2-J I >^-- :-;. ^V/V- H| " THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE SEA; OR, MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO FOOD, INDUSTRY, AND ART. BY P. L. SIMMONDS, EDITOR OF "THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCIENCE," AUTHOR OF "ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES," (< A DICTIONARY OF TRADE PRODUCTS," "TROPICAL AGRICULTURE," AND OTHER WORKS. NEW AND CHEAPER EDITION. WITH THIRTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS. GRIFFITH AND FARRAN, WEST CORNER OF ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD, LONDON. E. P. DUTTON & Co., NEW YORK. SH33 S5 (The righis of translation and of reprofaiction are reserved.) PREFACE. HAVING published a series of papers in the Art Journal, under the title of " Marine Contributions to Art," and some other articles on various products obtained from the Sea in my serial publications, The Technologist and The Journal of Apphed Science, it occurred to me that they might be conveniently collected into a volume, which would form a companion to books I had previously published on " The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom," and on " Animal Products : their Preparation and Uses." Hence the appearance of the present work, which, I believe, will supply a want, by furnishing accurate details respecting articles and products of considerable importance in a commercial point of view. Although some works have been published from time to time on special fisheries, none have treated the subject as a whole, or gone over the field of research in a systematic manner, so as to show the importance of the Commercial Products of the Sea to various countries. I have endea- 681376 iv Preface. voured to bring down the official statistics in the several chapters to the latest date, and therefore I trust the work may be found a useful and readable handbook for all those interested in marine productions. While I do not claim any merit for originality in this book, I may state that I have taken every pains to consult all published documents treating on the subject that have come under my notice, especially those issued in the United States and on the Continent, and also the official publica- tions printed by different Governments. As the book professes to deal only with the Products of the Sea, I have necessarily had to exclude much interesting matter relating to the River and Lake Fisheries of various countries. P. L. SIMMONDS. 29, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON, October, 1878. PUBLISHERS' NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE widespread interest excited by the International Fisheries Exhibition has induced us to issue a New and Cheaper Edition of this work, which has already taken its place as a valuable collection of facts concerning marine contributions to food, industry, and art. The vast importance of our marine harvests, practically shown in the great Exhibition of 1883, is permanently recorded in the pages of this volume, which does for the library what the Exhibition does for the eye, viz. presents a complete survey of the commercial products of the sea. April, 1883. CONTENTS. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ... ... .'-...' ... ... i PART I. FOOD PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THE SEA. CHAPTER I. The Cod Fishery in Various Countries ... ... ... 25 II. The Herring Fishery ... .. ... i . ' ... 41 III. The Pilchard Fishery ... ... ... ... 61 IV. The Mackerel Fishery ... ... ... ... ... 66 V. The Salmon Fishery... ... ... ... 73 VI. The Sardine Fishery ... ... 77 VII. The Tunny Fishery ... ... ... ... ... 83 VIII. Crustacea ... .;. ... 90 IX. The Trepang Fishery 105 X. Cephalopods, etc., as Food ... ... ... ... 116 XI. Miscellaneous Fisheries ... ... ... ... 127 XII. Oysters and other Edible Mollusca ... ... ... 131 PART II. MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO INDUSTRY. I. Introductory Remarks ... ... ... ... 151 II. Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries ... ... ... ... 155 III. The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas ... ... ... 174 IV. Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean ... ... ... 183 vi Contents. CHAPTER PAGE V. Oils from Marine Mammals ... ... ... ... 198 VI. Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith ... ... 212 VII. The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained ... ... 226 VIII. The Isinglass of Commerce ... ... ... ... 238 IX. Other Fish Products and their Uses ... ... ... 257 X. Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells ... ... 267 XL Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells Continued ... 288 XII. Seaweed and its Uses ... ... ... ... ... 311 XIII. Marine Salt ... ... ... ... ... 339 PART III. MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO ART. I. Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries ... ... 351 II. Mother-of-Pearl and its Uses ... ... ... ... 370 III. Pearls and the Pearl Fisheries ... ... ... ... 402 IV. Coral and the Coral Fisheries ... ... ; < .,,' ... 436 V. Amber and the Amber Fisheries ... ... ... 463 INDEX ... ... -.. ... ... ... ... 479 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE Coal-Fish ... ... -.,;' ... ... -.. 40 1. Holothuridae species ... '... ... 107 2. Palolo viridis ... ... ... ... ... ... 122 3. Oysters ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 132 4. Sponge showing the Outgoing Water-currents ... ... 156 5. Outer Surface of different kinds of Sponge ... ... ... 166 6. Cup-shaped Sponges in natural position, rooted to rock ... 169 7. Varieties of Sponges ... ... ... ... ... 181 8. Syrian Sponge Fishers ... ' ... ... ... ... 187 9. Silicious Sponges, i. Euplectella aspergillum. 2. Holtenia car- penteria ... ... ... ... ... ... 194 10. Euplectella speciosa ... ... ... ... ... 196 11. Phoca Groenlandica ... ... "... ... ... 200 12. Phoca Oceanica ... ... ... ... ... 203 13. Walrus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 204 14. Greenland or Right Whale, and Spermaceti Whale ... ... 206 15. Black Porpoise (Phocaena vulgaris) ... ... ... ... 208 1 6. Grampus (Phocsena orca) ... ... ... ... 208 17. Halicore Australis, and Manatus Americanus ... ... ... 210 18. The Sturgeon ... ... ... ... ... ... 240 19. Chank Shell (Turbinella pyrum) ... ... ... ... 288 20. Saw used by Natives for cutting Segments of the Shell . . . 290 21. Segment of Shell, and Bangle, or Ornamented Bracelet of United Segments ... ... ... ... ... ... 291 22. I. Money Cowry. 2. Ovulum angulosum. 3. Dentalium Shell (Money of West Coast Indians). 4. Fillet of Nautilus Shells (from Samoa) ... ... ... ... ... ... 296 viii List of Illustrations. FIG. PAGE 23. Pinna nobilis, and Pinna rugosa ... ... ... ... 307 24. Varieties of Seaweed ... ... ... ... ... 316 25. Ulva latissima (Green Sloke), and Chondrus crispus (Carrageen Moss)... ... ... ... ... ... ... 319 26. Hawksbill Turtle ... ... ... ... 352 27. Green or Edible Turtle ... ^| .*. ..>'. ... 364 28. Diving for Pearl Shells at Panama ... ... ... 384 29. Mother-of-Pearl Shell, and Anodonta herculse ... ... ... 411 30. Corallium nobilis, or red Coral, with a piece magnified, showing the Polypes ... ... ... ... ... ... 437 31. Varieties of Coral ... .., ... ... ... 440 THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE SEA. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. Importance of marine products Uses of the animals Number of species of fishes French bounty on fisheries Statistics of British fisheries Fish as an article of food Definition of "prime " and " offal " in the London market Quantity of fish brought to London Value of fish and other marine products imported Value of exports Statistics of British, French, and North American fisheries French fisheries, and consumption of fish in Paris Value of the trade in fish in foreign countries. THE commercial products obtained from the sea are more numerous and important than would be generally supposed by those who have not looked closely into the subject. The huge marine mammals furnish us with valu- able oil, skins, whalebone, spermaceti, ambergris, etc., as well as food to some tribes. The utility of fishes, properly so called, to man is not very various. For the most part, they serve only as food ; but in this respect they are of the utmost importance to a great part of the human race, who live only on this class of animals. Some savage nations possess the art of preparing fish in a great variety of ways, even as a kind of flour and bread. Fish are also salted and B 2 The Commercial Products of the Sea. dried, smoked and potted, preserved in oil, and pounded into a dry mass. In Catholic countries the consumption of fish during their fasts and festivals is very large ; all other food being then prohibited by their priests. To a great part of the civilized world the taking of the herring, the pilchard, the mackerel, the cod, the tunny, the salmon, the sardine, and other fishes is of great value, and gives employment to many hundreds of persons. The oil obtained from the shark, cod, herring, and other fish is used for lamps, medicine, and in industry. Many parts of fish are employed in the arts and manufactures as the scales of the bleak for making false pearls, and those of other fish for making ornaments ; the skins for tanning and other purposes. Isinglass is obtained from the air or swimming bladders of many. Fish roes are not only used as food delicacies, but also for bait in the fishing grounds. Fish maws, shark's fins, and beche-de-mer or trepang (a species of Holothuria) are considered great food delicacies by the Chinese, forming the chief ingredients for their gelatinous soups. The sea is more abundantly stocked with living crea- tures than the land. In all parts of the world a rocky and partially protected shore perhaps supports, in a given space, a greater number of individual animals than any other station. The sea is filled with animals of several kinds, and each layer of water in depth seems to have its own varieties, thus resembling the changes which take place according to elevation in the organized portions of the land. The animals are among the mightiest and among the smallest. There are swimming beasts, as whales, seals, and walruses ; there are fishes of various kinds and sizes, General Introduction. 3 crustaceans, soft or jelly fishes, the molluscs, down to those creatures resembling live plants the zoophytes or coral- lines, which partake of the qualities of plant, animal, and mammal. All these are peculiar to the sea or the fresh waters ; and the ocean has its marine plants seaweeds, which remain growing on the ground shoals, or rise to the surface and then float. These, too, have many useful or economic applications. It is not our purpose to speak of the inhabitants of the ocean generally, but only to restrict the investigation to those which are of some use to man. Pliny enumerated but 94 species of fish ; Linnaeus in- creased the number to 478 ; but recent naturalists have described over 13,000 species, one-tenth of which confine themselves to the fresh waters. The human race derives almost incalculable benefits from them, as is evidenced by the extent and value of the river, coast, and sea fisheries of the world. The sea, as Commander Maury well observes, has its offices and duties to perform. So may its inhabitants ; con- sequently he who undertakes to study its phenomena must cease to regard it as a waste of waters. He must look upon it as a part of the exquisite machinery by which the harmonies of nature are preserved, and then he will begin to perceive the developments of order and the evidence of design, which make it a most beautiful and interesting subject for contemplation. The harvest of the sea has not yet been attended to and garnered to the same extent as the land. Some nations, as the Chinese, have, it is true, long given close attention to the profitable utilization of its commercial products, and several European nations and the Americans have also prosecuted certain fisheries ; but systematic 4 The Commercial Prodiicts of the Sea. and scientific management has only of late years been specially directed to the various branches which have been termed pisciculture, aquiculture, and ostreiculture, and the transfer of the fishes of one locality to those of another district. In respect of fish, no natural cause prevents their co- existence in the greatest abundance with man in his highest state of civilization and refinement, in the midst of the greatest agricultural or manufacturing opulence. Easily scared in the first instance by unusual sights for it has been proved, by a series of curious and interesting experiments on the trout, that most kinds of fish are insensible to sounds the natives of the water are speedily reconciled to appearances, which become habitual when found to be connected with no danger. By all civilized and commercial nations especially the Dutch, the English, the Americans, and the French the products of the sea have been accounted fully as important as those of the land ; because they not only afford cheap, nutritious, and abundant food for the people, but contribute largely, moreover, to the national re- sources, and to the maintenance of a maritime ascendancy. The Americans and French offer bounties to their fisher- men, which of course tells against the fisheries in British America. France pays about 540,000 francs a year, averaging about 2 to each man engaged in the fishery. This is an expensive process, but it is alleged that it would cost twice as much to train an equal number of men for the navy in any other way. In 1861 a French commission, appointed to inquire into the deep-sea fisheries, said in their report, "It is on fisheries that at this day repose all the most serious hopes of our maritime enlistments," and it was General Introduction* 5 added that "no other school can compare with this in preparing them so well, and in numbers so important, for the service of the navy." These bounties are also defended on the ground that the French pursue the cod fishery at a great disadvantage of distance, and from having no possessions in the neighbourhood except two rocky islets. The fishery question is of urgent consequence to the people generally. Our population is increasing rapidly ; cities and towns are gradually covering fields which used to be available for agriculture ; and although steam-farming is increasing the efficiency of husbandry labour, it cannot possibly augment the supply of home-grown food so rapidly as the bread-eaters increase in number. Fish is among the articles of diet which are too little familiarized among us, and any information ought to be welcomed which increases our knowledge of fishing grounds within reach of England. That the supply of fish is most abundant, and indeed inexhaustible, on all our coasts, has never been called in question. "The coasts of Great Britain," says Sir John Boroughs, "doe yield such a continued sea-harvest of gain and benefit to all those that with diligence doe labour in the same, that no time or season in the yeare passeth away without some apparent meanes of profitable employment, especially to such as apply themselves to fishing ; which from the beginning of the yeare unto the latter end, continueth upon some part or other of our coastes, and these in such infinite shoales and multitudes of fishes are offered to the takers, as may justly move admiration, not only to strangers, but to those that daily bee employed amongst them." That this harvest, ripe for gathering at all seasons of the year, without the labour of 6 The Commercial Products of the Sea. tillage, without expense of seed or manure, without the payment of rent or taxes, is inexhaustible, the extraordi- nary fecundity of the most valuable species of fish would alone afford abundant proof. In spite, however, of this large supply of whole- some, palatable, and nutritious food, yielded by the sur- rounding seas of Great Britain, every acre of which is infinitely more productive than the same quantity of the richest land ; notwithstanding that these salt-water fields are perpetually " white to the harvest," it is a remarkable fact that, in the inland and middle counties of England, the labouring classes scarcely know the taste of fish, which of late years has become a scarce article, even in some of the maritime counties. Formerly salmon, whilst in season, was the common .food of all ranks in the northern counties bordering on the sea, and in most parts of Wales, and what could not be used fresh was salted for winter consumption ; there was scarcely a family in the neighbourhood of a sea- port or salmon fishery that did not lay up a supply of pickled salmon for the winter. The produce of the sea around our coasts bears a far higher proportion to that of the land than is generally imagined. The most frequented fishing grounds are much more prolific of food than the same extent of the richest land. Once in the year an acre of good land carefully tilled produces a ton of corn, or two or three cwts. of meat or cheese. The same area at the bottom of the sea on the best fishing grounds yields a greater weight of food to the persevering fisherman every week in the year. Five vessels belonging to the same owner, in a single night's fishing, have brought in 17 tons weight of fish, an amount of wholesome food equal in weight to that of 50 cattle, or 300 sheep. The ground which these vessels covered General Introduction. j during the night's fishing could not have exceeded an area of 50 acres. Large as is the present supply of fish, and considerable the refuse of our fisheries as manure, much greater things are yet to be accomplished in this way, in both our supply of food, and of fertilizers for our land. The increasing scarcity and high price of butcher's meat leaves no doubt that a great field is open for the application of increased capital and skill to our sea-fisheries. Though the supply of fish to Billingsgate is constantly increasing, it fails to keep pace with the demand. The well-known fishing grounds of the North Sea are yet only partially fished. The Dogger Bank, which has an area of several hundred square miles, and is most prolific of fish, is to a great extent unworked by the trawlers, and new grounds are still being discovered where fish are found in great abundance. Between England and the continent the average depth of the German Ocean is 90 feet. One-fifth of it is occupied by banks, which are always being added to by the muddy deposits of the rivers of both countries. In extent they are equal to the superficial area of Ireland. To these banks the animals of the ocean chiefly resort, and this great and prolific field is free to the industry of all. It was stated by a recent writer in Blackwoods Maga- ^ zine that no department of British industry has received such a remarkable impulse from railways as the sea- fisheries of the United Kingdom. They have, in fact, completely revolutionized it. Before the Eastern Counties Railway was constructed, the transport of fish from Yar- mouth to London was effected by light vans drawn by post-horses, and the quantity amounted to about 2000 tons a year. Nearly double that quantity is now conveyed to London and the great manufacturing towns in the course 3 The Commercial Products of the Sea. of a fortnight. During the year 1853, the annus mirabilis of the Yarmouth fishery, 12,000 tons of fresh herrings alone were despatched from that place to London and the provinces. At Grimsby the quantity of fish landed in 1872, and transmitted by rail, averaged 600 tons a week, or at the rate of more than 31,000 tons a year. The pro- digious quantity of wholesome food now daily forwarded into the interior of the country from our principal fishing stations almost exceeds belief. The station-master of Lowestoft informed the Royal Commission of 1864 that in the two preceding years he had often despatched from that town 100 truck-loads of fish a day, each truck containing from three to four tons. From 4000 to 5000 tons of her- rings, and 1000 tons of other fish, have been sent by rail- way from the town of Dunbar alone in the course of a single week into the interior of Scotland. Before this rapid mode of transport was invented, the consumption of fresh fish was restricted to the seaboard, the metropolis, and a few of the most considerable provincial towns. To the mass of our island population the red herring was the only representative of sea-fish which ever met their eyes ; now there is scarcely a hamlet in which the poor man's frugal dinner is not occasionally varied by a dish of fresh herrings or some other cheap fish, which the facilities of transit from the coast have brought to his door. The increase of fishing power brought of late years to bear upon the sea is equally remarkable. In 1814 only five vessels were fitted out as deep-sea trawlers from Yarmouth, and not one from any other port of the United Kingdom. There cannot now be less, on the most moderate estimate, than 1000 sea-going trawlers, hailing from British ports and working in the North Sea, and certainly not less than 300 in the English Channel, and 100 in the Irish Sea. For General Introduction. 9 many years there has been a gradual increase in the number of fishing smacks in every port of the United Kingdom. Fish, crayfish, and many other marine products form an easily digestible and pleasant food, which, it is main- tained, is also calculated to stimulate mental activity. Civilized nations cannot abstain from this important ali- ment without detriment to themselves. Fish, even without any elaborate dressing, form a good and easily prepared meal for the labouring classes. Their flesh contains as large an amount of protein as pork ; 100 Ibs. of fish flesh contains as much nourishing matter as 200 Ibs. of wheat bread or 700 Ibs. of potatoes. It is an essential advantage of the fisheries that their products supply delicacies for the tables of the rich and wholesome cheap food for the poorer classes. According to calculations made some years ago, the daily consumption of fish per head amounted to one-seventh of a pound in London, one-twentieth of a pound in Paris, and one-fortieth of a pound in Berlin. The great importance of fish as an article of food may be clearly shown by a comparison of the total supply of fish to London in the course of a single year. At this time there are between 800 and 900 trawl vessels engaged in supplying the London market with fish ; and assuming the annual take for each to average 90 tons, this would give a total of some 80,000 tons of trawled fish. This quantity is irrespective of the vast quantities of herrings, sprats, shell-fish, and descriptions of fish which are sup- plied by other modes of fishing. On the east coast of England, and in the London fish-market, the trade divide the fish into two classes " prime " and " offal." The " prime " comprise sole, turbot, brill, and cod. The " offal " are chiefly haddock, plaice, and whiting. The term " offal " io The Commercial Products of the Sea. seems to have been introduced when the demand for fish and the means of conveying it to market were much more limited than at present, and when it was therefore often found necessary to throw overboard much of the less valuable descriptions, which could not bear the cost of transport. The use of the word " offal " may now be held to signify the more plentiful and lower-priced class of fish, which finds its way in the greatest abundance to the large towns. The proportion of " prime " and " offal " fish caught by the trawl varies considerably, but may be taken at an average of one-fourth " prime " to three-fourths of " offal." Of " prime," the sole seems to be the general favourite. It is more eaten in London than any other description of " prime" fish, and during the summer a considerable supply is sent daily from the London fish-market to Paris. Notwithstanding the enormous increase which has taken place in the population of the metropolis during the last twenty years, it is very questionable if the weight of fish annually received has not actually diminished. The falling off in the supplies which reach us by water is very remarkable. In 1848 it amounted to 108,739 tons; but in 1871 it fell to 44,077 tons. This reduction has been gradual but continuous from year to year. The quantity brought to town by railway has, on the other hand, in- creased, but hardly in the ratio of the diminution by water. There are no statistics of our fish supplies by rail available prior to 1865, but the quantity which reached us in this way in 1871 was 72,386 tons. The fish imports into London by water were in Tons. l8 4 8 ... 108,737 1871 ... ... ... 44,077 The total weight of fish brought to London by water and rail was in General Introduction. 1 1 Tons. 1866 ... .., ... ... I32,CX34 1867 ... ... ... ... 122,523 1868 ... ... ... ... 122,287 1869 ... 113,782 1870 ... ... ... ... H7,095 1871 ... ... ... ... 116,463 Our imports of fish from abroad have largely increased, as will be seen by the following figures, giving the value : 1856 .. ... 228,075 1866 631,552 1876 ... 1,459,974 Of the imports in 1876, 966,119 cwt. about one-third was fresh fish not of British taking. We also imported in 1876 train oil or blubber to the value of 445,262, spermaceti or head matter valued at 290,359, and seal-skins value 219,540, making a total of 2,415,135. This is exclusive of sardines, anchovies, caviare, oysters and shell-fish, pearls, mother-of-pearl, tor- toise-shell, coral, sponges, and other articles obtained from the fisheries, which would swell up the aggregate to over 3,000,000 of products obtained from the sea. We exported in that year, of British produce : Salmon to the value of ... ... ... ^39,083 Cod and ling , ... ... ... 44,383 Herrings Pilchards Unenumerated Oysters 732,737 19,222 67,332 5,47 952,804 In the last quarter of a century the Irish fisheries have declined by fully one-half in the number of boats and men employed. In 1870 there were stated to be under 9,000 vessels and boats, and 38,000 men and boys. Owing to the numerous indentations, the coast line of Ireland is 12 The Commercial Products of the Sea. estimated at upwards of 2500 miles. The length along which the more important herring and mackerel fisheries are carried on does not, however, exceed 250 miles, and the value of the capture of these 330,000 amounts to fully two-thirds of all the fish taken around the coast. When, therefore, it is considered that on the remaining 2250 miles of coast not more than 1 50,000 of fish is taken, it will be understood why an equal amount of cured fish has to be imported from America and other foreign countries. The latest official report on the Irish fisheries shows that, exclusive of the home consumption in 1876, fish were shipped to England to the value of 504,719, thus divided : Herrings ... 227,990 Mackerel ... ... ... 111,266 Cod ... ... ... ... 165,463 The number of craft of all kinds engaged off Ireland in fishing for sale, in 1876, was returned at 5965, with crews of 22,773 men and 920 boys. In Scotland, in the same year, the number of boats was 14,547 f 106,440 tons, with crews of 45,263, and there were as many more other persons employed as curers, coopers, etc. The value of the boats was estimated at 455,811, of the nets 563,811, and of the lines 108,347, making a total of 1,127,994. We have official annual reports respecting the fisheries of Ireland and Scotland ; but the collection of returns for England was discontinued with 1850, at the same time that the branding and punching of the barrels of cod and ling ceased. We are not able, therefore, to form any very accurate estimate of the extent and progress of the coast fisheries for England and Wales. The immense value of the fisheries of British North General Introduction. 13 America will be seen by a glance at the following figures. About 1000 decked vessels and 17,000 open boats are engaged in fishing within the four provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario ; for the other parts of the Canadian Dominion we have no authentic details. 42,000 men are actually engaged in fishing, while 200,000 persons are estimated to be supported almost entirely by this industry in its various branches. The annual produce of the fishery of these four provinces is about 2,000,000, and the boats, nets, and other instru- ments represent a capital of over 600,000. In Nova Scotia alone there are 9500 vessels and boats engaged in the fisheries, valued at 210,000, manned by 19,000 men, with nets, etc., to the value of 114,000. The fisheries are not only of importance to us in con- sequence of the vast amount of wealth that can be drawn from the deep, apparently without diminution, or exhaust- ing its source, but because by this means a body of able and hardy seamen may be found to conduct the commerce of a maritime country during peace, and to become its gallant defenders on the ocean in time of war. This inex- haustible source of national wealth and greatness appertains in an especial manner to the British Possessions in the northern hemisphere, and has long excited the rivalry of the citizens of the New England States, who are aided by bounties granted by the general Government. The Atlantic fishing ground situated in British waters reaches from the Bay of Fundy along the southern coast of Nova Scotia, around Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island, and embracing the Bay of Chaleur, extends to the Island of Anticosta and Newfoundland, the coast of Labrador, and the Magdalen Islands. There is probably no part of the world where such extensive and valuable 14 The Commercial Products of the Sea. fisheries are to be found, as within the Gulf of St. Law- rence. Nature has bountifully provided within its waters the utmost abundance of those fish which are of the greatest importance to man, as affording not only nutri- tious and wholesome food, but also the means of profitable employment. These fisheries are prosecuted as well in the open waters of the gulf, as within every bay, harbour, creek, cove, and inlet in connection with it. Quebec possesses, in the river and gulf of St. Lawrence, an extent of coast of 1000 miles, where the cod, herring, mackerel, salmon, and other fisheries are carried on suc- cessfully. In the men that sail the fishing fleets of British North America, we see the elements of a very powerful marine, which will be found invaluable in times of national danger. The following figures show the value of the exports only, the produce of the fisheries of our North American colonies for the year 1873 : Canada ... ... ... ... 154,992 New Brunswick ... ... ... 70,823 Nova Scotia ... ... ... 717,301 Prince Edward Island ... ... 200,100 British Columbia ... ... ... 406,000 Newfoundland ... ... ... 1,631,086 3,180,302 In the previous year it was 1,000,000 more, without British Columbia, of which the return was not given. This return merely assumes the market value of the products in the colonies ; but in the foreign markets to which they are sent they will realize a fourth or a fifth more, and this, be it observed, is exclusive of the large local consumption of fish, oil, etc. Boston is the fish-market of the United States ; and General Introduction. 15 the product of the New England fishery is estimated at 1,600,000 yearly, of which Boston alone handles more than half. At the Cape of Good Hope fish forms the principal article of the food of the population, and the poorer classes live almost entirely on it, its price being lower than in almost all other civilized countries. It is difficult, nay, almost impossible to form an estimate of the probable consumption of fish within the colonial borders. Judging, however, from the great quantities used in a dried, pickled, and smoke-dried state, as an article of internal traffic, and taking into consideration that fish is almost the chief food of the lower orders in Cape Town and the other ports, the consumption must necessarily be very considerable. The principal foreign market for the fish trade of South Africa is the Mauritius, the exports of dried fish to that colony being from 2000 to 2500 tons annually, of the value of 30,000. The average import of fish at the Mauritius in the three years ending 1870 was about 44,000 cwt. There are also fisheries carried on from the island, for in 1870 there were 329 fishery works, and at Rodriguez 44, employing 90 boats and 193 men. At Ceylon the imports of fish are about 77,000 cwt. annually, and at Singapore about 40,000 cwt. of dried and salted fish are imported yearly. On the coasts of some of the Indian presidencies there are extensive fisheries. How many a locality in the Indian Ocean is there to which the lines of Milton are applicable ! where " Each creek and bay With fry innumerable swarm, and shoals Of fish, that with their fins and shining scales Glide under the green waves ; . . . 1 6 The Commercial Products of the Sea. . . . part single, or with mate Graze the seaweed, their pasture, and through groves Of coral stray ; or sporting, with quiet glance Show to the sun their wav'd coats draped with gold. " The Chinese are pre-eminently a fish-eating people, and the vast demand for fish there can only be supplied by artificial means. The shad is called by the Chinese " sam-li ; " it is of superior flavour and great size, and is produced by artificial means and conveyed in " congs," large vessels made of coarse earthenware, to all parts of the empire. It has been supposed that nearly a tenth of the popula- tion of China derive their means of support from the fisheries. Hundreds and thousands of boats crowd the whole coasts, sometimes acting in communities, sometimes independent and isolated. There is no species of craft by which a fish can be inveigled which is not practised with success in China. Every variety of net, from vast seines, embracing miles, to the smallest hand-filet, in the care of a child ; fishing by night and fishing by day ; fishing in moonlight, by torchlight, and in utter darkness ; fishing in boats of all sizes ; fishing by those who are stationary on the rock by the seaside, and by those who are absent for weeks on the wildest of seas ; fishing by cormorants ; fishing by divers ; fishing with lines, with baskets by every imaginable decoy and device. There is no river which is not staked to assist the fisherman in his craft. There is no lake, no pond, which is not crowded with fish, A piece of water is nearly as valuable as a field of fertile land. At daybreak every city is crowded with sellers of live fish, who carry their commodity in buckets of water, saving all they do not sell to be returned to the pond or kept for another day's service. General Introduction. 1 7 In the port of Okhotz, Siberia, fish is almost the only food of the inhabitants, flour and groceries being unheard- of luxuries, and meat very scarce. Even the cattle and poultry are fed on fish. The general idea that the Southern Australian seas are inferior in piscatory resources to the colder waters of Europe seems to be wholly unfounded. At proper seasons of the year, and when reasonable precautions have been taken and the close months observed, the creeks and estuaries are leaping with fish. In Victoria, not only around the great inland sea-lake of Port Phillip, for the sustenance of the crowded popula- tion of the capital, but in outlying ports and sequestered coves, families, singly and in clusters, draw their whole subsistence from the fisheries. The total number of fishing boats belonging to the Hobson's Bay district amounts to nearly 500, and all of them are busily employed. Let us glance briefly at the statistics of the value of some of the principal fisheries. The Norwegian fisheries bring in to the hardy Northerners not less than 3,200,000 per annum, a magnificent sum for a country possessing a population of barely 2,000,000 souls. In Russia the pro- ducts of the fisheries are estimated at .3,500,000 ; in Denmark they bring in about 160,000; and the value of those of France reach about 3,500,000. The take of the French fisheries for 1873 was thus officially returned : Francs. Cod fishery, Iceland ... ... 6,719,774 ,, Newfoundland ... 9,981,547 Herring fishery ... ... ... 9,401,307 Mackerel ... ... ... 3,483,343 Sardine ... ... 13,757,534 Anchovy ... 469,695 Carried forward .. 43,813,200 Vessels and boats Tonnage Men employed Cod fishery of Newfoundland and Iceland. 420 54,622 ... 11,965 1 8 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Francs. Brought forward ... 43,813,200 Other species .. ... ... 25,878,896 Oysters 1,956,334 Mussels... ... ... 817,211 Other shell-fish ... ... ... 485,478 Crustaceans ... ... ... 2,285,458 Line fishery ... .., ... 3,094,787 78,331, 364 = 3,133,254 Besides seaweed and sand as officially valued at 60,000. The French fisheries gave employment to the follow- ing : Cod fishery of "N f w f ni t n A 1 o n r\ Coast fishery. 19,585 101,488 65,501 Out of a gross return of 80,000,000 francs the coast fisheries brought in over 63,000,000 francs. Both in the home and foreign fisheries many improve- ments have been carried out of late years in boats, nets, and appliances. In 1873 a great improvement was effected in France by the introduction of capstans worked by steam for hauling in the nets. Steam vessels are also now employed in fishing operations at Teste, Rochelle, and other ports. The sale of fish in the Paris markets in 1854 was to the value of 7,500,000 francs (300,000), of which about 1,000,000 francs was for fresh- water fish. In 1860 the sales reached about 10,000,000 francs. Paris consumed the following quantities of fresh-water fish, etc. : 1854. IDS. Eels 230,440 Barbel 23,870 Bream ... .,. ... 34,160 Pike 325,840 Carried forward ... 800,234 General Introduction. 19 1854 1877. Ibs. Ibs. Brought forward ... 800,234 Smelts 290,454 Gudgeon 40,686 39>o6o Lampreys... ... ... i>75^ 2 ^6 Perch 17,870 ... ... 28,738 Tench 66,880 154,674 Trout ... ... 5,128 Various small white fish 252,480 ... ...1,157,434 Crabs 182,988 328,008 Snails 190,284 Frogs ... 22,562 3,016,862 valued at 1,500,000 francs. There was also sold of sea-fish at the central markets, 31,489,202 Ibs., valued at 13,191,845 francs, together a total of over 634,000 sterling. The consumption of other fish was stated in 1854 to have been of Preserved fish. Ibs. Sardines ... ... .. ... 510,000 Tunny ... ... ... ... 22,000 Anchovies ... .. ... ... 90,000 622,000 Salted fish. Ibs. Codfish in casks ... ... ... 2,156,000 ,, dried ... ... ... 4,000 Salted herrings ... ... ... 176,000 Smoked ,, ... ... ... 300,000 Mackerel ... ... ... ... 366,600 Salmon ... ... ... ... 1,440 3,004,040 The sale of these has, however, more than doubled in the last quarter of a century. It is not possible to form an accurate estimate of the extent or value of the fisheries and the products of the fisheries in various countries. But as regards our own 2o The Commercial Products of the Sea. special commerce, we have some few official figures to work upon. Taking the latest year for which full and complete returns are given, we find that the imports into the United Kingdom reach over 6,000,000 in value. Guano is in- cluded because it is a deposit of sea-birds, and may, there- fore, be considered to some extent a product of the sea. The exports of fish of British catch in 1 874 were valued at 1,077,065, and if we add the export of salt for the fisheries, fishing nets, hooks and lines, sails and cordage, and other supplies, we shall have fully a value of 1,500,000. The great city of Amsterdam and the present unsur- passed seaport of Liverpool arose from the industry and enterprise of a few fishermen, who found those spots con- venient for their dwellings and pursuits a fact of history thus poetically recorded : " Where Mersey's stream, long winding o'er the plain, Pours his full tribute to the circling main, A band of fishers chose their humble seat, Contented labour blest their fair retreat. Inured to hardships, patient, bold, and rude, They braved the billows for precarious food ; Their straggling.huts were ranged along the shore, Their nets and little boats their only store. But now perceive the alter'd prospect round, Where splendid tracts of opulence are found ; Yet scarce two hundred annual rounds have run Since first the fabric of this power begun. His noble stream inglorious Mersey roll'd, Nor felt his waves by labouring art control'd ; Along his sides a few small cots were spread, His finny brood their humble tenants fed ; At opening dawn, with fraudful nets supplied, The paddling skiff would brave the specious tide, Ply round the shores, nor tempt the dangerous main, But seek ere night the friendly port again. " General Introduction. 21 VALUE OF THE IMPORTS OF PRODUCTS OF THE FISHERIES INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1870. We give the statistics of this year, as it is the latest for which details have been furnished by the Board of Trade. None of the minor articles are now enumerated in the official trade returns : Brought forward ... 2,361,483 Fish .- 768,387 Isinglass 83,023 Mother-of-pearl shells 76,489 Oil, cod-liver... 64,157 ,, whale 890,553 Whale fins ... 79,482 Orchella weed 112,693 Pearls 16,675 Seal-skins 270,024 Carried forward - 2,361,483 Sponge Tortoise and turtle shell Coral, rough ... ,, beads ... Cowries Caviare Guano 160,162 33,926 5,681 9,917 6,347 1,670 3,476,680 6,055,866 If we could trace the wealth of nations arising from their fisheries, it would be found to be beyond calculation. The following gives the foreign trade in fish of different countries : Russia : Imports, 1874 Herrings Exports Caviare Norway : Exports, 1874 Anchovies Dried fish Fresh fish ... value in Spring herrings Other herrings Klipfish (dried cod) Other salted fish ... Lobsters Seal-skins Train oil Sweden : Imports, 1874 Herrings barrels Ibs. 430,430 106,989 dunkers 102,933 ... cwt. 383,830 specie dollar, 4^. Get. 50,836 tenders of 3 bushels 17,784 ,, > 919,539 ... cwt. 599,576 tenders 69,424 thousands 749 No. 95,356 tenders 103,365 cubic feet 1,163,560 22 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Spain : Imports, 1875 Codfish ... ... ... ... , ,,,* tons 38,388 Italy : Imports, 1875 Fish of all sorts ... ... ... ... tons 41,918 United States : Exports, 1875 Fish, dry, pickled, etc. ... ... ... value ,601,750 France : Produce of the Fisheries in 1876 ... value ,3,560,000 Algeria: Exports, 1876 ... ... ... value ^240,000 PART I. FOOD PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM THE SEA. CHAPTER I. THE COD FISHERY IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. The cod fishery of Scotland The Grand Bank fishery, Newfoundland Bultow fishing described Preparing the fish The Norway fishery Lofo- den fishery Iceland Consumption in the French colonies Fishery at St. Pierre and Miquelon. ONE of the most important of the sea-fisheries, whether regard be had to the size of the fish or the number taken, is that for the cod. This fishery is carried on not only around the shores of the British Islands, but is prosecuted on a very extensive scale on the shores of Newfound- land and other coasts of the Atlantic, in Norway, Iceland, and other quarters. The cod (Gadus morrhuci) abounds between 40 and 60 N. lat. It is essentially a sea-fish, and is never met with in fresh waters, preferring the depths of the sea, which it only quits to spawn on the coasts or the banks. The following return for the last ten years shows the average take of codfish in Scotland, at least as far as regards the quantity cured : Dried. Pickled, cwt. barrels. 1867 119,638^ I0,8l9 1868 113,831 ... . 9,659 1869 135>5 8 5i 10,319 1870 H5.288I 9,945 1871 H9,3 9,283 26 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Dried. Pickled, cwt. barrels. 1872 145,976! n,94<4 1873 160,716! 12,381! 1874 i43,466i; 6,754 1875 187,788! 8,503! 1876 i",457 6 I0 9 The number of cod, ling, and hake taken in Scotland in 1876 was 3,454,198. 59,8i6 cwt. of dried fish were ex- ported, being rather more than half the cure ; but this was 22,000 cwt. below the export of the previous year. The cod fishery on the Irish coast commences in the lough opposite Moville, about the 1st of October, and ends about the 1st of July. They move out, and as the weather settles in spring, the fishermen follow them eight miles or more, and finally twenty miles out to Hamden Bank. Newfoundland may be said to have a monopoly of the cod fishery, and the market is every day increasing. All tropical people like codfish, and must have it, and there- fore, if the colonists could obtain 5,000,000 tons, they could not supply the demand in future ages. The roe of a cod contains 2,000,000 eggs, and if all these came to maturity, one cod would fill the ocean in a few years ; but though countless millions perish, if we do not violate the law of nature by destroying the mother or breeding fish, we cannot lessen the quantity. The Grand Bank appears to be the great breeding ground of the species, and the finest fish is caught there. The quantity of codfish annually taken from the banks and shores of Newfoundland, and the coasts of Labrador, on the average of years, may be stated to be as follows : Cwt. By the Americans ... ... ... 1,500,000 ,, French ... ... ... 1,000,000 By British subjects ... ... .. 1,500,000 worth about 15^. or i6s. a cwt. 4,000,000 The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 27 Taking the annual catch on the banks and along the shores at 2,750,000 cwt, and averaging 50 codfish to the cwt, it is estimated that there are drawn from the waters around Newfoundland 137,500,000 codfish in a year. Besides the fish, the oil obtained from the cod forms also a considerable item in the business. About one hogshead of oil is produced from every five tons of fish. The bultow is a long line, with hooks fastened along its whole length, at regular distances, by shorter and smaller cords, called " snoods," which are six feet long, and are placed on the long line 12 feet apart, to prevent the hooks becoming entangled. Near the hooks, these shorter lines, or snoods, are formed of separate threads, loosely fastened together, to guard against the teeth of the fish. Buoys, buoy-ropes, and anchors or grapnels are fixed to each, end of the line ; and the lines are always laid, or as it is termed " shot," across the tide, for if the tide runs upon the end of the line the hooks, will become entangled, and the fishing will be wholly lost. For the deep-sea fishery the bultow is of great length. The French fishing vessels, after anchoring on the bank, in about 45 fathoms of water, run out about 100 fathoms of cable, and prepare to catch cod with two lines, each 3000 fathoms in length. The snoods are arranged as previously described, and the hooks being baited, the lines are neatly coiled in half-bushel baskets, clear for running out. The baskets are placed in two strong-built lugsail boats, and at three o'clock in the afternoon both make sail together, at right angles from the vessel on opposite sides. When the lines are run out straight, they are sunk to within two feet of the bottom. At daybreak next morning, the boats proceed to trip the sinkers at the ex- tremities of the lines, and while the crew of each boat are 28 The Commercial Products of the Sea. hauling in line and unhooking fish, the men on board heave in the other end of the lines with a winch. In this way 400 of the larger bank cod are commonly taken in a night. The fish are cleaned and salted on board, and stowed in the hold in bulk ; the livers to be boiled for oil are put in large casks, secured on deck. The French vessels engaged in this fishery are from 1 50 to 300 tons burthen ; they arrive on the Grand Bank early in June, and on the average complete their cargoes in three months. The bultow mode of fishing is wholly used by the French on the banks, and the large vessels have over five or six miles of lines and 6500 hooks lying at the bottom at a time. The shore fishery is prosecuted by hook and line, either in whale-boats or flats. The bultow is considered very injurious, in destroying what the fishermen call the mother fish, that is, the female fish near the time of depositing their spawn, when they are very torpid and careless in seeking food, which at this period they do always on the bottom, when the bultow hooks are laying ready baited to entrap them. It is but seldom that these fish are caught in the common way, with hook and line, and it is a wise provision of Providence that the cod is so prolific, otherwise the bultow system would almost destroy the species. Leuwenhock counted 9,384,000 eggs of spawn in a cod of middling size, and Hanmer 3,686,750 in one that weighed 12,540 grains. The moment a fish is taken off the hook it should be bled. This may be done by the person who is employed in taking it off the hook. The fish must then be headed, split up, and gutted, in doing which, the sound should be carefully preserved for cure. The fish should then have the bone removed, care being taken that it shall be cut away The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 29 to within 20 or 22 joints of the tail, not directly across but by the splitter pointing the knife towards the tail, and cutting the bone through the two joints at once, in a sloping direction, so as to leave the appearance of the figure 8. This looks best, and it has this advantage, that the fish are not mangled, as they are apt to be when the bone is cut square through one joint. A slight incision should also be made along all the adhering part of the bone, to allow any remaining blood to escape, and the splitter should then drop his fish into clean water. The fish should be then thoroughly washed in the sea from all im- purities ; but where this cannot be so immediately accom- plished, they should be dropped instantly into a large tub or vat full of sea water, where they should be carefully washed, and the water should be poured out of it when it gets foul, and fresh water supplied. Care must be taken to remove the black skin that adheres to the laps of the fish. If these operations cannot all be performed on board the fishing craft immediately after capture, the fish, upon being taken off the hook and immediately bled, which is absolutely essential, should be put into boxes, or some con- venience, to keep them from exposure to the air, and from being trampled on, which would be extremely hurtful to them. But it may be again repeated, that the more of the above operations that can be performed immediately after capture, the better. If the salting can be done on board the craft, it will be of the greatest advantage, as the sooner the fish are in salt after they are taken out of their native element, the greater is the chance that their cure will be successful. But, whether cured at sea or on shore, they ought in no case to be permitted to remain a longer period before being laid in salt than 48 hours. When cured on shore, the cod is flung from the fisher- 3O The Commercial Products of the Sea. man's boat upon the rough stage, where it is received by the "cut- throat," who, with a sharp knife, lays open the fish across the throat and down the belly, and passes it to the header. This operator proceeds to extract the liver, which is dropped into a vessel by his side, to be converted into cod-liver oil. He then extracts the entrails and wrenches off the head, and throws these into another receptacle, to be preserved for the farmer, to mix with bog and earth, thus forming a most fertilizing compost for his fields. The tongues, however, are taken out, and also the sounds, and these, fresh or pickled, are an excellent article of food. The fish is then passed to the splitter, who, by a dexterous movement, cuts out the backbone nearly to the tail, and thus lays the fish entirely open, and capable of being laid flat on its back. This is the nicest part of the operation, and the splitter always commands higher wages than the rest of the opera- tors. The salter next takes the fish and washes it well from all particles of blood, salts it, and places it in piles to drain. After laying the proper length of time it is washed, and spread to dry on the " flake," which is formed of spruce boughs, supported by a framework resting on upright poles. Here the cod are spread out individually to bleach by ex- posure to sun and air, and during this process require con- stant attention. At night, or on the approach of rain, they are made up into little round heaps, with the skin outward, in which state they look very much like small haycocks. When the " bloom," or whitish appearance, which for a time they assume, comes out on the dried fish, the process is finished, and then they are quite ready for storing. On being conveyed to the premises of the exporting merchant, they are first " culled," or assorted, into four different kinds, known as "Merchantable," "Madeira," "West India," and " Dun," or broken fish. The first is the best quality, the The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 31 second a grade lower, the third is intended for the stomachs of negroes, and the fourth, which is incapable of keeping, is used at home. Dun fish are prepared in the following manner :- They are caught early in spring, and often in February. The cod are taken in deep water, split, and slack salted ; then laid on a pile for two or three months in a dark store, covered for the greatest part of the time with salt hay, or grass, and pressed with some weight. In April or May they are opened and piled again as close as possible in the same dark store till July or August, when they are fit for use. The cod sent to hot countries are packed by screw power into small casks called " drums ; " those which go to the Mediterranean are usually exported in bulk. Large quantities of dried codfish are shipped to Brazil, and there is hardly an inhabited corner of that vast empire where the Newfoundland cod is not to be found, being carried on the backs of mules from the seacoast into the most distant provinces of the interior. The negroes of the West Indies welcome it as a grateful addition to their vegetable diet. To all parts of the Mediterranean it finds its way; Italians, Greeks, and Sicilians equally relishing the produce of the sea harvest. The Spaniards and Portuguese are our best customers, and all over the sunny peninsula the " bucalo " is a standing dish. In the warmer regions of the earth the people seem to have a special liking for the dried and salted cod, and to them it is an almost indispensable article of food. The air bladder, or as it is called, cod's sound, which consists almost entirely of pure gelatine, sells at a high rate in any market into which it has been introduced. Cod's tongues and sounds form, even at present, a considerable 32 The Commercial Products of the Sea. export from the ports of the States and the British- American colonies on the Atlantic. Norway possesses a long and much-indented coast, which furnishes a large part of the fish consumed in England. The most valuable Norwegian fisheries are in the extreme north, near the Lofoden Islands, and within the Arctic circle. The great fisheries, and those of most interest to all Englishmen, are the deep-sea fisheries for cod and herrings, which constitute the most important branch of industry practised in Norway. The annual produce of these amounts to a million of money, and they give employ- ment to from 20,000 to 30,000 men, and from 5000 to 6000 vessels. The cod are caught in two ways, with nets, in the English fashion, and with lines. The lines, or rather cables, are 1000 fathoms long, and are supported in each case by a buoy, and secured by anchors to prevent their drifting. Each line is furnished with 1200 hooks, at distances of five feet from each other, each hook being on a separate hook- line of about a fathom in length. The lines are set at night and taken up in the morning. The fish are not salted, but are merely gutted and hung up in pairs upon poles, to be dried in the wind, and when thus cured they are exported in large quantities, under the name of round or stock-fish. The great cod fishery ends in April. The number of cod caught in 1869 amounted to 20,700,000, of which about 12,000,000 were salted and pre- pared as klipfish (baccalau), and about 7,800,000 were hung up to dry as round-fish (stock-fish) ; the remainder, about 900,000, were cured for home consumption. The produce of the fishery in 1870 consisted of 16,456,000 fish, equal to about 8800 tons when dried. Besides this, there were secured 21,500 barrels of cod oil, and 6000 barrels of cod roe. The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 3.3 The fishermen pay great attention to the curing. The fish is neatly packed in boxes with the fins trimmed off. The extensive fishing bank which is periodically visited by the cod, stretches from Rost, a low group of islands forming the south-westernmost range of the Lofoden chain of islands, up to the very head of the West Fiord ; a distance of about 70 English miles. The number of boats engaged is nearly 6000, of which one-fifth have nets, and the remainder lines and deep-sea lines. The latter are of various lengths, supported on the surface by floats, with a buoy at each end. From this float- ing line, numerous baited lines are suspended at regular distances. There are also about 400 vessels of various kinds usually assembled, partly for fishing, but chiefly for purchasing fish as they are brought in. The boats engaged in fishing with nets are from 36 to 40 feet long, and nine to ten feet wide, with a depth of not more than three feet. They are provided with only a single mast, about 24 feet high, carrying one large square sail. But each boat has as well 10 or 12 oars, by means of which her sturdy crew can propel her against an adverse wind. For fishing with lines, smaller ships, mostly boats, are used. The crew usually consist of five men and a boy. In the month of December, the first shoals of cod usually begin to appear on the western banks of the islands, arriving from the open sea. These are soon followed by great masses of fish. But as these western outside shores are shallow, the ports few, and the whole coast exposed to the frequent fury of the North Sea, not more than from 600 to 800 boats venture on the hazards of this early fish- ing, and the take seldom exceeds 5,000,000 or 6,000,000 of fish. 34 The Commercial Proditcts of the Sea. In the mean time the inhabitants of the inner or eastern side, protected from northerly winds, and favoured with many bays of refuge, examine their shores day by day with baited hooks, to discover if the precursors of the dense shoals of cod have yet appeared in the West Fiord, and great is the public exultation when the joyful news of their arrival is announced. This important event takes place generally in the latter end of December, but not before the middle of January do the fish arrive in great masses. Codfish are taken by the Lofoden fishermen by three methods : (i) with hand lines ; (2) with set lines ; and (3) with nets. Hand lines requiring little capital and producing small results, are only employed by the poorest fishermen. These are satisfied with 50 fish to each man per day, although occasionally they will capture double that number. They bait with herrings, salt or fresh, and when these are all gone, with the roe of the fish they have caught. Sometimes, when the shoals of cod are very thick and dense, the men adopt another method also, with a single line requiring no bait. Providing themselves with a long cord, armed with a large and sharp hook at its extremity, they sink it into the swarming masses below, having first attached to it, a couple of feet above the hook, small fishes of tin, for the purpose of attracting the cod by their glitter. The fishermen then jerk the hook sharply upwards, occasionally securing a curious fish, though cruelly wounding many others that are not taken. Set-line fishing requires larger apparatus : a boat, a crew, and from 500 to 3000 hooks baited at once. The hooks are attached to fine snoods of hemp or cotton, which in their turn are suspended on long lines ; each boat puts out at least 24 of these lines, every line carrying more than The Cod Fishery in Varioiis Countries. 35 100 hooks. Set-line fishing usually begins in the after- noon, but in any case only at the time and in the place prescribed by the officers appointed at each station for the purpose. The baited hooks are generally suspended near the bottom, but if there is reason to believe that the fish have risen, as they sometimes will, the lines are shortened and the bait raised to the required height by means of glass floats. They are then left all night. On the follow- ing morning the lines are taken in, and the crews are well content with an average take of 50 to 60 fish daily on each set of 1 20 hooks. Net fishing requires larger capital, and is only followed by the more wealthy fishermen, who provide both nets and lines, to be used according to circumstances. When the fish are fat, and especially during the spawning season, they will hardly take any notice of the bait ; then is the time the nets are used. Every boat carries at least 60 nets of from 10 to 20 fathoms deep. These nets are suspended in the water from floats of wood, cork, or glass. Hollow glass floats are preferred, and are almost exclusively used at Lofoden. Sixteen to 20 nets bound together in one length are set out in the afternoon, and, weather per- mitting, are taken up the following morning. A catch of from 500 to 600 cod is considered satisfactory ; but if this number is largely exceeded, part are left in the nets till the afternoon, because the boats could not safely carry so heavy a freight, together with the crew and wet nets. The total take of cod by these various methods has ranged during the last few years from 15,000,000 to 25,000,000 of fish per annum. Although the cod fisheries of Lofoden are the largest and most renowned, Norway has many others of great value along her far-stretching sea-board. 36 The Commercial Products of the Sea. The produce of the Lofoden fisheries in 1871 was of klipfish 750,000 vogs, and of round-fish 340,000 vogs the vog being about 44 Ibs. This was equal to nearly 24,000 tons of codfish. The above take of fish yielded 31,000 barrels of oil, and 25,000 barrels of roes. On an average about 400 cod yield a barrel of liver, varying in price from i to i 6s. %d. It appears that there is a great abundance of fish, especially cod, off the coast of Iceland, and that this fish is a set-off for the scanty agriculture of the island. The cod remain during winter near the coast, and the fishing com- mences during the spring ; in summer, the fish are further out in deep water. Owing to the smallness of the popula- tion, the same persons attend to agriculture and to fishing. Taking the whole coast collectively, the winter and spring fishings give large fat cod, which are sold at the 'trading ports, and afterwards prepared for export ; whereas the summer fishings usually yield small cod, haddock, cole-fish, and halibut, which are sorted and smoked for home con- sumption. The Icelanders chiefly fish from open boats seldom from decked ones. Their boats so vary in size as to range from two to 12 oars, with as many men as oars, and one to act as steersman. The boats have all projecting prows, are very easily rowed, and light in construction. As a rule they carry only one lugsail. The larger boats from six to 12 oars are employed in the deeper fishings, often far out at sea. The fishing is effected by means of small drift-nets, deep-sea lines, hand lines, or long lines, according to the depth of water and the kind of fish. Fishing with the drift-net generally ceases about the middle of April, and is succeeded by the deep-sea or hand lines. The hooks used are generally the same as the French, but The Cod Fishery in Various Countries. 