been selected by way of illustration. The account is balanced by a total of 408,124, the EXPENDITURE being stated as follows : Civil list of the Prince, 20,000; tribute to the Porte, 10,600; subsidy to the Patriarch at Constantinople, 39 ; expenses of the Skupstchina, 500 ; expenses of the Senate, 8140 ; extra pay to President of Council, 100 ; pensions to senators, ministers, etc., 667 ; pensions to other employes, 550 ; advancement of salaries of employes, 500 ; un- foreseen contingencies, 2000 ; additional con- tingencies, 5000 ; salary of the secretary of the SERVIAN BUDGET. 271 Prince, 240 ; Accountant- General, 4192 ; pen- sions and subsidies, 14,287 ; justice, 45,021 ; public worship and instruction, 34,748; foreign affairs, 10,975; home department, 89,086; finance, 21,090; war, 117,889; and public works, 13,500. The REVENUE is stated as follows : Tithe and revenue in kind, 667 ; rents of state lands, 5833 ; interest of money lent on mortgage, 333 ; state printing office, 2833 ; state farm at Topchederia, and sale of horses, 500; post-office, 2833; telegraph, 2500; administration of justice, 4666 ; poll-tax, 211,817 ; customs, 58,333; tribunals, 13,333 ; auctions, quarantines, etc., 5917 ; forests, 416 ; money advanced on mortgage, returned, 10,000 ; agio on foreign currency, 2500 ; intestate pro- perty, 416 ; stray cattle, 433 ; fines, 500 ; unforeseen contingencies, 30,000 ; school funds, 17,056 ; deficit, 37,238. In the construction of the foregoing budget, much ingenuity must have been expended by the Minister of Finance. The very insignificance of some of the items evidences a desire, on his part, to drag every fish, however small, into the financial net ; but notwithstanding the anticipation of every possible shilling in the shape of revenue, the undue increase of income from recognized sources, and the fruits of imagination under the quaint designation of unforeseen contingencies, the deficit is so large, as to be out of all proportion to the 272 TUEKEY. grand total. In the year 1863, when the gross ex- penditure was estimated at 497,164, the revenue was augmented by a sum of 190,833, derived from an extraordinary poll-tax of two ducats, equal to about one pound sterling per head ; but as the reimposition of this obnoxious tax was practically impossible in 1864, other expedients of a less justifiable character were resorted to in order, in some measure, to balance the .accounts. Thus the item of tithes and revenue in kind, which in 1863, was put down at 333, was estimated in 1864, at 667. In like manner, the rent of State lands was swelled from 3333 to 5833 ; telegraph from 1666 to 2500 ; administration of justice from 3500 to 4666; customs from 40,000 to 58,333 ; and tribunals from 8333 to 13,333 ; whilst forests, agio on foreign currency, intestate property, stray cattle, fines and school funds, are fresh items imported into the budget of 1864. That a country which only derives about 50,000 per annum from a customs' duty of 3 per cent, on its export and import trade ; which only pos- sesses a population equal to one-third that of the English metropolis ; and which exists politically under the collective guarantee of the European powers, should expend 118,000 per annum on a department of war, 45,000 on the administra- tion of justice, and upwards of 110,000 on the executive management of its internal affairs, seems little short of an absurdity; whilst the vicious SERVIAN JUDICIAL STATISTICS. 273 plan of simulating revenue, instead of plainly avowing a deficit, is in the last degree reprehen- sible. The deficit stated is only 37,238, whereas it would be nearer 120,000 if the accounts were critically examined ; the large item of 30,000, for unforeseen contingencies, being simply an amount likewise deficient, the same being the case with the school funds, which the Government administer in trust. At present, various fiscal experiments are being tried in order to increase the revenue a plan in which there may be wisdom ; but truer statesmanship would be displayed in cutting down useless and mischievous expenditure. It has been seen that the administration of justice costs the Servians about 45,000 a year an amount which, when considered in relation to the population, seems greatly in excess of that which obtains in other countries ; but when the judicial statistics come to be considered, it is evident that some of the dispensers of public justice can have no sinecure of office. In Servia, as in all parts of the Ottoman dominions, the privileges of foreigners are based on the capitula- tions with the Porte ; but the civil courts have a much wider jurisdiction in Servia than in Turkey, there being no mixed tribunals before which disputes between subjects of foreign States and those of Servia can be brought. This state of things is eminently unsatisfactory, as any denial of justice can only be remedied by appeal to the 18 274 TURKEY. Suzerain, and from thence to the guaranteeing powers a course of procedure which is obviously unsuited to the requirements of the age. If the Servian authorities were distinguished for their respect to the judicial office, it would be ungracious to criticize too closely, or comment with needless severity, on the obstinacy with which they assert their right of control over everything pertaining to the civil and criminal judicature; but when, to serve the purpose of party, they do not hesitate to interfere with the independence of the judges ; to protest against their illegal encroachments becomes a paramount duty. The imprisonment and deprivation of civic rights which was inflicted by a commission on the four judges of the Supreme Court of Appeal, only three years ago, because of their refusal to subserve the views of the Government in the case of a State trial, is an apt illustration of the contempt which the Government must entertain for public opinion, and justifies the most stringent watchfulness, over the rights of foreigners resident in Servia, on the part of the Consular authorities. The number of adjudica- tions, during the year 1863, in civil suits was 29,895 ; and in the year 1864, there were no fewer than 479 murders, 204 suicides, 3600 cases of robbery, and 4469 cases of divorce ; while the number of police cases, great and small, was upwards of 95,000. The bare consideration of these figures incontrovertibly suggests that there SERVIAN SOCIETY. 2?5 must be something radically wrong in the constitu- tion of Servian society. Servia is inhabited by an agglomeration of races and tribes, some of whom lead peaceable lives enough ; whilst others are law- less and predatory, inhabiting the wildest and most unapproachable of the mountain fastnesses, and existing on the fruits of brigandage. The foreign element is largely composed of outlaws, and the social pariahs of Austria and Turkey, to whom Servia is an acceptable asylum. With such in- gredients as these, it is needless to state that the grossest immorality and profligacy are so common as not to excite particular remark. Throughout the entire population dram-drinking is fearfully prevalent, whilst a vicious practice exists, among the peasantry, of mating masculine immaturity with feminine decay. These things considered, a key is found to the appalling list of murders, suicides, and divorces, as well as to the multitude of lesser offences, the frequent occurrence^ of which none the less mark the degradation of a people from the ordinary standard of public virtue. In strange contrast with the state of public morality in Servia, is the care which the state bestows on national education. There are up- wards of 300 elementary schools for children, besides superior educational establishments for both sexes at Belgrade ; but the country is greatly deficient in medical skill, there being only about forty qualified practitioners in the whole princi- 276 TUEKEY. pality. The Servians do not congregate much in towns. The principal occupation of the pea- santry, viz., the breeding of pigs, pointing to a sparsely settled country. With the exception of Belgrade, which is prettily laid out as a miniature capital, there is not much inducement for any man of cultivated tastes to settle in the country ; and as there is a dearth of native talent, disease, at times, holds high carnival in the midst of the poor and destitute. The external trade of Servia, if judged by the official returns, has remained for many years in a stationary condition. It is, however, impossible to obtain any reliable data respecting it, as the value being, in most cases, ad valorem, the Customs duties are regularly evaded. This is so in nearly every country ; but, in Servia, there is reason to apprehend more than usual laxity in Customs declarations. The foreign trade is con- ducted with Turkey, Austria, and Wallachia. To Turkey, in the year 1860, the exports were valued at 155,213, and the imports therefrom at 133,501. To Austria, the exports were 348,023, and the imports 261,803. To Wallachia, the exports were 8653, the imports amounting to 20,035. The principal subjects of export to Turkey were horses and cattle; minerals, (chiefly iron and salt) ; sligovitz, an ardent spirit distilled from plums, and colonials in transit. The imports from Turkey being, as regards classi- TRADE OP SEBVIA. 277 fication, nearly the same as the exports thereto. To Austria, the exports mainly consist of pigs the gross value of which in 1860, was 142,830 cattle, wool, lard, butter, wax, and garlic; the imports being manufactured goods, principally English, colonial produce, and bread stuffs. The exports to Wallachia, apart from pigs, the produce of Servia, consist principally of sundries in transit ; the largest article of import into Servia being salt. The internal trade is carried on at fairs, of which there are thirteen held annually, and at which, the principal subjects of exchange are horses and cattle ; 2845 horses, valued at 14,633, and 23,627 oxen and cows, valued at 75,419, having been sold in this way in the year 1862. Although the area of Servia is small, her natural resources, in timber and minerals, are very great. As is the case in all uncleared countries, the last thing properly appreciated is the timber. Young saplings are cut down because of their handiness ; old trees are barked without regard to the integrity of the stem ; undergrowth is fired heedless of damage ; and all because of the pro- digality with which this valuable produce is strewn over the land. And while timber is being destroyed, and minerals left unexplored, the business of the State goes on, and the public burdens increase, as if no such precious gifts had been bestowed. The minerals known to exist in Servia are coal, copper, lead, zinc, as well as the more precious 278 TUEKEY. metals, in particular localities. None of the more valuable descriptions of bitumenous coal have yet been found, but there is an abundant supply of brown lignite in different parts of the country, as well as some good seams, of a kind of anthra- cite, in proximity to the Danube. There is also fire clay of excellent quality, and strata of shales, which yield a good percentage of oil on distillation. The metalliferous mines of Rudnik date as far back as the Roman occupation. Copper and lead, as well as silver, cobalt, and nickel are found, and would amply pay for working, if a practicable road could only be made for the conveyance of materials and produce. The mines of Maidanpek are better known than those of Rudnik, as they have been in the hands of European speculators, who, however, neither brought skill nor capital to bear on the work. The copper ore gives from 10 to 12 per cent, of fine copper, but there are also some fine veins of brown rematite, which yield from 40 to 50 per cent, of iron. The establishment includes smelting works both for iron and copper, and appears to be invested with every element of success, save capital. Some deposits of zinc ore are being successfully worked at the mines of Kuceina, as are the lead mines at Loznitza. Anything, however, which is being done now, in the way of mining, is a mere bagatelle, when the mineral resources of the country are considered ; but it is hopeless to look for a material exten- STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 279 sion of mining enterprise, until the Government shall improve the security of the outlying districts, by disarming the vagrant population, and by punishing depredations on property with whole- some rigour. In a small country like Servia, there should be no such word as inaccessible, applicable to any portion of her territory. An incalculable amount of good might be effected by canalizing some of the larger streams, so as to utilize them for transport of timber, etc., from the interior, and prevent their annual overflow in the rainy season. An operation of this kind would make the drainage of malarious marshes easy of execution, with the effect of bringing the land, which is now a hotbed of disease, into profitable cultivation. Nothing would tend more signally to abate the curse of brigandage than an accessible interior ; and the Government would do well, in the midst of its financial embarrassments, to weigh the advantage to the state, which would result from a liberal application of engineering science to the improvement and development of the extensive and valuable natural resources of the country. CHAPTER VII. The Capitulations Conclusion. IN concluding this commentary on the rise, progress, and present position of the Osmanli dominion in Europe and Asia, the legal status of foreigners, resident in or resorting to the Ottoman Empire, claims passing notice. The rights and privileges of the subjects of all the Treaty Powers are defined and regulated by a series of ancient conventions, which again have been enlarged and amended by modern Treaties. The conventions are better known to Jurists as the Capitulations, and, although the first of these important diplomatic arrangements with Great Britain is rather obscure in point of date, the several conventions which have been, from time to time, made with the Porte, were codified and authoritatively settled in the reign of Sultan Mohammed II., temp. Charles II. of England, A.D. 1675 ; and were again recognized and re- established in the Treaty of Peace between the Porte and Great Britain, signed on the 5th of January, 1809, in the reign of the famous Sultan THE CAPITULATIONS. 281 Mahmud II., the father of the reigning monarch. The privileges and immunities of British subjects in Turkey were enlarged by the Treaty signed on the 16th of August, 1838 also in the reign of Mahmud and received their last expression in the Treaty signed on the 29th of April, 1861. A candid perusal of these Capitulations and Treaties transcripts of which are appended cannot fail to impress the most obstinate unbeliever in Turkish probity, with a sense of the large liberality by which every one of these international obligations is characterized. True, in those early days preceding the Cromwellian era, when the master-mariners of England, bound for the dominions of the Grand Seigneur, shaped their course for the Straits in pardonable dread of the Barbary corsairs, and when the Christian and the Mussulman entertained for each other the most undisguised sentiments of hatred and con- tempt ; it was the duty of our ambassadors at the court of the Sultan to obtain for British subjects the most comprehensive measures of protection from lawless molestation, and to claim for them, in its fullest sense, the protection of their flag in all matters affecting their property and persons. Now, however, that Turkey has fairly entered into the community of nations ; that her adminis- trative system has been remodelled, and the equality of all before the law declared ; now that the fact of the universal brotherhood of man 282 TURKEY. is recognized as paramount to the claims of sect among her people, and her commerce ramifies every trading centre in the world, some of the points conceded by the Porte, in the Capitula- tions, seem to be singularly unsuited to existing requirements. In no other country in the world, having equal rank as a state, do foreigners hold such a privileged position as in Turkey. For ex- ample, they are exempt from all imposts whatso- ever, either state or municipal, customs alone excepted ; they may live a life of pleasure or of business ; may settle and amass wealth, or may travel and spend it ; and, at all times, may claim the fullest protection which the laws of the Empire are capable of affording, without contributing one piastre to the expenses of the state, and without being amenable, even in the smallest degree, to Ottoman jurisdiction. If a Turkish subject sues a foreigner for a common debt, he must do so before a consular tribunal, and if a foreigner per- petrates an outrage on a Turkish subject, he can only be arrested by a kavass, or policeman, from his own Consulate. If all these things combined do not constitute liberty of the subject, even beyond the imaginings of reasonable beings, it is difficult to conceive any state of society in which the limits could be enlarged, without endangering its coherence ; and yet, the complaint goes forth that foreigners are not enfranchised in Turkey according to the measure of their deserts. CONSULAR PROTECTION. 283 That Turkey is one of the most abused countries in the world, her friends will not hesi- tate to admit. The Osmanli complain that in these days, when Constantinople is a European capital, and the country is laid open to the enter- prise of every people under the sun, foreigners reside within her precincts, and claim the benefit and protection of her municipal administration and her laws, without contributing their quota of the inevitable expense ; that as the Capitulations have always been interpreted by the consular and diplomatic corps, some of the most lawless in the population, composed of Levantines, the deci- phering of whose nationality no individual in the possession of an average amount of sense would attempt are under consular protection ; a circum- stance which, in five cases out of ten, prevents the arrest and conviction of persons who have gravely offended against the majesty of the law ; and that foreigners, when foiled in their endeavours to contravene the laws, either through the weakness of the instruments they have used, or through an excess of boldness on their own part, never fail to charge the results of their own indiscretion on the Turkish administration. In fairness, it must be stated that they do not complain without abun- dant cause. All Englishmen will easily understand the position of a person residing in a foreign commu- nity, towards the expenses of which he is not 284 TURKEY. bound to contribute ; and there are not a few who will intuitively condemn the rigid adherence to principle which prevents that from being volun- tarily offered which cannot be of right demanded. But there are very few indeed, of those who have not visited the Ottoman empire, by whom the system of consular protection is properly under- stood ; and it will doubtless surprise such to learn that there are in Turkey a very considerable num- ber of individuals neither British born, nor of British origin, neither speaking our language nor understanding our laws, many of them bankrupt in reputation, and not a few criminal in habit who claim the protection of our flag when the occasion answers, and contribute not a little to the diffi- culties which arise every now and then between the consuls and the Ottoman authorities. Consi- dered simply from our own point of view, this is a state of things sufficiently serious ; but, when the number of consulates necessarily existing in every large town is borne in mind, the magnitude of the evil, as it affects the Turkish authorities, becomes more apparent. To see a law-breaker in appear- ance marvellously like a subject of the Porte being conveyed to durance in the hands of the Turkish police, suddenly claimed by a consular kavass as being a person under his protection, and to witness the suppressed indignation of the baffled officials as they surrender their prisoner, is not a pleasing subject of contemplation when coupled FOREIGN OWNERSHIP OF LAND. 285 with the knowledge that there is a possibility of the culprit not being entitled in any way whatever to the protection he has invoked, and a proba- bility of his not being forthcoming when required by the proper authorities. The perplexing position in which the Turkish administration is placed towards the consular body, and the difficulty which the latter experience between their desire to do that which is obviously right and yet make no admission calculated to injure the infallibility of their office, are dearly purchased at the expense of a system which thoroughly requires revision. The duties of a consul in Turkey, especially in the large towns on the seaboard, are sufficiently onerous ; and, in common fairness, their labours should not be increased, or their relations with the Turkish authorities complicated, by claims on their nationality neither justified by reason or expediency. In the bills of indictment which the foreign community are constantly preferring against the Turkish Government, that which relates to the ownership of land is, of all others, the least founded on justice. The Porte says, " We will allow you to purchase land and exercise all the rights of ownership, on condition of your agree- ing to pay the usual fiscal imposts incident thereto, and obeying the laws." The foreign community says, " No ; we should have the same rights in this matter as any subject of the Porte, 286 TURKEY. but we will not concede one jot of the Capitula- tions, by one of which it is expressly stated that we are not liable to tribute or any other tax, nor be subject generally to the laws :" and so the matter stands ; the Government of the Sultan, inviting foreigners to settle in the country on the only terms consistent with their self-respect, and foreigners complaining because the Porte is not sufficiently lost to a sense of -its own dignity as to make concessions which could not be justified. In the whole of its dealings with foreigners, the Porte is placed in an unfair position ; bound, in the year 1865, by concessions which it made three centuries before, it is yet expected to act in much the same way as any other European government would, with the subjects of powers with whom the reigning princes were on terms of amity and peace. Public opinion, in Great Britain, would speedily silence the clamour of any Englishman who would presume to settle in the Austrian dominions, and, declining to recognize the law of the land, com- plain of being quietly conducted to the frontier. If the instinct of fair play, for which we claim pre-eminence, would rise thus summarily on behalf of Austria, it is difficult to understand on what plea the same measure of substantial justice is not meted to Turkey. It cannot be sustained, for one moment, that if the whole of the extraordinary immunities, contained in the Capitulations, were CONCLUSION. 