37 some of the fishermen use the old Iceland hook, which is nearly 20 inches long. Fishing with the ordinary lines is carried on when the other two methods are no longer productive, and takes place all round the island. From one to four lengths of strong, thick line, each length measuring 60 fathoms, are spliced together, and vertical or hanging lines six feet in length are spliced into this at a distance of six or eight feet apart; a hook baited with snails or mussels is fastened to the end of each hanging line. The hooks used are the ordinary tinned English No. 5. A boat carries from 20 to 40 such lines, which are sunk to the bottom by means of stone weights ; their position is indicated by buoy-ropes kept up by small floating barrels marked with the owner's name. The lines are placed across the entrance of bays and rivers, or some- times at the outside of them, and are taken up twice or thrice a day, according as the weather permits. As many as 80 of these long-line boats may sometimes be seen collected together, busy fishing from three to four miles off the coast. Line fishing is conducted in Iceland on a much more limited scale than at Newfoundland, in relation both to the size of the boats and the length of the lines. This arises, not from the scarcity of the fish, but from the poverty of the people, which prevents them from obtaining the requisites necessary for larger operations. The fish are packed for export sale in many ways. In order to obtain what are called white fish, the fish are opened, gutted, cleansed, and partially boned, then washed in sea water and placed in salt. After three or four days' salting they are washed in sea water and laid out on the rock to dry ; they are then ready to be packed in warehouses for shipment on suitable opportunity. This is, of course, dried 38 The Commercial Products of the Sea. salt cod. Another fish for home consumption is the heinge fish, in which the cod are split up along the back and hung up unsalted to dry in sheds with open latticed sides. This second kind is more shrivelled up in appearance than the first, and is eaten uncooked by the Icelanders, who like- wise dry and eat the refuse heads. Somehow or other we have let the French forestall us in that quarter. The French fishermen catch more in the Ice- land seas than the Icelanders themselves, and carry away to France as much cod as is worth 6,725,000 francs a year (^"270,000). The abundance of fish in the Iceland seas at- tracted fishermen from many other countries ; but, for some reason not easily to be explained, the French are now the only foreigners who carry on the fishing largely. Some few Belgians are occasionally seen, and a few Scotch fishermen from the Shetlands, but their number is insignificant. The Danish Government, to which Iceland belongs, lays down certain limits within which foreign fishing-boats may not approach the shore ; but collisions unfortunately occur between those who carry on the line fishing, because the French, when driven by the weather or by the movements of the shoal, come within the prohibited limits, then en- tanglements of gear result, followed by quarrels. The French fishermen usually have a fleet of 250 vessels there in the season, averaging 90 tons, and worked by 4400 men. These vessels are mostly schooner-rigged. Although the native boats are nearly ten times as numerous, and the crews twice as many, the French catch more cod than the Icelanders, for the majority of the native craft are, as we have said, mere small open boats. The quantity caught altogether must be very large, for the Icelanders alone export 5,000,000 Ibs. to 7,000,000 Ibs. annually. The average number of French vessels employed in the cod The Cod Fishery in Varwis Countries. 39 fishery in Newfoundland and Iceland in the three years ending with 1860 was 500, of about 65,000 tons, and em- ploying 14,000 to 15,000 men. The produce imported into France in 1860, which was a fair average of the five years previous, was as follows : Kilogrammes. Wet cod... ... ... ... 19,780,556 Dry cod .., ... .... ... 7,370,659 Cod oil ... ... ... ... 2,050,846 ,, not purified ... ... 284,649 Cod roes .., ... ... 72,489 Other produce sounds, etc. ... 870,655 The codfish re-exported to the various French colonies, to Italy, and the Barbary States, varies from 3,000,000 to 9,000,000 kilogrammes. The average catch of cod in the French colonies of St. Pierre and Miquelon, according to the official returns, was for the five years ending 1871 : Kilogrammes. Dried cod ... ... ... 7,163,965 Salted cod ... ... ... 8,261,121 15,425,086 There were employed in the fishery, directly or in- directly, 194 vessels, of 30,561 tons, employing 3439 men. The number of boats was 673. and the number of fishermen 5773- The number of French vessels employed in 1873 in the cod fisheries was in Newfoundland 190, of 23,035 tons, and in Iceland 230 of 19,585 tons. The average annual produce of the French cod fishery in the five years ending 1 874 was : Kilogrammes. Dry codfish ... ... ... 6,419,538 Green codfish .., ... ... 10,985,127 Cod oil ... ... ... ... 449,102 ,, sounds ... ... ... 417,223 roes... ... ... ... U3>4I5 4O The Commercial Prodiicts of the Sea. The kilogramme is equal to 2j Ibs. The number of ships employed at St. Pierre and Miquelon in the cod fishery is 76, and of boats 590 ; the a gg re g ate tonnage, 12,386. The number of fishermen employed in them is 5335. These figures are the average of the five years ending 1 874. The imports of cod into the French colonies in 1874 were as follows : Kilogrammes. Martinique ... ... ... 4,586,402 Guadaloupe ... ... ... 2,621,426 French Guiana ... ... ... 106,532 Senegal... ... ... ... 4,069 Reunion ... ... ... 832,879 8,151,308 This shows a declining consumption, judging by the average imports for the undermentioned years in the five colonies : Kilogrammes. 1829-1831 ... ... ... 9,120,157 1832-1836 ... ... ... 9,613,200 1837-1851 ... ... 18,031,078 1852-1873 ... ... ,.. 9>35 2 >736 Coal-fish. CHAPTER II. THE HERRING FISHERY. The British herring fishery The Scotch fishery and take of fish Mode of curing Statistics of export Definition of official brands Statistics of the Norfolk fishery Description of drift and other nets Kippered herrings The Dutch fishery The French fishery The Norway fishery The North American fishery. OF almost equal importance to that of the cod is the herring fishery, which supports and gives employment to many thousand of persons. Herrings (Clupea harengus), when in prime condition, form a cheap, delicate, and nutritious article of food, and when promptly and efficiently cured, become valuable as provision. But their value in this respect must necessarily depend entirely on the quality of the fish when caught, and on the degree of promptitude and care which may be exercised in curing them. The common herring, which is so abundant in all markets, is taken generally on the coast of Europe, from the extremity of Scandinavia as far as Normandy, and sometimes even lower down, but never so low as the Bay of Biscay. Swedes, Norwegians, Russians, Danes, Germans, Dutch, English, Scotch, Irish, and French, all take part in the herring fishery. The number of men employed in Great Britain is about 100,000, and that of vessels 3000 42 The Commercial Products of the Sea. not counting the number of small boats. Herrings breed with remarkable rapidity. The females are in number up- wards of two-thirds more than the males, and some of them contain as many as 60,000 eggs. The abundance of herrings is such that it is not diminished either by the fishing or by the destruction committed by large fish and by innumerable birds. The herrings move in shoals, which are sometimes from eight to ten miles long by two to four wide, and of unknown depth. These immense masses, which advance very rapidly, are distinguished by the presence of birds flying above them, and by the agitation of the sea, and at night the place which they occupy is phosphorescent. In 1781 herrings came in such large quantities to Buscoe, on the coast of Gottenburg, that they were caught by the hand. In 1784 ^56,000 worth of herrings were caught in the space of a fortnight in Loch Urn. In 1773 there was such an invasion of herrings in Loch Torridon, that 150 fishing-boats caught from 1 2 to 20 casks each in the space of a single night. In some cases 50,000 herrings have been caught by a single cast of the nets, and it is also said that the fishermen of Dunkirk, Calais, Dieppe, and Boulogne have frequently taken 280,000 herrings in a night. Not very long ago the fishermen of one English town, Lowes- toft, caught in two days 22,000,000 herrings ! And this at only one of a hundred such places. At the retail price of a penny each, this two days' catch would come to 9 1, 666; but it was so beyond all the mercantile force or curing-power of the place, that tons had to be sold for manure. But few people know the great value of our legitimate fishing ground at home. At the same season when the pilchards arrive from the south, and swarm on the coast of Cornwall, herrings in myriads arrive from the north and The Herring Fishery. 43 fill the bays and friths on the north-east coast of Scotland. During the herring season there are upwards of 15,000 fishing-boats, manned by about 62,000 men, employed on the coast of Scotland every year, and who land their fish, when they are successfully cured, barrelled, and the bulk of them is sent away to foreign countries. These delicious fish, although caught, cured, and sold by Presbyterian fishermen, neither pious Neapolitan, Portuguese, nor even the good Pope himself, ever hesitates to enjoy the relish of a heretical pilchard or herring. The Herring Fishery of Scotland. Mr. Bremner, in his work on " The Industries of Scotland," gives an interesting description of the outfit and results : " During the fishing season Wick presents one of the most interesting scenes to be witnessed in the whole range of industry. In the course of the afternoon the crews of the boats moored in the harbours or anchored in the bay prepare to start for the night's fishing. The nets are got on board, the masts are hoisted, the sails set, and soon the bay becomes shrouded in dark-brown canvas. With a breeze from the south-east, the departure of the boats is a splendid sight, for then they have to tack out ; and the spectators are favoured by beholding a regatta on a grander scale than any to be witnessed elsewhere. The movement seaward is simultaneous along the coast, and by the time the last of the fleet gets outside the heads of Wick Bay, a dark line of boats extends continuously from Duncansby Head to the head of Clyth, a stretch of a dozen miles. Generally those in the boats have no fixed intention as to what spot they shall select for casting out their nets, and taking their draw from Neptune's lottery. If a good haul was previously got at a certain part, those who get it endeavour to return to that part; but in most cases the 44 The Commercial Products of the Sea. boats which were successful on the previous night are watched and followed, notwithstanding the fact that it is an exceedingly rare thing for a boat to have two excep- tionally successful nights following each other. " Having chosen their water, the crew of each boat begin to ' shoot ' their nets, which, while being ' laid ' in their boats, were united in a continuous train or drift, by knotting together the ' back-ropes.' Each boat has a train of nets about half a mile in length and 10 yards in depth. By corks attached at the top and weights at the bottom, the nets are made to float perpendicularly in the water. This wall of netting is suspended from buoys which allow it to sink 20 or 30 feet below the surface. The nets are put into the sea immediately after sunset, and most of the crew then endeavour to snatch ' 40 winks ' of sleep. In the course of an hour or two some of the nets are hauled up and examined to see whether the fish have been ' striking.' If there should be good signs of fish in the locality, the nets are allowed to lie for some time. The herrings are caught by getting fixed in the meshes while trying to pass through. The captain decides the proper time for taking in the nets, and when he gives the word, all hands fall to work. As the nets are got on board, the fish are shaken out of them and fall into the hold, where, after a gasp or two, they expire. If the night's labour has yielded 20 or 30 barrels of fish, the men think themselves fortunate ; but it is no unusual thing for a boat to bring ashore 80 and even 100 ' crans,' or barrels. " The return of the boats in the morning is an event of much more importance and interest to people on shore, and from an early hour anxious inquiries are made respecting the fortunes of the night, while those who have leisure go to make observations from the piers and cliffs. As the The Herring Fishery. 45 boats crowd into the harbours, an opportunity is afforded for judging of the uncertainty of the fishermen's fortunes. A score or two of boats sail swiftly in, with barely as many fish on board as will suffice for the breakfasts of the crews ; then, at a toilsome pace, come one or two boats filled to the thwarts with herrings. In one case, the night's labour of six men, and the use and risk of property worth from 100 to 200, has produced a return of about 6d. ; in another, of 60 or 80. The average catch at Wick in 1868 was 41 f crans, drawn from returns of individual boats which ranged from one to upwards of 200 crans, or barrels. " When all the boats are in, the harbours are quite crowded ; but, by mutual arrangement, the boats having large quantities of fish to land are allowed to get near the quays. The fish are shovelled into wicker baskets, and then carried to the ' station,' where they are measured and emptied into the ' boxes,' or enclosures of wood from 20 to 30 feet square, the sides of which are about 30 inches in height. As soon as a convenient quantity of fish has been deposited in the box, a troop of women, arrayed in canvas and oil-cloth, approach, and the ' gutting ' and ' packing ' processes begin. The gutters, each armed with a small knife, surround the box, and, taking a herring up in the left hand, operate upon it with the knife held in the right hand. The rapidity of their movements is surprising, a good worker being able to dispose of 1000 fish in an hour. As the fish are gutted, they are dropped into baskets and handed over to the ' packers,' who ' rouse ' them with salt in a large tub, and then arrange them in layers in the barrels. A free use of salt is made, the herrings being first coated with it separately in the rousing process, and the layers in the barrels afterwards thickly overlaid with it. The barrels are temporarily covered and allowed to stand for 10 days, 46 The Commercial Products of the Sea. during which time the fish settle down considerably. Additional fish are then put in, until the barrels are quite full. After being examined and approved by an officer of the Fishery Board, the barrels receive the official brand, which is accepted in the market as a guarantee that the fish are of a certain standard of quality. A large number of coopers and labourers are engaged in preparing and heading up the barrels, and removing them from one place to another." At almost all the stations in Scotland the disposition of the fishermen for some years past has been to substitute first-class boats for the second class, and even to employ first-class boats at the line or white fishery, where boats of the second class were formerly used. An enterprising curer at Wick has lately made trial of sending carrier pigeons to sea with boats which fish at a large offing. The pigeons were the means of supplying intelligence of the results of the night's fishing before the boats arrived, so that preparations could be made ac- cordingly, and they also conveyed instruction when a steam-tug or other assistance was required. Another ex- periment made with success at Wick was the employment of a traction engine to haul up the boats for the winter, instead of gangs of men, and the work was found to be done cheaper. The take of herrings in the Scotch fisheries has been on the whole large in the past ten years : Total cured. Exported. Barrels. Barrels. 1867 825,589 478,704i 1868 651,433! 368,7441 1869 675,143 38l,333t 1870 833,160^ 53 >558 1871 825,475! 551.605* 1872 773>859i 549,631 The Herring Fishery. 47 Total cured. Exported. Barrels. Barrels. 1873 939,233* 668,008 1874 1,000,561 737,3Hi 1875 942,980 660,970^- 1876 598,197* 400,423* About one half of the total number cured are " officially branded " by the inspectors. The respective brands are "crown full," "maties," "spent," and " mixed." Maties are those fish in which the roes and milts are perfectly but not largely developed and it is well to understand that this is the state of the fish in which it is truly in the best condition for food and when it will be found most delicious to eat, as well as most nutritive. Although it does not exhibit, whilst in this condition, so bulky an appearance as it does when it is in that of a full fish, it is in reality much fatter, for the bulk of the full fish is decep- tively produced by the great enlargement of the roe or milt, and this does not take place without a corresponding diminution of the body of the fish. The full fish, however, are those which are most sought after in a mercantile point of view, because of their larger appearance. The spent or shotten fish having just performed their function of spawn ing, and having been thereby reduced to a miserable, lean, and poor state, are unpalatable, and more or less unwhole- some as food when in a fresh state, and in a still greater degree when cured. The more immediately they are taken after spawning the worse they will be, and the longer the time that expires after their performance of that function, the less unpalatable or unwholesome they will become. But it is always advisable to avoid taking or using them in any way until they shall have had time to be fully recruited after their thorough exhaustion from spawning. The Norfolk Herring Fishery. From a recent official 48 The Commercial Products of the Sea. report by Mr. Frank Buckland, fishery inspector, we are able to glean some valuable statistics. Yarmouth for 800 years past has been celebrated for its herring fishery. The total value of luggers, trawling smacks, and other vessels, with the various buildings on shore belonging to the herring and trawling fisheries, is supposed to be little short of ,750,000 sterling at the present time. The fishing vessels belonging to Yarmouth and Gorles- ton are : First class, over 15 tons, luggers and smacks ... ... 512 Second class, over 2 tons and under 15 tons ... .. 459 Total .. 971 The crews of these vessels would average eight hands. There are also 37 small boats, with an average of two men, and about 120 Scotch and West country vessels, which land their fish in Yarmouth harbour during the herring season. Of late years the number of boats and men has greatly increased, and the depth and length of the nets have also been augmented. Fourteen years ago there used to be about 15 yards on a rope ; now an ordinary net is from 18 to 20 yards on the rope. Then the boats used to fish from 6 1 to 91 nets each ; now they fish from 101 to 161 nets. Many boats now fish with nets a mile and a third long ; some boats have been known to use nearly two miles of nets. During the months of September, October, and November, it would be well within the mark to state that there are fishing for herrings every favourable night in the North Sea between 5000 or 6000 miles of netting. Formerly the herring nets were made of twine ; of recent years they are nearly all made of cotton. Cotton is much softer, and fishes better than twine. The Herring Fishery. 49 The size of the drift-net varies on different parts of the coast. The herring-net used in the long-standing Yar- mouth fishery may, however, be taken as an illustration of this particular kind of net, and the manner in which it is there worked agrees essentially with its operation in all the drift fisheries. The drift-net, taking it altogether, consists of a number of nets, usually from 120 to 130, each of which is 17 yards long, and between seven and eight yards deep. They are attached along their upper margin by short pieces of line a few inches apart to the back-rope, a double rope enclosing at short intervals single pieces of cork to keep that part of the net uppermost. These nets are fastened together at their extremities, and thus united form what is called a " train, fleet, or drift of nets," extending to a length of nearly a mile and a quarter. The depth to which the nets are sunk is regulated by ropes seven or eight yards long, called " seizings," two of which, from each net, are made fast to a stout warp running the whole length of the train, the warp itself being supported near the surface by small kegs or buoys, technically called "bowls." The warp is also useful in taking the strain off the nets, and in pre- venting their loss in case the train should be fouled and cut by a vessel passing over them when they are near the sur- face. The minimum size of the herring-mesh is fixed by law at " one inch from knot to knot along the line," or, to put it in a form perhaps less likely to be misunderstood, at one inch square. In practice, however, it is found that in order to catch good-sized fish rather larger dimensions are desirable, and meshes running from 31 to 34 instead of 36 to the yard are, with few exceptions, in use all around the coast. Drift fishing is carried on at night. The nets are shot E 50 The Commercial Products of the Sea. a little before sunset, the fishing-boat being kept before the wind, and with only enough sail set to take her clear of the nets as fast as they are thrown over. When all the nets are out, about 15 fathoms more of warp are paid out, and by this the vessel is swung round and then rides head to wind, a small mizen being set to keep her in that position. The whole train of nets is now extended in nearly a straight line, the back-rope, to which the corks are fastened, being uppermost, and the body of the net hanging perpen- dicularly in the water, forming a wall of netting more than 2000 yards long, and about eight yards deep. The strain from the vessel serves to keep the net extended, and the whole vessel and nets together drifts along with the tide. The influence of the tide, however, is not equally felt throughout the whole extent of the nets. The train is consequently soon thrown into irregular curves, often leading to considerable confusion when many boats are fishing in close company. During the day the herrings keep very much at the bottom, or in a considerable depth of water ; but as night closes in, and if the weather be favourable, they become more active, swim nearer the surface, and in their attempts to pass through the barriers of netting on every side of them many become meshed, the gills of any moderate- sized fish preventing its return when once the head has passed completely through the mesh. If, after two or three hours, an examination of the first of the nets should show that many fish have been caught, the train is hauled on board and the fish shaken out. The nets are hauled in by means of a capstan and the warp to which the nets are fastened. Drift fishing is carried on with craft of various sizes, The Herring Fishery. 51 from the Yarmouth decked lugger of 60 tons to the frail canvas canoe or curragh of the West of Ireland, the number of men and the quantity of net varying with the size of the boats. The weight of fish carried from the Great Eastern rail- way stations in 1 874 was as follows : Tons. Yarmouth ... ... ... ... 27,517 Lowestoft ... ... ... ... 23,861 Harwich ... ... ... ... 2,509 53,887 In addition to the above, about 20,000 tons of trawl fish are sent to Billingsgate every year by carrying cutters and steamers from the Yarmouth fleets of trawling vessels in the North Sea. This would give 47,864 tons from Yar- mouth alone, and including Lowestoft and Harwich, 74,234 tons of fish. To this must be added a very large quantity sent by steamers to London, Newcastle, Hull, etc., and many ship-loads exported to ports in the Mediterranean. A very important trade, that of kippering herrings, has, during the last few years, been introduced into Yarmouth, mainly through the energy and enterprise of Mr. John Woodger. Herrings for kippering must be of the very best quality, and no salt is used in this process. The entrails of the fish are taken out ; they are then carefully washed, and hung up in the smoking-house for a few hours. Large numbers of women are employed by the kipper merchants, and it is supposed that more than 1000 lasts of herrings are now yearly required for this trade alone. The quantity of herrings landed at the fish wharf, Yarmouth, between August and December, is about 18,000 lasts. It is estimated that a last of freshly caught herrings weighs about two tons. Probably over 1000 lasts in each 52 The Commercial Products of the Sea. year may be added to this for herrings landed at Gorleston and other parts of Yarmouth harbour. In 1873 there were landed at Yarmouth and Lowestoft, including the spring and autumnal fishing, 32,000 lasts of herrings. There are in each last 13,200 individual fish. The total number, therefore, caught in 1873 amounted to 422,400,000, or nearly four hundred and twenty-three millions of herrings. Take these fish at a halfpenny each when cured and sold in the retail market, and we shall find the value of the herrings caught in one year by fishing vessels sailing out of Yarmouth and Lowestoft to be over 875,000. Mr. J. G. Nail, in 1866, estimated the entire capital embarked in the Yarmouth fisheries, including trawling vessels, to be about 600,000 ; this has since much in- creased. The value of the capital embarked in the Lowes- toft fisheries is also very large. The herring fisheries in Yarmouth and Lowestoft may therefore be truly said to be of national importance ; the herrings alone caught would give about 14 meals in the year to every man, woman, and child in the United Kingdom, allowing one fish to a meal. It appears that there are no herrings caught in January. Towards the end of February the fishermen begin to catch spring herrings, and the fishery lasts during March, April, and May. In June and July the midsummer herring fishery is carried on, more or less. In August little is done in herrings ; the " harvest of the sea " begins in September and lasts until about Christmas. This is called the " autumn or home fishing." The spring herrings are described as being nothing but skin and bone ; there is no fat whatever about them. They are not good ; indeed, hardly fit for human food. The mid- The Herring Fishery. 53 summer herring is a larger, handsomer, and fatter fish than the spring herring ; for whilst the spring herrings are only from six to seven inches in length, the midsummer herring is generally eight to nine inches. As the warm weather comes on, so the quality of the midsummer herring improves. The spring herring fishery begins at the end of Feb- ruary, and continues to the end of May. These herrings are of great value to the Lowestoft people ; from ,20,000 to ,30,000 are put into circulation in Lowestoft, and upwards of 1000 men and boys employed on the water during the spring herring fishery. At that time boat- owners have no other employment for their men ; 80 to 90 boats go out from Lowestoft, and several from Gorleston, to catch these spring herrings. A large proportion of these herrings is sold for bait to the Dutch and French fishermen, who come over to Lowestoft on purpose to buy them. They are used to bait the long lines, to catch halibut, turbot, etc. HERRINGS CAUGHT AT LOWESTOFT. Spring Midsummer Autumnal Year. herrings. herrings. herrings. Lasts. Lasts. Lasts. 1873 1887 54 10,973 1874 ... 2546 112 ... 9,173 1875 ... 1064 ... 106 The commercial importance of the Lowestoft fisheries may be seen from the following figures, showing the number of boats and men employed at the port : Trawling smacks ... ... ... 78 Luggers and dandies ... ... ... 260 Small boats ... ... ... ... 120 The trawlers average 8 men and boys ; total, 624. The 54 The Commercial Products of the Sea. luggers and dandies, 10 men and boys ; total, 2600. Small boats, 2 men ; total, 240. This gives a total of 458 vessels of all classes, and 3464 men and boys. This is the total of registered vessels and their crews, but it does not include the shore men, who are employed in the markets as packers, curers, etc. Nor does it include the West country or Scotch boats which use the port during the herring season. These may be safely reckoned as 1 20 vessels, with 1000 men and boys. On the Cornish coast 200 boats from Newlyn and Mousehole are engaged in the herring fishery, and employ at least 1000 persons. Each boat of modern build costs about 250, and carries nets which cost on the average from 4. to 4 los. per net. The quantity of herrings caught off Ireland in 1876 was 180,318 mease,* which was about 2000 meases below the take of the previous year. At the average of 25^. %d. per mease, this gives a total value of 226,803. The Dutch Herring Fishery. Before the sixteenth century, when nearly all the countries of Europe were debarred the use of animal food during Lent, the con- sumption of herrings all over the continent was im- mense, and brought prodigious wealth to Holland. De Witt, the great Dutch statesman, mentions that about 2000 busses were employed by the Dutch in the herring fishery at home. Each buss had a complement of about 25 men, thus rearing about 50,000 seamen, besides giving bread and employment to several hundred thousand people on shore, in building busses and making nets, casks, etc. ; and it was an old proverb in Holland, " that the foundation of Amsterdam was laid on herring-bones." The Dutch fishery, besides employing so many thousand men in catch- * A fish-measure of 500 herrings, sometimes spelt " mace " or " maize." The Herring Fishery. 55 ing and curing the herrings, employed many thousand more seamen for managing the merchant vessels which carried the produce of the fisheries to the various ports of the Baltic and Mediterranean seas. Thus, by cultivating and encouraging the herring fishery, the Dutch formed themselves into a great maritime power, and in the days of Oliver Cromwell possessed a navy not inferior to that of England. In the fifteenth century the Dutch had 700 large vessels employed in the fishery, and the quantity of fish they caught was estimated at 30,000,000 a year ; in the seven- teenth century the quantity rose to 50,000,000; but it has since greatly declined. The English fishermen take at present about 7,000,000 tons annually, and the Dutch not more than 35,000. In the year 1650 the Dutch had 5000 " busses," or large decked fishing luggers, on the east coast of Scotland ; they were manned by 50,000 fishermen, and from this source the Dutch navy, so long the most formi- dable on the North Sea, was chiefly manned. The north- east coast of Scotland was chiefly the locality of the Dutch fisheries, and here they had to compete with the Norse fishers, who had possession of the Orkney and Shetland Islands and a great part of the Caithness coast, the creeks and harbours in which were used for the coast fisheries, while the larger vessels kept the sea. The Dutch herrings, though caught almost on the same ground as the English or Scotch, fetch a higher price than any other in the world, and are eaten raw as a relish in Holland and Germany. The first barrel of new herrings that is taken is forwarded to the king at the Hague. It is carried in procession with banners and military music ; the day is one of public rejoicing, and a few of the new herrings are sent as presents to the nobles of the land. The Dutch 56 The Commercial Products of the Sea. bleed each herring, use the best quality of salt, and take the greatest care in the manipulation. The herring is a very fat, oily fish, and unless carefully and rapidly cured with salt, becomes soon rancid and unfit for use. The herrings formerly cured in Scotland were not gutted and bled with a knife like the Dutch herrings, but were cured intact as they came out of the sea. No time was limited for putting the fish into salt ; everything was done there as here, in the most slovenly manner ; and while the Dutch herring found a ready market all over the continent, the Scotch found none, and the consumption was almost entirely confined to the home market. The great advantage of the fishery inspectors now is, that they perambulate the curers' yards while the operation of curing is going on. They see that the women gut, salt, and pack the herrings properly, and within the time prescribed by the statute. They also take care that every cask shall contain at least 32 gallons, and that the full fish be sepa- rated from the lank or spawned fish. It requires 12 days to cure the herrings properly ; at the expiration of that time the casks are opened again, when the fish are found swimming .in the pickle, which is formed by the salt and the blood of the fish. The superfluous pickle is then drawn ofif, and the casks are filled quite full with herrings. The effect of the salt upon the herrings is to compress them into much smaller bulk, so that a cask which has been packed quite full of fresh fish, the day they were landed, at the end of 12 days is only about two-thirds full; or, in other words, 100 barrels of fresh salted fish will only yield 70 barrels of well-packed cured fish. The French Herring Fishery. The herring fishery known in France in the eleventh century was long ex- The Herring Fishery. 57 clusively pursued by Dieppe and Rouen fishermen, who caught this fish in the North Sea, and distributed it over France and the Levant. Later, other maritime ports entered upon this industry ; and in 1789 Fecamp had 50 boats occupied in the herring fishery. Now, after a decline of the fishery occasioned by the wars of the Republic and the Empire, it has taken a fresh start, and become of great importance to Dieppe and Boulogne. The herring fishery is carried on in France on the coasts of Dunkirk and Havre, from September to February or March, and is sometimes continued till May. In France 180 vessels, of 8000 tons burden, are employed in catching herrings for salting, and take about 8,500,000 kilogrammes a year. Of these vessels about 100 belong to the port of Boulogne-sur-Mer ; the rest to Dieppe, Fecamp, St. Valery-en-Caux, Calais, Treport, and Grave- lines. The number of vessels employed in fishing herrings which are sold fresh is 470, of about 10,000 tons burden, and they catch on an average 13,000,000 kilogrammes annually. They belong to the aforesaid ports, and also to those of Barfleur, Berck, Dunkirk, Etape, Le Hourdel, Port-en- Bessin, and St. Valery-sur-Somme. At Boulogne the fishery is better organized than anywhere else in France, and is carried on by means of associations composed of the owners of the boats and the crews. A recent very productive year, in which but 109 boats and 1 506 men were engaged from Boulogne, resulted in a catch of 4518 lasts of fresh and salted herrings, the total money proceeds of which were 1 18,01 5. In 1873, 282 boats were employed, of 8350 tons, and employing 3750 men. The catch of herrings yielded over 200,000, and the value of the other fisheries carried on from the port 1 1 5,000 more. The take of herrings on the French coasts in 1873 58 The Commercial Products of the Sea. amounted in value to somewhat under 400,000. The herring fishery of France realized in 1866 a little over 7,000,000 francs; in 1873 ^ reached nearly 9,500,000 francs. The Norway Herring Fishery. The herring is found from Mandal, on the extreme south of Norway, to the North Cape. They seem to live in the deep submarine valley between the 47th and 67th degrees of latitude; that is, from about the English Channel on the south, to the North Cape at the extreme north of Norway. It approaches the shore when about to spawn. They abandon water which has not at least the temperature of 4 C. or 40 F., either because this temperature is disagreeable to them, or they do not find suitable food. From some unknown cause, the localities where they pre- sent themselves vary each year. The fishermen begin to take a few spring herrings towards the end of March, which are very thin, but improve in July and August. The winter herrings are fished between I5th January and 1 5th March. About 1,000,000 barrels are annually pro- cured, of which a considerable portion finds its way to Great Britain, and the rest go to Sweden and the Baltic ports. The North American Fishery. The common American herring (Clupea elongata, Storer) is amongst the most valuable of food fishes. The habits, haunts, and seasons of the herring are matters of curious inquiry. It seems, however, now to be well established that the only migra- tion of the herring is from the deep seas to the shores at the spawning season, and from the shore to the deep seas when this is over. As early as March herrings are taken in nets on the coast, but the fish are so straggling and the seas so boisterous, that, except for bait, fishing does not commence The Herring Fishery. 59 till May. In this month a run of large fat herrings is taken in nets upon the banks, which lie 10 or 15 miles sea- ward, and carry about 75 fathoms water. A net 30 fathoms long and three deep is passed from the stern of a boat at anchor. The free end drifts with the tide, held to the surface by cork floats sometimes the tides carry the net down 1 5 fathoms in a slanting direction thus drifting from night to morning; the net is overhauled, and from 20 to 100 dozen is the ordinary catch. It is very evident that, owing to the distance from shore, and the need of calm weather for the boats and nets, as well as for the fish, which are very sus- ceptible to rough seas, this fishing must be precarious. The boats are stout, weatherly keel boats, with a half deck, from five to 15 tons, carrying a jib, fore and main sail, and usually called second-class fishermen when entered at a regatta. The " in shore run," a fish of smaller size, are taken in nets set to a buoy, instead of a boat, the free end drifting to the tide. These nets are often moored from one buoy to another to preserve a permanent position across a creek or small bay. In these various ways herrings are taken by the shore population of the whole Atlantic and Gulf coast of Nova Scotia, from the Bay of Fundy to Cumberland. The immense tides of the Bay of Fundy, leaving long flats and sand-bars at low tide, and the steep trap formation of its southern coast line have singularly altered the character of the fishery. Here the drift-net fishing is carried on, boats and nets drifting for miles upon the flow and returning upon the ebb, the nets twisted and coiled into apparently impossible masses. The 'shores of the trap formation being flat tables of trap reaching plane after plane into the sea, with no crevice to hold a stake or anchor a buoy, the fisher- men procure stout spruce fir trees, and lopping off the 60 The Commercial Products of the Sea. branches, leave the long lateral roots attached to them. These they place upright in rows upon the bare rock, and pile heavy stones upon the roots as ballast, stretching their nets between them. Entirely submerged at flood tide, at ebb they are left high and dry, and often loaded down with fish caught by the gills in the meshes of the net. These nets are usually set for a large, lean spring herring, running for the flats in early spring to spawn. This method of fishing obtains throughout the whole trap district of the province bordering upon the Bay of Fundy. The value of the herrings caught in the Dominion of Canada in 1876 was returned at 825,620. Herring (Clupea harengus) and shad (Alosa sapidis- sima) are so abundant in North Carolina that the former sell for 6s. per 1000, and the finest shad at from 6d. to is. each. The seines used are of immense size, and are worked by steam power. A seine worked at the mouth of the Chowan is a mile and a half in length, and in it 300,000 herrings have been taken in one day. They also take from 1000 to 2000 shad at a catch. Steamers are at the wharves, constantly loading with these fine fish, packed in ice, for the New York and other northern markets. CHAPTER III. THE PILCHARD FISHERY. The pilchard fishery of Cornwall and Devonshire Description of drift and seine nets Process of cleaning and salting the fish Statistics of catch in various years Definitions of fish measures Cornish sardines Irish fishery French fishery. THE pilchard (Clupea pilchardus) is of a somewhat less com- pressed and rounded form than the herring. The great seat of this British fishery is the coast of Devonshire and Cornwall, particularly Mount's Bay, St. Ives, and Meva- gissey, where they are caught in vast numbers. In July the early pilchard fishing commences, and from that time to the beginning of September the whole coast from St. Ives to the Ram Head is in a state of excitement and activity. So much do the comforts of all the labouring classes depend on a successful take of pilchards, that an unpro- ductive season is nearly as disastrous as a deficient harvest on land would be. The fish are taken in either drift-nets or seines. The former are for entangling the fish in the open sea, and are about half a mile in length, by five fathoms in depth. The latter are cast near the shore, and in shallow water. To work a seine three boats are required. The first large 62 The Commercial Products of the Sea. one, carrying the stop seine, is manned by a crew of nine, six rowing, two to shoot the seine, and one acting as bow- man, on whom the course of the boat depends. The second boat is called the volgar or follower, and carries the tuck or smaller lifting seine. The third is the lurker, the smallest 'of the three, and is chiefly occupied by the hirer or guide, and some boys. The seine is of various lengths, ranging from 250 to 300 fathoms, by 13 to 16 fathoms deep. Its meshes are smaller than those of the drift-net, the object being to enclose the fish without meshing them. The seine net has a line of head-ropes, to which are attached corks and other buoys, to keep its upper edge near the surface. To the lower edge are attached innumer- able small pieces of lead, which bear it down and keep it close to the ground, the object being to shoot the seine in shallow water with a clear bottom. The a tuck" is a similar net, but of smaller dimensions ; its mesh is of the same size as that of the seine, but it has in the middle a hollow bag, as it were, into which the fish go when the process of tucking is going on. These nets are very expensive, costing from ,300 to ,600. The " drift " fishing employs about 47 boats. Each boat costs about 200, or when a set of three nets is pro- vided, so as to fish for herrings and mackerel as well as pilchards, the cost is 400. Unlike the seine boats, the drift boats must all be manned by sailors. As many as 4200 hogsheads, or over 1200 tons, of fish have been taken in one cast of the seine, but this enormous catch was an extraordinary haul. A good cast, enclosing a large shoal, has, however, often yielded 1200 hogsheads of fish. The pilchards, when taken on shore, are gutted and The Pilchard Fishery. 63 cleaned by women and children, and piled, with layers of salt, in large heaps in cellars or warehouses, where they remain for about a month ; and being subsequently washed and thoroughly cleaned, are packed in hogsheads and subjected to pressure to extract the oil, about three gallons being yielded by each cask, when the fish are fat. Great quantities of salted pilchards are sent to the Mediterranean, particularly to Naples and other parts of Italy, where they are largely consumed during Lent. The number of hogsheads exported in 1851 was 26,743. The average for 10 years then stood at 23,446 hogsheads. Taking the number at 2500 fish to the hogshead, over 58,500,000 fish are caught annually, weighing 10,620 tons. About 5000 tons of salt are required to cure the catch for export, as there is but a small local consumption. In the seven years ending 1863 the average annual export was only 13,757 hogsheads, but 1859 an< ^ 1860 were unprecedently bad years, the take being only 3500 hogs- heads. The catch of 1863, on the contrary, was large, reaching 26,057 hogsheads. The shipments were larger at the close of the last century than they are now. The total takes in Cornwall for the last three years have been very small, namely, 7543^ hogsheads in 1874, 7337J in 1875, and 6700 in 1876. In the last-named year only from 300 to 400 hogsheads were captured during the summer fishing, which ends on the I5th of September. These produced from 63^. to 67^. per hogshead. The main take was in the autumn and winter, and they went as high in price as IQOS. per hogshead. Italy will absorb, at fair prices, as much as 30,000 hogsheads annually, and depends upon Cornwall for the supply. Pilchards arrive on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall 64 The Commercial Products of the Sea. from June to September ; sometimes they are caught about Christmas. A hogshead of pilchards, well cured and pressed, will hold 2500 to 3000 fish. The fresh fish weigh about 6^ cwt, and the salt 3^ cwt, but the weight of the hogsheads when cured and pressed is reduced to about 4^ cwt, including the weight usually allowed for the cask, 28 Ibs. Ten thousand pilchards make a last. A hogs- head is supposed to consist of eight baskets of fish, and a basket contains about 400 ; but this number varies with the size of the fish. The fish are sold by the long hundred 120. A new industry has been started in Cornwall within a year or two, that of preserving small pilchards in oil in tins, after the manner of sardines. The seat of the company's operations is at Newlyn ; a Frenchman conducts the opera- tions. The Cornish sardines grow in favour and demand in London. Their flavour is considered quite equal to that of the foreign fish, and their nutritive qualities greater ; while the extra size of the box, and the liberal way in which it is filled, all tend to commend the home product Large shoals of pilchards appeared off the coast of Cork and Kerry during the year 1876, principally from July to the end of October, some as late as November. They were in the greatest abundance off the Cork coast, and in many places came close in to the shore, and were captured by small seines drawn in upon the rocks. No efforts have yet been made in Ireland to cure for the continental markets, but some have been cured for home consumption on various parts of the coast By degrees this fish is being regarded with more favour by the country people, and if they continue to frequent the Irish coasts as they have now done for some years, there is little doubt that a considerable trade will result The Pilchard Fishery. 65 Pilchards frequent the coasts of France and Spain in small numbers. The fishery of Nantes is carried on with great activity, and employs in the season 700 boats, manned by about 3000 seamen. 66 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER IV. THE MACKEREL FISHERY. The mackerel fishery on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall The Lowestoft mackerel fishery Statistics of fishery American mackerel fishery Mode of curing the fish. THE mackerel (Scomber scombrus) is a much esteemed fish. The excitement on the Devon and Cornish coasts when the shoals of this fish appear is very great. On their periodical arrivals, which is their custom in multitudes, for the purpose of feeding on a small fry very similar to white- bait, a practised eye will readily observe their manoeuvres some distance from the shore, inasmuch as the moment they discover the food they love so well, their numbers and greedy propensities cause them to rush on their prey, which, endeavouring to escape from death, disturbs the water in large circles like a shower of hailstones dropping therein ; indeed, we know of nothing more similar to compare it to. The moment one of these disturbed spots appears on the water, men are placed on the highest cliffs to look out, while the boats with their crews and nets prepared are launched and ready for action. The mackerel are some- times seen at least a mile from shore, but the moment they attack the small bait, the latter fly towards the beach, till at times they approach within a hundred yards or nearer ; The Mackerel Fishery. 67 and the look-out man, who discovers them more readily from an eminence, shouts at the extent of his lungs, the boats are rapidly rowed around the feasting fish in a circle, the nets cast, and then being hauled towards the shore by men on land, some thousands of mackerel are enclosed in a large bag at the extremity of the net. The demand for this fish is so great, that they are rarely to be met with in the towns in the west. During 1869 the quantity of mackerel taken from Pen- zance and St. Ives by railway amounted to 71,959 pads, or 1617 tons; to May I, 1870, the quantity conveyed from the same places amounted to 40,100 pads, or 871 tons. The Lowestoft Mackerel Fishery. The mackerel voyage on the east coast, even in its best days, was rarely re- munerative either to owners or men ; more frequently the amount realized barely paid charges for provisions, leaving nothing for wages, or wear and tear of boats and nets. The owners never expected much, and it was more to keep their men in employment, than in anticipation of profit, that this voyage was carried on for many years. In 1854 there were 20 mackerel boats out of Lowestoft; in 1862 these had decreased to three, and their gross earnings averaged only g per boat. In former years mackerel realized a large price ; now the merchants have to compete with very fine fish caught off the Irish coast near Kinsale, and also with the immense numbers imported from Norway. These mackerel are packed in ice, and find a ready market amongst the manu- facturing towns, as well as in London. In 1874 Yarmouth and Gorleston had a few boats engaged in this fishery for a short time in the autumn ; i.e., nearly four months later than the mackerel voyage of former years commenced. In > 39 2 6 long hundred (120) were caught, the average 68 The Commercial Products of the Sea. price of the fish being 26s. per hundred ; total value, 4907 IQS. In 1862 and 1870 the annual take was valued at 9000. The average number of boats engaged in this fishery may be stated at about 50. Mackerel nets have only about 24 or 25 meshes to the yard, and are not so deep as the herring nets, but they are twice as long a fleet of mackerel nets, such as is used by the Yarmouth boats, extending to a distance of nearly two miles and a half. The official returns of the mackerel fishery for Ireland for 1876 showed a gross capture of 1,391,083 boxes, of s,ix score fish each. The prices varied from $s. to 5^. per box, the total amount realized being 1 10,223. The regular mackerel fishing season commences about the middle of March and ends about the last of June. During that period the lowest price obtained was 12s. per box. T^he average price for the total quantity taken was i6.y. per box of six score. The mackerel fishery on the French coast, taking the catch of the years 1873 and 1874, averages 140,000 in value. It is principally carried on from the ports of Boulogne, Dieppe, Fecamp, Caen, and Douarnenez. In 1867 the value of the French catch of mackerel was under 100,000. The mackerel on the coast of Norway is, as an article of export, comparatively of modern fishery growth. The fishery is carried on along the southern coast from Chris- tiansand to Mandel, during the three summer months of May, June, and July. The quantity exported to Great Britain in 1869 was 3,698,637 fish, valued at 18,117. The average price paid was 2s. per score. The boats' crews engaged in this fishery earned about 60 to 90 per boat. The Mackerel Fishery. 69 The American Mackerel Fishery. The spring mackerel (Scomber vernales, Mitch.) is the ordinary mackerel of com- merce. The fall mackerel is considered by some naturalists a distinct species, and has been named Scomber grex. The mackerel is not a migratory fish, but draws off into deep water at the approach of winter, and returns to the shallow water near the shores at the beginning of summer, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. The mackerel fishery of Nova Scotia composes one of its largest exports. Besides the catch by the colonial fishermen, about 50,000 barrels more are taken in British waters annually by the Americans, making about 200,000 barrels in all. On the North American coast a very extensive trade is carried on in pickled mackerel. Every little creek and day from Cape Sable to Halifax in Nova Scotia occasion- ally overflows with this fish, and they are taken in nets, from 100 to 600 barrels being secured at a single draught. Men, women, and children are then employed night and day in curing them. 1 50,000 barrels of mackerel are often exported from the port of Halifax alone, principally to the United States, valued at 300,000. In 1874, 32,000,000 pounds weight of mackerel were taken on the Canadian coasts. There are about 60,000 tons register of American boats engaged in the mackerel fishery, chiefly from the States of Massachusetts and Maine, and employing 10,000 men. The quantity of mackerel taken by these boats sometimes amounts to 350,000 barrels, valued at 500,000. When an American vessel reaches a place where the fish are supposed to be plentiful, the master furls all his sails except the mainsail, brings his vessel's bow to the wind, ranges his crew at intervals along one of her sides, and, without a mackerel in sight, attempts to raise a school 70 The Commercial Products of the Sea. by throwing over bait. The baiter stands amidships, with a bait-box outside the rail, and with a tin cup nailed to a long handle he scatters the bait on the water. If the mackerel appear, the men throw out short lines, to the hooks of which a glittering pewter jig is affixed. The fish, if they bite at all, generally bite rapidly, and are hauled in as fast as the most active man can throw out and draw in a line. As they pull them on board, the fisherman, with a jerk, throws them into a barrel standing beside him. So ravenously do they bite, that sometimes a barrelful is caught in 1 5 minutes by a single man. Some active young men will haul in and jerk off a fish and throw out the line for another with a single motion, and repeat the act in such rapid succession that their arms seem continually on the swing. While the school remains alongside and will take the hook, the excitement of the men, and the rushing noise of the fish in their beautiful and manifold evolu- tions in the water, arrest the attention of the most careless observer. The summer mackerel fishing is carried on in two ways, with hooks and lines, and with the seine. The greater number of fishermen use the hook and line. These are the crews of those beautiful schooners to be met with every- where in the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence during the months of July, August, and September, and which from afar look more like a small squadron of yachts than a fleet of fishing vessels, so beautiful are their masts and sails, and so neat and clean are they kept. But on a nearer approach this is found to be an error, for on the decks of these vessels are to be seen crews of from 10 to 2O men, all occupied either in catching fish, in repairing fishing implements, or in splitting and salting fish that have been taken ; and what is most striking is the order that The Mackerel Fishery. 71 reigns on board of these schooners, whose decks and holds are almost always full of fish, fish barrels, salt, etc. Before sailing from their port of outfit for the Gulf of St. Lawrence, they provide themselves with several barrels of very fat little fish, called poggies, to serve as bait and as feed, for the purpose of attracting mackerel to the surface of the water and retaining them near the vessel. At a later period, when the poggies are exhausted, recourse is had to the offal of the mackerel for bait, and it is prepared in this way : Whole fishes, or the ofifal of fishes, either poggies, mackerel, or others, are chopped very fine in a machine something like a chaff or straw cutter, and then put into a large bucket full of salt water ; the mixture is then stirred for a long time with a small paddle, and this is the whole secret of preparing feed for mackerel. Machines for chopping up the fish are sold at from >\ to 1 ios., according to their size. As soon as the schooners have reached the place where schools of mackerel are usually found, they keep cruising backwards and forwards, and the moment there is the least appearance of fish, or their presence is even suspected near a vessel, the jibs are taken in, and the vessel is brought to, with the mizen-sail and mainsail veered half round. Feed is then scattered all around from small pails ; the fishermen seize their lines, bait their hooks with small pieces of the skin of the neck of the mackerel or of any other fish (but the mackerel is much preferable), and throw them into the water. The lines are fine, and made of hemp or cotton, generally the latter. They are from six to eight fathoms long, and to one end is fastened a small sinker of polished pewter, oblong in shape, and weighing about two ounces, on which is soldered a middle-sized hook. Each fisher- man plies two lines, one in each hand, and leans on the 72 The Commercial Products of the Sea. rail while fishing. He very seldom pays out more than four or five fathoms of line, for the mackerel, attracted by the chopped fish thrown overboard, thousands of pieces of which float in mid-water, leaves the depths of the sea, and comes swimming towards the surface to feast with avidity on this excellent bait, prepared for him with so much care ; and while he is gorging himself with pieces of poggie and" mackerel, he seizes the bait on the fisherman's hook, and soon, in spite of his violent efforts to break the iron that is tearing his mouth, and to free himself, he is pulled out of the water and thrown upon the deck, where he dies before long. The fish are classed by the inspectors into four grades, the third and fourth quality being worth only half the value of No. i. They are packed for shipment in barrels, half quarter, and eighth barrels. Nos. I and 2 are intended for the home markets of the United States and Canada, the lowest quality being principally consumed in the West Indies. In curing them, the common custom is to dip them in fine salt before salting in the barrels. When this is neg- lected, the fish adhere together, and become red and tainted. The proper mode of packing is with the flesh side down ; this prevents the fish from tainting, and allows all impurities in the salt to settle away from the flesh of the fish. Mackerel are also cured in hermetically sealed tins, but not to a very large extent. In 1873 the quantity so packed was 21,000 cans in New Brunswick, and 10,842 cans in Nova Scotia. ( 73 ) CHAPTER V. THE SALMON FISHERY. Salmon formerly common in the Thames Statistics of salmon brought to London Value of the salmon fisheries in 1871 Sales at Billingsgate Salmon fisheries of Norway, Canadian Dominion, etc. Acclimatization in Australia. AT present one of the most esteemed fish is the salmon (Salmo salor). In the reign of Richard I. (i 197), the Thames is described as containing " remarkably good salmon ; " and even early in the present century the Thames abounded with salmon of the finest quality. " Thames salmon " then bore a higher price than that obtained from most other streams, and so copious was once the supply, that in the olden time it was usual to insert a clause in the indentures of London apprentices, that they should not be fed upon salmon more than a certain number of days in the month. Then came the time when the river water became impure. Not only was the population of the metropolis enormously increased, but, being well sewered, its vast network of drains poured their contents (by the authority of an Act of Parliament) into the river. Then gas-works were made, and their ammoniacal water still further poisoned the stream. Against these impurities the salmon could not contend ; they gradually, and at length totally, disappeared from the waters of our queen of rivers. 74 The Commercial Prodiicts of the Sea. It is difficult to obtain accurate statistics of the fish food which is drawn from the sea ; we can only guess at it from such data as have been made accessible. The following statistics show the quantities of salmon (in boxes of 120 Ibs. each) received and sold in London from 1850 to 1871 : Years. Scotch. Irish. Dutch. Norwegian. English and Welsh. 1850 .. 13*940 2135 105 54 72 1851 11,593 4141 203 212 40 1852 .. 13,044 3602 176 306 20 1853 - 19,485 55 2 401 1208 2O 1854 - 23,194 6333 345 128 1855 18,197 4101 227 59 1856 .. 15,438 6568 68 5 200 1857 .. 18,654 4904 622 220 1858 .. 21,564 6429 973 19 499 1859 .. ' I5, 6 30 4855 922 260 i8bo 15,870 3803 849 40 438 1865 .. 19,009 6858 H79 1069 868 1866 .. 21,725 9326, 1772 1632 1563 1867 .. 23,006 54i! ' 1203 1296 2405 1868 .. 28,020 3487 807 407 1725 1869 .. 20,474 8800 637 696 1843 1870 20,648 9211 626 852 3120 1871 23,390 7379 516 1037 2953 The aggregate value of the salmon fisheries in 1871 was estimated by the Fishery Commissioners as follows : Scotland, 200,000 ; Ireland, 400,000 ; England, 90,000. At an average of is. 2d. per lb., or 7 per box, the value of the 34,457 boxes sold at Billingsgate in 1870 was 241,199. Besides these metropolitan sales, 8600 boxes of Irish salmon were sold in the midland districts of England, 2880 boxes in Dublin, and 2107 boxes and 31 baskets sent to Liverpool. The sales at Billingsgate in 1871 were 35,275 boxes, weighing 1764 tons, valued at 246,925. The average annual sale of salmon in London may be taken to be 250,000 in value. The Salmon Fishery. 75 The main bulk of the salmon caught in Scotland, it appears, is sent to London ; but in the case of the salmon caught in the English and Welsh rivers, the bulk is not sent to London, but to the large towns in the immediate neigh- bourhood of the fisheries. The salmon fishery in Norway is interdicted between the I4th September and the I4th February. Besides that which is smoked, salted, and consumed locally fresh, about 250,000 Ibs. are shipped annually to England in ice, and a small quantity to Berlin. It costs fresh about sixpence the pound, and the annual sales reach a value of 100,000. The export of salted salmon is from 1000 to 1200 barrels. Above 7000 worth of salmon was shipped from Nor- way in 1869, exclusively for British account. The fish dealers, who come over in fishing smacks, purchase the fish from the fishermen as brought in, put the fish imme- diately in ice, and despatch the article to the London market direct, or via Grimsby. In New Brunswick the value of the salmon taken is estimated at about 160,000 sterling. The fishery is very valuable. As many as 40,000 salmon have 'been caught in the course of a season at the mouth of the St. John, a large portion of which is sent fresh to the United States, and commands remunerative prices. At the entrance to the Miramichi 400,000 Ibs. are annually put up, " preserved " for export. There is a great increase in the yield of salmon in consequence of their protection during the spawning season. Preserved salmon is exported from British Columbia on a large scale, and bears a very high reputation. In 1874 there was barrelled and tinned not less than 14, 5 00,000 Ibs., of the gross value of 400,000 sterling. The catch of salmon at Oregon in 1874 was an enormous 76 The Commercial Products of the Sea. one, and the average take by the 13 existing preserving establishments was 15,000 fish per night for 26 nights. It was estimated that during the season 1,250,000 salmon were taken, weighing on an average 16 Ibs. each, of which 950,000 were canned fresh, and the remainder salted and barrelled. The following figures give an approximate return, for it is difficult to obtain precise statistics : No. of fish Weight. Value, tinned. Ibs. 1872 ... I7O,OOO ... 2,700,000 ... ^"86,400 J ^73 360,000 ... 5,760,000 ... 168,000 1874 ... 950,000 ... 14,400,000 ... 400,000 In the last-named year 250,000 salmon, weighing 4,000,000 Ibs., were salted. Owing to the enormous increase of pro- duction, the market value of both canned and salted salmon has been much lowered. The average price was not over 6s. per dozen i Ib. cans. In 1876, during the fishing season, 18 establishments on the Lower Columbia river put up 428,730 cases of salmon. Of these over 400,000 cases contained four dozen I Ib. tins, and the remainder consisted of 2 Ib. and 2\ Ib. tins. Over 100,000 cases were shipped direct from Astoria to England in the first three months. In 1877 the total catch was 378,325 cases. The total exports from San Francisco by sea to Europe and the colonies were 170,887 cases in 1876, and 160,982 cases in 1877. Attempts have been carried on for many years past, which have been attended with partial success, to acclima- tize the salmon in the Australian rivers, and considerable quantities of ova have also been sent out to Tasmania and New Zealand. ( 77 ) CHAPTER VI. THE SARDINE FISHERY. Derivation of the name "sardine" Extent of the French fishery Mode of preparing the fish for market Statistics of the fisheries Dried sardines The anchovy The menhaden, or moss-bunker, prepared in oil in America. THE purity and delicacy of the little fish (Clupea sprattus, Lin.) which haunts the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean is known everywhere ; its excellent keeping qualities, when preserved in oil, enabling it to be transported for an indefi- nite distance. It has much in common with the sprat in flavour, but also reminds the epicure of the anchovy, which is also common on the Mediterranean and other coasts of France. There are sardines and sardines, for the family to which this fish belongs includes the whitebait, the sprat, and the pilchard. As they were chiefly found in large shoals on the coasts of Sardinia, they have thence derived their popular name, and this has also been incorporated into the specific name of Clupea sardina, Cuvier. In Italy, how- ever, these fish are known as " sardella," and the anchovy as " sardon." The sardine fishery is eminently French. It is carried on from the Gulf of Gascony to the east. Quitting the Mediterranean, where they are born, the sardines, on the 78 The Commercial Products of the Sea. first approach of fine weather, pass m great shoals along the coast of Spain, and reach that of France about May or earlier. In Provence, on the Mediterranean, the fishing, however, commences in March and ends in June, while on the coasts of Britanny it only commences in July, and finishes early in October. The shoal increases as it approaches the north, hence the necessity of often changing the nature of the nets which are used with fisheries. From Douarnenez to Sables d'Olonne there are about 2500 boats employed in this fishery. Each of these requires about 30 barrels of salted cod roe for bait during the season, and as this sometimes runs up in price to 4 and 5 the barrel, this entails a very heavy outlay. Besides which, there are the other numerous ports of Bordeaux, Rochelle, Bayonne, etc., to be supplied. Two of the largest stations are at Douarnenez and Concarneau. Fleets of boats go out some five miles and spread out their nets, by the side of which some cod-roe is thrown to attract the fish. The nets are weighted at one end, and have corks attached to the other, so that they assume a vertical position two nets being placed close to each other, that the fish trying to escape may be caught in the meshes. The fish is sold all over France (fresh when it is possible) half-salted, or salted and pressed into barrels, and preserved in oil. Brought to land, they are immediately offered for sale, as if staler by a few hours they become seriously deterio- rated in value ; no first-class manufacturer coming to buy such. They are sold by the thousand. The curer employs large numbers of women, who cut off the heads of the fish, wash, and salt them. The fish are then dipped into boiling oil for a few minutes, arranged in various-sized tin boxes The Sardine Fishery. 79 filled up with the finest olive oil, soldered down, and placed in boiling water for some time to test the boxes, and those which leak are put aside. Women burnish the tins, the labels are put on or sometimes enamelled on the tins, which are then packed in wooden cases, generally con- taining 100 tins, and are then ready for export. It does not always seem to be remembered that the longer the tin is kept unopened the more mellow do the fish become ; and, if properly prepared, age improves them as it does good wine ; but if they are too salt at first, age does not benefit them they always remain tough. The sizes of the tins are known as half and quarter tins. There are two kinds of half tins, one weighing 18 ounces, and the other 16 ounces gross. The quarter tin usually weighs about seven ounces ; but there are larger quarter tins sometimes imported, which tins are still used in France, but seldom seen in England. Sardines in oil form the most important branch of the trade. It has become immense, and employs large numbers of people. A quarter of a century ago the shipment of sardines in oil from France was not above 24,000 in value ; but in the last 10 years it has ranged from 500,000 to 750,000, according to the abundance of the fish. About 4500 boats, registering some 10,000 tons, are engaged in the sardine fishery. In 1866 the value of the French sardine fishery was a little over 7,000,000 francs. In 1873 it reached 13,757,534 francs, and, owing to the abundant catch, the price fell to 15 francs the 1000, against 75 francs the 1000 in 1872. In some years the sardines are most plentiful ; in others they are scarce. At Douarnenez and Concarneau, the principal centres, 884 boats were employed in 1866; and in the month of July these boats caught more than 8o The Commercial Products of the Sea. 1 10,000,000 sardines, the sale of which produced 707,648 francs. By the end of August the fish were so abundant that they were sold as low as is. 6d. the 1000, a thing not known for 10 years previously. In 1873, in the quarter of Auray, the sardine fishery was carried on by 239 boats. The catch amounted to 43,170,000, of which 32,000,000 were tinned, 10,120,000 were pressed or salted, and the rest locally consumed or sent into the interior. At L'Orient the catch was valued at 2,730,000 francs ; at Douarnenez, 2,976,551 francs; at Quimper, 1,587,534 francs ; Brest, 291,836 francs ; Morlaix, 48,145 francs. Occa- sionally 1 1 5,000,000 sardines have been caught in a single season on the French coasts of the ocean. The French fisheries on the coast of Finistere and Morbihan are of very great importance. Large quantities of sardines, mackerel, and lobsters are caught ; and close upon 181,000 fishermen were employed during 1873. In 1871-72 the quantity of sardines caught decreased, but during 1873 the catch was good. The value of preserved sardines exported alone from Brest to New York in 1873 was ,56,640. Of fresh and salt water fish caught, the largest propor- tion goes by railway to Paris. During the year 1873 the fishing stations at Douarnenez, Audierne, and Guilvince (all on the Finistere) alone sent by rail to Paris more than 4000 tons of fresh fish, and, strange to say, it can be purchased cheaper in Paris than fish of the same quality at Brest or neighbouring towns. The sardine frequents the bays and inlets of Gallicia ; and in the single province of Pontevedra there are more than 1 02 stations occupied in salting this fish, which is carried on by females. In 1873, 5,000,000 Ibs. of these fish The Sardine Fishery. 81 were shipped to Mediterranean ports and the Spanish West Indies. Very few are preserved, the French holding the monopoly of this trade. The fishery is carried on from July to February, but the fish are in the best condition and most abundant in November and December. Dried sardines (" hosi-ka ") in Japan are considered a superior manure, but the price is often too high for poor cultivators to use them. These small fish abound in some of the seas around, so that small boats can hardly make their way through them. They are caught in large shoals to extract the oil from them. This oil is used for burning by the lower classes, but is of very inferior quality, and gives off a good deal of black dense smoke. The residue, after the oil is extracted, is sold for manure. A cwt. of this manure costs about 3^. 6d. The Anchovy is another fish, the capture and cure of which gives extensive employment on the French Atlantic coast and in the Mediterranean. The value of the fish caught on the French coasts ranges from 16,000 to 20,000 per annum. The fishery is carried on from May to October. After gutting and removing the head, they are washed and simply placed in barrels, with layers of salt, and a little reddish ochreous earth added to give them a colour. Anchovies are also caught and salted in Norway, the shipments occasionally reaching 20,000 kegs. The Americans have begun to utilize the Menhaden, or moss-bunker, by preserving it in oil like the French sardines. This fish has been variously named Brevortea menhaden and Alosa menhaden. The objection to these fish for general use is that they are very bony. The American Sardine Company, by some mechanical process, have removed this objection. G 82 The Commercial Products of the Sea. The preparation these fish go through is thus described : They are first brought to the sealer, which consists of a long shaft, on which are twelve wheels filled with long blunt teeth. These revolve very rapidly, and take off every scale in an incredibly short space of time. From the sealers they are passed to hands who chop off the heads and cut out the entrails. They are then placed in the washing troughs, above which are a number of revolving circular brushes, by contact with which the insides are thoroughly cleaned. They are then deposited in pickle vats, where they remain for a few hours, until they are sufficiently salted ; after which they are spread upon large tables, and placed in cooking cans. They are then taken to the steaming tanks, of which there are seven, each having a capacity for holding 1000 boxes. From the steaming cans, they are again taken to the tables and transferred to the permanent cans, when they are oiled and spiced, and then handed over to the tinsmiths to be soldered. The time from the fish being brought to the factory until they are boxed and labelled, is three days. Now these fish are shipped in large quantities to every part of the States, and by many are considered quite equal in flavour to the sardines imported from France to Italy. 83 CHAPTER VII. THE TUNNY FISHERY. Tunny fishery in the Mediterranean Size the fish attains Description of a " madrague " Statistics of the Italian fishery Definition of terms used Scabeccio, or tunny preserved in oil Salted tunny Fishery at Tunis and Algeria. THE tunny (Thynmis vttlgaris, Cuv.) is a common fish in the Mediterranean, and has been known and celebrated from the remotest antiquity. The Mediterranean is, of all the seas, that least abundant in variety of fish, only nourish- ing about 440 species. In Sicily the tunny forms one of the most considerable branches of the commerce of the island. In France it is much used, and is cooked in a variety, of ways. It is frequently taken on the Atlantic coast, but must be con- sidered a wanderer from more southern latitudes, and is there known by its popular name of "horse mackerel and albicore." In America its flesh is not held in estimation. On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea it is found in great abundance, and forms one of the chief sources of wealth of the seaside population. The flesh is highly esteemed, and eaten both fresh and salted. It is exten- sively used in the Italian countries, pickled in various ways, boiled down in soups, and made into pies, which are thought to be very excellent, and possess the valuable 84 The Commercial Products of the Sea. property of remaining good for nearly two months. The different parts of the fish are called by appropriate names, and are said to resemble beef, veal, and pork. The shape of the tunny is not unlike the mackerel, but it is larger, rounder, and has a shorter snout. The general average length is about four feet, but sometimes it attains a length of 10 or 12 feet. One was recently caught in a mackerel net off Martha's Vineyard, and exhibited by Eugene Blackford, at Fulton market, New York city, that weighed over 700 Ibs., and was 14 ft. 10 in. in length. De Kay, in his work, mentions one that was taken near Cape Ann that weighed about 1000 Ibs. These are the largest tunny fish caught in America of which we have any information. In May and June the tunnies move in vast shoals along the shores of the Mediterranean, seeking for suitable places to deposit their spawn. They are seen by sentinels, who are on the watch, and nets are prepared for their capture. These nets are of two kinds, one a common seine and the other called a "madrague." The outer portions of the madrague intercept the fish, and on their endeavouring to retreat they are forced to enter one of many chambers. They are thus driven from one chamber to another until they are forced into the last and smallest, which is signifi- cantly called the " chamber of death." This chamber is furnished with a floor of net, to which are attached a series of ropes, so that by hauling on the ropes the floor is drawn up and the fish brought to the surface. They struggle fiercely for liberty, but are speedily stunned by blows from long poles, and lifted into boats. From 5000 to 6000 tons of tunny fish have been shipped in some years from Elba. The tunny fisheries, which supply the labouring popu- The Tunny Fishery. 85 lation of the Sicilian coasts during the summer months with employment and food, generally yield more than enough for home consumption. The surplus, preserved in oil or salt, forms, together with anchovies, sardines, and sturgeons, a considerable article of export from Sicily. In 1866 the fishery carried on in the "parages" of the Isle of St. Pierre, situate on the south coast of Sardinia, yielded 15,850 tunny fish, weighing nearly 3,000,000 Ibs., and approximately valued locally at 51,000. In 1869 the shipments amounted in value to about 25,000, in 1870 to 22,000, and in 1871 to about 35,000. This fish is exported to England, the north of Europe, to Italy, and also to Greece and Turkey. The fishery occasionally employs at Palermo 1000 boats and 3500 men. The produce of the tunny fishery at Caloforte, Italy, in 1 874 was : Kilogrammes. Francs. Tunny in oil ... 301,000 ... ... 590,400 ,, salted ... 18,400 ... ... 9,800 Eggs and entrails ... 22,230 ... ... 24,200 Tunny oil... ... 30,850 ... ... 36,000 372,480 660,400 The value of the fishery in 1873 was as high as 4,248,700 francs (about 170,000). The tunny fishery of 1875 from Cagliari, though better than that of 1874, was below the average yield, the value of the products not reaching 1,000,000 francs. The exports of tunny fish salted and pickled from Sardinia in twelve years were as follows : Ibs. 3 years ending 1854 ... ... 3,777,280 1857 ... ... -.. 7,596,904 ,, 1860 ... ... 3,493,013 1863 ... ... ... 2,152,453 86 The Commercial Proditcts of the Sea. For the last seven or eight years the " matanzas," or takes of tunny, at Tunis have proved very equal and good, Were the fish to exceed 14,000 in one season, they would be beyond the preserving and curing capabilities of the estab- lishment. The nets are laid jutting out to sea for upwards of a mile, and are so placed as to form several chambers ; the outer compartments are made of esparto grass-rope nets, of very large meshes, which gradually decrease in size as the "corpo," or slaughtering compartment, is ap- proached. The nets in this part are made of the finest hempen cordage. The tunny, in their annual spring migration from the ocean to the Archipelago and the Black Sea, follow either the southern or northern shores of the Mediterranean in all their windings. A tonnara is so constructed off a promon- tory or headland as to offer an obstruction to the fish, which, in endeavouring to avoid it, enter compartment after com- partment. Their migratory instinct is so strong, that they never appear tempted to retrace their course, but always endeavour to find a way out towards the east, which is barred to them. On a sufficient number of tunny fish being noted in the "corpo," a net is lowered at its entrance, and the net, which forms the bottom of it, is gradually drawn up towards the surface, so as to bring the fish within the reach of the men, the majority of whom, about 160 in number, are in two immense lighters, armed with harpoons and boat-hooks, by means of which the tunny are killed and drawn into the barges. A few of the men are also in small boats in the centre of the enclosure. As many as 700 fish are occasionally secured in a single " matanza," but more usually from 400 to 500. From 30 to 35 days are ex- pended in laying down the nets and otherwise preparing for work. ^he Tunny Fishery. 87 The first " matanza " of the season generally takes place about the loth of May, and the last on the 3Oth of June, or thereabouts. To secure the high prices of an early market, the first " matanza " is hastened as much as pos- sible, and takes place if even 200, or only 1 50, tunny have entered the " corpo." The fish are killed and landed in the morning, and allowed to drain until the evening, when they are cleaned and cut up. The " scabeccio " tunny preserved in oil is boiled for an hour, and then allowed to cool and dry, when it is quickly packed in barrels already prepared for its reception, and about a third of a " metal " of oil (i J im- perial gallon) is poured into each barrel, great care being taken that it should permeate the whole contents, and that no vacuum should exist when closed. The same process is observed for the tunny preserved in tin cans, only that the air is more thoroughly excluded and exhausted by steam power. The operation of salting the fish is more expe- ditious, for, whilst the " scabeccio " to be prepared requires from four to five days, the salting takes but a day or a day and a half. The oil extracted from tunny is much used by curriers and in the tanning trade, and is extracted from the heads, dorsal and other bones, and refuse, the whole being placed in an immense cauldron, capable of holding 800 heads and 400 skeletons at a time, and allowed to boil for 24 hours. The bones after boiling are subjected to com- pression in powerful presses, and thus but little of the oil they contain is lost. In a good season the Sidi Baud fishery, Tunis, furnishes from 10,000 to 14,000 tunny, but they vary considerably in size from one year to another. In 1870 the fish were larger than those of 1871, although some of the tunny caught measured eight and a half feet in length, and four feet in 88 The Commercial Products of the Sea. diameter at the neck, the widest part of the body. From 2000 to 3000 fish are sufficient to pay the whole of the expenses of a season. The average yield is for 1000 fish to produce 1 20 barrels of " scabeccio." In 1871, 3200 barrels of " scabeccio " were made, and sold at more than 6 IDS. the 100 kilogrammes ; and 90,000 kilogrammes of tunny were put up in tin cans, which realized more than ,8 the 100 kilogrammes. Eight thousand barrels of salted fish were sold at about i 4^. per barrel ; and 40,000 kilogrammes of oil (65,460 imperial gallons) produced more than 40 the 1000 kilogrammes. Two thousand "metals" (about 10,250 imperial gallons) of the best olive oil were expended in the preservation of the above quantities of fish. Very few of the fish are sent in a fresh state to the Tunis market ; about 50 only are presented by the pro- prietor to the Bey, local and foreign authorities, and other Tunisian officials. The roes, milts, hearts, sounds, and all other coarse parts of the fish are the perquisites of the fishermen, and are preserved and sold on their own account. The roes are chiefly sent to Italy, and are there sold at from 2s. 6d. to 4^. the pair. Upwards of 200 barrels of inferior parts of tunny were salted on account of the men in 1871. It appears, moreover, that the demand for preserved tunny is at present limited to the countries bordering on the Mediteranean, and the ten tonnaras in Sicily, one in Calabria, six in Sardinia, and one or two in France, Spain, and other parts of Italy, produce sufficient for actual requirements. In Germany tunny is beginning to be known and called for, but it took six months last year to dispose of 200 tin boxes that were sent to England as a commercial experiment. Nevertheless the best qualities The Tunny Fishery. 89 of tunny only require to be better known in England to be highly appreciated. 1870 and 1871 proved disastrous seasons for the Italian tonnaras, the tunny fish having, unaccountably, almost entirely failed to make their accus- tomed appearance, and the two most famed tonnaras of Trapani only secured 2000 fish each in 1871, whilst others were forced to break up their establishments from want of success, before the season was half over. Tunny fish preserved in oil (" scabeccio ") is much used ; the price is about 3 $s. the cwt, and the produce of the fishing in 1871 was Scabeccio preserved, in barrels ... ,10,336 Salted tunny ... ... ... 10,200 Scabeccio in tin cans ... ... '7,200 Tunny oil ... ... ... ... 1,600 The export of tunny fish from Tunis in 1873 was : Salted, to the value of ... ... ... ^644 Pickled in oil ... ... ... 4^13 This fishery might be profitably carried on in Algeria. Arzeu has one small madrague, where on some days as many as 300 tunny fish have been taken. 400 or 500 persons could be profitably occupied in this fishing. A madrague established at Sidi Feruch, or at Cape Matefou, would give during the season, at each lift of the nets (an operation which might be renewed several times during the week), 300 or 400 tunny fish, weighing from 60 Ibs. to 600 Ibs. It might be salted or marinated, and as this fish will keep fresh for a week, it might be shipped to supply the Marseilles market. It could only be carried on during the months of March to June. 9O The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER VIII. CRUSTACEA. Useful or food-supplying Crustacea The lobster The British fishery Size to which lobsters grow Technical names by which they are sold in Billings- gate Supply of crabs Crab-pots Lobster fishery in America Change of colour in boiling Statistics of the trade in canning lobsters, etc. The Norway lobster fishery. AMONG the Crustacea we have the useful or food- supplying kinds, such as the boiled lobster and the canned or tinned lobster ; the edible crabs of the market, used for food, and the king-crab for manure ; large prawns, used in place of the lobster on the west coast of America ; those sold in the markets of Europe, at New York, and the east and south coasts of America ; the smaller shrimps and prawns, held in esteem by various nations, and many of which serve for bait. The liquid fat of the hermit-crab (Pagurus sp\ under the name of "manteca de ladron," is used in Venezuela to cure laxations of the bowels. The shell of the king-crab (Limulus polyphemtis) is used on the American coasts as a boat-bailer. Of the crustaceans, the lobster is that which is most in demand, although the more common crab is, of the two, most digestible and nourishing. But the lobster has always been held in estimation as a food delicacy, and from being so sought for, leads to a very extensive commerce. Besides Crustacea. 9 1 the British supplies of which we have no very reliable returns the bulk of our imports come from Norway and Sweden, and it may be interesting to glance at the statistics of the trade generally. The British Fishery. Lobsters are brought to Greenock in large numbers from the western islands, chiefly from Skye, in boxes containing from four to five dozen, and are there transferred, for facility and economy of carriage by rail, to tea chests, into each of which from 50 to 100 fish, according to size, are carefully packed, and forwarded regularly and in large quantities in this way to Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and London, in each of which towns is located a branch of a great firm originally of Aberdeen to whom are continually consigned enormous quantities offish from all parts of the coast. Much more might be done on the coasts of the British Islands in the matter of lobsters, especially in Ireland. In a report on the Irish Fisheries, it was stated that " Lobsters may be taken in any quantity ; 20,000 or 30,000 a week might be easily captured on about 20 miles of the coast of Clifden, Buffen Island, and Bunown, but the people have no means of taking them. They only fish close to the shore, and large lobsters cannot go into the pots used. Those of five or six pounds or eight or nine pounds weight are only taken by clinging to the sides of the pots ; and if the fishermen had boats sufficient to go out to the rocks seven or eight miles off, they, with proper gear, would take the finest fish in the world, and in the greatest quantities. They may be had in season every day in the year that men could venture out to set the pots, but they never do so in the winter." The size and age to which lobsters sometimes attain was evidenced by one caught a few years ago in Plymouth Sound in a trawl net, which was reported in the Field of June 2nd. Its length was, from the 92 The Commercial Products of the Sea. tip of the claws to end of tail, 3 ft. 2 in.; weight, 1 5 Ibs. 2\ oz. Several small oysters, mussels, and barnacles were adhering to the shell, and it was supposed to be 100 years old, although what grounds there were for the assumption were not stated. Crabs and lobsters are supplied to the London market from the east, south, and west coasts of England, from Cornwall and the Channel Islands. The crayfish nearly all come from Sennen Cove, near the Land's End, and the greater part of these are sent to France. The crabs received from Dunbar are very small, some of them not more than three inches across ; they are called in the market " Dunbar bugs." Very small crabs are also received from Scar- borough ; one dealer in the season receives about 20 barrels per day, each barrel containing 200. After paying ex- penses and carriage, it is calculated that the fishermen can only realize 4^. for 200 crabs, and 2Os. for 100 lobsters. Crabs are much wanted for the seaside markets in August and September. Lobsters are sold in Billingsgate by curious ancient terms, viz., a "worst Nancy," which equals 40 small lobsters ; a " best Nancy," which is 40 lobsters of a larger size. According to sizes above this, lobsters are sold by a " best Double," a Score, and a Ten. The supply of crabs to London has diminished more than half, both in size and number. Many crabs come from the West of England, Cornwall, and Devon. The price has gone up fully 30 per cent. ; a crab eight or ten years ago worth 2s. is now worth 3^. 6d. The sale for crabs begins to fall off in October, and does not begin again till March. The chief time for the sale of crabs and lobsters is May, June, July, and August. In winter the crabs are watery. Crabs and lobsters are in best condition in warm weather. Crustacea. 93 The crabs at Cromer and the neighbourhood are counted by a peculiar standard. Thus, two crabs are counted as one, the two crabs being called "a cast;" six score of crabs is called a hundred ; therefore 100 crabs is strictly 240. There are about 50 boats, each worked by two men, used by the Cromer fishermen. Each boat would set from 30 to 35 pots. These crab-pots cost about 8^. A good catch for a boat in two tides' fishing would be about 180 crabs. Supposing the 50 boats had good luck, they would catch about 9000 crabs a day. Sizeable crabs are sold in the Norwich and London markets at the average of $os. the long hundred, or nearly $d. each. At Sherningham there are about 100 crab boats, and each boat has about 20 pots. The crab-pots are set out to sea from the foreshore to the distance of about two miles. The extent of the united Cromer and Sherningham crab fisheries is about eight and a quarter miles long by two wide. The crab-pots are made of a cage of thick, strong netting, fastened across bows of iron or wood. This cage is I ft. 9 in. long, and I ft. 3 in. across the bottom. The crabs enter the pots through two funnel-shaped doors, which act on the principle of a mouse-trap ; a side door can easily be let down, and the crabs removed. The bait used for catching crabs are flat-fish, usually called " butts." The small crabs called " toggs " are also much used, smashed up, for bait, and are sold in large quantities, scarcely fetching a penny each retail, to the great injury of the fishery. The crab and lobster fisheries of Ireland continue to be pretty productive ; but with a view to their better preserva- tion, regulations have been laid down, limiting the size of crabs to be taken to five inches in length across the back at 94 The Commercial Products of the Sea. their greatest measurement, and lobsters to nine inches from the end of the tail to what is usually called the tip of the beak. Lobsters used to be taken in great numbers near the village of Usan, near Montrose, and 60,000 or 70,000 were sent annually to London, and sold at the rate of 2\d. apiece, provided they were five inches round the body; if less, two were allowed for one. The home supply of lobsters is not now, however, so large as the foreign supply. The supply to London has fallen off very much these last few years ; the price has risen considerably, as com- pared to what it was formerly; the scarcity is beginning to be felt. Lobsters arrive in London from Scotland, Southampton (where they are kept alive), Norway, Sweden, Ireland, and France. The Norway lobsters are considered very good, and so are those from the Orkneys. The lobster is never so good as when in the condition of a berried hen. Berried hens occur most frequently in April, May, and June. They begin to lose their berries or eggs about July, but still many berried hens occur in July. The use of the berries is almost entirely devoted to cooking ; they are used in many preparations by the West- End cooks, especially for the colouring and enriching of sauces. The " chefs " are also fond of coral out of the body of the lobster. Occasionally, in the month of May, as much as six ounces of berries will be taken from a lobster weighing three to three pounds and a half. There are about 6720 eggs in an ounce of lobster spawn. The Norwegian lobsters are best in season in May to August ; the Scotch lobsters begin to fall off in August. The shell of the Scotch lobster is thick, and when boiled is of a dark colour, and covered with white specks. The Crustacea. 95 shell of the Norwegian oyster is thin, and of a bright red colour. The Lobster Fishery of America. Lobster fishing has been followed at Marshfield and Plymouth, Massachusetts, for 30 years and more. From 50,000 to 100,000 lobsters are taken annually, and sold to the smacks for the Boston market, and to pedlars for the inland. On the North American coasts a large trade is done in putting up lobsters in tins. For some years past the packing-houses of Portland, Maine, have shipped lobsters in tins to England in ever-increasing quantites. The taste thus acquired has created a demand for the article in a fresh and more palatable state. To supply this demand, the Portland firm of Marston and Sons, extensive dealers, conceived the idea of shipping live lobsters by the British steamers which ply between Liverpool and that port. The efforts made in that direction have not, however, been very successful, the number transported which reached their destination alive being very small. The packing of lobsters in America has become so enormous that, at the present rate of canning, serious apprehensions are felt in some quarters that the supply will not last many years longer. A few years ago it was not uncommon to catch lobsters weighing from 10 to 20 pounds each ; now the average is from three to six pounds, and growing less, thousands which are caught weighing but little over one pound each. Quite a fleet of small vessels is employed in this important branch of commercial industry. The Americans having almost denuded their own coast of this useful and valuable crustacean, are now busy fishing for it on the British Atlantic coasts. Prior to the year 1869, no mention is made in the Canadian Fishery reports of the yield of lobsters. 96 The Commercial Products of the Sea. In that year 52,400 one-pound cans or tins were put up in Nova Scotia. In 1870 the quantity preserved was more than ten times as great, namely, 553,000 cans, valued at about 7\d. each. In 1871 the quantity preserved in that province rose to 905,500 tins. In the next two years the export trade had wonderfully increased, yet the wholesale price ran up to is. per tin. The whole quantity preserved in Nova Scotia was returned at Tins. Value. 1872 2,422,508 l2I,H5 1873 3.462,298 ... ... 173,115 In New Brunswick only 38,500 cans were put up in 1869 ; in 1871 the quantity had increased to 224,000 tins, and in the two subsequent years the advance was as follows : Tins. Value 1872 1,055,485 27,740 1873 1,387,700 69,400 The business of " canning " lobsters is annually ex- tending, and threatens the annihilation of the beds, but it is now proposed that no lobsters shall be taken with the eggs attached, or weighing less than one pound and a half. By this means the destruction will, it is hoped, be limited, and the same error which was committed in the case of the salmon fisheries prevented. In 1873 more than 4,000,000 one-pound tins of lobsters were sent from British North America into the markets of the world. In 1874 the value of the lobsters preserved was 203,000, besides the fresh ones sent to the United States, valued at 24,000. In some parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence they are so plentiful that, notwithstanding their increased commercial Crustacea. 97 value since the foundation of this new industry, good marketable lobsters are used to manifre the fields. The proprietor of a large establishment at Shippagaw writes: "The heavy gale of August, 1873, drove more lobsters ashore within five miles of my packing-houses than I could make use of during the whole summer. They formed a row of from one to five feet deep, and I should estimate them at an average of 1000 to every two rods of shore." Lobsters are taken in wicker baskets, called lobster-pots. These are about three feet long and two feet wide, of a semi-cylindrical form ; that is, the bottom flat, and the sides and top in the form of an arch. At each end is an opening for the ingress of the lobster ; around this opening are placed short, flexible pieces of wood, projecting into the basket, so arranged that they will easily separate and allow the lobster to enter, but their points close together after him and prevent his egress. They have a door upon the top, through which the lobster is taken out. A long line is attached to these pots ; a heavy stone, sufficient to sink it, is placed inside. They are baited with the heads or offal of fresh fish, and sunk to the bottom at about low- water mark ; the other end of the line is made fast to a block of light wood, called a buoy. The fishermen go out with their wherries freighted with these pots, and drop them at short intervals along the shore. During the season of lobster fishing, which lasts from March to July in America, hundreds of these buoys may be seen bobbing up and down like so many seals' heads. The fishermen visit them every morning, draw them up alongside of their boats, take out the lobsters, replenish the bait, and drop them again into the water. The lobsters, when first taken, are very fierce, and seize with their strong pincers upon 98 The Commercial Products of the Sea. whatever may be within their reach. When thrown to- gether in the boat, they will grapple and tear off each other's feelers and legs. Without much care in handling them the fingers of the fishermen get many a hard bite. To prevent them from injuring each other, the fishermen provide sharp- pointed wooden pegs, which they insert into the joint or hinge of their pincers ; this prevents them from closing. When they have visited all their pots they row to their landing-place. If they now wish to preserve them for several days, they put them into a long box or kennel, made of plank, and bored full of holes, which is moored in the water at a little distance from the shore. If they wish to prepare them immediately for market, they are taken ashore in hand-barrows and carried to a sort of shed, in which is fixed a large cauldron in which they are boiled. The cause of the change of colour in the crustaceans after boiling has been investigated by several scientific inquirers. It is found to be due to two or three pigments, scarlet, blue, and green. The lobster, crayfish, and crab take a vermilion hue ; the prawn acquires a bright rose colour, and the grey shrimp a slight rose tint, bordering on violet There are now about 67 canning establishments in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, which use up from three to five tons each per day in the season, which lasts from four to six months, making a total annual destruction of at least 30,000 tons. Every season the number of canning estab- lishments is increasing, and of course the destruction will increase proportionately. As no supply, however large, can stand a ceaseless and increasing drain, unless means are taken to supply the waste, it is evident that this valuable supply must soon become exhausted by over-fishing. The whole of the edible part of the lobster is not Crustacea. 99 utilized by the carers, who say that the trouble of picking out the flesh from the claws is too great, and that lobsters are too cheap to make it worth while to go to the expense of this slight additional labour. Lobster Fishery in Norway, etc. There are many other countries where the business of preserving lobsters in tins might be profitably carried on Norway for example. From the port of Stromstad, in Sweden, about 50,000 are also sent annually to England. The Norway lobster is the Nephrops Norvegicus. This crustacean is caught in the fiords from the southern ex- tremity up to the Lofoden Islands ; but it has been noticed for some years that there is a tendency in the lobster to keep more towards the north, where they are found of larger size. They are often taken by means of a common cask, the bottom of which is replaced by boughs, and a hole is left for the lobster to enter, attracted by the bait of the fresh herring suspended, but it cannot get out again. Osier pots are also used, but of a more oblong shape than those employed with us. The trade is pretty much centralized at Christiansund. The lobsters are there placed in large reservoirs made in the centre of the fiord, where they are kept alive until despatched to Belgium and England. A part are sent off in wooden boxes, and others in quick-sailing vessels, with holds having reservoirs capable of holding 10,000 to 12,000 lobsters, the sea water passing freely through holes pierced in the ship's side. The commerce in lobsters in Belgium is not in a very good state. In 1871 several cargoes were imported from Brittany ; but these lobsters are larger than those of Norway, and the flesh is not so good, and yet they sell at a somewhat higher price. The whole of the fishery in Nor- way is monopolized by English speculators, so that it is ioo The Commercial Products of the Sea. difficult to buy a lobster, excepting of a diminutive size without breach of contract, or paying comparatively an exorbitant price. The number exported annually from Norway ranged in the early part of the century from 600,000 to 800,000 ; from 1825 to 1829 it was higher, reaching an average of 1,280,000; in 1848, 607,282 were sent away. The annual export from 1853 to 1859 was about 800,000. In the ten years ending with 1870 the average number shipped was 1,500,000. In the last five or six years the number has fallen somewhat below 1,000,000. The number of lobsters exported was in 1870 ... ... ... ... 1,207,194 1871 ... ... 1,045.063 1872 ... ... 899,708 1873 ... ... 919,944 1874 ... ... ... -. 749,074 1875 880,630 1876 ... 1,270,348 The lobster is the largest and most useful of the crus- taceans of Europe. It is met with along the whole coast of Norway up to the Arctic circle, in the sea and in the fiords, but especially between Christiania and Loudmore. The fishery for lobsters is well regulated on all the coasts of Sweden and Norway as far as Molde. It is pro- hibited between the I5th July and I5th October. Each boat has about 30 bow-nets, and wooden cases with open- ings at each end, having the form of elongated casks. They are sunk about 38 fathoms deep by means of stones, after being baited with waste fish, and are examined night and morning. The claws of the lobster are fastened that the animals may not injure each other, and they are shipped in fast-sailing, welled vessels that hold from 15,000 to 20,000. About 3,000,000 are taken annually in Norway Crustacea. 161 and Sweden ; these are sold at $d. to 6d. each, according to size. Those less than eight inches, or which have lost a claw, are only worth half this price, and they are now prohibited to be sold. The Cape lobster (Palinurus Lalandii, Lam.) is used as food by the colonists. It is peculiar to the west coast, and common in Table Bay ; is easily caught in vast numbers all the year round, and attains a length of 1 3 inches an'd a breadth of nearly five inches. The flesh of the half-grown individual is tender and delicate, but that of the adult is coarse and difficult of digestion. To the poorer classes this crustacean is a regular godsend, and it is occasionally dried for preservation. A part of the west coast of New Jersey, not far from Cape May, is infested in May and June by swarms of huge inedible crabs, and these are collected and ground up for manure. As to their eggs, one may almost say that the sand of the beach consists of their eggs, for they are scooped up by the bushel and thrown to the pigs and poultry. A large number of fine crabs are caught on the coasts of Norway, which only cost about \d. or id. each on the spot. They are met with in incredible numbers in the fiords on the west coast, especially where it is rocky. There are often 40 or 50 taken at a time in a cask or crab-pot, and they are frequently n inches long. The crab is not eaten by the coast populations, and it sells at a very low price, even in the markets of Bergen and Stavanger. Crabs are chiefly used cut up for fish bait. Lately an attempt has been made to preserve them in tins for export, and specimens were sent to the Paris Exhibition in 1878. A fishery for small crayfish is carried on in the bays of the river Konki, in Russia, and the tails are dried for sale. A pound will contain about 300 of these pieces. T02 ht Commercial Products of the Sea. Various crabs, crayfish, and prawns are regularly col- lected, and eaten or sold as food by the natives of India. All the species thus used are, however, caught in lagoons or fresh-water lakes, with the exception of some land-crabs. Prawns in Madras are usually avoided by Europeans, as they are mostly caught in the river Cooum, which is little else than a common sewer. Some of the crabs are pleasant to eat, but not always safe. Among those eaten are Lupa sanguilonenta, Desm., and L. Tranquebarica, Edwards, and Thelphusa Leschenaultii. Crayfish and lobsters are very abundant on the west coast of South America. At Juan Fernandez they are found in such large quantities that the fishermen have no greater trouble to take them than to strew a little meat or bait upon the shore, and when they come to devour it, as they do in immense numbers, to turn them on their backs with a stick. By this simple method many thousands are taken annually ; and the tails, which are in high estima- tion, are dried and sent to Chilca. At Marennes, in France, the fishery for shrimps brings in a return of $oo a year. The British Shrimp Fishery. Shrimping is pursued extensively on many of our sandy coasts. The chief occupation of the Leigh fishermen is catching shrimps. This they do throughout the summer months. The smaller boats continue to catch them during the winter; but the larger vessels, when the demand for shrimps falls ofif, go farther away to sea, hand and long lining for cod, or fit out with stow-boat gear for catching sprats, or go trawling. They fish during winter about the Swin, the Barrow Deeps, the Waleet, and other places, remaining at sea for weeks together ; but in the summer their practice is to go out one tide and return the next ; Crustacea. 103 and a very pretty sight it is to see this little fleet of 150 vessels all working in and out of Leigh Creek together, boats of all sizes, and sails of every cut and colour, and if it be about sunrise or evening time when this happens, it makes a most charming picture. Shrimps are caught all over the sands that lie in the Thames estuary. The manner of catching them is this. An apparatus is constructed in the following manner : A frame of wood about six or eight feet long (it may be of any size) is formed, and upon this is placed a net, in such a manner that the net and frame, when complete, shall form a long-pointed bag ; to the wooden frame is attached a long rope, by which it is lowered to the bottom, and when there dragged along by the motion of the boat through the water. The edge of the wooden frame scrapes along the sand and compels the shrimps to enter the net ; when in, they quickly get back to the end of the pocket, where the mesh is fine, and they are secured. Each boat is provided with three or four of these little trawls. At Gravesend, where there is also a large fleet of craft employed in shrimping, they use a much larger description of net, and each boat is sufficiently equipped with one of these. Shrimping boats must be provided with a well, in which the shrimps are placed the moment they are caught. As soon as they are taken from this well, on the arrival of the boat at Leigh, they are placed in a copper of boiling sea water and boiled at once ; when cool, they are forwarded to London as quickly as possible. As many, as 1000 gallons of shrimps are sometimes sent to London in a single day from this place alone. Shrimps and Prawns, etc., in other Countries. Prawns at Tunis are of great size, six to seven inches long. Tunis, the ancient Carthage, was always celebrated for them, and 104 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the Roman emperors used to send for them for their banquets. Shrimps are collected in large quantities on the east coast of Norway. One species (Pandanus borealis), dis- tinguished by its red colour and great size, being three or four times larger than the ordinary shrimp, is fished for exclusively at Svelvig, and sold at Drammen, where it is much sought after. Large quantities of dried shrimps form an important article of consumption and export at Maranham, in Brazil. In the eastern countries, as in India, there is a large commerce in them ; and a shrimp powder is also used as food there, composed of dried shrimps pounded up with salt, spices, etc. The species used are Penaus affinis and another species. From the port of Chefoo, China, 6500 to 8500 cwt. of dried prawns are annually exported. From the port of Newchwang there was sent to other Chinese ports, in 1871, nearly 2000 cwt. of dried shrimps and 300 cwt. of shrimp husks. From Manila large quantities are also shipped. Only a few Australian Crustacea are applied to any use. The Great Murray River crayfish or lobster (Astacoides serratus) is brought in great numbers to market, and is generally used at table as the lobster is in Europe. The smaller crayfish (Astacoides quinquecarinatus) is not sold in the markets, but is commonly eaten in the vicinity of the many streams and rivers in which it is found in abundance. The great marine spiny crayfish or lobster, found abun- dantly at the Port Phillip Head, is constantly exposed in the shops and used at table in salads, etc. It seems to be a variety of the Homarus annulicornis, or a very closely allied species. CHAPTER IX. THE TREPANG FISHERY. Trepang or beche-de-mer fishery in the Pacific and Eastern Seas Numerous varieties of Holothuria Mode of preparing for market Process of dry- ing Statistics of exports from the Fiji Islands and Tahiti Large imports into China. AN important fishery for a food product, although one scarcely known at all in Europe, is the trepang fishery of the Pacific and Eastern Seas. The trepang, or beche-de-mer as it is sometimes called, is a most unsightly looking substance, a kind of sea-slug, belonging to the genus Holothuria. There are many varieties. The ordinary kind in point of size and appear- ance resembles a prickly cucumber, except that the colour is of a whitish brown ; another is perfectly black. Some- times they are found nearly two feet in length, but they are generally very much smaller, and perhaps about eight inches may be taken as the average size. There are 33 different varieties enumerated by the Chinese traders and others skilled in its classification, and it varies in price according to quality from $s. to icxr. the pound. Fashion and custom have caused each variety to have a different market. While the gourmand of the io6 The Commercial Products of the Sea. south smacks his lips on the juicy white and black kinds, the less cultivated taste of those at the north is satisfied with the red and more inferior varieties. It is minced down into a sort of thick soup by the Chinese, who are extremely fond of it and, indeed, with some reason, as when cooked by a Chinaman who under- stands the culinary art, the trepang is a capital dish, and is rather a favourite among many of the Europeans at Manila. This sea-slug, when dried, is an ugly looking, dirty-brown- coloured substance, very hard and rigid, until softened by water and a very lengthened process of cookery, after which it becomes soft and mucilaginous. It is found in all the sheltered harbours, where it gropes about the bottom, and feeds upon weeds and mollusca. It is taken at low water upon the shoals and mud-banks, over which the fishermen wade knee-deep in water, dragging their boats after them, and when the feet come in contact with a slug, it is picked up and thrown into the boat. They occasion- ally search in deeper water, where the fishermen avail themselves of the services of the natives, who are expert in diving and tracing out the slugs. The beche-de-mer, or trepang, is very abundant on the coasts of New Caledonia, and constitutes the most im- portant branch of commerce. The annual exports are valued at 4000. The fishery has been carried on for a long time on a neighbouring island, Erromango, which serves as an entrepot, where vessels load with this article and sandal-wood, which they carry to Shanghai or Hong- kong. The merchants here, however, prefer to ship to Sydney, for which the trepang serves as a return cargo for the vessels which bring merchandise. Although there is such a great number of varieties of The Trepang Fishery. 107 this sea-slug, only about five have any great commercial importance, which are as follows, with their nominal value in New Caledonia : Per ton. 30 25 20 15 12 Per kilogramme. Francs. 2'O I-30 I -00 70 1. Brown, with teats 2. Large black 3. Small black ... 4. Red bellies 5. White The first quality sells in China often as high as 90 to ;ioo the ton. The prices in the second column per kilogramme are those given in the French Colonial Catologue of the Paris Exhibition, 1878. FIG. i. Holothuridae species. The preparation of the product is very simple. It is boiled in water for about 20 minutes, and then slit up from one end to the other and dried. This process is carried on in a large shed, with three stages of frames disposed over a good fire to smoke and dry them. As the trepang is very hygrometic, it is indispensable that they should be kept dry- io8 The Commercial Products of the Sea. ing until the moment of shipment, in order that they may not imbibe moisture, for then they become flaccid and decay.* The following detailed account by Captain Andrew Cheyne, who had had much experience in the fishery and preparation, was published some years ago in a volume of my " Technologist " : " There are many kinds of beche-de-mer found on coral reefs in the Pacific Ocean ; but only ten of these varieties are marketable in China, each being distinguished by well- known names. As they vary in price from 6 to 35 Spanish dollars per picul (133^ Ibs.), it becomes a matter of great importance to obtain the superior qualities. The slug when cured presents quite a different appearance to what it does when caught ; and no person but one well acquainted with the trade would be able to ascertain which were the first quality, by comparing the raw slug with a cured one. Again, the success of a voyage depends greatly on the knowledge possessed by the person in charge of the locali- ties in which the superior sorts are to be found, together with much experience in the mode of fishing and curing them. " The superior qualities are known by the following names in the Sooloo and Manila markets : I. Bangko- lungan ; 2. Keeskeesan ; 3. Talepan ; 4. Munang ; each presenting a different appearance, and found in different depths of water on the reefs. " i. Bankolungan, when caught, is from n to 15 inches in length, of an oval shape, brown on the back, and the belly white and crusted with lime, with a row of teats on each side the belly. It is hard, rigid, and scarcely possesses any power of locomotion. It has, however, the power of expanding and contracting itself at pleasure. This quality * " Revue Maritime et Coloniale." Paris, March, 1866. The Trepang Fishery. 109 is found on the inner edge of coral reefs, in from 2 to 10 fathoms water, and on the bottom of coral and sand. It can only be procured by diving. " 2. Keeskeesan is from 6 to 1 2 inches in length, of an oval shape, quite black, and smooth on the back, with a dark-greyish belly, and one row of teats on each side. When contracted, it is similar in shape to a land tortoise. This quality is found in shallow water, on the top of coral reefs, and on a bottom of coral and sand. Bangkolungan and Keeskeesan fetch about the same price ; and the latter being the most plentiful and easiest caught, ought of course to be the kind most sought after. " 3. Talepan varies in length from nine inches to two feet, and presents the most remarkable appearance of any of the species of beche-de-mer. It is found on all parts of the reefs, but chiefly in from two to three fathoms water. It is of a dark-red colour, and narrower in proportion than the before-mentioned kinds. The whole back is covered with large red prickles, which render it easily distinguish- able from any of the other kinds. It is much softer than the black, and more difficult to cure. " 4. Munang is of a small size, seldom exceeding eight inches in length, of an oval shape, quite black, and smooth ; has no teats or other excrescences, and is found in shallow water on the coral flats, and often among turtle grass near the shore. This is the kind which the American vessels chiefly procure at the Fiji Islands. It is worth from 15 to 25 dollars per picul in the China market. These four varieties form the superior qualities of the slug, and the following are the middling and inferior sorts : " 5. Sapatos China is of a reddish-brown colour, and about the same size as the Munang. It presents a wrinkled surface, and is found adhering to the coral rocks on the no The Commercial Prodiicts of the Sea. top of the reefs. 6. Lowlowan is of various lengths, black, wrinkled, and narrow. It is found on various parts of the reefs. 7. Balati bianco is about nine inches in length, of an oval shape, and a white-and-orange colour ; and may be easily known by its voiding a white adhesive substance, which adheres to the fingers when handled. It is found generally on the inner edge of reefs, and on a sandy bottom. Moonlight nights are the best time for collecting this sort, as they generally bury themselves in the sand during the day. 8. Matan is of the same species and habits as No. 7, and only differs from it in colour, which is grey, brown, and white speckled. 9. Hangenan is gener- ally about a foot in length, of a grey or greenish colour, wrinkled, and is found on the lagoon side of coral reefs. 10. Sapatos grande is about 12 or 15 inches in length, and of a brown-and-white colour, wrinkled, and very inferior. " The following remarks on boiling beche-de-mer are the result of a number of experiments made at different times. Bangkolungan and Keesgeesan will require to be boiled about five minutes or more, if the pot is nearly full ; they must be well stirred, and should be taken out when thoroughly heated through, by which time they will feel quite hard and elastic. The cut part of the fish, when properly boiled, should be of a blue-and-amber colour, and feel firm like india-rubber. If the pot is only half full, they will require to boil fully 10 minutes before the cut part becomes of the blue-and-amber colour. The Talepan and Munang require to be boiled fully 10 minutes. The Munang dries very quickly ; but the Talepan is very difficult to cure, and often requires two boilings before it will dry. The Sapatos China requires to be boiled about 15 minutes ; if properly boiled it will dry very quickly. The Trepang Fishery. 1 1 1 The Balati Blanco and Matan need very little boiling, say three or four minutes if the pot is nearly full. They should be taken out as soon as they shrink and are thoroughly heated through. The Hangenan should be boiled about 20 minutes. This sort must be very carefully handled when raw, as it will break in pieces if held any time in the hand. It appears to me that there are two ways of boiling beche-de-mer equally good. The first is to take them out when boiled about a minute, or as soon as they shrink and feel hard ; the other method is to boil them as before stated ; but in boiling either way, the slugs ought, if pro- perly cooked, to dry like a boiled egg immediately on being taken out of the pot. Beche-de-mer dried in the sun fetches a higher price than that dried over a wood fire. But this method would not answer in curing a ship's cargo, as they take fully 20 days to dry ; whereas by smoking them they are well cured in four days. " Much skill is required in drying beche-de-mer, as well as in boiling it, as too much heat will cause it to blister, and get porous, like sponge ; whereas, too little heat again will make it spoil, and get putrid within 24 hours after being boiled. There is, likewise, great care and method requisite in conducting the gutting ; for if this be not properly attended to, by keeping the fish in warm water, and from exposure to the sun, it will, when raw, soon subside into a blubbery mass, and become putrid in a few hours after being caught." The first thing to be done on arrival at an island where the slug is plentiful, is to erect a large curing-house on shore, about 90 feet in length, 30 feet in breadth, and the sides about 10 feet in height. These houses are generally built of island materials, and thatched with mats, made by the natives, of cocoa-nut leaves ; the thatch must be well put H2 The Commercial Products of the Sea. on, so as to prevent the rain from penetrating. The sides are likewise covered in with these mats, and a small door should be left in each end. Platforms, or batters, for drying the slug on, are then erected along one side of the house. They should run the whole length, and be about eight feet in breadth ; the lower one about breast-high from the ground, and the upper three feet above that. The frames are generally made of cocoa-nut trees, or pandanus, and covered with two or three layers of split bamboo, or reeds, seized close, so as to form a sort of network for the slugs to lay on. Much care and skill is required in the construction of these batters, or platforms, so as to prevent the beche-de-mer from burning, which it would be liable to, were they not properly fitted. A trench, about six feet in breadth and two feet in depth, is then dug the whole length of the batters for the fires. Tubs are placed at short distances along the side of the trench, rilled with salt water, and a good supply of buckets kept in readiness, to prevent the fires from blazing up and burning the fish, or platforms, as well as to regulate the degree of heat necessary for drying the slug. The process of curing is this : The beche-de-mer is first gutted, then boiled in large pots ; and, after being well washed in fresh water, carried into the curing-house, in small tubs, or baskets, and emptied on the lower batter, where it is spread out (about five inches thick) to dry. The trench is then filled with firewood, and when the batter is full of trepang, the fires are lighted, and the drying process commences. From this time the fires must be kept con- stantly going, day and night, with a careful officer and regular watch to attend to it. On the afternoon of the following day the fires are extinguished for a short time, and the slugs shifted to the upper batter, having been first examined, and splints of wood put into those which may The Trepang Fishery. 113 not be drying properly. When this is done, the lower batter is again filled from the pots, the fires immediately lighted, and the drying process continued as before. The slugs on the lower batter must be turned frequently during the first 12 hours. On the second day (the fires having been extinguished as before) the slugs on the upper batter are shifted close over to one end, to make room for those on the lower batter again ; and so on, as before, for the two following days, by which time the first day's produce will be properly cured. It is then taken off the batter, and, after having been carefully examined, and those not dry put up again, the quantity cured is sent on board the vessel, and stowed away in bags. But should the ship be long in procuring a cargo, it will require to be dried over again every three months, in the sun, on platforms erected over the deck, as it soon gets damp, unless when packed in air- tight casks. If the beche-de-mer is plentiful, and the natives bring it daily in large quantities, 40 men will be requisite to per- form the work of a house of the above size ; and the pots will want two hands to attend them. These curing-houses consume a large quantity of firewood daily. When beche- de-mer is cured and stowed away, great care should be taken to prevent it from getting wet, as one damp slug will speedily spoil a whole bag. The beche-de-mer fisheries at the Fiji Islands have been extended of late years, particularly upon the Mattuata coast, situated upon the north side of Vanna Levu. The increase of value of export upon this head has been large, and, provided the exertions used to keep the petty chiefs from quarrelling are successful, will no doubt augment. The product is sold there at about 36^. per picul. The prices fluctuate very much, being sometimes as high as 40^. i H4 The Commercial Products of the Sea. per picul and as low as 24^. during consecutive months. It is shipped to Sydney, and thence to China. The exports were in Piculs. Value. 1865 ... ... 500 ... ... ;l200 1866 ... ... 300 ... ... 600 1867 880 ... . 1600 From Tahiti there were shipped, in 1874, 5346 Ibs., valued at 58. The following are some of the names, classifications, and prices given to specimens shown in the British Museum, London, but the prices are old quotations : Per picul. Peach blossom, or spiny... ... ... $30 Middle clear bald ... ... .. 20 Great black ... ... ... ... 40 Black... ... ... ... ... 30 Largest bald Mashik, from Macassar Great white stone ,, ... ... 15 Great clear bald, Leucoma ... ... 40 Great black stone, Macassar ... ... 60 Middle bald, from Leucoma, small ... 10 Small bald ,, very small ... 7 Square spiny, Macassar ... ... ... 10 Largest rock, Leucoma ... ... ... 30 Trepang is very abundant around Tahiti, Moua, and the Windward Islands. The ordinary price at Tahiti is about 40 per ton. A single house sometimes ships 150 tons to California, to be thence sent on to China. The imports of beche-de-mer into China in foreign vessels were stated to be as follows : Piculs of 133$ Ibs. 1868 ... ... 18,407* 1869 ... ... 15,579 1870 ... ... 15,447 1871 -. ... H,338 ^72 17,953 Taking one year, 1871, we find the following imports of The Trepang Fishery. 1 1 5 trepang were received at different ports in China in Chinese vessels : Piculs. Chukiang ... ... ... 1008 Swatow ... ... ... .. 404 Kiukiang ... ... ... ... 144 Takow ... ... ... ... 18 Tamsui ... ... ... ... 34 Ningpo ... ... 1134 2742 And Shanghai and Foochow receive together about 6000 to 7000 piculs. It is difficult to form an estimate as to the amount of trepang annually exported from the North Australian coast. From 30 to 40 prahus, varying from 20 to 70 tons burthen, are employed in the fishery, the crews amounting to about 1 200 men. They receive no wages, but are entitled to a certain portion of the profits of the voyage, the system being somewhat similar to that adopted in whale-ships. The provisions and stores required for the voyage are advanced by Chinese or Dutch merchants at Macassar, who thus acquire a right to the entire proceeds at a certain price which has previously been fixed upon, and which is invariably much below the current value. Taking the average amount of trepang obtained by each prahu at 20 tons, this will give about 600 tons as the quantity annually exported from the coast. The value at Macassar is 70 rupees, or somewhat less than 7 sterling, for the picul of 133 Ibs. avoirdupois. The price to the consumer in China is en- hanced to the amount of about one-third. 