287 swept summarily away, the persons and pro- perty of foreigners in Turkey would be one whit less safe than they are at present. Nor can analogy be adduced in proof of the assertion, that the destruction of the ancient capitulations would injuriously interfere with the integrity of the consular power, or the effective protection of its subjects. In the presence of existing facts, it is the merest trifling to accuse the Porte of illibe- rality, as the whole weight of evidence irresistibly leads to an opposite conclusion. Unless Turkey be expected to denude herself of every attribute of sovereignty, her concessions, to the prejudices of foreigners, must cease. Turkey is weak, but she is not imbecile ; she is poor in money, but she is rich in natural wealth ; and the products of her soil are coveted some of them only as necessities are prized. Her armaments are small, but her ambassadors are honoured in the audiences of kings. To impeach her honour, to traduce the character of her leading men, and to sneer at the condition of her people, are all comparatively safe achievements, partaking just of so much chivalry as it savours of impertinence. The leading states- men of Turkey know well her weakness, but they are also conscious of her inherent strength. If a magnanimous probity did not characterize the Osmanli, and if patriotism, bravery, and piety were not represented in their councils, the vision of the 288 TURKEY. future might be obscure ; but with a triad of soldier- statesmen, patriot-priests, and an upright prince at the helm of state, the career of Turkey should be one of material progress, internal peace, and cordial friendship with the family of nations. APPENDICES. 19 APPENDICES. APPENDIX I. CAPITULATIONS AND ARTICLES OF PEACE BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AS AGREED UPON, AUGMENTED, AND ALTERED AT DIFFERENT PERIODS, AND FINALLY CONFIRMED BY THE TREATY OF PEACE CONCLUDED AT THE DARDANELLES, IN 1809.* SULTAN MEHEMED, MAY HE LIVE FOE EVER ! " Let everything be observed in conformity to these Capitulations, and contrary thereto let nothing be done." THE command, under the sublime and lofty Signet, which imparts sublimity to every place, and under the imperial and noble Cypher, whose glory is renowned throughout all the world, by the Emperor and Conqueror of the earth, achieved with the assistance of the Omnipotent, and by the special grace of God, is this : We, who by Divine grace, assistance, will, and benevolence, now are the King of Kings of the world, the Prince of Emperors of every age, the Dispenser of Crowns to Monarchs, and the Champion Sultan Mehemed, Son of Sultan Ibrahim Chan, Son of Sultan Ahmed Chan, Son of Sultan Mahomet Chan, Son of Sultan Murad Chan, Son of Sultan Selim Chan, Son of Sultan Solyman Chan, Son of Sultan Selim Chan. The most glorious amongst the great Princes professing * As published by the Levant Company, 1816. 292 APPENDICES. the faith of Jesus, and the most conspicuous amongst the Potentates of the nation of the Messiah, and the umpire of public differences that exist between Christian nations, clothed with the mantle of magnificence and majesty. Charles the Second, King of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland (whose .end terminate in bliss ! ) having sent an Ambassador to the Sublime Porte in the time of our grandfather Sultan Murad (whose tomb be ever resplendent !) of glorious memory and full of divine mercy and pity, with professions of friend- ship, sincerity, devotion, partiality, and benevolence, and demanding that His subjects might be at liberty to come and go into these Parts, which permission was granted to them in the reign of the Monarch aforesaid, in addition to various other special commands, to the end that on coming and going, either by land or sea, in their way, passage, and lodging, they might not experience any molestation or hindrance from any one. He represented, in the reign of our grandfather Sultan Mehemed Chan (whose tomb be ever resplendent !) to our just and overshadowing Porte, His cordial esteem, alliance, sincere friendship, and partiality thereto. As such privilege therefore, had been granted to the Kings and Sovereigns of France, Venice, and Poland, who profess the most profound devotion for our most eminent throne, and to others between whom and the Sublime Porte there exists a sincere amity and good understanding, so was the same, through friendship, in like manner granted to the said King ; and it was granted Him that His subjects and their interpreters might safely and securely come and trade in these our sacred Dominions. The Capitulations of sublime dignity and our noble com- mands having been, through friendship, thus granted to the Kings aforesaid, and the Queen of the above-mentioned Kingdoms having heretofore also sent a noble personage with presents to this victorious Porte, which is the refuge and retreat of the Kings of the world, the most exalted place, and the asylum of the Emperors of the universe (which gifts were graciously accepted), and She having earnestly implored the privilege in question, Her entreaties were acceded to, and these our high commands conceded to Her. APPENDICES. 293 I. That the English nation and merchants, and all other merchants sailing under the English flag, with their ships and vessels, and merchandise of all descriptions, shall and may pass safely by sea, and go and come into our Dominions, without any the least prejudice or molestation being given to their persons, property, or effects, by any person whatsoever, but that they shall be left in the undisturbed enjoyment of their privileges, and be at liberty to attend to their affairs. II. That if any of the English coming into our Dominions by land be molested or detained, such persons shall be instantly released, without any further obstruction being given to them. III. That English ships and vessels entering the ports and harbours of our Dominions shall and may at all times safely and securely abide and remain therein, and at their free will and pleasure depart therefrom, without any opposition or hindrance from any one. IV. That if it shall happen that any of their ships suffer by stress of weather, and not be provided with necessary stores and requisites, they shall be assisted by all who happen to be present, whether the crews of our imperial ships, or others, both by sea and land. V. That being come into the ports and harbours of our Dominions, they shall and may be at liberty to purchase at their pleasure, with their own money, provisions and all other necessary articles, and to provide themselves with water without interruption or hindrance from any one. VI. That if any of their ships be wrecked upon any of the coasts of our Dominions, all Beys, Cadis, Governors, Com- mandants, and others our servants, who may be near or present, shall give them all help, protection, and assistance, and restore to them whatsoever goods and effects may be driven ashore ; and in the event of any plunder being committed, they shall make diligent search and inquiry to find out the property, which, when recovered, shall be wholly restored by them. VII. That the merchants, interpreters, brokers, and others, of the said nation, shall and may, both by sea and land, come into our Dominions, and there trade with the most perfect 294 APPENDICES. security ; and in coming and going, neither they nor their attendants shall receive any the least obstruction, molestation, or injury, either in their persons or property, from the beys, cadis, sea-captains, soldiers, and others our slaves. VIII. That if an Englishman, either for his own debt, or as surety for another, shall abscond, or become bankrupt, the debt shall be demanded from the real debtor 'only ; and unless the creditor be in possession of some security given by another, such person shall not be arrested, nor the payment of such debt be demanded of him. IX. That in all transactions, matters, and business occur- ring between the English and merchants of the countries to them subject, their attendants, interpreters, and brokers, and any other persons in our Dominions, with regard to sales and purchases, credits, traffic, or security, and all other legal matters, they shall be at liberty to repair to the judge, and there make ahoget, or public authentic act, with witness, and register the suit, to the end that if in future any difference or dispute shall arise, they may both observe the said register and hoget ; and when the suit shall be found conformable thereto, it shall be observed accordingly. Should no such hoget, however, have been obtained from the judge, and false witnesses only are produced, their suit shall not be listened to, but justice be always administered according to the legal hoget. X. That if any shall calumniate an Englishman, by assert- ing that he hath been injured by him, and producing false witnesses against him, our judges shall not give ear unto them, but the cause shall be referred to his Ambassador, in order to his deciding the same, and that he may always have recourse to liis protection. XI. That if an Englishman, having committed an offence, shall make his escape, no other Englishman, not being security for him, shall, under such pretext, be taken or molested. XII. That if an Englishman, or subject of England, be found to be a slave in our States, and be demanded by the English Ambassador or Consul, due inquiry and examination shall be made into the causes thereof, and such person being APPENDICES. 295 found to be English, shall be immediately released, and delivered up to the Ambassador or Consul. XIII. That all Englishmen, and subjects of England, who shall dwell or reside in our Dominions, whether they be married or single, artisans or merchants, shall be exempt from all tribute. XIV. That the English Ambassadors shall and may, at their pleasure, establish Consuls in the ports of Aleppo, Alexandria, Tripoli, Barbary, Tunis, Tripoli of Syria and Barbary, Scio, Smyrna, and Egypt, and in like manner remove them, and appoint others in their stead, without any one opposing them. XV. That in all litigations occurring between the English, or subjects of England, and any other person, the judges shall not proceed to hear the cause without the presence of an interpreter, or one of his deputies. XVI. That if there happen any suit, or other difference or dispute, amongst the English themselves, the decision thereof shall be left to their own Ambassador or Consul, according to their custom, without the judge or other governors our slaves intermeddling therein. XVII. That our ships and galleys, and all other vessels, which may fall in with any English ships in the seas of our Dominions, shall not give them any molestation, nor detain them by demanding anything, but shall show good and mutual friendship the one to the other, without occasioning them any prejudice. XVIII. That all the Capitulations, privileges, and Articles, granted to the French, Venetian, and other Princes, who are in amity with the Sublime Porte, having been in like manner, through favour, granted to the English, by virtue of our special command, the same shall be always observed accord- ing to the form and tenor thereof, so that no one in future do presume to violate the same, or act in contravention thereof. XIX. That if the corsairs or galliots of the Levant shall be found to have taken any English vessels, or robbed or plundered them of their goods and effects ; also if any one shall have forcibly taken anything from the English, all 296 APPENDICES. * possible diligence and exertion shall be used and employed for the discovery of the property, and inflicting condign punishment on those who may have committed such depre- dations ; and their ships, goods, and effects shall be restored to them without delay or intrigue. XX. That all our Beglerbeys, imperial and private Captains, Governors, Commandants, and other Administrators, shall always strictly observe the tenor of these imperial Capitula- tions, and respect the friendship and correspondence established on both sides, every one in particular taking special care not to let anything be done contrary thereto ; and as long as the said Monarch shall continue to evince true and sincere friend- ship, by a strict observance of the Articles and Conditions herein stipulated, these Articles and Conditions of Peace and friendship shall, in like manner, be observed and kept on our part. To the end, therefore, that no act might be committed in contravention thereof, certain clear and distinct Capitula- tions were conceded in the reign of our late grandfather, of happy memory (whose tomb be ever resplendent !) Since which, in the time of our said grandfather, of happy memory, Sultan Ahmed (whose tomb be blessed!), James, King of England, sent an Ambassador with letters and pre- sents (which were accepted), and requested that the friend- ship and good understanding which existed between him and the Porte in the days of our grandfather, of happy memory, as also the stipulations and conditions of the august Capitula- tions, might be ratified and confirmed, and certain Articles added thereto ; which request being represented to the imperial throne, express commands were given, that in consi- deration of the existing friendship and good understanding, and in conformity to the Capitulations conceded to other Princes in amity with the Sublime Porte, the Articles and stipulations of the sacred Capitulations should be renewed and confirmed, and the tenor thereof be for ever observed ; and amongst the Articles added to the Capitulations conceded APPENDICES. 297 by the command aforesaid, at the request of the said King, were the following : XXI. That duties shall not be demanded or taken of the English, or the merchants sailing under the flag of that nation, on any piastres and sequins they may import into our sacred Dominions, or on those they may transport to any other place. XXII. That our Beglerbeys, judges, defterdars, and masters of the mint, shall not interpose any hindrance or obstacle thereto, by demanding either dollars or sequins from them, under the pretence of having them recoined and exchanged into other money, nor shall give them any molestation or trouble whatever with regard thereto. XXIII. That the English nation, and all ships belonging to places subject thereto, shall and may buy, sell, and trade in our sacred dominions, and (except arms, gunpowder, and other prohibited commodities) load and transport in their ships every kind of merchandise, at their own pleasure, without experiencing any the least obstacle or hindrance from any one ; and their ships and vessels shall and may at all times safely and securely come, abide, and trade in the ports and harbours of our sacred Dominions, and with their own money buy provisions and take in water, without any hindrance or molestation from any one. XXIV. That if an Englishman, or other subject of that nation, shall be involved in any lawsuit, or other affair con- nected with law, the judge shall not hear nor decide thereon until the Ambassador, Consul, or Interpreter, shall be present ; and all suits exceeding the value of 4000 aspers shall be heard at the Sublime Porte, and nowhere else. XXV. That the Consuls appointed by the English Ambas- sador in our sacred dominions, for the protection of their merchants, shall never, under any pretence, be imprisoned, nor their houses sealed up, nor themselves sent away ; but all suits or differences in which they may be involved shall be repre- sented to our Sublime Porte, where their Ambassadors will answer for them. XXVI. That in case any Englishman, or other person subject to that nation, or navigating under its flag, should 298 APPENDICES. happen to die in our sacred dominions, our fiscal and other officers shall not, upon pretence of its not being known to whom the property belongs, interpose any opposition or violence, by taking or seizing the effects that may be found at his death, but they shall be delivered up to such Englishman, whoever he may be, to whom the deceased may have left them by his will : and should he have died intestate, then the pro- perty shall be delivered up to the English Consul, or his repre- sentative, who may be there present : and in case there be no Consul, or consular representative, they shall be sequestered by the judge, in order to his delivering up the whole thereof, whenever any ship shall be sent by the Ambassador to receive the same. XXVII. That all the privileges, and other liberties already conceded, or hereafter to be conceded to the English, and other subjects of that nation sailing under their flag, by divers imperial commands, shall be always obeyed, and observed, and interpreted in their favour, according to the tenor and true intent and meaning thereof; neither shall any fees be demanded by the fiscal officers and judges in the distribution of their property and effects. XXVIII. That the Ambassadors and Consuls shall and may take into their service any janissary or interpreter they please, without any other janissary, or other of our slaves, intruding themselves into their service against their will and consent. XXIX. That no obstruction or hindrance shall be given to the Ambassadors, Consuls, and other Englishmen, who may be desirous of making wine in their own houses, for the con- sumption of themselves and families ; neither shall the janis- saries our slaves, or others, presume to demand or exact any thing from them, or do them any injustice or injury. XXX. That the English merchants having once paid the customs at Constantinople, Aleppo, Alexandria, Scio, Smyrna, and other ports of our sacred Dominions, not an asper more shall be taken or demanded from them at any other place, nor shall any obstacle be interposed to the exit of their merchan- dise. XXXI. That having landed the merchandise imported by APPENDICES. 299 their ships into our sacred Dominions, and paid in any port the customs thereon, and being obliged, from the impossibility of selling the same there, to transport them to another port, the commandants or governors shall not, on the landing of such merchandise, exact from them any new custom or duty thereon, but shall suffer them, freely and unrestrictedly, to trade, without any molestation or obstruction whatsoever. XXXII. That no excise or duty on animal food shall be demanded of the English, or any subjects of that nation. XXXIII. That differences and disputes having heretofore arisen between the Arnbassadors of the Queen of England and King of France, touching the affair of the Flemish merchants, and both of them having presented memorials at our Imperial stirrup, praying that such of the said merchants as should come into our sacred Dominions might navigate under their flag, hattisheriffs were granted to both parties ; but the Cap- tain Pacha, Sinan, the son of Cigala, now deceased, who was formerly Vizier, and well versed in maritime affairs, having represented that it was expedient that such privilege should be granted to the Queen of England, and that the Flemish merchants should place themselves under Her flag, as also the merchants of the four provinces of Holland, Zealand, Fries- land, and Guelderland, and all the other Viziers being likewise of opinion that they should all navigate under the Queen's flag, and, like all the other English, pay the consulage and other duties, as well on their own merchandise as on those of others loaded by them in their ships, to the Queen's Ambas- sadors or Consuls, it was, by express order and Imperial authority, accordingly commanded, that the French Ambas- sador or Consul should never hereafter oppose or intermeddle herein, but in future act conformably to the tenor of the present Capitulation. After which, another Ambassador arrived from the said Queen, with the gifts and presents sent by Her, which being graciously accepted, the said Ambassador represented that the Queen desired that certain other privileges might be added to the Imperial Capitulations, whereof he furnished a list, one of 300 APPENDICES. which was, that certain Capitulations having been granted in the days of our grandfather, of happy memory (whose tomb be ever blessed !), to the end that the merchants of Spain, Portugal, -Ancona, Sicily, Florence, Catalonia, Flanders, and all other merchant-strangers, might go and come to our sacred Dominions, and manage their trade, it was stipulated, in such Capitulations, that they should be at liberty to appoint Consuls ; but each Nation being unable to defray the charge and maintenance of a Consul, they were left at liberty to place themselves under the flag of any of the Kings in peace and amity with the Sublime Porte, and to have recourse to tho protection of any of their Consuls, touching which privilege divers commands and Capitulations were repeatedly granted, and the said merchants having, by virtue thereof, chosen to navigate under the English flag, and to have recourse in our harbours to the protection of the English Consuls, the French Ambassadors contended that the said merchant-strangers were entitled to the privilege of their Capitulations, and forced them to have recourse in all ports to their Consuls, which being represented by the said Nations to our august Tribunal, and their Cause duly heard and decided, they were, for a second time, left to their free choice, when again having recourse to the protection of the English Ambassadors and Consuls, they were continually molested and opposed by the French Ambassador, which being represented by the English, with a request that we would not accept the Articles added to the French Capitulations respecting the nations of mer- chant-strangers, but that it should be again inserted in the Capitulations, that the said nations should, in the manner prescribed, have recourse to the protection of the English Consuls, and that hereafter they should never be vexed or molested by the French on this point, it was, by the Imperial authority, accordingly commanded that the merchants of the Countries aforesaid, should in the manner prescribed, have recourse to the protection of the English Ambassadors and Consuls, conformably to the Imperial commands to them conceded, and which particular was again registered in the Imperial Capitulations viz., that there should never be issued any commands, contrary to the tenor of these Capitulations, APPENDICES. 301 which might tend to the prejudice or breach of our sincere friendship and good understanding ; but that on such occa- sions the Cause thereof should first be certified to the Ambas- sador of England residing at our Sublime Porte, in order to his answering and objecting to any thing that might tend to a breach of the Articles of peace. XXXIV. That the English merchants, and other subjects of that nation, shall, and may, according to their condition, trade at Aleppo, Egypt, and other ports of our sacred Domi- nions, on paying (according to ancient custom) a duty of three per cent, on all their merchandise, without being bound to the disbursement of an asper more. XXXV. That, in addition to the duty hitherto uniformly exacted on all merchandise, laden, imported and transported in English ships, they shall also pay the whole of the consul- age to the English Ambassadors and Consuls. XXXVI. That the English merchants, and all others sail- ing under their flag, shall and may, freely and unrestrictedly, trade and purchase all sorts of merchandise (prohibited com- modities alone excepted), and convey them, either by land or sea, or by way of the river Tanais, to the countries of Mus- covy or Russia, and bring back from thence other merchandise into our sacred Dominions, for the purposes of traffic, and also transport others to Persia and other conquered countries. XXXVII. That such customs only shall be demanded on the said goods in the conquered countries as have always been received there, without anything more being exacted. XXXVIII. That should the ships bound for Constanti- nople be forced by contrary winds to put into Caffa, or any other place of those parts, and not be disposed to buy or sell anything, no one shall presume forcibly to take out or seize any part of their merchandise, or give to the ships or crews any molestation, or obstruct the vessels that are bound to those ports ; but our governors shall always protect and defend them, and all their crews, goods, and effects, and not permit any damage or injury to be done to them : and should they be desirous of purchasing, with their own money, any provi- sions in the places where they may happen to be, or of hiring any carts or vessels (not before hired by others), for the trans- 302 APPENDICES. portation of their goods, no one shall hinder or obstruct them therein. XXXIX. That customs shall not be demanded or taken on the merchandise brought by them in their ships to Constantinople, or any other port of our sacred Domi- nions, which they shall not, of their own free will, land with a view to sale. XL. That on their ships arriving at any port, and landing their goods and merchandises, they shall and may, after having paid their duties, safely and securely depart, without experiencing any molestation or obstruction from any one. XLI. That English ships coming into our sacred Domi- nions, and touching at the ports of Barbary and of the western coast, used oftentimes to take on board pilgrims and other Turkish passengers, with the intention of landing them at Alexandria, and other ports of our sacred Dominions ; on their arrival at which ports the commandants and governors demanded of them customs on the whole of their goods before they were landed, by reason of which outrage they have for- borne receiving on board any more pilgrims ; the more so as they were forced to take out of the ships that were bound to Constantinople the merchandise destined for other places, besides exacting the duties on those that were not landed : all English ships, therefore, bound to Constantinople, Alexandria, Tripoli of Syria, Scanderoon, or other ports of our sacred Dominions, shall in future be bound to pay duties, according to custom, on such goods only as they shall, of their own free- will, land with a view to sale ; and for such merchandise as they shall not discharge, no custom or duty shall be demanded of them, neither shall the least molestation or hindrance be given to them, but they shall and may freely transport them wherever they please. XLTI. That in case any Englishman, or other person navigating under their flag, should happen to commit man- slaughter, or any other crime, or be thereby involved in a law- suit, the governors in our sacred Dominions shall not proceed to the cause until the Ambassador or Consul shall be present, but they shall hear and decide it together without their pre- suming to give them any the least molestation, by hearing APPENDICES. 303 it alone, contrary to the holy law and these Capitula- tions. XLIII. That notwithstanding it is stipulated by the Im- perial Capitulations, that the merchandise laden on board all English ships proceeding to our sacred Dominions shall more- over pay consulage to the Ambassador or Consul for those goods on which customs are payable, certain Mahometan mer- chants, Sciots, Franks, and ill-disposed persons, object to the payment thereof ; wherefore it is hereby commanded, that all the merchandise, unto whomsoever belonging, which shall be laden on board their ships, and have been used to pay custom, shall in future pay the consulage, without any resistance or opposition. XLIV. That the English and other merchants navigating under their flag, who trade to Aleppo, shall pay such customs and other duties on the silks, brought and laden by them on board their ships, as are paid by the French and Venetians, and not one asper more. XLV. That the Ambassadors of the King of England, residing at the Sublime Porte, being the representatives of His Majesty, and the interpreters the representatives of the Am- bassadors for such matters, therefore, as the latter shall trans- late or speak, or for whatever sealed letter or memorial they may convey to any place in the name of their Ambassador, it being found, that that which they have interpreted or trans- lated is a true interpretation of the words and answers of the Ambassador or Consul, they shall be always free from all im- putation of fault or punishment and in case they shall com- mit any offence, our judges and governors shall not reprove, beat, or put any of the said interpreters in prison, without the knowledge of the Ambassador or Consul. XL VI. That in case any of the interpreters shall happen to die, if he be an Englishman proceeding from England, all his effects shall be taken possession of by the Ambassador or Consul ; but should he be a subject of our Dominions, they shall be delivered up to his next heir ; and having no heir they shall be confiscated by our fiscal officers. And it was expressly commanded and ordained, that the abovementioned Articles and privileges should in future be 304 APPENDICES. strictly observed and performed, according to the form and tenor thereof. Since which time, an Ambassador from the King of Eng- land came to the Sublime Porte, and represented that laws had been oftentimes promulgated contrary to the tenor of the sacred Capitulations, which being produced without their knowledge to our judges, and the dates of such laws being posterior to those of our Capitulations, the latter could not be. carried into execution ; his Sovereign therefore wished that such laws might not be executed, but that the Imperial Capi- tulations should be always observed and maintained according to the form and tenor thereof; all which being represented to the Imperial Throne, such request was acceded to, and con- formably thereto, it was expressly ordained and commanded, that all such laws as already had been, or should thereafter be, promulgated contrary to the tenor of these Imperial Capitu- lations, should, when pleaded or quoted before our judges, never be admitted or carried into execution, but that the said judges should ever obey and observe the tenor of the Imperial Capitulations. In the time of our glorious forefathers and most august predecessors, of happy memory, therefore, clear and distinct Capitulations were granted, which annulled such laws, and directed them to be taken from those who produced them. After which, Sultan Osman Chan having ascended the Im- perial throne, the King of England sent another Ambassador, with letters and presents, which were graciously accepted, requesting that the Imperial Capitulations granted in splendid and happy times by the singular justice of our glorious fore- fathers, and by them confirmed and granted, might be re- newed. And some time after His august coronation, the King of England again sent unto this Sublime Porte one of His most distinguished and wise personages as His Ambassador, with a letter and presents, which were graciously accepted, profess- ing and demonstrating the most sincere friendship for the APPENDICES. 305 said Porte ; and the said Ambassador having desired, on the part of the King, that the Capitulations granted in the happy time of our glorious forefathers and august predecessors, as also those granted by the aforesaid Sultan, might be renewed and confirmed, and certain important and necessary Articles added to the Imperial Capitulations, and that others already granted might be amended and more clearly expressed ; such his request was acceded to, and the Imperial Capitulations granted in the time of our most glorious and august fore- fathers were confirmed, the Articles and stipulations renewed, and the conditions and Conventions observed. Whereupon express commands were given that the tenor of the sacred Capitulations should be strictly performed, and that no one should presume to contravene the same. And the said Am- bassador having represented and notified to the Sublime Throne, that governors and commandants of many places had, contrary to the tenor of the Imperial Capitulations, molested and vexed with various inventions and innovations the English and other merchants, subjects of that nation, trading to these our sacred Dominions, and desired that they might be prohibited from so doing, and some new Articles be added to the Imperial Capitulations, an Imperial order was accordingly granted, whereby it was expressly commanded, that the Articles newly added should be for ever strictly executed, without any one ever presuming to violate the same. XLYII. That whereas the corsairs of Tunis and Barbary having, contrary to the tenor of the Capitulations and our Imperial licence, molested the merchants and other subjects of the King of England, as also those of other Kings in amity with the Sublime Porte, and plundered and pillaged their goods and property, it was expressly ordained and commanded, that the goods so plundered should be restored, and the cap- tives released ; and that if after such commands the Tuni- sians and Algerines should, contrary to the tenor of our Capitulations, again molest the said merchants, and pillage their goods and property, and not restore the same, but con- vey them to the countries and ports of our sacred Dominions, and especially to Tunis, Barbary, Modon, or Coron, the beg- lerbeys, governors, and commandants of such places should, 20 306 APPENDICES. in future, banish and punish them, and not permit them to sell the same. XLVIII. That it is written and registered in the Capitula- tions, that the governors and officers of Aleppo, and other ports of our sacred Dominions, should not, contrary to the tenor of the said Capitulations, forcibly take from the English merchants any money for their silk, under the pretence of custom or other duty, but that the said merchants should pay for the silk, by them purchased at Aleppo, the same as the French and Venetians do, and no more. Notwithstand- ing which, the commandants of Aleppo have, under colour of custom and duty, demanded two an'd a half per cent, for their silk, and thereby taken their money : wherefore We com- mand that this matter be investigated and inquired into, in order that such money may be refunded to them by those who have taken the same ; and for the future, the duty ex- acted from them shall be according to ancient custom, and as the Venetians and French were accustomed to pay, so that not a single asper more be taken by any new imposition. XLIX. That the merchants of the aforesaid nation, resi- dent at Galata, buy and receive divers goods, wares, and merchandises, and after having paid to our customer the duties thereon, and received a tescare, ascertaining their having paid the same, preparatory to loading such goods in due time on board their ships, it sometimes happens that, in the interim, the customer either dies, or is removed from his situation, and his successor will not accept of the said tescare, but demands a fresh duty from the said merchants, thereby molesting them in various ways : wherefore We do command that on its really and truly appearing that they have once paid the duties on the goods purchased, the customer shall receive the said tescare without demanding any fresh duty. L. That the merchants of the aforesaid nation, after having once paid the duties, and received the tescare, for the camlets, mohair, silk, and other merchandise, purchased by them at Angora, and transported to Constantinople and other ports of our sacred Dominions, and having deposited such goods in their own warehouses, have been again applied to for duties thereon ; We do therefore hereb} r command that APPENDICES. 307 they shall no longer be molested or vexed on that head, but that when the said mei-chants shall be desirous of loading such goods on board their ships, and on its appearing by the tescare that they have already paid the duties thereon, no fresh custom or duty shall be demanded for the said goods, provided that the said merchants do not blend or intermix the goods which have not paid custom with those which have. LI. That the merchants of the aforesaid nation, having once paid the customs on the merchandise imported into Constantinople, and other ports of oar sacred Dominions, and on those exported therefrom, as silks, camlets, and other goods, and being unable to sell the said goods, are under the necessity of transporting them to Smyrna, Scio, and other ports ; on their arrival there the governors and custom-house officers of such ports shall always accept their tescares, and forbear exacting any further duty on the said merchandise. LII. That for the goods which the merchants of the nation aforesaid shall bring to Constantinople, and other ports of our sacred Dominions, and for those they shall export from the said places, the Mastariagi of Galata and Constantinople shall take their mastaria, according to the old canon and ancient usage, that is to say, for those merchandises only whereon it was usually paid ; but for such merchandises as have not been accustomed to pay the same, nothing shall be taken contrary to the said canon, neither shall any innovations be made in future with regard to English merchandise, nor shall one asper more be taken than is warranted by custom. LIII. That the merchants of the aforesaid nation shall and may always come and go into the ports and harbours of our sacred Dominions, and trade, without experiencing any obstacle from any one, with the cloths, kersies, spice, tin, lead, and other merchandise they may bring, and, with the exception of prohibited goods, shall and may, in like manner, buy and export all sorts of merchandise, without any one presuming to prohibit or molest them ; and our customers and other officers, after having received the duties thereon, according to ancient custom and the tenor of these sacred Capitulations, shall not demand of them anything more, touching which 308 APPENDICES. point, certain clear and distinct Capitulations were granted, to the end that the beglerbeys and other commandants, our subjects, as also the commandants and lieutenants of our harbours, might always act in conformity to these our Im- perial commands, and let nothing be done contrary thereto. After which, in the time of our uncle, deceased, blessed and translated to Paradise, Sultan Murad Chan (whose tomb be ever resplendent !) the aforesaid King of England sent Sir Sackville Crow, Baronet, as His Ambassador, with a letter and presents, which were graciously accepted ; but the time of his embassy being expired, another Ambassador, named Sir Thomas Bendish, arrived, to reside at the Porte in his stead, with His presents, and a courteous letter, professing the utmost friendship, devotion, and sincerity ; and the said Ambassador having brought the Capitulations formerly granted to the English, and requested they might be renewed according to custom, he represented the damage and injury sustained by the English, contrary to the tenor of various Articles of the Capitulations, viz. : That before the English merchants repaired to the Custom-house, some one went on board the ship, and forcibly took out their goods ; and before any price could be fixed on the best and most valuable articles, or the accounts made out, he took and carried them away ; and that the said merchants, having punctually paid the duties thereon in one port, and being desirous of transporting the same goods to another port, the customer detained them, and would not suffer them to depart until they had paid the duties a second time ; and whereas it is specified in the Capitulations, that in all suits wherein the English are parties, our judges are not to hear or decide the same, unless their Ambassador or Consul be pre- sent ; notwithstanding which, our judges, without the know- ledge of their Ambassador, have proceeded to imprison and exact presents from the English merchants, and other subjects of that nation, besides being guilty of other oppressions : and whereas it is further ordered in the Capitulations, that no duties shall be taken on such sequins arid piastres as by the APPENDICES. 309 English merchants shall be brought in, or carried out, of our Imperial Dominions, and that a duty of three per cent, only shall be demanded on their goods ; notwithstanding which, the customers have exacted duties on the sequins and dollars and demanded more duties than were due on the silk bought by them, besides demanding six per cent, on the goods trans- ported from Alexandria to Aleppo, which abuses were hereto- fore rectified by an express hattisheriff; notwithstanding which, the English merchants still continued to experience some molestation, by the customers valuing their goods at more than they were worth, so that although it was the custom to receive but three per cent, only, the latter exacted six per cent, from them, and the servants of the custom- house, under colour of certain petty charges, took from them various sums of money, and that a greater number of waiters were put onboard their ships than usual, the expenses attend- ing which were a great burthen to the merchants and masters of ships who sustained it. That the customers, desirous to value goods at more than their worth, were not satisfied with the merchants paying them duties on the same goods at the rate of three per cent., but interposed numerous difficulties and obstacles : The said Ambassador having requested, therefore, that such abuses might be rectified, and the laws of the Imperial Capitulations be duly executed, his request was represented to the Imperial Throne, when We were graciously pleased to order : LIV. That the English merchants having once paid the duties on their merchandise, at the rate of three per cent., and taken them out of their ship, no one shall demand or exact from them anything more without their consent : and it was moreover expressly commanded, that the English merchants should not be molested or vexed in manner aforesaid, con- trary to the Articles of the Capitulations. Since which, another Ambassador of the King of England, Sir Heneage Finch, Knight, Earl of Winchelsea, Viscount Maidstone, and Baron Fitzherbert of Eastwell, arrived to 310 APPENDICES. reside at the Sublime Porte, with presents and a courteous letter, demonstrating His sincere friendship, and professing the utmost cordiality and devotion ; which Ambassador also presented the Capitulations, and requested that the most necessary and important Articles thereof might be renewed and confirmed, according to custom, which request was graciously acceded to, and the desired privileges granted to him, viz. : LV. That the Imperial fleet, galleys, and other vessels departing from our sacred Dominions, and falling in with English ships at sea, shall in nowise molest or detain them, nor take from them anything whatsoever, but always show to one another good friendship, without occasioning them the least damage or injury ; and notwithstanding it is thus declared in the Imperial Capitulations, the said English ships are still molested by the ships of the Imperial fleet, and by the Beys and Captains who navigate the seas, as also by those of Algiers, Tunis, and Barbary, who, falling in with them whilst sailing from one port to another, detain them for the mere purpose of plunder, under colour of searching for enemy's property, and under that pretence prevent them from prosecuting their voyage : now We do hereby expressly command that the provisions of the old canon be executed at the castles and in the ports only, and nowhere else, and that they shall no longer be liable to any further search or exac- tion at sea, under colour of search or examination. LVI. That the said Ambassador having represented that our customers, after having been fully paid the proper duties by the English merchants on their goods, delayed, contrary to the Articles and stipulations of the Capitulations, to give them the tescares of the goods for which they had already received the duty, with the sole view of oppressing and doing them injustice; We do hereby strictly command that the said customers do never more delay granting them the tescares, and the goods whereon they have once paid the duty being transported to another port, in consequence of no opportunity of sale having occurred in the former port, entire credit shall be given to the tescares, ascertaining the payment already made, agreeably to the Capitulations granted to them, APPENDICES. 311 and no molestation shall be given to them, nor any new duty demanded. LVII. That notwithstanding it is stipulated by the Capitulations that the English merchants, and other subjects of that nation, shall, and may, according to their rank and condition, trade to Aleppo, Egypt, and other parts of our Im- perial Dominions, and for all their goods, wares, and mer- chandise, pay a duty of three per cent, only, and nothing more, according to ancient custom, the customers have molested the English merchants, with a view to oppress them and the subjects of that nation, on their arrival with their goods laden on board their ships, whether conveyed by sea or land, at our ports and harbours, under pretence of the goods so brought by them not belonging to the English ; and that for goods brought from England they demanded three per cent, only, but for those brought by them from Venice and other ports, they exacted more ; wherefore, on this point, let the Imperial Capitulations granted in former times be observed, and our governors and officers in nowise permit or consent to the same being infringed. LVIII, That whereas it is specified in the Capitulations, that in case an Englishman should become a debtor or surety, and run away or fail, the debt shall be demanded of the debtor ; and if the creditor be not in possession of some legal document given by the surety, he shall not be arrested, nor such debt be demanded of him ; should an English merchant, resident in another country, with the sole view of freeing himself from the payment of a debt, draw a bill of exchange from another merchant, living in Turkey, and the person to whom the same is payable, being a man of power and autho- rity, should molest such merchant who had contracted no debt to the drawer, and oppress him, contrary to law and the sacred Capitulations, by contending that the bill was drawn upon him, and that he was bound to pay the debt of the other merchant ; now We do hereby expressly command, that no such molestation be given in future, but if such merchant shall accept the bill, they shall proceed in manner and form therein pointed out ; but should he refuse to accept it, he shall be liable to no further trouble. 