1 1 6 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER X. CEPHALOPODS, ETC., AS FOOD. Dried cuttle-fish as food Consumption of octopods and polypi in the coun- tries bordering on the Mediterranean Prices in Tunis Mode of capture and preparation Squid used for bait by the North American fishermen Cuttle-fish bone and sepia Large consumption of dried cuttle-fish in China Species of Echinus eaten Palolo viridis, a kind of sea- worm, edible ; fishery for, in the Pacific. THE flesh of the large cephalopodous animals was esteemed as a delicacy by the ancients. Most of the eastern natives, and those of the Polynesian Islands, partake of it and relish it as food. They are exposed for sale, dried, in the bazaars or markets throughout India, and in the Food Collection arranged at the East End Museum, Bethnal Green, dried cuttle-fish may be seen among the articles of Chinese, Japanese, and Siamese food. In Chili the flesh is also considered a delicacy, and in Barbados the bastard cuttle-fish or calmar (Loligo sagittata, Lam.) is used as an article of food by the lower classes. But from my small experience of this kind of diet, notwithstanding the asser- tion of the learned Bacon in his "Experiment Solitary touching Cuttle Ink," that the cuttle is accounted as a delicate meat, and is much in request, I should say that it Cephalopods, etc., as Food. 117 is as indigestible and innutritious as it is certainly tough and uninviting. Cephalopods are eaten at the present day on many parts of the Mediterranean coast. Mr. Vice-Consul Green, in a recent report, furnishes some novel and interesting particulars as to the fishing and trade in Cephalopods in the Tunis waters. Octopodia and polypi are the trade names under which these cephalopods are known in the Levant and Greek markets, where they are solely im- ported for consumption during Lent, the orthodox Church not including them in the prohibition against the use of fish in seasons of religious abstinence. They prefer rocky shallows, and visit those waters, coming from the open sea, in the months of January, February, and March. A considerable number of octopodia, however, remain permanently near the shores ; but it has been observed that when their fry, locally called " muschi," are numerous from the month of June to August, the fishing of the coming season is sure to be abundant, whilst the reverse is the case if they appear in numbers in November and December. In a good season the several villages on the island of Karkenah supply about 3000 cwts., and the Jubah waters a third part of this quantity. In an average year the yield will be under 2000 cwts., and in one of scarcity 1000 cwts. On the shores from the village of Luesa to that of Chenies, in the Gulf of Khabs, the natives collect from four to five cwts. of cuttle-fish a day during the season ; but this supply generally serves for the con- sumption of the regency. The remaining coast and islands maybe calculated to furnish a minimum of 650 to 700 cwts. of dried molluscs. The Tunisian Government claims a third of all the polypi fished upon its coast. The selling price varies con- 1 1 8 The Commercial Products of the Sea. siderably, according to the size, supply, and demand, but at Sfax a pair of them may cost, as circumstances rule, from 6d. to is. $d. ; however, the preparatory maceration, by beating on a stone slab or rock, required before drying entails a small additional expense, and brings the extremes of low and high prices to 2$s. or 50^. per cwt. To the cost price must be added an export duty of 5^. id., and the purchaser ought to be careful to receive his merchandise from the seller during dry weather, as a damp day will add from four to five per cent, to the weight of every cwt. From two to three public sales of dried polypi take place in a season on the island of Karkenah ; these are regulated according to the abundance of the fish. The average price of the last six years has been 'during the first sale, from 45 s. to $os. per cwt; second sale, 35^. to 45 s. ; third sale, 25^. to 30^. A few first parcels, in order to secure an early market, have, however, occasionally been sold for 5 the cwt. Polypi have hitherto been prepared for exportation by simply salting and drying them, but it is now proposed to carry out on a large scale an experiment, which appears to have proved successful, of preserving them either in oil or brine, after subjecting them to a preliminary scouring and boiling process. Malta receives the largest share of the Tunisian polypi, but they are only sent to that island for ultimate trans- mission to Greece and other parts of the Levant. Portugal is one of the few countries that competes with Tunis in supplying the Greek markets with polypi. In Greece they are either sold, after being pickled, at from 12 i6s. to 1$ gs. the cantar of 176 Ibs., or in their original dried state at from 12 to 14, but these prices fluctuate ac- Cephalopods, etc., as Food. 119 cording to the favourable or unfavourable results of the season's fishing. On the first arrival of the octopodia in the shallows they keep in masses or shoals, but speedily separate in search of shelter among the rocks near the beach, covered by only one or two feet of water, and in the stony localities prepared for them by the fishermen in order to frustrate the depositing of their spawn. Polypi are taken in deep water by means of earthen jars strung together and lowered to the bottom of the sea, where they are allowed to remain for a certain number of hours, and in which the animals introduce themselves. Frequently from 8 to 10 polypi are taken from every jar at each visit of the fishermen. In less deep water earthenware drain-pipes are placed side by side, for distances frequently exceeding half a mile in length, and in these also they enter and are taken by the fishermen. As they are attracted by white and all smooth and bright substances, the natives deck places in the creeks and hollows in the rocks with white rocks and shells, over which the polypi spread themselves, and are caught from four up to eight at a time. But the most successful manner of securing them is pursued by the inhabitants of Karkenah, who form long lanes and labyrinths in the shallows by planting the butt-ends of palm branches at short distances from each other, and these constructions extend over spaces of two or more miles. On the ebb of the tide (the fall is here about 10 feet) the octopodia are found in the pools inside the enclosures, and are easily collected by the fishermen, who string them in bunches of 50 each, and from 8 to 10 of these bunches, called " risina," are secured daily during the season by every boat's crew of four men. The squids form an important element in the North 1 20 The Commercial Products of the Sea. American fisheries. The common Loligo is the favourite food of the cod, and is therefore itself fished for bait. One-half of all the cod taken on the banks of New- foundland are said to be caught by it. When the vast shoals of this mollusc approach the coast, hundreds of vessels are ready to capture them, forming an extensive cuttle-fishery, engaging 500 sail of French, English, and American ships. During violent gales of wind, hundreds of tons of them are often thrown up together in beds on the flat beaches, the decay of which spreads an intolerable effluvium around. They must themselves be consumed in enormous numbers, for it has been estimated that a single squid will lay in one season 40,000 eggs. The cuttle-fish are frequently left stranded on the beaches, and are also caught by fishermen, who obtain two valuable products from them the so-called calcareous bone (which is much used by chemists, when pulverized and tinted, and sold as coral tooth-powder), and the ink-bag, which forms the sepia colour of artists. On the coasts of Brittany and La Vendee, the flesh of this polypus is eaten and appreciated, but on many other coasts it is disdained. Much depends, however, on its culinary preparation, which is somewhat difficult. Dried cuttle-fish form a large article of export from Japan to China. They are called sitsume, and are brought chiefly from Esasi, Matsmai, and the west coast of Yesso, Fugaro, and Yetzidzen, generally during February and October, and the prices paid vary from 14 to i6J dollars. Small quantities brought to Hakodate from Sado Island, situated near the west coast of Niphon, are said to be of very good quality. To show the extent of the Chinese trade, it may be stated that in the quarter ending June, 1872, the imports into three of the Chinese ports were as follows : Cephalopoda, etc., as Food. 121 Picals. Kiukiang ... ... ... ... 869 Shanghai ... ... ... ... 1564 Ningpo ... ... ... ... 1745 4198 equal to 5222 cwt. What is commonly termed cuttle-fish bone is frequently found floating in the Mediterranean Sea, and in much greater quantity on the shores of Australia. It is of an oblong oval shape, from 3 to 10 inches long, and its breadth is about one-third of its length ; hard upon its upper surface and edges, but soft on its lower side, both surfaces being convex. Its specific gravity is about "935. Its composition, though calcareous, is quite different from bone, being about 83 per cent, of carbonate of calcium, with some magnesia and common salt, and but little animal matter. The structure is quite peculiar ; a fresh fracture, when examined, shows the layers of the calcium salt, supported by pillars of the same material, arranged in regular rows, likened by Wood the naturalist to an imitation Giant's Causeway. It furnishes cage-birds with tiny grindstones, whereon to whet their bills, and levigated and dried it forms the basis of some dentrifices. When the ovaries of some of the species of sea-eggs or sea-urchins are fully developed the Echinus edulis, for instance they are collected as food. The late Sir Robert Schomburgk, in his " History of Barbados," mentions that they are eaten there. The Echinus albus is eaten by the Chilians and others. It is of a globular form, and about three inches in diameter ; the shell and spines are white, but the interior substance is yellowish and of an excellent taste. Palolo. Another curious food product obtained in the Pacific, which is esteemed as highly as whitebait in Eng- 122 The Commercial Products of the Sea. land, is the Palolo viridis, Gray, a small species of sea- worm, a genus of annelides. The Rev. J. B. Starr, of the London Missionary Society, has given the best description of it, as follows : FIG. 2. I. Palolo viridis, natural size. 2. Portion of body, slightly magnified. 3. Magnified figure of head. 4. Ditto of posterior extremity. (Gray.) "The palolo is the native name for a species of sea- worm which is found in some parts of Samoa (the Navi- gator Islands) in the South Pacific Ocean. They come regularly in the months of October and November, during portions of two days in each month, viz., the day before Cephalopoda^ etc., as Food. 123 and the day on which the moon is in her last quarter. They appear in much greater numbers on the second than on the first day of their rising, and are only observed for two or three hours in the early part of each morning of their appearance. At the first dawn of day they may be felt by the hand swimming on the surface of the water ; and as the day advances their numbers increase, so that by the time the sun has risen, thousands may be observed in a very small space, sporting merrily during their short visit to the surface of the ocean. On the second day they appear at the same time and in a similar manner, but in such countless myriads that the surface of the ocean is covered with them for a considerable extent. On each day, after sporting for an hour or two, they disappear until the next season, and not one is ever observed during the intervening time. Sometimes, when plentiful at one island in one month, scarcely any are observed the next ; but they always appear with great regularity at the times mentioned, and these are the only times at which they are observed throughout the whole year. They are found only in certain parts of the islands, generally near the openings of the reefs on portions of the coast on which much fresh water is found ; but this is not always the case. " In size they may be compared to a very fine straw, and are of various colours and lengths, green, brown, white, and speckled, and in appearance and mode of swimming resemble very small snakes. They are exceedingly brittle, and if broken into many pieces, each swims off as though it were an entire worm. No particular direction appeared to be taken by them in swimming. I observed carefully to see whether they came from seaweed or rose from the reef, and feel assured they come from the latter place. The natives are exceedingly fond of them, and calculate with 124 The Commercial Products of the Sea. great exactness the time of their appearance, which is looked forward to with great interest. The worms are caught in small baskets, beautifully made, and when taken on shore are tied up in leaves in small bundles, and baked. Great quantities are eaten undressed, but either dressed or undressed they are esteemed a great delicacy. Such is the desire to eat ' palolo ' by all classes, that im- mediately the fishing parties reach the shore, messengers are despatched in all directions with large quantities to parts of the island on which none appear." The great antiquity of the name for this worm amongst the South Sea Islanders (Balolo and Palolo) is attested by the fact that the parts of the year most nearly corre- sponding with our months of October and November, are respectively named " Vula i Balolo lailai " (little), and " Vula i Balolo leva " (large) ; the latter, as its name im- plies, is distinguished by the appearance of the "balolo " in such vast numbers that it is collected by the natives as a dainty article of food, and is so much prized that formal presents of it are frequently sent considerable distances into the interior, from certain chiefs resident on the coast, to others whose dominions do not happen to be favoured by the annual visit of the " balolo." Dr. Seemann, in his " Mission to Viti," gives us" the following extract of a letter from a lady in Fiji to her friends in England : " In November we all went for a few days to Wakaya, about 10 miles east-north-east from Ovalau, in order to see the balolos, which rise out of the reefs just before daylight, at first in small numbers, but about sunrise in such masses that the sea looks more solid than liquid. As they were to appear on the morning of the 25th, we retired to rest at an early hour the night before, and rose with the moon about one o'clock in the Cephalopods, etc., as Food. 125 morning. An hour's pull in the whaleboat brought us to the very spot to which they were to come. We found several natives already collected there in boats and canoes, all anxiously looking out who should get the first ' balolo.' This they discovered by sitting with their hands in the water as the canoe was gently paddled about. Presently there was great shouting nets were put out, and the excitement commenced. At first our nets did very well ; but soon the balolos became too numerous for them to be of any use, and they were caught by the hands and thrown into the baskets with which the boats were filled. We placed a white handkerchief four inches below the surface of the water, but the little creatures were so thick above it that it was quite invisible. At first I could not make up my mind to touch them, but seeing every one else doing so, I summoned up all my courage, plunged in my hands, and grasped a goodish number, of which however I got rid as quickly as possible. The little slimy things twist round the hand in half a second. They are of course perfectly harmless, swim very fast, and the longer ones have some- times five or six coils in the body. When at the thickest, they are all entangled one in another, presenting a very curious appearance, as they are of various shades of green, brown, and white. As the sun gains power, they disappear, and about eight or nine o'clock you can scarcely find one. It is always in November they come in such masses, just after the last quarter of the moon, and they rise with the tide. As soon as the natives have gathered all they can, they make fires and ovens to cook them. Small quantities of ' balolo ' are tied up in bread-fruit leaves, and have to lie in the oven from 12 to 18 hours. When all is cooked, the natives expect a heavy shower of rain, as they say to put 126 The Commercial Products of the Sea. out the fires of their ovens. Should there be no rain, a bad yam season is expected." Many of the European residents in the Fijis eat the "balolo," and look on it as quite a periodical relish. It also makes its appearance in the New Hebrides, in Tonga, and in the Samoan or Navigator Islands identically with its advent in Fiji. CHAPTER XL MISCELLANEOUS FISHERIES. The capelin fishery of Newfoundland Chiefly used as bait for cod Some shipped pickled and dried The halibut fishery on the American coast The sword-fish eaten as food Fishing for turbots, soles, and other flat fish Quantity sold annually in Billingsgate Fish in India. The Capelin Fishery. The capelin (Mallotus arcticus ; M. villosus, Cuv.) is peculiar to Newfoundland and Labrador. It is a very delicate fish, resembling a smelt. Its visits are during August and September, for the purpose of spawning on beaches. At times they are so numerous as to darken the sea for miles, while the cod feed on them with the utmost voracity. We only know them in Europe in the dried state, some quantity being imported from Newfoundland. As an article of bait for cod and other fish of that class, the capelin is of much importance ; whenever abundant, the cod fishing is excellent. Like the common smelt, it possesses the cucumber smell, but differs from the smelt in never entering fresh-water streams. This delicious fish is now only locally sought for bait and manure, but a very small quantity are cured. This may hereafter become a great source of wealth, when we con- 128 The Commercial Products of the Sea. sider how large a trade is carried on in sardines and anchovies. If they were merely pickled and dried, a simple operation which could be performed by children, they would be worth at least 4^. a barrel ; and 1,000,000 barrels would find a market if introduced into fish-eating countries, and not sensibly lessen the quantity which every summer swarms in every bay and creek of the island of Newfoundland and the Labrador coast. The Halibut ( Hippoglossus vulgaris, Cuv.). The halibut abounds in the waters of the Atlantic coast from New- foundland to Cape Hatteras. From some ports of Nova Scotia a considerable trade in halibut is carried on with the United States. On parts of the coast the fish is so abundant, and of such large size, that the localities are avoided by those engaged in cod fishing, as a boat or small vessel becomes soon heavily laden. This fish sometimes attains the weight of 400 to 500 Ibs. The flesh is some- what coarse and dry, but is much esteemed by many. It is lightly salted and smoked. The fins and flaps are delicacies, if the fish is in good condition. The halibut is also cut into slices and pickled in barrels, in which state it sells at half the price of the best herrings. The fishing for the halibut is very important, and 5000 to 6000 barrels are taken in the British Provinces by Americans, few of the native settlers embarking in it. The fish is somewhat different from the European fish of the same name. Sword-fish. The flesh of the Tetrapturus Australis is an excellent article of food, much resembling that of the true sword-fish or"pesce spada" (Xiphias gladius) of the Mediter- ranean. Its flesh is much esteemed there as an article of food. The sword-fish is common in the Bosphorus, and measures 10 to 12 feet, and of proportionate girth. The Miscellaneous Fisheries. 129 flesh, which is of a dull red colour, is very palatable, and a sword-fish steak makes an excellent substitute for a salmon cutlet. A sword-fish was shown at Boston, U.S., some years ago, which weighed over 1000 Ibs., and measured, including the sword, 14 feet. The fishermen of Sables d'Olonne, France, dry and salt the flesh of Squalus caniculata, and of another species, the dog-fish (S. galeus\ for winter use. Turbot, Soles, etc. The British trawl vessels catch their fish on the vast submarine plateau extending from Flam- borough Head to the south of Orfordness on the English coast, and from the Long Fisher Bank, north of Heligo- land, to Ter Schelling, on the Dutch coast. Soles fourteen years ago cost 2d. to 2\d. per Ib. ; now they are worth %d. to is. 2d. per Ib. Large soles are difficult to get at all. Small soles go by the name of " tongues ; " the smallest are " cat's tongues." " Slips " are o>\ to 10 inches in length. A fair-sized sole would be about 12 inches. The legal sizes for the sale of fish in France limit soles and turbot to four inches. Sole fishing is a trade carried on most extensively at various parts of the English coast, but more particularly at the Great Silver Pitts, situated betwixt the Dogger and Wellbank, east from the Humber river. Sole fishing is con- ducted upon exactly the same principle as oyster dredging. The vessel sails easily along at the rate of about two knots per hour, pulling the dredge after her; and as the trawler's dredge or net is fitted with inside pockets, when once the fish are fairly entered into the net, they cannot again easily get out. The depths and bottom about the middle of the Firth of Forth are similar to those about the Great Silver Pitts, and as soles are frequently caught by fishermen on their lines, the supposition is that were dredges used in K 130 The Commercial Products of the Sea. 25 and 30 fathoms' water in the Firth, soles might also be found there lying in clusters. On that part of the northern coast of Ireland connected with Lough Foyle, turbot fishing is carried on from March to November. Turbot average to the fishermen 3^. to 4.9. per dozen, and there are about 12 dozen of turbot sent weekly from Moville to Liverpool and Glasgow. A con- siderable quantity of soles and plaice is also shipped from the trawlers. One hundred millions (or about 12,000 tons in weight) of soles are said to be sold annually in Billingsgate. Nearly every fish that swims, either in salt or fresh water, is greedily eaten by the natives in India. Sharks especially are much valued, and said to be very pala- table and nutritious. The fishery for these is described in another chapter. In the bazaars of Madras it would be possible to obtain some 200 or 300 kinds of dried fish, including different preparations of the same species. In curing fish, salt, owing to its high price, is used as sparingly as possible, and hence, as a rule, the dried fish of the bazaar has anything but a pleasant odour. In some quar- ters saline earth is used instead of salt, as being cheaper ; but fish cured in this manner is said to have an unpleasant flavour, and to be apt, when continuously used, to bring on itch. The fish most in repute for European tables in Madras are the seer (Cybium Commersonii), the pomfrets (Stromateus niger and ,S. argent eus), and mullets. The seer is sold in cutlets, like salmon in Europe, and is in some respects perhaps superior to salmon, more especially as regards digestibility. CHAPTER XII. OYSTERS AND OTHER EDIBLE MOLLUSCA. Britain long celebrated for oysters Large consumption and great value of those consumed in England Continually advancing prices The Jersey fishery The French oyster fishery Oyster consumption in Paris Ostrei- culture on the French coast American oyster fishery The New York trade Oysters in Australia Clams and other edible molluscs. THE geographical distribution of the oyster is extensive. Large quantities are found on the American coasts and at the Antipodes. On the coast of Africa it is also plentifully sprinkled. In antiquity Britain was so celebrated for oysters, that they were sent to Rome ; a fact attested by more than one of the Roman poets. The epicures of that city had their layers or stews for oysters, as we have at present in the open sea. According to Pliny, the oyster reservoirs were first made by Sergius Grata, not for the gratification of his own palate, but as a most lucrative speculation by which he realized large profits. The ancients ate oysters as we do, either raw or roasted ; but they had also a way of stewing them with mallows and docks, and sometimes with fish. There is a curious account of the treatment of oysters in . Sprat's " History of the Royal Society," an abstract of 132 The Commercial Products of the Sea. which may be found in Pennant's " British Zoology." About 1776, the oysters of Colchester and Rochester were the most famous ; and a great part of the inhabitants of the latter place were concerned in or supported by this fishery, which was conducted by a company of free dredgers, established by prescription, but subject to the Corporation. It is from September to April that oysters are in most request, and during this interval it is computed there are FIG. 3. Oysters. 800,000,000 of oysters consumed in London alone, and quite as many, if not more, in the provinces. We pay between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 a year for oysters, and there is no doubt double the quantity would find ready consumption if they were obtainable at a reasonable price. During the last ten years the .price of " natives " has in- creased from two guineas to ten guineas a bushel. Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 133 The English native oyster of the coasts of Kent and Essex is distinguished from all others: i. By its peculiar flavour and delicacy. 2. By the colour of its lobes and mantle, which are of a clear green hue, due to the marine plants on which it feeds. 3. By its thin and translucid shell of a brilliant pearly interior, unlike the common oyster which has a large calcareous centre, indicating an inferior quality. The English native oyster contains iron and alkaline iodides, which renders this mollusc sweet and wholesome, and nourishing food. Now that the genuine Whitstable oyster fetches 3^. 6d. the dozen, and is likely to cost 4$-., if not more, soon with oysters, in a word, at threepence halfpenny each, and threatening to rise to fourpence anything that affects, or tends to affect, the price of this delicious bivalve cannot but be matter of almost universal interest. It is certainly cause for great regret that the supply of the best kind of oysters should have fallen so short as it has done of late years. The oyster is not a luxury which only very rich people can expect to command, but it ought to be within the reach of all persons of moderate means. It is essentially the most popular, as well as palatable, of delicacies. It is not many years since the best "natives" from Whitstable and Col- chester were only sixpence a dozen in a West-End estab- lishment, and " seconds " but two-thirds of that sum ; and then the City clerk, emerging hungry from the theatre, could appease his appetite with oysters and draught stout, secure from any suspicion of undue extravagance. Those golden days unfortunately have fled, and, unless active and practical steps be taken to replenish our oyster beds, they can never be expected to return. The oyster is not, strictly speaking, a mollusc of the sea. 134 Tke Commercial Products of the Sea. It can only live and breed in certain shallow estuaries, and even in these it only thrives within particular limits. If we overfish our estuaries we depopulate them, and we have systematically over-dredged our oyster beds. Thus we are now reaping the inevitable result of extravagance and waste. We must cultivate the oyster, or else rest content to see it become still scarcer, or even extinct. No third course is possible. Oyster culture in England is still in its infancy, but it is satisfactory to know that steps are being taken to improve our knowledge of the subject. The oyster fishing of Arklow, on the east coast of Ireland, is a large and constant source of employment to the fishermen. The oysters are carried in boats to Beau- maris, in Anglesey, where they are laid on banks and raised when required for the Liverpool market. Oysters continue to be scarce and dear in England. In former years some hundreds of boats might be seen in Goree harbour, Jersey, engaged in the fishery ; now, scarcely a dozen boats can pay their way by dredging. The fishing is most active from February to May. During the spring of 1850 the number of Jersey boats employed in the fishery was 70, manned by 350 men ; of English boats, 119, manned by 623 men a total of 189 boats, 4018 tons, 983 men. The quantity of oysters caught was 105,000 tubs, which fetched 3^. a tub or ^"15,300! In the autumn of the same year there were 40 Jersey boats, manned by 200 men ; 40 English boats, 220 men. These 80 boats caught 19,200 tubs, which sold at 2s. 6d. per tub, or 2400 ; the total produce of the oysters dredged in the spring and autumn of 1850 being thus 17, 700. In Falmouth harbour there are from 200 to 300 boats employed in the oyster fishery. The price has risen from 2s. to iSs. per bushel. Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 135 The conventional ring-gauge of oysters is two and a half inches in diameter, and this, it is thought, might be reduced to two inches. Some 36,000 bushels of oysters have been taken to the coast of Kent to lay down in beds for the London market, and large quantities are bought by French and other merchants, the French giving the highest price. The French Oyster Fishery. To show the importance of the French oyster fishery, it may be stated that more than 30 years ago the value of the oysters taken at the two ports of Granville and Cancale realized .22,000. At Granville 105 boats, employing 760 men, took 18,750,000 oysters, and at Cancale 187 boats, with 1083 men, took only 8,000,000 oysters. The Granville oysters then sold at 19 francs 62 cents the 1000; Cancale oysters at 21 francs. In a report submitted to the Emperor Napoleon by M. Coste, he showed that the production of oysters on the plan recommended by him had taken such a prodigious development, that in the He de Re alone more than 3000 men, who had come from the interior, had established 1500 parks, which produced annually about 371,000,000 oysters, of the value of from 6,000,000 francs to 8,000,000 francs. To show the consumption of Paris, and the great in- crease of price, the following figures may be given : Consumption. Price per 100. Francs. 1804 ... 17,200,000 ... ... 1846 ... 47,400,000 ... ... 3-38 1852 ... 77,9OO,OOO ... ... 2'27 1858 ... 57,600,000 ... ... 3*58 1868 ... 26,500,000 ... ... 7'20 The price has since advanced to over 12 francs the 100, and the effect has been to stimulate the development of ostrei- culture. 136 The Commercial Products of the Sea. The value of the oysters sold in France in 1872 was 520,000, and in 1873, 600,000. The ports of Granville, Cancale, and L'Orient produced nearly 13,000,000 oysters, about 4,500,000 more than in the previous year. Ostrei- culture, thanks to the care and wise regulations of the Gov- ernment, is making rapid progress, both to the benefit of the fishermen and the public. In the quarter of La Teste, where this industry is extensively carried on, 42,342,250 oysters were obtained, being 17,000,000 more than in the previous year. As there is nothing new under the sun, it would appear that artificial oyster-culture is no exception, for in the days of the Stuarts many Star Chamber edicts were issued pro- hibiting the "exportation beyond the seas" of "oyster faggots," i.e., fascines with young oysters attached ; and at another time, in those halcyon days when Whitstable oysters rose from 8ooo>ooo oysters, which is much more than the rest of the bay contained in its 40,000 acres* surface. It is reckoned that the net increase of the receipts from oysters alone in France is rather over .300,000 a year. All down the coast of the Bay of Biscay, from Brest to the Gironde, the shores are studded with artificial beds belong- ging to private individuals, but regularly and rigidly in- spected by Government. The population of the islands" of Re and Oleron in particular are entirely supported by the oyster beds. Auray in Brittany is, next to Arcachon, the seat of the most important of all French oyster fisheries. There is one establishment in the Auray district that of M. d'Argy, at Le Breneguy, near Locmariaquer which comprises about 100 acres in a single enclosure, private property, and about 12 hectares outside, in addition, between the enclosure and the sea. The 100 acres now forming this great oyster-pond were in 1864 part of a farm belonging to M. d'Argy, and divided in the usual way into fields. In that year the sea broke in, and submerged it, causing, as it was thought at the time, great destruction of property. The proprietor, however, eventually determined some time ago to form it into an oyster-tank, and, by means of sub- 138 The Commercial Prodiicts of the Sea. stantial embankments erected at great cost, has succeeded most completely in doing so. In 1876 M. d'Argy laid down 6,000,000 oysters, 3,500,000 being of the five-centimetre size. These have grown well, and the large ones were also in good condition ; indeed, so satisfactory have been his efforts that he has been enabled to contract for the present supply of 1,000,000 marketable oysters to London and the same to Paris, while the quantity despatched to each place will shortly be increased to 2,000,000. The official value of the produce of the principal oyster fisheries in France in 1873 was given as follows : Quarters. Francs. Sables d'Olonne ... ... ... 60,200 Noimontiers ... ... ... 79, 876 De Vannes ... ... ... 98,590 D'Auray ... ... ... ... 274,849 L'Orient ... ... ... ... 3S,ooo Paimpol ... ... ... ... 105,800 Cancale ... ... ... ... 595,020 Granville ... ... ... ... 61,595 La Hougue ... ... ... 183,085 Caen .. ... ... ... 96,786 Havre ... ... ... ... 121,800 Calais ... ... ... ... 28,932 Teste ... ... ... ... 1,736,032 The dredging in the ports of Granville, Cancale, and L'Orient produced in 1873 12,805,000 oysters, against 4,586,000 oysters in the previous year. In 1874 the pro- duce at Cancale was 13,454,000 oysters. The following official statement, lately published, gives the statistics of the commerce in oysters in France for the seasons 1st September to 3Oth April : Price per 1000. Oysters taken from the beds. Value in francs. Francs. 1874 ... 104,731,350 ... 7,727000 ... 7378 1875 ... 227,640,212 ... 11,247,416 ... 49'40 1876 ... 335J774.070 ... 13,226,296 ... 39-39 Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 139 The basin of Arcachon and the other maritime rivers of that coast are those where the artificial culture of oysters has been most attended to. In the season ending April, 1877, 202,392,225 oysters, valued at 4,500,000 francs, were delivered to commerce from Arcachon. The D'Auray quarter collected and delivered 101,736,000 oysters, valued at 500,000 francs, during the same period. The American Oyster Fishery. The trade in oysters in the United States is very large. The Baltimore oyster beds in the Chesapeake river and its tributaries cover 3000 acres, and produce an annual crop of about 25,000,000 bushels. The oyster trade of New York is one using large amounts of capital, employing nearly 150 sailing vessels, with crews averaging in the aggregate 700 seamen, and handling millions of bushels of oysters per annum. There are moored at the wharfs in New York city nearly 60 barges, or " lay-boats " as they are called, costing from 600 to ;iooo each, substantially built, having compartments capable of containing thousands of bushels of oysters in the shell. The oyster season commences about the 1st of October (when the boats owned by the dealers are sent to the beds for cargoes), and lasts until the middle of March or ist of April. The oyster fleet is composed principally of schooners, ranging from 35 tons to 250 tons, and receives the proceeds of the dredgings of the beds at York River, Prince's Bay, Keyport, City Island, Cow Bay, Rockaway, Oyster Bay, Glen Cove, Blue Point, Norwalk, Stamford, and Greenwich. When the oysters are received, they are discharged directly on the wharf to dealers ; and after these are supplied, the balance is stored in the compart- ments of the lay-boats. From the lay-boats the oysters are 140 The Commercial Products of the Sea. shipped to other cities at the north and west. For ship- ment, they are packed in barrels in the shells, or opened and packed in tubs with ice, and forwarded by rail to Boston, Providence, Portland, Chicago, Omaha, San Fran- cisco, and other cities. Very few oysters are canned in New York. That trade seems to be principally monopolized by Baltimore. Besides the oyster shipping interests, there is the important retail trade in the city. The well-fitted and at times luxurious offices on the lay-boats are the meeting- rooms of the proprietors of the hotels, restaurants, retail oyster saloons, and cheap oyster stands. At certain hours in the day, representatives of each of these branches of the trade may meet in the office, and the rapidity with which a cargo of oysters extras, box, cullens is disposed of astonishes a novice. One man requires only the largest oysters in the lot. Another wants to know if the dealer hasn't got a lot of small oysters for cheap stews. A third requires tip-top box oysters, and another asks when the next cargo of York Rivers or Rockaways is expected. Most of the dealers own the beds from which they receive the oysters, but are compelled to have partners to superintend the catching and loading, because most of the beds in fact, all except those bordering on Long Island are out of the State. The laws of the other States Con- necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, and Virginia do not permit non-residents to own beds or catch oysters within their domains. So the New York dealers, at least some of them, form co-partnerships with residents near the 'fishing grounds, supply them with money, let them buy beds and plant the oysters, take them in as part owners of the vessel in the carrying trade, and then divide the profits. The New York trade is controlled in a great measure Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 141 by the weather. If the nights are clear and cold, the side- walks dry, and the stars out, the consumers throng the retail saloons, and the result is an assemblage of all sorts of vehicles in the morning at the lay-boat stations for new supplies. If the country roads are in prime order, and the fast horses of the well-to-do farmers or bloods can make good time to the village, carrying the girls on supper ex- cursions, the demand for new supplies by rail is increased. But "when the barometer falls to 29, the stars go out of sight, the roads are muddy and the sidewalks damp, the demand falls off. Singularly, however, the prices do not fluctuate. The wholesale prices change to so trifling an extent that the consumer never receives the benefit ; if any one profits by a fall, it is the retailer. The oyster trade is one requiring peculiar and delicate perception. Yet the expert who catches the oyster in his left hand, taps it with the butt-end of the knife to make it insensible, and shatters its stony lips to take its life, knows as soon as he lifts it from the pile where it came from, how old it is, whether it is a Delaware, Prince's Bay, City Islander, or has grown under the dashing waves of Rockaway. He knows, too, whether it will open good. The wholesale dealers at New York have over ^"600,000 invested in the oyster trade, and receive on an average 2,500,000 bushels per annum. During the warm season, the oysters are sent by rail in refrigerator cars, a recent railway improvement. On some single days, over 100,000 bushels of oysters have been taken from the Chesapeake Bay, which is the greatest oyster bed in the world, and is said to be inex- haustible. Two hundred and fifty boats are engaged in oyster dredging from Baltimore, which bring in about 900 bushels 142 The Commercial Products of the Sea. to the cargo ; and as they make in the aggregate 6000 trips during the eight months of the season, this gives a total of nearly 5,000,000 bushels of oysters, worth about 500,000. The Newhaven banks have a very high reputation, and this place ranks next to Boston in importance in the oyster trade. Fair Haven is the great oyster mart of New England. Only a very small proportion of the oysters here are natives. They are fully equal in quality to those imported, but cannot be raised in sufficient quantities to supply more than one-tenth of the trade. Of the 4,000,000 bushels imported, about 1,600,000 are brought in the spring and "planted," while 2,400,000 are imported in the fall and winter, and consumed immediately, some of the largest dealers using as many as 1 50,000 bushels yearly. It is estimated that 4,000,000 bushels of oysters are annually carried from the Virginia waters to Fair Haven ; 4,000,000 to New York ; 2,000,000 to Boston ; 2,000,000 to Philadelphia ; 2,000,000 to Baltimore ; 3,000,000 to Provi- dence, etc. ; in all, more than a score of millions. The celebrated Chesapeake Bay oysters of America are now regularly received in Europe, and are to be found in the markets of London and Paris. There are several varieties of American oysters, differing mainly in size, ac- cording to the districts from which they come. Between the best and the commonest there is hardly a difference of 25 per cent. There is the " Morris Cove " oyster, which comes from New Jersey, and is the kind almost exclusively used in New York and the neighbouring districts ; the " Saddle Rocks," a particularly fat variety ; the " Norwalks," from Connecticut ; and other varieties from the coasts of Vir- ginia and Maryland. The city of Boston plays the same part in supplying Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 143 the Northern States as Baltimore and Fair Haven do for the Central and the Western. Baltimore is the most important of all the cities engaged in the oyster trade, as far as regards interior and foreign transportation. Twenty years ago, an official report on the oyster beds of Baltimorje gave the aggregate value as follows : Oysters packed in tins ... ... ... ,600,000 Consumed in the neighbourhood ... ... 200,000 Shells converted into lime for agricultural purposes 10,000 Total ... 800,000 They obtain all their oysters south of the mouth of the Patapsco river, a great portion by dredging in 20 fathoms water ; these, however, are not so large as those taken with tongs in the numerous shallow inlets and bays, and near the mouth of the Chesapeake. When planting or parking, they take small oysters from deep water, and plant them in places where in three years they grow to a very large size, without being in the least affected by any kind of weather ; consequently the increase is unfailing. The number of vessels employed in the trade then amounted to 1000, some of which cost 600, and were capable of carrying 3000 bushels. The number of houses engaged in this business was then 25 ; the number of hands employed in opening and packing, 2500. In some establishments 3000 bushels were opened in a day, and in all the establishments 17,000 bushels daily. Of this quantity, 9000 bushels were packed in cans in a raw state, and the rest pickled, spiced, and hermeti- cally sealed for exportation everywhere. About half of the packed oysters are consumed in the cities of the Western States, and are invariably sold for cash. Within 12 years 144 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the business has increased tenfold, which may be attri- buted to the facilities of transportation. They now ship raw oysters from Baltimore to South America, California, and Australia, besides all parts of Europe ; and the demand will steadily increase as they become better known, from the fact that Chesapeake oysters, like canvas-back ducks, owe their superior flavour to the food obtained on their feeding grounds. The oysters of the Pacific are beginning to attract attention in British Columbia, and the cultivation of this mollusc and the preservation of oysters in tins for foreign markets will soon become an important industry there. The Chinese have a mode of raising oysters on bamboo screens in the beds of rivers in the southern ports of the empire. These are prepared for keeping in the following manner: The oysters, when taken from their shells, are placed for a time in boiling water, and taken out with a skimmer. They are then exposed in the sun to dry. Oysters taken from the rock cannot, it is said, be so preserved. The number of oysters consumed in Victoria is very large, and averages nearly 15,000,000 per annum. Each year's return manifests a decided increase over its pre- decessor, and there is every likelihood of this number being doubled if not trebled in the space of a few years, so growing is the passion of "oyster-eating." Oysters are divided there into two classes, viz., " mud " and " rock." Of the former, there are several kinds, varying in quality according to the nature of the ground and the depth of water in which they lie. The latter is generally found in shallow water, bordering on rocks, and is a more delicate oyster than the "mud." Melbourne is supplied from several distinct sources, but the great bulk comes from New South Wales and Tasmania. A few are also received Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 145 from Port Albert and Adelaide, and until latterly the Western Port beds yielded a large quantity. The oysters of New South Wales are principally "rocks," and are found in almost every river and inlet in the colony. The best come from the Manning river and Cape Hawk. Those coming from the Hunter, near Newcastle, are very small, and but seldom used. The number of men engaged in the New South Wales fisheries is calculated at almost 1000, but it is impossible to state the exact number. The Tasmanian oysters ("mud") are chiefly found in the bays and inlets on the southern coast the best coming from Port Esperance and Spring Bay. Those brought from the Swan Ports are very inferior. The number of oysters imported from the Tasmanian fisheries is not half so great as it was some years ago ; and there cannot now be more than about 50 or 60 men employed, whereas there were formerly more than three times that number. No oysters whatever have been received from Western Port for a con- siderable period, though from what cause is not precisely known. Formerly there was a fleet of 21 sailing vessels employed, and the yield then amounted to over 10,000 dozen per week. The few received from Adelaide vary in quality, but none of them possess such a good flavour as the " Sydney rocks," which are more used in the colony than any other class of oysters. The oyster seasons are : Of Victoria, from the 1st February to the 3Oth September ; but this season is con- sidered to commence too early and end too soon. The Sydney rock oysters are allowed to be sold all the year round. The Tasmanian season is restricted to the period intervening between the 1st April and the 3ist October; but any party is allowed to gather enough for his own con- sumption at any time. L 146 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Clams. Many molluscs pass under the name of clams. The sand or soft clam of the New England States is Mya arenaria ; the round clam or hard-shell clam, Venus mercenaria; and both these are brought to market as food. The sea clam is the Mactra gigantea and M. solidissima y Gould ; the razor clam, Solen ensis, Lin. The soft clam is, next to the oyster, the most important bivalve of the American coast, whether we view it as a means of public sustenance, or as an addition to the fish- ing industry of the country. Its great abundance on the coasts where it is found, the good market it commands, the ease with which it can be obtained from the banks at low tide, all render it a most valuable source of sustenance to the poorer classes. Clam beds are found in sheltered parts of the coast, or at least in places where the action of the waves is not sufficiently strong to change the character of the banks. The consumption of these molluscs is con- siderable during every season, but especially in summer, along the entire coast of the Northern States, from New York to Maine ; but nowhere is it so great as at Boston. The people of the United States use clams in a variety of culinary preparations, the most popular of which is, un- doubtedly, a kind of soup especially esteemed in Boston. Round clams exist in great abundance on the American coast, from Cape Cod almost to the extremity of Florida. They are generally found on the shores of gulfs and bays, and of the mouths of large rivers which are less exposed to the action of the waves than the open coast. Their beds are at a depth varying from 6 to 25 feet below the surface of the water at low tide. Like all the molluscs of that family, they prefer a large proportion of mud with the sand in which they live. Round clams are the object of an especial culture in Oysters and other Edible Mollusca. 147 America, designed to improve the rapidity of their growth. Like the " paires doubles " ( Venus verrucosd] or clams of the Mediterranean, they are never as delicate in flavour as when freshly caught. In summer the consumption of clams in the cities of New York and Philadelphia is very considerable, much greater than that of the Mya arenaria. Like the latter, sold in their natural condition or out of the shell, they furnish many excellent dishes, the most esteemed of which is clam chowder. Many persons eat the smaller specimens raw ; and when flavoured with a few drops of lemon juice, they are as palatable as the clovisses (Tapes virginea and T. decussata) and the " paires doubles " ( Venus verrucosa}, which are the especial favourites of the people of Marseilles. Whatever may be the value of soft clams as a means of sustenance for the people along the coasts, they are still more important to the fisheries of the country. The Americans have for a long time been aware of the marked predilection which many fish, particularly those of the cod species, manifest for the flesh of clams, under whatever form presented to them. Clams are used for bait, either alive or salted, accord- ing as the fishery is on the coast or out at sea. Many years ago it was estimated that 40,000 bushels of clams were consumed in the preparation of salt bait, in addition to large quantities used in a natural state by the coast fisheries. Cockles, mussels, periwinkles, whelks, and other molluscs, are largely eaten for food in many countries of Europe. PART II. MARINE CONTRIBUTIONS TO INDUSTRY. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Enumeration of some of the various uses of marine products Animals Shells Isinglass Fish skins and leather Fish scales Various oils, etc. OF the radiate animals, we have among the useful ones the edible beche-de-mer or Holothuria (already described), the sea-eggs, sea-urchins, or sea-chestnuts (Echini], which are frequently used as food when full of spawn, and star-fish for manure. Among those which are ornamental may be named the stony corals, the red "organ-pipe" coral (Tiibipora musua), sea-fans and gorgonas, and madrepores. The vast number of small marine animals, particularly the shell-fish and corals, are of extreme importance to the general economy of nature, acting as scavengers ; inasmuch as they in the ocean, in the same manner with insects upon the earth, incessantly destroy, consume, and as it were metamorphose, an infinite variety of noxious, hurtful, or superfluous substances. To man they are in so far serviceable that many of the mollusca, or naked soft worms, and the shell-fish are eatable, some forming a principal article of diet to many 1 5 2 The Commercial Products of the Sea. navigators and inhabitants of seacoasts. A very beautiful purple dye was formerly procured to some extent from certain molluscs. Sepia and Indian ink are obtained from the peculiar dark fluid of the cuttle-fish. The gall of the carp is used in Turkey as a green paint and in staining paper. The byssus of certain species of Pinna affords a kind of brown silky fibre which may be worked up into useful articles. Many kinds of shells contain pearls. Red coral is an important article of trade, particularly in the East Indies. Several kinds of shells, either entire or divided, pass current as money in Africa, India, and other remote nations. From portions of shells the North American Indians made their wampum a sort of currency which serves the purpose of records. Many savage people use mussel, snail, oyster, and tortoise shells for drinking- vessels, spoons, etc. In regard to works of art, the mother- of-pearl oyster and many mussel and snail shells are cut like onyx into cameos, and used for making buttons. The cuttle-fish bone is employed by artists and workmen. Sponge serves a variety of domestic purposes. Madrepore is employed for paving and building on the coasts of the Red Sea. Numerous shells and corals are burnt for lime. Some large thin shells are used as glass in the south of China and in India. Shells are among the most common ornaments of savage nations ; and shell flowers, shell earrings, shell brooches and bracelets are worn even by females in the more civilized countries. It is not as nourishment only that fish is made sub- servient to commerce. The preparation of isinglass affords to some countries the means of extensive trade and specu- lation. Sole skins, if clean, sweet, well prepared, and dried, can be used as a fining agent, and are sometimes employed in households to clarify coffee. It may be Introductory Remarks. 153 mentioned that the stomach, the intestines, and also the skins of different kinds of fish can be used as isinglass after being cut ami submitted to the action of boiling water, and then pressed, which gives the substance the appearance of thin leaves, resembling parchment. The skins of many are utilized. Leather is largely made from seal and porpoise skins, and also prepared from scaled fish by the North American Indians ; eel leather is used for whips and flail thongs ; shagreen or shark leather, used by the Alaska Indians for boot soles ; there is also a sturgeon leather. The skins of Diodon are used in making helmets, and the stomach membranes of the halibut, in Greenland, for window transparencies. Parchment is made from the viscera of seals, and used by the Eskimo for clothing, bags, and blankets. They also employ the pharynx of the seal or walrus as leather for boot soles. Beluga leather is dressed as kid, sole, harness, boot, mail bags, belts, and pattern leather, etc. Walrus leather is used by the Eskimos for harness, tables, thongs, seal-nets, and in Europe for cover- ing polishing wheels. The Eskimos also use sea-lion leather to cover bidarkas, and for garments and beds. Oil is largely obtained from fish for medicine and use in manufactures. From the mammals we obtain seal oil, in its various grades, used for lubricating ; sea-elephant and sea-lion oil ; dugong oil ; oil from the body of whales, grampuses, and porpoises, employed in the arts, for lubri- cating, painting, etc. ; black fish and porpoise-jaw oil, used in lubricating fine machinery, watches, clocks, and guns ; grampus oil and sperm oil, used in lamps, for lubricating, as an emollient in medicine, for lip-salves, and in the manu- facture of spermaceti. The fish oils comprise, among others, sun-fish oil and cramp-fish oil, used by fishermen for the cure of rheumatism ; cod oil and cod-liver oil, used in 154 The Commercial Products of the Sea. medicine, as a food and emollient, and in lubricating ; hake and haddock-liver oil, used in adulterating cod-liver oil ; pollock oil, used by the Shetlanders for illumination ; menhaden oil, used in currying leather, in rope-making, for lubricating, as a paint oil, and exported to Europe for the manufacture of soap and for smearing sheep. Herring oil, white fish oil, sturgeon oil, shark oil, and many other oils obtained from fishes, and a large part of the seal and black whale oil are known indiscriminately as fish oil, and em- ployed for various manufacturing uses. Oulachan oil is used by the Indians of the north-west coast of America, for food and illumination. Shark and skate liver oil, includ- ing the " Rouen oil," made on the coast of Normandy from the liver of Raia aquila, R. pastinaca, and R. batis, are used like cod-liver oil. The bones and debris from the menhaden, herring, cod, and other fisheries form fish guano. The scales of fish are used in ornamental work, in manufacturing flowers and other fancy articles. Among those so em- ployed are the scales of parrot-fishes (Scaridcs and Labridce), of mullets (Mugilidce), of sheep's-head, etc. (Sparidce), of drum and bass fish (Scianida), of Serranidce and perches (Percidcz and Labracidcz), of Lobotida, of tarpum (El0pid&), of herrings (Chipeidcz\ of Cyprinidce ; of eels, used in the north of Europe to give a pearly lustre in ornamental house-painting ; of gar pikes, used by Indians for arrow tips ; also those of sturgeons, for implements. Pearl white, or essence d'Orient, prepared from the scales of Alburmis lucidus and other Cyprinidcz and Clupeid(Z,\ used in making artificial pearls. The shagreen of the trigger-fish (Batistes] is employed in polishing wood ; that of sharks as leather and for polishing purposes, particularly in the manufacturing of quill pens. ( 155 ) CHAPTER II. SPONGE AND THE SPONGE FISHERIES. Description of sponges Two scientific divisions, common and fine Com- mercial grades Distribution of sponges Cup-shaped and fistular sponges American sponge fisheries Mode of procuring and cleaning them. SPONGE is a substance with which almost every one is familiar, as there are but few families or individuals living in civilized communities who do not find occasion to use it for a great variety of purposes. The article is so very useful that a large number of inconveniences would arise if it could not be obtained. What would the surgeon do ? what the traveller ? what the housekeeper ? And yet most of those who use sponges in an indefinite variety of ways all their lives never stop to consider how they are formed, whether they are plants or animals, or what are their history and habits. Sponges consist of a framework or skeleton, coated with gelatinous matter, and forming a non-irritable mass, which is connected internally with canals of various sizes. The ova are very numerous, and present in appearance the form of irregular-shaped granules, derived from the gela- tinous matter, which grow into ciliated germs, and, falling at maturity into the small canals, are then expelled by the orifices. When alive, the body is covered by a gela- 156 The Commercial Products of the Sea. tinous film, which, being provided with cilia, causes a current of water to pass in at the smaller pores and out at the larger apertures, the sponge probably assimilating the nutritive particles which enter into the water. FIG. 4. Sponge showing* the outgoing water currents. A monograph of these polypes, published in the 2Oth volume of " Des Annales du Museum, Paris," enumerated 141 species, ranged under six divisions. The sponges of commerce are divided into two scientific divisions : 1. Comprehending the common sponges (Spongia officinalis\ of rounded or flat form, convex beneath, of soft tissue, more or less tenacious, large pored with great orifices. 2. The second division includes the fine sponges (Spongia usitatissimum\ of concave or cup-like form, having the oscules slender like hair, and the pores very fine in the interior. Of these there are 34 species. Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 157 Sponges are found abundantly in tropical waters generally, and perhaps nowhere more abundant than in the seas of the Australian islands. They gradually decrease in numbers towards the colder latitudes till they become entirely extinct. They vary much in shape. Some are beautifully shaped like a vase, others are semi-cylindrical, others nearly flat like an open fan ; some are branched like the opened fingers of a hand, and are called glove sponges, and in others these branches seem to be reduced to only one, which is shaped somewhat like a club. These vary- ing shapes may belong to one species, and the differences are due, so far as known, to the fact that the first men- tioned are found in deep water, and they grade, in the order described, up to the last, which grow in much shallower water. The commerce in sponges is of considerable impor- tance. From a very elaborate and learned paper in a recent number of the " Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History on the North American Poriferae," with remarks upon foreign species, we derive the following valuable information on the characteristics and classifica- tion of the commercial sponges. The great difficulty which is experienced in any attempt to distinguish species results from the extreme susceptibility of all keratose sponges to any change in external conditions. They appear to require for the production of the forms in abun- dance tropical or sub-tropical seas, and attain by far their greatest development in the number of the forms and species in the West Indian seas. The typical forms, the commercial sponges, are essentially confined to the waters of the Caribbean Islands, the Bahaman Archipelago, and the southern and western coasts of Florida in the western hemisphere, and to the Mediterranean and Red Seas in the 158 TJie Commercial Products of the Sea. other. Australia affords a few forms ; and some species are said to be found on the Atlantic coast of Brazil Bermuda also has a few of the commercial kinds, which, according to Mr. Goode's report and his suite of specimens, are much coarser than the Key West, darker in colour, and, in fact, just about intermediate between these and those of Australia. They are occasionally found in the shops, but, as a rule, are used only by the fishermen themselves about their boats, the Bahamas sponges being preferred for domestic purposes by the inhabitants. It appears that the finest forms grow only in the protected lagoons, at depths varying from 5 to 25 feet, on a sandy bottom. The temperature is not stated. They are cured in a very careless manner by exposure to the weather, a process which doubtless does not increase their value. The true Spongia are all shallow-water forms. In the Mediterranean, according to Von Eckhel, they are not found below 30 fathoms, and in American seas about the same probably, though not fished to greater depths than five fathoms. The fishery is principally carried on in the West Indies by the aid of a sort of hooked fork, two shepherd's-crook-like hooks on a long pole. The fisher- men cannot so successfully work at considerable depths with this instrument, as by diving, or with the diving apparatus or armour, and various forms of drags, etc., employed in the Mediterranean. The greater part of the fishery is accomplished between the depth of 3 and 20 feet, according to the report of Dr. Palmer, from which these remarks are principally derived. The finest qualities of American sponges are obtained in the Bahamas, the prin- cipal depot being at Nassau. The process of preparation is not so careful as in Europe, probably owing to the greater coarseness and Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 159 cheapness of the specimens. The actual fishing is done from boats, generally belonging to some schooner or larger craft The boats are sent out from the vessel manned by two men. They are generally sold by the cargo. The bases are clipped off, and the sponge trimmed with shears and packed in pressed bales for transportation to New York or England, where they are largely used for the manufacture of pilot cloth, hats, etc. The coarser kinds and clippings are also used extensively for stuffing mat- tresses, carriage cushions, etc., in place of hair. They are not of sufficiently good quality to compete with the Medi- terranean sponges, and are therefore rarely employed for domestic purposes, except in Great Britain and the coun- tries of North and South America. The fisheries near shore are abandoned in the winter on account of the turbid state of the water, which becomes "milky" with sus- pended coral sand during the more tempestuous months. A more limited fishery, however, is still carried on at Anchor Keys, some 35 miles outside of Cedar Keys, and in other places where the water is stiller, clearer, and warmer than nearer shore. The commercial grades coincide very closely in America and in Europe, but it is easy to show that each of them may be considered a distinct species if one has an inclination to multiply in this direction. The grades are glove sponge (Spongia officinalis), sub-species tubuli- fera ; wool sponge (Spongia equind), sub-species gossypina ; and yellow and hard head (both under the name of Spongia agaricind), sub-species corlosia. These correspond with remarkable accuracy to the three principal grades of commercial sponges in Europe, which are the bath sponge (Spongia officinalis), the horse sponge (Spongia cquind], and the zimocca sponge (Spongia agaricind). 