312 APPENDICES. LIX. That the interpreters of the English Ambassadors, having always been free and exempt from all contributions and impositions whatever, respect shall in future be paid to the Articles of the Capitulations stipulated in ancient times, without the fiscal officers intermeddling with the effects of any of the interpreters who may happen to die, which effects shall be distributed amongst his heirs. LX. That the aforesaid King, having been a true friend of our Sublime Porte, His Ambassador, who resides here, shall be allowed ten servants, of any nation whatsoever, who shall be exempt from impositions, .and in no manner molested. LXI. That if any Englishman should turn Turk, and it should be represented and proved, that besides his own goods, he has in his hands any property belonging to another person in England, such property shall be taken from him, and delivered up to the Ambassador or Consul, that they may convey the same to the owner thereof. The Ambassador of the aforesaid King, who resided in our Sublime Porte, being dead, Sir John Finch, Knight, a prudent man, was sent as Ambassador to the Imperial Throne, and to reside at our Sublime Porte, with a letter and presents, which, on arrival and presentation to our glorious and imperial presence, were graciously accepted ; and the said Ambassador, having brought with him the sacred Capitulations, heretofore granted by our August Person, and represented to Us, on the part of the aforesaid King, His Majesty's desire that they should be renewed and confirmed, according to custom, and certain new Articles added to them ; to which request We most graciously acceded, by commanding that such Additional Articles be registered in the Imperial Capitulations, of which one was the Imperial command, to which was affixed the hattisheriff, that is, the hand of our deceased glorious father, absolved by God, Sultan Ibrahim (whose soul rest in glory and divine mercy !), in the year 1053 to wit : LXII. That for every piece of cloth, called Londra, which APPENDICES. 313 from ancient times, was always brought by the British ships to Alexandria, there should be taken in that place a duty of forty paras, for every piece of kersey six paras, for every bale of hare-skins six paras, and for every quintal of tin and lead, Damascus weight, fifty-seven paras and a half. LXIII. That on afterwards transporting the said goods from Alexandria to Aleppo, there should be demanded, by the custom-house officers of Aleppo, for every piece of Londra eighty paras, for a piece of kersey eight paras and two aspers, for every bundle of hare-skins eight paras and two aspers, and for every Aleppo weight of tin and lead, one para. LXIV. That on the goods purchased by the aforesaid nation at Aleppo, there should be paid for transport duty, on every bale of unbleached linen, cordovans, and chorasani- hindi, two dollars and a half, for every bale of cotton yarn one dollar and a quarter, for every bale of galls one quarter, for every bale of silk ten osmans ; and for rhubarb and other trifles, and various sorts of drugs, according to a valuation to be made by the appraiser, there should be taken a duty of three per cent, LXV. That on carrying the said goods to Alexandria, and there loading them on board their ships, there should be taken for transport duty, on every bale of unbleached linen and cordovans one dollar and a half, for every bale of chorasani- hindi and cotton yarn three-quarters, for every bale of galls one-quarter ; and for rhubarb and other trifles, and various sorts of drugs, after a valuation made thereof, there should be taken three-quarters of a piastre ; and that for the future no demand whatever to the contrary should be sub- mitted to. LXVI. That all commands issued by the chamber contrary to the above-mentioned Articles should not be obeyed ; but for the future, everything be observed conformably to the tenor of the Capitulations and the Imperial Signet. LXVII. It being stipulated by the Capitulations that the English merchants shall pay a duty of three per cent, on all goods by them imported and exported, without being bound to pay an asper more ; and disputes having arisen with the 314 APPENDICES. customers on this head, they shall continue to pay duty as heretofore paid by them, at a rate of three per cent, only, neither more nor less. LXVIII. That for the London and other cloths manu- factured in England, whether fine or coarse, and of whatsoever price, imported by them into the ports of Constantinople and Galata, there shall be taken, according to the ancient canons, and as they have always hitherto paid, one hundred and forty- four aspers, computing the dollar at eighty aspers, and the leone at seventy, and nothing more shall be exacted from them ; but the cloths of Holland and other countries, viz., serges, Londrina scarlets, and other cloths, shall pay, for the future, that which hitherto has been the accustomed duty ; and at Smyrna likewise shall be paid according to ancient custom, calculated in dollars and leones, for every piece of London or other cloth of English fabric, whether fine or coarse, one hundred and twenty aspers, without an asper more being demanded, or any innovation being made therein. LXIX. It being registered in the Imperial Capitulations, that all suits wherein the English are parties, and exceeding the sum of four thousand aspers, shall be heard in our Sublime Porte, and nowhere else : That if at any time the commanders and governors should arrest any English merchant, or other Englishman, on the point of departure by any ship, by reason of any debt or demand upon him, if the Consul of the place will give bail for him, by offering himself as surety until such suit shall be decided in our Imperial Divan, such person so arrested shall be released, and not imprisoned or prevented from prosecuting his voyage, and they who claim anything from him shall present themselves in our Imperial Divan, and there submit their claims, in order that the Ambassador may furnish an answer thereto. With regard to those for whom the Consul shall not have given bail, the commandant may act as he shall think proper. LXX. That all English ships coming to the ports of Con- stantinople, Alexandria, Smyrna, Cyprus, and other ports of our sacred Dominions, shall pay three hundred aspers for APPENDICES. 315 anchoragre duty, without an asper more being demanded from them. LXXI. That should any Englishman coming with mer- chandise turn Turk, and the goods so imported by him be proved to belong to merchants of his own country, from whom he had taken them, the whole shall be detained, with the ready money, and delivered up to the Ambassador, in order to his transmitting the same to the right owners, without any of our judges or officers interposing any obstacle or hindrance thereto. LXXII. That no molestation shall be given to any of the aforesaid nation buying camlets, mohairs, or grogram yarn, at Angora and Beghbazar, and desirous of exporting the same from thence, after having paid the duty of three per cent, by any demand of customs for the exportation thereof, neither shall one asper more be demanded of them. LXXIII. That should any suit be instituted by an English merchant for the amount of a debt, and the same be recovered by means of the assistance of a chiaux, he shall pay him out of the money recovered two per cent., and what is usually paid for fees in the mehkeme, or court of justice, and not an asper more. LXXIY. That the King, having always been a friend to the Sublime Porte, out of regard to such good friendship, His Majesty shall and may, with His own money, purchase for His own kitchen, at Smryna, Salonica, or any other port of our Sacred Dominions, in fertile and abundant years, and not in times of dearth or scarcity, two cargoes of figs and raisins, and after having paid a duty of three per cent, thereon, no obstacle or hindrance shall be given thereto. LXXV. That it being represented to Us that the English merchants have been accustomed hitherto to pay no custom or scale duty, either on the silks bought by them at Brussa and Constantinople, or on those which come from Persia and Georgia, and are purchased by them at Smyrna from the Armenians ; if such usage or custom really exists, and the same be not prejudicial to the Empire, such duty shall not be paid in future : and the said Ambassador, having requested that the aforegoing Articles might be duly respected, and 316 APPENDICES. added to the Imperial Capitulations, his request was acceded to ; therefore, in the same manner as the Capitulations were heretofore conceded by our Imperial hattisheriff, so are they now in like manner renewed by our Imperial command ; wherefore, in conformity to the Imperial Signet, We have again granted these sacred Capitulations, which We command to be observed, so long as the said King shall continue to maintain that good friendship and understanding with our Sublime Porte, which was maintained in the happy time of our glorious ancestors, which friendship We, on our part, accept; and adhering to these Articles and stipulations, We do hereby promise and swear, by the one Omnipotent God, the Creator of heaven and earth, and of all creatures, that We will permit nothing to be done or transacted contrary to the tenor of the Articles and stipulations heretofore made, and these Imperial Capitulations ; and accordingly every one is to yield implicit faith and obedience to this our Imperial Signet, affixed in the middle of the month of Gamaziel, in the year 1086 (corresponding with the year of our Lord, 1675). APPENDIX II. TREATY BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE SUBLIME PORTE. CONCLUDED AT THE DARDANELLES, THE 5ra OF JANUARY, 1809. TRANSLATION. In the Name of the Most Merciful God. The object of this faithful and authentic Instrument is as follows : Notwithstanding the appearances of a misunderstanding between the Court of Great Britain and the Sublime Ottoman Porte, consequent upon the occurrences of the moment, the two Powers, equally animated with a sincere desire of re- establishing the ancient friendship which subsisted between them, have named their Plenipotentiaries for that purpose ; that is to say, His Most August and Most Honoured Majesty George the Third, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, has named for His Plenipotentiary, Robert Adair, Esq., one of the Members of the Royal Parlia- ment of Great Britain ; and His Majesty the Most Noble, Most Powerful, and Most Magnificent Sultan Mahmud Han II., Emperor of the Ottomans, has named for His Plenipotentiary, Seyde, Mehmed-Emin-Vahid Effendi, Director and Inspector of the Department called " Mercoufat" and invested with the rank of " Nichangi " of the Imperial Divan ; who, having reciprocally communicated to each other their full Powers, after several conferences and discussions, have concluded the peace equally desired by both Powers, and have agreed upon the following Articles : I. From the moment of signing the present Treaty, every act of hostility between England and Turkey shall cease ; and in furtherance of this happy peace, the prisoners on both 318 APPENDICES. sides shall be exchanged without distinction, in thirty-one days from the signature of this Treaty, or sooner if possible. II. Should any fortresses belonging to the Sublime Porte be in the possession of Great Britain, they shall be restored to the Sublime Porte, and given up, with all the cannons, warlike stores, and other effects, in the condition in which they were found at the time of their being occupied by England, and this restitution shall be made in the space of thirty-one days from the signature of the present Treaty. III. Should there be any effects and property belonging to English merchants under sequestration, within the jurisdic- tion of the Sublime Porte, the same shall be entirely given up, and restored to the proprietors; and, in like manner, should there be any effects, property, and vessels, belonging to merchants, subjects of the Sublime Porte, under seques- tration at Malta, or in any other islands and possessions of His Britannic Majesty, they also shall be entirely given up and restored to their proprietors. IV. The Treaty of Capitulations agreed upon in the Turkish year 1086 (A.D. 1675), in the middle of the month Gemmaziel Akir, as also the Act relating to the Commerce of the Black Sea, and the other privileges (Imtiazaf) equally established by Acts at subsequent periods, shall continue to be observed and maintained as if they had suffered no inter- ruption. V. In return for the indulgence and good treatment afforded by the Sublime Porte to English merchants, with respect to their goods and property, as well as in all matters tending to facilitate their commerce, England shall reciprocally extend every indulgence and friendly treatment to the flag, subjects, and merchants of the Sublime Porte, which may hereafter frequent the Dominions of His Britannic Majesty for the purposes of commerce. VI. The last custom-house tariff established at Constan- tinople, at the ancient rate of 3 per cent., and particularly the Article relating to the interior commerce, shall continue to be observed, as they are at present regulated, and to which England promises to conform. VII. Ambassadors from His Majesty the King of Great APPENDICES. 319 Britain shall enjoy all the honours enjoyed by Ambassadors to the Sublime Porte from other nations ; and Ambassadors from the Sublime Porte at the Court of London shall reciprocally enjoy all the honours granted to the Ambassadors from Great Britain. VIII. Consuls (Shahbenders) may be appointed at Malta, and in the Dominions of His Britannic Majesty, where it shall be necessary to manage and superintend the affairs and interests of merchants of the Sublime Porte, and similar privileges and immunities to those granted to English Consuls resident in the Ottoman Dominions, shall be duly afforded to the " Shahbenders" of the Sublime Porte. IX. English Ambassadors and Consuls may supply them- selves, according to custom, with such Dragomen as they shall stand in need of, but as it has already been mutually agreed upon that the Sublime Porte shall not grant the " JBarat " of Dragoman in favour of individuals who do not execute that duty in the place of their destination, it is settled, in con- formity with this principle, that in future the " Barat " shall not be granted to any person of the class of tradesmen or bankers, nor to any shopkeeper or manufacturer in the public markets, or to one who is engaged in any matters of this description ; nor shall English Consuls be named from among the subjects of the Sublime Porte. X. English patents of protection shall not be granted to dependants, or merchants who are subjects of the Sublime Porte, nor shall any passport be delivered to such persons, on the part of Ambassadors or Consuls, without permission previously obtained from the Sublime Porte. XI. As ships of war have at all times been prohibited from entering the canal of Constantinople, viz., in the straits of the Dardanelles and of the Black Sea ; and as this ancient regulation of the Ottoman Empire is in future to be observed by every Power in time of Peace, the Court of Great Britain promises on its part to conform to this principle. XII. The ratifications of the present Treaty of Peace between the high Contracting parties shall be exchanged at Constantinople in the space of ninety-one days from the date of this Treaty, or sooner if possible. In faith of which, and 320 APPENDICES. in order that the ratification of the twelve Articles of this Treaty (which has been happily concluded, by the assistance of God, and in the sincerity and good faith of the Two Parties) may be exchanged ; I, Plenipotentiary of the Sublime Porte, have, in virtue of my full Powers, signed and sealed this instrument, which I have delivered to the Plenipotentiary of His Britannic Majesty, in exchange for another Instrument exactly conformable thereto, written in the French language, with a translation thereof, which has been delivered to me on his part, agreeably to his full Powers. Done near the Castles of the - Dardanelles, the 5th of January, 1809, which corresponds with the year of the Hegira 1223, the 19th day of the Moon Zilkaade. Signed SEYD MEHEMMED EMIN VAHID EFFENDI (L.S.) Signed ROBERT ADAIR (L.S.) APPENDIX III. CONVENTION OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN HER BRITANNIC MAJESTY AND THE SULTAN OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. SIGNED AT BALTA-LIMAN, NEAR CONSTANTINOPLE, AUGUST 16, 1838. During the friendly intercourse which has happily subsisted so long between the Sublime Porte and the Kings of Great Britain, capitulations granted by the Porte, and treaties con- cluded between the two Powers, have regulated the rates of duties payable on merchandise exported from and imported into the dominions of the Sublime Porte, and have established and declared the rights, privileges, immunities and obliga- tions of British merchants trading to or residing in the Imperial territories. But since the period when the above- mentioned stipulations were last revised, changes of various kinds have happened in the internal administration of the Ottoman Empire, and in the external relations of that empire with other powers ; and Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Highness the Sultan, have therefore agreed now to regulate again, by a special and additional Act, the commercial intercourse of their subjects, in order to increase the trade between their respec- tive dominions, and to render more easy the exchange of the produce of the one country for that of the other. They have consequently named for their Plenipotentiaries for this pur- pose, that is to say : Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Right Honourable John Brabazon Lord Ponsonby, Baron of Imokilly, a peer of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath, of the Nishan of Honour, etc., etc., Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at the Sublime Porte, etc., etc. ; And His Highness the Sultan, the most Illustrious and 21 322 APPENDICES. most Excellent Vizier Mustapha Reshid Pasha, Minister for Foreign Affairs, bearing the decoration belonging to his high rank, a Knight Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of France, etc., etc. ; the Excellent and most Distinguished Mustapha Kiani Bey, a member of the Supreme Council of State, Assistant to the Prime Minister, President of the Council of Agriculture and Industry, a Minister of State of the First Class, bearing the two decorations belonging to his offices, etc., etc. ; and the Excellent and most Distinguished Mehemed Nouri Effendi, a Councillor of State in the Depart- ment for Foreign Affairs, bearing the Nishan of Honour of the First Class, etc., etc. ; Who, after having communicated their respective full powers, found to be in due and proper form, have agreed upon and concluded the following Articles : ART. 1. All rights, privileges, and immunities which have been conferred on the subjects and ships of Great Britain by the existing capitulations and treaties, are confirmed now and for ever, except in as far as they may be specifically altered by the present Convention : and it is moreover expressly stipulated, that all rights, privileges, or immunities which the Sublime Porte now grants, or may hereafter grant, to the ships and subjects of any other foreign Power, or which it may suffer the ships and subjects of any other foreign Power to enjoy, shall be equally granted to, and exercised and enjoyed by the subjects and ships of Great Britain ART. 2. The subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, or their agents, shall be permitted to purchase at all places in the Ottoman dominions (whether for the purposes of internal trade or exportation) all articles, without any exception what- soever, the produce, growth, or manufacture of the said dominions ; and the Sublime Porte formally engages to abolish all monopolies of agricultural produce, or of any other articles whatsoever, as well as all permits from the local governors, either for the purchase of any article, or for its removal from, one place to another when purchased ; and any attempt to compel the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty to receive such permits from the local governors shall be considered as an infraction of treaties, and the Sublime Porte shall immediately APPENDICES. 323 punish with severity any viziers and other officers who shall have been guilty of such misconduct, and render full justice to British subjects for all injuries or losses which they may duly prove themselves to have suffered. ART. 3. If any article of Turkish produce, growth, or manufacture be purchased by the British merchant or his agent for the purpose of selling the same for internal con- sumption in Turkey, the British merchant or his agent shall pay, at the purchase and sale of such articles, and in any manner of trade therein, the same duties that are paid, in similar circumstances, by the most favoured class of Turkish subjects engaged in the internal trade of Turkey, whether Mussulmans or Rayahs. ART. 4. If any article of Turkish produce, growth, or manufacture be purchased for exportation, the same shall be conveyed by the British merchant or his agent, free of any kind of charge or duty whatever, to a convenient place of shipment, on its entry into which it shall be liable to one fixed duty of nine per cent, ad valorem, in lieu of all other interior duties. Subsequently, on exportation, the duty of 3 per cent., as established and existing at present, shall be paid. But all articles bought in the shipping ports for exportation, and which have already paid the interior duty at entering into the same, will only pay the 3 per cent, export duty. ART. 5. The regulations under which firmans are issued to British merchant vessels for passing the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, shall be so framed as to occasion to such vessels the least possible delay. ART. 6. It is agreed by the Turkish Government, that the regulations established in the present Convention shall be general throughout the Turkish Empire, whether Turkey in Europe or Turkey in Asia, in Egypt, or other African posses- sions belonging to the Sublime Porte, and shall be applicable to all the subjects, whatever their description, of the Ottoman dominions ; and the Turkish Government also agrees not to object to other foreign powers settling their trade upon the basis of this present Convention. ART. 7. It having been the custom of Great Britain and 324 APPENDICES. f the Sublime Porte, with a view to prevent all difficulties and delays in estimating the value of articles imported into the Turkish dominions, or exported therefrom, by British subjects, to appoint, at intervals of fourteen years, a commission of men well acquainted with the traffic of both countries, who have fixed by a tariff the sum of money in the coin of the Grand Signior which should be paid as duty on each article ; and the term of fourteen years, during which the last adjust- ment of the said tariff' was to remain in force, having expired, the high contracting parties have agreed to name conjointly fresh Commissioners to fix and determine the amount in money which is to be paid by British subjects, as the duty of three per cent, upon the value of all commodities imported and exported by them ; and the said Commissioners shall establish an equitable arrangement for estimating the interior duties which, by the present Treaty, are established on Turkish goods to be exported, and shall also determine on the places of shipment where it may be most convenient that such duties should be levied. The new tariff thus established to be in force for seven years after it has been fixed, at the end of which time it shall be in the power of either of the parties to demand a revision of that tariff ; but if no such demand be made on either side within the six months after the end of the first seven years, then the tariff shall remain in force for seven years more, reckoned from the end of the preceding seven years ; and so it shall be at the end of each successive period of seven years. ART. 8. The present Convention shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Constantinople, within the space of four months. In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the same, and have affixed their seals thereunto. Done at Balta-Liman, near Constantinople, on the 16th day of August, 1838. (Signed) (L.S.) PONSONBY. (L.S.) MUSTAPHA RESHTD, (L.S.) MUSTAPHA KIANI, (L.S.) MKHEMED NOURI. APPENDIX IV. COMMERCIAL TREALT BETWEEN HER BRITANNIC MAJESTY AND THE SULTAN OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. SIGNED AT KANLIDJA? NEAR CONSTANTINOPLE, APRIL 29, 1861. ARTICLE 1. All rights, privileges, and immunities which have been conferred en the subjects or ships of Great Britain by the existing capitulations or treaties are confirmed now and for ever, with the exception of those clauses of the said capitulations which it is the object of the present treaty to modify ; and it is, moreover, expressly stipulated that all rights, privileges, and immunities which the Sublime Porte now grants or may hereafter grant to, or suffer to be enjoyed by, the subjects, ships, commerce, or navigation of any other foreign power, shall be equally granted to, and exercised and enjoyed by, the subjects, ships, commerce, and navigation of Great Britain. ART. 2. The subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, or their agents, shall be permitted to purchase, at all places in the Ottoman dominions and possessions (whether for the purpose of internal trade or of exportation) all articles, without any exception whatsoever, the produce or manufacture of said dominions and possessions ; and the Sublime Porte having, in virtue of the second article of the convention of commerce of the 16th of August, 1838, formally engaged to abolish all monopolies of agricultural produce or of any other article whatsoever, as well as all permits (teskeres) from the local governors, either for the purchase of any article, or for its removal from one place to another when purchased, any attempt to compel the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty to receive such permits from the local governors shall be con- sidered as an infraction of treaties, and the Sublime Porte shall immediately punish with severity any viziers or other officers who shall have been guilty of such misconduct, and shall render full justice to British subjects for all injuries or 326 APPENDICES. losses which they may duly prove themselves to have suffered thereby. ART. 3. If any article of Turkish produce or manufacture he purchased by British merchants or their agents, for the purpose of selling the same for internal consumption in Turkey, the said British merchants or their agents shall pay, at the purchase and sales of such articles, and in any manner of trade therein, the same duties that are paid in similar circumstances by the most favoured class of Ottoman subjects, or of foreigners engaged in the internal trade of Turkey. ART. 4. No other or higher duties or charges shall be imposed in the dominions and possessions of either of the contracting parties, on the exportation of any article to the dominions and possessions of the other, than such as are or may be payable on the exportation of the like article to any other foreign country ; nor shall any prohibition be imposed on the exportation of any article from the dominions and possessions of either of the two contracting parties to the dominions and possessions of the other, which shall not equally extend to the exportation of the like article to any other country. No charge or duty whatsoever will be demanded on any article of Turkish produce or manufacture purchased by British subject? or their agents, either at the place where such article is purchased, or in its transit from that place to the place whence it is exported, at which it will be subject to an export duty not exceeding 8 per cent., calculated on the value at the place of shipment, and payable on exportation ; and all articles which shall once have paid this duty shall not again be liable to the same duty, however they may have changed hands, within any part of the Ottoman dominions. It is furthermore agreed that the duty of 8 per cent, above mentioned will be annually reduced by one (1) per cent., until it shall be in this manner finally reduced to a fixed duty of one (1) per cent, ad valorem, destined to cover the general expenses of administration and control. ART. 5. No other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation, into the dominions and possessions of Her Britannic Majesty, of any article the produce and manufacture APPENDICES. 327 of the dominions and possessions of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, from whatever place arriving, whether by sea or by land, and no other or higher duties shall be imposed on the importation into the dominions and possessions of His Imperial Majesty of any article the produce or manufacture of Her Britannic Majesty's dominions and possessions, from whatever place arriving, than are or may be payable on the like article the produce or manufacture of any other foreign country ; nor shall any prohibition be maintained or imposed on the importation of any article the produce or manufacture of the dominions and possessions of either of the contracting parties into the dominions and possessions of the other, which shall not equally extend to the importation of the like articles being the produce or manufacture of any other country. His Imperial Majesty further engages that, save as herein- after excepted, he will not prohibit the importation into his dominions and possessions of any article the produce or manufacture of the dominions and possessions of Her Britannic Majesty, from whatever place arriving ; and that the duties to be imposed on any article the produce or manufacture of the dominions or possessions of Her Britannic Majesty, im- ported into the dominions or possessions of His Imperial Majesty, shall in no case exceed one fixed rate of eight (8) per cent, ad valorem, or a specific duty, fixed by common assent, equivalent thereto. Such rate shall be calculated upon the value of such articles at the wharf, and shall be payable at the time of their being landed, if brought by sea, or at the first custom-house they may reach, if brought by land. If these articles, after having paid the import duty of eight (8) per cent , are sold at the place of their arrival or in the interior of the country, neither the buyer nor the seller shall be charged with any further duty with respect to them ; and if such articles should not be sold for consumption in Turkey, but should be re-exported within the space of six months, the same shall be considered as merchandise in transit by land, and be treated as is stated in Article 12 ; the admi- nistration of the customs being bound to restore at the time of their re-exportation to the merchant, who shall be required 328 APPENDICES. m to furnish proof that the goods in question have paid the import duty of eight (8) per cent., the difference between that duty and the duty levied on goods in transit by land, as set forth in the article above cited. ART. 6. It is understood that any article the produce or manufacture of a foreign country, intended for importation into the United Principalities of "Moldo-Wallachia, or into the Principality of Servia, which shall pass through any other part of the Ottoman dominions, will not be liable to the payment of customs' duty until it reaches those principalities ; and, on the other hand, that any article of foreign produce or manufacture passing through those principalities, but destined for some other part of the Ottoman dominions, will not be liable to the payment of customs' duty until such article reaches the first custom-house under the direct administration of the Sublime Porte. The same course shall be followed with respect to any article the produce or manufacture of those principalities, as well as with respect to any article the produce or manufacture of any other portion of the Ottoman dominions, intended for exportation : such articles will be liable to the payment of customs' duties, the former to the custom-house of the afore- said principalities, and the latter to the Ottoman custom- house, the object being, that neither impoit nor export duties shall in any case be payable more than once. ART. 7. The subjects of one of the contracting parties shall enjoy, in the dominions and possessions of the other, equality of treatment with native subjects, in regard to ware- housing, and also in regard to bounties, facilities, and drawbacks. ART. 8. All articles which are or may be legally import- able into the dominions and possessions of Her Britannic Majesty, in British vessels, may likewise be imported in Ottoman vessels, without being liable to any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were imported in British vessels ; and reciprocally all articles which are or may be legally importable into the dominions and possessions of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan, in Ottoman vessels, may likewise be imported in APPENDICES. 329 British vessels, without being liable to any other or higher duties or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles were imported in Ottoman vessels. Such reciprocal equality of treatment shall take effect without distinction, whether such articles come directly from the place of origin or from any other country. In the same manner, there shall be perfect equality of treatment in regard to exportation, so that the same export duties shall be paid, and the same bounties and drawbacks allowed, in the dominions and possessions of either of the con- tracting parties, on the exportation of any article which may be legally exportable therefrom, whether such exportation shall take place in Ottoman or in British vessels, and whatever may be the place of destination, whether a port of either of the contracting parties or of any third power. ART. 9. No duties of tonnage, harbour, pilotage, light- house, quarantine, or other similar or correspondiug duties, of whatever nature, or under whatever denomination, levied in the name or for the profit of Government, public functionaries, private individuals, corporations or establishments of any kind, shall be imposed in the ports of the dominions and pos- sessions of either country, upon the vessels of the other country, which shall not equally and under the same conditions be imposed in the like cases on national vessels in general. Such equality of treatment shall apply reciprocally to the respective vessels, from whatever port or place they may arrive, and whatever may be their place of destination. ART. 10. All vessels which, according to British law, are to be deemed British vessels, and all vessels which, according to Ottoman law, are to be deemed Ottoman vessels, shall for the purposes of this treaty be deemed British or Ottoman vessels respectively. ART. 11. No charge whatsoever shall be made upon British goods being the produce or manufacture of British dominions or possessions, whether in British or other ships, nor upon any goods the produce or manufacture of any other foreign country carried in British ships, when the same shall pass through the Straits of the Dardanelles or the Bosphorus, whether such goods shall pass through the Straits in the ships 330 APPENDICES. that brought them, or shall have been transhipped to other vessels ; or whether, after having been sold for exportation, they shall, for a certain limited time, be landed in order to be placed in other vessels for the continuance of their voyage. In the latter case the goods in question shall be deposited at Constantinople in the magazines of the custom-house, called transit magazines ; and in any other places where there is no entrepot, they shall be placed under the charge of the Admi- nistration of the Customs. ART. 12. The Sublime Porte desiring to grant by means of gradual concessions all facilities in its power to transit by land, it is stipulated and agreed that the duty of three (3) per cent, levied up to this time on articles imported into Turkey, in their passage through Turkey to other countries, shall be reduced to two (2) per cent., payable, as the duty of three per cent, has been paid hitherto, on arriving in the Ottoman dominions ; and at the end of eight years, to be reckoned from the day of the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty, to a fixed and definite tax of one (1) per cent., which shall be levied, as is to be the case with respect to Turkish produce exported, to defray the expense of registration. The Sublime Porte at the same time declares that it reserves to itself the right to establish, by a special enactment, the measures to be adopted for the prevention of fraud. ART. 13. Her Britannic Majesty's subjects, or their agents, trading in goods the produce or manufacture of foreign countries, shall be subject to the same taxes, and enjoy the same rights, privileges, and immunities as foreign subjects dealing in goods the produce or manufacture of their own country. ART. 14. An exception to the stipulations laid down in the 5th Article shall be made in regard to tobacco, in any shape whatsoever, and also in regard to salt, which two articles shall cease to be included among those which the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty are permitted to import into the Ottoman dominions. British subjects, however, or their agents, buying or selling tobacco or salt for consumption in Turkey, shall be subject to the same regulations, and shall pay the same duties, as the APPENDICES. 331 most favoured Ottoman subjects trading in the two articles aforesaid ; and furthermore, as a compensation for the prohi- bition of the two articles above-mentioned, no duty whatsoever shall in future be levied on those articles when exported from Turkey by the subjects of Her Britannic Majesty. British subjects shall, nevertheless, be bound to declare the quantity of tobacco and salt thus exported to the proper cus- tom-house authorities, who shall, as heretofore, have the right to watch over the export of these articles, without thereby being entitled to levy any tax thereon on any pretence what- soever. ART. 15. It is understood between the two high contract- ing parties, that the Sublime Porte reserves to itself the faculty and right of issuing a general prohibition against the importa- tion into the Ottoman dominions of gunpowder, cannon, arms of war, or military stores ; but such prohibition will not come into operation until it shall have been officially notified, and will apply only to the articles mentioned in the decree enact- ing the prohibition. Any of these articles which have not been so specifically prohibited shall, on being imported into the Ottoman dominions, be subject to the local regulations, unless Her Britannic Majesty's Embassy shall think fit to apply for a special licence, which licence will in that case be granted, provided no valid objection thereto can be alleged. Gunpowder, in particular, when allowed to be imported, will be liable to the following stipulations : 1st. It shall not be sold by subjects of Her Britannic Majesty in quantities exceeding the quantities prescribed in the local regulations. 2nd. When a cargo or a large quantity of gunpowder arrives in an Ottoman port on board a British vessel, such vessel shall be anchored at a particular spot to be designated by the local authorities, and the gunpowder shall thence be conveyed, under the inspection of such authorities, to depots or fitting places designated by the Government, to which the parties interested shall have access under due regulations. Fowling-pieces, pistols, and ornamental or fancy weapons, as also small quantities of gunpowder for sporting, reserved 332 APPENDICES. for private use, shall not be subject to the stipulations of the present article. ART. 16. The firmans required for British merchant vessels, passing through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, shall always be delivered in such manner as to occasion to such vessels the least possible delay. ART. 17. The captains of British merchant vessels, with goods on board destined for the Ottoman Empire, shall be obliged, immediately on their arrival at the port to which they are bound, to deposit in the custom-house of the said port a true copy of their manifest. ART. 18. Contraband goods will be liable to confiscation by the Ottoman treasury, but a report or proces-verbal of the alleged act of contraband must, as soon as the said goods are seized by the authorities, be drawn up and communicated to the consular authority of the foreign subject to whom the goods said to be contraband shall belong, and no goods can be confiscated as contraband unless the fraud with regard to them shall be duly and legally proved. ART. 19. All merchandise the produce or manufacture of the Ottoman dominions and possessions imported into the dominions and possessions of Her Britannic Majesty, shall be treated in the same manner as the like merchandise the produce or manufacture of the most favoured nation. All rights, privileges, or immunities which are now or may hereafter be granted to, or suffered to be enjoyed by, the sub- jects, ships, commerce, or navigation of any foreign power in the British dominions or possessions, shall be equally granted to, and exercised and enjoyed by, the subjects, ships, com- merce, and navigation of the Ottoman Porte. ART. 20. The present treaty, when ratified, shall be sub- stituted for the convention concluded between the two high contracting parties on the 16th August, 1888, and shall re- main in force twenty-eight years from the day of the exchange of the ratifications ; each of the high contracting parties being, however, at liberty to give to the other, at the end of fourteen years (that time being fixed, as the provisions of the treaty will then have come into full force), notice for its re- vision or for its determination at the expiration of a year APPENDICES. 333 from the date of that notice, and so again at the end of twenty- one years. The present treaty shall receive its execution in all and every one of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire, that is to say, in all the possessions of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan situated in Europe or in Asia, in Egypt, and in the other parts of Africa belonging to the Sublime Porte, in Servia, and in the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Sublime Porte declares that she is ready to grant, to other foreign powers who may seek to obtain them, the com- mercial advantages contained in the stipulations of the present treaty. ART. 21. It is always understood that Her Britannic Majesty does not pretend, by any article in the present treaty, to stipulate for more than the plain and fair construction of the terms employed, nor to preclude in any manner the Otto- man Government from the exercise of its rights of internal administration, where the exercise of those rights does not evidently infringe upon the privileges accorded by ancient treaties, or by the present treaty, to British subjects or British merchandise. ART. 22. The high contracting parties have agreed to appoint, jointly, commissioners for the settlement of a tariff of custom-house duties, to be levied in conformity with the stipulations of the present treaty, as well upon merchandise of every description, being the produce or manufacture of the British dominions and possessions imported into the Sultan's dominions and possessions, as upon articles of every descrip- tion the produce or manufacture of the dominions and pos- sessions of the Sultan, which British subjects, or their agents, are free to purchase in any part of the Ottoman dominions and possessions for exportation to Great Britain or to any other country. The new tariff to be so concluded shall remain in force during seven years, dating from the 1st of October, 1861. Each of the contracting parties shall have the right, a year before the expiration of that term, to demand the revision of the tariff. But if, during the seventh year, neither the one 334 APPENDICES. nor the other of the contracting parties shall avail itself of this right, the tariff then existing shall continue to have the force of law for seven more years, dating from the day of the expiration of the seven preceding years ; and the same shall be the case with respect to every successive period of seven years. ART. 23. The present treaty shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Constantinople in two calendar months, or sooner if possible, and shall be carried into execution from the 1st of October, 1861.