160 The Commercial Products of the Sea. This result, in which three species appear on both sides of the Atlantic as representing alone the marketable qualities of the genus Spongia, becomes of double interest when these varieties, or local species as they might be called, are compared one with another. It is then found that the aspect of the surface is closely similar in each of the three ; that sub-species tubulifera represents Spongia officinalis, sub-species gossypina offsets Spongia equina in the same way, and lastly, sub-species corlosia has the same relation to Spongia agaricina. In order to make it still more con- vincing that such a relationship is not the result of an artificial arrangement, it becomes necessary to describe some of the facts more at length. First, their similarities of surface and aspect are precisely the same as those which experience has led me to adopt in' the designation of species in this group. Secondly, their differences can be accounted for by the difference in habitat, and are of varietal and not of specific value, according to the accepted use of the term species. The whole group of Keratosa is confined to seas in which the differences observable between the winter and summer isotherms are not excessive. None are found north of Cape Hatteras and Bermuda, and doubtless a similar limit occurs to the southward of the equator ; at least, it is a noticeable fact that the only specimens in the Museum of Comparative Zoology are from the island of Fernando Noronha. On the Pacific shore, Southern Cali- fornia and Chili are the extreme points so far known. On the opposite coast of the Atlantic they are recorded from England to the Cape of Good Hope, and also at the island of Teneriffe. In the Indian Ocean they are found all along the east coast of Africa, at the Mauritius, and on the shores of India. They have been described from the Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 161 southern part of the Sea of Okhotz, on the Asiatic conti- nent, and specimens are not uncommon on the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. In the Pacific they have been found at the Kingmills Islands and Hawaiian Islands. The extreme outlying form to the north, on both sides of the Atlantic, is the excessively coarse Dysidea fragilis, with its fibres loaded with debris. Those from the Cape of Good Hope and Southern Australia also belong to the coarser genera. The species cited by Miklucho Maclay from the Sea of Okhotz seems to be one of the Phyllo- spongidce, but there is no analysis of the characteristics of the skeleton, only the external form being described and figured in his article on the sponges of the North Pacific (" Memoires de. 1'Acad. Imp. de St. Petersburg," vol. 75, No. 3). It would seem, therefore, that the finer skeletons of the Keratosa, those of the genus Spongia, are only to be sought in the intermediate zone, where the waters are of equable and high temperature. Again, in examining the species of this genus with relation to each other, it becomes equally evident that they are finest and most numerous in archipelagoes, or off coasts which are bordered by large numbers of islands, or long reefs, or in sheltered seas. Mr. Gurdon Saltonstall states that the sponges near Nassau lie on reefs very much exposed to the action of the waves, often 30 miles from land, and always in currents, sometimes running three or four knots an hour. Such currents are usual wherever groups of islands confine the tide water within certain definite channels, and they have also the effect of concentrating the floating food in the channels, or wherever tides meet. Both of these con- ditions are essential to successful sponge growth, namely, a continuous renewal of aerated water and a plentiful supply of food, and are probably partly the cause of their abun- M 1 62 The Commercial Products of the Sea. dance in such places. This entirely agrees with obser- vations made upon many species on the North American coast of CJwtlinina and Halichondrida. Constant reference to physical influence is also noticeable in the map prepared by Von Eckhel, and in the method of classification adopted by him. The marketable qualities are described as " sorts," and the different " sorts " designated by letters, as " sort A," "sort B," and so on. These sorts he has found it most convenient to arrange according to localities, and thus under some " sorts " we have all the three species represented ; all, however, from the same place, and all having some local peculiarity which makes them either of superior or inferior quality. The author also frequently refers to the slimy character of the bottom as a reason for inferiority or dark colour. On the American side of the Atlantic this is also shown by the great difference in point of colour and fineness between the Nassau and Key West sponges. The former are lighter coloured, finer, more elastic, and more durable, than the same species at Key West, where the colour is so dark that it designates at once the locality from which the specimen came. Again, the shallow-water sponges are coarser than the deep-water forms. This is probably due, in part, as in other species, to the quantity of sediment, which is of course less in deep than in shallow water, as, for example, at Key West in the winter time. Mr. Saltonstall, who made inquiries among the spongers, states that no fine qualities of any sponges are found within the limits of the milky water, but all the finer qualities of the marketable kinds in the deepest water in which the species occur, except, perhaps, in the case of the reef sponge. Glove, reef, and hard head are fished in shallow waters, greatest depth two fathoms, and the other and generally finer marketable varieties from two Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 163 to five fathoms. This fact also explains, in a measure, but not wholly, the greater coarseness of American sponges as compared with the European ; for though it may be assumed from the examination of the skeletons that Medi- terranean sponges are much less exposed to turbid waters, and though it may be shown by the microscope that the primary fibres contain less debris, this does not wholly explain their greater fineness and elasticity. We may attribute this either wholly or partly to climatic con- ditions. If either the temperature or density of the water had been exceptional, we might have gained some additional information, but as it is, we cannot assume that either cause would have been sufficient to account for the absence of the Spongice from the Euxine. According to Carpenter, in his articles on the Mediterranean and Black Sea, there is a strong current continually flowing at the depth of 20 fathoms from the Mediterranean into the Black Sea, and a return surface current from the Black Sea into the Mediter- ranean. The sponges occur necessarily in the shallower waters of the Sea of Marmora, since they are said by Von Eckhel to be fished for mostly with the harpoon, and are probably exposed more or less to the influence of the sur- face current. Under these circumstances, they must very often be able to endure a degree of cold during the winter, and an amount of change in the density of the water, for which it becomes difficult to account, even taking into con- sideration the inferior quality of their skeletons. It is possible, however, that the water of the northern part of the Black Sea may not affect the temperature of the southern part to such an extent as would at first sight appear probable, and that, notwithstanding the lower tem- perature of the northern shores, the general temperature of 1 64 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the surface water during the winter immediately east and west of the Bosphorus may not fall below 55 as a minimum. The northern shore of the ^Egean Sea and the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea are populous with sponges, and yet the former throughout its whole extent, and the latter from Ragusa to Istria, have nearly the same average winter temperature, and possess a colder climate in winter than the coast of southern Italy or Spain, where no Spongics exist. Again, upon consulting the invaluable little Eckhe- lian pamphlet, we find that the sponges correspond in quality to this climatic change. The sort found at the head of the ygean is said to be the Spongia officinalis alone, and to have a "heavy, hard, close, very hairy skeleton, often containing slime," and it is further added that it is not much liked, and is usually fished with the harpoon. The same species exist also alone at correspond- ing localities along the shore of the Adriatic, and at the extreme locality, the island of Istria, upon the limit of its distribution, it is said to be very rare, the form to be ugly, the skeleton hard, the colour dark. Farther south, along the Dalmatian coast, it becomes abundant, finer in texture and of a lighter colour, but it is still inferior to the more southern or Levantine variety. In considering such classes of facts, it must also be borne in mind that the habitat of a certain sort of variety may largely determine the quality of the skeleton, even where the temperature may be very favourable. Thus, to the south of Quarnero, among the islands, a much better quality of Spongia officinalis occurs than in the milder sea about the Ionian Islands, which, as Eckhel remarks, is probably attributable to the slimy character of the bottom. The finest sponges in the Mediterranean, those of the Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 165 Levant and off the Syrian and Tripoli coasts, are found between the average aerial winter temperature of 63 and 70, and the isochrymals of 50 57, and at no time of the year are these, which, as stated, by Von Eckhel, occur in the deeper water at a distance from the coast, probably ex- posed to a lower temperature than 60. In describing the species of this genus I have made comparisons between three principal Mediterranean and three of the American commercial sponges, in order to show the very evident relationship of these forms. Schmidt describes five Mediterranean species in all, and may be right ; but so far as I can understand his descriptions, with the aid of a fine collection of specimens purchased by Pro- fessor Baird for the National Museum from Mr. Isaacs, of New York, I cannot make more than three out of the ordi- nary commercial varieties, which were fully represented, and appeared to include the entire range of his five species. Von Eckhel's work upon the " Badeschwamme," although a purely commercial treatise, has the same view of the affinities of the sponges, based upon the observations of the fishermen and dealers, and the distribution of the species. The latter is quite remarkable. Only one species, the Spongia officinalis, Lin., Adriatica, Schm., is found on the eastern shore of the Adriatic and coast of Greece, from Trieste to the Bay of Nauplia. From Nauplia and the island of Candia to Eritra, on the coast of Asia Minor, two occur, Spongia officinalis and Spongia agaricana, Pall., Zimocca, Schm. From Eritra, opposite the island of Chios, to Tripoli, all three, Spongia officinalis, agaricana, and equina, are fished, except at the island of Cyprus, where the zimocca sponge does not live. From Tripoli to Tunis two only occur, Spongia officinalis and equina, and from thence to Ceuta, at the Straits of Gibraltar, a very peculiar dark- 1 66 The Commercial Products of the Sea. coloured and coarse variety of the Spongia equina is obtained, called the gerbis sponge. The distribution indicates the naturalness of the three species, and shows also that the dealers have to do with a vast variety of forms. They can, however, pick out the three species and their varieties without hesitation, and I was amused and interested at finding that the method pursued was precisely similar to that which I had been FIG. 5. Outer surface of different kinds of sponge (natural size). A, Cup-shaped variety ; B, honeycomb sponge ; c, toilet sponge ; D, Bahamas sponge, partly in sections, showing projecting extremities and internal tubular character. obliged to adopt in distinguishing empirically the various sub-species and species of Spongia. They are led mainly by the general aspect of the surface. This has a distinct Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 167 appearance in every species, and though much altered by the greater or less development of superficial tufts, is much more constant than any other character. This is due to the fact that the surface takes its aspect largely from the number, distribution, and size of the pores, cloacal orifices, superficial canals, and primary fibres. These characteristics, of course, are directly correllated with all that is important in the internal anatomy of the animal, and should therefore be, more constant than the length, form, or composition of the tufts of fibres, or the shape of the whole, which are capable of great modification, according to the locality in which the specimen may be found. The forms of Spongia officinalis may vary from cup-shape to fistular, and to irregular or lump-like. The latter are usually coarser and looser in texture, the superficial tufts are longer and more numerous, and they approximate more closely to the coarser varieties of sub-species tubulifera of the Caribbean Sea in the external aspect of the surface and the apertion of the interior, than the finer varieties. The texture of the poorest variety of the Mediterranean sponges is, however, always better for domestic purposes than the best of the corresponding American varieties, being firmer and more elastic ; and it is also to be remarked that the last never have the cup-shape, which is so common in the sub-species Mediterranean and that the fistular form takes its place. The forms of Spongia agaricina, sub-species Zimocca, vary from saucer-shape to irregular, lump-like growth. As in the Spongia officinalis, it may be shown that these aberrant forms are quite similar to the aberrant or formless varieties of the sub-species punctata of Florida, as regards the aspect of the surface ; but these also are nevertheless much finer than the finest varieties of the latter. Here, again, the platter or saucer shape, which is 1 68 The Commercial Products of the Sea. a modification of the cup-shape, is absent. Spongia equina exhibits similar degrees of variation in the texture of the surface and the form. There are no proper cup-shaped specimens among the American varieties of sub-species gossypina, but in place of these the fistular form. These occur generally associated in clumps, more or less densely filled up into heads, and solid, but sometimes the tubes are almost isolated. The younger specimens of this species have a very loose and open texture, due to the approxima- tion and large size of the openings, and to a less degree this is also to be remarked in the gerbis sponge. The former approximate in aspect to the coarser qualities of the American species, and so also does the latter, which has very nearly the same colour and aspect as the dark- coloured Key West specimens, but it is not so coarse or dark. It seems, then, that there are three sub-species of commercial value in the Mediterranean, which find their way into the New York and European markets. The coarsest varieties of the European sponges are finer, firmer, and more elastic than the finest of the corresponding American sub-species. This is directly traceable to the larger amount of foreign matter included in the primary threads, the looser mesh of the tissue ; the fibres are also comparatively coarser and the large cloacal channels more numerous throughout the mass. Thus the different varieties of sub-species gossypina differ in an exactly similar way from each other, and from the third form, sub-species cerebriformis ; they differ in texture, in surface, and also in habitat, the finer kinds, as stated previously, being found in the deeper water, equally removed from excessive heat and excessive sediment. These three sub-species run together by means of specimens of the coarser varieties, which cannot be distinguished Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 169 FIG. 6. Cup-shaped sponges in natural position, rooted to rock. 1 70 The Commercial Products of tJu Sea. from each other with any certainty, in the same manner as the corresponding sub-species in the Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas were connected, through the coarser, and not by the aid of the finer varieties. It is evident, how- ever, that besides the general differences previously noted, the cup-shape form is not found in the American sub- species, whereas it is the prevalent form of the Mediter- ranean sub-species. A cursory examination of a large collection will, however, satisfy any one that the shape does not necessarily correllate with a finer or a coarser skeleton, but probably with a more or less extended base of attach- ment and local peculiarities, such as currents, and the kind of bottom, etc., which have not been investigated in this connection. The American Sponge Fisheries. The coarser de- scriptions of sponge entering into commerce are procured about the Bahamas banks and the coast of Florida. Sponge fishing is said to have become a very profitable business in the neighbourhood of Key West, Florida. The article is mostly procured there by the natives of the Bahamas, who best understand the business of sponges ; and its principal grounds are Rock Island, a scope of land 30 miles long by seven miles broad, lying off Taylor county and 60 miles north-west from Cedar Keys ; thence from the mouth of the Withlacoochee, past Martin's Reef to near Tampa Bay, a distance of perhaps 300 miles. The number of small schooners engaged is between 75 and 100, with an average of from 5 to 15 men to each, and an average of three dingies to each vessel. The vessels built for the purpose are half oval-shape, and as flat as is consistent with due regard to sailing qualities. Dingy, or dincey, is the small boat used to gather the Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 171 sponge, and is usually managed by two men. There are about 600 men daily engaged in gathering when the weather is fair. Quiet weather and calm sea are always taken advantage of. These dingies, when likely to be called into service, are towed Indian file at the stern of the larger vessel. Each sponger is provided with a " sponge- hook," made of iron, with three prongs, a socket fitting on a pole one and a half inches thick and from 18 to 35 feet long ; also a " water-glass," a bucket with a pane of glass fitted in the bottom. This adds to the power of vision by excluding the light from behind, enabling the sponger to penetrate with his eye at least 10 or 15 feet deeper into the water. The sculler propels the boat along very slowly; in the mean time the sponger sits hanging over the side of the dingy with his head at the bucket held by the hand and his eye penetrating the depths below, taking in all that passes within his line of vision. As soon as he sees his legitimate prey, he raises his sponge-hook with his right hand, in which he is assisted by the sculler, still keeping his eye at the glass, grapples the sponge, then puts aside the glass and hauls it in. Frequently his sight is darkened and view obstructed by the intervention of the monsters of the deep. A huge shark, a sawfish, or perhaps an enormous devil-fish, very often large schools of beautiful fish, " Spanish mackerel," " cavallie," " sailor's choice," " pompeno," pass beneath him in such numbers as to seriously interfere with his occupation. Again, his sight is regaled with lovely coral formations, deep fissures and grottoes, gem-lined within. When a dingy load is gathered, the sponges are taken to the vessel, where they are placed roots down, eyes up, until they are dead. This part of the sponge fishing is the most disagreeable, and causes the vessel to be almost 172 The Commercial Products of the Sea. unbearable, the sponge exhuming a bloody, slimy matter of most offensive odour. The vessel having secured a full cargo makes for port, when the sponges are taken ashore and buried in the sand in a place technically called a "crawl." It is generally constructed of a paling of oak staves driven in the sand, and the lee of some island is selected as the spot. The sponges are left a week or longer, when the slimy flesh, as it may be called, having rotted off, the sponger goes into the crawl with a " bruiser " (a small paddle), and with a few strokes on the top of the sponge, clears it from the filth and skin ; after which it is assorted into the dif- ferent varieties, collected upon strings of convenient length and bleached in the sun, when they are ready for the market. The sponge on the bar grows something like a bed of cabbages or mushrooms, and presents a beautiful appear- ance, very dark and seemingly having eyes. The sponge reefs in deep water are called "feather bars," from the feathery or fan-like appearance of the coral, very often seen growing up through the sponge, and in such places the larger sponges are generally found. The different kinds of sponge found on this coast are known as " log- gerhead," "sheep-wool," "turtle-grass," and "yellow." The sheep-wool and yellow only are marketable. The latter is worth is. per pound ; sheep-wool averaging 4^. per pound. There are two sponge seasons proper, during the winter and summer months ; should the water continue clear, however, it then lasts all through the year. The common practice is to gather sponge on shares, the vessel getting one-third and the crew two-thirds, the provision bill being assessed in the same ratio. The Sponge and the Sponge Fisheries. 1 73 sponges gathered in Florida waters are taken from the fishermen at Key West, Cedar Keys, and Apalachicola. The amount of money paid out per annum is as follows : At Key West, 24,000; Cedar Keys, 13,000; Apala- chicola, 11,000 a total of 48,000. 1 74 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER III. THE SPONGE FISHERY OF THE BAHAMAS. The Bahamas sponge grounds Statistics of the fishery Gathering and cleaning the sponge Eleven sorts specified Value of the exports from Bahamas New uses for sponge Bleaching sponges Reproduction and trans- planting sponges. Bahamas Sponge. About 500 vessels are constantly engaged in the trade, 3000 men find employment, and through it ^"20,000 to 30,000 sterling are annually circu- lated and spent in the colony. The great sponging grounds lie to the east, west, and south of New Providence. Although often far from the shore, and at a depth of 20, 40, or even 60 feet, it can easily be descried through the transparent waters on the clear sandy bottoms, from which it is raked or grappled up. From William's Cay, Andros Island, the fine qualities of glove sponge are obtained. This kind is used principally for surgical purposes, and is sent generally to America, as the Mediterranean supplies Europe with this description of sponge. The process of cleaning the sponge here is very simple. It is kept on the decks of the vessel until it is quite dead, when it is thrown into a " crawl " made for the purpose, The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas. 175 through which the tide flows, and left to soak from four to six days, when it is beaten with a flat piece of stick, and then becomes quite clean. A few years ago the practice was to bury the sponge for 20 days, by which time the gelatinous animal matter was destroyed or eaten away by the insects that swarm in the sand. This has been entirely done away with ; the present custom is more simple, and cleans the sponge better. The sponge is then assorted and compressed in powerful presses like cotton. Each bale or package has fastened to it outside a sample to show the quality. Strange to say, spongers, as a rule, are not very good judges of the quality of the sponge they gather. They seldom seem to know good from bad sponge. The conse- quence is that much of very inferior quality is brought to market, and realizes very low prices. This is an evil which could easily be remedied. The gathering and cleaning of common sponge entails as much trouble and fatigue as the collecting of what is valuable and good. Spongers should be more observant of the various qualities of sponges. They ought to know a sound from a sucked sponge a sponge of fine texture and good shape from one of bad shape and coarse. Bahamas sponge is classified into 1 1 sorts. From the south-eastern extremity of Andros Island, and all over the Exuma banks, the fine large sheep-wool or honeycomb sponge is chiefly found. This kind is known as the bath sponge, and is by far the most valuable and merchantable. The other kinds are the reef or fine toilet, the boat, the velvet, yellow, hard head, Long Island, grass, common or glove, and refuse. None of these are very valuable, ex- cepting the velvet sponge, which is obtained from the west end of Bahamas and William's Cay. From these two 1 76 The Commercial Products of the Sea. places this kind of sponge, although coarse, hard, and com- mon wherever else obtained, almost equals the far-famed Turkish sponge in texture, and is very nearly as valuable as the sheep-wool. From the extensive banks to the south- east of Andros Island, a very inferior and coarse velvet sponge is gathered, which is brought in large quantities to market ; being tough and soft, it is much used in stables. It does not realize a high price, but the sponging vessels more than make up for the inferior quality by the im- mense quantity which can easily be obtained. New tracts of sponge are seldom found. Spongers, as a rule, seem to prefer to sponge upon the old, well-known grounds, which, by being frequently searched, are consequently nearly worked out. There are unquestionably immense fields of sponge all over the banks that yet remain undiscovered sources of future wealth which will be opened up in time to those who seek them. Sponge is taken from the bottom of the sea here by means of a hook attached to a long staff. The length of the staff required is usually 25 feet. The best qualities of sponge are found in the deepest water, excepting the fine glove. In 1875 great exertion was made to procure the better classes of sponge, viz., wool, reef, velvet, and boat. The demand for these kinds was somewhat greater, and the prices ranged higher. It is, however, more and more appa- rent to those who watch the lots as they arrive in the market, that the proportion of sponges of suitable size for the trade is decreasing gradually ; and unless new beds are discovered, or the coarser kinds, of which large quantities exist, can be utilized, or the fisheries of Cuba be opened to the Bahamas spongers so as to allow time, for the young sponge in the neighbourhood of these islands to attain sufficient growth, a large number of those engaged in the The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas. 177 business will have to withdraw, as even now it hardly com- pensates them for their labour. The rapid strides made in sponging within the Bahamas group appears almost incredible. It only commenced in 1841. The early stages of the trade a quarter of a cen- tury ago, and its progress since, are shown in the following statistics : VALUE OF THE EXPORTS FROM THE BAHAMAS. Cwts. Value. 1849 ... ... 2,217 1850 ... ... 5,700 1851 ... ... ... ... 14,000 1852 ... ... ... ... 11,257 1855 2399 9,615 1856 ... ... I800 ... ... 6,723 1857 ... .., 2657 ... ... 11,025 1858 3357 17,254 1866 ... ... 8630 ... ... 40,000 1869 ... ... 3887 ... ... 28,000 1870 ... ... 2836 ... ... 1871 ... ... ... ... 14,868 1873 5ooo 32,938 1874 2472 ... ... 15,551 1875 J 94Q . ... 15,638 About half the quanmy collected is shipped to the United States, and half to England. Before sponges pass into commerce they are trampled on, pressed, washed a great many times in salt and fresh water frequently changed, until the gelatinous mucus with which they are covered has disappeared. They are then passed through boiling water, with the view of ridding them, if possible, of the peculiar smell arising from the animal matter attached to the fibrous tissues. To bleach sponges, they are steeped in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid of I to rc>3 degrees, and they are left to steep five or six days, taking care to press them from time to N 1 78 The Commercial Products of tJie Sea. time. It is necessary before the bleaching to remove any calcareous matter which may adhere to the sponges, by soaking them for about an hour in dilute hydrochloric acid. The following is the chemical analysis of sponge : Carbon ... ... ... ... 47'i6 Hydrogen ... ... ... ... 6*31 Nitrogen ... ... ... ... 16*15 Oxygen ... ... ... ... 26*90 Iodine ... ... ... ... I'oS Sulphur ... ... ... ... 0*50 Phosphorus .. ... ... ... I '90 100 If sponges were more generally abundant in commerce and somewhat cheaper in price, many more uses might be found for them. Thus, they would make excellent material for stuffing beds and furniture a use to which they have already been put in America for large and white tissues for purifying and filtering liquids, paper stuff, etc. One of the uses to which sponge has of late years been applied in America is to make what is termed elastic sponge for stuffing in upholstery purposes. The raw sponge is received in hard, dirty masses, filled with sand and bits of shell. Being soaked in a large tank of water, it expands into such condition that its quality may be determined, and it is then sorted into two kinds the " soft " for mattress stock, and the " hard " for cushions. The cleansing process, which is an exceedingly impor- tant one, then begins in another room. In order to effect this, the sponge is first cut and washed, by passing for an hour through a huge tube, in which there is a series of knives, through which the sponge is made to pass by means of the movement given to the water by a wheel. The water, too, is constantly changing, so that by this process the sponge is nicely cut, and its filth separated in part. It The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas. 1 79 is next soaked for 20 minutes in a tank of water, con- taining 2 (hydrometer) of soda ash and heated to 150. It is then passed into a tank containing a hot solution of very strong detergent soap, where it is soaked for half an hour with constant and violent agitation. It then returns to the first tub, where it is washed another hour and cut more finely. The cleansing process is then com- plete, and after the water has been pressed out by pass- ing through rollers, it is carried by the elevator to the " drying-room," two stories above, where a high degree of temperature is maintained, and it is dried in large revolving cylinders. It is then clean and without smell, but hard and inelastic in character, and in that condition totally valueless for the purpose of stuffing. It was at this point that the inventor's skill was necessary. The pores of the sponge closed when the water had evaporated, and no permanent elasticity could be had unless these were held open permanently. Glycerin, being a non-evaporative substance, was found to answer the purpose. The remainder of the process is then as follows : The dry hard sponge is placed in a solution of glycerin and water, in the proportion of about half and half, and after passing through heavy rollers it is again dried in the cylinders. The aqueous portion then evapo- rates, and leaves the bits of sponge dry and sweet, and so permeated with the glycerin that a permanent elasticity is maintained. It is then at last taken to the packing-room, highly compressed into bales of about 40 Ibs. each, and is ready for market. An enterprise was started in the United States in 1873^ for manufacturing the coarser sponges, sent as grass, glove, and refuse, into a sort of felting to be laid under carpets. Large quantities of these kinds were purchased in the 180 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Bahamas early in 1874; but the demand ceased in the latter part of the year, and the manufacture appears to have failed. Persons may well be cautioned against buying cheap sponges from itinerant venders in the streets, which have probably done duty in hospitals, stables, or for other vile uses, and, even if they have been chemically washed and bleached, can scarcely be considered wholesome. Sponges which have been used in bathing wounds are liable to retain a disagreeable odour ; while bacteria, monads, and various contaminating matters may be found in them. To obviate the evil, the infected sponge is impregnated with a solution of four parts of permanganate of potash to 100 parts of water ; passing it next through a solution of sul- phuric acid, and then washing with water. The sponge recovers its primitive state, and even its marine odour and the tissue is improved. The Socie'td d'Acclimatation of Paris, early in 1862, sent out M. Lamiral to the coast of Syria, with a view to obtain sponges for transplantation. On his return, in Sep- tember of that year, he presented a report. In this he dis- tinguishes three kinds of sponges for which there is a demand the fine and soft sponge, called abiand ; the fine and hard sort, called achniar ; and lastly, the common sort, called cdbar by the Arabs. These sponges are found in the Levant within the 36th and 33rd degrees of latitude : that is, between Alexandretta and Saida. It is now universally acknowledged that sponges belong to the animal kingdom, and are an aggregate of cellules built up by gelatinous polypi similar to those which con- struct madreporse, porites, and other polypifers. When the sponge is first gathered at the bottom of the sea, it is covered with a black but transparent gelatinous substance, The Sponge Fishery of the Bahamas. 181 resembling vegetable granulations, among which micro- scopic white and oviform bodies may be distinguished. These are the larvae destined to perpetuate the species. When arrived at maturity, they are washed out by the sea water which incessantly flows through the sponge ; they then swim along, by the aid of the vibrating cilia or hairs with which they are provided, until they reach a suitable FIG. 7. Sponges. rock, to which they attach themselves, and there commence a new life. This emigration of the larvae from the parent sponge occurs about the end of June and the beginning of July. The fine qualities of sponges are chiefly found at the depth of 1 5 fathoms or thereabout ; the common sponge lies at depths varying between 20 and 30 fathoms. At Tripoli (on the coast of Syria, not of Africa) M. Lamiral engaged some divers, who commenced operations on the 2 ist of May. The sponges gathered were imme- 1 3 2 The Commercial Products of the Sea. diately placed in boxes, through which a stream of sea water was constantly made to flow, the animal matter being, of course, left on them, and protected from injury. These sponges arrived at Marseilles on the i/th of June; thence they were taken to Toulon and the islands of Hyeres, where stone troughs, with five sponges in each, were sunk in different places. During the past Tew years, Dr. Oscar Schmidt, Professor of Zoology at the University of Gratz, has employed several weeks of the early summer in artificially producing and rearing the bath sponge. His labours have met with such success that his system has been adopted by the Austrian Government, and is now carried on on the coast of Dalmatia. It has for some time been a well-known fact that several families of zoophytes have such great powers of reproduc- tion, that a portion of one will grow and form on an entire new body. This property has been taken advantage of by Dr. Schmidt, his process being to cut the sponge into pieces, fasten each portion to a pile, and immerse it in the sea. The pieces then grow, and eventually from each one a spherical sponge is obtained. According to the estimates of Dr. Schmidt, a small piece of sponge at the end of three years will represent a value of ^d. The total cost of raising 4000 sponges, including the interest on the expended capital for three years, is estimated at 8 &*-., and the income at about 16, leaving therefore a net profit of nearly 8. There is no doubt but that the practice of this branch of industry will be the means of considerable benefit to the inhabitants of the Idrian and Dalmatian coasts. CHAPTER IV. SPONGE FISHERIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. Sponge trade of the Ottoman Islands Market prices of sponge Number of boats employed Fishing grounds on the coast of Candia, Syria, and Barbary Statistics of the fisheries Operation of diving Diving-bells and dresses now used Imports of sponge from the Mediterranean Total imports of sponge into the United Kingdom French trade in sponge Silicious sponges. The Sponge Trade of the Ottoman Islands. It appears that, with few exceptions, in which the owners of sponge boats have capital, all the funds required for the equipment of these boats are furnished by native money-lenders, and that important foreign capital, especially British and French, has latterly been invested in diving apparatus since the introduction of this new mode of fishing for sponges in these islands. It is noticeable, too, that a large French firm, whose operations in this trade were on a very extensive scale, have of late somewhat reduced their trade, while on the other hand the use of British-made machines continues to increase, and it is mentioned that there is a decided preference on the part of the natives to work with British rather than with French diving apparatus. The whole of the machines now employed in the Ottoman islands is upwards of 100. Owing to the depressed prices 184 The Commercial Products of the Sea. at which sponges have been sold during the last few years, and which have prevented divers from paying their debts to the native money-lenders, the latter, although in possession of bills for important sums of money, have not a sufficiency of cash to equip all the boats suitable for the sponge fishery. Notwithstanding the adverse circumstances, the quantity of sponges obtained of late has exceeded that of former years, in consequence of the more abundant crops and improved diving apparatus. At the island of Halki, for instance, where 10 years ago the produce in sponges was hardly ; 10,000 a year, it amounts now, with the same number of boats, but working with diving apparatus, to nearly ^"20,000, thus showing a very important augmenta- tion. It is mentioned, however, that the produce in sponges seems more than sufficient for the demand ; and if all the available boats in these islands could procure the required money to enable them to go fishing, the extra quantities of sponges which would then encumber the markets would lower the price of the article to rates which would prove ruinous to the divers. The average market prices of sponges for the year 1872 are shown per oke (equal to 2| Ibs.) in the subjoined table: Countries. Fine. Honeycomb. Hard brown. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Bengazi , 40 o 17 6 8 Mandruha 48 o to 64 o 19 Ot02I 10 tO 12 6 Syria 29 o ,, 32 o II 12 6 4 o 5 o Caramania 24 o 32 o 96 ii o 3 3 , 4 o Cyprus II 12 6 Crete 24 o ,, 32 o IIO 12 6 Rhodes, and other Otto- man isles 24 o ,, 32 o 80 96 Greece ... 12 6 ,, 16 o 63 80 Bengazi and Mandruha sponges are not sold by weight, Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 185 but by piece ; for the sake of comparison, however, their prices are proportioned to others. Bengazi fine sponges are exceedingly scarce. The prices quoted in the foregoing, although higher than those of the two preceding years, are still rather low, and Hellenic sponge boats, which used to bring and sell their crops in the markets of the Sporades, now abstain from doing so. In fact, owing to the reduced prices offered in these islands for sponges, several of the most enterprising native sponge-dealers decided, a few years ago, instead of selling their sponges in the local market, to con- vey them to Europe, and retail them on their own account from place to place. There is not a single country even Sweden and Norway which these sponge-dealers have not visited, in order to sell their goods. A few of them jour- neyed even as far as America ; while some settled in London, where their countrymen ultimately bought the quantities which they had not been able to dispose of in their peregri- nations. These attempts have been so far successful. It is stated that the value of sponges sent annually to Great Britain is no less than 70,000. The principal article of export from the Ottoman Archipelago is sponge. The number of boats employed varies, ranging from 400 to 600 in the year. The latter number may be said to be thus distributed, as belonging to the different islands : Calmynos ... ... ... .... 254 Symi... ... ... .. ... 190 Halki 65, Castel Rosso ... ... ... .. 40 Leros ... ... .. ... 30 Stampalia ... ... ... ... 12 Telos ... ... ... .. 7 Cassos ... ... ... ... 2 600 1 86 The Commercial Products of the Sea. As there are seven men to each boat, the number of men engaged is about 4200. The sponge fishing grounds are on the coast of Candia, Syria, and Barbary. The average depth at which sponges are found is 30 fathoms ; those of an inferior quality are found at lesser depths. The sponge fishing-boats in the island of Calmynos amount to nearly 260, employing 1600 men and boys. These boats, called " scan," are on an average six tons each, carrying from six to seven, and sometimes eight men, of whom two are rowers. The proceeds from the sponge obtained are divided into shares, the divers receiving a whole share, and the rowers two-thirds of a share. A good diver will make from eight to ten dives during the day. The sponge is covered with a thin, tough, black cuticle, inside of which there is a white liquid like milk, and of the same consistence. The sponge in this state presents a very different appearance to what it does when freed from these extraneous substances. The annual value of the sponges taken by the Calymniotes amounts to about ^"2500. " The finest are sent to Great Britain ; the common and coarser to France, Austria, and Constantinople. The sponge fishery of Turkey has made a great advance by the introduction of diving apparatus. The quality fished in the Sea of Marmora is of second-rate quality, and is shipped to England, and a part to Trieste and Germany. The following shows the value in. round numbers of the sponges sold at Rhodes in 1861 : Fine, 41,000; common, 63,000; coarse, 7000; total, 111,000. Part of the sponges fished in the autumn of 1860 were sold in the early part of 1861, at 450 piastres per oke for fine, 120 for common, and 60 for coarse, which are the highest ever reached for the fine and coarse qualities. Towards the Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 187 FIG. 8. Syrian sponge fishers. i88 The Commercial Products of the Sea. end of the year, the prices declined nearly one-fourth. The crop of 1 86 1 was abundant ; the proportion of fine sponges was larger, and of a better quality than in former years. The divers say that the same quantity are not now found as ten years ago, so it must be inferred that they do not grow as fast as they are fished. The amount sent to each country was in the following proportion, out of 36 parts : Great Britain, 13; France, 15 J; Austria, 5 J ; and Con- stantinople, 2 ; total, 36. In 1867 30 cwt, valued at 700, were exported from Turkey. The total value of the sponges obtained on the coasts of Syria is .20,000 to .25,000, which seems to be about the average of past years. The production, however, appears to be falling off through excessive fishing. Some 250 to 300 boats are at present employed in this industry, manned by 1200 to 1500 men. The centres of production are Tripoli and Batronn on the coast of Mount Lebanon, in the neighbourhood of which the best qualities are found. The fishing-boats, from 1 8 to 30 feet long, are each manned by a crew of four or five men, one of whom is especially engaged for the purpose of directing, while the rest are divers. The diver, naked of course, with an open net round his waist for holding the sponges, seizes with both hands an oblong white stone, to which is attached a rope, and plunges overboard. On arriving at the bottom, the stone is deposited at his feet, and the man, keeping hold of the rope with one hand, grasps and tears off with the other the sponges within reach, which he deposits in his net. He then, by a series of jerks to the rope, gives the signal to those above, and is drawn up. No knife, spear, or instrument of any kind is used. The depth to which the diver descends varies from 5 to 30 fathoms, each equal to an ordinary man's height. Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 189 Although marked by a great variety of quality and size, sponges may be generally classified as the fine, white, bell-shaped " toilet sponge ; " the large reddish variety, known as " eponge de venise " or " bath sponge ; " and the coarse red sponge, used for household purposes, cleaning, etc. France takes the bulk of the finest qualities, while the reddish and common sponges are sent to Germany and England. The fisheries of the Lebanon employ 120 boats, manned by 550 men. The annual yield varies in value between 4000 and 6500. The value of sponges directly exported from the Sporades is about ^"90,000 additional. Formerly, almost the whole quantity of sponges was sent from the islands of the Sporades to Rhodes for transhipment to Europe ; but since the English steamers call at those islands, sponges are sent direct. On the coasts between the latitudes 32 20' and 33 20', the qualities of soft and hard, fine and venise sponges, are mixed and fished for together, at about the same depth, from 4 to 15 fathoms. Beyond this depth the venise sponge, which is mixed with the other two kinds only in the proportion of about one-third, is more abundant, and constitutes the bulk of the fishery. At a depth of 20 to 30 fathoms, this sponge, of a large size, is almost exclusively found. The prices paid have been ^for bath or common sponges, according to quality, from 40 to 60 piastres per oke (equal to 2f Ibs.) ; fine sponges, from 120 to 200 piastres. The sponges fished at Mandruha, on the coast of Africa, are always sold by the piece. The prices paid for them have been bath sponges, from one and a half to four piastres a piece ; fine sponges, from four to eight piastres a piece ; I go The Commercial Products of the Sea. zimocca, or coarse sponges, from 15 to 18 paras a piece. In sponge transactions, the rate of the Turkish pound is 115 piastres; and of the pound sterling, 125 piastres. They still continue to send sanded sponges to England. The sponges fished by diving apparatuses are not so good as those fished by neck-divers, these last going to deeper waters ; the sponges there being of a superior quality. They therefore always cost from 15 to 20 per cent, more than the former ones. Although the diving appa- ratuses secure a more abundant crop, they are getting unpopular, owing to the many accidents which are to be deplored every season, the divers using them exceeding the depth prescribed. The total number of diving apparatuses imported from France and Great Britain during the last 10 or 12 years is about 250, but not more than no are actually at work. The gears for these machines, which are annually renewed, are generally imported from England. The total number of sponge fishing-boats (including also those with diving apparatuses) belonging to Rhodes and the Sporades Islands, is about 700, employing 6000 men. During the year 1874, only 512 boats were sent to this fishery, of which 96 were supplied with diving apparatuses. The sponge fishery in Tunis is most active in the months of December, January, and February, as, during the other seasons, the spot where the sponges are found is covered with dense masses of seaweed. The tempests of November and December clear away the latter, and allow the sponges to be seen. The fishery has, however, two seasons one commencing in March and finishing in November ; the other occupying the rest of the year. In the summer season the production is small, because diving apparatus is then necessary, and can only be employed Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 191 where there is a rocky or other firm bottom ; but the Arabs search along the coasts, feeling for the sponges with their feet beneath the masses of tangled weeds. The sponges which they find are generally of an inferior kind, as they cannot go into any depth of water. The success of the work of sponge-getting depends upon the sea being calm. There are not more than 40 or 50 days during the winter season which are favourable. The Arabs who inhabit the coasts, the Greeks, and principally those of Kranidi, near Nauplia, and the Sicilians, all engage in the sponge fishing, but the Greeks are con- sidered the most adroit and the Arabs the least so. The gathering is performed by means of a trident, or " arth" a kind of dredge, similar to that used for taking oysters. The Arabs employ boats called " sandah/' with crews of four to seven persons, one of whom only uses the harpoon. As soon as this man sees a sponge the boat is brought to a stand ; the work is carried on to the depth of 15 to 35 feet. The Greeks, although very expert divers, also use the harpoon, but they employ small and very light boats, carrying only the harpooner and the sculler. The former explores the bottom of the sea by means of a kind of telescope a tin tube about 14 inches in diameter and 20 inches long, with a thick glass at the lower end. The object of this tube is to get rid of the surface oscillations and allow the fisherman to see the bottom. The Greeks exhibit sometimes extraordinary dexterity in getting sponges from a depth of 60 feet with short harpoons ; they hold in their hands three or four harpoons, which they throw with such extraordinary rapidity and precision, that scarcely has one harpoon disappeared be- neath the water, when the second strikes its upper end and adds to the force of the propulsion ; the third is in 192 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the same way struck into the second, and so on. Neither the Arabs nor the Sicilians avail themselves of either of the above methods of using the harpoon or of the wave tube. The sponge fishery is considered to be capable of great development, and the danger of exhausting the supply is not great, as a new sponge is said to take the place of one removed within twelve months. The following table shows the imports of Turkey and Mediterranean sponges into the United Kingdom for a series of years : 1851 ... Ibs. ... 189,828 ... Value. 1852 ... ... 160,621 ... 1853 - ... 205,924 ... 1854 - ... 224,787 ... ... ^70,246 1855 -. ... 339,985 - ... 140,164 1856 ... ... 313,287 ... ... 172,308 1857 -. ... 318,676 ... 164,650 1858 ... ... 287,681 ... - 157,75! 1859 .- ... 345,818 ... .., 2l8,l6l 1860 ... ... 411,111 ... ... 270,410 1861 ... ... 340,506 ... ... 108,782 1862 ... ... 348,924 ... ... 74,833 1863 ... ... 377,iu ..- ... 69,074 1864 ... ... 431,906 ... ... 53,168 1866 ... ... 321,199 .- ... 41,477 1867 ... ... 320,032 ... . 31,415 1868 ... ... 356,131 - ... 61,817 1869 ... ... 660,685 ... .- 85,751 1870 ... ... 453>8i9 .- ... 113,384 The imports have not been officially recorded since. The supplies are received principally through the four channels of France, Greece, Turkey proper, Italy, and sometimes from Malta and Egypt. The sponges shipped are of three qualities fine, common, and coarse. In the fine qualities there is but one in ten of the first or superior quality ; the rest are of a second or Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 193 inferior fine quality. Of the common sponges there is one in four of a first quality ; the rest are of a second or common quality. Of the coarse, one-half are of a first quality, and the other half of a second quality. Thus, it will be seen that the fine, common, and coarse kinds of sponges may be divided into two qualities each. The total imports of sponge into Great Britain in 1840 were 78,500 Ibs. ; in 1841, 58,931 Ibs. ; in 1855, 471,871 Ibs. The quantity and value of the imports of sponge into the United Kingdom since have been as follows : Quantity. Computed value. Ibs. 1862 544,882 ;lOO,204 1863 474>748 77,907 1864 540.I72 60,278 1865 694,128 103,780 1866 895,369 96,768 1867 ... ... 980,259 ... ... 86,201 1868 997,447 "9,917 1869 ... ... 1,221,673 ^6,965 1870 837,159 160,162 No return published since. The following is the French classification of commer- cial sponges : Fine soft Syrian. , , Archipelago. Fine hard, of Syria, known as Chimousse. Yellow sponge of Syria, known as fine venise. ,, of the Archipelago, known as common venise. Hen sponge of Barbary. Brown sponge of Barbary, called Marseilles. Salonica sponge. Lastly, the Bahamas and American sponges, which are divided into fine and common. Their tissue is loose, without elasticity, and hence they are easily torn. They sell at a low price. In the ten years ending 1860, the sale of sponge in o 194 The Commercial Products of the Sea. France was 2,000,000 kilogrammes, of the value of 10,600,000 francs (424,000). The consumption is there- fore about 150,000 kilogrammes per annum. There was imported into France in 1875 246,666 kilogrammes of FIG. 9. Silicious sponges. I. Euplectella aspergttlum ; 2. Holtenia carpenteiia. sponge, of which 93,324 kilogrammes were re-exported. In 1876 the imports reached 257,878 kilogrammes, and the exports were 89,600 kilogrammes. Silicious Sponges. Sponges are not confined to recent Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 195 seas, though the commercial ones are not known to have existed earlier, because the keratose matter furnishes hardly favourable conditions for petrifaction. In the oolite and chalk formations, sponges containing flinty spicules were very abundant ; and in most of the earlier formations, large sponges containing calcareous spicules abounded. These very closely resemble corals, and have been mistaken for them by some of our best geologists. The spiculae or needle-shaped particles, which are often microscopic in size, are not thrown in without order, but are arranged to support the skeleton. The horny sponges do not secrete or deposit spicules, but these are sometimes found within the skeleton in broken and disordered form, which show they were taken in from without. The quantity of silica which constitutes the structure of sponges is remarkable. It generally occurs in the form of spiculae in considerable quantities, imbedded in the sub- stance or body of the sponge. One of the rarest and most beautiful of the silicious sponges is the Euplectella speciosa, found at the Philippine Islands. It is of cornucopia shape, and has a horny, skeleton-like network, composed of large silicious fibres running from the base to the head, sur- rounded by small fibres forming square, open meshes, resembling a net or basket work. It ranges in height from 6 to over 15 inches. At the lower extremity, or root, it averages about an inch in thickness, but its size gradually increases as it approaches the top, where often it is two inches wide. It is surmounted by a ridge about a quarter of an inch wide, and is closed at the larger extremity by a delicate open lacework of fibres, possessing no particular pattern. It is on this light and pretty structure that the fibrous, gelatinous substance rests, resembling in texture the common sponge, but in this instance disposed in an 196 The Commercial Products of the Sea. FIG. 10. Euplectella speciosa. irregular, foliated pattern, over which the usual film of the sponge is laid during life.* * Bryce M. Wright in "The American Naturalist." Sponge Fisheries of the Mediterranean. 197 At one time this sponge was so rare that specimens fetched enormous prices; now, by the progress of com- merce, it has become more common, and specimens of great beauty may be had for a few shillings. ESSEX TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE. COUNTY OFr.3-3, CHLLi 13FORD. 198 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER V. OILS FROM MARINE MAMMALS. The seal fishery Seal oil Yield of oil from blubber Seal-skins The fur seal The walrus The whale fishery Imports of train oil or blubber, spermaceti, and whalebone Porpoise oil Dugong oil. Oils from the Mammals. One of the articles contributed by marine animals to the wants of industry is oil; which is largely obtained both from mammals and fishes. The aggregate value of the trade in these in the United King- dom alone exceeds ; 1,000,000 sterling a year. Some of these oleaginous substances are employed as food by man, some in manufactures, and others in medicine. Oil for commercial purposes is obtained in greater or less quantities from numerous inhabitants of the seas from the marine mammals, the right and spermaceti whale, the seal, sea-elephant, dugong, porpoise, etc. ; from the shark, sunfish, cod, herring, and numerous small fish, which are especially sought for the oil they yield. The great trade in animal oils and fatty substances indicates the care with which oily matters, rich in carbon and hydrogen, are sought in all countries, supplying as they do a great number of wants in countries the most civilized, as well as among people still in their primitive state. We know that fish oils are beneficial in consumptive cases, as Oils from Marine Mammals. 199 with cod-liver oil and that obtained from the dugong ; but they might be often used with advantage for inunction, where they are not easily retained on the stomach. Dr. T. Thompson has pointed out the medicinal value of various animal oils besides cod-liver oil, such as sperm and seal oil ; and the result of his observations was a con- viction that fish oils generally resembled one another in their remedial properties, although differing in their aptitude for digestive assimilation in the human stomach. He tried neat's-foot oil, an animal oil obtained from a soft, solid fat found between the parchment and the leather skin of animals ; also shark-liver oil, and an oil obtained from a species of fish abounding on the Malabar coast ; and these trials were frequently attended with encouraging results. The practice of daily inunction is common in many warm countries, and serves to soften the skin and keep the body in health. In tropical regions, vegetable oils are chiefly used ; but the New Zealanders and some others use shark oil. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders imbibe large quantities of train, seal, and various fish oils ; whilst the natives about the large rivers and coasts of Brazil use turtle oil, and fat obtained from the alligator and crocodile. The natives of many parts of India use shark oil and that from the liver of the sword-fish in anointing their skin. Those who are employed in the woollen trade, and in soap, candle, and other factories, where oil and fats are largely used, enjoy a comparative immunity from scrofula and phthisis. Sailors believe a whaling voyage to be a cure for consumption ; and probably the quantity of oil drunk and taken into the skin may have its beneficial effect upon the system. The Seal Fishery. After the cod fishery, the seal fishery is the most profitable branch of trade in New- 2OO The Commercial Products of the Sea. foundland. More than 350 vessels are engaged in it. The seals whelp their young in January and February on the ice field of Labrador ; this ice is floated southwards by the ocean currents, and is always to be found on the coast of Newfoundland after the middle of March. The take of seals varies ; in some years the export of skins being under 200,000, in others exceeding 450,000. The value of the seal oil shipped ranges from ; 160,000 to ^"200,000. The yield of oil is about 1 1 gallons from one cwt. of blubber. FIG. n. Phoca Groenlandica. Seal oil and cod oil are now two of the most important, whale oil having much declined in quantity, owing to the fishery being less earnestly prosecuted ; but there are very many fish oils, extracted in different quarters, which have a local and general use, such as shark oil, herring oil, men- haden oil, etc. Seal Oil. There are three classifications of seal oil : that which drains spontaneously by the pressure of the layers of the skins one over the other ; that which is pre- pared by submitting the fat to the action of steam in hermetically closed boilers ; and that which is obtained from the residual mass, submitted to a high pressure. Oils from Marine Mammals. 201 At St. John's, Newfoundland, the head-quarters of the sealing trade, the blubber used to be generally put into wooden cribs, beneath which were wooden pans to catch the oil. No artificial heat was used in this process. The oil which runs for the first two or three months is termed pale seal oil, and forms 50 to 70 per cent, of the whole quantity. As putrefaction takes place, the oil becomes darker and more offensive. The putrescent refuse and the clippings of the pelts, or skins, yield further quantities of oil by boiling (boiled seal oil). This process is now very generally re- placed by steam apparatus. A uniform and much better quality of oil is thus obtained, free from the horrible odour of that prepared by the old method, and the time required for rendering out the oil is only twelve hours, instead of six months. A few drops of nitric ether is said to destroy the disagreeable smell of rancid oil, and to prevent oil be- coming rancid. When the oil is heated to separate the alcohol, it becomes clear and bright, even when it was before turbid. In Russia a quantity of seal oil is obtained annually in the White and Caspian Seas. The mode of preparation is very simple. After removing the layer of blubber which adheres to the skin, it is exposed in casks or vats to the heat of the sun, which dissolves out the oil of first quality. The residue is heated in cauldrons with a little water. In one or two factories the preparation of the oil on a large scale is carried on by steam. The seals killed in autumn and winter have the oil rendered out forthwith, without the necessity of first salting the skins ; but in the hot seasons this step is necessary, and a great pit is prepared, capable of holding 50,000 skins. Repeated and careful experiments in rendering out seal blubber show the relative produce of pure oil obtained from 2O2 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the different species to be as follows for one barrel of blubber, from seals in prime condition : Barrels of fat. Oil. Residue. Old harp (Phoca Groenlandica) Young harp Young hood (Stemmatopus cristatus) ... Beadlemer (a year-old hood) Ibs. 288 225 2 3 246 Galls. 22k 22 21 21* Ibs. 73 103 In 1850 the export of seal oil from Newfoundland was 6200 tuns, valued at 180,000; in 1860 it was 5565 tuns, valued at 169,975 ; in 1870 it was 4982 tuns, valued at 176,472 ; and in 1875, 4837 tuns, valued at 132,116. The total value of the oil shipped from Newfoundland has been as below : Cod oil 1870. refined Seal oil 21,068 176,472 305,353 1875- 101,420 3,842 132,116 237,378 Thirty small sloops and steam vessels were employed on the bank and Spitzbergen fisheries in 1873 ; the catch resulted in 130,000 seals, 350 sea-horses or walruses, and 6363 barrels of liver, estimated together at a value of 99.669. Seal-skins. The seal fishery is chiefly prosecuted from Newfoundland. It commences in March, and rarely lasts longer than one or two months. There are from 150 to 200 decked vessels employed in it. These will take pro- bably 2000 each, but as many as 8000 have been taken on a single trip, and often two or three voyages are made in one season. The quantity of seal-skins received in this country varies ; it has been as low as 160,000, and as high as Oils from Marine Mammals. 203 876,000. In the last quarter of a century the total number received has been nearly 23,000,000, thus summarized in periods of nine years ending 1848 1857 1866 1875 4,884,775 6,429,820 4,763,132 6,744,447 22,822,174 FIG. 12. Phoca oceanica. The fur seal-skin of commerce is obtained from different animals to those of the hair seals. One association, the Alaska Company, contributes 100,000 of these skins a year, having a monopoly by a contract with the American Government. 204 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Having fully described and figured the marine mam- malia of any commercial value in another work,* I would refer those desirous of further details to it. The walrus (Trichecus rosmarus) furnishes some eco- nomic products, in its flesh, its skin, its teeth, and the oil obtained from the blubber. The inhabitants of the Arctic regions esteem its flesh. The hide, when cut into shreds and plaited into cordage, forms lines used in cap- FIG. 13. Walrus. turing the whale. It has also been successfully used for belting and for covering skin-boats. The quantity of walrus tusks obtained in Alaska averages 100,000 Ibs. in weight. The teeth, which weigh about four pounds the pair, used to be in great demand by dentists. Among the Chinese this dentine is employed for those various uses to which they turn ivory so skilfully. Walrus oil is a well- known article of commerce. The Whale Fishery. Narratives and accounts have so frequently and graphically been written, that it is not * "Animal Products: their Preparation, Commercial Uses, and Value." Chapman and Hall, 1877. Oils from Marine Mammals. 205 necessary to enter into any lengthened detail here of the prosecution of this fishery, which has largely declined, having been much abandoned, as compared with former years, both by the English and Americans. The French have given it up altogether. A quarter of a century ago, 730 ships, registering 233,189 tons, were employed in the American whale fishery ; now there are less than 170 vessels, registering 40,000 tons, employed in whaling. The extensive use of gas, as well as the employment of mineral and vegetable oils, for illuminating purposes, has in a great degree superseded the demand for whale oil that existed half a century ago. Our annual average im- ports of train oil, it will be seen, keep pretty steady. IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. Train oil or blubber. Spermaceti or head matter. Tuns. Value. Tuns. Value. 1867 11,901 ;478,723 3226 ;373,367 1868 II,2O3 415,400 1945 185,960 1869 10,146 399,53^ 4107 387,171 1870 14,721 549,213 4069 341,340 1871 19,291 636, 706 5388 451,028 1872 I5>4 522,056 3715 333,534 1873 15,069 5 i 4, 493 2817 252,434 1874 13,896 454,729 3155 296,630 1875' 14,890 489,817 4469 427,884 1875 13,466 445,262 3218 230,359 The blubber on a fat whale is sometimes, in its thickest parts, from 15 to 20 inches thick, though usually not more than a foot ; it is of a coarse texture, and much harder than pork. So very full of oil is it, that a cask closely packed with the clean raw fat of the whale will not contain the oil boiled from it and the scraps that are left besides. 206 The Commercial Prod^lcts of the Sea. Whalebone, as it is erroneously termed, is another valuable product of this fishery. FIG. 14. i. Greenland or right whale ; 2. Spermaceti whale. The whale-fins imported into the United Kingdom in the last ten years have been as follows : 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 Cwts. 2740 3800 1680 4260 2853 2831 3544 2911 1871 1799 Value. 5I,286 67,876 34,958 79,482 45^78 51,558 64,618 54,920 42,240 47,144 A flourishing establishment has grown up in the vicinity of the small town of Vadso, at the entrance of the Waranger Fiord, Norway, under the auspices of a Mr. Foyn, Oils from Marine Mammals. 207 of Tonsberg, the patentee of an improved kind of harpoon employed in the whale fishery. It consists of a harpoon with two movable barbs like the claws of an anchor, one on each side. The harpoon is projected from a swivel gun fixed on the bows of the vessel. The claws or barbs lie flat against the stem while in the gun, and during its pro- gress through the air and entrance into the body of the fish ; but no sooner is the line attached to the harpoon hauled upon, or the fish takes a start, than the claws or barbs expand and become fixed at an angle of 45 on each side, which effectually precludes the possibility of the har- poon being withdrawn from the body of the fish. In addition to this, a capsule containing an explosive sub- stance is concealed in the harpoon, which by another ingenious contrivance explodes, causing instant death. The animal is then towed by the steamer to the factory, where the usual flenching process commences ; and as soon as completed, the residue of the huge animal is con- verted into artificial manure (guano), by which the whole carcase becomes utilized. Mr. Foyn employs two small steamers, and in 1873 caught 38 whales. From the effective means employed, it appears that he never loses a whale after the harpoon has once entered the carcase, the struggle seldom lasting above a few minutes after the fish is struck before death ensues. The factory is situated at the entrance to the Waranger Fiord, where the process of utilization commences. This species differs from the Greenland whale (Balcenopterd), and when full grown exceeds it in size, as they have been caught 100 feet in length, and the young when cast have been known to reach 20 feet. In 1874 Mr. Foyn is reported to have caught 50 whales, which were estimated to be worth from 150 sterling each. 208 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Porpoise Oil. A fishery for the porpoise (Delphinus phoccend) is carried on off the coasts of Trebizond ; it is FIG. 15. Black porpoise (Phoccena vulgaris). taken in nets, and also shot. This fishery yields upwards of 700,000 Ibs. of oil per annum, a portion of which is con- sumed by the lower classes for lighting, and the rest finds a market in Constantinople. Porpoises are also caught in large numbers in the Little Belt, Denmark, where 1500 to 2000 are frequently obtained. The extraction of the oil of the white whale (Beluga FIG. 16. Grampus (Phoccena area). catodon) and of the black porpoise constitutes an important industry in the district of Quebec, on the St. Lawrence Oils from Marine Mammals. 209 river. This oil is inodorous, and gives a brilliant light. It is said to be superior to any other for lighthouses, because it does not coagulate even in the most intense cold, and its durability renders it invaluable for greasing leather and oiling machinery, which it preserves from injury by friction. In 1874 fish oil to the value of 86,600 was exported from Canada. Dugong Oil. An animal oil, having medicinal pro- perties, was a few years ago added to the list of commercial products. It is obtained from the blubber of the dugong of Australia (Halicore Aus traits), a native of the shores of Queensland and the north-west coast of Australia. It was recommended as a new therapeutic agent, and as a substi- tute for cod-liver oil. The distinction between them is that the dugong oil contains no iodine ; it is said, however, to possess all the advantages of the cod-liver oil without its unpleasant smell. No large supply of this oil could, how- ever, be obtained, and from having arrived frequently much adulterated it lost any reputation it may have merited. The best known of this family is the Manattis Ameri- canus, Cuv., which frequents the mouths of rivers, and quiet, secluded bays and inlets, in the islands of the West Indies and the coasts of Guinea and Brazil. It is said to attain nearly 20 feet in length, and differs from the dugong in having no canines or incisors. An old author, Dr. R. Brookes, in his "Natural History," speaking of it says, " The fat which lies between the cuticle and the skin, when exposed to the sun, has a fine smell and taste, and far exceeds the fat of any sea animal. It has this peculiar property, that the heat of the sun will not spoil it, nor make it grow rancid. The taste is like the oil of sweet almonds, and it will serve very well in all cases instead of butter. Any quantity may be taken, inwardly with safety, 2io The Commercial Products of the Sea. for it has no other effect than keeping the body open. The fat of the tail is of a harder consistence, and when boiled is more delicate than the other." The flesh of the manatus is highly esteemed as food in all countries the shores of which it frequents. It is particularly abundant in the FIG. 17. I. Halicore Austrahs ; 2. Manatus Americanus. lakes of the Amazon. Wallace, in his Travels up that river, describes it. " Beneath the skin," he says, " is a layer of fat of a greater or less thickness, generally about an inch, which is boiled down to make an oil used for lighting and cooking. Each animal yields from 5 to 25 gallons of oil." Oils from Marine Mammals. 2 1 1 Edwards, in his "Voyage up the River Amazon," speaks of them, and says, not imfrequently they are taken eight feet in length. This is said to be a distinct species from the Manatus of the Gulf of Mexico. 212 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER VI. FISH OILS AND THE FISHERIES CONNECTED THEREWITH. Definition of fish oil Cod oil Cod-liver oil Exports from Newfoundland Mode of preparation Exports from Norway From Iceland Fish oils in Russia Indian fish oils Fishes from which obtained Tunny oil Herring oil Oolachan oil Menhaden oil Mode of preparation and statistics. THE term fish oil is a very vague one, from its being generally applied to oil of all kinds, obtained both from marine mammals and fishes. Train oil from the whale is frequently so termed. Shark oil, and the oil expressed or obtained by heat from various kinds of fish, large and small, is very much mixed as sent into commerce, and it is scarcely possible, unless from a few special districts and large factories, to know what is the true source of the fish oil purchased. There are some few large fisheries, such as the cod, herring, pilchard, sardine, menhaden, etc., where attention is given to the preparation of the oil. Cod Oil. The oil obtained from the cod forms a con- siderable item in the fishing business. About one hogs- head of oil is produced from every five tons of fish. The quantity of oil extracted from cod livers in Newfoundland is about 1,250,000 gallons, valued at 200,000. Nearly all Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 2 1 3 J is sent to England, as the American import duty is so high- The value of the crude cod oil shipped from Newfound- land amounts to about 110,000, and of the refined cod oil from 10,000 to 15,000. The export of cod oil from the French Newfoundland fisheries in the five years ending 1871 averaged 560,000 kilogrammes. In 1876, 2,819,000 kilogrammes of fish oil were imported into Havre. The medicinal qualities of cod-liver oil have long been fully proved, and its manufacture has been a great source of wealth to the fishing colony of Newfoundland. Like all good things, however, it is easily imitated. The common cod oil, made by the putrifying process, has often been refined by animal charcoal, filtered so as to deprive it of all bad smell (the iodine and all other medicinal qualities having passed away by putrefaction in the manufacture), and it is then palmed off by dishonest dealers as the genuine article. The cod livers reserved for the preparation of medicinal oil are all very carefully examined, and those that are poor, have sustained injury, or have portions of gall adhering, are removed. The selected livers are then thoroughly washed and afterwards dried. The fishermen many of whom make the oil themselves, or sell to larger makers put these pre- pared livers immediately into open barrels, where the oil slowly exudes, and, rising to the top, is removed with large spoons. It is, when quite cold, filtered three or four times through bibulous paper, and the preparation is complete. Nothing more remains but to pour it into tin cans or oak barrels, and it is ready for market. The oil is of a straw yellow, with scarcely any smell or taste, and is known as natural medicinal oil. In the mean time other fishermen, having carefully sorted, washed, and dried the livers, place them in a pot 214 The Commercial Products of the Sea. of tinned sheet iron. This tinned pot is then put into a larger iron pot, half full of water, which on becoming heated causes the livers immediately to begin to give out their oil. Some makers introduce steam from a boiler between the two pots, and others let the steam out directly on the livers. The first yield by these methods of regu- lated heat is removed by spoons, filtered when cold, and reserved for medicinal use under the names of " steam- boiled medicinal " and " ordinary bright." The after yield is used in medicine, though somewhat redder; it is called " bright brown." Finally, those portions of liver that will not dissolve by themselves or by a mild heat are roughly boiled down to yield "dark brown," or tanner's oil, the black residuum being used with other fish refuse for manure. There is a great difference between one year and another in the quantity of oil the cod's liver yields. One year it may require 600 livers to make a barrel of oil ; in others, 200 are sufficient. In 1840 42,737 barrels of cod and shark oil were sent away from Norway. In 1848 1,296,572 gallons of cod oil were shipped, against only 65,600 in 1846. From the coast of Norway the average export of fish oil from 1851 to 1855 was 52,900 tuns, and from 1856 to 1860, 59,617 tuns per annum ; from 1861 to 1866, 7,750,000 litres per annum. In 1877 130,600 barrels of cod-liver oil were shipped, valued at ^3 86,600. The catch of each boat yields from 8 to 20 barrels of liver. Fresh livers, for medicinal oil, fetch from 27^. to 31^. per barrel; old livers, from 22^. to 26^. At the early part of the season the fish are rich in liver, so that from 250 to 300 of the net-caught fish yield a barrel of liver, while 50 to 100 more fish taken on lines would be required. As the season Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 215 advances the fish become perceptibly poorer, and it will take 400 to 450 to fill a barrel, while on the sea-board or western side of the Lofoden Islands from 600 to 700 livers are requisite. In Sweden the residue from fish which have been salted are placed in large boilers, with waste herrings and others, a small quantity of water, and boiled or frequently steamed till the mass is dissolved ; cold water is then intro- duced, and the oil floats at the top. This is skimmed off, clarified, and put into casks. It is of a brown colour, good for burning and other uses, but is said to be too fluid for the leather workers. The export of fish oils from Iceland (principally from the shark) amounted in 1867 to 4,186,560 Ibs. An ordinary year's export, however, may be put down at about 2,700,000 Ibs. One of the most important secondary products of the fisheries in Russia is the oil obtained, of which the quantity annually extracted represents a value exceeding .71,500. This is either employed for medicinal use, for food, or for technical purposes. The medicinal oil is obtained from the liver of the cod, which is cut up when it is quite fresh, and subjected to the action of steam heat. The oil used for food is obtained from the fat surrounding the intestines of the sturgeon and the sandre (Leucoperca sandre}. It is washed, and in its fresh state melted in steam boilers. The oil or fat is chiefly used to add to the barrels of caviare, when the fish spawn is itself not suffi- ciently fat. At the seat of production fish oil is also largely used instead of vegetable oils. The common fish oil employed for technical uses in soap factories, tanneries, for lighting workshops, etc., is generally obtained by putrefaction, which decomposes the 2 1 6 The Commercial Products of the Sea. membranes by which the fish fat is surrounded, and facili- tates its flow. The quantity of this oil made amounts to more than 100,000 pouds of 36 Ibs. The oil used to be extracted not only from different parts of fish, but large quantities of small fish were also rendered down for their oil, especially the herrings of Astrakhan and many small species of Cyprinoides. The Government have of late years, however, put a stop to this practice of using small fry for the purpose, although the extraction of herring oil is permitted, because such enormous shoals of these can be obtained that it is impossible to salt them rapidly enough when they are fresh, hence the policy of turning them into oil. Not only are the livers of the codfish now used to extract oil from, but those of a number of other fish are sought for the purpose. Thus, the livers of the ray, the shark, and other Squalus are used in Iceland and Norway to extract an oil used for lighting and employed by curriers. In British Guiana an oil is obtained from the liver of the saw-fish (Pristis pectinatus\ which is used for lighting, and by the immigrants from India for anointing their bodies. A liver will yield from 1 5 to 20 gallons of oil. In Cambodia a fish called tussoc yields an oil remarkable for the proportion of stearine it contains. The quantity of fish oil obtained in India has much declined of late years. From Bombay, Sind, and Madras, in 1865, more than 3,750,000 Ibs. were shipped. In Madras a good deal is still made. The Indian fish oils are mainly of two descriptions medicinal and common. The natives prepare fish oils from the livers of sharks, skates, saw-fishes, rays, .cat-fishes, oil sardines, and other kinds. The cat-fish livers have the most oil about Janu- ary, just before they are breeding. When the livers of Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 2 \ 7 these fish alone are employed, they are heated up to 130 in water, having about one and a half inches in depth over them. After 15 or 20 minutes, on being stirred, the froth rises, and the oil is skimmed off into large vessels, in which state it is sold as fish oil. There is no washing of the livers fresh or semi-putrid, bloody or clean, they all are put in the pot, and the oil undergoes no straining. A large quantity of oil is also procured in India from sardines, and especially from the " louar " (Clupea Neohowii}, which is obtained from August to November, and then treated with boiling water to separate the oil which floats. Oil is also obtained from the livers of seve- ral Siluroids, but it is only during January and February that the organs are rich enough in fatty matter to be remunerative. The oil sardine seems to form the basis of all the oil obtained in India, for if not prepared from it, a great amount is from the sharks and other fish who live upon them. But the oil sardine is very capricious as to its arrival and departure. In 1864 the enormous quantity of 148,206 cwts. of fish oil was shipped from the port of Cochin. In 1865 still larger exports were made. During the next five years scarcely anything was done in the trade; but in 1871 the shoals of fish reappeared as abundantly as ever, and with these shoals the sharks returned. When the sardine fish first arrive they are lean, but by October, and some- times before, they become fat, and are well adapted for ex- tracting oil from. They are captured either by long float- nets, attached at either end to a boat, and by making a circuit the shoal is surrounded ; or else several canoes put off together, and pull to a shoal of these fish, which they take by cast-nets. A boat-load of sardines is computed to hold 14,000. 2 T 8 The Commercial Products of the Sea. If Clupea lemuru, Bleeker, is the oil sardine, this fish would appear to be found in the Malay Archipelago. At Rangoon the average quantity of fish oil obtainable is over 77 tons per month ; but from November to May much larger quantities are procurable, it being only made at those times. It is used for lamps, and even for curries and frying fish ; and is obtained by boiling the intestines of some fish, the heads of others, and even whole fish, in an iron vessel with water in it, and the fatty substance as it floats is skimmed off into another pan, and boiled till the oil floats. It is said to be chiefly extracted from the Anabas scandens, Barbus chola, Clupea palasak, and the intestines of the Ophiocephalus striatus. Tunny oil is extracted at Tunis from the head, back- bones, and refuse of the fish, which are placed in a large cauldron capable of holding 800 heads and 400 skeletons, and allowed to boil for 24 hours. The value of the tunny oil exported from Tunis in 1871 was ;i6oo. Herring Oil. For 1 5 years or more, herrings have been chiefly converted into oil in Russia, as there exists a preju- dice against eating them, under the belief that they are rabid, from the habit they have of turning round and round when they are spawning. About 100,000,000 of these fish are sacrificed annually for oil making. During the three or four weeks that the influx of fish continues, 100,000 to 250,000 pouds (of 36 Ibs.) of herring oil are made on the Volga, according as the fishery is abundant and the fish more or less fat. The manufacture is carried on in this manner. The herrings are placed in open casks, containing about 1000, and boiling water poured over the mass. Several days elapse before the fish enter into putrid fermentation, under the action of the air, the heat, and the hot water, and the oil separates. The whole is trans- Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 219 formed into a half-liquid, reddish paste, of a disgusting odour. But when once this putrid fermentation has com- menced a day suffices. The oil is then collected from the surface, and the mass thrown away. In Japan oil is extracted from the herrings which are caught on the coast of Yesso and the north of Nipon. The fisheries afford employment to thousands of the inhabitants, and are a source of immense profit to the Japanese, who farm them from the various daimios who are charged by the Japanese Government to protect this island. The prices vary from 48^. to 56^. the picul (130 Ibs.) In Kanagawa this fish oil is only about half that price. The principal market for fish oil is Hakodate. The oolachan or houlican (Thaleichthys pacificus) a fish somewhat larger than the sprat, very delicate, and of exquisite flavour is found in abundance in the waters of British Columbia. It has been suggested that these fish might be cured in their own oil, or marinated after the manner of pilchards. They are so full of oil that it is said those caught in the north will burn like a candle, They enter the river in millions in the month of April, and their presence is at once made known by the seagulls, which wheel about the shoals, and dart among them for their prey, startling the usually still Fraser with their shrill cries. Their run lasts about three weeks, during which time they may be caught in countless myriads. Eaten fresh, they are most delicious,, and are also excellent packed in salt or in a smoked form. The fish are caught with a pole about 10 feet in length, along which are arranged for five feet at the end nails like the teeth of a comb, only about an inch and a half apart. The comb is thrust smartly into the water, brought up with a back- ward sweep of the hand, and is rarely found without three 22O The Commercial Products of the Sea. or four fish impaled on the nails. Frequently a canoe is filled with them in less than two hours by a couple of hands. By warming over a slow fire, or by heating in water, an oil is abundantly obtained, which is used for the same purposes as cod-liver oil, and with as much, if not greater, benefit. The oil when cold is of the consistence of thick cream, white in colour, with but little odour, and by no means unpleasant to the taste in fact, those who use it very quickly acquire a partiality for it. The Indians make large quantities every season, and with them it supplies the place of butter. They cannot live without it, and it forms a great article of trade. When properly filtered, a fine pellucid oil, of a delicate, pale yellow colour, is obtained. Some of the northern natives allow the fish to become half putrid, and then express the oil by pressure upon boards. There is no doubt but that this oil might become of great economic value. It has been given medicinally, and will probably be found useful where cod-liver oil or other hydro-carbonaceous food is indicated. Menhaden Oil. A fishery eagerly prosecuted for the oil obtained from the fish is the menhaden, on the Atlantic coast of the American States. Of the natural history of the fish not much is accurately known, but it is stated to be the Brevoordia menhaden (the Alosa menhaden, Mitchell), and belongs to the herring family, differing from it in having a deep notch in the centre of the upper jaw. The fish is from 8 to 14 inches in length. It frequents the Atlantic seacoast, from Maine southward, but has not been noticed south of Cape Hatteras. It is sometimes sold in the markets as a table fish, but is usually considered too oily for food. Among the fishermen, however, it is esteemed a fine-flavoured fish. This is the source of the Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 221 American fish oil Whale oil formerly sometimes bore the name, but has long ceased to do so ; and oils obtained from other fish have their own specific designation. The manufacture of oil from porgies or menhaden is an important industry in some of the American Atlantic States. The value of this fishery to the State of Maine is estimated at .300,000. Forty steamers, 350 sailing vessels, and 500 boats, with an aggregate of 3500 men, are employed in this fishery, of which the coast of Maine is the largest and most profitable field, yielding more oil to the number of fish caught. Hence this interest is becoming a local one, and the number of factories is constantly increasing. At Portland nearly all the factories are located in Lincoln County. About 500 hands are employed, and the return of produce is to the value of ;ioo,ooo. In the prosecution of the business there, a numerous fleet of small vessels and steamers are engaged, giving employment on the water and land to probably not less than 1000 men. The menhaden fish emerge from the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, and strike the coast of New Jersey in the month of April, reach the coast of Maine by May or June, and remain till October, when they return south. The fishery is carried on by the very smartest of yachts, not fancifully rigged or equipped, but the fastest sailers that can be built or bought. Some of the best boats in the yacht clubs find their way into this service. In size these vessels rarely exceed 20 or 30 tons ; say, 18 feet beam and 50 feet over all. Built to stand the heavy gales on the coast, and well provided with light and heavy sails, they are able to cruise in weather that sends fancy boats into the harbours. The fishing yachts are manned with from eight to ten men each. To make the outfit complete, two sloops, called carry-ways, are attached to each yacht. These are 222 The Commercial Products of the Sea. smaller than the latter. Each of these will hold 70,000 menhaden (16 or 17 tons). They are employed in taking the fish ashore after they are caught. The seines are made of strong cotton twine, and are 130 fathoms (780 feet) long, and from 80 to 100 feet deep. At the eastern end of Long Island, where the fishing is in deep water, the depth is even greater. Along the bottom of the seines run lines, arranged so that they can be drawn up like an old- fashioned purse whence the name " purse-seines." The top of the seine is attached to buoys of cork or wood, and these, when the whole is thrown into the water, hold the upper edge at the surface, while the remainder hangs vertically beneath it. The seine is loaded into two boats, which also form a part of the outfit of the yacht, and are always with her when not engaged in taking fish. Thus furnished, the yachts start on a cruise in search of the fish, which go in immense schools. When a school is met with, it is necessary to drop the seine in front of them ; otherwise no fish would be taken, as they would swim away in front before the seine could be closed around them. The boats get ahead of the school, and pay out the seine as they separate. When the school is fairly in the seine, the boats come together and completely surround the fish. At the point where the boats first started, a heavy weight, called a "torn," is attached to the bottom of the seine, and to this weight, which rests upon the bottom, are fastened the lines which " purse " up the bottom, and prevent the fish from escaping below. When the bottom is drawn to- gether, the men haul the seine into the boats and shake the fish down into the " bunt/' as the bag or purse formed by the seine is called. They then signal for the carry-ways, which come alongside. The fish are taken out of the seine into the carry-ways by means of dip-nets. If the school is Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 223 a large one, and most of the fish have been taken, the carry-ways are despatched at once to the factory on shore. If not quite loaded, they are generally retained until another school is taken, when they are sent off. When they reach the factory, they run alongside of the dock, and the fish are hoisted out into a car. When this is full, it is hauled by steam up the track leading from the dock to the cooking-vats and thrown into them. When a vat is full of fish, water from elevated tanks is let on until the fish are covered. Then steam is introduced and the whole is boiled. To properly cook a tankful of fish takes from 20 to 40 minutes, according to circumstances. In some factories the cooking is very short ; in others, it is preferred to take a longer time, so that the fish shall be equally cooked throughout the mass. At the conclusion of this process part of the oil has been boiled out, but by far the greater portion still remains in the fish ; and this must be removed by means of the hydraulic press. With one of these machines from 200,000 to 300,000 fish can be pressed in 10 hours. Two curbs are used with these presses, so that there is no delay in the work. As soon as the oil has ceased to run from the curb, the press is lowered, and the curb, containing the mass of scrap, is rolled away over small turn-tables and out on the track to the scrap-houses, where the two handles holding up the bottom are released, and the whole mass is thrown out. While this is going on another curb has been put in the press. The curb then comes back to the vats for a new load. In this way the work goes on until all the vats are emptied. The oil and water as it comes from the press runs down to the separating-tank. In this tank there is a partition from top to bottom. The oil flows across this in two openings, cut in the top, while the water passes under 224 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the bottom. Here men stand and skim off the oil, while the water is allowed to run away. In some establish- ments the separating-tank is so arranged that the oil can flow into the oil-tanks without having to be dipped out. This of course, saves much labour. The oil is now stored in the tanks. When a better grade of oil is desired, it is bleached by exposing it in a shallow " sun-tank " to the action of the sun. If a still finer quality is required, another kind of tank is used, having a frame for the reception of a sash, so that all dust and dirt is excluded, and the oil is bleached without waste. In the bottom of the vats, in the separating-tanks, and else- where, a great mass of sediment collects, consisting of a fine refuse, mixed with some oil. This is put into the "gurry-tank," steam is turned on, and it is thoroughly cooked till the oil rises to the surface ; the " gurry " that remains is then put up in barrels and sold to the soap- makers, who use it for making " fish-oil soap." These fish yield a large quantity of oil, the highest per- centage being about four and a half gallons per barrel of fish in the month of September. A thousand fish will yield on the average 13 to 14 gallons of oil, though this depends largely upon the season, and the good or bad con- dition of the fish. The uses to which the oil is put are very numerous. It is said to be good for table purposes, and, when properly prepared, the best kind is extensively used under the name of olive oil. As a vehicle for paint, it has a good body, and does not readily abandon the paint which may be mixed with it. It is quite rare to find such paint rubbing off in the shape of powder. Much of the linseed oil in the market has a large amount of menhaden oil mixed with it. This is no disadvantage to the painter's work, but a serious Fish Oils and the Fisheries connected therewith. 225 detriment to his pocket. Fish oil cannot, however, be used for lubrication. Its body and the rapidity with which it absorbs oxygen and "gums" entirely precludes its applica- tion to machinery. The literal and metaphorical bad odour formerly attached to fish oil is passing away. It has been found that by cooking the fish while they are fresh a perfectly sweet oil can be obtained. The vile smell of former (and to some extent of latter) days resulted from the treatment of stale or decaying fish. The common kind of oil is extensively used by curriers and in other trades, and the flesh and bones, after the oil is extracted, form a manure which is in great demand for the cotton fields of the south. The amount of capital invested in this business is very large. In 1873 it was ascertained that 500,000 was in- vested in 43 factories scattered along the coasts of Long Island Sound, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Maine. The quantity of fish caught was 1,173,700 barrels. The yield of oil, 2,250,000 gallons, was valued at over 200,000 ; and that of fish manure, 36,000 tons, at 125,000. 226 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER VII. THE SHARK FISHERY FOR THE OIL OBTAINED. Fishery in Norway The Greenland shark Mode of capture The basking shark Sharks in Australia and New Zealand Shark fishery in India Sharks' fins exported to China for food. The Shark Fishery of Norway. There are four species of the shark tribe which inhabit the northern latitudes, viz., the Scymnus borealis or Squalus glacialis, Selache maximus, Squalus acanthias, and Squalus spinax niger. The Greenland shark (Scymnus borealis} frequents in numbers the banks which are traced in a line nearly the whole length of the western coast, at distances varying from 50 to 100 miles from the main ; in greater abundance, how- ever, on that portion which lines the coast of Nordland and Finmark, as far as the North Cape, and between the latter and Cherry or Bear Island. They are to be met with, how- ever, all over the North Sea and Arctic Ocean, as well as in most of the large fiords on the west coast, at depths vary- ing from 100 to 200 fathoms. Formerly the fishery was exclusively confined to the immediate vicinity of the coast ; but of late it has been more specially and lucratively prosecuted on the banks, commencing in about lat. 68 to the North Cape, and between that and Cherry Island. The vessels employed in The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 227 this fishery generally range from 25 to 35 tons, manned with a crew of six men. They lie at anchor on the banks with 150 to 200 fathoms water, moored by a grapnel weigh- ing two cwt, with a warp about 300 fathoms in circum- ference. A box perforated with holes, or a canvas bag containing the residuum or refuse of blubber, after the oil has been ex- tracted by boiling, is attached to the line not far from the bottom, near the grapnel. Globules of oil are found to ooze out or to percolate through the holes or bag, and to float away in a continuous stream, serving as a decoy, in a similar manner as the cod ova are applied in France, where they are thrown into the sea as ground bait to attract the sardines. Led by this stream, the sharks are guided to the main bait, which is attached to a thin iron chain, of from one to two fathoms in length. This is fastened to a line of about the thickness of the stem of a common tobacco- pipe. At the end of the chain the hook is attached, which is usually of the size of a salmon-gaff, and is baited with some kind of fish, or, what is preferable, about a pound of seal blubber. The seals from which this blubber is taken are generally caught at Spitzbergen, and there salted fresh. No kind of bait appears so efficacious or so attractive as this, and it throws off readily its fatty particles, which being carried to a considerable distance, form a trail to the bait, which the fish greedily take, if of blubber ; but, it has been observed, not so readily if the blubber is at all rancid. Five barrels of blubber is considered necessary for the season, and appears to be the average quantity used by each vessel. On hooking the shark, he is hauled to the surface of the water by the aid of a single purchase. Each vessel is furnished with four of these, two on each side. The line, 228 The Commercial Products of the Sea. being small, is only calculated to bring the fish to the level of the water ; his nose is then hauled a little above the surface, and a smart blow is immediately struck, by which he becomes stunned. A large hook at the end of a pole, attached to a strong tackle, is then driven into the fish, and by this means he is hauled on deck. The belly is cut open and the liver taken out. A hole is then made in the stomach for the purpose of inflating it with wind, which done, the hole is again tied up, the fish got into the water, and permitted to float away. The stomach being inflated prevents the fish sinking, and it soon drifts out of sight. By being kept afloat, the fishermen imagine that the carcase cannot injure the fishing grounds. The length of this fish varies from 10 to 18 feet. The value depends upon the size, quantity, and quality of the liver, which yields from one-half to two barrels, or from 1 5 to 60 gallons of fine oil each. This shark is caught nearer the coast, as far as Waranger Fiord. The fishery commences about the end of Sep- tember, and is continued through the winter until the end of February with deep-sea lines, in open boats manned by five men. The bait preferred is either porpoise or seal blubber. The line is retained on the finger, and as soon as the man feels that the bait has been touched, he gives a sharp jerk, in order to fix the hook more firmly in the jaws of the fish. Some skill and -experience is required to effect this at the proper moment, as the fish no sooner finds himself caught than he spins round the line, and on these occasions the line is liable to be severed by the sharp edges of the skin. The greatest activity is, at the same time, requisite in hauling the fish to the surface, in order to check the rotatory movement. The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 229 It happens not unfrequently on these occasions that several sharks come to the surface of the water in the wake of the one hooked, swim round the boat, and are caught by means of a swivel hook, fixed to a long gaff, which each boat is furnished with. They are then secured by a hook and strong line to the stem of the boat, until they can be hauled alongside. The result of a fishery carried on in open boats depends greatly on the wind and weather. When a boat's crew obtain from two to four barrels of liver, they are satisfied. Under favourable circumstances, however, they obtain from seven to eight ; and if during the course of the winter they can get from 40 to 50 barrels, the catch is esteemed a remarkably good one. Besides the liver, when the fish can be towed to the shore, the flesh is converted into food for the cattle, if there is a scarcity of dried cod's heads, which are prepared for that purpose. The flesh is occasionally used also for human food, being cut up into long strips and wind-dried in the open air, or buried in the ground until partially decomposed, when it is taken up and prepared in a peculiar mariner, so as to become edible. It requires, however, an Arctic stomach to digest it. The basking shark (Selache maximus), another of the genus, the largest of sea-fish, is found all along the coast from Ryvarden, lat. 59 31', up to Finmark. This fishery was for a long time pursued with great activity and per- severance, and with such success as for a series of con- secutive years to form the staple and chief support of the inhabitants of the districts in which it was carried on. Of late years their numbers have decreased so as to diminish the importance it had for years maintained. The increased herring fishery which has followed, however, fully compensates for the decline. 230 The Commercial Products of the Sea. This shark differs from his fellows in not being a voracious fish ; consequently it is neither to be enticed nor caught by the same kind of bait or mode of fishing as pursued with the Scymnus borealis, but rather that fol- lowed with the whale. About the last of the dog-days, when the water and weather are at their highest tempera- ture, this shark makes his appearance on the coast, and the fishery immediately commences. Large open boats are generally employed, from 37 to 42 feet in length, each boat being manned by four men and furnished with harpoons similar to those used in harpooning the sturgeon. The harpoon is attached to a line proportioned to the depth of water on the ground selected, which usually is from 300 to 400 fathoms. This rope lies coiled up in the bow of the boat. Thus equipped, the fishermen, selecting a light breeze and warm weather, cruise about under a triangular sail, near the mouth of the fiord the fish are in the habit of seeking. They are generally found lying perfectly still near the surface, apparently basking in the sun, and slowly follow in the wake of the boat as soon as discovered ; the large fin on the back, standing prominently above the surface of the water, indicating their presence and move- ments. The fishermen imagine, from his following the boat, that he is decoyed to the surface by the small triangular sail, which he mistakes for another fish. Certain it is that, whatever the temptation may be, the fish follows closely the boat without being disturbed for a considerable time, although sometimes carrying a stiff breeze. When the fish approaches close enough, the harpooner, watching his opportunity, sends his harpoon as deep into the body of the fish as he is able. Then arrives the perilous moment, for The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 231 the fish no sooner feels the weapon than he dives with great celerity. Everything must be clear, to allow the line to run out freely ; and it does so with such rapidity as to require one of the men to be incessantly pouring water over the swivel on which the line traverses, to prevent its igniting. Should the line unfortunately catch any projecting piece of wood, or meet with any impediment, the boat is inevitably capsized ; or should one of the men, through carelessness or accident, be caught by the line round the leg or arm, which has occasionally happened, he gets hauled down by the fish. Another man, therefore, always stands ready with an axe to cut the line ; but when such an accident does occur, generally both man and fish are lost. When the fish has reached the bottom, he proceeds along it, continuing to drag the boat with him, until his strength becomes ex- hausted. A lean fish holds out longer than a fat one, and will sometimes continue dragging for four and twenty hours, while a fat one generally gets tired out in three or four hours. When thoroughly exhausted, the fish is hauled up to the surface alongside the boat, and with a long, sharp knife, the fin is instantly cut off to prevent his striking, as a blow would readily smash the boat. He is then speared until quite dead. Before commencing to extract the liver, the fish is fastened by sundry ropes to the mast, and turned, when one of the men, provided with a long knife for the purpose, opens the fore part of the belly, which enables him to take out a large piece of the liver. He then insinuates his arm in, and separates all the fibres and integuments, so as effectually to release the liver, which operation requires to be carefully performed. When com* pleted, the stomach is ripped up from end to end. The 232 The Commercial Products of the Sea. liver then floats out, the belly fills with water, and the fish is cast adrift and immediately sinks. The liver is then taken into the boat, and the fishery is concluded. The size and fatness of the fish vary considerably. The prevailing size there is from 30 to 3 5 feet. They have been caught as long as 40 feet, but this is now a rarity. Young fish are never met with ; they doubtless keep in deep water until of mature growth. The size of the liver depends greatly on the condition of the fish. They usually render from four to seven barrels of liver, occasionally as much as from 10 to 1 6. Instances even have been known where as much as 24 barrels have been obtained from a single fish ; but this is of very rare occurrence. When the liver is rich, six barrels will produce five barrels of oil of 30 gallons each. No other part of the fish is utilized. Of the remaining species of the shark tribe, there are only two, besides the foregoing, which are of any import- ance on this coast. The first is the picked dog-fish, Squalus acantkias, which in former times was in great abundance along the whole coast from Gothenburg, and afforded lucrative employment to the fishermen. At present the fishery is carried on during the whole of the summer from the Naze to the North Cape, in the fiords as well as along the coast. This is a ravenous fish, which is caught in various ways. About midsummer he is observed to swim near the sur- face, and can then be taken in nets, as well as with lines, precaution being taken to protect the line by proper " serving " for a short distance beyond the hook, to prevent its being bitten off. This fish is eaten sometimes fresh, but must be skinned before being cooked. When cooked in this way, it is considered rather a delicacy. It is also dried as split stock-fish for consumption in the country, The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 233 as well as for export to Sweden, where it is greatly appre- ciated. The yolk of this shark's egg is used by the in- habitants as a substitute for other eggs in their domestic economy. The skin is employed by joiners and turners for polishing purposes. The liver is exceedingly rich, and makes a very fine oil. The other species is called in Norway the kulp or hoastorsk (Squalus spinax niger], and is the smallest of the shark tribe. It is met with in all the deep fiords along the coast, where it commits great mischief by nibbling off the baits from the deep-sea lines which are set out for the ling and the torsk (Brosmus vulgaris). Lines with single hooks are never laid out to catch this fish ; but at the end of the summer and autumn, and in some fiords all the year round, instead of a single hook, they employ 10 to 12, placed one above the other, baited with half-decayed or tainted fish. The depth of water selected is from 60 to 100 fathoms. As the kulp is a sluggish fish, bites lightly, and is small, some experience is required to know when he bites and is secured on the hook, especially if there is any wind. The line, however, is not brought up each time the bite is felt, as there are many hooks ; a simple tug is given at every supposed bite. The fish being once hooked generally remains quiet, and one usually finds 8 or 10 fish caught when the line is drawn up. As this fish comes in shoals and takes the bait freely, an experienced, skilful fisherman will occasionally, during a single night, obtain a rich booty. The kulp will not bite during the day. It is not eaten, but sought after ex- clusively for the liver, which is unusually rich, and yields a very superior kind of oil. In the bays about the peninsula of Kola, Lapland, the shark fishery is now vigorously carried on by the Russians ; 234 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the species chiefly taken is the Scymnus borealis. The fishery is only prosecuted off the coast in small undecked boats, manned by four men. In autumn the sharks are in the best condition and yield the most oil ; in summer they scarcely afford any. Some of the large species of basking sharks will yield as much as 1600 Ibs. of oil. The crude shark oil sells in Russia at about 6s. the poud of 36 Ibs., and when refined is worth double that price. Sharks are caught on the New Zealand shores in great numbers, during the months of November, December, and January, by the natives, who use them as an article of food. The fins can be procured at a very moderate rate, and fetch a good price in the China market. The Government of the colony of Victoria having pub- lished a scale of rewards for the capture of sharks, the pursuit has become a frequent occupation among the fishermen and boatmen of Hobson's Bay. In one week in May, 1877, over 3500 sharks were captured by the fisher- men of Sandridge, some of whom earned from 3 to 4. per day. One immense shark, measuring between 1 5 and 1 6 feet in length, was caught in the bay. It was stated some years ago that there were 13 boats, manned with 12 men each, constantly engaged in the shark fishery at Kurrachee. One boat will sometimes capture at a draught as many as 100 sharks of different sizes. The average capture of each boat probably amounts to about 3000, making the number of sharks taken not less than 40,000 a year. The great basking shark, or mhor (Selache maximus), is always harpooned ; it is found floating or asleep near the surface of the water. The liver of a large fish of this species yields there eight barrels of oil. The oil is of a very low specific gravity. The fish, once struck, is allowed to run till tired ; it is The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 235 then pulled in, and beaten with clubs till stunned. A large hook is now hooked into its eyes or nostrils, or wherever it can be got most easily attached, and by this the shark is towed to shore ; several boats are requisite for towing. The mhor is often 40, sometimes 60, feet in length ; the mouth is occasionally four feet wide. All other varieties of shark are caught in nets, somewhat like the way in which herrings 1 are caught at home. The net is made of strong English whipcord ; the meshes about six inches ; they are generally six feet wide, and from 600 to 800 fathoms, or from three-quarters to nearly a mile in length. On the one side are floats of wood about four feet in length, at intervals of six feet ; on the other, pieces of stone. The nets are sunk in deep water, from 80 to 1 50 feet, well out at sea. They are put in one day and taken out the next, so that they are down two or three times a week, according to the state of the weather and success of the fishing. The small sharks are commonly found dead, the larger ones much exhausted. On being taken home, the back fins, the only ones used, are cut off and dried on the sands in the sun ; the flesh is cut off in long strips, and salted for food ; the liver is taken out and boiled down for oil ; the head, bones, and intestines left on the shore to rot, or thrown into the sea, where numberless little sharks are generally on the watch to eat up the remains of their kindred. The species chiefly caught are the Rhyncobatus pectinata, R. l&vis, and Galiocerda tigrina. Owing to the large size of the sharks from which the livers are taken, the Malabar fishermen, unlike those of Sind, are unable to capture them with nets. Putrid beef or porpoise flesh is employed, large pieces being buried for a day or two previous to being used. The hook is attached by a chain to the line whilst the fishing is carried on. 236 The Commercial Products of the Sea. In Sind large quantities of oil are prepared from the livers of different fish. The sharks (Carcharias melanoptents) are caught principally in October and November, for at that period the livers are much more developed than at any other season. The oil obtained from them is of the same quality whatever the season, but they furnish about three times the quantity in autumn that they do in any other season. The most esteemed livers are firm, and of a rose colour ; those which are whitish and flabby are rejected as inferior. After having separated the vesicle, the livers are washed, and all the blood is taken out through incisions. They are then cut into medium-sized pieces, which are placed in a large earthen vessel with enough water to cover them. They are now heated for 1 5 or 20 minutes, after which they are allowed to cool. The oil, which soon floats to the surface, is gathered in ladles made from the half of a cocoa-nut, and is then poured into glazed earthenware jars. It is now passed through a sieve, and all which does not pass through is thrown away. Three or four days later, it is again filtered through a thick strainer, in order to separate the abundant deposit of stearine, and it is necessary to repeat this operation four times, at intervals of from 20 to 25 days, to separate the deposit ; after which the oil remains clear, of a fine straw colour, and smelling very much like cod-liver oil. Thus prepared, it is reserved for medical purposes. In India a manufacture of inferior oil is also carried on, which is used for lighting and other domestic purposes. It is prepared from the liver of sharks, rays, and other sorts of fish mixed. The livers are heated without being previously washed or picked, and the product is not purified. From Bombay sharks' fins weighing 6000 to 9000 cwts. are exported annually, valued at from ; 14,000 to 20,000. The Shark Fishery for the Oil obtained. 237 Besides the local catch, large quantities are imported from the Arabian and Persian Gulfs. There is a small export of these fins from Madras to the extent of 250 to 300 cwts. annually. They are assorted into the "white" and " black," the former being the dorsal fins, which are uni- formly light coloured on both sides, and reputed to yield more gelatine than the other ; the "black" are the pectoral, ventral, and anal fins, which are less esteemed than the white, and consequently realize a lower price. Sharks' fins are sent to China from various quarters ; from Akyab, Sumatra, Manila, Borneo, the Sandwich Islands, and other places. They are much esteemed as a food substance, being used for making soup. 238 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER VIII. THE ISINGLASS OF COMMERCE. Description and uses of isinglass Fish from which obtained Russian isinglass Vesiga Brazilian isinglass West Indian isinglass North American isinglass Chinese isinglass Fish maws and sharks' fins. ISINGLASS, one of the purest and finest of the animal glues, is a product the preparation of which was long carried on almost exclusively in Russia, and chiefly obtained from the sturgeon. The value of the isinglass from this fish is chiefly due to its peculiar organic texture, on which the property of clarifying wines and beers depends. No arti- ficial isinglass, however pure the gelatine, or identical as to chemical composition with the air-bladder of the sturgeon, answers the purpose of the preparers of fermented liquors. Isinglass is brought to market in different forms ; some- times in that of plates or lumps, or in the form of a bag or purse, at other times rolled up in different shapes, which pass under the names of book, leaf, long and short staples, tongue or pipe, and it is cut into fine threads. When of good quality, isinglass is of a whitish colour, thin, and semi- transparent, but tough and flexible, destitute of taste as well as of smell. The inferior kinds are thicker, yellowish coloured, opaque, and sometimes have a fishy smell and taste. When placed in cold water, it becomes soft, then The Isinglass of Commerce. 239 swells, and if held up to the light in this state is opalescent. In boiling water pure isinglass is entirely dissolved, with the exception of a very minute proportion of impurities. Though the best isinglass is thus completely dissolved in hot water, yet most of that met with in commerce does not become so, in consequence of the presence of albuminous parts. The fine shreds into which it is cut and kept in shops give great facility for making a jelly in the shortest possible time. This can be made palatable and nourishing by the addition of sugar and milk, acids or spices ; about one-third or half an ounce is sufficient for a pint of water. It may also be taken in the form of a soup, with the addition of salt, spices, and sweet herbs, or it may be employed medicinally as a demulcent, either externally or internally. The best kinds of isinglass are alone employed in articles of diet and for the best confectionery, being added in small quantities to other, especially vegetable, jellies, to give them a tremulous appearance ; but gelatine is now frequently substituted. Isinglass appears to have been discovered many ages since, for certainly it was known to the Romans, being mentioned by Pliny. It is obtained in several parts of the world from the air-vessels (termed " sounds " or " maws ") of various species of sea, estuary, and fresh-water fishes, England procures the best from Russia, where it is prin- cipally collected from the family Accipenseridce or stur- geons, and the following species, according to Brandt and Ratzeburg, furnish it : Acdpenser sturio, the common sturgeon ; A. kuso, the great sturgeon ; A. Guldenstadtii, the osseter ; A. rathenus, the sterlet; A. stellatus, the sevruga or starred sturgeon, in which account are likewise included the A. brevirostris ; A. schypa ; A. Ratzeburgii; 240 The Commercial Products of the Sea. A. Lichtensteinii ; also A. maculosus, and A. oxyrhynchus from North America. Isinglass has, in a measure, had its consumption checked by its high price, and substitutes are employed, such as gelatine (of which it is itself the purest form). It is of a highly nutritious and unirritating nature, admirably adapted for the sick room, and the preparation of some forms of confectionery and cookery, besides being employed both externally and internally in medicine, in the preparation of court plaster, in some arts and manufactures, but more extensively for clarifying or fining wines and beer. The brewer employs it as follows : Some, having been finely divided, is dissolved in sour beer, to the consistence of a FIG. 1 8. The Sturgeon. thick mucilage, and a portion is added to the fluid which it is intended to clarify, and after a longer or shorter period, suspended substances subside. Some suppose that all floating particles become entangled in the isinglass, and, uniting with it, form an insoluble compound which becomes precipitated ; others, that when dissolved in a fluid it lessens its affinity for the suspended particles, which, being thus set free, subside. The finest description of isinglass is thin, tough but flexible, white, semi-transparent, and destitute of both taste or smell ; it almost entirely dissolves in boiling water, and The Isinglass of Commerce. 241 provided it contains as much as one-hundredth of its weight of gelatine, has the property of gelatinizing or assuming the form of a soft, tremulous solid as it cools. The inferior sorts are thick, opaque, white, or yellow, having a fishy taste and smell, and only partially dissolve. The commonest kind, termed cake isinglass, is of a brownish colour, having an unpleasant smell, and is only used in the arts, and for the preparation of glue. The Brazilian isin- glass is very inferior to the Russian, and is in the form of pipe, block, honeycomb, cake, and tongue isinglass. The North American is like long ribbons, produced from the air-vessels of the Otolithus regalis, Bl. Schn. Russian Isinglass. Isinglass is obtained in Russia from the interior lining of the swimming-bladder of the sturgeon (Accipenser], the Silurus glanis, the Lucioperca Wolgensis, Pall., and the large carps. The Coregonus leucichtys also furnishes a little. The air-bladders are left for some days in water, which is frequently changed, in order to remove the fatty and bloody particles ; they are then withdrawn and cut lengthwise into sheets, which are exposed to the sun and air, the outer part being attached to boards. The inside, which is formed of layers of pure isinglass, is carefully detached from the ex- terior layers, wrapped in linen, and pressed, in order to keep it from contracting ; it is then made up into parcels according to size. The parcels of isinglass of the large sturgeon are composed of from 10 to 15 sheets, and weigh about a pound and a quarter ; those of the ordinary sturgeon contain 25 sheets, and weigh one pound. These parcels, to the number of 80, are packed in a linen bag, covered with rush matting, and sent away sealed with lead ; 38 Ibs. are worth, at Astrakhan, from ,19 43. to 28 i6s., according to quality. The air-bladder, although deprived 242 The Commercial Products of the Sea. of its internal parts, still contains a little isinglass, which is scraped off with a knife and kneaded ; after being damped with water, it is made into small tablets about the size of a five-shilling piece. The sheets of isinglass of the Silurus glanis are placed like leaves in a book, and are dried upon small cords; it is made up into bags of 152 Ibs. Carp isinglass (Cyprinus carpio) is made into parcels of 30 ; and, lastly, a good fish-glue is made at Astrakhan from the scales of the fish. Vesiga is the name given to the dorsal cord or tendons of the vertebral column of the larger species of sturgeons, prepared in a certain manner, and much esteemed for the table. The quantity prepared reaches the value of ^2O,cxx> annually. It is first carefully washed and pressed to ex- tract the soft matter which it contains, then dried and put up in packets the entire length, and folded in the middle. It is used chopped up in the preparation of small fish-cakes, much esteemed in Russia. The Russian poud of about 36 Ibs. is worth 2 IQS. to 3 3^. The mode of preparation in Russia is as follows : The sound is taken from the fish while sweet and fresh, slit open, washed from the slimy sordes, divested of every thin membrane which envelops the sound, and then ex- posed to stiffen in the air. When the sounds of the cod or ling are prepared, the only difference is that they are slit open, washed in lime-water in order to absorb their oily particles, and then in clean water, when they are laid upon nets to* dry. In the present Russian factories of the Caspian and Volga, the fresh sounds are first slit open, well washed to separate the blood and impurities, then spread out and exposed to the air to dry, with the inner silvery- white membrane turned upwards. This, which is nearly pure gelatine, is carefully stripped off, laid in damp cloths The Isinglass of Commerce. 243 (or left in the outer covering), and forcibly kneaded with the hands. It is then taken out of the cloths, dried in the form of leaf isinglass, or rolled up, and drawn out in a serpentine manner into the form of a heart, horseshoe, or lyre (long and short staple) between three pegs, on a board covered with them ; here they are fixed in their places by wooden skewers. When they are somewhat dried there, they are hung on lines in the shade, till their moisture is entirely dissipated. The oblong pieces are sometimes folded in the form of book isinglass. In order to obtain good isinglass, it is necessary to have well-arranged rooms to dry it in, as at Astrakhan. According to Pallas, at the lower parts of the Volga, a fine gelatine is boiled out of the fresh swimming-bladders, and then poured into all kinds of forms. In Gurief, a fine boiled fish-glue is pre- pared, perfectly transparent, having the colour of amber, which is cast into slabs and plates. The Ostiaks also boil their fish-glue in a kettle. The common cake isinglass is formed of the fragments of the other sorts ; these are put into a flat metallic pan, with a very little water, and heated just enough to make the parts cohere like a pancake, when it is dried. Indian Isinglass. Attention was first directed to this product by Dr. Cantor, who stated that the suleah fish of Bengal, when at its full size, attains about four feet in length, and is squaliform, resembling the shark species in appearance, but exhibiting a more delicate structure. The flesh of the fish is exceedingly coarse, and is converted by the natives, when salted and spiced, into burtah, a piquant relish well known at the breakfast-tables of Bengal. The air-bladder of the suleah may be considered the most valuable part of it; this, when exposed to the sun and suffered to dry, becomes finely pellucid, and so hard that 244 The Commercial Products of the Sea. it will repel the edge of a sharp knife when applied to it. These bladders, when perfectly dried, vary in weight from half to three-quarters of a pound avoirdupois. This fish abounds in Channel Creek, off Saugor, and in the mouths of all the rivers which intersect the Sunderbunds they are exceedingly plentiful in certain seasons. The discovery of isinglass as a product of India was so important that Dr. Cantor determined to investigate the subject, and to ascertain what were the fishes which yielded it. These seemed to be principally one or two species of Polynemus, especially the Polynemus sele of Hamilton's " Fishes of the Ganges," and the gol or gheriah (Corvinus niger}. P. sele is supposed by Royle to be a variety of P. lineatus, which is said to be common on all the shores to the eastward. A larger species, P. tetradactyhis , Shaw, is also believed to furnish some of the Indian isinglass. Several of the Siluridse also afford it in large quantities, espe- cially the species marked Silurus raita by Dr. Buchanan. The kinds of fishes from which this useful substance has been obtained in India do not appear in all instances to have been correctly defined, for it has been suggested as derived from some which are destitute of air-vessels. Without entering too minutely into the subject, it may be stated that along the western coast, and down Malabar, the Siluroids are in the majority ; but wherever large rivers debouch into the sea, there the Polynemi are captured. As we advance up to the v eastern coast, at first the Acan- thopterygians are in excess, whilst off Masulipatam, to the north again, the Polynemi become numerous, especially off the Sunderbunds. In Burmah, due to the character of the water, the Siluroids again obtain the predominance. Amongst the isinglass-producing Acanthopterygians, the Polynemi are most noted, but the species constituting this The Isinglass of Commerce. 245 genus are peculiar, in having filamentous prolongations at the base of each pectoral fin ; these are remarkably elon- gated in Polynemus paradiseus, known in Bengal as the Tupsi mutchi or mango-fish. By correctly ascertaining the number of these prolongations in a specimen, a decision may be arrived at whether the species possesses or is des- titute of an air-vessel ; or, in short, if isinglass can or cannot be obtained from it. But of seven species at present recognized in the seas and estuaries of the coasts of India, merely two are useful for this manufacture, and they are the only ones which have five pectoral appendages. Consequently, unless a large Polynemus possesses five of these filamentous appendages at the base of its pectoral fin, it will be useless looking for its air-vessel ; it has none, and isinglass cannot be pre- pared from it. When dried, the air-vessel is tongue-shaped, as are also those of others of the Acanthopterygians whose air-vessels are loose in the cavity of the abdomen, have no communicating duct leading to the pharynx, and are not attached to the vertebrae. If we examine the air-vessels of the Siluroid or scaleless cat-fishes, which are used for isin- glass, we find them entirely different. They are like short rounded bags with an open mouth, this latter being where they have been torn away from their adhesions to the vertebrae. The fishes which furnish these descriptions of air-vessels are mostly found in muddy waters, estuaries, and the mouths of rivers, but do not thrive where the sea is clear. The Rita ritoides, C. and V., or Pimelodiis rita, H. B., which attains a great size, and is found far up rivers, is said to afford this substance in large quantities. Dr. McClelland discovered, about the year 1839, that the Chinese had been importing isinglass from India in enormous quantities, and from immemorial ages, and an 246 The Commercial Products of the Sea. investigation was commenced into this subject. He ascer- tained that from one village, six miles south-east of Calcutta, from 800 to 900 maunds yearly, valued at from Rs. 25 to 40 the maund, were exported. Lord Auckland, when governor-general, sent some specimens to England as a new export, and, according to Dr. Royle, gave " a general view of Indian fisheries, and the propriety of attending more extensively to the curing of fish." Dr. Royle, in 1842, in a pamphlet " on the production of isinglass along the coasts of India," gave a resume of what had been previously accomplished, as well as some very interesting figures and experiments on the value of this article, as received in London, both in an economic and financial point of view. " The sounds, when received fresh, are opened and stripped of the vascular covering and internal membrane, washed, and at once made into any form the manufacturer finds most convenient for packing. . . . When dry, before it reaches the manufacturer (which is commonly the case, the fish being caught at a distance towards the sea), the sound has to be opened, and as much of the lining membrane as possible removed by the hand. A large earthen vessel is then filled with sounds, and water poured into it, and the whole covered up for 12 hours, when the sounds will have been brought back to their original soft state, in which they may be as perfectly cleaned as if they had been obtained fresh." It seems more than probable that this will account for the fishy odour of this isinglass, as the sounds should be quite fresh when prepared. Dr. McClelland bleached his specimens in alum water (one ounce to four or five gallons), soaking them a short time, and, when saturated, removing them to a linen or cotton cloth, likewise saturated with alum water. In this they were tightly rolled up and set aside for 12 hours, the process being repeated until they The Isinglass of Commerce. 