* Done at Kanlidja, on the 29th day of April, 1861. (L.S.) HENRY L. BULWER. (L.S.) A' ALL * By a subsequent convention it was agreed that this treaty should not come into operation until the 13th of March, 1862, APPENDIX V. HATTI-HTJMAYOCN DU 18 FEVKIER 1856 A vous, mon grand vizir Mehemed-Emin-A'ali- Pasha ; que Dieu vous accorde la grandeur et double votre pouvoir. Mon desir le plus cher a toujours ete d'assurer le bonheur de toutes les classes de mes sujets que la divine Providence a places sous mon sceptre imperial, et, depuis mon avenement au trone, je n'ai cesse de faire tous mes efforts dans ce sens. Graces en soient rendues au Tout-Puissant ! Ces efforts inces- sants ont deja porte des fruits utiles et nombreux. De jour en jour, le bonheur de la nation et la richesse de mes Etats vont en augmentant. Desirant aujourd'hui renouveler et elargir encore les reglements nouveaux, institues en vne d'arriver a obtenir un etat de choses confonne a la dignite de mon empire et a la position qu'il occupe parmi les nations civilisees, et les droits de mon empire ayant aujourd'hui, par la fidelite et les louables efforts de tous mes sujets, et par le concours bienveillant et amical des grandes puissances, mes nobles alliees, recu de 1'exterieur une consecration qui doit etre le commencement d'une ere nouvelle, je veux augment er le bien-etre et la prosperite interieur, rendre heureux tous mes sujets, qui sont tous egaux a mes yeux et me sont egale- ment chers, et qui sont unis entre eux par des rapports cor- diaux de patriotisme, et assurer les moyens de faire, de jour en jour, croitre la prosperite de mon empire. J'ai done resolu et j'ordonne la mise a execution des me- sures suivantes : 1 . Les garanties promises de notre part a tous les sujets de mon empire par le Haiti- Humdyoun de Gulhane et les lois du Tanzimat, sans distinction de classe ni de culte, pour la securite de leurs personnes et de leurs biens, et pour la con- servation de leur honneur, sont aujourd'hui confirmees et consolidees, et des mesures efficaces seront prises pour qu'elles re9oivent leur plein et en tier effet. 336 APPENDICES. 2. Tons les privileges et immunites spirituels accordes ab antique, et a des dates posterieures, a toutes les communautes chretiennes ou a d'autres rites non musulmans dans mon empire, sous mon egide protectrice, sont confirmes et main- tenus. 3. Chaque communaute chretienne on d'autres rites non musulmans sera tenue, dans un. delai fixe, et avec le concours d'une commission formee ad hoc dans son sein, de proceder avec ma haute approbation, et sous la surveillance de ma Sublime-Porte, a 1'examen de ses immunites et privileges, et d'y discuter et soumettre a ma Sublime- Porte des reformes exigees par le progres des lumieres et des temps. Les pou- voirs concedes aux patriarches et aux eveques des rites Chretiens, par le sultan Mahomet II et ses successeurs, seront mis en harmonie avec la position nouvelle que mes intentions genereuses et bienveillantes assurent a ces communautes. Le principe de la nomination a vie des patriarches, apres la re- vision des reglements d'election aujourd'hui en vigueur, sera exactement applique, conformement a la teneur de leurs firmans d'investiture. Les patriarches, les metropolitains, archeveques, eveques et rabbins, seront assermentes a leur entree en fonctions, d'apres une formule concertee en commun entra ma Sublime-Porte et les chefs spirituels des diverses communautes. Les redevances ecclesiastiques, de quelque forme et nature qu'elles soient, seront supprimees et rempla- cees par la fixation des revenus des patriarches et chefs des communautes, et par 1'allocation de traitements et de salaires equitablement proportionnes a 1'importance, au rang et a la dignite des divers membres du clerge. II ne sera port6 aucune atteinte aux proprietes mobilieres et immobilieres des divers clerges Chretiens; toutefois, 1'administration temporelle des communautes chretiennes, ou d'autres rites non musul- mans, sera placee sous la sauvegarde d'une assemblee choisie dans le sein de chacune desdites communautes parmi les membres du clerge et les la'iques. 4. Dans les villes, bourgades et villages ou la population appartiendra en totalite au meme culte, il ne sera apporte aucune entrave a la reparation, d'apres les plans primitifs, des edifices destines au culte, anx ecoles, aux hopitaux et aux APPENDICES. 337 cimetieres. Les plans de ces divers edifices, en cas d'erection nouvelle, approuves par les patriarches ou chefs des commu- nantes, devront etre soumis a ma Sublime-Porte, qui les ap- prouvera par mon ordre imperial, ou fera ses observations dans un delai determine. Chaque culte, dans les localites ou ne se trouveront point d'autres confessions religieuses, ne sera soumis a aucune espece de restriction dans la manifestation publique de sa religion. D ans les villes, bourgades et villages ou les cultes sont melanges, chaque communaute, habitant un quartier distinct, pourra egalement, en se conformant aux prescriptions ci-dessus indiquees, reparer et consolider ses eglises, ses hopitaux, ses ecoles et ses cimetieres. Lorsqu'il s'agira de la construction d'edifices nouveaux, 1'autorisation necessaire sera demandee, par 1'organe des patriarches ou chefs des communautes, a ma Sublime- Porte, qui prendra une decision souveraine, en accordant cette autorisation, a mains ^obstacles administratifs. L 'intervention de 1'autorite admi- nistrative dans tous les actes de cette nature sera entierement gratuite. Ma Sublime-Porte prendra des mesures pour assurer a ehaque culte, quel-que-soit le nombre des adherents, la pleine liberte de son exercice. 5. Toute distinction ou appellation tendant a rendre une classe quelconque des sujets de mon empire inferieure a une autre classe, a raison du culte, de la langue ou de la race, sera a jamais effacee du protocole administratif. Les lois seviront centre 1'emploi, entre particuliers ou de la part des autorites, de toute qualification injurieuse ou blessante. 6. Vu quetous les cultes sont et seront librement pratiques dans mes fitats, aucun sujet de mon empire ne sera gene dans 1'exercice de la religion qu'il professe, et ne sera d'aucune maniere inquiete a cet egard. Personne ne pourra etre contrait a changer de religion. 7. La nomination et le choix de tous les fonctionnaires et autres employes de mon empire etant entierement dependant s de ma volonte souveraine, tous les sujets de mon empire, sans distinction de nationalite, seront admissibles aux emplois publics et aptes a les occuper selon leurs capacites et leur merite, et conformement a des regies d'une application generale. 22 338 APPENDICES. 8. Tons les sujets de mon empire seront indistinctement reus dans les ecoles civiles efc militaires du Gouvernement, s'ils remplissent d'ailleurs les conditions d'age et d'examens specifiees dans les reglements organiques desdites ecoles. De plus, chaque communaute est autorisee a etablir des ecoles publiques de sciences, d'arts et d'industrie. Seulement, le mode d'enseignement et le choix des professeurs dans les ecoles de cette categorie seront sous le controle d'un conseil mixte d'instruction publique, dont les membres seront nommes par un ordre souverain de ma part. 9. Toutes les affaires commerciales, correctionnelles et criminelles, entre des musulmans et des sujets Chretiens ou d'autres rites non musulmans, ou entre Chretiens et autres sujets de rites differents, seront deferees a des tribunaux mixtes. L'audience de ces tribunaux sera publique ; les parties seront mises en presence et produiront leurs temoins, dont les depositions seront reues indistinctement sous un serment prete selon la loi religieuse de chaque culte. Les proces ay ant trait aux affaires civiles continueront d'etre juges publiquement, d'apres les lois et les reglements, par- devant les conseils mixtes des provinces, en presence du gouverneur et du juge du lieu. 10. Les proces civils speciaux, comme ceux de successions ou autres de ce genre, entre les sujets d'un meme rite chretien on autre non musulman, pourront, a leur demande, etre envoyes par-devant les conseils des patriarches ou des com- munautes. 11. Les lois penales, correctionnelles et commerciales, et les regies de procedure a appliquer dans les tribunaux mixtes, seront completees le plus tot possible et codifiees. II en sera public des traductions dans toutes les langues en usage dans mon empire. 12. II sera precede, dans le plus bref delai possible, a la reforme du systeme penitentiaire dans son application aux maisons de detention, de punition ou de correction et autres etablissements de meme nature, afin de concilier les droits de 1'humanite avec ceux de la justice. Aucune peine corporelle, meme dans les prisons, ne pourra etre appliquee que con- formement a des reglements disciplinaires emanes de n;a APPENDICES. 339 Sublime-Porte, et tout ce qui resemblerait a la torture sera radicalement aboli. Les infractions a ce sujet seront severe- ment reprimees, et entraineront, en outre, de plein droit, la punition, en conformite du code criminel, des autorites qui les auraient commises. 13. L'organisation de la police dans la capitale, dans les villes de province et dans les campagnes, sera revisee de fa9on a donner a tous les sujets paisibles de mon empire les garanties desirables de securite quant, a leurs personnes et a leurs biens. 14. L'egalite des impots entrainant 1'egalite des charges, comme celle des devoirs entraine cello des droits, les sujets chretiens et des autres rites non musulmans devront, ainsi qu'il 1'a ete anterieurement resolu, aussi bien que les musul- mans, satisfaire aux obligations de la loi de recrutement. Le principe du remplacement ou da rachat sera admis. 15. II sera public, dans le plus bref delai possible, une loi complete sur le mode d'admission et de service des sujets chretiens et d'autres rites non musulmans dans 1'armee. 16. II sera precede a une reforme dans la composition des conseils provinciaux et communaux, pour garantir la sincerite des choix des delegues des communautes musulmanes, chre- tiennes et autres non musulmanes, ainsi qne la liberte des votes dans les conseils. Ma Sublime-Porte avisera a 1'emploi des moyens les plus efficaces de connaitre exactement et de controler le resultat des deliberations et des decisions prises. 17. Comme les lois qui regissent 1'achat, la vente et la disposition des proprietes immobilieres sont communes a tous les sujets de mon empire, il pourra etre permis aux etrangers de posseder des proprietes foncieres dans mes Etats, en se conformant aux lois et aux reglements de police, en acquittant les memes charges que les indigenes, et apres que des arrange- ments auront eu lieu avec les puissances etrangeres. 18. Les impots sont exigibles au meme titre de tous les sujets de mon empire, sans distinction de classe ni de culte. On avisera aux moyens les plus prompts et les plus energiques de corriger les abus dans la perception des impots, et notam- ment des dimes. Le systeme de la perception directe sera successivement, et aussi-tot que faire se pourra, substitue au 340 APPENDICES. regime des fermes dans toutes les branches des revenus de 1'Etat. Tant que ce systeme demeurera en vigueur, il sera interdit, sous les peines les plus severes, a tous les agents de Vautorite et a tous les membres des medjlis de se rendre adjudicataires des fermes qui seront annoncees avec publicite et concurrence, ou d'avoir une part quelconque d'interet dans 1'exploitation de ces fermes. Les impositions locales seront, autant que possible, calculees de fa9on a ne pas affecter les sources de la production, comme a ne pas entraver le mouve- ment du commerce interieur. 19. Les travaux d'utilite publique recevront une dotation convenable, a laquelle concourront' les impositions particu- lieres et speciales des provinces appeleea a jouir de 1'etablisse- ment des voies de communication par terre et par mer. 20. Une loi speciale ayant deja ete rendue, qui ordonne que le budget des recettes et des depenses de 1'Etat soit fixe et communique chaque annee, cette loi sera observee de la maniere la plus scrupuleuse. On procedera a la revision des traitements afifectes a chaque emploi. 21. Les chefs et un delegue de chaque communaute designes par ma Sublime-Porte seront appeles a prendre part aux deliberations du conseil supreme de justice dans toutes les circonstances qui interesseraient la generalite des sujets de mon empire. Us seront specialement convoques a cet effet par mon grand vizir. 22. Le mandat des delegues sera annuel. Us preteront serment en entrant en charge. Tous les membres du conseil, dans les reunions ordinaires et extraordinaires, emettront librement leur avis et leur vote, sans qu'on puisse jamais les inquieter a ce sujet. 23. Les lois contre la corruption, la concussion ou la mal- versation, seront appliquees, d'apres les formes legales, a tous les sujets de mon empire, quelles-que-soient leur classe et la nature de leurs fonctions. 24. On s'occupera de la creation de banques et d'autres institutions semblables, pour arriver a la reforme du systeme monetaire et financier, ainsi que de la creation de fonds destines a augmenter les sources de la richesse materielle de mon empire. APPENDICES. 341 25. On s'occupera egalement de 1'etablissement de routes et de canaux, qui rendront les communications plus faciles et augmenteront les sources de la richesse du pays. On abolira tout ce qui peut entraver le commerce et 1'agriculture. Pour arriver a ces buts, on recherchera les moyens de mettre a profit les sciences, les arts et les capitaux de 1'Europe, et de les mettre ainsi successivement en execution. Tels etant mes volontes et mes ordres, vous, qui etes mon grand vizir, vous ferez, suivant 1' usage, publier, soit dans ma capitale, soit dans toutes les parties de mon empire, ce firman imperial, et vous veillerez avec attention et prendrez toutes les mesures necessaires afin que tous les ordres qu'il contient soient dorenavant executes avec la plus rigoureuse ponc- tualite. APPENDIX VI. LAWS RELATIVE TO THE CONVERSION OF THE INTERNAL DEBT OP THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE. I. Law for the Foi-mation of the Great Book of the Public Debt of the Ottoman Empire. ART. 1. A Great Book of the Public Debt is formed, and the said Public Debt shall be called " The General Debt of the Ottoman Empire." The General Debt bears an annual interest of five per cent., guaranteed by the general revenues of the Empire. The administration of the Great Book is entrusted to an Officer of State, who has the title of Governor of the General Debt of the Empire (Eshamie Ommoumyie Emini). ART. 2. Every inscription of a Debt in the Great Book must be directed by a special law, which shall be published in the newspapers of the capital. ART. 3. The Bonds of the General Debt are divided into three classes of securities, viz. : 1st. Bonds of one hundred and ten gold medjidies, calcu- lated at the rate of one hundred pounds sterling, and two thousand five hundred francs. 2nd. Bonds of fifty-five gold medjidies, calculated at the rate of fifty pounds sterling, and one thousand two hundred and fifty francs. 3rd. Bonds of eleven gold medjidies, calculated at the rate of ten pounds sterling, and two hundred and fifty francs. The conversion of the gold medjidies into pounds sterling and francs has been calculated in even sums, in order to avoid the inscription upon the Bonds of fractions of pounds or francs. Every Bond, with its number and date of issue, is made the object of a special inscription in the Great Book of the General Debt. APPENDICES. 343 To the Bonds (which are drawn up in Turkish, French, and English) are affixed the signatures of the Minister of Finance, of the Governor of the General Debt, and of a Con- troller delegated by the Grand Council. ART. 4. The payment of the interest of Bonds, at the rate of five per cent, per annum, as mentioned in Art. 1, takes place half-yearly, on the l/13th of January and the l/13th of July in every year, at Constantinople, and in the principal towns of the Empire, which shall be designated by the Government ; also at London, Paris, Amsterdam, and Frankfort, through the Imperial Ottoman Bank. The Interest Coupons shall be paid exclusively in gold medjidies within the Ottoman Empire, in pounds sterling in London, and in francs in Paris, Amsterdam, and Frank- fort. For this purpose the sums to be applied in payment of interest shall be paid by the Minister of Finance to the Im- perial Ottoman Bank, which shall pay or transmit the said funds as ordered by the Governor of the General Debt. These payments shall be made in time so as to secure the payment of the interest of the Bonds on their falling due at the half-yearly dates above fixed. ART. 5. The Governor of the General Debt shall with- draw from the Imperial Ottoman Bank, at the times and in the manner which he shall determine, the Coupons of In- terest paid in the capital, in the other towns, either Turkish or Foreign, where the said Bank shall have to carry out those payments. Each coupon thus paid and returned shall bear a stamp (timbre de liberation), to be affixed by the Imperial Ottoman Bank, and stating the date of the actual payment of the coupon. The Governor of the General Debt shall give a pro- visional receipt to the Imperial Ottoman Bank for the cou- pons thus returned, which provisional receipt shall be replaced by a final receipt for the discharge of the Bank, after the veri- fication of the coupons, which shall take place within two months at the latest. ART. 6. The Bonds of the General Debt, as well as the 344 APPENDICES. Coupons of Interest, shall be drawn up according to the models annexed to the present Law. ART. 7. Besides the interest at the rate of five per cent, per annum upon the Bonds of the General Debt, a sum equi- valent to one per cent, of the total and primitive amount of the Inscribed Debt, shall be taken yearly from the General Revenues of the Empire, and appropriated to the amortiza- tion of the General Debt, as prescribed by the following Articles of the present Law. The Minister of Finance will pay the said one per cent, of the total amount of the Debt, viz., one-half per cent, on the l/13th of January, and one-half per cent on the l/13th July in every year. The amount of these payments shall, until used for its objects, be placed provisionally by the Governor of the General Debt, according to the terms of Art. 9. ART. 8. The Minister of Finance shall pay, every year, into the Imperial Ottoman Bank, besides the sum set apart for the Sinking Fund, as mentioned in the foregoing Article, the amount of the interest on Bonds previously redeemed, not including those which might have been repurchased by the Minister of Finance, according to Art. 10, which amount shall be held at the disposal of the Governor of the. General Debt, and equally appropriated to the redemption ; so that the Capital of every Debt entered in the Great Book shall be wholly redeemed in a period of thirty-seven years from the date of the inscription in the Great Book, and this in the following manner : There shall bo formed a Common Fund, composed of the sums payable as above, viz. : 1st. One per cent, of the total amount of the General Debt. 2nd. Amount of the interest on Bonds previously re- deemed. The Governor of the General Debt shall dispose out of this Common Fund of a sum sufficient for the purchase of a number of Bonds forming an amount nominally equal to that of the Common Fund. The said purchase shall take place by order of the Governor of the General Debt, between the 1st March and the 31st January in each year, at the current APPENDICES. 345 price in all markets where the Bonds of the Debt shall be officially quoted. The sum remaining of the Common Fund, after deduction of the amount required for the annual purchase aforesaid, shall form the Reserve Fund, and be paid annually into the " Caisse" of the Reserve. The Bonds thus purchased shall bear a stamp proving their being redeemed (timbre d'amortissement). ART. 9.- The direction of the Reserve Fund and of the Sinking Fund belongs to the Governor of the General Debt, and there shall be special and separate accounts for each of these two branches. The Reserve Fund shall be formed 1st. Of the balance arising from the difference between the sum set apart for the redemption and the actual purchase money paid as specified in Art. 8. 2nd. Of the total amount of the Coupons of Interest which have not been presented within a period of five years from their falling due, as specially mentioned in Art. 12, and of other unforeseen resources. The Reserve Fund shall be invested in negotiable securities bearing a minimum rate of interest of five per cent, per annum by the Governor of the General Debt, who shall, to this effect, come to a previous understanding with the Minister of Finance. The Minister of Finance can borrow part of the Reserve Fund, at the rate of five per cent, per annum against giving Notes, payable three, six, nine, or twelve months after date, at the maximum. The total amounts which the Minister of Finance is entitled to borrow from the Reserve Fund are limited and fixed as follows : During the first period of seven years from the formation of the Reserve Fund, the amount to be borrowed shall not exceed the five-tenths of the total amount of the Reserve Fund, deduction being made of the sum set apart towards the extinction of Bonds by the Minister of Finance, according to Art. 10. During the second period of seven years, the four- tenths. 346 APPENDICES. During the third period of seven years, the three-tenths. Daring the fourth period of seven years, the two- tenths. After the expiration of this last period of seven years, the amounts that may be borrowed shall not exceed one-tenth of the assets of the Reserve Fund. The interest arising from those investments shall be capitalized. ART. 10. Every year, dating from the formation of the Reserve Fund, the Minister of Finance, authorized by the Grand Council, shall be entitled to withdraw one-tenth of the total amount of the Reserve Fund, which shall be entirely employed in extinction of a certain number of Bonds. The purchase of these Bonds, and their annulation in the Great Book, shall be effected by the Governor of the General Debt, in the manner determined by Art. 8. The General Debt will thus be diminished by a sum equal to the amount of the cancelled Bonds, so that the sums com- posing the Common Fund, set apart for the Sinking Fund, according to Art. 8, shall thenceforth be taken only out of the Balance of the General Debt. The Bonds thus purchased and cancelled by the Minister of Finance, shall bear a stamp proving their being cancelled (timbre d'annulation). ART. 11. A Board of Supervision shall be formed, to consist of at least five, and not more than nine Members, to be chosen from the Directors of the Imperial Ottoman Bank and the Bankers or leading Merchants of Constantinople, and appointed by the Imperial Government, upon the proposition of the Minister of Finance, the said Board shall examine, between the 1st February and the 1st March of each year, the Books of the Administration of the Sinking Fund and of the Reserve Fund, and ascertain the state of the " Caisse " and Portfolio, and shall publish in the Official Papers the Annual Report of the Administration and the Reserve Fund. In this Report shall be stated the numbers, price, and date of the repurchase both of the Bonds redeemed according to Art. 8, and of the Bonds repurchased and cancelled by the Minister of Finance, according to Art. 10, and the exact APPENDICES. 347 amount of coin in hand, as well as the securities composing the Portfolio of the Reserve Fund. The Council of Supervision are also entitled to examine, whenever they think proper, and at all times of the year, the Books of the Administration of the Sinking Fund and the Reserve Fund, and to ascertain the state of cash and securities in hand. The Members of the Council of Supervision are appointed for three years, at the expiration of which term they shall be replaced or re-elected. In case of death or resignation of one or more Members of the Council of Supervision before the expiration of their term of office, they shall be replaced in the manner above mentioned. ART. 12. The amount of the Coupons of Interest, which should not have been presented within nine months after the date of their falling due, shall be invested by the Governor of the General Debt, and the interest arising from this invest- ment shall belong to the Reserve Fund. At the expiration of three years from the termination of this first term, that is, three years and nine months from the falling due of the coupons, the Governor of the General Debt shall cause two different insertions of the numbers of the unpresented coupons to be made in the leading papers of Constantinople, London, Paris, Amstersdam, and Frankfort. These numbers shall be published anew, through the same agency, at the end of the fourth year following the expiration of the first period of nine months, that is to say, four years and nine months after the falling due of the coupons. Should the payment of the unpresented coupons not be claimed within a delay of three months from the date of this last publication, they shall become forfeited. Consequently, the inscription of these coupons shall be cancelled in the Great Book, and their amount finally added to the Reserve Fund. In any case, the interest arising from the investment of these coupons after the expiration of the first period of nine months, and which might be claimed before the deter- mination of the five years, shall of right belong to the Reserve Fund. 348 APPENDICES. ART. 13. When there shall be no more debts inscribed iii the Great Book, and when the Imperial Government shall be free from every engagement respecting the same, the Reserve Fund being no longer necessary for the guarantee of the debt, shall finally return to the Imperial Treasury. As for the Bonds which in the case mentioned in the above paragraph, should still remain inscribed in the Great Book, though their existence be not proved, the Governor shall take measures so as to insure, within a stated period, either their presentation and reimbursement, or their annu- lation. ART 14. No extension of time shall be granted to the Concessionees of Railways or other Public Works, for which a minimum rate of interest has been guaranteed by the State, and which are not completed within the time fixed by the Original Concessions or Supplementary Acts. ART. 15. No inscription in the Great Book of the General Debt shall be decreed, unless it has been previously provided for the payment of the interest and sinking fund of each new inscription by means of equivalent resources in the General Revenues of the Empire, arising either from an increase of receipts or from a diminution of expenditure. ART. 16. The Grand Vizier and the Ministers of Finance are commissioned, in their respective capacities, to carry out the present Law. ART. 17. The present Law shall be in force from the date of its promulgation. The present Law was promulgated on the I7/29th March, 1865. II. Law for the Inscription in the Great Book of the General Debt of the Ottoman Empire of a Sum of Forty Million Gold Medjidies. ART. 1. It is ordered that a sum of forty million gold medjidies be inscribed in the Great Book of the General Debt, represented by Bonds to be created and entered according to the terms of the Law promulgated on the 17/29th March, 1865. APPENDICES. 349 ART. 2. The first Coupon of Interest of these Bonds shall become due on the 1/1 3th July, 1865. ART. 3. The sum of forty million gold medjidies in Bonds, inscribed in the Great Book of the General Debt, according to Art. 1 of the present Law, shall be disposed of as follows : 1st. Twenty- nine million gold medjidies in Bonds of the General Debt shall be employed in unification of the Interior Debts . 29,000,000 2nd. Four millions shall be offered for public subscription in Constantinople, London, Paris, Amsterdam, and Frankfort, and the result of the subscription shall be applied to the service of the Treasury. These four millions represent, in capital, the difference between the expenses re- sulting from the four issues of Eshami-Djedides, of the Tahvilati-Mumtaze, and the Ten-year Serghis, and the charges resulting through the Bonds of the General Debt, which shall replace those securities, so that this issue shall not involve any new charge upon the Treasury . . . 4,000,000 3rd. The Balance of the forty millions, say seven million gold medjidies in Bonds of the General Debt, shall form a Reserve specially set apart for Public Works 7,000,000 40,000,000 The seven million Reserve Bonds shall only be issued as follows : Two millions not before one year after the subscription for the four millions ; three millions not before one year after this second issue ; and the balance, say two millions, not before one year after the last issue. Each issue shall, in every case, be preceded by an official notice published in the papers, mentioning the time and the amount of issue intended. ART. 4. The Grand Vizier and the Minister of Finance are commissioned to execute the present Law, which shall be 350 APPENDICES. published according to Art. 2 of the Law of the 17/29th March, 1865. ART. 5. The present Law shall be in force from the date of its promulgation. The present Law was promulgated on the 18/30th March, 1865. III. Law for the Conversion of the Internal Public Debt of the Ottoman Empire. CHAPTER I." GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS. ART. 1. The Securities of the Internal Debt, com- prising 1st. The Eshami-Djedides (Consols) of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd and 4th issue ; 2nd. The Tahvilati-Mumtaze ; 3rd. The Ten-years Serghis (on Seneliks) ; shall be converted into Bonds of the General Debt. This conversion shall take place on the conditions and in the forms specified in the following Articles of the present Law. CHAPTEE II. CONVERSION OF THE ESHAMI-DJEDIDES. ART. 2. In exchange for the nominal amount of 100 gold medjidies, in Eshami-Djedides of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th issue, Bonds of the General Debt shall be issued for the nominal amount of 121 gold medjidies, equal to 110 sterling, or 2,750 francs ART. 3. As the first Coupon of the Bonds of the General Debt falls due on the l/13th July next, whilst the Coupons of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd issue fall due on the 1/1 3th March, and those of the 4th issue on the 1/1 3th May ; the payment of the interest thereon shall be arranged in the following manner : APPENDICES. 351 The Coupon of interest of the Eshami-Djedides of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd issue shall be paid as formerly, on the l/13th March, and on the conversion the holders of Eshami- Djedides of each of the three issues shall receive Bonds of the General Debt whose first coupon shall be detached, and against which a special coupon shall be delivered to them, falling due on the l/13th July, and representing interest at 5 per cent, per annum upon the same Bonds of the General Debt, from the l/13th March to the l/13th July, that is to say, bearing four months' interest. The Interest Coupon of the Eshami-Djedides of the 4th issue shall be paid as formerly, on the l/13th May next, and the holders of this issue shall receive, on conversion, Bonds of the General Debt, from which the first coupon shall be cut off, and in exchange for which special coupons shall be delivered, falling due on the l/13th July, representing interest at 5 per cent, per annum on the same Bonds, from the 1 /13th May to the l/13th July, that is to say, bearing two months' interest. In order to facilitate the conversion, the drawings for the amortization of the Eshami-Djedides of the 4th issue, which ought to take place on the 1/1 3th April next, shall be antici- pated and take place immediately on the promulgation of the present Law. CHAPTER, III. CONVERSION OP THE TAHVILATI-MUMTAZE. ART. 4. In exchange for a nominal amount of ] 00 gold medjidies in tahvilati-mumtaze, Bonds of the General Debt of the nominal amount of 143 gold medjidies, equal to 130 sterling, or 3,250 francs, shall be issued. ART 5. The coupons of the tahvilati-mumtaze falling due on the l/13th July next, shall be paid as formerly, and the holders of these securities shall- receive at the time of the conversion, Bonds of the General Debt, from which the first coupon falling due also on the l/13th July next, shall be cut off. 352 APPENDICES. CHAPTEE IV. CONVERSION OF TEN-YEARS SERGHIS. ART. 6. In exchange for the nominal amount of 11,000 piastres in Ten-years Serghis Bonds of the General Debt, shall be given the nominal amount of 110 gold medjidies, or 100 sterling, or 2,500 francs. ART. 7. The interest of the Ten-years Serghis due, and falling due, up to l/13th June next, shall be paid in cash, in three equal instalments, viz. : One-third on the l/13th .July, 1865 ; One-third on the l/13th Jan., 1866 ; One-third on the 1/1 3th July, 1866. The holders of the Ten-years Serghis shall receive Bonds of the G-eneral Debt, of which the first coupon shall be cut off, and in lieu thereof they shall receive, 1st. A coupon falling due on the 1st July, and representing interest at 5 per cent, per annum on the same Bonds from the 1/1 3th June to the I/ 13th July, that is to say, bearing a month's interest. 2nd. Three coupons, representing the interest falling due on the l/13th June before-mentioned, and payable on the l/13th July, 1865, l/13th January, 1866, and the 1st July, 1866, together with the half-yearly coupons of the General Debt. CHAPTEE V. -ARRANGEMENTS COMMON TO THE THREE PRECEDING CHAPTERS. ART. 8. The conversion of the three classes of securities before-mentioned into Bonds of the General Debt, in ac- cordance with the preceding conditions, shall be carried out simultaneously in Constantinople, London, and Paris, in the establishments which shall be chosen for that purpose, and the names of which shall be published in the leading papers of the three above-mentioned cities. The conversion shall commence immediately after the official notice shall have been inserted in the leading papers APPENDICES. 353 of the three above-mentioned cities, which notice shall be published on the promulgation of the present Law. ART. 9. The securities to be converted, to whichever class they belong, shall be deposited with the establishments entrusted with the conversion within the period specified in Art. 11, in exchange for Provisional Certificates, signed by a Commissioner appointed by the Governor of the General Debt. The securities thus deposited shall be examined in Constantinople, and, within a period of three months from their being deposited, Bonds of the General Debt shall be delivered in exchange for the Provisional Certificates given at the respective offices appointed for this purpose at Con- stantinople, London, and Paris. The Eshami-Djedides of each of the four issues, and the tahvilati-mumtaze to be converted, shall be presented without the coupon for interest falling due respectively the 1/13 March, and the 1/13 July, 1865. ART. 10. Provisional Certificates shall be delivered for each class of Bond presented for conversion. Bach certificate shall express 1. The number of Bonds deposited. 2. The amount and number of each Bond. 3. The total amount of the Bonds deposited. 4. An account of the coupons attached to each security. 5. The amount of Bonds of the General Debt which are to be given in exchange for the Certificate. 6. The name and address of the depositor. The securities to be converted shall bear the signature of the depositor. Each depositor shall be entitled to fix at his convenience the number of Bonds to be included in the same Certificate. Bonds of the General Debt shall be delivered to the bearer of the Certificate, after verification being made of the depo- sited securities as before mentioned. ART. 11. The securities to be converted must be deposited within a period of three months from the date of the official notice stipulated in Art. 8. All securities, to whatever class they belong, which shall not be presented and deposited within a period of three 23 354 APPENDICES. months from the date of the official notice published in the papers, shall not, after the expiration of three months, be deemed convertible, except by a deduction of 10 per cent., which shall be retained from the amount of the Bonds of the General Debt, delivered in exchange for the securities pre- sented for conversion. ART. 12. The said securities shall be convertible on the conditions stipulated in the preceding Article, for one month and a half after the expiration of the above period of three months. The conversion shall be finally closed at the termination of this new period, that is to say, four and a half months after the official notice has been published in the newspapers according to Article 8. ART. 13. The holders of the securities to be converted, to whichever class they belong, shall be entitled to receive Bonds of the General Debt, together with the first coupon of interest, on paying in cash the amount of interest at 5 per cent, per annum due upon the Bonds of the General Debt, from the l/13th January, 1865, to the falling due of the coupon of the securities to be converted, viz. : For the Eshami-djedides of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd issues, from the l/13th January to the l/13th March, 1865. For the Eshami-djedides of the 4th issue, from the l/13th January to the l/13th May, 1865. For the tahvilati-mumtaze from the l/13th January to the l/13th July, 1865. For the Ten-years Serghis from l/13th January to l/13th June, 1865. This payment must be made at the time of the deposit of the securities to be converted, and shall be mentioned in the Provisional Certificates. CHAPTEE VI. TRANSITORY ARRANGEMENTS. ART. 13. The Grand Vizier is authorized to act in concert with the Minister of Finance in all measures necessary to APPENDICES. 355 insure the prompt execution of the present Law, and for this purpose to conclude all conventions relating thereto. ABT. 15. The Grand Vizier and the Minister of Finance shall carry into execution the present Law, which shall be in force from the date of its promulgation. The present Law has been promulgated on the 19/blst March, 1865 (4 Zilcade 1281). APPENDIX VII. REGLEMENT SUE LES MINES DE L'EMPIRE OTTOMAN. SONT considered comme substances minerales, 1'or, 1'argent, le platine, le plomb, le cuivre, 1'etain, le fer, le zinc, le mer- cure, le manganese, 1'arsenic, 1'orpiment, le chrome, le cobalt, le nickel, le souffre, les differentes especes de charbon deterre, le sel gemme, 1'alun, 1'emeri, et toutes autres substances de meme nature renfermees dans le sein de la terre ou existant a sa surface dans toute 1'etendue du territoire Ottoman. Ne sont pas ranges au nombre des substances minerales : le marbre employe dans les constructions et autres usages analogues, le granit, le koufeki, les pierres a fusil, a' platre et a chaux, celles de pavage, les kaolins, sables, argiles, terres a poterie, efc en general les substances terreuses et pierreuses d'une nature quelconque. L'extraction et le traitement des substances minerales ne peuvent avoir lieu qu'en vertu d'une autorisation rendue dans la forme d'un Trade Imperial. Urie administration speciale est desormais appelee a con- naitre de toute question relative aux substances minerales ci-dessus enumerees. Titre I. De la Recherche des Mines. AKT. 1.- Tout proprietaire est maitre de se livrer, dans sa propriete, a toute espece de fouilles ayant exclussivement pour but la recherche des substances minerales qui peuvent s'y trouver, sans etre oblige de se munir a cet efiet d'aucune autorisation. ART. 2. Nul ne pourra faire des recherches de mines, sur les terrains possedes par un tiers qui ne les explore pas par lui- meme, qu'en vertu d'une autorisation speciale delivree par APPENDICES. 357 1'administration des mines dans les formes qui seront indiquees ci-apres. AET. 3. Ceux qui voudront entreprendre des recherches de substances minerales sur des terres domaniales (Era/ii- Miriye) libres, seront tenus egalement de se munir d'une autorisation de 1'administration des mines. ART. 4. Dans le cas ou les terrains formant 1'objet de la demande en autorisation se trouveront faire partie des terres d'un bourg, d'un ou de plusieurs villages affectees a 1'usage du public, telles que paturages, fore ts, lieux de marche, places publiques, 1'autorisation d' explorer ne sera accordee que lorsqu'il aura ete constate, par des renseignements pris sur les lieux, que les besoins des habitants des dits bourgs ou villages ne souflriront pas, par suite de 1'ouverture de la mine. ART. 5. Toute demande en permission d'exploration sera adressee sous forme de petition a 1'administration des mines. Cette petition contiendra la designation du lieu ou les rech- erches seront entreprises, de la province et du Caza ou il se trouve situe, les noms et prenoms du proprietaire, la nature des substances minerales qu'on se propose de rechercher, 1'engagement de repondre de tous dommages qui resulteraient des fouilles. Une expedition de cette petition sera adressee a 1'ingenieur du lieu tout d'abord invite a donner son avis concernant la probabilite du succes des recherches a entreprendre, la con- formite des lieux a la description qui en est faite, le mode a adopter dans la conduite des travaux, le montant des indem- nites que le proprietaire aura a reclamer et qui seront approxi- mativement evaluees par des experts. A ces indications 1'ingenieur joindra son propre avis sur 1'affaire. ART. G. Le delai de 1'exploration ne pourra depasser la duree de deux ans, a compter de la date de 1'autorisation accordee. A 1'expiration de ce delai, les explorateurs auront la faculte d'en demander la prolongation a 1'administration des mines, qui pourra I'accorcler si elle le juge convenable a la condition que les dits explorateurs repondront des indem- nites envers le proprietaire comme par le passe et apres avis conforme de 1'ingenieur du lieu. 358 APPENDICES. ART. 7. Lorsque les travaux de recherche n'auront pas commences dans les trois mois a compter de la date de 1'auto- risation d' exploration accordee, comme aussi dans le cas ou les travaux d'exploration ne seront pas poursuivis d'une maniere continue, si 1'exploratenr n'a pas d'excuse plausible a faire valoir aupres du conseil de 1'administration des mines, 1'auto- risation accordee sera revoquee, et il pourra en etre dispose au profit d'autrui, sans que le premier permissionnaire soit autorise a elever aucune reclamation d'indemnite du chef de 1'autorisation revoquee. ART. 8. Nul ne pourra sans le consentement du proprie- taire faire des recherches de mines, operer des Bondages et des fouilles, creuser des puits, ouvrir des galeries, construire des magasins d'outils et de machines metallurgiques, dans des enclos mures, ni dans les terrains attenant aux habitations, cours et jardins, dans la distance de cent cinquante archines. A cet effet, le consentement des proprietaires des dits enclos, murs, jardins et habitations sera toujours requis. ART. 9. Le proprietaire qui peut faire des recherches, sans permission prealable sur ses proprietes, est tenu d'obtenir une concession, conformement aux reglements, pour le cas ou il voudrait j organiser une exploitation reguliere. ART. 10. Si la personne qui, a la suite des recherches qu'elle a faites, a decouvert une mine, en demande la conces- sion, elle lui sera accordee a condition qu'elle s'engagera a 1'ex- ploiter conformement a 1'Art. 12 ci-apres. ART. 11.- On ne pourra accorder d'autorisation d'explorer un terrain, pour lequel une autre autorisation d'exploration aura ete accordee anterieurement. Titre II. De V exploitation des Mines. ART. 12. Toute autorisation d'exploitation de mines sera precedee d'une instruction a 1'effet de constater : 1. Que 1'exploitation sera profitable ; 2. Qu'elle ne porterapas prejudice a quelque autre exploi- tation de mine ou a quelque usine etablie dans le voisinage ; APPENDICES. 359 3. Qu'elle se fera d'apres le mode qu'offrira le plus de facilites ; 4. Que les demandeurs de la concession possedent des capitaux suffisants. ART. 13. L'autorisation d'exploiter une mine exclusive- ment de tout autre, pendant une duree de temps variable selon les circonstances et prealablement determinee, pourra etre accordee a tout sujet de 1'Empire agissant isolement ou en societe. II demeure permis aux sujets des puissances etran- geres de figurer dans les dites societes en qualite d'action- naires. ART. 14.- La societe ou 1'individu qui entreprendra 1'ex- ploitation d'une mine, sera tenu de justifier de moyens suffisans pour en diriger les travaux, en assurer 1' exploitation continue, et aussi pour satisfaire aux redevances et indemnites que lui imposerait la concession. AET. 15. Le concessionaire quel qu'il soit devra aussi fournir caution de payer toute indemnite, en cas d'accident, pour les maisons, habitations et autres lieux qui se trouve- raient au dessus de la mine ou dans son voisinage immediat. Les contestations qui pourront s'elever a ce sujet seront de la competence du Conseil Imperial des mines. AET. 16. Ce meme Conseil sera juge des considerations d'apres lesquelles la concession aura lieu en faveur du pro- prietaire, de la personne qui aura decouvert la mine a la suite de recherches autorises, ou de tiers. En cas que la personne qui aura decouvert la mine a la suite de recherches autorisees, n'obtienne pas la concession, elle aura droit a une indemnite de la part du concessionnaire. II sera fait mention de cette indemnite dans le firman de con- cession. AKT. 17. La petition en demande de concession, qu'elle emane d'un seul individu ou d'une societe, contiendra les norns, prenoms, professions et domiciles de la personne on des associes petitionnaires, la designation du lieu de la mine, 1'etendue et les limites de la concession demandee, la nature du mineral a extraire, 1'etat auquel les produits seront livres au commerce, les lieux d'ou* 1'on tirera, les bois, charbons et autres combustibles qui seront necessaires, les indemnites a 360 APPENDICES. payer au proprietaire et a celui qui aura decouvert la mine, s'il y a lieu, la soumission au mode d'exploitation determine par le Gouvernement, enfin la duree pour laquelle la conces- sion est demandee. II sera -joint a la petition, en triple ex- pedition et sur une echelle determinee, un plan regulier indicatif des limites et faisant connaitre le gite du mineral a exploiter. ART. 18. La demande en concession sera enregistree a la date de sa reception a radministration des mines sur un registre tenu a cet effet, et il sera delivre an petitionnaire un certificat de reception. Les verifications concernant la, mine a conceder devront etre achevees quel qu'en soit Teloignement dans les six mois au plus tard de la date de reception de la petition. Ces verifications achevees, le firman de concession sera accorde s'il y a lieu. ART. 19. Les demandes en concurrences seront re9ues a 1'adniinistration des mines pendant toute la duree du delai ci-dessus ; elles seront egalement inscrites sur le registre special et certificat de reception en sera accorde. La designa- tion du concessionnaire qui aura obtenu la preference, n'aura lieu conformement a 1'Art. 16, qu'a 1'expiration de ce meme delai de six mois. ART. 20. Les demandeurs en concurrence auront la faculte de se procurer a I'administration des mines, des ren- seignements concernant la mine a conceder. ART. 21. II est permis a un seul individu sujet de 1'Em- pire ou a une societe, de se rendre concessionnaire de plusieurs mines a la fois, a condition d'assurer, moyennant garantie solide, la continuite de 1'exploitation des mines concedees. ART. 22. Dans le cas ou Ton viendrait a decouvrir, dans les limites d'une mine regulierement concedee, une substance minerale autre que celle sur laquelle la premiere concession a porte, 1'exploitation de la nouvelle substance ne pourra etre faite qu'apres qu'elle aura fait 1'objet d'une concession speciale. ART. 23. Si les travaux d'exploitation necessitent sur un terrain des fouilles qui ne sont que provisoires, et s'il y a possibilite de rendre ce terrain* a son etat primitif au bout d'une annee, la persoiine qui aura fait les fouilles serateuue de APPENDICES. 361 payer au proprietaire une indemnite double de ce que le terrain endommage aurait pu produire pendant 1'annee. Cette indemnite ne comprend pas les frais qui seront necessaires pour rendre le sol a son etat primitif et resteront egalement a la charge de celui qui aura opere les fouilles. ART. 24. Lorsque par 1'efiet du voisinage ou pour autre cause, 1'ouverture ou 1'exploitation d'une mine occasionne a 1'interieur, soit des dommages soit un surcroit de depenses a 1'exploitation d'une autre mine, il y aura lieu a indemnite entre les concessionnaires. ART. 25. Les ingenieurs des mines exerceront conforme- ment aux instructions qui leur seront donnees par 1'adminis- tration des mines, une surveillance active pour la conservation des edifices et pour garantir les champs de tout dommage. Us veilleront avec le gouverneur de la province a ce que les ouvriers pris dans la population et employes dans les mines, ne le soient que de leur plein gre, contre un salaire equitable, et a ce qu'ils ne se voient exposes injustement a aucune violence ou molestation. ART. 26. Us observeront la maniere dont les fouilles et 1'exploitation seront faites, soit pour eclairer le concessionnaire sur leurs inconvenients ou lenrs ameliorations, soit pour avertir, le plus tot possible, le gouverneur de la province et 1'adminis- tration des mines des dangers ou des abus qui s'y trouve- raient. ART. 27. Lorsque 1'exploitation de la mine aura ete sus- pendue ou abandonnee, comme aussi dans le cas ou il sera survenu quelque retard dans les fournitures necessaires anx travailleurs de metaux, 1'ingenieur et le gouverneur s'empres- seront de faire leurs observations a I'administration des mines. ART. 28. Les contestations qui pourraient s'elever entre I'administration et le concessionnaire, au sujet de pretendues contraventions aux usages et reglements ou a 1'acte de con- cession merne, seront poribees devant le conseil Imperial des mines. Celles qui n'auraient trait qu'a des interets civils ou ne concerneraient que la police seront jugees par le conseil du lieu en presence de 1'ingenieur. ART. 29. Si 1'exploitation compromet lasecuritepublique, 362 APPENDICES. la conservation des puits. la solidite des travaux, la surete des ouvriers ou des habitations, sur 1'avis de 1'ingenieur il y sera pourvu par le gouverneur de la province qui en previendra 1'administration des mines. ART. 30. Tous les ans, le concessionnaire de la mine sera tenu d'adresser a 1'ingenieur du lieu des plans dresses sur une echelle determinee, sur lesquels seront represente'es les galeries exploitees, et qui donneront la situation, la forme les dimen- sions des galeries qu'il se propose d'ouvrir. ART. 31. Lorsque, par suite d'un cas de force majeure, le concessionnaire d'une mine se verra dans la neeessite de renoncer a 1'exploitation du terme fixe par 1'acte de conces- sion, il en donnera avis au Conseil Imperial des mines six mois avant; et comme les ingenieurs des mines devront soumettre au dit Conseil, a la fin de chaque annee, des plans et des rapports concernant la marche des travaux, la quantite des matieres extraites et 1'etat actuel de 1'exploitation, si le concessionnaire de la mine en fait 1'abandon, dans le courant de 1'annee, il sera tenu de remettre a 1'ingenieur du lieu un plan de galeries exploitees et un Etat des matieres jusqn'au jour de 1'abandon. Titre III. Des Redevances d Payer a 1'Etat. ART. 32. Les concessionaires seront tenus de payer a TEtat, sur les produits des mines qu'ils exploitent, des redevances dont le taux sera regie entre eux et 1'Etat suivant le degre de richesse de la mine. Ces redevances seront fixees dans 1'acte de concession, radministration des mines decidera si elles seront prelevees en nature, ou si, au contraire, elles seront evaluees en argent, d'apres les prix courants du marche. ART. 33. Pour les mines dont un firman aura autorise 1'exploitation sur une etendue limitee de terres Domaniales, les concessionnaires devront payer a 1'Etat une redevance annuelle fixe d'une piastre par donoum de seize-cents archines (d'Architecte), carres. ART. 34. Le jour ou le firman de concession sera delivre APPENDICES. 363 il sera payd un droit unique de mille a quinze cents piastres pour tous frais de firman. ART. 35. Tout concessionaire s'engagera a commencer les travaux d'exploitation dans 1'annee a compter de la date du firman. Cette clause sera inseree dans 1'acte de conces- sion meme. ART. 36. Le concessionnaire sera tenue aussi d'indemniser les proprietaires pour les puits et galeries qu'ils auront creuses dans leurs proprietes, et, pour tous autres usages qu'il pourra faire de la surface de leur sol. ART. 37. A 1'expiration du terme de la concession accordee d'apres les regies precedentes a un individu ou a une societe, la concession pourra etre regulierement accordee a tout autre ; le precedent concessionnaire qui en fera la demande, aura la preference a parite de conditions. Dans tons les cas, 1'obten- tion d'un nouveau firman de concession sera necessaire. ART. 38. II est interdit a 1'individu ou a la compagnie a qui 1'exploitation d'une mine aura ebe concedee, conformement an present Reglement, de la ceder a des tiers, d'augmenter le nombre des actionnaires et des associes afin de se procurer de nonveaux fonds, comme anssi de faire exploiter sous la forme sociale une mine concedee a un seul individu, sans s'etre adresse au prealable a radininistration des mines et en avoir obtenu 1'autorisation. ART. 39. A 1'expiration du terme de la concession, la mine ainsi que les immeubles y attaches resteront a 1'Etat. Quant aux meubles qui s'y trouveront, ils feront partie du patrimoine du concessionnaire qui aura la faculte de les vendre. Dans ce cas 1'Etat pourra s'en rendre acquereur, apres que le prix en aura ete fixe par les ingenieurs des mines et autres experts. ART. 40. Lorsque pour une cause quelconque le conces- sionnaire sera dans le cas de renoncer a 1'exploitation de la mine avant 1'expiration du terme fixe par la concession, la mine avec tous les immeubles y attaches fera retour a 1'etat sans aucune indemnite de la part de ce dernier. II en serait de meme, dans le cas encore ou 1'abandon serait motive par 1'epuisement du mineral exploitable dans toute 1'etendue du perimetre concede, si les trois quarts du temps 364 APPENDICES. fixe par la concession etaient deja ecoules au moment de 1'abandon. Dans la me me hypothese, en supposant lamoitie seulement da temps fixe par la concession ecoulee an moment de 1'abandon, il sera procede par des ingenieurs et autres experts a 1'estimation de tons les objets immeubles attaches a la mine, le prix total d'estimation sera reparti par portions egales sur chaque annee de la duree dela concession, etle concessionaire deviendra proprietaire de ces immeubles lorsqu'il aura acquitte envers 1'Etat, une somme proportionnee au nombre des annees qui resteraient encore a courir jusqu'a.l'expiration du terme. Enfin si, dans les memes circonstances le concessionaire quittait la mine, avant 1'expiration de la moitie du terme fixe par la concession, il resterait proprietaire de ces memes im- meubles, sans etre tenu a aucun remboursement envers 1'Etat. ART. 41. Sont compris sous la designation d'immeubles outre les puits, galeries et autres excavations dont se compose la mine, les constructions, les machines ordinaires ou avapeur et autres objets fixes a demeure, les instruments servant a 1'extraction, au transport et au nettoyage des minerals ainsi que les animaux employes dans 1'interieur des galeries. Ne sont pas reputes immeubles, les produits extraits de la mine, les materiaux et en general tous autres objets meubles qui se trouvent dans les galeries. ART. 42. A 1'expiration du terme fixe a la concession, les immeubles ci-dessus enumeres, seront devolus au nouveau con- cessionnaire ou a 1'ancien qui aura obtenu la preference a la charge par lui d'en rembourser la valeur au tresor. Titre IV. Des Forges et Usines. ART. 43. Aucun etablissement d'usines, fourneaux, che- minees et autres accessoires semblables destines au traitement des minerals ne pourra avoir lieu sans une permission speciale du Gouvernement rendue dans les formes des concessions pour exploitation des mines. ART. 44. Le concessionnaire de mine ou tout autre qui so proposera de faire fondre du mineral dans des etablisse- ments de ce genre, pr^seutera au gouverneur de la province APPENDICES. 365 uue petition dans laquelle il fera connattre la nature du mine- ral a traiter, la forme et la grandeur de 1'usine et de ses depen- dances, le lieu d'ou le mineral sera tire, la quantite, qualite et provenance de combustible, et s'il a besoin de se servir d'eau, le cours d'eau ou il la prendra. II y joindra un plan dresse sur une echelle determine des travaux qu'il se propose d'exe- cuter de la conduite des eaux. ART. 45. Cette petition sera communiquee a 1'ingenieur des mines par le gouverneur qui prendra aussi 1'avis des pre- poses aux eaux, bois et charbons, chacun pour la partie qui le concerne. L'ingenieur des mines redigera un rapport special dans lequel il consignera ses propres observations et donnera son opinion sur les benefices ou les pertes probables de 1'entre- prise, snr le procede industriel a adopter, sur le delai dans lequel les machines devront etre posees. Dans ce meme rapport 1'ingenieur constatera 1'exactitude du plan dresse et fixera le droit unique qui devra etre acquitte pour tous frais de permis et dont le montant pourra varier de trois mille piastres a cinq mille piastres. ART. 46. Le gouverneur de la province transmettra ces documents et leurs annexes a 1'administration des mines et y joindra ses propres observations. Titre V. Attributions des Ingenieurs des Provinces. ART. 47. Actuellement il sera nomine un ingenieur en chef des mines pour la Roumelie dans chacunes des provinces de Salonique, Monastir, Yanina, Bosnie, Niche ; pour 1'Ana- tolie dans chacune des provinces de Castamonie, Angora, Smyrne, Konia, Sivas, Kharpout et Trebizonde. ART. 48. A mesure que la formation du corps des inge- nieurs des mines avancera, on y designera ceux qui seront adjoints aux ingenieurs en chef des mines ci-dessus mention- nees. Ces ingenieurs adjoints pourront etre appeles apres qu'il s auront servi pendant quelque temps aux postes d'inge- niears en chef des mines, pour les autres provinces. ART. 49. Le Conseil Imperial des mines determinera les traitements et autres frais de service qui seront alloues aux ingenieurs en chef des mines, ainsi qu'aux ingenieurs adjoints. 366 APPENDICES. II fixera le grade qu'ils devront occuper dans la hierarchie administrative. ART. 50. Les attribntions des ingenieurs des mines con- sisteront a veiller a ce que les travaux dans les mines actuelle- ment exploitees ou a exploiter dans 1'avenir, soient executes conformernent au prescrit des reglements sur les mines, a 1'acte de concession et aux exigences de la securite publique ; a prendre sans retard les mesures exigees par les circonstances, ou bien a en referer a 1'administration des mines a tenir cette meme administration au courant des renseignements qu'ils auront recueillis pendant leurs tournees relativement aux mines que renferment leurs provinces, et plus generalement a mettre a execution, les reglements des mines, les instructions du Conseil Imperial des mines, et a remplir scrupuleusement tous les devoirs qui leur seront indiques par la suite en detail. ART. 51. Tous les ans a partir de Cassim (St. Demetrius), jusqu'au commencement du mois d'avril de 1'annee suivante, la moitie des ingenieurs en chef de Roumelie et la moitie des ingenieurs d' Anatolie siegeront en qualit de membres au sein du Conseil Imperial des mines residant a Constantinople. A leur sortie du Conseil il seront remplaces par la moitie des ingenieurs de Boumelie et d' Anatolie, qui siegeront egalement du mois d'octobre au mois d'avril, de maniere que ce que la moitie des ingenieurs en chef des mines de Roumelie et d' Anatolie se trouve faire partie du Conseil Imperial des mines pendant les epoques determinees. ART. 52. Les ingenieurs en chef de provinces pour les mines qui iront sieger dans le Conseil recevront du Tresor leurs frais de retour et subiront une reduction d'un quart sur leurs traitements, pendant tout le temps de leur sejour a Con- stantinople. ART. 53. Ceux d'entre eux dont la presence dans la capi- tale aura ete jugee necessaire et qui, en consequence, y auront ete retenus au dela du temps reglementaire ou y auront ete appeles extraordinairement recevront leurs frais d'aller et de retour et toucheront 1'integralite de leurs traitements. ART. 54. A dater du jour de la publication du present reglement, toutes les lois anterieures concernant les mines sont abrogees. Le 9 Mouharrem de Van 1278. APPENDIX VIII. THE TOBACCO EXCISE. RELATIF AU MODE DE PERCEPTION DU DROIT DE ROUHSATIE SUR LES TABACS A PRISER FABRIQUES DANS I/EM- PIRE OTTOMAN, PROMULGUE EN MODIFICATION DE L'ANCIEN REGLEMENT SUR LA MEME MATIERE, ET APPLICABLE DANS TROIS MOIS, A PARTIR DE SA PROMULGATION. ART. 1. Tout individu sujet Ottoman on d'une puissance etrangere est libre d'entreprendre la confection et le debit du tabac a priser, prepare avec le tumbeki, on le tabac a fumer produit dans 1'Empire Ottoman. II sera, toutefois, tenu de payer, aux termes du reglement etabli, le droit de patente, dans la localite ou cet article est fabrique et livre a la vente, et nn droit de rouhsatie, conformement aux dispositions sui- vantes, en cas de transport du meme article a une autre localite. ART. 2. Les tabacs a priser prepares dans les villes, bourgs, ou d'autres localites ou se trouvent des preposes de la regie des tabacs et destines a etre expedies ailleurs, doivent payer, lors du transport, un droit uniforme de cinq piastres par oke, pour toutes les categories. II sera delivre a 1'ex- pediteur un teskere ou permis de transport imprime. ART. 3. Tout tabac a priser non accompagne d'un teslcere, sera considere comme prepare avec du tabac ou du tumbeki produits dans une localite ou il n'y aurait pas de bureau de la regie, et comme n'ayant point acquitte le droit de transport (inourourie). En consequence, il sera per9u sur ce tabac a. priser, des son arrivee a une localite occupee par les preposes du tabac, dix-sept piastres par oke, representant le droit de mourourie du tabac qui a servi a la fabrication et le droit de rouhsatie du 368 APPENDICES. tabac a priser. II sera delivre au proprietaire un perinis de transport (Imrarie teskeressi) si le tabac a priser est destine a etre expedie ailleurs, oii un permis de vente rouTisatie teskeressi s'il doit etre vendu sur les lie ax. ART. 4. Les teskeres de transport on de vente, remis d'apres les dispositions qni precedent centre le paiement du droit de rouTisatie, seront partout valables. Ancune taxe ne sera reclamee, sous le nom de droit de douane ou sous toute autre denomination, sur la quantite de tabac a priser con- signee dans les teskeres susmentionnes, soit lors du transport de ce tabac d'un point a un autre de 1'empire, soit au moment de 1'exportation. ART. 5. Toutes les autres dispositions a suivre a 1'egard du tabac a priser seront conformes aux dispositions analogues contenues dans le reglement en vigueur sur le tabac. De meme, le tabac a priser provenant de 1'etranger ou des pro- vinces tributaires de la S. Porte et dont 1 'importation est per- mise sera soumis aux dispositions speciales du reglement relatif aux cigares et aux tabacs a macher et a priser. Le 13 Redjel 1282 (19 novembre 1 decembre 1865). REGLEMENT RELATIF AU TABAC 1 PRISER ou 1 MACHER, LES CIGARES OU LE TUMBEKI, IMPORTES SOIT DES PATS ETRANGERS, SOIT DE LA MOLDO-VALACHIE ET DE LA SERBIE, PROMULGUE EN MODIFICATION DE L'ANCIEN REGLEMENT SUR LA MEME MA- TIERE, ET APPLICABLE DANS TROIS MOIS, A PARTIR DE LA DATE DE SA PROMULGATION. ART. 1. Les cigares et le tabac a macher, provenant de 1'etranger, seront admis par les Douanes de 1'Empire Ottoman, moyennant 1'acquittement d'un droit ad valorem de 75 pour cent. ; ce droit sera sans escompte et en monnaie de bon aloi au pair, soit a raison de 100 piastres le Medjidie d'or ainsi qu'il est etabli pour la perception des droits de douane a ac- quitter sur tous les articles de commerce. II sera per9u sur les tabacs a priser provenant de 1'etranger et d'une valeur de 25 piastres 1'oke, ou au dessous, un droit de 25 piastres par oke ; le tabac a priser d'une valeur plus elevee sera soumis a un droit egal a son prix courant. APPENDICES. 369 ART. 2. L'estimation de la valeur de la marchandise aura lieu, d'apres la facture presentee par le proprietaire et enon- cant le cout de la marchandise, ainsi que les frais de transport effectue jusq'au bureau de douane ou elle est importee. A defaut de facture, la yaleur sera fixee d'apres la note revetue du cachet ou de la signature du proprietaire. ART. 3. Si la valeur portee dans la facture ou la note, est jugee inferieure a la valeur reelle, l'administration aura la faculte de proceder elle-meme a 1'evaluation de la marchan- dise. Dans le cas ou le proprietaire refuserait d'acquitter le droit sur la base de cette estimation, la marchandise sera re- tenue pour le compte de 1'Etat, au prix indique dans la fac- ture ou la note, avec une augmentation de 10 pour cent. Le montant sera paye au proprietaire contre recu. ART. 4. La facture ou la note produite par le proprietaire sera retenue dans tous les cas par la douane, soit que celui-ci ait acquitte le droit et enleve la marchandise, soit qu'a la suite d'une contestation sur le droit exige la marchandise ait ete retenue pour le compte de 1'Etat. ART. 5. Les debitants du tabac a priser ou a macher et des cigares, qui ont paye les droits, devront, quelle que soit leur nationalite, se soumettre aux dispositions et aux taxes qui seront etablies pour la vente dans les magasins et les bou- tiques, du tabac a fumer ou a priser et des cigares, provenant du sol ou de 1'industrie de 1'Empire Ottoman. ART. 6. II est bien entendu que la concession accordee se bornant exclusivement aux cigares fabriques et aux tabacs a priser ou a macher, 1'importation dans 1'Empire Ottoman du tabac etranger, en feuilles ou en carottes, ou dans tout autre forme quelconque, pour la fabrication des cigares et du tabac a priser ou a fumer, ne sera permise sous aucun pretexte. ART. 7. Le tumbeki, le tabac a priser, les cigares et le tabac a macher provenant du sol et de 1'industrie de 1'Egypte, de la Moldo-Valachie et de la Serbie, seront aussi soumis aux dispositions precitees ; toutefois, le montant du droit ne sera que de 67 pour le tumbeki, les cigares et le tabac a macher. II sera egalement accorde au tabac a priser une reduction de 8 pour cent, sur le montant des droits etablis a 1'article 1. ART. 8. Le tabac a priser, les cigares, le tabac a macher 24 370 APPENDICES. et le tumbeki, retenus pour le compte de 1'Etat, dans le cas prevu par 1'Art. 3, seront vendus aux encheres publiques, et les produits de ces ventes seront portes en recettes avec une annotation speciale. Les agents de la douane mettront toute 1'attention et 1'exactitude possibles dans leur estimation, de fa9on a ne point depasser la valeur reelle, puisqne les interets du Tresor se- raient evidemment leses si le produit de la vente ne couvrait pas le prix auquel la naarchandise aurait ete retenue pour le compte de 1'Etat, et les droits de douane fixes par le present Reglement. Le 13 Redjeb 1282 (19 novembreIer decembre 1865). APPENDIX IX. TRANSLATION OF NEW REGULATIONS ON CONCESSIONS FOR TURKEY. ART. 1. From and after the date of the present regulation, no petition for a concession or for an authorization, having for its object an enterprise for which a concession or authori- zation is necessary, will be entertained by the Imperial Government, unless the petitioner complies with the condi- tions and formalities prescribed in the following Articles. ART. 2. The author of every petition of this kind must have his domicile at Constantinople, either in his own name or in that of his agents, for the execution of the clauses of the Act of Concession or Authorization. ART. 3. In cases where the author of the petition cannot produce guarantees that he has means sufficient to assure the complete execution of the conditions and engagements depend- ing on the authorization or the concession, he will be required to annex to his petition a legal power of attorney from capi- talists who will engage in the enterprise, and who possess pecuniary means sufficient to guarantee the accomplishment, in all points, of their engagements. ART. 4. If such capitalists are foreign subjects, residing out of the limits of the empire, the above-mentioned power of attorney must be accompanied by a certificate from the repre- sentative of the Sublime Porte at the Court of the Power in whose territory they reside, stating that the capitalists in question make themselves in a pecuniary sense guarantors and responsible for the execution of the engagements involved in the concession. ART. 5. Every petition, the author of which does not fulfil the conditions of the preceding Articles, shall be consi- dered as null and not made. The petitions made in conformity with the preceding rules will, after examination, be purely and simply either received or rejected. August 15th (27