247 were white. Some were sprinkled or dusted with chalk, in case of exposure to damp in their homeward voyage ; it can be easily rubbed off. At Gwadur the air-vessels were soaked in brine before being dried ; but elsewhere they are simply removed and dried in the sun. The lining membrane of the air-vessel of the stur- geon, as already noticed, yields the best isinglass, but it has been rejected in the Indian forms, which accounts for its more fibrous nature, although not proving that this lining portion in India is of the best. East Indian isinglass has some positive defects, such as retaining a fishy smell, besides being partially insoluble, perhaps due to some por- tions of the albuminous membranes remaining. In fact, it requires more care in its preparation, which should be undertaken whilst it is quite fresh ; and greater caution is necessary in the drying process. If it be not properly dried, it might possibly undergo a slight change or de- composition, and become partially converted into a more insoluble form of gelatine. A more important objection is the smell, which, however, may likewise, to some extent, be traced to the preparation. Care should be taken that it is not contaminated by the animal fluid of the fish, for then it becomes very difficult to .purify. Likewise, it is too thick, which may be obviated by beating or pressure, as is now done with some American and Brazilian kinds. " The extra labour that this would require," observes Royle, " could be profitably saved by not tearing it into fibres, in which form it is disapproved of in the market ; but it might still be cut or rasped into a state fit for domestic use." The same authority likewise states that " It is pre- ferable, and will be cheaper, to prepare the article and send it as sheet isinglass, that is, in the form of the slit sounds themselves, or their purest membrane, washed, cleaned, and 248 The Commercial Products of the Sea. dried in the best manner. . . . Isinglass cut into threads is unsuitable for the English market, because there is a great prejudice against purchasing wholesale, things in a cut and powdered state, in consequence of the innumerable methods adopted for falsifying and adulterating almost every drug." The method adopted in separating isinglass from the fish-sounds and rendering it fit for market in India is as follows : The air-vessel is from 8 to 12 inches long, pointed at each end like a double nightcap, hollow, but without an opening. It is merely taken out of the fish when caught, and thrown aside without further trouble by the fishermen. It is at first soft and doughy to the feel, and partially distended with air ; but in time it becomes collapsed and hard outside, in which state it is sold to the Chinese. When fresh taken from the fish, it is covered by a thin cobweb of small blood-vessels, which are easily peeled off, as none of them enter the substance of the organ. Where this is neglected it is stained and spotted with blood, and the whole becomes hard and consolidated together, or the vascular membrane itself becomes putrid in places. Hence the vascular membrane should always be care- fully peeled off the first thing by the fishermen, when the outside will present an appearance like white satin, of a fine, oblique fibrous texture. The edge should now be slit open, and the same kind of bloody cobweb peeled 'from within. The inner side will then present the same white- satin appearance as the outside, but, if attentively ex- amined, will be seen to consist of transverse instead of oblique fibres. If it be allowed to dry, the whole becomes hard, horny, and partially transparent. The thickness of the organ is about one-third of an The Isinglass of Commerce. 249 inch, and the best way to see its fibrous structure is to tear it across when it is dry. In this way it splits in the direc- tion of the transverse fibre, of which nine-tenths of its sub- stance consists, the oblique fibre forming merely a thin coat outside. If the mechanical division of the transverse fibre be thus continued, the outer oblique coat becomes readily detached, and falls off in plates and scales from the outside. Thus, by mechanical means the organ may be separated into two very distinct parts the first, or trans- verse fibre, consisting of perfectly pure gelatine, comprising about nine-tenths of the whole ; the second, or oblique fibre, falls off in broad plates, consisting of albumen, thus leaving the gelatine or isinglass perfectly pure. When cut open, cleaned, and dried as above, the suleah- sound weighs from 12 to 16 ounces, from which 90 per cent, of pure isinglass may be separated by mechanical means. The fish being caught at a distance from Bombay and Calcutta, the sounds are usually sold unopened and un- cleaned, as taken from the fish, with the cobweb of blood- vessels hardened and dried upon the surface, which is frequently stained with blood. In this state it requires to be soaked for 12 hours in water to overcome the horny consistence, so far as to be able to cut it open. The outer rind, being insoluble, is that on which soaking makes the least impression ; so that when opened we frequently find much of the pure isinglass within dissolved ; and if continued soaking and washing be practised after it is opened, with a view to soften and cleanse the outer insoluble rind, the article may become greatly impoverished and deteriorated from the solution of the inner parts, which thus become dissolved and washed away incautiously during the operation. To obviate this it is only necessary to induce the 250 The Commercial Products of the Sea. fishermen to open the sounds at once when taken from the fish, and strip them of their cobweb, when they should merely be rinsed with a little fresh water and dried in the sun ; .after which the longer they are kept exposed to dry in the air, the better. Brazilian Isinglass. One or other of the -siluroid fishes common in Guiana probably yields the Brazilian isinglass, which comes chiefly in the form of lump or pipe. The fish which produce this article are caught annually in great quantities at the mouth of the Amazon. The isinglass is almost all sent to Great Britain. The fish caught in the rivers are not of first-rate quality. Great quantities of piracuru (Vastris gigas\ highly esteemed by the natives, are taken on the Upper Amazon, and sent to the Para market. A machorian, which gives 22 1-bs. of salted or dried fish, produces about I Ib. I \ oz. of isinglass. Thus, the weight of the isinglass is to the fish as I to 20, a rule found to be pretty general. According to the estimated take of fish, the yield of isinglass should be 123,480 Ibs. Supposing the price of isinglass to be but 2s. 6d. the pound (at Para it is 4$. and sometimes 5^.), and the price of salt fish a penny per pound, we have the following as the produce of the local fishery : Isinglass, 123,480 Ibs. at 2s. 6d. ... ^"15,435 Salt fish, 2,346,120 Ibs.., at id. ... 9,801 ^25,236 From 750 to 880 cwt. of isinglass are shipped from Brazil annually, of the value of 15,000 to 16,000. In the Cape Colony some of the wine merchants make use of the dried bladder of the kabeljauw (Scicena hololepi- dota, Cuv. and Val.) instead of isinglass. The Isinglass of Commerce. 251 West Indian Isinglass. Under this name the isinglass obtained in British and French Guiana enters into com- merce. It is the produce of one or two siluroid fishes. In British Guiana it appears to be obtained from the gilbackre or gilbagre (Silurus Parkerii], a fish very abundant in the estuaries of the rivers of the colony. A small quantity of this fish-glue, as it is termed, is now exported from thence. In French Guiana some attention has also been given to the preparation of isinglass obtained from the machorian (Silurus felis)} which is especially employed in the clarifi- cation of beer. Reduced into small shreds by the action of a mechanical plane, it dissolves completely in cold water, and is compared with Russian isinglass as two to three. Its cheapness gives it also advantages over the latter. North American Isinglass. Cod-sounds, which are brought in great quantities from Newfoundland, are nothing more than the salted air-bladders of these fishes. The Iceland fishermen, as well as those of America, prepare isinglass of a very excellent quality from cod-sounds, though they are not acquainted with the method of clarify- ing it which the Russians practise in preparing that article from the sound of the sturgeon. Ribbon isinglass is obtained from the air-bladder of the common hake (Merlucius milgaris\ or probably from the fish passing under the name of hake on the coasts of America (Phycis chuss). The air-bladder is thrown into water to macerate for a little while, and taken out and pressed between two iron rollers, by which it is elon- gated to the extent of half a yard and more. It is then carefully dried, packed, and sent to market. In the manufacture of ribbon isinglass from fish-sounds it is customary to place the softened and moist or 252 The Commercial Products of the Sea. macerated sounds between feed and compressing rollers, by which the viscid substance is compressed and joined, and formed into a continuous sheet. Notwithstanding the con- stant injection of cold water into the rolls, the substance adheres tenaciously to the roll, accumulates thereupon, and has to be cut away; so that the operation is slow and laborious, and productive of imperfect sheets. Mr. James Manning, of Rockport, Massachusetts, has invented an improvement, designed to so strip the gela- tinous substance from the rolls that the work may proceed continuously, the ribbon, as it is stopped, being again fed or guided by the operator into and between the rolls until sufficiently reduced or elongated for removal, or, for the action of other rolls, set nearer together to produce a thinner ribbon. He effects this result by placing at the side of each roll a scraper extending the whole length of the roll, having an edge set up to the roll, so that the roll shall run just clear of it, which scraper or cleaner strips from the whole surface of the roll the adhering gelatine in the form of a sheet. Knowing that the sturgeon abounded in the North American rivers, and struck by the absence of isinglass from that quarter, in 1851 Professor Owen drew the atten- tion of the Canadian Commissioner to the fact, and now a commerce has sprung up for this valuable product, which, previous to the first London Exhibition, had been rejected among the useless entrails of the sturgeon. Now some attention has been given to the preparation of the air- bladder and the outer tunic of the alimentary canal, after the modes of obtaining the best Russian isinglass. The sturgeon enters the rivers of North America, such as the Potomac, Delaware, Hudson, and Kennebec, in numberless quantities, like the shad and herring ; but The Isinglass of Commerce. 253 very little use is made of it. From Virginia up to the highest habitable northern latitudes, they ascend the rivers 300 to 500 miles up. From 30,000 to 40,000 sturgeons might be caught annually in the before-named rivers, and without counting the rivers farther north of Maine, the annual export of pickled sturgeon, caviare, and isinglass alone would be worth 500,000 dollars. The sturgeon is not, however, much esteemed in America ; it brings scarcely twopence a pound in the market, and the roe and swim- ming-bladder are always thrown away. There are two species of sturgeon which frequent the American rivers the round-nosed (Accipenser rubicundus\ which is gene- rally eight feet or more long, and weighs over 200 Ibs. ; and the sharp or shovel nosed (Scaphirhyncus platyrhyn- cus], which is seldom more than five feet long, and weighs about 150 Ibs. or more. In Russia some are found which weigh 500 Ibs., and in Norway one was caught which weighed 1000 Ibs. In the Hudson river thousands are captured annually a number of persons making this their sole business. Immense nets are cast ; but instead of hauling them entire, their floats are watched, and when one goes down a stur- geon is calculated on. The net is drawn at that point, his sturgeonship is hauled into a "scow," and the net is dropped again for a fresh victim. Inshore the fishermen have pens where the fish are kept for market. Lots of them go to Albany, where they are considered " tit-bits." Thousands of them are cut up and tried for the oil which they yield in abundance. Chinese Isinglass. Isinglass or fish-glue is very exten- sively employed in China for a great number of purposes. This substance, which is obtained in Europe by treating principally the swimming-bladder of the sturgeon, is made 254 The Commercial Products of the Sea. in China in another manner. There we meet in commerce with plates of a horny appearance, whitish, and of a tissue resembling animal membrane. These plates are of dif- ferent forms, and bear in China the name of ju-ka. This substance, dissolved in water, forms a glue of an excellent quality, which is specially employed by cabinet-makers, furniture being an industry for which Ningpo is justly renowned. This glue has properties much resembling gelatine. Like gelatine, it is very nitrogenous, furnishing by distillation ammoniacal compounds and a bulky char- coal. This, incinerated, gives a whitish ash, composed probably of phosphate of lime. In an industrial point of view it differs from isinglass by furnishing a glue of very considerable resistance. That of the best quality is reserved for the manufacture of furniture of the highest class, and is employed to unite pieces of wood which are required to resist great strain. Besides its industrial uses, this fish-glue is highly esteemed for food purposes by the Chinese. The three kinds of fish chiefly used for obtaining isinglass in China are : i. The My-yu (Scicena lucida), having greyish scales ; 2. Ta-houang-yu (Otolithns macii- latus), the head, fins, etc., of which are of a bright yellow ; 3. Mung-pu (Anguilla (Murcena) pekinensis, Basilewski). To obtain the swimming-bladder the gills are removed, and by introducing the finger into the interior the air- bladder is obtained. The intestinal and membranous parts which surround this organ are separated, and with a knife it is split longitudinally ; the two lips are lifted, and a whitish membrane, which is found on each side, is taken out. In this state it is sold for food purposes. It is boiled a certain time in water, but does not dissolve, forming only a gelatinous mass of an insipid flavour. With the third- The Isinglass of Commerce. 255 named fish, of the eel species, the belly is opened, and the organ, which is often of great size, removed. The glue which is made is of excellent quality, but often yellow or grey tinted, according to the inferior quality of the substance employed. It is thus prepared : The ju-ka is washed in water for about two hours, then taken out and placed in a water-bath for a certain time. When, by the touch, it is found to be soft, it is removed and beaten with a heavy iron hammer. This is said to be a delicate operation, which should be done at the proper time. The substance is then flattened and rolled by the hand, and horizontal incisions are made, so that the air may more readily reach it and the drying be more rapid. When the glue is to be used, it is broken in pieces, put in a water-bath, with a little water to dissolve it. It is probable if the Chinese isinglass were treated with sulphurous acid, a better commercial product might be obtained. Besides its use for food purposes in China, isinglass is employed medicinally. That which is very transparent is most esteemed. It is usually met with in long, channelled pieces, transparent, of a dull yellow colour. Gelatine is often substituted for it, which is in long, opaque tablets, of a deep brown, and is made from the skins of different animals. From the ports of Hiogo and Osaka, in Japan, the exports of isinglass to Shanghai and Hongkong were in Piculs. Value. 1874 2286 $75,212 1875 62 3 8 198,416 In many of the French colonies it is stated . that large quantities of valuable isinglass are lost to commerce from carelessness and ignorance. At Senegal and at Mahe the 256 The Commercial Products of the Sea. swimming-bladders are thrown away with the entrails. At Newfoundland they form part of the food of the seamen, and a few barrels are sent to France. From Cochin China a small quantity is shipped to China. From Cayenne 9774 Ibs., valued at ;io66, were shipped in 1874. The average annual imports of isinglass into China were, in the five years ending 1870, 2953 piculs of 133 Ibs., and in the five years ending 1875, 3934 piculs. Fish-Maws are the swimming-bladders or sounds of different fish, extracted and merely dried in the sun, and considered a great luxury by the Chinese, as possessing strengthening properties. They are extensively collected on the Malabar coast and shipped to Bombay, from whence large quantities are re-exported, principally to China and the Straits Settlements. In the official year ending 1872, 9008 cwts. of fish- maws and sharks' fins, valued at .30,100, were exported from Bombay. From Penang 2277 piculs were shipped in 1870, and from Singapore 125,946 cwt, valued at ^"13,717. They often fetch as much as 14 the cwt in the Canton market. 257 CHAPTER IX. OTHER FISH PRODUCTS AND THEIR USES. Miscellaneous uses of parts of fishes Scales of fish Articles made from them Skin of fishes ; applications of it Shark skin Ray skins Shagreen and galuchat Fish flour Fish paste Giianine, or pearl essence. SOME of the miscellaneous uses of parts of fish are curious. Thus, the serrated spine of the ray fish is used by the Indians of the Amazon to arm their arrows. In India the jawbone of the boalee fish (Silurus boalis) is employed by the natives about Dacca. The teeth being small, recurved, and closely set, act as a fine comb for carding cotton, in removing the loose and coarse fibres and all extraneous matters from the cotton wool. Sharks' teetli are used in arming weapons, and the teeth of sharks and other fish as trinkets. The jaws of the sleeper shark (Somniosus brevipinnd) are used for head-dresses by the North American Indians. Fish bones are used by Indians and Eskimo in making implements ; sharks' vertebrae for canes ; the bones of the whale for weapons. Those of sharks and skates are used in Japan in making imitation tortoise-shell. Among the islands of the Corean Archipelago, the children use the dried spiral eggs of a species of skate or some other cartilaginous fish as rattles, having first introduced a few small pebbles to assist in making a noise. 258 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Scales of fish are composed of alternate layers of mem- branous laminae and phosphate of lime, to which they owe their brilliancy. Perhaps the enamel or nacreous covering of the scales of fish generally is capable of being employed more largely in the arts ; it appears to be sul generis, and seems hitherto to have escaped the scrutiny of organic chemistry. At the Vienna International Exhibition, the scales of the captain fish (Heterotis\ from Senegal, were shown, for making fish-glue to stiffen and glaze ribands. The Royal University of Norway, Christiana, sent to the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, in 1875, a diadem made from fish scales and eyes ; and at the Paris Inter- national Exhibition of 1878 two Swedish exhibitors showed flowers and ornaments made of fish scales. Parures and ornaments for ladies, made of fish scales, were at one time largely sold at the Crystal Palace, London. At Newark, in the United States, large fish scales have been for some time industrially employed. The fresh scales are steeped for 24 hours in a solution of marine salt in order to clean them. They then undergo five or six washings in distilled water, which is renewed every two or three hours. Each scale is then separately dried with a clean cloth, and lightly pressed and left to dry. Finally, they are macerated for an hour in alcohol, and rubbed dry. They then appear like mother-of-pearl, and of a firm and elastic con- sistence. They are worked up either plain or coloured, for making artificial flowers, marquetry articles, and other fancy work. The Chinese have a mode of grinding up fish scales and using the powder as a dry pigment, to give a brilliancy to parts of pictures. The skin of fishes is chiefly gelatinous, and is easily Other Fish Products and their Uses. 259 soluble in water ; but some is of a firmer, stronger, and more useful character. Although the skin of some marine mammals, such as those of the seal, walrus, and the white whale, or Beluga (known as porpoise leather), have long been commercially employed, it is only lately that attention has been more generally directed to the utilization of fish skins on an extended scale. Their employment hitherto has been very limited. Eel skins have been used for the thongs of whips and the attachments of flails, dried sole skins to clarify coffee, and some shark and ray skins by workmen to smooth and polish substances, and also to make a kind of shagreen leather. At the Maritime Exhibition, held at the Westminster Aquarium in 1876, Mr. G. Kent, of Christiana, Norway, exhibited a variety of tanned skins, among which were : Whale skins tanned ; the size ranging from 12 inches broad by 60 feet in length, suitable for wheel bands, for driving machinery, etc. White fish, for upper leather, which can be prepared in pieces of 12 feet by 4 feet. Skins of various flat-fish, dressed and prepared for gloves. Fine upper leather can be made with it, often to be had in sizes up to three feet square. Skins of soles, dressed and tanned suitable for purses, etc. Skins of thornbacks, suitable for cabinet-makers instead of sand-paper, and very much more durable. Skins of eels, dressed and dyed suitable for braces and other purposes. Mention is made of an industry carried on at Colborn, in Canada, with the skins of species of Siluroids for glove- making, and this is to be prosecuted on a larger scale, both for the flesh for salting and the skin for currying. 260 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Shoes have been made in Gloucester, Massachusetts, from the skins of the cusk or torsk (Brosmus vulgaris], the use of which has been patented. If this material for shoes proves what it promises, it will open up a new market for fish skins, which will no doubt be highly profitable. In Egypt fish skins from the Red Sea are used for soles of shoes. In the Animal Products Collection at the Bethnal-green Museum, there are some tanned sole skins shown. The skin of the losh or burbot (Lota maculatd), cleansed, stretched, and' dried, is used by the country people in many parts of Russia and Siberia to trim their dresses, and instead of glass for the windows of their dwellings, being as transparent as oiled paper. It is also utilized by some of the Tartar tribes, as material for their summer dresses, and the bags in which they pack their animal skins. The inhabitants of the eastern coasts of the middle of Asia clothe themselves with the tanned skins of the salmon. It is asserted that it makes a leather as tough as wash-leather. The scale-marks give a very neat pattern to the leather. W. Brozowsky, in his " Waarenkunde," Vienna, 1869, under " Fish Skin," says this is obtained from the sea-angel (Squalus squatina, Lin. ; Squatma Icevis, Cuv.), the thorny shark (Squalus acanthias, S. carcharias\ the tigered shark (S. caniailata), and some skates, as the angel skate (Raja rhinobatis\ R. Sephen, etc. The skins of these skates and sharks have spines of different sizes instead of scales. The skins are used for polishing, and, after the star-formed spines have been smoothed down with sandstone, for cover- ing boxes and cases, etc. Guibourt (sixth edition, by Dr. G. Planchon, 1870-71, vol. iv.), says the sephen of the Red and Indian Seas, belonging to the genus Trygon, produces the tuberculous and hard skin called galuchat, after the name of a Paris Other Fish Products and their Uses. 261 workman who employed it first. The greater part of the Selacians, viz., the rousettes, sharks, humantins, aiguillats, leiches, etc., have a rough skin, which is used for covering boxes, and also for polishing wood. The greatest con- fusion exists among merchants as to the names given to the different skins. Each tradesman applies, according to his fancy, the name of peau de requin, peau dtt chien de mer, chagrin, and even galuchat. From specimens of the various skins, the following would seem to be the species utilized : 1. Shark skin, from a young shark ; small, imbricated scales, somewhat translucid, with longitudinal lines, the border or edge entire and circular. This edge is free on the body, but attached on the fins. This skin serves for covering cases, etc., but is not rough enough for polishing. 2. Skin of mottled rousette (Scyllium, Cuv.). Tuber- culous, imbricated, horny, fine and hard scales, very near one to the other, and transparent, each triangular. Skin much used for polishing. Some persons state that " false galuchat " is made of it by rubbing off the scales, which leaves a square figure that becomes very showy when the skin is applied on a green paper. " I rather believe," con- tinues M. Guibourt, " that the false galuchat is made with the skin of the aiguillat." 3. Peau de leiche (Scymnus), sold to cabinet-makers under the name of peau de chien de mer, is covered with nearly rhomboid, tuberculous, semi-transparent scales, arranged one near the other in quincunxes. 4. Pean !44 6,220 New Granada ... 6,228 4,5*8 West India Islands and Honduras ... 9,576 6,553 Otherparts 10,438 6,628 49,332 32,53 The average prices in 1870 were from 13^. to 14^. 6d. per pound, except Indian tortoiseshell, which was only worth *]s. gd. per pound. Tortoiseshell remained low in price for some years, as it is greatly dependent for its chief use, that of ladies' combs, on the fashion of the day in wearing the hair. A quarter of a century ago it often fetched 3 3^. the pound ; in recent years the average wholesale price has not been more than from 12s. to 15^., but of late there has been an increased demand, and a gradual upward tendency in prices is manifested. At one of the London monthly public sales, good dark-mottled shell on a light ground, free from scab, and thin red shell or dull colours, from Zanzibar, Bombay, and Singapore, fetched wholesale 28^. to 2gs. 6d. per pound. Of West Indian tortoiseshell, 4000 to 5000 Ibs. were readily sold at from 31^. to 41^. per pound for fair to good quality " hoof ; " ordinary and medium, from 2$s. 6d. to 32^.; and even inferior as high as 1 1 s. to 22s. per pound. As much as 5000 and 6000 Ibs. of tortoiseshell were exported from Mauritius 10 years ago, but lately the shipments have dropped down to about 1000 Ibs. 364 The Commercial Products of the Sea. The average annual imports of tortoise-shell into France have been as follows : Kilogrammes. Value in francs. In the ten years ending 1856 ... 13,389 ... 730,096 ,, ,, 1866 ... 31,629 ... 1,251,922 1876 ... 42,306 ... 2,078,910 Passing now to the food uses of the turtle M. Lacepede well remarks that one of the best presents which nature has given to the inhabitants of equatorial countries, one of the most useful products which it has deposited on the con- fines of land and water, is the turtle. The flesh of some species of marine tortoises, but particularly of the green turtle (Chelonia midas\ is in the FIG. 27. Green or Edible turtle. greatest request as a luxury for the table, at least in England, and the animal itself is an object of commerce. The arrival of a cargo of " lively turtles " is by no means a thing of trifling importance. Of late years, the flesh is imported dried, which has placed it within the reach of general consumers. It is also salted in some quarters. All the turtles afford a considerable quantity of oil, which is employed for various purposes. In some of the West Indian islands it supplies, when fresh, the place of butter or salad oil for culinary purposes, and it is also used for burning in lamps. Turtle would seem to have been first introduced in Tortoiseshell and the Titrlle Fisheries. 365 England as an article of food about the eighteenth century, for a record in the Gentleman's Magazine, under date August 31, 1753, shows that it was then a rarity ; but they did not understand how to dress it. It states : " A turtle, weighing 350 Ibs., was ate at the King's Arms, Pall Mall ; the mouth of an oven was taken down to admit the part to be baked." The locality for feasting upon the turtle now has been transferred chiefly to the precincts of the City ; and the Ship and Turtle, Birch's in Cornhill, the Guildhall, and Mansion House, are the chief depots of consumption. Steam communication too has greatly increased the imports of this reptile. About 15,000 are now introduced into our ports, and from thence to our kitchens, every year. They weigh from a quarter to three cwt, and may be valued in the aggregate at about ;8oop, or more. Not that all these shielded animals so arriving can be called " lively turtle," for the voyage has very often a damaging effect upon them, and they have to be brought into flesh before they can be dished up for an alderman's or nobleman's table. Dr. Browne, in his " History of Jamaica," speaking of the turtle, says "it is delicate, tender food while young, but as it grows old it becomes more tough and gristly, and is not so agreeable to the stomach in those warm countries ; the juices, however, are generally reckoned great restoratives, and often observed to heal and smooth the skin in scorbutic and leprous habits." The flesh of the green turtle is employed in the West India islands generally, in all the maritime cities of the United States, Brazil, and Peru, in England, in Africa, the Cape Verd islands, and among the natives who inhabit the western coasts of Africa, Guinea, and Congo, the islands of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian Ocean, 366 The Commercial Products of the Sea. at the English Presidencies of India, and in Australia. There is not a four-footed animal, a voyager tells us, the flesh of which the Japanese esteem like that of the kecame, or turtle. The flesh of the turtle is thus, we find, a universal food, if we except some of the States of Europe, which do not seem to appreciate it as a delicacy. I may add that this has been so in all ages. Diodorus of Sicily, Pliny, and Strabo speak of it. The former named " Cheloni- phages," certain people inhabiting islands at the entry of the Red Sea, whose principal occupation was catching turtle. The flesh is cooked in all ways. It is made into soup ; it is roasted; it is made into fricassees, stews, and pies. The eggs, intestines, bones, all are employed, and esteemed excellent. There are in the turtle two pieces of flesh very white, compared to knuckles of veal. It may be larded and made into fricandeaux and pates, equal to those of Rouen or Pontoise. The turtle is, as it were, the fry of the sea, for every part of the flesh is edible. The bones, being easily saturated with the gravy, are left in the ragouts which are made, and the fat, which is very fluid, serves instead of butter or lard. The two most choice food preparations of the turtle in the West Indies are the soup and the boucan or plastron. The soup made there is flavoured with sherry, and seasoned with strong spices, capsicums, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. It is considered to be excellent when, after having eaten, one is obliged to rest with the mouth wide open, and cool the fevered palate with madeira or port. So that to appreciate this fiery soup, the taste has to be acquired. The plastron, or boucaneered turtle, is made by Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries. 367 mincing the flesh fine and cooking it in its own shell. Here is the recipe given for preparing and cooking it : " The plastron or buckler is the shell of the belly, on which is left three or four inches of flesh, with all the fat, this being green, and of a very delicate flavour. The plastron is placed in the oven. It is seasoned with lemon juice, capsicum or cayenne, salt, pepper, cloves, and eggs beaten up. The oven ought not to be too hot, as the flesh of the turtle being tender it should be cooked slowly. While it is baking the flesh must be pierced from time to time with a wooden skewer, so that the gravy may penetrate all parts. The shell is sent up to table, and the meat carved out from it. I have never eaten anything more appetizing or better flavoured." This is not the recipe of a royal chef de cuisine, or of an ordinary cook, but of Father Labat, a Dominican monk, and we know that in all that relates to the table, and especially the food of fast-days, monks are the authorities. The old buccaneers from whom this dish was named having no ovens, cooked their turtle in a trench covered with lighted charcoal, and this mode of cooking was said to be pre- ferable. But in whatever manner dressed, all agree that the flesh of the turtle is an excellent and palatable food. Green turtle soup is now manufactured in America and the West Indies. A manufactory at Key West, Florida, puts up in air-tight cans for exportation 200,000 Ibs. yearly, and employs 10 vessels and 60 men in collecting the turtle. It is sent to England and Cuba chiefly. At Jamaica some factories are also doing a good business in a preparation worthy of the gastronomic patronage of an aldermanic banquet, so rich is it in green fat and calipee, calipash, and those delicate gelatinous morsels appertaining to the fins. A steady supply of 368 The Commercial Products of the Sea. turtle is obtained monthly through the West India and Pacific steamers from Colon, besides those brought from the Caymanas. 5484 Ibs. of prepared turtle, valued at ^356, were shipped from Jamaica in 1874. Jamaica is the principal mart in the West Indies to which the turtle are brought from the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, from Trinidad to Vera Cruz, principally from Honduras and the Tortugas. From Jamaica they are sent to England and the United States. Although all the varieties of the edible turtle are pala- table, yet they are distinguished by the localities from whence they are obtained, and some are preferred to others. Those of the Bay of Honduras are most esteemed in England. Of the Cape Verd Islands, those of St. Vin- cent are considered the best. Dampier tells us that they are not so large as those of the American islands. The flesh is white and intermixed with the green fat, which is firm and of good flavour. But it is not only the flesh that is useful ; the fat, exposed to the sun, is converted into oil. When fresh, it is good for frying and for other culinary uses, and when it becomes rancid, as it is very fluid and penetrating, it serves to oil leather, to burn, and to lubricate machinery. It is not rare to obtain 100 Ibs. of oil from a single turtle. Oil is obtained from two species of turtle very abundant in the river Orinoco P eltocephalus Tracaya, and another. The gigantic luth is famous on account of its valuable oil. The eggs of most of the species of sea-tortoises or turtle are excellent, being both nutritious and agreeable to the taste. They have no firm shell, and the white or albu- minous portion does not harden on cooking. A native of Brazil will consume as many as 20 or 30 at a meal, and a European will eat a dozen for breakfast. They make an Tortoiseshell and the Turtle Fisheries. 369 excellent omelet. The Indians frequently eat them raw, mixed with their cassava flour. A large quantity of rich oil is made from the immense deposits of turtle eggs on the banks of the Orinoco and Amazon ; each turtle lays from 100 to 200 eggs. Several thousand persons are occupied on the banks of these rivers preparing this mantega or turtle oil as a local article of commerce. 2 B 370 The Commercial Products of the Sea. CHAPTER II. MOTHER-OF-PEARL AND ITS USES. Composition of nacreous shells Their extensive employment in art and manufacture Explanation of prismatic colours Varieties of mother-of- pearl shells entering into commerce Purposes to which they are applied Statistics of imports Diving for the shells in the Pacific Pearl fishery of Western Australia Papier-mache work Other nacreous and iridescent shells used The ear-shells or Haliotids. AMONG the products obtained from the sea which are used by the artist and art-manufacturer, mother-of-pearl and other nacreous and iridescent shells form important articles of commerce, to which we will now direct attention. The mother-of-pearl shells which our manufacturers transform into so many articles of ornament and utility, are those of the large oysters, obtained in many different parts of the world, chiefly the shells of Meleagrina margari- tifera. Shells are composed of carbonate of lime, with a small proportion of animal matter. The source of this lime is to be looked for in their food. The texture of shells is various and characteristic. Some when broken present a dull lustre like marble or china, and are termed porcelaneous ; others are pearly or nacreous; some have a fibrous structure; some are horny, and others are glassy and transparent. Mother -of -Pear I and its Uses. 371 The nacreous shells are formed by alternate layers of very thin membrane and carbonate of lime ; but this alone does not give the pearly lustre, which appears to depend on minute undulations in the layers. The fibrous shells consist of successive layers of prismatic cells containing translucent carbonate of lime. The exquisitely fine series of furrows upon the surface sheds a brilliant reflection of colours according to the angle at which the light falls upon them. The concrete composition of mother-of-pearl, being deposited in annual layers, is excessively hard, and requires good tools to work it ; sulphuric and other powerful acids are brought to the aid of the circular saw, the drill, and the file, and calcined sulphate of iron is used to give a polish to the objects. The Japanese and Chinese have evidently means and processes for working this material which are unknown to us, for they give a finish and a polish to their pearlwork carvings and inlayings, which the skilful artists of the western world admire and envy. Besides its use for buttons, studs, the handles of knives, fans, book-covers, card-cases, and other fancy articles, mother-of-pearl is also employed by cabinet-makers, piano- forte manufacturers, papier-mache workers, and others, for inlaying. The range of articles made of this substance is very extensive ; pen-holders, carved brooches, earrings, buckles, sleeve-links, little boxes, and hundreds of others, might be enumerated. The greatly increased use of this material in various branches of manufacture, particularly those of an orna- mental character, has more than doubled the price of the shells. From 4000 to 5000 persons used to be engaged in the manufacture at Birmingham, but the number has been greatly reduced in consequence of other countries com- 372 The Commercial Products of the Sea. peting with us in the manufacture. France now works up about 1500 tons of mother-of-pearl annually, while North America and Austria also compete with us. We import from 1 500 to 2000 tons of mother-of-pearl annually, worth about ; 1 00,000. The quantity of mother-of-pearl and other nacreous shells imported into France is thus given in the French official returns : AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS. Kilogrammes. Value in francs. In the ten years ending respectively 1856 ... 788,994 ... 730,308 ' 1866 ... 1,197,898 ... 1,331,884 1876 ... 1,376,132 ... 3,159,943 Sea-ear shells (Haliotis) are also now imported into France to the extent of 134,550 kilogrammes a year. Button-making is one 4 of the largest uses to which mother-of-pearl is turned. The blanks are cut out of the shell with the annular or crown-saw fixed upon a lathe mandril. They are split into two or more sections, accord- ing to the thickness of the button required. They are then ground down and cleaned, turned into a pattern, and after- wards " fancied," or an ornament is worked on the face. Next, the holes are drilled by which the button has to be attached with thread to the garment, and lastly they are polished. They are finally sorted and mounted on cards of a gross each, which sell at from I s. 6d. to 8s. There are some firms in Birmingham which turn out 500,000 gross annually. Pearl buttons are made of all sizes, from the Brobdignag ones as big as half a crown, for coats, costing 2s. or 3.$-. each, to the very tiny ones used for mere orna- ment. This beautiful material has been as valuable to science, by supplying confirmatory evidence of the truth of New- ton's views respecting the origin of colour, as it has been Mother-of-Pearl and its Uses. 373 to the manufacturer, in furnishing him with an elegant material for the formation of ornamental articles of various kinds. Mother-of-pearl is the interior laminae or scales of the shell of various mollusca living in the Indian seas. The true pearl oysters, as they are called, exhibit the beautifully variegated colours of mother-of-pearl ; but it is a much larger species called the Meleagrina margaritifera, which affords the most exquisite specimens. That many shells have a certain degree of resemblance on their inner sur- faces to this substance we have every-day proof ; for, if we inspect the interior of a common oyster shell, we shall frequently find that it exhibits that rich play of tints which constitutes the beauty of mother-of-pearl ; and, with respect to mussels, Reaumur remarked, in the early part of the last century, that those caught off the coast of Provence had the interior of their shells variously tinted, one portion of each shell being pearl-like in its appearance. No one can avoid being struck with the diversity and delicacy of the ever-varying tints of colour of this beautiful substance ; but there appears to have been no attempt made to discover the cause of the production until Sir David Brewster took up the subject, which he did with great success, and added another to the long list of services which he has rendered to optical science. Sir D. Brewster says : " If we take a plate of regularly formed mother-of-pearl, having its two opposite surfaces ground flat (but not polished), and if, with the eye placed close to the plate, we view in it by reflection a candle standing at the distance of a few feet, we shall observe a dull and imperfect image free from colour. This image is formed on the ordinary principles of reflection, and is faint and undefined, owing to the imperfect reflecting power of 374 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the ground surface. On one side of this imperfect image will be seen a brighter image, glowing with the prismatic colours. On the outside of the prismatic image will be observed a mass of coloured light, nearly at the same distance beyond the prismatic image that the latter is from the common image. These three images are always in the same right line, but their distances from one another vary according to the direction in which they are viewed." Now, it was in making certain observations on the distances of these images from one another that Sir David Brewster lighted upon the cause of them. He had occasion to fix a piece of mother-of-pearl to a goniometer (an instrument for measuring angles), by a cement of rosin and beeswax. Upon removing it from the cement when in a hard state, by insinuating the edge of a knife and making it spring off, the plate of mother-of-pearl left a clean im- pression of its own surface ; and he was surprised to observe that the cement had actually received the property of producing the colours which were exhibited by the mother-of-pearl. This unexpected phenomenon was at first attributed by him, and by several gentlemen who saw the experiment, to a very thin film of mother-of-pearl detached from the plate and left upon the cement ; but subsequent experiments convinced him that this was a mistaken opinion, and that the mother-of-pearl really communicated to the cement the properties which it pos- sessed. This circumstance sufficiently proved to Sir D. Brewster that the cause, whatever it might be, of the colours of mother-of-pearl resided on the surface, and did not depend upon the chemical nature of the substance. In order, therefore, to discover what was the configuration of the surface, he applied a microscope with high magnifying Mother-of-Pearl and its Uses. 375 powers to the surface, when he perceived a grooved struc- ture, closely resembling, as he says, " the delicate texture of the skin at the top of an infant's finger, or the minute corrugations which are often seen on surfaces covered with varnish or oil paint." When the mother-of-pearl was regular in its structure the grooves were all parallel, and the reflected images of a candle appeared all in one straight line ; but when they were tortuous or curved, the images of a candle were not in a straight line. Here, then, was proof that the colours were produced by the effect of the grooves on the light reflected from the surface ; for on applying the microscope to the wax, which exhibited the same colours, a similar assemblage of grooves was observed. A consideration of Sir Isaac Newton's theory of the causes of the colours of thin bodies (which is not of a nature to be introduced here) has made it demon- strable that the series of grooves breaks up a beam of light which falls upon them, into a number of separate parts, each of which is reflected on the eye from the bottom and side of the little grooves, and assumes a par- ticular colour according to the angle at which it is reflected. This singularly beautiful appearance can be transferred to balsam of Tolu, or to gum-arabic, by allowing the thin film to be pressed and to solidify between two pieces of mother-of-pearl ; or it may be communicated to a clean surface of lead, or to the fusible metal resulting from the compound of mercury and bismuth by hammering. With respect to the fineness and number of these grooves, different specimens of shell give very different results. Sometimes a magnifying power of six or eight times will render them imperceptible, while in other in- stances 2000 grooves have been counted in the space of an inch, and in others, again, the number was wholly incal- 3 7 6 The Commercial Products of the Sea. * culable. What is very remarkable is that grinding will not obliterate these grooves. It might be supposed that as the grooves must be separated from one another by slight ridges, these ridges might be worn away in the process of grinding. But as the ridges wear down, so do the grooves . also ; so that, however thin the film may be rendered by grinding, the grooves and the colours resulting from them are still developed. If the surface has any scratches or dents, the bottoms and sides of the scratches are grooved, just as if the surface had been level. If we view a candle through a thin film of mother-of- pearl, or of gum or balsam which has received the grooved impression, coloured images of the candle will be seen nearly as distinctly as when the light is reflected from its surface. If a scientific statement be true, there are generally means for proving its applicability in more circumstances than one. Consequently, if the colours of mother-of-pearl are produced by grooves on its surface, any mechanical contrivance by which similar grooves may be produced on any substance ought to give similar results. This has been strikingly confirmed by Mr. Barton, of the Royal Mint. This gentleman has constructed an engine by which he can engrave on the surface of steel and other metals lines so exquisitely mmute that from 2000 to 10,000 are included in a single inch. These surfaces, when viewed by daylight, present but few appearances of colour ; but when the light of the sun or of gas flames falls upon them, an extremely brilliant display of colours is the result ; every gradation of tint is exhibited, and a change is produced by every motion of the object or of the source of illumination. There are six or eight leading varieties of mother-of- pearl shells entering into commerce. Mother -of -Pearl and its Uses. % 377 1. Those from the Arru Islands, which are the most valuable. This group, situate at the south-west of New Guinea, extends about 100 miles from north to south. From 130 to 150 tons are obtained from this locality annually. Pearl oysters are abundant on parts of the coasts of New Caledonia, but generally at too great depths; to be obtainable. There are three sorts, which are classi- fied in commerce as bastard, black-bordered, and silvery white, the last being the most esteemed. 2. The fishery next in importance is that from Sulu to New Guinea, etc. All the extensive range from Cape Unsing, passing by the Tawi-Tawi Islands and Sulu as far as Baselan, is one vast continuous bed of pearl oysters. The fishing is partly .carried on by the Malays and partly by the Chinese, and from 2500 to 3000 cwts. are sold there annually. The Sulu pearls have from time immemorial been celebrated and praised as the most valuable of any in the world. The shells are distinguished by the yellow colour of the border and back, which renders them unfit for ornamental purposes, but they are largely used by the Sheffield cutlers. Of the Sulu Archipelago we know com- paratively little. The people of Sulu and the Lanuns of Mindanao are the most daring habitual pirates of the Malayan seas. The principal articles of commerce of the Sulu and neighbouring islands are the produce of the fisheries, namely, pearls, mother-of-pearl shells, tortoise- shell, etc. 3. The so-called Bombay shells of commerce come in reality from the Persian Gulf fishery, where the search for pearls is vigorously and successfully prosecuted. Most of the shells from this quarter are small, and generally dark about the edges. They, however, realize more than the Panama and Tahiti shells. The imports range from 3 78 The Commercial Products of the Sea. about 3000 to 5000 cwts. per annum. They are chiefly used in Birmingham for buttons, counters, and inlaying purposes. 4. The shells from the Red Sea fishery bear the name of " Egyptian," as they are sent to Alexandria. For a long time the bulk of these shells were forwarded via Trieste to Vienna, affording employment to a large number of arti- sans, who worked for the American market, and thus dis- placed about 50 per cent, of the British-made goods. But after the great rise in the price of mother-of-pearl shells, the larger proportion of the Red Sea shells was again sent for some years to London and Liverpool. About 12,000 cwts. are shipped annually from Alexandria ; but we only get at present about half this quantity. 5. Panama shells from the Gulf of Panama, about the Pearl Islands, are now obtained in large quantities. The shells from the island of St. Joseph (one of this group) are said to be the largest, purest, and finest in the bay. After 1855 the trade began to be conducted on an important scale, five or six vessels taking cargoes of 100 to 250 tons each for Great Britain ; 800 to 1000 tons is about the average annual shipment from this quarter. According to their growth, the mother-of-pearl shells imported vary in size from about the palm of the hand to that of the crown of a hat. The smallest are the South American, weighing nearly half a pound the shell (the single valve) ; the Bombay and Egyptian weigh about three- quarters of a pound ; the South Sea black, one pound ; and the Singapore and Manila as much as one and a quarter pound each. Their value greatly depends upon quality, for they arrive in bulk without any attention being paid to sorting, and keeping separate, the dead and grubby or worm-eaten shells, of which there is always a great Mother-of -Pearl and its Uses. 379 proportion among the larger shells. The medium and small sorts, being the cleanest, bring higher rates in com- parison with the larger kinds. They should always be of a bold, fine, good, clear white colour and substance, and not broken. Fashion, in this as in other manufactures, has much to do with the price and supply of the raw material. About 1 5 years ago the black-edged shell, often termed " smoked pearl," was in much demand for the large dark buttons worn on ladies' paletots, gentlemen's waistcoats, shooting coats, etc., but these have gone somewhat out of fashion. Other shells of a deep, dark, iridescent hue were imported largely some 30 or 40 years ago, and, having only a nominal value, were buried in piles in the earth at Bir- mingham ; a demand having again sprung up for them, many instances have occurred in which they have been dug up and used. An anecdote was recently told me by a large wholesale shell-merchant in London, of a workman in Birmingham having volunteered to dig up his neigh- bour's yard or garden free. The offer being declined, the man persisted, agreeing to give $ if he might be allowed to do it, and cart away the rubbish. Consent was at last obtained, and the digger cleared 20 by the pearl shells he thus obtained and sold. My informant also told me that the Town Hall of Birmingham is built on such mounds of these shells that it would almost pay, at present prices, to pull it down and rebuild it for the sake of the shells that could be thus obtained. The use of pearl for hafting cutlery, the handles of dessert knives and forks, fruit-knives, etc., is not so general as it used to be ; not many years ago 100 tons were em- ployed annually in Sheffield for this purpose. The only nacreous shells possessing sufficient thickness for Sheffield 380 The Commercial Products of the Sea. purposes are received from Manila and Singapore, and of late years from Western Australia. So variable is the supply and demand, that this description of pearl shell has been sold within the last 50 years at almost all rates, between 60 and 600 per ton. The " scales " (as the two flat pieces are termed which are riveted to the central plate of the haft of the knife) have to be ground down on stones, singly and by hand, to a level surface and the required thickness. This tedious process aids in making shell a costly covering for cutlery, and as the substance is both hard and brittle, when the handles are fluted or carved, the price is of course still further enhanced. The numerous visitors to the Paris International Exhi- bition of 1867 could not fail to be struck with the mosaic pictures in mother-of-pearl, shown in the Siamese Court, representing the idol Buddha, the perfection and origin- ality of which excited the envy of amateurs. The King of Siam, when informed of this fact, commanded the artists of his palace to execute two other mosaics ; and in order to render them more agreeable to European taste, they were made to represent the Saviour, and were pre- sented at the close of the Exhibition to the Empress Eugenie, in order that they might adorn some Catholic chapel. The commerce in mother-of-pearl is extensive in Cochin China, where this substance is much employed for inlaying choice articles of furniture. It is obtained mostly in the Bay of Tirwar. Some of the other French colonies in India supply small quantities of mother-of- pearl. The shells of the true pearl oysters of Ceylon (Avicula margaritifera) are too thin to be of use in manufactures for their nacre, although importations have from time to time been made here, in the hope of utilizing Mother-of-Pearl and its Uses. 381 some of the mounds of shells which have accumulated on the shores of the island from time to time after the periodical fisheries for pearls. In inlaying with pearl shell the artist traces the stems and leaves of the flowers with a camel's-hair pencil, dipped in a size made of varnish and turpentine ; upon this he lays gold-leaf, which adheres where there is size, and the superfluous gold is carefully brushed off with a piece of silk. The flowers and leaves are then painted in colours, and, when dry, the picture and surface of the article is covered with a coat of refined white varnish. The second method of inlaying consists in sketching the ornament or design with some kind of varnish not acted upon by acid, upon the piece of the shell ground and polished upon revolving wheels, as in the other case, and then etching away the surrounding unpolished portions by means of an acid. This process possesses several advan- tages, one of which is that it is much cheaper than where the design is cut out by hand. But little taste has been exhibited in the decoration of English papier-mache goods, and they have been for the most part vulgar and tawdry in design and execution. Even the Japanese, with all their good taste and artistic skill, have lately imitated closely our style of papier-mache work, without any of that refinement and originality of design of which they are so capable. The survey thus taken of the various uses of pearl shells will serve to show how extensive is the range of applications to which they are put, and how important and valuable the commerce in an article of this kind may become. Every day develops some new use for mother-of- pearl, and although the material is not one on which any great artistic skill can be displayed, still trade ingenuity 382 The Commercial Products of the Sea. and inventive genius are being constantly devoted to its utilization. We may now turn to a few details of the commerce in pearl shells. It was only in 1853 that mother-of-pearl shells were deemed of sufficient importance to appear in the Board of Trade returns. The imports from that period to 1870 were as follows. No official returns have, however, been published since : Cwts. Value. 1853 15,480 1854 36,644 88,305 1855 20,120 34,634 1856 42,032 76,544 1857 34,324 57,819 1858 25,108 60,448 1859 40,003 67,859 1860 30,054 1862 25,442 1863 ... ,.. 20,322 1864 ... ... 19,415 1865 27,262 1866 24,022 1867 36,175 1868 32,002 1869 37,662 1870 26,197 59,707 38,677 35,3^ 30,416 42,663 41,746 70,426 64,869 94,0! 5 76,489 In the time of the Jesuit missionaries the pearl fishery was actively carried on, and produced great wealth to the people of Lower California. The value of the shells is sufficient to pay the expense of the fishing, leaving the pearls which may be obtained as clear gain. The best pearl-bearing shells are found at between 14 and 18 fathoms, but locality has, apparently, much influence both on the shell and the pearl, not only in quantity but also in quality. At some of the islands, the banks, even in shallow water, are quite choice in their yield, while at others, as in the Isle de Puercos, the shells are tortuous Mot her -of -Pear I and its Uses. 383 and blistered, with dark spots, and but lightly esteemed in the markets of Europe. Not only are they found at the islands, but all along the shores of the mainland, and it is generally believed that a series of deposits exists from the Gulf of Darien to that of California. In the waters of the latter place, and along the shores of Central Mexico and Costa Rica, fishers of shell have for a long time enjoyed a profitable employment. Thirteen or fourteen tons of pearl shell were shipped from Guayaquil in 1871. The upper portions of the cathedral and some of the churches of Panama are studded with mother-of-pearl shells, which give them a quaint and striking aspect under the reflection of the sun's rays. In many of the houses at Manila, also, the outer side of the verandah is composed of coarse and dark-coloured mother-of-pearl shells and paper oyster shells set in a wooden framework of small squares, forming windows which move on slides. Although the light admitted through this sort of window is much inferior to what glass would give, the material has the advantage of being strong, and is not very liable to be damaged by the severe weather to which it is occasionally exposed during some months of the year. From the province of Chiriqui several shipments have at sundry times been made by merchants of Panama, of shells obtained from deposits in that neighbourhood, and boatmen who bring the ordinary edible oyster to market there assert that banks of the pearl-bearing mollusc, at not very distant intervals, abound in every direction on the coast. The small shells, of which many thousands are taken out and cast away, are of no value ; but the full-grown and well-matured shells, rich in their iridescent nacreous beauties, are in high estimation and of 384 The Commercial Products of the Sea. superior market worth. The fishery has not been prose- cuted with that vigour it might be, in consequence of the fear entertained of sharks, sword-fish, alligators, and other ravenous monsters which infest the shores of the coasts, but which are so comparatively rare about the islands as not to create great alarm among the divers. Several attempts have been made within the last quarter of a century, by companies and individuals, to employ diving-bells and apparatus, but in every instance some fault or difficulty has occurred to discourage the efforts. Besides FIG. 28. Diving for pearl shells at Panama. the obstructions caused by the irregularities of the sea bottom to a complete adjustment of the machines, much inconvenience was experienced in moving about from bank to bank, it being necessary on every occasion to unship the derricks and other fixtures, so as to enable the vessel to be sailed from one fishing ground to another. The diving armour met with no favour among the natives, who could not be induced to adopt it. The fishery for mother-of-pearl shells has now been carried on upon the California coast in the vicinity of Santa Barbara for some 10 or 12 years past, and is also Mother- of -Pear I and its Uses. 385 prosecuted on the southern coast. Immense quantities of pearl shells are at present used in the United States in the manufacture of buttons, card-cases, portmonnaies, and other fancy articles. Many of the islands about the Cali- fornia coast are literally covered with the finest shells for this purpose found in the world. On the shores of Anacapa, off Santa Cruz, a few men easily load a schooner. Shells for ornament are equally appreciated by the aboriginal races, and some of their modes of application for decorative purposes are effective and curious. Many of the Dyaks of Borneo wear a large polished pearl shell appended in front to their corslet, and their shields are ornamented with these shells. In the ethnological room of the British Museum many examples of the uses of pearl shell by the Pacific Islanders may be seen. There is espe- cially worthy of notice an elaborate corslet from Polynesia, studded with mother-of-pearl shells, and beautifully orna- mented with a kind of deep swinging fringe made of minute pieces of pearl shell, skilfully cut and threaded together, evidencing great skill and ingenuity in the absence of European tools and appliances. The Pacific Islander plunges beneath the waves to seek the joints of his simple necklace, or to supply his brothers of the Western World with highly prized material for more elaborate ornaments. The glittering ear-shell and mother-of-pearl furnish the New Zealanders and Fijians with attractive fish-hooks to ensnare their prey. The export of mother-of-pearl from Manila was, in 1874, 1035 piculs of 133 Ibs. each; and in 1875, I37 piculs. Bold white shells from Manila realized at the London sales in January, 1876, 12 to 12 5.9. ; bold and medium kinds, 11 78,062 In America and the West Indies the black population have a great fancy for coral. Morocco buys largely, and so does India. The caravans transport bijous and jewels fashioned of it to the interior. There, according to religious custom, the dead carry with them to the tomb the ornaments they have worn in their lifetime, and each year sees buried a quantity of coral, more or less consider- able, which has to be replaced. Coral manufactories em- ploying a large number of workmen exist at Marseilles. The exports of manufactured coral from Europe were stated in 1862 to be of the value of 15,000,000 francs (600,000), of which Marseilles made about 2,000,000 francs. As few persons have access to the bulky returns con- stituting the Blue Books of the Board of Trade, which give the statistics of the annual imports of various articles into the United Kingdom, it may be desirable to condense the figures as regards coral, so as to furnish a retrospect of the commerce in this marine product. The three items enumerated in the returns are " Coral in fragments," " Coral, whole, polished or unpolished/' and " Coral negligees'' 446 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Coral beads are also imported done up into strings of assorted sizes, making five necklaces, also in large bundles of 36 strings assorted, weighing 135 ounces troy. A most objectionable procedure in the coral trade is the practice of attaching to the beads great masses of raw silk and cotton at the ends, amounting to fully 30 per cent, of the weight, and as coral is sold by the ounce, this is an absolute fraud on the buyer. The official statements of the imports of coral into the kingdom are no reliable criterion of the actual value of the trade, because it is chiefly the coarse and rough coral that is entered at the Custom House ; merchants, jewellers, and, indeed, private indi- viduals, who purchase in the Mediterranean the finer kinds of coral, and jewellery made of it, do not trust it in cases as merchandise, but bring it in their personal baggage. The aggregate net value of all the coral imported, ac- cording to the Customs returns, never reaches 50,000 in the year, and, indeed, in the last years of which we have any official record it was under 18,000 or 20,000; but this is a very fallacious statement, for probably the value of the coral exceeds 100,000 a year. Taking, however, only the computed official value of that entered at the Customs, there was received in England, between 1860 and 1870, coral of different kinds valued at upwards of 300,000. In weight the quantity of the several kinds imported varies considerably. Thus, of coral in fragments, some- times, as in 1856 and 1861, 14,000 to 16,000 Ibs. weight are received, in ordinary years the average is not half that amount. Of whole, or perfect pieces, the quantity ranges from 400 to 1000 Ibs. Of negligees, the quantity has declined considerably. In 1859 about 3000 Ibs. weight came in, but the last few years it has only averaged Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 447 500 to 600 Ibs. In beads there is the same fluctation in the quantity. Some years from 3000 to 4000 Ibs. come in ; of late years there is only an average of 1000 Ibs. These figures represent merely the merchant's coral for re-export, and furnish no estimate whatever of the choice coral of fashion, which depends for its value entirely on the gold- smith's and jeweller's art in arranging and setting, variety, form and style, and represents a value far surpassing all that has been quoted. It comprises articles of beauty and imagination which defy any detailed description, and which even illustration could not do justice to. Coral beads were always favourite ornaments in this country. In the inventory of one John Post (who died in 1524), "late y e king's servant," in the churchwarden's accompts of St. Mary-at-Hill, London, we find the following items: "ij- oz. of corall, 2s. 6d.\ jewels for her body, a pair of corall bedes, gaudyed with gaudes of silver and gilt, 10 oz. at $s. 4^., i 13^. 4^." a goodly price in those days. Various handsome parures of coral have been shown from time to time at the different International Exhibi- tions. Some very fine specimens of red* coral in the natural state were exhibited in the Algerian Court at the London Exhibition in 1862. The Ionian Islands also exhibited some small specimens of coral from Ithaca. From New Caledonia a substance having some resem- blance to coral was also shown under the name of "rose coral." A set of pink coral shown at the Dublin Exhibition in 1865, consisting of a tiara, bracelets, solitaires, comb, earrings, brooch, necklace, and pendant, was valued at ;iooo, though the value was represented almost alone by the coral. Signer Gismondi, the designer and carver of 448 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the set of ornaments had, it was stated, been 20 years collecting the pieces inserted therein. Of the carving of the coral into flowers and foliage, it need only be said that it was as delicate as it was bold and deep, and sustained the reputation of the Italians for skill in glyptics. Guiseppe Martucci, of Naples, also showed at the Dublin International Exhibition in 1865 an arabesque coral handle for a parasol, eight inches long, carved in relief out of a single piece, with fruit, animals, leaves, etc., valued at j2. The International Maritime Exhibition held in 1871 at Naples, the head-quarters of the coral dredging and working operations, afforded an admirable opportunity for displaying some of the finest specimens of natural and artistic productions. On that occasion the leading coral workers and jewellers sent magnificent examples. Mr. Phillips, being a commissioner, was placed hors concours. Casalta and Morabito exhibited coral sets valued at from 9000 to 16,000 Italian lire or francs ; but their best work was a walking-stick, with a carved handle of coral weighing 100 grammes, and a fine string of pale white coral. Some of the carving and workmanship shown by Michele Piscione and others were very fine. Ascioni Brothers had a magni- ficent collection of works in pink and white coral, and especially the carved hilt of a dagger. At the Paris Exhibition of 1878, in the Italian section, magnificent carvings in pink coral were shown by Luigi Casalta, Giacinto Melillo, Nicolo Piscione, Guiseppe Giojuzzi, and Rocco Morabito, of Naples. The value of ordinary red coral fluctuates much at the seat of the fisheries. In 1867 it was only worth 30^. the pound, and occasionally it is worth 2 the pound. The variation in price arises in some degree from the different Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 449 qualities of the coral, but also from special circumstances which the markets of distant countries cause, the sale of coral being much smaller in Europe than elsewhere. The fishermen, however, have attained to a degree of shrewd- ness and overreaching which is very remarkable. If, for instance, they are successful in finding a fine branch of the coveted pale rose coral, they will not dispose of it alone, but make it the medium for getting rid of their whole stock, covenanting that the purchaser shall take the entire lot for some fixed sum. The purchase of coral by the dealer becomes, therefore, quite a lottery ; for until the bark, as it is technically termed, is removed, he knows not what is the condition of the coral. Much of it may be rotten or worm-eaten, and only very little of it solid and of a useful character for working up. The most ancient seat of exploration for coral was Sicily. In the time of Cosmo I. of Medici, it was intro- duced by this prince at Pisa, where Sicilian workmen were located, and where, up to the present day, as well as in Leghorn, there is a certain trade in coral. Trapani has, however, always been the great seat of art manufacture in coral, and some masterly pieces of work, mythological and religious subjects, have been turned out there. Indeed, a royal coral factory was established and encouraged at Portici, near Naples, by Murat, during his sovereignty. His Grace the Duke of St. Albans possesses a fine carved head in coral, evidently of Greek workmanship, which proves that this material for artistic purposes is of very ancient origin. The value of the coral annually obtained from Sardinia is about 60,000, which, after deducting all expenses, leaves a net profit of ; 13,000. The quantity exported 2 G 45 o The Commercial Products of the Sea. ranges from 200,000 to 250,000 Ibs. It is chiefly found in the shallow waters near Carloforte, Alghero, a province situated on the west coast, and the island of Maddalena. At Alghero, where the growth of coral is the most plentiful, about 190 vessels, manned by 1930 sailors, are employed in the fishery from March till October. This industry annually acquires larger importance, and the fishing is prosecuted with increased energy. The greater part of the boats employed are Italian, and they take to Genoa r Leghorn, and Naples their produce, which forms one of the principal branches of the trade of the peninsula. The barks sent to the fishing are solid and well adapted for the labour ; their rig is a great lateen sail and a jib or stay-sail. The stern is reserved for the capstan, the fishers, and the crew. The fore part of the vessel is fitted for the requirements of the patron or master. The lines, wood, and irons employed in the coral fisheries are called the engine. It consists of a cross of wood formed of two bars, strongly lashed or bolted together at their centre ; below this a great stone is attached which bears the lines, arranged in the form of a sack. These lines have great meshes, loosely knotted together, resembling the well-known swab. The apparatus carries 30 of these sacks, which are intended to grapple all they come in contact with at the bottom of the sea. They are spread out in all directions by the movement of the boat. The coral is known to attach itself to the summit of a rock and to develop itself, forming banks there, and it is to these rocks that the swab attaches itself so as to tear up the precious harvest. Experience, which in time becomes almost intuitive, guides the Italian fisher in discovering the coral banks. The craft employed in the great fishery have Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 451 a " patron " or captain, the bark having a poop, with a crew of eight or ten sailors ; and, in the season, the fishery is continued night and day. When the patron thinks that he has reached a coral bank he throws his engine overboard. As soon as the apparatus is attached, the speed of the vessel is retarded, the capstan is manned by six or eight men, while the others guide the helm or trim the sails. Two forces are thus brought to act upon the lines the horizontal action of the vessel and the vertical action of the capstan. In con- sequence of the many inequalities of the rocky bottom, the engine advances by jerks ; the vessel yielding more or less, according to the concussion caused by the action of the capstan or sail. The engine seizes upon the rugged rocks at the bottom and raises them to let them fall again. In this manner the swab, floating about, penetrates beneath the rocks where the coral is found, and is hooked on to it. To fix the lines upon the coral and bring them home is a work of unheard-of labour. The engine long resists the most energetic and repeated efforts of the crew, who, ex- posed almost naked to the burning sun of the Mediter- ranean, work the capstan to which the cable and engine are attached, while the patron urges and excites them to increased exertion, and the sailors trim the sail and sing, with a slow and monotonous tone, a song the words of which improvise in a sort of psalmody the names of the saints most revered among the seafaring Italian population. The lines are finally brought home, tearing and breaking blocks of rocks, sometimes of enormous size, which are brought on board. The cross is now placed on the side of the vessel, the lines are arranged on the deck, and the crew occupy themselves in collecting the results of their labour. 452 The Commercial Products of the Sea. The coral is gathered together ; the branches of precious zoophyte are cleansed and divested of the shells and other parasitic products which accompany them ; finally, the produce is carried to and sold in the ports of Messina, Naples, Genoa, and Leghorn, where the workers in jewellery purchase them. The boats employed are of two classes. One kind, by far the most numerous, is composed of vessels of from ii to 16 tons burden, with crews of 12 to 14 men. They are all fitted out at Torre del Greco, under the Italian flag, and fish during the months of February and March. The second class includes craft of from three to six tons burden, under the French flag, although they are almost entirely manned by Italian seamen. Their crews consist of five or six men, and they continue at sea most part of the year. The boats fish on the coasts of Africa and Sardinia, at a distance of 15 to 30 miles from shore, only returning to port in case of urgent necessity. They work night and day without intermission ; half of the crew relieve the other half every six hours. The larger class of vessels is fast superseding the small, and it is calculated that there are now about 200 of the larger vessels employed, with 2400 men. The seamen receive from 20 to ,24 each per annum, and the masters about twice that amount. The entire value and equipage of a large boat, including drag- nets, stores, and six months' wages, may be estimated at about 550. Such a boat may probably collect from 650 to 850 Ibs. of coral in the season. Hitherto the fishery has been conducted on the old primitive method of the drag-net or rough dredge, formed of a cross of wood with a quantity of hemp attached, to tear up the coral. One would have supposed, with the enhanced value which coral now commands, some efforts Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 453 would have been made to improve the processes for pro- curing the branches from the sea bottom. The diving-bell has been attempted for coral fishing, but, like the pearl fisheries, it does not succeed. An Italian named Foseli has, however, been lately experimenting with a submarine vessel of his invention intended for coral fishing. It was tried satisfactorily at Boza, in the Bay of Naples, in the presence of leading men of the Italian naval, scientific, and civil service. The invention consists of wrought-iron plates divided into three compartments, of which the lowest contains 1000 Ibs. of ballast ; the second or middle chamber is prepared to accommodate two persons ; the third or uppermost chamber is filled with compressed air. This compressed air, by means of in- genious machinery, is capable of supplying means sufficient to sustain the life of two persons for 50 hours. At one of the late experiments, this vessel descended to a distance of 38 fathoms below the surface of the water, and remained submerged for 22\ minutes, without the slightest discomfort being experienced by the navigators. The specific gravity of the ballast serves to retain the vessel in an upright position, and peculiarly simple machinery enables it to move in any direction. An attached illuminating arrange- ment renders objects within a large area perfectly visible. Other varieties of the machine, for sponge and pearl fish- ing, requiring a deeper descent, are designed by the inventor. The Spanish fishermen collect, off the Cape Verde Islands, about 24,760 Ibs. of coral, of the value of ^"20,000. On the south coast of Corsica, coral of various qualities is found in large quantities. The coral fishery is entirely in the hands of the Italians. About 60 boats are employed annually ; each boat, fishing on an average for six months, 454 The Commercial Products of the Sea. obtains from four to six hundredweight of coral in the rough, which is at once carried over to Italy. Coral is found in more or less abundance along the coast of the Regency of Tunis, Algiers, and the shores of Morocco. The French Government, between 1806 and 1824, made repeated attempts to renew its engagements with Tunis for a monopoly of the coral fishing, but it was not until 1852 that France obtained the exclusive privilege over the coral fisheries in the Tunisian waters for the annual payment of ^355- The coral found on the Barbary coast is principally red, but white and black, as well as the much-prized pink, also exist. The latter kind is most frequently obtained on the Galita and Fratelli rock banks. There are about 90 coral fishing-boats at La Calle and 20 at Bona, chiefly owned by Italians, three or four only being the property of Maltese, who reside permanently in Algeria. From 80 to 100 vessels fitted out at Torre del Greco arrive yearly at the proper season at La Calle, and 50 or 60 make Biserta their fishing station. The coral fishery is but little practised by the French, although a few boats follow this industry in the Mediterranean ; several of them use the diving apparatus to collect the coral. The exports from Algeria are valued annually at about 80,000. There are about 6000 Italians and Spaniards engaged in the Algerian fishery. The French sailors do not like the hard work and short food. On the Algerian coast the number of boats engaged in this fishery has averaged of late years about 300, more than two-thirds of which are Italian. The quantity of coral obtained it is difficult to state precisely, but according to the declarations of the fishermen it would appear to average 35,000 kilogrammes. Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 455 The coral is here divided on arrival into several cate- gories, of which the following are the principal : 1. Dead or rotten coral. In this class is included the roots adhering to the rock and covered with stony particles and vegetable encrustations. The value ranges from 5 to 20 francs the kilogramme. 2. Black coral. This kind, with a polished black tint, is employed for making mourning jewellery ; if of good quality it fetches from 12 to 15 francs the kilogramme, or more. 3. Coral in case. This name is given to coral which has been assorted and cleaned when taken from the sea, and consists of branches of all sizes. It is worth from 45 to 70 francs the kilogramme. 4. Choice coral. This is the finest selected coral, in large branches, which the fishermen sell separately as high as 400 or 500 francs the kilogramme, according as the stems are more or less straight, and of handsome appearance. The expenses and returns from the coral fishery in this locality are thus estimated by M. Lacaze-Duthiers : * A large boat of 15 or 16 tons, manned by 12 men, involves on an average an outlay of 11,000 francs for a season of six months. A boat which obtains in the season 250 kilo- grammes of coral, at 50 francs, covers its expenses. A boat which obtains 300 kilogrammes realizes, according to the quality of the coral, a profit of 2000 to 3000 francs. The fishery with the diving-bell is much more advanta- geous. The same author estimates the annual yield of the coral fishery on the coasts of Algiers and Tunis at 2,500,000 francs, and the value of the produce when worked up at 12,000,000 francs ; so that the fishery, the working, and * " Natural History of Coral," I vol., large 8vo., coloured plates. Paris, J. Bailliere and Son. 1864. 456 The Commercial Products of the Sea. the sale of coral gives employment to a good deal of capital. A year or two ago a new coral reef was discovered on the coast of Palmi in Calabria, and the local sailors fished up a large quantity of rose-coloured coral of good quality, and many pieces of considerable size were obtained. The reputation of the bank soon drew the attention of the bold fishers of Torre del Greco, and three boats were forthwith equipped and sent there, and did well. Imitations of coral have been tried, but with not very great success. A few years ago coraline, a tolerably cheap substitute, was very common for beads, bracelets, etc., and might be seen in the galleries of the Palais Royal, Paris, and other shops where cheap jewellery is sold. Although it imitated tolerably well the rose-pink coral, yet the artificial beads were too regular, smooth, and uniform to pass muster among those who had any knowledge of the true marine product, and it is scarcely seen now. Even the natives of the East, who are thought to be shrewd and well- informed on all matters of gems and jewellery, may occa- sionally be imposed upon. Strings of large coral beads of uniform size, 100 on a string, are in great demand for chaplets in parts of Asia, and a visit was once paid to the shop of Messrs. Phillips by a number of distinguished foreigners, who admired the beauty and proportions of the chaplets submitted to them, but expressed unbounded astonishment at the price asked. Not long after their de- parture they came back, expressing great indignation at the imposition attempted to be practised on them, declaring that they had purchased a similar article for one-tenth or one-twelfth the price asked, and they exposed numerous strings of coraline. They were asked to put the two articles to the test with a knife, and the true coral was, of Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 457 course, unassailable, while the artificial composition splin- tered and broke. The result was an appeal to the police court for redress for the fraud that had been practised on them. Ivory beads are sometimes dyed to imitate coral ; but this seems a sad waste of good material, the natural ivory being preferable to the tinted. A coral bank of superior quality was discovered, in the middle of May, 1875, by a Sicilian fisherman, in the waters of Sciacca. As the fishermen there were not familiar with this mode of fishing, they invited the fishermen of Torre del Greco and of the port of Empedocle to come over and instruct them, at the same time offering them a share of the profits. Soon all the boats of the neighbouring coasts arrived at the bank, which caused such frays that the authorities judged it necessary to station a man-of-war there. The bank, about 550 yards in length in the direction of west-south-west by east-north-east, and about 30 yards in thickness, yielded at first rich supplies : a small boat with eight men collected from 30 to 40 Ibs. of coral a day ; the coral sold at us. per lb., less five per cent, tare, so that each boat showed a daily gain of 20. But the bank was gradually exhausted, and the coral diminished in value ; by the i$th of July it had fallen to ?s. per lb., with eight per cent, tare, and towards the end it did not sell for more than 2s. 6d. per lb., with ten per cent. tare. It was estimated that from the ist of June to the 3ist of August, 1875, the quantity of coral fished up amounted to 264,000 Ibs. The coral sold at an average price of JS. per lb., therefore the total fishery brought in 92,400. It is well to note that the fisherman who discovered the' bank only received the small sum of 10 as reward, and 45 8 The Commercial Products of the Sea. this he had to collect halfpenny by halfpenny from the fishermen. Mr. Herries, in a report of 1868 on the industrial con- dition of Italy, stated that there were then 365 boats employed in the coral fishery, of which 267 belonged to Naples, and the rest to Leghorn and other places on the Genoese coasts. These boats employed 2699 men and boys. The value of the produce ranged from ,280 to .320 for each boat during the season. About 1 60 tons of coral are annually brought into Italy, and the articles made of coral, exported, are valued at nearly 500,000. At the Maritime Exhibition held at Naples in 1871, the following statistics were published respecting the Italian coral fishery ; No. of boats. Torre del Greco ... ... ... 300 Leghorn ... ... ... ... 60 Liguria and Sardinia ... ... ... 100 460 The value of the large, boats was 160, and of the smaller ones 80; the collective capital, 71,000. There were from 6 to 12 men employed in each boat, making a total of about 4000. The wages paid was about 80,000, and the provisions came to half as much more. The coral fishery gave employment to some 6000 persons. Each boat, in order to defray the necessary expenses dis- bursed for outfit, provisions, wages, etc., ought to obtain 200 kilogrammes of coral, which, at an average of 2 Ss. the kilogramme, would yield 480. The coral received in the kingdom of Italy was stated to amount to 160,000 'kilogrammes, worth about 380,000. The shops working on coral were stated to be at Torre Coral and the Coral Fisheries. 459 del Greco, 24 ; Leghorn, 1 5 ; Genoa, 20. Later statistics make the boats engaged in the fishery from Torre del Greco 329, and the workshops there, 40. The workmen employed were about 6000, who gained 200,000, or an average of a little more than 35 francs annually. There were 239 boats engaged in the fishery on the Alghero banks, Italy, in 1873, and 159 in 1874. The coral obtained was as follows : Red coral. White coral. Total. Value. 1873 1874 Kilogrammes. 25,384 I2,2OO Kilogrammes. 9536 6758 Kilogrammes. 34,920 2O,Ol8 ;i6o,o8o 93,960 The coral fishery of Cagliari gave employment in 1875 to 1 80 boats, and the produce was below 1,000,000 francs, against 2,350,000 francs obtained in 1874. The manufactured articles sell, of course, at much higher prices than when in the rough state, so that coral is by no means an inconsiderable source of emolument to the Italians. Great quantities, when manufactured, are exported to India, and in Leghorn and Genoa several establishments work exclusively for that distant market, where blood-red coral, the colour of which harmonizes with the dark com- plexions of the native ladies, is particularly in demand. Coral beads of a large size are in high estimation through- out Hindostan, and are usually sold for their weight in silver. Manufactured coral to the value of 208,000 was sent from Brindisi to Egypt in 1873. The following return furnishes the official quantity and value of the imports of coral and coral articles into the 460 The Commercial Products of the Sea. United Kingdom for a series of years. The returns can- not be carried down later than 1 870, as -the Board of Trade has ceased to enumerate coral specially : IMPORTS OF CORAL INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM, OF DIFFERENT KINDS, IN POUNDS WEIGHT. Year. Fragments. Whole. Negligees. Beads. Total. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 1855 2,172 285 1718 1856 13,270 308 2780 1857 28 218 1872 1858 645 397 1840 1859 1,255 621 2955 1860 338 "34 1633 3568 6,673 1861 I5639 84 602 3654 19,979 1862 '1,468 50 1224 1427 4,169 1863 183 3i8 586 1829 2,916 1864 3,617 758 446 3OOO 7,821 1865 1866 2,914 4,439 39i 276 2 5 8 232 994 1385 4,557 6,332 1867 7,539 225 "5 2543 10,422 1868 7,120 262 724 4375 12,481 1869 5,332 786 411 1210 1870 i, 600 418 652 958 COMPUTED NET VALUE OF CORAL IMPORTED ROUGH, NEGLIGEES, BEADS, ETC. 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 38,892 33,403 20,163 22,657 37,659 i3,97o 17,899 29,487 45,395 18,834 14,878 If we take the weight of coral imported, we notice great Coral and the Coral Fisheries. . 461 fluctuations in the annual quantity received. The following are the comparative annual figures : 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 Ibs. 4,175 16,358 2,118 2-*,88 2 4,831 3,105 16,385 2,742 1,087 4,821 3,563 4,947 7,879 8,106 6,529 2,670 The Indian trade in coral in 1875 shows a very slight decrease on that of 1873-74, when it amounted to 66,689 '> but it is slowly recovering from the depression of previous years, that depression having, it is believed, been partly caused by the imposition of a duty of 7^- per cent, in April, 1870. The value of the imports was as follows : 1868-69 1869-70 1870-71 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 ^"93,126 65,285 45,44i 54,894 40,013 66,689 53,558 Though the imposition of the duty probably had an immediate effect in reducing the importations, it must be remarked that the trade is of a variable and fluctuating nature. It is mainly in the hands of a few foreign firms, from whom natives purchase the coral for sale in the interior at great fairs and religious gatherings. Coral forms 462 The Commercial Products of the Sea. a favourite adornment for native children, as well as for adults, in certain classes of the population. The demand for coral depends upon the out-turn of the crops of the year. After an abundant harvest rupees will be freely exchanged for a string of corals to be added to those already worn as a necklace, but in a poor year the coral merchant will find his stock almost unsaleable at any price, and his next importations will consequently be on a very reduced scale. Coral forms a large item of the Indian exports to Thibet. The preference is for round grains pierced, or oval grains with the ends truncated and pierced through the length. A piece as large as a pea fetches its weight in gold, and the price augments with the size. The darkest colours are the most esteemed. In China coral constitutes an important article of trade. Various sorts are imported from Singapore, Sumatra, and the Samar Islands. Red coral is termed skan-ku, the white variety skih-kwa, but the black is more esteemed than any other colour. This is wrought into official buttons and beads, the inferior kinds being made into ear and finger rings. It is powdered and used there in medi- cine and in ophthalmia. Various madrepores and polypes have also a medicinal reputation in China. A bank of coral of great richness is stated to have been discovered on the coasts of Japan. The coral collected is said to possess this peculiarity, that it is white in the centre and at all the lateral points, which are numerous on the branches. It is not, however, likely to prove useful for work- ing up, as it appears to scale or break off. But a small quantity has yet been brought up. The principal fishery was to commence shortly, when more information will be obtained, but it does not appear likely to compete with the coral fished from the coasts of Italy and Sicily. ( 463 ) CHAPTER VL AMBER AND THE AMBER FISHERIES. Source of amber Chemical composition of the resin Uses and application Statistics of imports Diving and fishing for amber Prussian coasts of the Baltic the chief source of supply Statistics of the trade Large speci- mens found Roumanian amber. HAVING dealt with tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, pearls, and coral, we come now to consider a product of a some- what amphibious character, and which, unlike those already treated of, is vegetable in its origin. Still it is largely dredged and fished for on the seashores, and as the greater part is obtained from the sea, it properly comes under the section of " Marine Contributions to Art." Amber is a resinous exudation from an extinct species of conifer, called by Goppert Pinites succinifer. The source of amber was long uncertain ; by some it was considered a carbonaceous mineral. Professor Zaddach shows that the trees which yielded the amber must have grown upon the greensand beds of the cretaceous period, flourishing luxuriantly on the marshy coast which then surrounded the great continent of Northern Europe. Probably the temperature was much higher than it is now; and this even at that epoch ex- tended to the now frost-bound Arctic regions, a fact 464 The Commercial Prodiicts of the Sea. which has been proved by the remarkable plant-remains of temperate climes which have been recently discovered there. The amber flora of the Baltic area under review contains northern forms associated with plants of more temperate zones ; thus camphor-trees (Cinnamomum) occur with willows, birches, beech, and numerous oaks. A species of Thuya, very similar to the American Thuya accident alis> is the most abundant tree amongst the conifers ; next in abundance Widdringtonia, a great variety of pines and firs, including the amber-pine. Thousands of these, it is supposed by the professor, might have perished, and while the wood decayed, the resin with which the stem and branches were loaded might have been accumulated in large quantities, in bogs and lakes, in the soil of the forest. If the coast at that time was gradually sinking, the sea would cover the land, and in due course carry away the amber and masses of vegetable detritus into the ocean, where it was deposited amidst the marine animals which inhabit it. But in higher districts the amber-pine would still flourish, and so amber still continues to be washed into the sea and deposited in the later formed greensand and still later overlying formation of the brown coal. Reboux states that at the eocene epoch the bed of the Baltic Sea was occupied by an immense forest, which spread over nearly the whole northern continent. Dredg- ing carried on at a depth of 64 feet below the sea bottom has brought to light thereby two species of conifers, a poplar, a chestnut, and various other trees. From the conifers, the author thinks, ran the resin which, through being buried in the earth, has become changed into amber. The largest quantity of the gum appears to have been derived from the Pinus succimts. More than 200 speci- mens of objects have been found embedded in the gum, Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 465 including insects, reptiles, plants, leaves, grains, shells, fruit, etc. The density of natural amber varies from 1*09 to rn. Its analysis, according to Schrotter, is : Carbon, 78*82 ; hydrogen, 10*23 ; oxygen, 10-90. Amber is harder than most resins, and is susceptible of a good polish. It was known to the ancients, and called "electrum," on account of its electrical susceptibility; it was also engraved and used by the ancients for seals. It occurs abundantly on the Prussian coast of the Baltic, from Dantzic to Memel. It is also found on the coast of Denmark and Sweden ; in Gallicia, Poland, Moravia, the Ural ; Switzerland, near Basle ; France, near Paris ; near London ; in various parts of Asia, and in the greensand of New Jersey ; also in Japan. It is chiefly obtained from Prussia, and is not very abundant in other countries. With it are found fragments of lignite, and it frequently contains insects of extinct species embedded in its sub- stance ; it is also marked with the impression of branches and bark. It is sometimes thrown up in great quantities after storms. It contains a volatile oil, two resins (soluble in alcohol and ether), succinic acid, and an insoluble bitu- minous substance. For ages amber has been valued for ornamental pur- poses, such as necklaces, bracelets, brooches, crosses, ear- drops, silver links, and the like. It was also formerly much used for inlaying cabinets and ladies' jewel-cases, and a large picture frame inlaid with it was shown at the Naples Maritime Exhibition. The cloudy or milk-white amber, not that which is clear, is held in the highest esteem. The light-green variety, and that which is of one perfectly uniform colour throughout, are exceptions to this rule. 2 H 466 The Commercial Products of the Sea. The beauty and hardness of amber have caused it to be long esteemed by smokers for mouthpieces of pipes and tubes for cigar-holders. In the fine and extensive collec- tion of pipes, etc., belonging to W. Bragge, Esq., shown at the London Exhibition, South Kensington, in 1872, there were some very large amber mouth-pieces for hookahs, both clouded and clear ; also in the case of Mr. F. Kapp, of 62, Dean Street, Soho. In Turkey, as much as ,300 has been given for a very fine mouthpiece. I recently saw at the shop of Messrs. Phillips, Cockspur Street, a magni- ficent pair of amber tubes or mouth-pieces attached to hookahs. The Turks esteem amber for mouthpieces, in the belief that no infectious disease can be communicated through it ; the Germans now prefer it for its rich colour and its soft, waxy feeling in the mouth. Its value differs greatly, according to its tint and opacity, and herein a novice would be easily deceived. The bright yellow trans- parent amber is least valuable, however it may catch the eye. Dark, nearly opaque yellow has a much higher value, and the best of all is the opaque lemon-coloured. Mr. J. J. Jeans, the British vice-consul at Catania, showed at the Dublin International Exhibition in 1865 an amber neck- lace, consisting of 21 large flattened beads and 22 small ones. The ornament was of considerable mineralogical interest, the amber being found on the banks of the Simeto, a little river watering the plain of Catania. The specimen showed various colours of this rare substance bright red, wine red, reddish yellow, and bluish. According to recent accounts, one of the Shah of Persia's most esteemed talismans or amulets is a cube of amber reported to have fallen from heaven in Mahomet's time. It is worn round his neck, and is supposed to render Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 467 him invulnerable. The small and waste pieces of amber form the base of an excellent varnish, and the source of succinic acid. The trade in amber to this country would appear to be largely on the increase. In the five years ending 1853, our imports of rough amber averaged about 43 cwts. ; in 1867 they reached 60 cwts., and in 1870 had risen to 329 cwts. Besides this, we import a consider- able quantity of manufactured amber in beads, mouthpieces, etc. The average annual value of the amber, as declared in the last six years, is about 2,400, but this is far below its real value. Amber beads, again, are mixed with the general item " Beads " in the official imports. Amber often contains insects, flies, ants, spiders, etc., embedded in the resin, some of which are so delicately formed that they could not have been thus enclosed except in a fluid mass, such as a volatile oil or natural balsam. They occur also frequently in the courbaril resin of South America, in Indian dammar and anime, and in copal from Accra, West Africa. Amber is found in primary deposits on the coast of East Prussia. The amber-bearing stratum, which lies partly below the sea level, partly above, is a bluish-green colour, and consists of a coarse-grained sand, whose particles have a yellow coating. In this blue earth is found the amber to the amount of one kilogramme per 20 cubic feet. The pieces of amber found are generally weathered, but have retained their original shape, showing that the sea has had but little action on them. The colour is far from constant, being of all shades of yellow and brown. The amber-dredging establishment at Schwarzort, on the Curish Haff (near to Memel), produces about 80,000 to 90,000 Ibs. of amber every year, and is still in the hands of a Konigsberg firm, which keeps its transactions very secret. 468 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Four steam-dredges are employed for the collection of the amber, as well as a considerable number of dredges worked by hand. The amber is found almost uniformly in separate nodules, with lignite, disseminated in the sand, at a depth of from 10 to 12 feet. The dredging is carried on day and night, by "shifts" of men, working eight hours each. About 400 persons are so employed, and their wages are, on the average, 2s. 6d. per shift. The quantity of amber collected is considerable, amounting to about 288 Ibs. per shift, and for six days' work 51,184 Ibs. The sand, after being dredged up, is sent on shore, where it is washed, in order to find the amber. The method of obtaining amber from its ocean place of deposit in other parts is much on the principle of the ordinary submarine diving-dress. A woollen garment covers the entire body of the diver. This is again encom- passed by an india-rubber dress, made in one piece, but differing in shape from the old-fashioned diving-dress, and allowing the diver to lie at full length. The helmet, also, is of a novel construction. Firmly fastened to it, and rest- ing on the shoulders, is a small air-chest, made of sheet- iron. This last is connected with the air-pump in the boat above by an india-rubber tubing, 40 feet long, and with the diver's lungs by another india-rubber tube, the mouthpiece of which is held by the diver between his teeth ; the whole apparatus being scientifically arranged so as to admit a sufficient supply of pure air from above, and means of exit for the expired breath. The helmet is provided with three openings, covered with glass and protected by wire, for the use of the eyes and mouth. When this contrivance has been screwed on to the person of the diver, a rope tied round his waist, and half a hundred-weight of lead attached to his feet, shoulders, and helmet, he is ready for his plunge. Down, Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 469 fathoms deep, he descends into the amber world. He stays there, maybe, for five hours at a time, hooking, dragging, tearing the amber from its bed with his heavy two-pronged fork. Often it resists his utmost efforts. However cold the weather may be, these men of iron strength will come up from their submarine labours streaming with perspira- tion. The overseer stands in the boat to receive the amber from their pockets. In case he should wish to ascend before the usual time, the diver has to close his mouth and breathe five or six times through his nostrils, by this means filling the apparatus with air, which will bring him to the surface without other assistance. The diving-boats are manned by eight men each two divers, two pairs of men who work the air-pumps alter- nately, with their eyes fixed on a dial-plate, by which the supply of air is nicely indicated, one man to hold the safety-rope attached round the diver's body, and haul him at the slightest sign from below, and the overseer. At the Vienna Exhibition, 1873, some interesting diving apparatus was shown, as used on the eastern coast of Prussia, for obtaining amber. This apparatus, which received a gold medal at the Moscow Exhibition of 1872, is constructed on the system of MM. Rouxquayrol-Denay- roux ; some alterations and improvements having, however, been introduced, so as to give greater safety. The air is transmitted to the diver through long india-rubber tubes, by means of an easily transportable air-pump, with two cylinders. These tubes, which are strengthened by spiral wires, conduct the air to a regulator carried on the diver's back. The completely air and water tight dress of the diver is connected by an india-rubber ring with a copper helmet, or also with a mask, the helmet and mask being provided with strongly grated windows. The helmet is 470 The Commercial Products of the Sea. used for works under water in which the head of the diver has to be kept upright (repairing ships, for instance), while the mask is adopted for researches and examinations on the sea bottom. A great advantage of this arrangement is that the diver has always a certain reserve quantity of air in the regulator, so that a falling off in the supply of air is not connected with immediate danger or disadvantages for him. The supply of air to the diver is regulated by a peculiarly con- structed valve, by means of which the pressure, under which the air is supplied, corresponds always with the depth of the water in which the diver is acting. The air coming from the diver is not allowed to mix with the fresh supply of air, but escapes to the surface through a side-port closed by an india-rubber valve. The diver is able to increase or diminish his specific weight by simply altering the volume of air between his dress and body ; and, in this manner, it is in his power to ascend or descend as he likes. Amber constitutes an important article of trade on the Dantzic coast, and it is exported, both in pieces and worked, to Austria, France, and the East. This trade is completely in the hands of a few families. The principal deposit is found on the coast of Samland, from Pillau to Gross Hubnicken. In this space of three miles the ex- traction of amber is farmed by the Government. The annual yield is about 200,000 Ibs. The produce is classed into six qualities, according to the size and quality of the pieces. The largest piece known is 13! inches long by eight and a half inches wide, and three to six inches thick. It weighs 13 \ Ibs., and is in the Berlin Museum. At the Great Exhibition of 1851, two pieces were shown, for beauty and Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 471 size, from Konigsberg, weighing respectively four and a half and six pounds. In 1854 a bed of yellow amber of considerable extent was discovered at Prague, in sinking a well, and pieces weighing two and three pounds were extracted. The trade in this article is annually increasing in im- portance, and as a very large part of all the amber appear- ing in the various markets of the world is supplied by the province of Prussia, including the neighbouring district of Memel, it may be interesting to give a short account of its appearance in that part of Germany. Mr. Ward, the British vice-consul at Memel, in a recent official report, furnishes some full details as to the trade. In the western portion of the province of Prussia amber is found, not only on the seashore, but also in the moun- tainous ranges of the interior. Excepting, however, in rare cases of its appearance in so-called " nests," amber is only to be met with in isolated pieces in the latter localities, so that the profit arising from the amber diggings amongst the hills is but a very moderate one, and may be estimated at about double the amount paid by the proprietors for the wages of the diggers. In East Prussia, however, and especially in that part called the Samland, amber is more abundant, and, during the prevalence of certain winds, is frequently thrown upon the shore by the sea in large quan- tities. It is collected there as well as fished for in the surf, as also dug out of the sand hillocks running along the seacoast. In these sand hillocks regular beds of amber are found enclosed in a soil of blue clay, which is to be met with at an average depth of about 100 feet, in a thick- ness of 25 to 30 feet. It is stated that out of some diggings established in those parts, 4500 Ibs. of amber were raised in the course of four months of the year 1869. 47 2 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Diggings of ^is kind exist at present in various spots of the Samland, more especially at Wanzen, Sassan, Gros- kuhren, Kleinkuhren, Kraxtepellen, Kreislacken, and Hub- nicken. Besides these works there are other establishments at Brusterort, where amber is obtained by divers from the bottom of the sea, and at Schwarzort, near Memel, where it is raised by dredging for it at the bottom of the Curish Haff. Its importance and size have of late years increased considerably, and at present about 80,000 Ibs. of amber are annually obtained by it. The total amount of amber obtained during the year 1869 was about 150,000 Ibs., the value of which may be taken at about 82,500. The quantity collected (by fishing for it) in the sea and upon the shore is about equal to that raised by the digging and dredging works. Accord- ing to the opinion of competent persons, the produce of the diggings could be increased considerably by working them upon a regular mining system. Apart from the fact that no certain knowledge has hitherto been arrived at as to the actual extent of the amber-fields in the blue clay and these fields exist, most probably, not only in the vicinity of the seacoast, but also in the interior of the Samland, and even beyond that district and the frontiers of Eastern Prussia it is most likely that below the stratum of clay to which the diggings are at present confined, there are other strata in which amber would be met with. This supposition is based upon the circumstance that consider- able quantities of amber have been found amongst the soil washed away by the sea, during heavy gales, from shore portions of the coastal sand-hills which lie below the layer of blue clay first alluded to. The prices of the principal kinds of amber are stated by an official report to be about as follows : Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 473 s. d. ... 66 o ... 45 o 30 o 19 6 12 O 9 o beads ... ... ... ... 30 o ,, ... 18 o 12 o i Ib. of 9 pieces for pipe mouthpieces 18 40 60 100 200 30 60 The prices of larger (so-called cabinet) pieces are sub- ject to great fluctuations, and are fixed by the increase or decrease of demand from the East ; and the prices of the commoner kinds seldom vary more than about 10 per cent. The chief seat of the retail amber trade is Dantzic ; the wholesale trade is at present in the hands of only two or three firms in the province of Prussia. The working of the Prussian amber into mouthpieces, beads, etc., is likewise carried on at Dantzic, but also in other large cities. Amber is sent chiefly to Vienna, London, Paris, Moscow, and New York, in all of which cities the Prussian merchants keep agents, who are supplied with stocks of this article, assorted according to the requirements of the place. Great progress has lately been made with regard to the sorting of the various kinds of amber. There are now no less than 50 distinct kinds, differing in size, colour, hardness, and clearness. It is owing partly to this circumstance, and partly to the growing extent of the demand, that an in- crease in the sale of amber continues to take place. The demand from South Germany, Russia, the Danubian princi- palities, and the East in general, as compared with the comparatively limited amount hitherto obtainable, will, it is thought, prevent any increase of production from acting pre- judicially on the gross profits of the trade in this article. 474 The Commercial Products of the Sea. Considering, moreover, the almost entire absence of mineral products in this part of Prussia, and the importance of opening additional channels of employment for the inhab- itants, the Konigsberg Chamber of Commerce strongly recommends the introduction of the system above alluded to, by which the amber diggings might be extended, and worked upon a regular mining principle. Amber is found in beds of lignite in various other coun- tries, more particularly in the Adriatic, on the Sicilian shore. In oriental commerce it is carried into India from Japan, the Philippines, and Madagascar. A considerable quantity of false amber, or copal, is imported into Canton annually, the imports averaging about 1 87 cwts. per quarter. The greater portion comes from the eastern coast of Africa. Its value in China was formerly very great for incense and for making ornaments. Transparent yellow pieces are considered the best by the Chinese ; but the colour ranges from black and yellow through red and white. The price in the East, as here, varies according to size and quality. In Prussia amber is divided into two classes, Fliesen and the Erd Bernstein ; the former being found in water and the latter in mines. The Erd Bernstein amber is the most valuable, being hard and of a uniform colour. Amber is manufactured at Trinley, a village within two miles of the English coast, and distant ten miles from Ipswich. It is there made into crosses, bracelets, and other personal ornaments, and one family has been engaged in it for the last 30 years. The amber is procured by poor persons, who pick it up after wintry storms on the coast between Landguard Fort and Aldeburgh. Mr. J. Wiggin, of Ipswich, has a piece four ounces in weight, procured from this source, and has also purchased many pounds of it at various times. Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 475 The late Mr. D. Alexander's famous piece, said to be the largest in England, is believed to have been picked up in the same locality. Her Majesty the Queen has, I believe, a very fine large piece of amber. There are many imitations of this beautiful resin, but none are so hard and enduring as the genuine article. The uninformed are, however, frequently deceived and taken in by pieces of anime, copal, or gum kowrie. Mr. Consul Hertslet, in his report on the trade of Konigsberg for 1870, stated that the production of amber was less than in former years 1415 cwt, against 1710 cwt. in 1869; and the war annihilated the trade with France for raw and manufactured amber. A demand came un- expectedly from China, but soon dropped again. The dredging at Schwarzort brought 740 cwt. ; the diving at Brusterort, 300 cwt. ; the diggings in Samland, 55 cwt; the fishing, etc., along the coast, 320 cwt; total, 1415 cwt., of the estimated total value of 500,000 rix thalers. The Prussian Amber Company Limited, Konigsberg, employs 2350 persons and 19 steam-engines in this trade, and sold in 1871 amber, obtained by divers and dredging on the coasts of the Baltic, to the value of 53,000. A diploma of honour was awarded at the Vienna Inter- national Exhibition to this company for the extent of its trade and the excellence of its amber. The extent of the amber-fields in Germany may be seen from the fact that 22 dredges, 2 tug-boats, 100 barges, and 1000 labourers are engaged in the industry. The area of the amber-field is extensive, and the Government derive from it a yearly rent of 72,200 thalers. The trade, which had languished in 1868 and 1869, regained much activity in 1871. England, France, and 476 The Commercial Prodztcts of the Sea. Austria took large quantities in the rough state to be worked up. The demands of Japan and China were also considerable, and the clear amber sought for by those countries became deficient, notwithstanding the develop- ment given to the extraction. They were not content with collecting amber formerly rejected on the shore. At Konigsberg, pits of 300 feet depth were dug ; 500 work- men, steam-engines, and 100 carts were engaged in the works. In other localities, divers and drags were employed. At Munich steam-engines were also used to work the mud. The production of amber in 1874 amounted to 363,000 Ibs., of all sizes and qualities, which was sent to different parts of the world. C. A. Wisephal, manufacturer of articles of amber at Stolf, Pomerania, showed at the London Exhibition of 1862 a fine set of opaque amber of the oriental style ; a fine set of cut pale transparent amber ; three strings of opaque beads for African trade, one, two, and three strings to the pound ; 100 strings, assorted, valued at ^230 ; two strings of transparent beads, eight strings going to the pound, at 3 per string ; 19 other strings at 2js. the string ; specimens of cigar-holders, pipe mouthpieces, etc., of different shapes and sizes ; also transparent cut olive beads and transparent smooth beads. Mr. F. Nissi, of Dantzic, showed four pieces of raw amber, one weighing if lb., priced at 13 10^., and the others priced at 13 ios., 12, and 9 15^. Mr. H. L. Perlbach, an amber-bead merchant of Dantzic, showed a rare piece of amber in point of size, form, and colour, three inches thick and 14 inches in circum- ference, weighing 12 Ibs., valued at 600, and two pieces weighing four pounds and two pounds respectively. The large piece was found in an amber mine in the village of Gluckau, near Dantzic. Amber and the Amber Fisheries. 477 Amber is found in the mountains of Sibicio, situated in the valley of Bugeo, Roumania. This amber is of a brown colour, with a great variety of shades, passing from orange yellow or red to black, with green tints. It is extracted in small quantities, and large pieces are rare. It is used for different objects of marquetry, the mouthpieces of pipes, beads for necklaces, and other small articles of luxury. The dust, or refuse, is used, when burned, to perfume rooms, the scent being very fragrant. Roumanian amber differs totally from the German amber found on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Both are the fossil resins of antediluvian trees, and agree in chemical composition, but differ in colour. German amber is found only of light colours yellow, white, and pink while Roumanian amber is red, pink, brown, blue, green, and black. These colours are frequently found mixed in a single piece, and we also have lumps with silver-coloured veins and gold specks. On account of this variety of colours, the Roumanian amber is highly esteemed, and the darker and more beautiful pieces are more costly than yellow amber, especially as they are more rare. German amber is found in the sea or in alluvial earth ; the Roumanian amber is only found in mountainous places and highlands, where it is sought and dug out by the peasants. The collection of amber there languishes, or, more properly speaking, is never conducted in a rational manner. The peasants being ignorant, and led only by instinct, dig here and there, wherever they guess that amber is to be found. Formerly, this amber was found in greater quantities, and also in much larger pieces than at present. If the search for amber and its collection were carried on in a scientific manner, by competent judges, it would prove remunerative. North Burmah would seem to be rich in deposits of 478 The Commercial Products of the Sea. amber. It is procured in its rough state by digging holes about three feet in diameter, and occasionally 40 feet in depth. The mines are at an elevation of about 1050 feet, to the south-west of the Mein Khoom plain in the Hukong Valley. Fifteen to 20 feet of the superficial soil is clayey and red, the remainder consisting of a greyish-black carbo- naceous earth. The amber is made into Buddhist rosaries, finger-rings, pipe mouthpieces, etc. The dark sherry- coloured amber is most highly valued there. INDEX. A. Agar-agar, 324, 325 Alva, uses of, 313 Amber, description of, 463 beads, 467 dredging and diving for, 468 in Burmah, 478 large blocks of, 470 relative prices of, 473 trade, Dantzic the chief seat of, 473 two classes of, 474 uses of, 465 Anchovies, exports from Norway, 21 Anchovy fishery, 81 French, 17 Artificial pearls, 266 Abalones, 399 B. Baccalau, another name for klip-fish, 32 Bahamas sponge fisheries, 174 statistics of export, 177 Balachong, 264 Balolo, 126 Basking shark, 229 Beadlemer seal, 202 Beche-de-mer, 106 Beluga, or white whale, 208 Benitiers of shells, 293 Berried hen, definition of, 94 Black coral, 440 helmet shell, 275 Bladder- wrack, 313 Bleaching sponges, 177 Blubber, 202, 205 Boalee fish, 257 Boat sponge, 175 Bombay pearl shells, 377 Bounty, French, on fisheries, 4 Brainstone coral, 440 Brazilian isinglass, 250 Bull's mouth shell, 273 Bui tow fishing, definition of, 27 Burtah, definition of, 243 Byssus, uses of, 307 of pearl oyster, 389 Cameo-cutting, 273 Capelin fishery, 127 Cape lobster, 101 Colony, fisheries of, 15 Carrageen moss, 318 Carry-vray, a kind of boat, 223 Cat-fish oil, 216 Caviare, value of the imports, 21 Cephalopods as food, 116 Ceylon, imports of fish, 15 pearl fishery, statistics of, 409, 410 Chank shells, 288 China fisheries, 16 Chinese isinglass, 253 Chunam or shell lime, 285 Clam shell, 281 Clams, varieties of, 146 Classing and value of pearls, 425 Clovisses, 147 Cockle shells, uses of, 299 480 Index. Codfish, mode of catching, by hand- lines, set lines, and nets, 34 process of curing, 29 Cod fisheries, number of French vessels employed in, 39 Cod fishery, French, at Newfound- land, 17 Iceland, 17 of Ireland, 26 of Newfoundland, 26 of Scotland, quantity cured, 25 Cod-liver oil, 213 vah Cod oil, 213 ue of the imports, 21 Cod tongues and sounds, 31 Combou or kombou, 329, 334 Commercial products, variety ob- tained from the sea, I Conch pearls, 408 shells, 273 Cones, uses of, 294 Coral, Algeria, 454 beads, 442, 447, 456 classification of, 455 commercial varieties of, 443 . composition of, 438 exports from Sardinia, 449 imports into England, 446 France, 445 United Kingdom, 460 Indian trade in, 461 value of the imports, 21 Coral fishery, 450 boats employed in, 458 Cornish sardines, 64 Cowries, African trade in, 269 as currency, 279 commercial uses of, 277 value of the imports, 21 Crab-pots, 93 Crabs, how sold, 93 in Norway, 101 Crin vegetal, 313 Crustaceans, 90 " Crown full," definition of, 47 Cummelmums, 264 Cup-shaped sponges, 168 Cuttle-fish dried, 116, I2O bone, 121 D. Diving-bells for sponge fishing, 190 Diving for pearls, 427 for pearl shells in the Pacific, 386, 394 Dog-fish skins, 262 Drift-nets, 49 Dugong oil, 209 Dulse, 336 Dun-fish, 31 Dutch herring fishery, 54 Dyes from the mollusca, 303 E. Ear-shells, 372, 398 Egyptian pearl shells, 378 F. Fish as food, 9 bones, 257 fresh- water, sold in Paris, 18 flour, 264 guano, 154 hooks of shell, 297 inexhaustible supply of, 5 maws, eastern trade in, 256 number of species known, 3 oils, 153, 212 oil soap, 224 parts of, employed in arts and manufactures, 2 paste, 264 products and their uses, 257, 264 scales, uses of, 154 skins, uses of, 153 supply to London, 7 value of imports in the United Kingdom, 21 Fish skin, applications of, 259 leather, 259 Fisheries, French, 17 Irish, 12 of North America, 13 value of exports of British, II statistics of those of foreign countries, 21 Index. 481 Fishery products, imports of, in 1870, 21 French fisheries, value of, 17 herring fishery, 57 fishery, boats employed, 18 Fur seal, 203 G. Gall of the carp used as a dye, 152 Galuchat, 263 Garoon shell, 286 Garum, 265 Gelose, or seaweed isinglass, 324, 327, 328, 335 Gilbackre isinglass, 251 Glove sponge, 159 Green snail shell of commerce, 293, 399 Grotto shells, 299 Guanine, 266 H. Hake, 251 Halibut, 128 Hard head sponge, 175 Hard-shell clam, 146 Harp seal, 202 Helmet shells, 273 Herring brands, definitions of, 47 fishery of France, 56 of Holland, 54 of Norfolk, 47 of North America, 58 of Norway, 58 of Scotland, 43 oil, 218 Herrings, exports from Norway, 21 statistics of cure and export from Scotland, 46 weight of, sent per Great Eastern, 51 Hood seal, 202 T. Iceland fisheries, 36, 38 Imports of the fisheries, statistics of, 1 1 Indian fish oils, 216 Indian isinglass, 243 Iodine, 313 Isinglass, description and preparation of, 238 value of our imports, 21 J. Japan seaweeds, 329 Ju-ka, 254 K. Kabiljauw, 256 Kelp weed, 322 Keratosa, 160 King-crab, 90 Kippered herrings, 51 Klipfish (dried cod), exports from Norway, 21 Last of herrings, definition of, 52 Laver, 336 Leather from fish skins, 153 Lobster canning, or tins, 96 pots, 97 spawn, use of, 94 fishery in Norway, 99 of America, 95 Lobsters, curious names for, 92 British, 91 exports from Norway, 21 statistics of exports from Norway, 100 Lofoden fisheries, 36 London, fish supply to, 7, 10 Louar oil, 217 M. Maara shells, 387 Machorian isinglass, 251 Mackerel, commercial classification of, 72 fishery, British, 67 French, 17, 68 North American, 69 Norway, 68 2 I 482 Index. Madrague, definition of, 89 Madrepore for paving and building, !5 2 Manatus, 209 Manila pearl shells, 378, 385 Marine salt, 339 silk, 306 Matanza, definition of, 86 Maties, definition of, 47 Medicinal uses of shells, 302, 303 Menhaden fish preserved in oil, 81 oil, 221 Moss-bunker, or menhaden, 81 Mother-of-pearl, applications of, in China, 397 articles made of, 371 British imports, 382 Mother-of-pearl shells, commercial varieties of, 377 from Western Aus- tralia, 395 value of our imports, 21 Mussel fishery of France, 18 shells, uses of, 298 N. Nautilus shells, 296, 301 Nets, size and kind of, 49 Newfoundland cod fishery, 26 Norfolk herring fishery, 48 North American fisheries, 13, 14 herring fishery, 58 isinglass, 251 Norway cod fishery, 32 herring fishery, 58 Nuoc-mam, 265 O. Octopods, 117 Oils, fish, 153 from marine mammals, 198 Opercula, uses of, 302 Orchella weed, value of the imports, 21 Organ-pipe coral, 440 Ormer shell, 398 Ottoman sponge fishery, 183 Oolachan oil, 154, 219 Oyster fisheries, American, 139 British, 131 Oyster fisheries of France, 'i 8, 135, 138 Oysters of Australia, 144 P. Painter's mussel, 269 Paires doubles, 147 Palolo, 121 Panama pearl fishery, 420 pearl shells, 378 Papier-mache work, 381, 400 Paris, consumption of fish in, 19 of oysters in, 135 Pearl buttons, 372 Pearl fisheries, 402 of Western Australia, 427 of Persian Gulf, 418 of Ceylon, 409 of Panama, 420 Pearl inlaying, 381 mussel, Chinese, 411 Pearls, commerce in, in England, 403 classification of, 417 imported into France, 418 from Labuan, 424 from Pacific Islands, 424 quantities of, 405 used by the North American Indians, 420 value of the imports, 21, 418 various colours of, 405 Pilchard fishery, 60 Pilchards cured in oil as sardines, 64 statistics of catch and ex- ports, 63 Pilgrim shells, 398 Pink pearls, 408 Piracuru fish, 250 Peggies, a kind of fish bait, 71 Polypi, 117 Pomfret, 130 Porgy, a name for the menhaden fish, 221 Porpoise oil, 208 Prussian amber, 465 Q. Queen conch shell, 273, 293 Index. 483 R. Rau-cau, 325 Ray skin, 262 Razor clam, 146 Reef or fine toilet sponge, 175 Ribbon isinglass, 251 River pearls, 428 Rouen oil, 154 Roumanian amber, 477 Round clani, 146 Russian isinglass, 241 S. Saddle Rock oyster,. 142 Salmon, aggregate value of British and Irish fisheries, 74 as food, 6 in British Columbia, 76 statistics of London sales, 74 Salmon fishery, 73 in New Brunswick, 75 in Norway, 75 Salt in Australia, 348 in Austria, 344 in California, 344 in Cochin China, 347 in India, 346 in Portugal, 345 in the United States, 344 manufacture in France, 339 Sandre oil, 215 Sankka or shell bracelet, 291 Sardine fishery of France, 17, 77 oil, 217 Sardines, American, 81 used as manure in Japan, 8 1 Sawfish, oil from, 216 Scabeccio, definition of, 87 Scales of fish, uses of, 258 Scallop shells, uses of, 298 Scotch pearls, 429 Seal fishery, 199 oil, 2qi& Seal skins, 202 exported from Norway, 21 value of the imports, 21 Sea-urchin?, 121 Seaweed and its uses, 311 collection of, in France, 317 in Japan, 317 Seaweed for manure-, 314 as food,. 32 1 Seer-fish, 130 Seine nets, 62 Sephen skin, 262 Sepia, 303 Shad fishery in North America, 60 Shagreen, 263 Shank or chank shell, 289 Shark skin, 261 Shark fins, 235, 237 fishery, 226 Sharks, varieties of, 226 Sheep-wool sponge, 1 76 Shell bangles or bracelets, 288 cameos, 274 fish-hooks, 297 sand, 285 Shells as currency, 278, 281 calcined, 270 composition of, 268 domestic uses of, 297 sales of, in London, 271 useful applications of, 270 value of British imports, 287 Shrimp fishery, English, 102 Shrimps, dried, trade in/ 104 Silicious sponges, 194 Singapore, imports offish, 15 Slips, a name for soles, 129 Snoods, definition of, 27 Soles, 129 South Sea pearl shells, 377 Spent fish, definition of, 47 Spermaceti or head matter, 205 Sponge, chemical analysis of, 1 78 descriptions of, 155 fishery of Tunis, 190 for stuffing beds, 1 78 value of imports, 21 Sponge fisheries, American, 170 of the Bahamas, 1 74 Sponges, commercial grades of, 159 cultivation of, 182 French classification of, 193 imports of, from the Mediter- ranean, 192 scientific divisions of, 156 of the Mediterranean, 183 Soft clam, 146 Spring herrings, 52 Squids for fish bait, 1 20 Stock-fish or round-fish, 32 484 Index. vSturgeon, 240, 253 Suleah fish, 243 Sulu pearl shells, 377 Swordfish, 118 T. Tangle, 336 Tiger cowry, 279 Tinned lobsters, 96 Tongues, a name for soles, 129 Tortoiseshell boats, 360 combs/ 358 British imports, 363 description of, 35 1 imports into France, 364 manufacture, 354 value of the imports, 21 Train oil and blubber, 205 exported from Norway, 21 Trawlers, number of, in the British 11 seas, 8 Tree oysters, 421 Trepang fishery, 105 mode of curing, 112 varieties of, 107, 108, 114 Trumpet shells, 286, 299 Turbo shells, 300 Turk's cap shell, 294, 400 | Tunny fishery, 83 oil, 85, 218 Turbot, 130 Turtle, edible or green, 364 Turtle eggs, 368 modes of cooking, 366 Tuticorin pearl fishery, 413 Tyrian purple, 304 V. Velvet sponge, 175 Venetian shells, 277 Vesiga, definition of, 242 Vog, definition of, 36 W. Walrus, 204 Wampum, 281 Whalebone or fins, imports of, 206 Whale fishery, ,204 or train oil, value of imports, 21 Western Australian pearl fisjieries, 427 West Indian isinglass, 251.' Wool sponge, 159 . PRINTED AT THE CAXTON PRESS, BECCLES. IP THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. 21 1933 JAN 20 1948 N NOV 18 REC'D Ld c {IOV26 195 30 T9 V211990 REC'D L0 JAN 18 1358 19Aug'58CQ 14 188* IpSfcAUG 2 1 I'M LD 21-50m-l,'3J COBIBSSTIO 681376 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY