.STUDIES /:
 
 Southern Branch 
 of the 
 
 University of California 
 
 Los Angeles ) 
 
 Form L 1
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped belo'w 
 
 Rrc-D MLD 
 "^'^^ 2 2 1964 
 
 JON 1 1 ,ggf 
 
 Form L-9-15m-8,'24
 
 STUDIES ^" 
 
 IN 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION 
 
 WITH LESSONS IN LANGUAGE 
 AND RHETORIC 
 
 LOB ^'[JHB, "'-OA L. 
 
 BY 
 
 HARRIET L. KEELER 
 
 AND 
 
 EMMA C. DAVIS 
 
 Boston 
 
 ALLYN AND BACON 
 1895
 
 Copyright, 1891, 
 By HARRIET L. KEELER. 
 
 XorfaooB 30rcS3 : 
 
 J. S. Gushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith. 
 
 Boston, Mass., U.S.A.
 
 _ A 
 
 c 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The lessons of this book have been arranged with a view 
 to the wants of those schools which have composition as a 
 weekly exercise in their course of study. Most of the high 
 schools and private preparatory schools of the country have 
 such courses, covering usually from three to four years. 
 Any teacher who has attempted to teach composition in 
 these schools has felt the need of a book containing an 
 orderly succession of topics adapted to the age and devel- 
 opment of the pupils, together with such lessons in lan- 
 guage and rhetoric as are naturally of daily application in 
 their class exercises. 
 
 The book now presented to the public is the outcome of 
 a long experience in teaching composition in the high 
 school of the city of Cleveland, Ohio, and its lessons have 
 borne the test of the class-room, not once only, but scores 
 of times. 
 
 It is not necessary, nor will it always be desirable, to 
 require each class to write upon the topics in precisely 
 the order indicated here, but in the course of four years all 
 these lessons will fall into fitting time and place. 
 
 Two obstacles lie in tlie way of successful composition 
 work. The first and greatest is that the pupils are rarely
 
 IV PREFACE. 
 
 made to understand liow tliey are to do what is required of 
 them. Subjects are assigned and written exercises are ex- 
 acted, but how these are to be produced, after what manner 
 and in what style, nobody knows, least of all the youthful 
 writers. As a consequence, reference books are hastily 
 consulted, encyclopaedic learning is crudely transferred 
 from the books to the essay, and the completed product 
 is too often absolutely worthless for all the ends for which 
 a composition is written, since it does not teach even 
 orderly and systematic compilation. 
 
 The second obstacle is the self-consciousness of the pupil. 
 Originality is a shy flower, and will unfold only in a con- 
 genial atmosphere. One may as well grasp a sea-anemone 
 and expect it to show its beauty, as ask a child to write 
 from his own experience when he expects every sentence to 
 be dislocated in order to be improved. The sentences need 
 improvement, no doubt, but that improvement wall come 
 under the influence of good models and quiet suggestions. 
 The teacher of composition should never forget that " the 
 life is more than meat and the body than raiment"; that 
 the spirit and thought of any exercise are more than the 
 technical dress, and that if the former are developed, the 
 latter will not be wanting. 
 
 Too much attention cannot be given to supplying young 
 writers with good models ; for by this means they grasp 
 the idea of what is expected of them, and at the same 
 time have before them an ideal towards which they can 
 work. It is hoped that the method and plan of study in 
 this book have been made so clear that teachers who find 
 the work given not ample enough for their needs can easily
 
 PREFACE. V 
 
 supplement it both in models and lessons, or that pupils 
 will be able to supplement it for themselves, as they are 
 encouraged to do throughout the book. 
 
 The extracts from the Works of Lowell, Hawthorne, 
 Emerson, Whittier, Longfellow, Holmes, Thoreau, Bur- 
 roughs, Miss Jewett, Miss Miller, Miss Murfree, and Miss 
 Thomas, are used Avith the permission of, and by special 
 arrangement with, the publishers, Messrs. Houghton, Mifiiin 
 & Co. ; that from Wide Awake, with the permission of the 
 publishers, U. Lothrop Co. ; that from George William 
 Curtis, by the kind consent of the author ; that from Emer- 
 son's Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts by the courtesy 
 of Hon. John Lowell ; that from Thomas Wentworth 
 Higginson's Young Folks' History of the United States by 
 the kind permission of the author, 
 
 HARRIET L. KEELER. 
 Cleveland, Ohio, 
 January, 1892.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 -•o^ 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. Narrative Composition 1 
 
 Records of Observation. General Narration. Condensa- 
 tion of Long Stories. Paraplirase of Poems. Keproduction 
 of Historical Tales. 
 
 Chapter II. The Use of Words 14 
 
 Clianges in Words. Suggestions upon the Use of Words. 
 Synonyms. Word.s frequently Mispronounced. 
 
 Chapter HI. Descriptive Composition 23 
 
 Descriptions of Objects. General Descriptions. Descrip- 
 tions of Persons. Descriptions of the Way in which Articles 
 are Made. 
 
 Chapter IV. Common Errors in the Use of Language 
 
 The Non-Agreement of Subject and Predicate. Errors in 
 the Use of Verb Tenses. Errors in the Use of Pronouns. 
 
 Chapter V. Correspondence 38 
 
 Forms of Letters in General Correspondence. Letters of 
 Friendship. Notes of Ceremony. Formal Notes of Ceremony. 
 Business and Official Letters. 
 
 vii
 
 Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 PASR 
 
 Chapter VI. Narration and Description Combined 01 
 
 Anniversary Days. Aniplificatii)n of Toems. Imagina- 
 tive Stories. 
 
 Chapter VII. A Study of Sentences and the Paragraph 68 
 
 Form and Slructm'e of Sentences. 'J'liu Taragraph. 
 
 Chapter VITT. Narration and Description Combined 71 
 
 Studies in Natural History. Description of Birds. Sub- 
 jects relating to Birds. Poems relating to Birds. Domestic 
 Animals. Subjects relating to Animals. 
 
 Chapter IX. Narration and Description Combined 86 
 
 Study of Trees. Descriptions of Trees. General Subjects 
 concerning Trees. Flowers. Descriptions of Plants. Sub- 
 jects .relating to Flowers. Poems about Flowers. 
 
 Chapter X. Study of Rhetorical Figures 99 
 
 Figures Based on Comparison. Figures Based on Substi- 
 tution. Additional Figures. Study of Examples of Rhetorical 
 Figures. 
 
 Chapter XI. Study of Authors 107 
 
 Henry Wadswortli Longfellow. Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
 
 Chapter XII. The Qualities of Style 114 
 
 Clearness. Unity. Strength. Harmony.- 
 
 Chapter XIII. Plain Historical Writing 122 
 
 Study of American Topics.
 
 CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Chapter XIV. Picturesque Historical Writing 128 
 
 Historical Subjects. Picturesque Effect by Contrast. 
 Picturesque Effect by Suggestion. 
 
 Chapter XV. Studies in Short Stories for Children 138 
 
 Chapter XVI. Versification 142 
 
 Meter. Scanning. Writing of Jingles. Classification of 
 Poetry. Subjects relating to Poetry and Poems. 
 
 Chapter XVII. Studies in Shakespeare 157 
 
 Biogi-aphical Sketch of Shakespeare. Julius Ctesar. A 
 Midsummer 'Night's Dream. Subjects relating to Shake- 
 speare. 
 
 Chapter XVIII. Studies for Book Reviews 107 
 
 Chapter XIX. Persuasive Discourse 174 
 
 The Art of Persuasion. Examples of Persuasive Dis- 
 course. Structure of Persuasive Discourse. Subjects for 
 Persuasive Discourse. 
 
 Chapter XX. Public Speaking 192 
 
 Principles governing Public Speaking. Study of Selec- 
 tions from Famous Orations. Subjects for Orations. 
 
 Addenda 
 
 201 
 
 Rules for Use of Capital Letters. Rules for the Marks of 
 Punctuation. Abbreviations.
 
 STUDIES 
 
 IN 
 
 EN^GLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 -OO^^J^JOO- 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 J^ARBATIVE COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON L — EEOOEDS OF OBSERVATION. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 
 Pupils should read this selection carefully, two or three times. 
 
 October 16.- Spent the whole afternoon in a ramble 
 to the sea-shore. It was a beautiful, warm, sunny after- 
 noon, one of the pleasantest clays of the whole year. 
 People were at work, harvesting, without their coal.s. 
 Cocks with their flocks of hens were in the grass-fields, 
 hunting grasshoppers, chasing them eagerly with out- 
 spread wings, appearing to take much interest in the 
 sport apart from the profit. Other hens were pecking 
 at-4he ears of Indian corn. Grasshoppers, flies, and fly- 
 ing insects of all sorts are more abundant in these warm 
 autumnal days than I have seen them at any other time. 
 Yellow butterflies flutter about in the sunshine, singly, 
 
 1
 
 2 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COjNri'OSITION. 
 
 by pairs or more, and are wafted on the gentle ^ales, 
 the crickets begin to sing early in the afternoon, and 
 sometimes a locust may be heard. In some warm spots 
 there was a pleasant buzz of many insects. ' 
 
 Tliis is taken from Hawthorne's American Note-Books. Observe 
 tlie various insects mentioned. Observe the punctuation of the 
 series of adjectives limiting aflernonn. What is the sport, and 
 what the profit, refei-red to? The common yellow butterfly of 
 autumn belongs to the Colias family. How do crickets and 
 locusts make their song? To what class of words does buzz 
 belong? What other name has Indian corn? What other word 
 might have been used instead of gales f 
 
 EXERCISE II. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 Pupils should read this selection carefully, two or three times. 
 
 There having been a heavy rain yesterday, a nest of 
 chimney swallows was washed down the chimney into 
 the fireplace of one of the front rooms. My attention 
 was called to them by most obstreperous twitterings, 
 and looking behind the fireboard, I discovered three 
 young birds clinging with their feet against the jaml)s, 
 looking at me open-mouthed and all clamoring together 
 so as quite to fill the room with the short, eager, fi-ight- 
 ened sounds. The old birds, by certain signs upon the 
 floor of the room, appeared to have fallen victims to the 
 appetite of the cat. 
 
 The maid provided a basket with cotton wool, into 
 which the poor little babies were put, and I tried to 
 feed them with soaked bread, of which, however, they 
 did not eat with much relish. I hunsr the basket out 
 of the window in the sunshine, and upon looking in, an 
 hour after, found that two of the birds had escaped. 
 The other was much injured, and I was not sorry when
 
 NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. 3 
 
 it died. They were so well grown that they might, I 
 suppose, have been able to shift for themselves. 
 
 This also is from Hawthorne's American Note-Books. Observe 
 the punctuation of the series — ahorl, eager, frightened. What is the 
 shape of a swallow's tail? AVhat were the signs which show'ed 
 the fate of the old birds? Is soaked bread good for young birds? 
 Observe in what 9,n easy, simple, yet delightful way, Hawthorne 
 relates the most common, every-day occurrences. The chai-m 
 lies in the simplicity yet fulness of the narrative. Such a style 
 is within the reach of any one who tries to acquire it. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR RECORDS OF OBSERVATION. 
 
 The Doings of a Flock of Sparrows. 
 
 Note their manner of alighting like a flurry of brown snow- 
 flakes. Their quick movements — air of important business — 
 gathering into groups of two or three — sudden flight — quick 
 chirps — frequent quarrels. 
 
 The Building of the Nest. 
 
 The season — the time of day — the place — kind of birds — 
 situation of nest. Materials used — where found — how utilized. 
 Different calls of the birds to one another — length of time in 
 building. 
 
 Ten Minutes at the Window. 
 
 You will be astonished to find how many things will take place 
 in even five minutes. You will have all the material you need, if 
 you note every person, animal, and vehicle that passes. Do not 
 merely mention them, but tell something you observe about each. 
 Avoid monotony of statement by using variety of verbs; as, 
 strolled, loalked, lounged, strayed, ran, darted, lingered, dasheil, 
 trotted, scampered. 
 
 A Game of Tag. 
 
 Watch this or some other children's game, and tell all the inci- 
 dents of it. The way the different players behave — disposition as 
 exhibited in play — kind of game — how played — how begun — 
 how ended.
 
 4 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Street Musicians. 
 
 Almost any large city will give material for this subject, and in 
 great variety. 'I'he oi-gan-grinder, man or woman, or both, some- 
 times accompanied by children, sometimes by a monkey. Bands 
 of players — instruments — harp, Castanet, tambourine, violin, 
 accordion. 
 
 Note. —The subjects given al)ove are only suggestions of the kinds of 
 incidents that might eonie within the observation of the pupils. In these 
 exercises one sliould try to keep the spirit of Hawthorne's style, the 
 plain, simple, interesting way of telling little things. Whatever merits a 
 narrative may have, one it should never lack, it should be interesting. 
 
 LESSON IL — GENERAL NARRATION. 
 
 EXERCISE I. MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 
 Pupils should read carefully, then reproduce from memory, keeping 
 as much as possible the easy, simple, interesting style. 
 
 One of the chief pleasures in Deephaven was our 
 housekeeping. Going to market was apt to use up a 
 whole morning. We depended somewhat upon supplies 
 from Boston, but sometimes we used to chase a butcher 
 who took a drive in his old canvas-topped cart when he 
 felt like it, and as for fish, there were always enough to 
 be caught, even if we could not buy any. 
 
 One morning Maggie told us that there was nothing 
 in the house for dinner, and taking an early start, we 
 went at once down to the store to ask if the butcher 
 had been seen ; but finding that he had gone out deep- 
 sea fishing for two days, we strolled down to the shore 
 to see if we could find some mackerel, but as there was 
 not a fisherman in sight, we concluded that we had better 
 provide for ourselves. So taking our lines, and getting
 
 NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. 5 
 
 some clams for bait, we went over to the hull of an old 
 schooner which was going to pieces alongside one of the 
 ruined wharves. We looked down the ruined hatchway 
 into the hold, and could see the flounders and sculpins 
 swinnning about lazily. 
 
 '* There is that same big flounder that we saw yester- 
 day," said I ; " I know him because one of his fins is 
 half gone. I don't believe he can get out, for the hole 
 in the side of the schooner isn't very wide, and it is 
 higher up than flounders ever swim. Perhaps he came 
 in when he was young, and was too lazy to go out until 
 he was so large he couldn't. Flounders alwa3^s look so 
 lazy, and as if they thought a great deal of themselves." 
 " I hope they will think enough of themselves to keep 
 away from my hook this morning," said Kate, philo- 
 sophically, " and the sculpin too. I am going to fish 
 for cunners, and keep my line short." And she perched 
 herself on the quarter, baited her hook carefully, and 
 threw it over with a clam-shell to attract attention. I 
 went to the rail at the side, and we were presently much 
 encouraged by pulling up two small cunners, and felt 
 that our prospects for dinner were excellent. But our 
 usual good luck seemed to desert us. The cunners 
 would either eat our bait or keep away altogether. 
 Kate at last said we must starve unless we could catch 
 the big flounder, and asked me to drop my hook down 
 the hatchway ; but it seemed almost too bad to destroy 
 his innocent happiness. Just then we heard the noise 
 of oars, and to our delight saw Captain Sands in his 
 dory just beyond tlie next wharf. "Any luck?" said 
 he ; " s'pose you don't care anything about going out 
 this morning." 
 
 Selection from Deephaven. Sarah Orne Jewett.
 
 6 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. 
 
 Our Picnic. 
 
 Narrate the incidents simply and accurately — amusements — 
 mishaps. Tell about the weather — trees — flowers — birds. Tinic 
 of luncheon — labor to get it — return. 
 
 A Hunt for Wild Flowers. 
 
 Tell where you went — kind of flowers sought for — where each 
 kind grew — date of finding theiu. Describe any unusual ones — 
 name some not yet in blossom — any interesting fact or story about 
 the flowers should be given. Read The Procession of the Floiuers, 
 iu Out-Door Papers, by Thomas VV. Higginson. 
 
 A Visit to the M ill-Pond. 
 
 Size — location — depth. Smooth water — why? Character of 
 soil 'at bottom. Kinds of fish caught in the pond — frogs — tad- 
 poles — water plants — trees about the margin. Little fish in 
 shallow water — why ? 
 
 A Walk in the Woods. 
 
 Note the difference made by the season in the trees and flowers. 
 Birds that were seen — birds' nests — animals — flowers. Coolness 
 and quiet. Use and value of woods — rapid disappearance of our 
 native forests — effect of such disappearance upon our climate. 
 Read A Forest Hi/mn, by William C. Bryant. 
 
 How We Went Nutting. 
 
 Appearance of trees in autumn. Kind of nuts sought for — 
 how they were gathered — incidents of the undertaking — success 
 
 — pleasure of it. v Other nut-gatherers beside man. 
 
 A Fishing Excursion. 
 
 To what place — kind of fish caught — size — fishing-tackle used 
 
 — bait — success or failure. Quote from The Complete A ngler, by 
 Izaak Walton. 
 
 Story of the Bird's Nest in the Apple Tree. 
 
 Kind of birds that built it — date of building — time required 
 to complete it — materials — eggs — hatching of eggs — fate of 
 young birds. Read The Trcujedy of the Nests, by John Burroughs.
 
 NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. ( 
 
 How We Camped Out. 
 
 Who first suggested — who organized — how many in the party. 
 How much planning was necessary — outfit — what was forgotten. 
 How expectation and realization compared. Who did the cook- 
 ing. Amusements — mishaps. 
 
 Visit to a Dry Goods Store. 
 
 Time spent — people seen — articles for sale — clerks — custom- 
 ers — sunnner goods — winter goods — store windows. 
 
 One School Day. 
 
 Relate in proper order all the different occupations of the day. 
 
 How I Spent Saturday. 
 
 Narrate the events of the day, telling the little things. Do not 
 simply say you rose in the morning, ate your breakfast, worked or 
 played, as the case may be ; but tell the trifles that made up the 
 day's occupations, and make the narrative as interesting as you 
 can. Take Hawthorne's Note-Boots as a model. 
 
 Note. — It is not supposed that the notes under the given subjects are 
 at all exhaustive ; they are simply to suggest a few things which may be 
 said. Nor is this intended as a complete list of subjects, — each member 
 of the class can doubtless find some one subject as well adapted to him 
 as any of these, — but these indicate the type. The subjects may be 
 assigned by the teacher, or the pupils may select for themselves. Not 
 less than two original narratives should be written before any other work 
 is undertaken. ^ 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 Use no abbreviations in written composition ; they are permitted 
 oidy in bills, legal documents, and statistics. Especially avoid the 
 abbreviation of and. 
 
 Use nice and about vei'y little. Nice has been used in so many 
 meanings tluit it now expresses none accurately. Exercise care to 
 make your manuscript look as well as possible; dot your t's, cross 
 your t's, put a period at the end of all declarative sentences ; never 
 omit the hyphen when a word is divided at the end of a line, or a 
 caret when you wish to supply a word left out. 
 
 If you are a poor speller, begin to train your mind to retain the 
 pictures of words. Keep a dictionary at h^/nd, and consult it.
 
 8 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSlTION. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — QUICK WORK IN NARRATION. 
 
 Pupils write in class for twenty minutes upon the same subject, 
 then each reads what he has wi'ittcn. 
 
 Each pupil takes a different subject and writes for twenty min- 
 utes, then each reads what he has written. 
 
 LESSON III. — CONDENSATION OE LONG STOEIES. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — ORAL REPRODUCTION. 
 
 The pupils are to relate one or more of the following stories. This 
 exercise, in order to be useful, should be brief, only the main 
 points in the stories being given. 
 
 Selections from : 
 
 A Wonder-Book Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
 
 A Christinas Carol Charles Dickens. 
 
 The Pilgrim's Progress John Bunyan. 
 
 The Age of Fable Thomas Bulfinch. 
 
 The Sketch Book Washington Irving. 
 
 Tales from Shakespeare Charles and Mary Lamb. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE SPEAKER. 
 
 Stand erect when speaking, and stand still. 
 
 Avoid excessive use of and. This is a common fault. 
 
 Do not say ah after words. 
 
 Vary the forms of your sentences. Do not leave a sentence 
 unfinished. 
 
 Never use " says he " for " said he," nor " I says, says I " for " I 
 said." 
 
 Avoid the use of rvhy, noiv, and icell, as introductory words for 
 your sentences. 
 
 The word verg frequently weakens an adjective instead of 
 strengthening it.
 
 NARRATIVE COMPOSITIONo 
 
 EXERCISE II. — PARAPHRASE OF POEMS. 
 
 Pupils should read one of these poems carefully and retell it in 
 
 their own words. 
 
 King Robert of Sicily Heniy W. Longfellow. 
 
 The Falcon of Ser Federigo Henry W. Longfellow. 
 
 The Legend Beautiful Henry W. Longfellow. 
 
 The Pied Piper of Hamelin Robert Bft)wning. 
 
 Herve Riel Robert Browning. 
 
 Enoch Arden Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 Dora Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 The Passing of Arthur Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 Goody Blake and Harry Gill .... William Wordsworth. 
 
 John Gilpin's Ride William Cowper. 
 
 The Prisoner of Chilian Lord Byron. 
 
 Rosabelle Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 The Rime of the AncicTit Mariner . . . Samuel T. Coleridge. 
 
 The Inchcape Rock Robert Southey. 
 
 Horatius Lord Macaulay. 
 
 The Battle of the Lake Regillus .... Lord Macaulay. 
 
 ^The High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire Jean Ingelow. 
 
 Kallundborg Church John G. Whittier. 
 
 The Garrison of Cape Ann John G. Whittier. 
 
 Rhyme of the Duchess May Elizabeth B. Browning. 
 
 Kit Carson's Ride Joaquin Miller. 
 
 Kentucky Belle Constance F. Woolson. 
 
 Sella . W^illiam Cullen Bryant. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 In paraphrasing a poem try to catch the spirit of it, whether it 
 is heroic, tragic, humorous, or pathetic. Be careful to narrate tlie 
 events in their proper order; and in order that you may do this 
 easily, take mental note of them when reading the poem. 
 
 Most of these are dramatic poems and have some point of cul- 
 minating interest ; in your reproduction take care to bring the 
 interest to a climax. 
 
 Note. — There should be at least one oral and one written exercise in 
 paraphrasing these poems. Among so many it is probable that at least 
 two are within the reach of each piiiiil.
 
 10 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON IV. — BEIEF KEPEODUOTION OP HISTORICAL 
 
 TALES. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR RP^PRODUCTION. 
 
 Pupils should take notes of the principal points in the narrative, and 
 from these, either tell or rewrite the story in their own words. 
 
 THE BOSTON MASSACRE. 
 
 It was now the iifth of March, 1770. The sunset 
 music of the British regiments was heard as usual 
 throughout the town. The shrill life and rattling drum 
 awoke the echoes in King Street, while the last ray of 
 sunshine was lingering on the cupola of the Town 
 House. And now all the sentinels were posted. One 
 of them marched up and down before the Custom 
 House, treading a short path through the snow and 
 longfinof for the time when he would be dismissed to 
 the warm fireside of the guard-room. Meanwhile, Cap- 
 tain Preston was perhaps sitting before the heartli of 
 the British Coffee House. In the course of the eveninsr 
 there were two or three slight commotions, which seemed 
 to indicate that trouble was at hand. Small parties of 
 young men stood at the corners of the streets or walked 
 along the narrow pavements. Squads of soldiers who 
 were dismissed from duty passed by them shoulder to 
 shoulder, wdth the regular step which they had learned 
 at drill. Whenever these encounters took place it 
 seemed to be the object of the young men to treat the 
 soldiers with as much incivility as possible. 
 
 " Turn out, you lobster-backs ! " one would say. 
 " Crowd them off the sidewalks ! " another w^ould cry ; 
 " a redcoat has no right in Boston streets." 
 
 '' O you rebel rascals ! " perha})s the soldiers would
 
 NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. 11 
 
 reply, glaring fiercely at the young men. " Some day we 
 will make our way through Boston streets at the point 
 of the bayonet." 
 
 Once or twice such disputes as these brought on a 
 scuffle, which passed off, however, without attracting 
 much notice. About eight o'clock, for some unknown 
 cause, an alarm bell rang loudly and hurriedly. Later 
 in the evening, not far from nine o'clock, several young 
 men passed by the Town House and walked down King 
 Street. The sentinel was still at his post in front of 
 the Custom House, pacing to and fro ; while as he 
 turned, a gleam of light from some neighboring window 
 glittered on the barrel of his musket. 
 
 Down towards the Custom House came a party of 
 wild young men. When they drew near the sentinel 
 he halted on his post, and cried, " Who goes there ? " in 
 the gruff tones of a soldier's challenge. 
 
 The young men, being Boston boys, felt as if they 
 had a right to walk their own streets without being 
 accountable to a British soldier. They made some rude 
 answer to the sentinel. There was a dispute, perhaps a 
 scuffle. Other soldiers heard the noise and ran to 
 assist their comrades. At the same time many of the 
 townspeoi^le rushed into King Street and gathered in a 
 crowd around the Custom House. 
 
 The wrongs and insults which the people had been 
 suffering for many months now kindled them into a 
 rage. They threw snowballs and lumps of ice at the 
 soldiers. As the tumult grew louder it reached the ear 
 of Captain Preston, the officer of the day. He immedi- 
 ately ordered eight soldiers of the guard to take their 
 muskets and follow him. They marched across the 
 .street, forcing their way roughly through the crowd, 
 and pricking the people with their bayonets.
 
 12 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 A gentleniiin (Henry Knox, afterward general of 
 American artillery) caught Captain Preston's arm. 
 " For Heaven's sake, sir," he exclaimed, " take heed 
 what you do or there will be bloodshed." 
 
 " Stand aside," answered Captain Preston haughtily ; 
 " do not interfere, sir ! Leave me to manage the affair." 
 
 Arriving at the sentinel's post, Captain Preston drew 
 up his men in a semicircle with their faces to the crowd. 
 When the people saw the officer and beheld the threat- 
 ening attitude with which the soldiers fronted them, 
 their rage became almost uncontrollable. " Fire ! you 
 lobster-backs ! " cried some. " You dare not fire, you 
 cowardly redcoats I " cried others. 
 
 " Rush upon them ! " shouted many voices. " Drive 
 the rascals to their barracks ! Down with them ! Let 
 them fire if they dare ! " 
 
 Amid the uproar, the soldiers stood glaring at the 
 people with the fierceness of men whose trade it is to 
 shed blood. The people appeared ready to rush upon 
 the levelled bayonets. Captain Preston waved his 
 sword and uttered a command which could not be dis- 
 tinctly heard amid the uproar of shouts that issued from 
 a hundred throats. But his soldiers thought he had 
 commanded " Fire ! " The flash of their muskets 
 lighted the scene. Eleven of the sons of New England 
 lay stretched upon the street, some never to rise again. 
 Blood streamed upon the snow, but that jjurple stain, 
 though it melted away in the next day's sun, was never 
 forgotten by the people. — Nathaniel HaivtJiorne. 
 
 How long before the Revolutionary War did the Boston Massa- 
 cre take place? Were the soldiers justified in shooting? What 
 famous Boston lawyers defended the soldiers at their trial? What 
 is an officer of the day? Why were the soldiers called lobster-
 
 NARRATIVE C0:MP0SITI0N. 13 
 
 backs? The name of King Street has been changed to State 
 Street — for what reason V Wliy does Hawthorne use perhaps so 
 frequently in this selection ? Is the word squad applied to any 
 persons other than soldiers? To what class of words do sltrill and 
 ra^/Zm^r belong ? Why is the sentence beginning, "Henry Knox" 
 put into parentheses? What is the effect of direct discourse in 
 narrative composition ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 Be careful to use quotation marks when needed. 
 Remember to place a comma before and after any words that 
 interrupt a quotation. 
 
 Always write small numbers in words. 
 
 The only common exceptions to this rule ai-e: the number of the day of 
 the month and the' time of the day. Many, however, jirefer to write, " the 
 tenth of June," rather than, "the 10th of June"; and "seven o'clock," 
 rather tlian, "7 o'clock." Usage allows either form, with preference for 
 the word. 
 
 LIST OF BOOKS SUITABLE FOR SIMILAR EXERCISES. 
 
 Grandfather s Chair Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
 
 Historic Boys Elbridge S. Brooks. 
 
 Chivalric Da>/s Elbridge S. Brooks. 
 
 The Age of Chivalry Thomas Bulfinch. 
 
 The Story of the Normans Sarah Orne Jewett. 
 
 The Boys of '76 Charles C. Coffin.
 
 14 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 THE USE OF WORDS. 
 
 LESSON v.— CHANGES IN WOEDS. 
 Obsolete Words. 
 
 No one can be a good speaker or writer who lias not 
 the ability to use the right word in the right place. 
 Hence it is of the utmost importance that the words we 
 employ should be those in general use, that they should 
 be used by the best speakers and writers of the lan- 
 guage, and also that each word should be used in its 
 correct and accepted meaning. 
 
 A living language is always changing, and words are 
 continually falling out of use. Some words in the fol- 
 lowing extracts, many of them found in the writings of 
 Shakespeare and Milton, and others in the Bible, are 
 now no longer in ordinary use. All such words we 
 call obsolete. They have, however, become obsolete so 
 recently that their meaning is usually known to us. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — SELECT THE OBSOLETE WORDS AND 
 GIVE THEIR MEANING. 
 
 Storied windows richly dight. 
 
 Casting a dim religious light. — Milton. 
 
 And naebody kens that he lies there, 
 
 But his hawk and his hound and his lady fair. 
 
 The Tiixi Corhiea.
 
 THE USE OF WORDS. 15 
 
 But come, thou Goddess fair and free, 
 In Heaven yclept Euphrosyne. — Milton. 
 
 They wist not what to say ; for they were sore afraid. — Bible. 
 
 If the scorn of your bright eyne 
 
 Have power to raise such love in mine. — Sliakespeare. 
 
 St. Francis and St. Benedict, 
 
 Bless this house from wicked wight ; 
 
 From the nightmare and the goblin, 
 
 That is hight good fellow Robin. — Carlwright. 
 
 In vain, the hinds the tln-esliing floor prepare, 
 And exercise their flails in empty air. — Dryden. 
 
 It was not framed for village churls. 
 
 But for high dames and mighty earls. — Scott. 
 
 Surely thou also art one of them, for thy speech bewrayeth 
 thee. — Bible. 
 
 Monday, the '25th day, we went on shore to fell timber, some to 
 rive and some to carry. — Chronicles of the Pilgrims. 
 
 Words whose Meaning has Cliangetl. 
 
 Not only do words become obsolete, but it frequently 
 happens that words change in meaning; that is, they 
 lose their old meanings and gain new ones. Sometimes 
 they gain a new meaning and still retain their old one. 
 This process is continually going on in every living lan- 
 guage. Many words used by Shakespeare and Milton 
 had a very different meaning from the one they now 
 have. 
 
 Examples of Words Changed in INIeaning. 
 
 Admire was originally used in its Latin sense, to wonder at. 
 
 Ex. Yon have displaced the iiiirlh, hroke the good meeting with 
 most admired disorder. — Machelli.
 
 IG STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Brave meant showy, splendid. 
 Ex. In brave attire. 
 
 By and by formerly meant at once, straightway, immediately ; now 
 it means some time in the future. 
 
 Ex. When persecution ariseth because of tlie word, by aud by he 
 is offended. — Bible. 
 
 Censure once meant merely to form an opinion, to estimate, to 
 judge; now it means to judge unfavorably, to blame. 
 
 Ex. Give every man tliine ear, but few thy voice ; 
 
 Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment.— //amiet. 
 
 Character, as a verb, formerly meant to write, to engrave. 
 
 Ex. And these few precepts in thy memory 
 See thou character. — Hamlet. 
 
 Imp has fallen low in meaning. It meant at first a scion, a shoot, 
 a child; now it means a young and inferior devil, a malig- 
 nant spirit. 
 
 Ex. When the cliff was made, they held it open with a wedge of 
 wood, until such time as the imp or graff were set hand- 
 somely within. — Pliny, Holland's translation. 
 
 Ex. Let us pray for the king's most excellent majesty, and for his 
 beloved son Edward, our prince, that most angelic imp. 
 
 Pathway of Prayer. 
 
 Knave at first meant simply a boy. Now it means scoundrel, 
 
 rascal. 
 
 Ex. Gentle knave, good night. — Julius Csesar. 
 Painful was used in the sense of pains-taking. 
 
 Ex. I think we have some as painful magistrates as ever were in 
 England. — Latimer. 
 
 Resent originally meant to have a clear conception of a thing ; 
 later it was used to express a grateful feeling for favors done. 
 Both of these are obsolete, and the word as now employed 
 denotes anger because of an injury, real or supposed. 
 
 Villain now means one who is unworthy, vile; hut it once meant 
 simply an ignoble, base-born person. 
 
 Ex. Pour the blood of a villain in one basin, and the blood of a 
 gentleman in another, what difference shall here be proved? 
 
 Bacon.
 
 THE USE OF WORDS. 17 
 
 Words whose Meaning is now Changing. 
 
 Boom is now frequently used in the sense either of a successful 
 effort or an effort that hopes for success. The use of the 
 word probably grows out of its meaning to make a noise, to 
 move rapidly. It is found chietly in the newspapers, and 
 refers to political and business enterprises. 
 
 Interview. The word interview has recently taken a special mean- 
 ing in addition to its general one, and denotes a conversa- 
 tion which is designed for publication. Since we have the 
 thing, we probably cannot avoid the word. 
 
 Scheme has until recently meant simply a plan, not necessarily 
 either good or bad. It is now frequently used in an offen- 
 sive sense, Which sense seems likely to become the prevailing 
 one. 
 
 Philistine. The word Philistine, the name of the ancient inhabi- 
 tants of the country surrounding Canaan, was caught up by 
 the students of the German universities and applied first to 
 the townsmen, then to people who did not have a university 
 education, and finally it came to mean a matter-of-fact, com- 
 mon-place person, a prosaic, practical man or woman. 
 
 Ex. Doors that open, windows that shut, locks that turn, razors 
 that shave, coats that wear, watches that go, and a thousand 
 more such good things, are the inventions of the Philistines. 
 
 Matthew Arnold. 
 
 New Words. 
 
 The advance of science, new discoveries, new condi- 
 tions of life, cause the formation of new words. Some 
 of these, especially the scientific terms, are accepted at 
 once ; many have only a brief life in newspapers and 
 conversation and then drop out of use ; others remain 
 on sufferance for a time and finally become established 
 in the lani^uage.
 
 18 
 
 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Examples of Accepted Words. 
 
 phonograph telegram 
 
 telephoue boycott 
 
 Examples of Words not Accepted. 
 
 enthuse skedaddle 
 
 saleslady suicided 
 
 gerrymander 
 volapiik 
 
 burglarized 
 resurrected 
 
 EXERCISE I. — DETERMINE THE STANDING OP THE 
 FOLLOWING WORDS. 
 
 Consult a dictionary. 
 
 agnostic 
 
 dead-head 
 
 gent 
 
 nobby 
 
 blizzard 
 
 dead-beat 
 
 hoodlum 
 
 paragrapher 
 
 bulldoze 
 
 derail 
 
 illy 
 
 seatage 
 
 buncombe 
 
 doctress 
 
 incog- 
 
 swagger 
 
 cablegram 
 
 dude 
 
 leaderette 
 
 swell (fine) 
 
 canard 
 
 eventuate 
 
 motor 
 
 tramp (a person) 
 
 colorist 
 
 firstly 
 
 mugwump 
 
 waitress 
 
 LESSON VL— SUGGESTIONS UPON THE USE OF WOEDS. 
 
 The general principle in selecting words is to avoid 
 those which are changed from their proper and accepted 
 meaning. The following is a partial list of such words, 
 allow should not be used for assert. 
 
 awfully " 
 bagged " 
 expect " 
 
 gentlemen " 
 gents " 
 
 ladies " 
 
 mighty " 
 onto 
 posted 
 realized 
 repudiate 
 
 a 
 u 
 
 
 
 very. 
 
 captured. 
 
 suppose. 
 
 men. 
 
 gentlemen. 
 
 women. 
 
 very. 
 
 upon 
 
 informed. 
 
 obtained. 
 
 reject.
 
 THE USE OF WORDS. 19 
 
 smart should not he used for intelligent. 
 
 splendid " " " " '■ excellent. 
 
 transpire " " ' " " " occur. 
 
 balance " " " " " remainder, (except on accounts.) 
 
 parties " " " " " persons, (except as a law toim.) 
 
 ( in spite of all opposition 
 reliable " " " " " trustworthy, J reliable seems to be sup- 
 
 ( planting trustwortliy. 
 
 {female referring to human 
 ■fomalA " " " " " wnmiii J beings should never be used 
 
 lemaie woman, < except in contradistinction 
 
 (.to male, used or implied. 
 
 Avoid Provincialisms, or local forms of expression. 
 
 Ex. right smart — I reckon — leave him go — get to go — do 
 like I do fur do as I do. I guess /or I think. 
 
 Avoid Foreign Words when English will do as well. 
 
 Some foreign words have been received into our language. 
 Ex. ennui, nom de plume, incognito, bete noire. They are usually 
 written in italics. 
 
 Use the idiomatic expressions of the language. 
 
 Do not avoid strong idiomatic expressions which have been used 
 since Chaucer's day simply because they are difficult to parse. 
 Ex. had rather, — had as lief. 
 
 Use short common words rather than long ones if 
 they express the meaning as well. 
 
 LESSON VII.— SYNONYMS. 
 
 The English language, made up as it is from both 
 Saxon and Latin, abounds in words that express nearly 
 the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms. 
 Because of these synonyms great exactness of expres-
 
 20 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 sion is possible, and much care and thouglit are neces- 
 sary to select the right word to convey just the meaning 
 that is intended. 
 
 Kill — Murder. 
 
 He killed the man, but there is no evidence that he murdered 
 him. 
 
 John umrdered his dog. 
 
 Five men were killed by the accident. 
 
 The gardener killed the tree. 
 
 The little boy kills flies. 
 
 He murdered his companion. 
 
 Are the words kill and murder correctly used in all these sen- 
 tences? Is it correct to say that a dog is murdered? Can a man 
 be killed, and not umrdered? Murdered and not killed? Can a 
 boy murder flies? Write a sentence using the words kill and 
 murder, showing the difference between them. Define kill ; define 
 murder. * 
 
 JSTuniber — Qumitity. 
 
 A number of persons were in the room. 
 The quantity of wheat in Chicago is great. 
 
 Is it correct to say a quantity of persons ? What does number 
 refer to ? What does quantity refer to ? Write a sentence that 
 will show the difference between them. , 
 
 Character — Reputation. 
 
 " Reputation is what men and women think of you, but charac- 
 ter is what God and the angels know of you." 
 Are they always the same ? 
 
 In — Into. 
 
 Does one put his hand in or into his pocket? Do we go in or 
 into a room? After we are in, do we walk about into or in it? 
 Tell the difference between the words.
 
 THE USE OF WORDS. 21 
 
 Find — Discover. 
 
 Columbus discovered America aud fouud Indians inhabiting: it. 
 Could any one discover America now ? Write a sentence show- 
 ing the difference between these words. 
 
 Lease — Hire. 
 
 Mr. Jones leased a farm for two years and hired a farmer to 
 work it. 
 
 Write a list of tilings that are hired, and another of things that 
 are leased. What is the distinction between the words? 
 
 EXERCISE I. — POINT OUT THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 
 THE FOLLOWING SYNONYMS. 
 
 come — go alarm — terror 
 
 high — tall shade — shadow 
 
 shall — will lie — untruth 
 
 idle — lazy hope — expect 
 
 less — fewer thief — robber 
 
 serf — slave escape — elude 
 
 bold — brave excite — incite 
 
 sea — ocean moment — minute 
 
 learn — teach among — between 
 
 pair — couple farther — further 
 
 safe — secure healthy — wholesome 
 
 apt — liable persuade — convince 
 
 much — many dissemble — conceal 
 
 For additional studies of this kind consult any book of synonyms. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — WRITE SEVERAL WORDS RELATED IN 
 MEANING TO THE FOLLOWING. 
 
 beautiful 
 
 beg 
 
 like 
 
 idle 
 
 company 
 
 bold 
 
 large 
 
 steal 
 
 cruel 
 
 help 
 
 good 
 
 story 
 
 Roget's Thesaurus gives large lists of words of similar meaning.
 
 oo 
 
 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 STUDY OF WOKDS FREQUENTLY MIS- 
 PRONOUNCED. 
 
 Consult the latest dictionaries as authority. 
 
 accessory 
 
 cement (noun) 
 
 forge 
 
 massacre 
 
 acclimate 
 
 cemetery 
 
 garrulous 
 
 memoir 
 
 acumen 
 
 clematis 
 
 gaunt 
 
 mischievous 
 
 adult 
 
 coadjutor 
 
 genuine 
 
 museum 
 
 advertisement 
 
 coudolence 
 
 gibbet 
 
 natioual 
 
 again 
 
 commandant 
 
 gondola 
 
 nape 
 
 aggrandize 
 
 comparable 
 
 gooseberry 
 
 nomad 
 
 allopathy 
 
 comrade 
 
 gratis 
 
 often 
 
 ally 
 
 corps 
 
 grievous 
 
 opponent 
 
 almond 
 
 costume 
 
 grimace 
 
 pageant 
 
 alpine 
 
 Danish 
 
 grimy 
 
 patriot 
 
 alternate 
 
 daughter 
 
 guests 
 
 patron 
 
 amateur 
 
 daunt 
 
 half 
 
 petal 
 
 amenable 
 
 desultory 
 
 hearth 
 
 plebeian 
 
 antipodes 
 
 diphtheria 
 
 heinous 
 
 posthumous 
 
 apostle 
 
 disaster 
 
 hegira 
 
 precedence 
 
 apricot 
 
 dislike 
 
 homa3opathy 
 
 quay 
 
 arbutus 
 
 docile 
 
 hundred 
 
 radish 
 
 aroma 
 
 drama 
 
 hurrah 
 
 repartee 
 
 aspiraut 
 
 drought 
 
 hyperbole 
 
 revolt 
 
 assignee 
 
 duke 
 
 impious 
 
 romance 
 
 bade 
 
 dynasty 
 
 incomparable 
 
 sacrifice 
 
 because 
 
 eleven 
 
 industry 
 
 sagacious 
 
 bellows 
 
 empyrean 
 
 inquiry 
 
 satire 
 
 beneath 
 
 engine 
 
 jugular 
 
 sepal 
 
 boatswain 
 
 envelope 
 
 lamentable 
 
 sergeant 
 
 biography 
 
 enervate 
 
 launch 
 
 somber 
 
 bitumen 
 
 equipage 
 
 laundry 
 
 squalor 
 
 bravado 
 
 erudite 
 
 lava 
 
 subtile 
 
 brevet 
 
 exhaust 
 
 learned (adj.) 
 
 sumac 
 
 brigand 
 
 exist 
 
 legend 
 
 thither 
 
 branch 
 
 extant 
 
 legislature 
 
 tripod 
 
 bronchitis 
 
 extempore 
 
 leisure 
 
 vagaries 
 
 calends 
 
 extraordinary 
 
 lettuce 
 
 vicar 
 
 canine 
 
 falchion 
 
 lever 
 
 virile 
 
 can't 
 
 falcou 
 
 literature 
 
 visor 
 
 capillary 
 
 figure 
 
 lyceum 
 
 water 
 
 catch 
 
 financier 
 
 maintain 
 
 wrath 
 
 caught 
 
 finale 
 
 mausoleum 
 
 weapon
 
 DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITION. 23 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON IX. — DESCKIPTIONS OF OBJECTS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 
 THE OLD CLOCK. 
 
 As I look up the stairway, my glance rests upon the 
 old clock, whose white face seems to look down with a 
 solemn stare, as if it felt itself impelled to keep an eye 
 upon me. It is of the " ancient timepiece " order, made 
 of mahogany almost black with age. It is fully eight 
 feet high, and in form is a pillar with base and capital 
 and tall shaft. 
 
 It is rather a plain specimen of its kind, the base and 
 capital resembling square boxes. The shaft, straight 
 and slender, has a glass door, through which I catch the 
 glimmer of the pendulum as it swings to and fro in 
 stately march. The door is hung on huge brass hinges, 
 and is further ornamented with a brass scroll-work key- 
 hole. The capital, surmounted by a simply carved 
 gable-pointed roof, bears the face. The figures on the 
 face are black, and the hands, \Yhiclii I suspect to be of 
 modern make, are of bluish steel. 
 
 In the four corners, cut off by the line which encircles 
 the numbers, are painted stiff, quaint, old-fashioned
 
 24 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 roses in pink and bine, with marvellously green leaves 
 
 all quite undininied by age. 
 
 From what is "ancient timepiece" quoted? Why is the phrase 
 " straight and slender " separated from the context by commas ? 
 Why is the phrase beginning with " surmounted " also so sepa- 
 rated? Explain the commas after "stiff" and "quaint." 
 
 Note. — Observe that the main features are first given, so as to 
 call up to the mind a more or less correct image of the clock as a 
 whole ; then the details are given, as to form, dimensions, and 
 ornamentation. 
 
 LIST OF OBJECTS TO BE DESCRIBED. 
 
 An Office Desk. A Cabinet. 
 
 A Modern Bookcase. A Dressing-Case. 
 
 A Library Table. A Bank Safe. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 Avoid the excessive use of "there is" and "there are." Use 
 different kinds of connectives, — conjunctions, relatives, and con- 
 junctive adverbs, — so that your sentences will not all sound alike. 
 
 Do not begin several consecutive sentences in the same way. 
 Description is apt to be monotonous. Use every means in your 
 power to avoid that fault. 
 
 LESSON X.— GENERAL DESOKIPTIONS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. MODEL FOR REPRODUCTION. 
 
 This should be reproduced from memory, each writer using as 
 many of the adjectives as possible. 
 
 Old Baltus Van Tassel was a perfect specimen of a 
 thriving, contented, liberal-hearted farmer. His home- 
 stead was situated on the banks of the Hudson, in one 
 of those green-sheltered fertile nooks in which the 
 Dutch farmers are so fond of nestling. A great elm 
 tree spread its broad branches over it, at the foot of
 
 DESCRIPTIVE COIVIPOSITION. 25 
 
 which bubbled up a spring of the softest and sweetest 
 water in a little well, formed of a barrel, and then stole 
 sparkling away through the grass to a neighboring 
 brook that bubbled along among alders and dwarf 
 willows. 
 
 Hard by the farm-house was a vast barn that might 
 have served for a church, every window and crevice of 
 which seemed bursting forth with the treasures of the 
 farm; swallows skimmed twittering about the eaves, 
 and rows of pigeons, some with one eye turned up as if 
 watcliing the weather, some with their heads under 
 their wings or buried in their bosoms, and others swell- 
 ing and cooing, were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. 
 
 A stately squadron of snowy geese were riding in an 
 adjoining pond convojdng whole flocks of ducks ; regi- 
 ments of turkeys were gobbling through the farm-yards, 
 and guinea-fowls fretting about it, with their peevish 
 discontented cry. Before the barn-door strutted the 
 gallant cock, a warrior and a gentleman, clapping his 
 fine wings and crowing in the pride and gladness of 
 his heart ; sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet 
 and then generously calling his ever-hungry family of 
 wives and children to enjoy the rich morsels which he 
 had discovered. — Washington Irving. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — QUICK WORK IN GENERAL DESCRIP- 
 TION. 
 
 Members of the class may recall some familiar place, 
 no matter where situated. Each pupil should bring a 
 picture of it before the mind, and then write his own 
 description, making it minute as possible. 
 
 The guiding principle in descriptive writing is to imagine we 
 see before us the object or scene to be described.
 
 26 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 The Playground. 
 
 Position — size — kind of fence — trees — shrubs — flower-beds 
 — adapted to what games ? 
 
 The Skating-Rink. 
 
 Different sports of winter — skating most delightful when 
 learned — why skating-rinks were made — describe one that you 
 have visited. 
 
 A Sugar Camp. 
 
 Kind of maple tree which gives most sap — when is the sugar 
 season ? — what is good sugar weather ? — how is sap obtained ? — 
 how gathered? — how is sugar made? — what stops the flow of 
 sap ? — how many pounds of sugar are produced by a single tree ? 
 
 The Woods in Autumn. 
 
 Autumn tints of leaves of different trees : maples — elms — 
 beeches — oaks — chestnuts. General effect of autumnal forest. 
 Why are trees of America more brilliant in autumn than those of 
 Europe ? — month of finest color — fall of the leaves. 
 
 " Here and there in the midst of the dark green foliage, leaves shone so 
 vividly yellow that it seemed as if upon tliem some fascinated sunbeam had 
 expended all its color. Away off in a dusky recess tlared the crimson 
 sumac. And the distant blue mountain, the azure sky, the wooded valley, 
 and every change of purple haze that jiossessed the air, — added an ideal 
 embellishment to the scene." — Charles Egbert Craddock. 
 
 " Falling leaves, when there is little or no wind to influence t^efr course, 
 have their stems vertical and foremost, and spin round and' round like 
 so many teetotems twirled in some game of invisible sprites. It is singular 
 how soon the falling leaf changes its color; scarlet becoming madder, 
 yellow a dull umber." — Edith Thomas. 
 
 Read Autumnal Tints, by Henry D. Thoreau. 
 
 A Farm. 
 
 If you live on a farm, describe it. Location — number of acres 
 1— variety of soil — adaptability to various crops. Independence
 
 DESCEIPTIVE COMPOSITION. 27 
 
 and dignity of fanner's life. Animals raised on a farm : horses — 
 cows — sheep — fowls. Care that these animals need to keep them 
 in health. 
 
 " All hens are worth studying for the piquancy and rich variety of 
 their manners, but by no possibility can there have been other fowls of 
 such odd appearance as these. Chanticleer himself, though stalking on two 
 stilt-like legs, was hardly larger than a chicken ; his two wives were about 
 the size of quails; and as for the one chicken, it looked small enough to be 
 still in the egg. and at the same time sufficiently old, withered, wizened, 
 and experienced to have been the founder of the ancient race." — Nathaniel 
 Hawthorne. 
 
 Read My Farm at Edgeicood, by Donald G. Mitchell. 
 
 The Museum. 
 
 Describe the objects of interest found in some museum that you 
 have visited. 
 
 The Public Park. 
 
 Name — location • — drives — walks — trees — flowers — decora- 
 tions of various kinds — summer houses — statues. Value of 
 parks to cities. 
 
 " A man's name attached to a park is the most enduring of monuments, 
 for it partakes of the earth itself." 
 
 A Cotton Mill. 
 
 Follow a bale of cotton through the various processes, describing 
 each as well as possible, until it appears as cotton cloth. 
 
 A Paper Mill. 
 
 Describe the processes of paper-making. 
 
 A Lake. 
 
 Name — size — location — outlet — inlet — character of water 
 — depth of water — character of shore — fish found in it. 
 
 The Seashore. 
 
 Describe some particular coast that you have visited : beach — 
 rocks — tide — fish caught — shells and seaweed found — color of 
 water.
 
 28 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 " The beauty of water is ever changing. It borrows from earth and aii 
 and heaven. The clouds lend it the various dyes of their wardrobe and 
 throw down upon it tlu' broad masses of their shadows as they go sailing 
 and sweeping by. The sunbeams return from it in showers of diamonds 
 and glances of lire; the moonbeams find in it a pathway of silver through 
 the livelong night. It harmonizes both witli the night and with the day. 
 It cheerfully reflects the light and unites solemnly with the darkness." 
 
 Note. — Each pupil should select those subjects with which he is perfectly 
 familiar. There should be little or no refei'ence to books. Every town or city 
 will have local places of resort, or places of historical interest which may 
 be used as subjects. In a manufacturing district there will be a great 
 variety of manufacturing establishments which may be described. Pupils 
 should be encouraged to visit them for that purpose. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 Do not place a word between a verb in the infinitive mode and 
 its sign. Ex. " To represent faithfully," instead of " To faithfiUly 
 represent." 
 
 Use so instead of as after a negative. Ex. " Nothing is impos- 
 sible to a nation so strong as ours," instead of "Nothing is impos- 
 sible to a nation as strong as ours." 
 
 Do not use pronouns of different numbers or genders when 
 all refer to the same antecedent. 
 
 Do not use a plural pronoun referring to such words as each 
 and every. 
 
 LESSON XL-DESOEIPTIONS OP PERSONS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
 
 When Washington was elected general of the army 
 he was forty-three years of age. In stature he a little 
 exceeded six feet ; his limbs were sinewy and well pro- 
 portioned ; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending
 
 DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITION. 29 
 
 dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust 
 constitution had been tried and invigorated by his early 
 life in tlie wilderness, his habit of occupation out of 
 doors, and his rigid temperance ; so that few equalled 
 him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His 
 complexion was florid, his hair dark brown, his head in 
 its shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils seemed 
 formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. 
 His dark blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an ex- 
 pression of resignation and an earnestness that was 
 almost sad. — George Bancroft. 
 
 Observe that in the above personal description, not merely 
 height, form, features, and complexion are given, but also certain 
 characteristics of manner and expression, and even some circum- 
 stances of his life and surroundings. These are necessary to make 
 an individual description. One that takes note of physical feat- 
 ures only might apply equally well to any of a number of people. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — PERSONAL DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 Pupils may describe in class some person or persons well known 
 to all present without mentioning names or circumstances which 
 would reveal the identity. The test of excellence will be the readi- 
 ness with which the hearers can recognize the portraiture. 
 
 Write a purely physical description, and see to how many per- 
 sons it might apply. 
 
 Write a list of adjectives describing eyes. Do not forget that 
 size and color will not individualize eyes. Let the list include 
 words or phrases which shall describe their setting, use, expression, 
 and kind, with regard to character revealed. Observing the same 
 precautions, write a list of adjectives descriptive of the other feat- 
 ures of the face. 
 
 Each pupil may bring to class some aptly worded quotation, 
 descriptive of the features. Ex. " Blue were her eyes as the fairy 
 flax."
 
 30 
 
 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXERCISE III. — LIST 
 
 OF 
 
 HISTORICAL PERSONS TO 
 
 BE 
 
 
 DESCRIBED. 
 
 
 
 George III. 
 
 
 
 Queen Elizabeth 
 
 
 Kaiser William I. 
 
 
 
 Prince Bismarck 
 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 
 
 
 
 Benjamin Franklin 
 
 
 Daniel Webster 
 
 
 
 Julius Caesar 
 
 
 EXERCISE IV. — LIST 
 
 OF 
 
 FICTITIOUS PERSONS TO 
 
 BE 
 
 
 DESCRIBED. 
 
 / 
 
 
 Marmion 
 
 
 
 Sir Launfal 
 
 
 Scrooge 
 
 
 ' 
 
 King Arthur 
 
 
 Hamlet 
 
 
 
 Christian 
 
 
 Ivanhoe 
 
 
 
 Lady Macbeth 
 
 
 Ophelia 
 
 
 
 Rip Van Winkle 
 
 
 LESSON XIL- DESCRIPTIONS OF THE WAY IN WHICH 
 ARTICLES ARE MADE. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 
 Pupils should read this description carefully and then try to 
 describe the manner of making some other article. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE AN APRON. 
 
 Then there are the delicate cheese-cloth aprons, nice 
 enough for anybody, though they need not cost over 
 five cents without trimming. Three-fourths of a yard 
 will make one lonor enoug'h and allow for a three-inch 
 hem. It should be hemmed the same width up the 
 sides, — no goring, — and gathered into a belt. Before 
 making it up, draw the threads just above the hem for 
 three-quarters of an inch ; then leave an equal sjiace 
 and draw as many more, and so on until you have four
 
 DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITION. 31 
 
 of these spaces ; then through the middle of these run 
 a needleful of embroidery silk, taking up several of the 
 warp threads as you go, and turn them the other way, 
 making an openwork pattern ; or run a narrow ribbon 
 of some gay color through them. The bottom hem 
 comes up to meet this work and helps complete a rich- 
 looking border. If you wish to make a very pretty 
 one, set all around it some cream-colored lace and put 
 a ribbon for strings ; but this kind of apron has no 
 pocket. — The Wide Aioake. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMILAR DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 Making a Doll's House. 
 
 How to Sweep a Room. 
 
 Care of a Canary. 
 
 Christinas Presents. 
 
 How to Take Care of House Plants. 
 
 How to Make Paper Flowers. 
 
 How to Make Figures by Folding a Handkerchief. 
 
 Folding Paper to Make Boxes. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 HOW TO CAST A FLY IN FISHING. 
 
 One of the most difficult things in fly-fishing is to get 
 your fly to fall just where you wish it to. To do this, a 
 little preliminary practice is necessary. Tie a small 
 weight, say a little block of wood an inch long and as 
 thick as your little finger, to the free end of your line, 
 which has been drawn out some eiglit or nine feet. 
 Then, standing firmly erect in an easy position, take the 
 rod in the right liand, grasping it by the handle just 
 above the reel ; with the thumb and forefinger of the 
 left hand take liolit hold of the bit of wood at the line's 
 end.
 
 32 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 You are now ready for the cast ; tlie rod is nearly ver- 
 tical, and the line is drawn taut. By a motion gradually 
 increasing in rapidity, Avave the rod backward over the 
 left shoulder, at the same time loosing the bit of wood 
 and allowing the line to swing straight out behind you. 
 Then before the wood can touch the ground in your 
 rear wave the rod, by a gradually quickening motion and 
 with a slight curve to the right, forward so as to whip 
 the line to the full length that is unwound, straio-ht out 
 before you, allowing the block, which is at present your 
 fly, to settle lightly on the ground. 
 
 Now to cast again, wind off by turning the reel a foot 
 or more of line, and then by a gentle sweep of the rod 
 upAvard ai]d backward, fling the line full length straight 
 behind, and before it can fall to the ground throw it 
 forward again as in the first casts. Try this over and 
 over again until you get so that you can fling out twelve 
 feet of line every time and make your bit of wood go to 
 just the spot you aim at. This accomplished, you are 
 ready to begin practice on water with a fly. 
 
 The Wide Awake. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMILAR DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 How to Make a Kite. 
 
 How to Set up a Water Wheel. 
 
 How to Set up a Tent. 
 
 The Building of a Boat. 
 
 How to play Tennis — Football — Base-ball. 
 
 Learning to Ride a Bicycle. 
 
 How to Make a Fire Balloon. 
 
 How to Build a Snow Fort. 
 
 The foregoing list is especially adapted for boys, as that of Exercise I. is 
 for girls. lu both cases what seems apparently very easy will be found 
 upon trial to be difficult. The number of persons who can give a clear and 
 accurate description of the way anything is made or done is very small.
 
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF LANGUAGE. 33 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COMMON ERRORS LJV THE USE OF LAN- 
 GUAGE. 
 
 All sentences should he correct in form. The errors 
 most commonly made by those loho use the language ivith 
 a fair degree of accuracy are included iti this chajjter. 
 
 LESSON XIII.— THE NON-AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND 
 
 PREDICATE. 
 
 This mistake is most likely to occur in the case of 
 collective nouns, and when the subject is complex or 
 far removed from the verb. 
 
 The usage for collective nouns is not entirely fixed, 
 but the principle seems to be, that when the speaker or 
 writer thinks of the objects indicated by a collective 
 noun as a whole, a singular verb should be used ; when 
 he thinks of them individually, a plural verb should be 
 used. 
 
 Examples of Correct U.sage. 
 
 The wages of sin is death. — The subject is conceived as singuhu . 
 
 Five dollars is too much. — Five dollars is taken as a whole. 
 
 The multitude were of one mind. — Individuals are thought of. 
 
 The multitude was too large to number. — Individuals are not 
 thought of. 
 
 Pleasures, and not study, occupy his mind. — The verb agrees 
 with the artirmative subject instead of the negative.
 
 34 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COISIPOSITION. 
 
 Love, and love only, is the loan for love. — When subjects are 
 emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with one, and is under- 
 stood with the others. 
 
 You were busy even when alone. — You always requires a 
 plural verb. 
 
 The gentleman with his children is in town. — With his chil- 
 dren does not affect the verb. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — JUSTIFY THE USE OF THE ITALICIZED 
 
 WORDS. 
 
 " Books " is a noun. 
 
 The jury gave their verdict. 
 
 Twice as much is too much. 
 
 The tongs are not here. 
 
 The crowd throng the streets. 
 
 Either he or I am right. 
 
 You were alone in the house. 
 
 Money, as well as men, is needed. 
 
 It was stock-certificates that I purchased. 
 
 Every one should have his life insured. 
 
 Mr. Edwards, in company with his sons, is in the city. 
 
 All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 
 
 Wrong Case of the Pronoun after the Verb To Be. 
 
 The verb to he takes the same case after it as before it. This 
 rule holds good when there is a noun or pronoun in the objective 
 ease before the infinitive. 
 
 Examples of Correct Usage. 
 
 I believed it to be him. — It is objective, so him should be objec- 
 tive. 
 
 I knew it was she. — // is nominative, so she should be nomina- 
 tive.
 
 EREORS IN THE USE OF LANGUAGE. 35 
 
 LESSON XIV.-EEEOES IN THE USE OP VEEB-TENSES. 
 
 Confusion of Past Tense and Perfect Participle of the Following 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 break 
 
 come 
 
 do 
 
 fall 
 
 go 
 
 drink 
 
 drive 
 
 ride 
 
 see 
 
 sing 
 
 swim 
 
 ring 
 
 The pupil should give the principal parts of these verbs, and illustrate 
 their use in compound tenses. 
 
 Confusion in the Use of the Verbs. 
 
 lie and lay — sit and set — rise and raise. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pres. Part. 
 
 Per. Part. 
 
 lie (to recline) 
 
 lay 
 
 lying 
 
 lain 
 
 lay (to place) 
 
 laid 
 
 laying 
 
 laid 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sitting 
 
 sat 
 
 set (to place) 
 
 set 
 
 setting 
 
 set 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 rising 
 
 risen 
 
 raise 
 
 raised 
 
 raising 
 
 raised 
 
 The pupils should make sentences illustrating the correct use of these 
 verb's. 
 
 Confusion in the Use of Shall and Will, Should and Would. 
 
 Rule. — Use ivill and icould whenever the subject 
 names the one whose will controls the action ; and shall 
 and should whenever the one named by the subject is 
 under the control of external influences. 
 
 The original meaning of shall is to owe, to he obliged; of icill, is 
 to determine. 
 
 Shall in the first person denotes simple futurity ; in the second 
 and third, determination. 
 
 Will in the first person denotes determination ; in the second and 
 third, simple futurity.
 
 36 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Ex. Futurity. Determination. 
 
 1 shall I will 
 
 You will You shall 
 
 He will He shall 
 
 We shall We will 
 
 You will You shall 
 
 They will They shall 
 
 This determination is often softened into an assent or promise, and is 
 only determination when emphatic. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — TELL WHETHER DETERMINATION OR SIM- 
 PLE FUTURITY IS EXPRESSED IN THE FOLLO\YlNG. 
 
 This child I to myself will take ; 
 She shall be mine, and I will make 
 
 A lady of my own. 
 I The stars of midnight shall be dear 
 
 To her ; and she shall lean her ear 
 
 In many a secret place, 
 AVhere rivulets dance their wayward round 
 And beauty born of murmuring sound 
 
 Shall pass into her face. — Wordsworth. 
 
 In asking a question we are accustomed to use shall or ivill according 
 as the one or the other is to be used in reply. If we say, " Shall you go? " 
 we expect the reply, " I shall go " or " I shall not go " ; or " Will he go? " 
 we expect the reply, " He will go " or "He will not go." 
 
 LESSOIT XV. -ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 It is often very difficult to make clear to which ante- 
 cedent our pronouns in the third person refer. 
 
 Confusion in the Use of -ffe, His, and Him, 
 
 The farmer w^ent to his neighbor and told him his cattle were in 
 his field. — Whose cattle were in whose field ?
 
 EEROKS IN THE USE OF LANGUAGE. 37 
 
 The lion had a struggle with a man and he killed him. — Which 
 was killed? 
 
 On his way he visited the son of an old friend who had asked 
 him to call upon him on his way northward. He was overjoyed to 
 see him ; and he sent for one of his workmen and told him to con- 
 sider himself at his service, since he could not take him as he 
 wished about the city. — Call the visitor A, the gentleman visited, 
 B. Make a list of the j^ronouns in order and tell to whom each 
 refers. 
 
 To obviate such difficulties, the seutence may be broken up into two or 
 more sentences, or the speeches may be put into the first person by direct 
 quotation ; or, nouns may be used in place of the pronouns. A beautiful 
 example of nouns used in place of pronouns is the followiug from Genesis 
 xliv. 22: "The lad cannot leave his father; for if he should leave his 
 father, his father would die." 
 
 lucorrect use of the Prououu Their. 
 
 The English language has no pronoun of common gender, singu- 
 lar number. Their is often used as such a pronoun, although 
 wholly without authority. Thus, in speaking to a group) of boys 
 and girls, this expression is used, / wish each one to attend to their 
 own lessons, when it should be, I wish each one to attend to his own 
 lesson. His for the time takes the common gender. 
 
 Incorrect Arr.angreinent of Pronouns. 
 
 When pronouns of different persons are used, the second should 
 precede the third, and the third the first. 
 
 He and I were there, not / and he were there. The only excep- 
 tion is when one confesses a fault ; then the first may precede the 
 third.
 
 38 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 CORRESPOJ^BEKCE. 
 
 Under this title are included letters of friendship and 
 courtesy, notes of ceremony pertaining to social func- 
 tions, and business and official letters. There are cer- 
 tain principles which apply equally to all of these. 
 
 Always use good paper and black ink. Decorated or 
 highly colored writing papers are in poor taste. Plain 
 white or slightly tinted paper of medium weight is best. 
 
 All letters and notes should be written legibly and 
 neatly, carefully punctuated, and absolutely correct as to 
 spelling. 
 
 If you are in the least doubt as to the spelling of a word, look it 
 up in the dictionary. 
 
 Never send a letter marred by blots, erasures, or corrections. 
 Rewrite as often as necessary to make it perfect. This applies 
 with especial force to business letters ; many a future has been 
 made or marred by the attention or lack of attention paid to 
 these essential details. But even to the most intimate friend or 
 relative should be paid the due respect of a neatly prepared letter. 
 
 All letters and notes, Avith a few special exceptions, 
 require a prompt acknowledgment of receipt, if not an 
 immediate answer. 
 
 This is especially the case in business letters and those contain- 
 ing enclosures of any kind. 
 
 All letters and notes should be courteous. 
 
 Under no circiimstances can you afford to be discourteous — 
 " Noblesse oblige." To inferiors in station be kjndly ; to superiors, 
 respectful ; and to equals, friendly.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 39 
 
 All letters and notes should contain the full name of 
 the writer and his address. 
 
 Even if your address is well known to your correspondent, it is 
 advisable never to omit it. In case your letter goes astray it can 
 be returned to you. Holding in our memories as we do so 
 many addresses, it may happen to all of us sometimes to forget a 
 familiar address. 
 
 The only exceptions to the above principle are in the case of cer- 
 tain formal notes of ceremony, which will be explained in the les- 
 son treating of them. 
 
 All letters and notes asking information should be re- 
 read immediately before answering. 
 
 This applies to most letters. A question asked in writing should 
 be answered as punctiliously as in conversation. 
 
 LESSON XVI.— rORMS OF LETTERS IN GENERAL COE- 
 
 RESPONDENOE. 
 
 There are certain conventional ways of beginning and 
 ending a letter, which, with little variation, are univer- 
 sally followed. 
 
 They are classified as follows : 
 
 The heading < 
 
 Address of the writer. 
 Date in full. 
 
 m, . , , , . ( Name and address of the correspondent. 
 The introduction i ^, , . 
 
 ( The salutation. 
 
 The body of the letter. 
 
 ,„, , . ( Complimentary close. 
 
 Ihe conclusion < ^. 
 
 ( Signature.
 
 40 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 MODELS. 
 
 61 jak-yi ^t., CLkvo-n, Hkla. 
 TftvQy. j. CI. (ZclaArLO', 
 
 Tflu cl&c^v I'HoucLoi'iyv : c^n le/^tu to i^o-uv 
 teZt&v, et^. 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 c/ OATU, 
 
 "U&vu txmLu uo-uA^, 
 
 jaA/ri jC. S^eAxpca-cyyv. 
 
 fuiAf /at, /S<^/. 
 TVlu cLeyOA^ ?yi\A. CLcLayyiQy, 
 
 Jn ve^l%{' to- ucywv IttteA, ay, ete^. 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 c/ ve/ntcci/yt, 
 
 D-£AAf tvutu UCyuAM/, 
 
 So- Trii^. f. ct. clA'O/yi'lq,, 
 
 S'ott^v-vll&, S'&'yvn.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 41 
 
 It is only in letters of some degree of formality such as 
 those addressed to persons in office, to strangers, or in business cor- 
 respondence, that the address of the corresponderrt is included in 
 the introduction. Notice that when it is so included the salutation 
 is followed by a colon, and the body of the letter begins imme- 
 diately after it, on the same line. 
 
 A less formal style is to place the address of the correspondent 
 at the end of the letter, below and to the left of the signature of 
 the writer. In this arrangement the form of the introduction is as 
 in the second letter on the preceding page. Notice that here the 
 salutation is followed by a comma, and that the body of the letter 
 begins on the line below. 
 
 There is a prevailing custom at present of having one's address 
 stamped at the head of correspondence paper, in which case the 
 date is usually placed at the end of the letter. 
 
 40 SScst 59t^ St. 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 The day of the month, as above, is sometimes written 
 in words.
 
 42 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The more familiar style of salutation is 
 
 M'ji dear Mr. Jones; 
 more formal and more business-like is 
 
 Dear Mr. Jones; 
 and still more formal is 
 
 Mr. J. Jones, 
 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 The variety in the forms of closing a letter is much 
 greater than in that of introdnction and admits the 
 exercise of individuality ; still there are certain accepted 
 phrases which are commonly used to introduce the com- 
 plimentary close. 
 
 These phrases, I ami, I remain, Believe me, etc., should 
 not be placed on a separate line, nor upon the line with 
 the complimentary close, but should follow immediately 
 the last sentence of the body of the letter, thus : 
 
 Trusting to hear that you are now in much better health, I 
 
 remain, 
 
 Yours very sincerely, 
 
 J. L. Canton. 
 
 Hoping for a favorable response, I am, 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 Bertha G. Martin. 
 Address Mrs. J. F. Martin. 
 
 A #iiarrierl woman should sign her own given name, but indi- 
 cate, as above, her projier title of address. 
 
 Rejoicing to hear of your good fortune in having been re-elected, 
 
 I am, 
 
 Your sincere friend, 
 
 J. L. Carlyle.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 43 
 
 Let me hear from you soon, and believe me, 
 
 Your affectionate 
 
 Uncle John. 
 
 This signature would be better if written 
 
 Your affectionate uncle, 
 
 John Smith. 
 
 Sentences sucli as tlie above usually begin with the 
 participle, to avoid the repetition of the pronoun I. 
 
 Although such sentences are in general favor as af- 
 fording a graceful finish and preventing abruptness, yet 
 it is not necessary, or advisable even, to use them always. 
 
 It is in exceedingly poor taste to use such endings as, 
 " As I have nothing more to say, I will now close," or 
 "I must stop now, as I want to go to make a call," or 
 even "I will now close." But bad as these are, it is 
 even worse to begin a letter, " As I have nothing else 
 to do, I will write," or " I thought I would answer 
 your letter," or "I sit down," or "I take my pen in 
 hand." Such phrases seem impertinent, when not 
 utterly senseless. 
 
 The following examples of conclusions, taken at ran- 
 dom from Mendelssohn's letters to Moscheles, show how 
 the conclusion may vary according to occasion or cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 May we meet in health and happiness, and may you be as kindly 
 disposed as ever to 
 
 Yours, 
 
 Felix Mendelssohn Barthokly. 
 
 And now farewell and fare ever well. 
 
 Yours,
 
 44 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 My best wishes accompany you on what I trust will be a happy 
 and pleasant journey. 
 
 Yours ever, 
 
 And trusting you will preserve a kind remembrance of me, 1 
 remain, 
 
 Yours most sincerely, 
 
 My love to Emily and Serena, and may you and Moscheles be 
 as well and as happy as I wish you to be. 
 
 Yours, 
 
 For to-day, good-by. And more thanks and — hurrah, you are 
 coming ! 
 
 Ever yours. 
 
 In addressing an envelope care should be taken to 
 write the abbreviation of the name of the state dis- 
 tinctly as well as properly. N.J. may be easily mistaken 
 for N.Y. 
 
 Never write out one part of a compound name when 
 you abbreviate the other. The name should be written 
 West Virginia or abbreviated W. Va. ; South Carolina 
 or S.C. ; New Mexico or N.M. ; etc. In the case of 
 towns and villages, it is advisable to add the name of 
 the county. If the address is a foreign one, the name 
 of the country should be added. In addressing a firm, 
 do not forget the prefix of courtesy; as, 
 
 Tfl&Q^VQ., dnyyvo-tcC, ^cyyta'taAt&, If (^., 
 
 BvaacOw-OAf a/yucL /^th oft-, 
 
 c/lf&w- l/o-xh (^Itu.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 45 
 
 The superscription on an envelope, like tlie title- 
 page of a book, may be written entirely without punc- 
 tuation except in the case of abbreviations. This form 
 is preferred by many writers of the highest standing. 
 Tnere should, however, be no mixing of the two styles. 
 Either leave out all punctuation or punctuate fully. 
 
 The following are forms of correct superscriptions on 
 envelopes : 
 
 jucCat' cAo-a.k ^a^vAJi^, 
 
 c/te/nf- llavh ^itM. 
 
 When the name of a city is the same as the state, the 
 name need not be I'epeated. 
 
 2/3 Tnauv ^t., 
 
 It is not necessary or proper to add D.D. or M.D. or 
 D.D.S. or LL.D., as the case may be, when the title Dr. is prefixed 
 to the name. 
 
 When an additional address is to be given, as the name 
 of a suburb or of a country place, as in the above, it gives the 
 superscription a more symmetrical appearance to place it at the 
 lower left corner.
 
 46 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 Write five Headings. 
 
 Follow carefully the arrangement and punctuation of the models 
 given. Write abbreviations con-ectly. 
 
 Write five Introductions. 
 
 Address a stranger, a firm, a college president, an intimate 
 friend, a relative. 
 
 Write five Conclusions. 
 
 Let these include the last sentence, the phrase which introduces 
 the close, the complimentary close, and the signature. Make them 
 as widely different as possible. 
 
 Write five Superscriptions. 
 
 Be careful to have a symmetrical arrangement on the envelope, 
 use abbreviations correctly, and punctuate according to the models 
 given. 
 
 LESSON XVII.-LETTEES OE EEIENDSHIP. 
 
 Simplicity and naturalness are the chief requisites in 
 this Icind of writing, but the rule, " Write as you speak 
 and think and feel," which is sometimes laid down as 
 a means of securing this effect, is one to be followed 
 with strong modifications. 
 
 In speech, for instance, we use certain contracted and 
 other expressions termed colloquialisms which are un- 
 suited to, and would seem undignified in, written com- 
 munications. Therefore it may be stated as a rule, 
 that, in writing, one must 
 
 Avoid OoUoquialmns.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 47 
 
 The voice, manner, and expression modify to such an 
 incalculable degree our spoken words, that in a con- 
 versation we may safely give voice to thoughts and 
 opinions which, if confined to the bare, unmodified 
 statement suited to the limits of a letter, might give 
 unpardonable offence. Therefore it may be stated as a 
 second rule, that 
 
 Grreat care and moderation should be used in the written 
 expression of our thoughts and opiniotis. 
 
 Again, to write what one feels may be most injudi- 
 cious. This does not apply to cordiality, interest, grati- 
 tude, or any other of the nobler sentiments — if you 
 cherish these, be sure to write in the spirit of them ; but 
 do not write complaining letters. Moderate the ex- 
 pression of cares or anxieties or sorrows, when it is 
 necessary to touch upon them ; when it is not abso- 
 lutely necessary, leave them to be divined. A con- 
 siderate reticence in such matters wins deeper sympathy 
 than any amount of complaining could do. 
 
 Do not write angry or resentful letters ; you will be 
 sure to say something to be deeply regretted if you do. 
 Write guardedly when you feel strongly on any pain- 
 ful subject, and above all 
 
 Do not write ivhen laboring under any great excitement. 
 
 Since a letter of friendship is a conversation on paper, 
 you should write in an easy, familiar manner of the 
 things about which you would naturally talk to the per- 
 son to whom you are writing. 
 
 Study to write gracefully as well as naturally. Avoid 
 the monotony that comes from sentences all based on 
 one model. Above all, do not appear to be thinking 
 constantly of yourself.
 
 48 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP. 
 
 Write to a friend living at a distance, inviting her 
 to visit yoii. 
 
 It is best to state the length of the visit, — a fortniglit perhaps. 
 Inform her as to trains, enclose a time-table, indicating the most 
 convenient train ; state that you will meet her at the station. 
 Write cordially but not effusively. 
 
 Write, accepting an invitation like the above. 
 
 State on what day and by what train you will arrive. 
 
 Write home from your friend's house. 
 
 It is absolutely indispensable to write at once to advise your par- 
 ents of your safe arrival. Share with those at home the pleasure 
 of your journey ; give interesting incidents of the trip, and tell of 
 your reception at your friend's home. 
 
 Write to your friends on returning home from a 
 visit. 
 
 It is due to your friends that you write promptly. Write of your 
 visit and the pleasure it afforded you, — be sincere and cordial. Do 
 not forget messages of regard to the family. 
 
 Write, declining an invitation. 
 
 Write, expressing your appreciation of yovir friend's kindness. 
 A letter of regret needs to be even more cordial than an acceptance. 
 
 Write a letter home on reaching college or school. 
 
 Give all the incidents of the journey and your first impressions 
 and experiences. Such a letter should be written at the earliest 
 opportunity after arriving. 
 
 Write a Christmas letter to a friend or absent 
 member of the family.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 49 
 
 Write a journal letter while on a business trip. 
 Write to a schoolmate who is absent from school. 
 
 Describe some school entertainment. 
 
 Write to your teacher, explaining jour absence. 
 
 Express your regret politely. Ask where your lessons are. 
 
 Write to a friend in Florida. 
 
 Ask for information as to climate, hotels, etc. 
 
 Write a letter to a child. 
 
 Write of the tilings that will be most likely to interest him, and 
 use such language as he can easily understand. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. -NOTES OP CEEEMONY. 
 
 Under this heading may be classed notes of invita- 
 tion, acceptance, and regret, both formal and informal. 
 
 Informal invitations, acceptances, and regrets are 
 simply friendly notes written always in the first person. 
 They vary in form to suit the occasion. They should 
 be cordial in tone, but brief, and are in better taste 
 when confined to the subject of the invitation, outside 
 items being permissible only under special circum- 
 stances which may require their mention. 
 
 An informal invitation should never, under any cir- 
 cumstances, be answered in the third person.
 
 50 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF INFORMAL NOTES. 
 
 oO-vtl yau fiat (jiA>-e^ 10^ tk& '^leyOMAiA.e' at uauv 
 eoni'^i^amA^ at oAyyvyi&v, om, 3~kwL^cLa,u e.v-&'^^L'^^q 'yt£/?ct, at 
 a^&v-EAV 0-' <s.ta&Jo ? Tflva^ fSavu/natan at ^ane-avcl Ui- cywi 
 (ju&Mj pyo Oy ^fvcnZ tiArv&, a^ncC w-& a^v& iy^^v-vtC'yla a^ t&w- 
 YWe/yicl^ to- cli/)t& iv-vt/v -u^ cy)^ Qj~A.WLQ^cCa.u to- ')}v&&t h&v, 
 "VO-xXA Q^i/yi&'&i& 'b&aa.'icU^, 
 
 i}&vu e^a^LcCtyattu uaux^, 
 
 <Jt n/iMytt (^vv-a 'YH-& tk& (fv&att%t ja-t&OA^zubey to- cUyyie, 
 waJJv i^oio o^yv oikwi^cta/u 'ne/?ct oavcC 'vyve&t uauv pvC&'WcC 
 ?y(iA^ Bo'ViiAtatan,. lS&ti&v-& 'YK>& aZav-OAi^, 
 
 32 gaol 6(^Uv ^t. Sttem. ^. foAyvuxyn.. 
 
 I'J'lu deav c4'&ttv&, 
 
 €.TAA^ ?}1.acfa<^wyv& (S^Ciitp, li^kte^lv c/ qXaZI ko4i^> to 
 nav-& yo^ ^'oiAv, w-\l.t 'yn&eZ at atcv /tauQ.& aru ne/xit 
 Ci^&cl-ne-a^cCau, at tn.ie& o' eZoeJc. c/ w-xaJv v-^vu WAi^h 
 that y.O'U w-au^tct &0'vru& ayyicl '\fve,et th& ^Tve^yyulyeA^. <J 
 hvunif- tAat w-keAi^ yo-io j^vncl w-kat i/nt&v&atX'yva avvi^ 
 tk&u a/v&, ucHo w-v(Z iv-a/}tt to io-i/yi uo/. 
 
 /ro^iAtcjf to Q.&& 'uo%o an, 'W^&d'yv&a'ctaAf, <J ve^yrupii/yv, 
 
 TMyuAA, cl&v-at&cllu, 
 27 rC ijtxs&t, ^cLttk S'a^^A^n^. 
 
 ^&e,£/)yv6-&v 20, /8^/.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 51 
 
 em,cpxie^yyv&yit jsA^v-emAA/ 'yyvu ay&^&^ti/na ■uo-iov k/XAvci (a^v-C- 
 tatvatv to- ■yyv&&t Ui& i-n^f-w^^e-tfi/ at tk& TyiaMO/xvyie^ (S^tuO- 
 at ucywv hcyitQy& cyyv IM&cCn^&a^cCciA^ ntoct. c/ O'lm^eAy&Ou 'i&q'v&t 
 'vyvia^rui UtUi/ aJB'ji^vtAi/yiiXM to 'm.&eZ ucyuA^ ixAy&ncU,, {yut 
 tvti^ t/tcit vt iA^ cyyitu a^ ^t&a,QA<A^ clel&vv&cC. 
 
 Sv-&v ucnvv ivv&nci, 
 (AAtxyyiato-'yv /if&LaAt^, freZeAV 0Q/yyuyyvcC. 
 
 687 ^uh/^e^ (Zv-£AVU^. 
 
 S'kt' {xyu^ o-i awb €.utin^ ^tu(>' clv& jsytammAynxf a 
 pioJiuyia e/x^ti/iQAxyyi to €AA>toru JLak/& on ^atywulad^ 'yve/xt, 
 arut lAOiv 0^16' (bovcii.aX-uu, tmv-lZ&cL to- jovrv tea-. 
 
 ^o a.cLu tkcCt uoio ^if-vtt M-nL&. <Jt iMno tUcey, <J 
 
 waLL e^aZl tov uo^o o^ rtuu w-OA-t to tk& (^a-rttiat M^tjsyot 
 
 at f CL.Tn. 7, 
 
 iMHiA^ a^ eA}-&v, 
 
 TyioM /3, /8'J/ . 3'koyyuxQy L. ^oAAytoxyyi. 
 
 Jb^&OA^ S'oyyv, 
 
 ^t exyuA>Qy& c/ oAxteAiL, a/yuL tinX^k tk& ave^aZmL 
 
 js^teyOAAiA^e^; tk& iyrwZtatuyn^ to jouw tk& ^tiZi/yuf ^wiiA' &, 
 
 tioAiAva E/XySAAAAAxyyv 07V ofatAinjctaA^. <Jt t^ u&i/i^ (jooci oj- 
 
 tk&yyu to oaJo Oyrv " o^utM/cC&v/ ' oaixL vL Ui^ am^ cuLcUXAxyyvOyi 
 
 kA/KcL'yi&a^ iyyv uoto to s^alt ixyv 'Wu&. <J o^kciit 6-&(^vn> oL 
 
 o^yve^^ to too^ «^ 'mAf txMJct&, 0,710/ ■nf-tCt {y-& alt i&aaA^, 
 
 w-ke/yi uou (uyvne/. a, « 
 
 ' &i/yKS/e%eVu uou^a,, 
 
 /6 €.ah ^t., f^t&koAzt ^'mltk. 
 
 TyioAf /3, /8q/.
 
 52 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR NOTES OF CEREMONY. 
 
 Write an infoniuil invitation to a birtliday party ; acceptance; 
 regret. 
 
 An informal invitation to a card party, a tennis party or archery 
 meet ; acceptance ; regret. 
 
 An informal invitation to a dancing class ; acceptance ; regret. 
 
 An informal invitation to a children's party ; acceptance ; regret. 
 
 An informal invitation to a dinner ; acceptance ; i"egret. 
 
 LESSON XIX. — FOEMAL NOTES OP OEEEMONT. 
 
 Formal notes are always expressed in the third person, 
 and all answers to such should correspond in form and 
 style. 
 
 Although invitations to large affairs are usually printed 
 from engraved plates, a few forms are here given, prin- 
 cipally to show the correct forms of reply to the several 
 kinds of invitation. 
 
 MODELS. 
 
 Invitation to a reception. 
 
 TViv. cind Tyit^. ^AaA.t&ay £. fi^chXA.vyicjton 
 
 (yyv tS^kuva^clo/u &v-£mAyna, c/fcyi>-&'nv{>'&v temLrv, 
 pLcynv &vaJvC unZvt &teA>-&^ a'&taeA^. 
 
 If the reception is to be followed by dancing, the word 
 " Dancing " is placed at the lower left corner.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 53 
 
 In an invitation to a dancing party the hours are not 
 limited, as in a reception ; the form is as follows : — 
 
 Tf'Jv. a/>%cL iTixAy. (S^kdvt&ih jC. /i-aA.i.tmqtcyyi 
 
 o-n dhAiXA'ctcvu ^u^ruiAzii, ^a/ytua-vy tvif-&Clt/v, 
 at tvvn& a'e^to-eA,. 
 ^cM'vedAu^ at &t&v-£m.. S'^6 Spilth Ctv-&mo&. 
 
 Such invitations do not, as a rule, have the year stated. 
 
 All invitations should be promptly answered. Cus- 
 tom dictates .this, and consideration requires it. The 
 forms of acceptance and regret to all such invitations 
 are as follows : — 
 
 7?ftW Sudi^m, /ifatt 
 
 Tfth. ayyict ?Vih^. (^kaaZeA^ JL. fia^wimatcyn/ O/ 
 
 i/^^v-Ltatva9V to-v cJ hnAA^cLan^, &v~emAA'Ui, 
 
 ^e^£Ayv6-&h &LaAte'&nZA. 
 
 OR, 
 
 Tyii^ydy Sv-ttyyi /ifaXt 
 
 'b&cj\^A^ t'lat a yiiv&w.xH<^ &'yiaaa&'m-&nt 
 
 ^lA^v-eAtta^ keA^ ae^&'^iZa/yL^& at 
 
 /yiv. OAtcl iTlvQj. (^ftaA,t&Q, jC. fi-a/UbLnqt/yn,' q, 
 
 vnAHAMA.vcyn' tcyv jAtox^clau e^v-e/yivn-q, 
 
 ^£^e/my6-£Ay &iq/it&eAiJL/v. 
 
 It is usually neither convenient nor advisable to give the exact 
 reason for declining an invitation, and therefore "regrets that a
 
 54 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 previous engagement " is the accepted form to signify one's ina- 
 bility, from any cause whatever, to accept. By some the preference 
 is given to the expression, "regrets her inability to accept." 
 
 The phrases, " presents her compliments," " kind invitation," 
 " sincerely regrets," and similar expressions, are no longer used in 
 formal notes. 
 
 In a dinner invitation the name of the guest, — 
 "Miss Evelyn Hall," for instance, — is placed instead 
 of "your" before the word "company." 
 
 TVlv. amcL I'JIz^. ^kaa.ttA' L. /ifoAA^tnatcyyv 
 
 TVlio^ (ov-elu-yv fi-a.tt'o' exyvyujiM/yiu 
 
 ^e^e^n/^-a/i iiitk, /S<^/ , at a^&u&n> a'e^ta^. 
 
 It is an unpardonable offence to delay, for any reason whatever, 
 sending an immediate answer to a dinner invitation. 
 
 The forms of reply are as follows : — 
 
 TVliAA' Sv-eZyyi fi-a,tt 
 
 TVlv. OAVcL TyivQ,. (^koAl&Q^ Jl. /'fcLW'L')tatcyyv' d^ 
 iyyiv-ttati-o-rv to- covyin&v a-t a'&v-e^^ a' eytae^rO, 
 
 OR, 
 
 TViiAA^ €v-eL'mt /fatt 
 
 'Vtavtt^ tA(xt a 'p,i&v-vaio^ EAi^aacfeArutinC 
 
 4iA,eA>e/yvt^ keA- a.&€&jiitcbns^& aj-, 
 
 tte^.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE. 55 
 
 Observe that although the date for which one is invited is 
 always repeated in the answer, the answer is not itself dated, as 
 it is in other correspondence. 
 
 The fashion of forming sociables, germans, dancing 
 classes, etc., which meet at the houses of the members, 
 is a prevalent social custom. The form of invitation is 
 usually as follows : — 
 
 3^k& ^eya^/iub& at uatw e^a^n/fiuwuu 
 
 tO' t&mc£4iX&c6 at tk& ne^^dC 
 
 S^t(yux,t ^eAy'vyvam,, 
 
 at Aatt-'fiu;i'it eurJit o-' &taiSyh. 
 R. O'. 1>. ^. dOO ?T(culCay(y)i^ (Zv-&■7^u&. 
 
 The abbreviation, R.s.v.p. — Repondez s'il vuus plait, — is 
 used only in such invitations. It is taken for granted in a 
 direct personal invitation that you will not commit the social error 
 of omitting to reply. ' 
 
 The English phrase, " The favor of an answer is requested," is 
 by many preferred to the French expression. 
 
 The answers to invitations like the above must be 
 impersonal in form to correspond with the invitation : — 
 
 ?7ii. ^A'OAi/ney j. cfton& 
 
 w-itt ta^& 4iZ&aAA0'i,& vn, ()-&vnc^ yc/i&^emt 
 
 at th& S^to-iat ^SA^yyva/yi 
 
 on TyiancLoAi tv-em^l/yiq, ^&&e/yyU>-&^ O'VxZrv. 
 
 OR, 
 
 TTIv. ^Aazone/u ^. oftcyyte 
 'UyO/i&Ca. kCo' Cna^tiAJyu to (>-& ^yu^e/nt,
 
 56 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 As afternot)ii receptions, variously designated accord- 
 ing to changing fashions, require for invitations the 
 visiting-card only, with date and hours added at the 
 lower left corner, they are regarded as scarcely more 
 than special reception days, and therefore do not require 
 a note of acceptance or regret in answer, the acknowl- 
 edgment being the leaving of cards by those who attend, 
 or the sending of cards on or before the day by those 
 who do not attend. 
 
 Theatre, card, tennis, and arcliery parties, being of much less 
 formal character than the foregoing, the invitations and replies are 
 usually written in the first person. 
 
 EXERCISE. — CLASS WORK. 
 
 Write on note paper acceptances and regrets for each of the 
 above or similar invitations. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 In writing answers to invitations observe great care to arrange 
 the matter symmetrically and in the middle of the first page of a 
 sheet of note paper. Place your own name on a line by itself, and 
 in the middle of the line ; observe these directions, also, in regard to 
 the name of the host and hostess. Repeat in your answer, as in 
 the models given, the items as to date, hour, etc., of the invitation. 
 
 LESSON XX. - BUSINESS AND OFEIOIAL LETTERS. 
 
 Business letters should be concise, explicit., and cour- 
 teous. The information given or desired should be stated 
 in the fewest possible words. All social and friendly 
 items should be rigidly excluded.
 
 COERESPONDENCB. 57 
 
 Though a business letter should be brief, it need not be 
 abrupt. Abruptness in even the briefest letter may be 
 avoided by due attention to the salutation and compli- 
 mentary close. 
 
 If a business letter be an answer to one received, ref- 
 erence should be made to the letter in question, its date 
 given, and enclosures, if any, acknoAvledged. If money 
 is received, it should be counted immediately on opening 
 the letter. 
 
 Business letters should be written on one side of the 
 paper only, and it is a good plan to keep copies. Dates 
 and sums should be written plainly in figures. 
 
 When a letter on one's own business requires an answer, a stamp 
 should be enclosed. In business letters the date and address of 
 writer should always be placed at the head of the letter. 
 
 FORMS OF BUSINESS LETTERS. 
 
 2/8 ^w^&tvo-h oft., 
 
 fidj 3, /8(f/. 
 
 cA&w- Z/o^vh (^il/u, 
 
 ^tm,tt&ryLeA^ : Z/.o-ivv t&Ct&v o-l tk& f'Jtlv utt. 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 u&vu tiActu UatlAM', 
 
 If. /-f. $fyn,itk V <^,
 
 58 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 /23 S^o-iovUh Clv-&7tu&, c/te/w- l^a^k/ ^ItAf. 
 
 (Ztb-a.'yvu , cA. y^. , 
 
 M^&OA^ <^vv : <Jn 'L£/i&'L&ns^& to ucyu/u e^o'Tn- 
 'y}vumyVe^tuy)'v at, &t&. 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 /6t^i/?i-^ t/i& j'CM^cyv at am/ &aA,tu i&^tu, <J lEAfuoAyyv, 
 
 TJattA.O' txnitu, 
 
 If. £.. jont^. 
 
 Take special notice of the relative positions of the parts of 
 the headings and conclusions, and of the punctuation. 
 
 ^t/a-£y /lfauQy&, c^e/i^i^- Ziavk/, 
 
 m\^. d. (o. /dhowm^, ' 
 
 ^&aA. Tl'l.chcLa.w : 'l{}'& 6-&a to- a,(iJc'yiawZ&cla& tke 
 'L&&-&iAit at uavA/ t&Lt&v e'risZaa-una uau-v &kE&k/ tai, ete-. 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 VoiaM^cw ^attt,(j&, jcuyi. 23, ISCfl. 
 THIq^ ^ount' ^o.vfi^t'yviEA/, 
 
 (Dn&toQy&cC ^t&a^& tvncL a^ eAAMAA/ta^v, eLc'-. 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 liauVQy tvwOu, 
 
 /{-. fC. BtamJo, 
 
 ^&eA.eta^vu.
 
 CORRESPONDENCE, 59 
 
 ^0- tk& RicfAt R&V-. BUJva^ al o'fe'Z^ Vavh, 
 Ri<^kt ReA}-, qICv : 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 c/ kciv-ey tk& hanav to (>■& 
 
 f'f. f. cfcynviA^, 
 &&&. /i-am& ?flia^to-nQy. 
 
 In official correspondence the office is addressed rather than the 
 officer, and the complimentary close is more formal than in ordinary 
 business letters. When one writes in a strictly official capacity, the 
 official title must follow immediately after the signature, as in the 
 above. 
 
 ^ Idan/heAA^, cA. Ti., THoa^ / , /8^/. 
 
 dfv& BaoAxl at SclAi/B^atLan a/i^L 
 
 cJA& &■uyll■&^,i/}^t&ncl&nt at S^cUie^aZva^, 
 
 '&£/yitteA7u&7v : ZV-&, tk& uncl&vO'Varv&cl, 6-&a te,cLv-& ta 
 e^vtt uaiov atteAitian, ta, eZa^, 
 
 (Body of the letter.) 
 
 CCtt at w-kv&/i uiy i&a/^&etlultu oAi^iyynltt&cC, 
 
 ja/vyv of'vrLvLk, 
 
 In business letters the number of the month is sometimes used 
 instead of the name; as -"'/o 1891, instead of May 2, 1891.
 
 60 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOE BUSINESS LETTERS. 
 
 Write to a dry goods fir in, requesting samples of a certain 
 material. 
 
 Write, ordering materials from sample, and enclosing payment 
 either in check, P.O. order, or cash. 
 
 Write to publishing firm, asking for catalogues and for informa- 
 tion about certain books. 
 
 Write, ordering books. 
 
 Write, applying for a position as clerk, salesman, or teacher. 
 
 Write in answer to the above. 
 
 AVrite, as secretary of a society, club, or business organization, 
 to the members, announcing an executive committee meeting; a 
 general meeting ; an event to take place. 
 
 Write as treasurer of the above, requesting payment of dues; 
 announcing assessments or dividends. 
 
 Write to a stranger, asking information in regard to a former 
 employee of that person. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 The following directions are copied verbatim from the official 
 circular issued by the Post Office Department. 
 
 How to prepare matter for mailing. — See that every letter, 
 newspapei-, or other packet sent by mail, is securely folded and 
 fastened. Avoid using cheap envelopes, made of thin paper, 
 especially whei'e more than one sheet of paper, or any other article 
 than paper, is enclosed. Being often handled, and even in the 
 mail bags subjected to pressure, such envelopes not unfrequently 
 split open, often giving cause of complaint against officials who are 
 entirely innocent in the matter. 
 
 All packages mailed at less than letter rates of postage should 
 be wrapped so that their contents can be readily ascertained with- 
 out destroying the wrapper. Matter contained in sealed envelopes 
 notched at the ends defeats the object of the law, and is subject to 
 letter postage. 
 
 Have addresses legible and complete. — Make the address 
 on all matter legible and complete, giving the name of the post- 
 office, county, and State. The name of the street and number of the 
 house should also be given on mail-matter addressed to cities where 
 letter-carriers are employed. 
 
 Where to place postage stamps. — Postage stamps should be 
 placed on the upper right-hand corner of the address side of all 
 mail-matter.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 61 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 N ABE AT 10 M AMI) DESCRIPTIOM COMBIKEB. 
 
 Although in narration there is often something of de- 
 scription, and in description something of narration, in 
 the preceding lessons the effort has been, to emphasize one 
 or the other. In the lessons of this chapter the pupil is 
 to take either or both styles, according as the subject sug- 
 gests. 
 
 LESSON XXI. - ANNIVEESAEY DAYS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 THANKSGIVING DAY. 
 
 The fields are stripped by this time and the trees 
 stand bare. That rich murmur of a myriad insects is 
 gone, and the silence, which distinguishes January from 
 June even more than the heat, falls, the precursor of 
 s,no\\, upon the landscape. But, as if to resist the bit- 
 terness and sadness of the failing year, the most genial 
 and kindly of all our festivals, occurs at the end of 
 November. Its veiy name, Thanksgiving, betrays its 
 origin — an origin unmixed with any prior tradition. 
 
 The great Christian festival of Christmas stretches 
 backward to yule-logs and mistletoes, to Scandinavian 
 and Briton heathenry ; nor does it lose by the graceful,
 
 62 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 happy association. But Thanksgiving is purely Puri- 
 tan. It is the good, warm, human heart conquering the 
 toucfh head and ascetic manner of the old Pilgrims. 
 
 In Elliot's New England History you may read that 
 in 1623, after the harvest, Governor Bradstreet sent out 
 a company to shoot game to furnish a dainty feast of 
 rejoicing after the labors of the colony. Having fol- 
 lowed the directions of the governor and the principle 
 of the excellent Mrs. Glass, they cooked their game, 
 and invited Massasoit and some ninety other savages, 
 and all fell to and devoured the feast, thanking God 
 "for the good world and the good things in it." — 
 George William Curtis. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 Christmas. 
 
 Derivation of name — when first celebrated on present date — 
 why? Ancient festivals held at same time of year in Italy and 
 Scandinavia. Onr Christmas customs — Christmas tree — Christ- 
 mas games — St. Nicholas — Santa Claus. Christmas customs in 
 other countries — Christmas legends — Christmas stories. 
 
 New Year's Day. 
 
 Early Dutch customs — making calls — observance of New Year 
 here and in other countries. 
 
 Washington's Birthday. 
 
 Common observance of the day. Sketch of Washington — his 
 life and achievements. 
 
 " Washington did the two greatest things which in politics it is permitted 
 to man to attempt. He maintained by peace the independence of his coun- 
 try which he conquered by war." — G?nzo<. 
 
 " You are the only being for whom I have an awful reverence." — iorci 
 Erskine. 
 
 " Until time shall be no more, will a test of the progress which our race 
 has made in wisdom and virtue be derived from the veneration paid to the 
 immortal name of Washington." — Lord Bronr/Jumi.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 03 
 
 Easter. 
 
 A movable festival — feast of flowers — commemorative of the 
 resurrection of Christ. Easter legends — Easter emblems — Easter 
 observances — Easter poems. 
 
 The Fourth of July. St. Patrick's Day. 
 Thanksgiving Day. The Quiet Anniversaries. 
 
 Decoration Day. The Noisy Anniversaries. 
 
 St. Valentine's Day. Poems and Legends of 
 
 Christmas. 
 
 LESSON XXII. - AMPLinOATION OF POEMS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR STUDY AND AMPLIFICATION. 
 
 THE SANDS O' DEE. 
 
 " Oh, Mary, go and call the cattle home, 
 
 And call the cattle home, 
 
 And call the cattle home, 
 
 Across the sands o' Dee ! " 
 The western wind was wild and dank wi' foam. 
 
 And all alone went she. 
 
 The creeping tide came up along the sand. 
 
 And o'er and o'er the .sand, 
 
 And round and round the sand, 
 
 As far as eye could see ; 
 The blinding mist came down and hid the land : 
 
 And never home came she. 
 
 " O, is it weed, or fish, or floating hair, — 
 
 A tress o' golden hair, 
 
 O' drowned maiden's hair, — 
 
 Above the nets at sea ? 
 Was never salmon yet that shone so fair 
 
 Among the stakes on Dee."
 
 64 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 They rowed her in iutoss ilio rolling foam, — 
 
 'I'he cruel, erawliiig foam, 
 
 The cruel, hungry i'oain, — 
 
 To her grave l)esiJe the sea; 
 But still the boatmen hear her call the cattle home, 
 
 Across the sands o' Dee. — Charles Kingsley. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 In this poem are really two stories, — one story that is told, another 
 that is suggested. In order to tell the story that is cuggested, you 
 need to use your imagination. Imagine the fisherman's cottage; 
 describe it ; describe the family ; tell what Mary was doing when 
 she was called to go after the cows ; whether she went willingly or 
 not. Describe two ways that she might have gone, one around by 
 a bridge, another across the sands — why she chose the sands. 
 The fog — her confidence — her fear when she stepped into the 
 water — her struggles to find the way. 
 
 Tell what happened at the cottage w^ien she did not return — 
 the frantic search — despair slowly settling on father and mother 
 — finding of the body — the burial — the sailors' superstition. 
 
 LIST OF POEMS FOR SIMILAR AMPLIFICATION. 
 
 The Mistletoe Bough Thomas H. Bayley. 
 
 The Three Fishers Charles Kingsley. 
 
 How's My Boy? Sidney Dobell. 
 
 The Gray Swan Alice Cary. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. - IMAGINATIVE STORIES. 
 
 EXERCISE I. MODEL FOll REPRODUCTION. 
 
 THE GENEROUS CLOUD. 
 
 " All things are beautiful to-night except myself," said 
 
 a dull creeping Mist that hovered over a swamp. " The 
 
 moon and the stars are beautiful ; the hills and the 
 
 woods and the rivers are beautiful ; but how hideous I
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 65 
 
 look. And what is my birth-place ? A swamp which 
 men hate and avoid." Thus bemoaning lierself, the Mist 
 continued to creep sluggishly over the surface of .the 
 marsh. 
 
 Suddenly an evening Breeze came dancing over the 
 hills, fresh and full of life. At his approach the Mist 
 began to rise, brightening as she rose, for the moon shone 
 full upon her. The Breeze then laid hold of her, and 
 bore her swiftly on his wings far up into the sky, and 
 she became a cloud. 
 
 Meanwhile the sun rose, and men looked forth from 
 their homes on the fields sparkling with dew — they 
 looked also to the sky and saw a glorious Cloud sail- 
 ing over the distant hills. " We may hope for rain 
 to-day," they said, and went cheerfully to their labors. 
 The heat increased, the men grew weary, the earth was 
 dry and hard, and scarcely could their spades turn up 
 the flinty soil. The Cloud meanwhile moved in beauty 
 across the heavens, yet not with pride, for she remem- 
 bered her lowly birth-place, and she longed to prove her 
 gratitude by doing good. 
 
 The weary men looked upward. "Would," they said, 
 "that yonder Cloud might bring us rain, for the streams 
 are dry, and our cattle are in need of water." " O that 
 I could help you ? " exclaimed the Cloud. Scarcely had 
 she spoken when the Breeze came back again, and hasten- 
 ing toward the cloud, said to her, " Thy wish is heard, 
 but art thou willing to become a sacrifice?" The Cloud 
 hesitated for a moment. She thought of her beauty and 
 freedom. But again faint, beseeching voices from the 
 earth reached her. " I am willing," said the Cloud. 
 
 Then the Wind drew near and drove her with haste 
 across the heavens. Her beauty vanished, she became
 
 C6 STUDIES TX ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 black and IV-arlul to look upon, and her brother, the 
 Wind, roared behind her with a fearful voice. The 
 loftiest trees bent under the tempest, and nien hastened 
 to their homes for shelter. In a moment the Wind was 
 hushed. Lightning gleamed from the Cloud, thunder 
 was heard, and then a torrent of rain descended. The 
 earth drank it in, the dry clods became soaked, and the 
 thirsty fields revived. 
 
 Soon the sun broke forth, lighting the earth with 
 beauty and causing the rain-drops to glitter in his beams. 
 
 Across the bosom of the Cloud rested a beautiful rain- 
 bow, emblem of that love which made her willjng to be- 
 come a sacrifice for the good of men. And a sacrifice 
 she was ; for as the sky grew more and more bright, she 
 melted away and was seen no more. — From the Crerman. 
 
 Note. — In the reproduction, be careful to keep the quotations in the first 
 person. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMILAR COMPOSITION. 
 
 The Maple and the Rose. 
 
 They run a race in growing — rose grows faster — maple surer, 
 for it keeps its height from year to year. After years have passed, 
 they compare — maple high, with birds singing in its branches — 
 rose very little higher than at first. " The race is not to the swift." 
 
 The White Giant. 
 
 Steam in its various applications. 
 
 The Great Magician. 
 
 Electricity in its various applications. 
 
 Journey of a Drop of Water. 
 
 Falls upon a house roof — reaches a stream — then river — then 
 ocean. Drawn up by sun — becomes pai't of a cloud — driven by 
 wind — falls as rain upon same house roof from which it started. 
 "Write in first person.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 67 
 
 The Leaf's Complaint. 
 
 Leaf told by the wind that some day it would fall from the tree 
 and die — tree comforts it. When autumn came, leaf became col- 
 ored — softly sailed off — went to sleep. 
 
 The Seasons as Children of One Family. 
 
 Year as father — four children; winter, son — spring, summer, 
 and autumn, daughters. Dress and action suitable to the time of 
 year. 
 
 Dispute of Mathematics, Latin, and Science for a 
 Boy's Time. 
 
 Set forth the value of each, using the first person. 
 
 The Butterfly's Ball. 
 
 The guests — how dressed — how entertained. 
 
 The Cat's Dhnier Party. 
 
 All the cat's relations invited: lion — tiger — leopard — pan- 
 ther. Each tells of his home. 
 
 The Debate in the Orchard. 
 
 Meeting of birds — chairman appointed. Question for discus- 
 sion — "Man is mean, mischievous, and malevolent." Arguments 
 for and against, from the birds' point of view. 
 
 My Dream. 
 
 Imagine a procession of the characters in children's stories, to 
 pass by : Bo-peep — Red Riding-Hood — Cinderella — Jack the 
 Giant-Killer — Aladdin — Ali Baba — Robinson Crusoe — Christian. 
 
 LIST or IMAGINATIVE STORIES. 
 
 The Kinfj of the Golden River . . . John Ruskin. 
 
 A Child's Dream of a Star .... Charles Dickens. 
 
 The Ugly Duckling Hans Andersen. 
 
 The Sister Years Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
 
 The Ephemera Benjamin Franklin, 
 
 Death and Sleep Krummacher.
 
 68 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSlTlON. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 A STUDY OF SEjYTE.KCES AKD THE 
 PARAGRAPH. 
 
 LESSON XXIV. —POEM AND STKUOTUEE OF THE 
 
 SENTENCE. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 Sentences are found in four different forms. 
 
 Declarative. — Mary reads the book. 
 Interrogative. — Does Mary read the book? 
 Imperative. — Mary, read the book. 
 Exclamatory. — How Mary reads the book ! 
 
 Each of these sentences may be : — 
 
 Affirmative. — Mary reads the book. 
 Negative. — Mary does not read the book. 
 
 STRUCTURE. 
 
 Sentences likewise differ in their structure. 
 
 The principal varieties are the Loose, the Periodic, and 
 the Balanced. The one oftenest used is the Loose ; 
 it is the sentence of conversation, of easy narrative, and 
 largely of description. The Periodic and the Balanced
 
 STUDY OF SENTENCES AND THE PARAGRAPH. 69 
 
 are oftener used in orations, arguments, and didactic dis- 
 course. 
 
 A Loose Sentence is one that says something in the 
 first clause, which is added to, subtracted from, modified 
 or changed in some way, as the sentence goes on ; and 
 may be built up word by word, as it is spoken or written. 
 
 Ex. "It is contended by those who have been bred at Eton, 
 Harrow, Rugby, and Westminster, tliat the public sentiment within 
 these schools is high-toned and manly ; that in their playgrounds 
 courage is universally admired, meanness despised, manly feelings 
 and generous conduct are encouraged; and that an unwritten code 
 of honor deals to the spoiled child of rank and to the child of up- 
 start wealth an even-handed justice, purges their nonsense out of 
 both, and does all that can be done to make them gentlemen." 
 — Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
 
 A Periodic Sentence is one so formed that it keeps 
 the mind in suspense about the meaning until the very 
 end, — it must be as a whole in the mind of the speaker 
 or writer before it is spoken or written. 
 
 Ex. " If we wish to be free, if we mean to preserve inviolate 
 those inestimable privileges for which we have been so long con- 
 tending, if we mean not basely to abandon the noble struggle in 
 which we are engaged and which we have pledged ourselves never 
 to abandon, until the glorious object of our contest shall be ob- 
 tained, — we must fight." — Patrick Henry. 
 
 " And though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though 
 I give my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me 
 nothing." — Bible. 
 
 A Balanced Sentence is one containing two clauses 
 that are similar in form, and either parallel or contrasted 
 in meaning. 
 
 Ex. " In peace, children bury their parents ; in war, parents bury 
 their children."
 
 70 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 " Had you rather C?esar were living, and die all slaves, than that 
 CcDSar were dead, to live all free men ? " — Shakespeare. 
 
 " None knew thee but to love thee. 
 Nor named thee but to praise." — Halleck. 
 
 TliL' r.ook of Jol), the Psalms of David, aud the Proverbs of Solomon 
 abound iu examples of balanced sentences. 
 
 LESSON XXV. — THE PARAaEAPH. 
 
 The paragraph is the division of discourse next higher 
 than the sentence ; it is in fact a collection of sentences 
 with unity of purpose. The most important principles 
 which govern the structui-e of the paragraph are : — 
 
 The first sentence, unless plainly introductory, should 
 give some idea of the subject of the paragraph. 
 
 The bearing of each sentence upon what has gone 
 before should be evident. 
 
 The paragraph should have unity of thought, with 
 variety of expression; that is, there should be sen- 
 tences of different length, different form, and different 
 structure. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 Analyze various kinds of composition with a view to the para- 
 graphing. 
 
 Analyze the paragraphs of different selections in school readers, 
 magazine articles, and the sections in Caesar's Commentaries or 
 Cicero's Orations. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Write several paragraphs upon a given subject, having clearly in 
 mind the central thought in each ; where each paragraph begins 
 and where it ends. 
 
 The first word of a paragraph in a written composition should always 
 begin a little back of the left naargin.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCEIPTION COMBINED. 71 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 XABRATIOX AJfD DESCBIPTIOJ^ COMBIJfED. 
 
 STUDIES IN NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 Of the many subjects suitable for composition work, 
 none are better and feiv as good as those connected with 
 natural history. Such subjects call forth original obser- 
 vation on the part of the writer, lead to intelligent study 
 of text-books, and not infrequently are the means of devel- 
 oping a taste for the study of nature which ivas before 
 unknown. 
 
 LESSON XXVI. — GENEKAL DESCEIPTION OF A BIED. 
 
 A bird is an oviparous, vertebrate animal with warm 
 blood and a covering of feathers. Its entire structure 
 is organized for flight, and, consequently, the anterior 
 extremities, which in man are arms, in quadrupeds legs, 
 are in the bird developed into wangs. The bird is, there- 
 fore, a biped, and the operations of finding and taking 
 the food, of cleansing the plumage, are performed al- 
 most exclusively by the mouth, which consists of two 
 lipless and toothless jaws sheathed witli horn. The 
 sliape of the body is oval, the neck is long and flexible, 
 the legs are set well back, and the toes are lengthened 
 and spread out to form an adequate base of support. 
 
 The bones are light, and some of thera have cavities
 
 72 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 which are filled with air Avhen the bird breathes. The 
 bones of the back are more or less united ; the sternum 
 or breast bone is very large in order to make a place of 
 attachment for the great muscles which move the wings. 
 In front of the sternum is a bony brace which keeps the 
 shoulders apart, called in chickens the wislibone. 
 
 Besides the ordinar}'" clothing-feathers are larger ones 
 called quills. Considering the wing of a bird as a mod- 
 ified arm, the quills of the hand are called primaries ; 
 of the forearm, secondaries ; of the humerus, tertiaries. 
 Those forming the tail of the bird are distinguished as 
 steering quills, and the short feathers found at the base 
 of the quills of both wing and tail are coverts. The 
 entire plumage of a bird is renewed every year — in 
 some species even twice a year. This process is moult- 
 ing. The eyes of birds are remarkable for their power 
 to see equally well objects both near and remote. They 
 have three eyelids, two of which move vertically, while 
 the third sweeps over the eyeball horizontally, from the 
 inner to the outer side of the globe. The ear is exter- 
 nally marked, but is not conspicuous ; the nostrils are 
 placed on the upper part of the bill ; the tongue is 
 small, and the taste is probably not delicate. 
 
 EXERCISE I. QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED ORALLY. 
 
 How is the plumage of birds rendered waterproof ? 
 
 Does the winter phimage ever differ frorn that of the summer? 
 
 "Which sex usually has the brightest colors? 
 
 How are eggs hatched ? 
 
 How do birds sit so securely on their jierches? 
 
 AVhat other vertebrate besides the bird flies ? 
 
 What other vertebrates lay eggs? 
 
 "What characteristic distinguishes birds from other animals? 
 
 How are birds' nests made so round?
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 73 
 
 What quadruped has the bill of a bu-d ? 
 
 Do tropical birds have brighter plumage than those of temperate 
 zones ? 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Pupils should write in class from foregoing studies the best 
 description of a bird that they can, giving all the characteristics 
 that they know. 
 
 LESSON XXVII. -PEEE DESCEIPTION OF BIEDS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — OUTLINE OF A FREE DESCRIPTION. 
 THE AMERICAN ROBIN (Menila migratoria). 
 
 Explanation of the various names. Robin redbreast given by 
 Pilgrims. Why ? 
 
 Date of arrival and departure in our latitude. 
 
 Size. — Birds are measured from tij) of beak to end of tail. 
 Spread of wings should be given. 
 
 Appearance. — Color — gait — flight. 
 
 The flight of the rolnu is swift and may be extended. In 
 migrating, it is believed to fly a hundred miles in a day. 
 
 Character. — Trustful — builds near the dwellings of men. 
 
 Song. — Bright, cheerful. " Cheer up ! cheer up ! cheery ! 
 cheery ! " Sings early in the morning and somewhat at evenmg. 
 Often many will sing in full chorus. , 
 
 Food. — Insects, seeds, fruit. The young birds eat only worms 
 and larva;, and these in enormous quantities — forty per cent more 
 than their own weight every twenty-four hours. 
 
 Nest. — Made of mud, twigs, and grasses. The robin is a mason. 
 
 Eggs. — Color — number — size — length of time for hatching. 
 
 Anecdotes and Incidents. — From the writer's personal obser- 
 vation. 
 
 The Robin in Literature. — The English robin is not like our 
 American robin. 
 
 Note. — By filling up this outline with facts of his own observation, 
 each pupil can write a fair description of the robin.
 
 74 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LIST OF BIRDS FOR SIMILAR DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 The Bluebird. Slalia sialis. 
 
 One of the first to arrive in the spring. Builds nest in holes 
 of wall, hollow trees or posts. Notes always soft, a low, mellow 
 warble. 
 
 Baltimore Oriole. Icterus galbula. 
 
 Wears the livery of Lord Baltimore — orange and black. Called 
 Hangbird — Golden Robin — Fire-bird. Reaches the North when 
 the cherry trees are in blossom ; seldom remains longer than the 
 middle of August. 
 
 " The nest of nests, the ideal nest, is unquestionably that of the Baltimore 
 Oriole. It loves to attach its nest to the swaying branches of the tallest 
 elms, making no attempt at concealment, but satisfied if the position be 
 high and the branch pendent. This nest seems to cost more time and skill 
 than any other kind. A peculiar llax-like substance seems always to be 
 sought for and always found. The nest when completed assumes the form 
 of a large, suspended, gourd-shaped bag. The walls are thin but firm, and 
 proof against the most driving rain."— Jy/i?i Burroughs. 
 
 Bobolink. Doliclionyx oryzivorus. Meed-hird. 
 nice-bird. 
 
 " June's bridesman, poet of the year. 
 Gladness on wings — the bobolink is here." — Lowell. 
 
 In spring and summer, breast, wings, and tail black ; back of 
 neck, cream color ; back and rump, white ; bill and legs, brown. In 
 fall, yellowish brown, streaked with darker. Length, 7.55 inches. 
 Gayest and most rollicking of all our birds, — found in the 
 meadows, flying just above the grass or perched on tall weeds. 
 It nests upon the ground. In the South it becomes a game bird 
 and haunts the rice-fields. 
 
 Bead Robert of Lincoln, by William Cullen Bryant.   
 Bead The Birds of Spnng, by Washington Irving. 
 
 " A flock of merry singing birds were sporting in the grove: 
 Some were warbling merrily, and some were making love. 
 There were Bobolincoln, Wadolincoln, Winterseeble, Conquedel — 
 A livelier set were never led by tabor, pipe or fiddle ; —
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 75 
 
 Crying, Phew, shew, Wadolincoln ; see, see, Bobolincoln 
 
 Down among the tickle-tops, hiding in the buttercups ; 
 
 I know the saucy chap, I see his shining cap 
 
 Bobbing in the clover there, — see, see, see." — Wilson Flagg. 
 
 Red-headed Wood-pecker. Melane^yes erytliro- 
 ceplialus. 
 
 " The wood-peckers all build in about the same manner, excavating the 
 trunk or branches of a decayed tree, and depositing the eggs on the fine 
 fragments of wood at the bottom of the cavity. Though the nest is not 
 especially an artistic work, — requiring strength rather than skill, — yet 
 the eggs and young of few other birds are so completely housed from the 
 elements or protected from their natural enemies, — the jays, crows, hawks, 
 and owls." — John Jjurruiujlis. 
 
 Blue Jay. Cyanocitta eristata. 
 
 A large bird -^ head splendidly crested — general effect in color 
 blue, with wings and tail barred with white and black. Destructive 
 to the eggs and young of other birds — frequently resident. Cry, 
 shrill and hoarse. An English statute of the 17th year of George 
 II. empowered grand juries to offer three-pence for the head of 
 each jay, on account of alleged injury to young trees. 
 
 Read A Bird of Affairs, by Olive Thorne Miller. 
 
 Read Succession of Forest Trees, by Henry D. Thoreau. 
 
 The Common Crow. Corvus Aviericanus. 
 
 Grave, cunning bird, greatly disliked because of habit of pulling 
 up corn, — really very useful in killing cut-worms and caterpillars. 
 His cry is "caw, caw," his flight heavy. Opinions of different 
 oi-nithologists about liim. Is ^sop's fable. Crow and Fox, a cor- 
 rect representation of his character ? 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITEK. 
 
 The above notes are simply suggestive. It is best to follow 
 pretty closely the study of a robin, adding anything of interest 
 you may know. Do not be confined to this list ; take any bird that 
 you know about. If you are not familiar with any bird, try to 
 make an opportunity for personal observation rather than glean 
 from books.
 
 76 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XXVIII. — GENERAL SUBJECTS EELATING 
 
 TO BIEDS. 
 
 Mifrrations of Birds. 
 
 "The stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed time ; and the turtle 
 and the crane and the swallow observe the tune of tlieir coming." — Bible. 
 
 Note date of arrival of robins, bluebirds, song sparrows, blue 
 jays, etc., all the common well-known birds. Also, time of their 
 gathering into flocks in the autumn and the date of their disa}> 
 pearance. It is believed that most small birds migrate at tright. 
 If the bii'ds stayed during winter, what would they find to eat? 
 How keep warm ? 
 
 Birds' Nests. 
 
 Where do different varieties of birds build ; e.g., robin, bluebird, 
 ground sparrow, wood-pecker, oriole, swallow, hen, tm-key? Plat- 
 form builders, as eagles and hawks — miners, as bank swallows — 
 masons, as robins, barn swallows — carpenters, as wood-peckers — 
 weavers, as orioles. 
 
 Eead In Nesting Time, by Olive Thorne Miller. 
 
 Birds as Ornaments. 
 
 The fashion of wearing birds as ornaments for hats and bonnets 
 threatens the existence of many varieties. The most persistent 
 and cruel of the birds' enemies seem to be those who wish to wear 
 their dead bodies as ornaments. The Audubon Society has been 
 formed of persons who promise not to wear birds and feathers (ex- 
 cept ostrich feathers and feathers of birds used for food) as orna- 
 ments ; not to kill birds to be used for that purpose. 
 
 One London dealer in birds received, when the fashion was at 
 its height, a single consignment of thirty-two thousand dead hum- 
 ming-birds ; and another received at one time thirty thousand 
 aquatic birds and three hundred thousand pairs of wings.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 77 
 
 THE HALO. 
 
 Think what a price to pay, 
 Faces so bright aud gay, 
 
 Just for a hat ! 
 Flowers uuvisited, mornings unsung, 
 Sea-ranges bare of the wings that o'erswuug, 
 
 Bared, just for that ! 
 
 Think of the others too, 
 Others and mothers, too, 
 
 Bright eyes in liat ! 
 Hear you no mother groan floating in air, 
 Hear you no little rnoan — birdlings' despair — 
 
 Somewhere, for that ! 
 
 Caught mid some mother work. 
 Torn by a hunter Turk, 
 
 Just for your hat ! 
 Plenty of mother love yet in the world. 
 All the more wings to tear, carefully twirled — 
 
 Women want that ! 
 
 Oh ! but the shame of it, 
 Oh ! but the blame of it 
 
 Price of a hat ! 
 Just for a janntiness brightening the street — 
 This is your halo, O faces so sweet, 
 
 Death ! and for that. — W. C. Gannett. 
 
 The Flight of Birds. 
 
 Difference in flight of crow, eagle, swallow, robin, hen. Ancient 
 divination by the flight of birds. 
 
 "The short, round wing confers a heavy, powerful, cutting flight, for 
 short distances, with a whirring noise produced by quick vibrations of the 
 wing. Birds that fly thus are almost always thick-set and heavy. The 
 long, pointed wing gives a light, airy, skimming flight, indefinitely pro- 
 longed, with little or no noise ; birds of this style of wing are generally 
 trim and elegant." — Cones. 
 
 Birds as Symbols. 
 
 The owl was the symbol of Athene, Goddess of Wisdom, also the 
 emblem of desolation, as in Isaiah xxxiv. lo, 14, 15. The eagle, 
 called Bird of Jove, is the emblem of strength, and as such appears
 
 78 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 either on the co;it-of-;irms or ii})ou the flag of many nations ; e.g., 
 Konie, United States, Prussia, Russia, Austria, France, Mexico. The 
 raven is a bird of evil omen. The dove signifies gentleness, and in 
 religious pictures typifies the Holy Spirit. The stork, piety and 
 good fortune ; the goose, folly ; the peacock, pride ; the pelican, 
 sadness ; the kingfisher or halcyon, tranquillity. 
 
 Mythological and Sacred Birds. 
 
 rh(Tenix — harpy — roc. Havens of Odin — vulture of Prome- 
 theus — sacred ibis of Egypt. Birds sacred to the Greek gods were: 
 owl to Athene, peacock to Juno, dove to Venus, eagle to Jove. 
 
 Birds of the Biljle. 
 
 Any concordance will give the necessary references. 
 
 Birds of the Modern Poets. 
 
 Study "Wordsworth, Longfellow, Tennyson, Lowell, Bryant, for 
 their allusions to birds. 
 
 Birds in their Cages. 
 
 Birds usually caged — canary — bullfinch — mocking-bird — 
 parrot. Native home of each. Care which they require. Duty 
 of owners to provide for health and happiness of their prisoners. 
 How bullfinches are taught to whistle tunes. Cruelty of caging 
 our wild birds. 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 Birds of America John James Audubon. 
 
 A History of North American Birds. . Baird, Brewer, llidgeway. 
 
 Ornithology and Oology of New England Edward A. Samuels. 
 
 The Birds and Seasons of New England Wilson Flagg. 
 
 Animal Memoirs Samuel Lockwood. 
 
 Wake Robin John Burroughs. 
 
 Birds and Poets John Burroughs. 
 
 Upland and Meadoic Charles C. Abbott. 
 
 Bird Ways Olive Thorne Miller. 
 
 Birds in the Bush ......... Bradford Torrey. 
 
 Birds through an Opera Glass . . . Florence A. Merriam. 
 
 Our Common Birds ....... John B. Grant.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 79 
 
 LESSON XXIX.— POEMS EELATING TO BIEDS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 Pupils are each to bring one of the following poems to be read 
 in class. 
 
 To a Waterfowl William CuUen Bryant. 
 
 The Titmouse Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
 
 The Sandpiper Celia Thaxter. 
 
 Robert of Lincoln William CuUen Bryant. 
 
 The Stormji Petrel Barry Cornwall. 
 
 To the Skylark Percy Bysshe Shelley. 
 
 The Legend of the Crossbill .... Henry W. Longfellow. 
 
 The Birds of KilUngworth Henry W. Longfellow. 
 
 The 0' Lincoln Pawilii Wilson Flagg. 
 
 Elegy on Lesbia's Sparrow Catullus. 
 
 The Eagle Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 To the Cuckoo William Wordsworth. 
 
 The Belfry Pigeon N. P. Willis. 
 
 To the Eagle James (t. Percival. 
 
 The Skylark James Hogg. 
 
 To the Skylark William Wordsworth. 
 
 The Pewee J. T. Trowbridge. 
 
 The Jackdaw of Rhe/mis Thomas Ingoldsby. 
 
 The Dying Swan Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 Note. — These poems can be found in any good collection of miscella- 
 neous poems. Many are in the different school readers. 
 
 LESSON XXX.— DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 The completest, the most singular, the most useful conquest of 
 man — the domestic dog. — Cnvier. 
 
 Ye who perchance bcliold Miis simple urn, 
 Pass on — it honors none you wish to mourn ;
 
 80 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 To mark a friend's remains these stones arise ; 
 I never had but one, and here he lies. 
 
 Lord Byron's Epitaph to his Dog Boatswain. 
 
 Experiment shows that the bird and the dog reason as the hunter 
 does ; that all the animals show the same good sense in their hum- 
 bler walk that the man who is their friend or enemy does ; and if it 
 be in smaller measure, yet it is not diminished, as his often is, by 
 freak or folly. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
 
 This dog hath so himself subdued 
 That hunger cannot make him rude; 
 And his behavior does confess 
 True courage dwells with gentleness. 
 
 Mrs. Phillips. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS SHOULD BE 
 ANSWERED ORALLY. 
 
 Name the domestic animals. Why so called? How far back 
 can we trace the dog? Are there wild dogs? Where are wild 
 horses found? What is their history? Where are wild sheep 
 found ? Which of our domestic animals was held sacred in Ancient 
 Egypt ? Who was the Bull Apis supposed to be ? How was he 
 recognized ? Which aninuxl is the symbol of Christ ? Of Chris- 
 tians? Which animal is the symbol of strength? Of patience? 
 Of meekness? Of greed? Which has most intelligence? Most 
 love for man? Which is most graceful? Most angular? Most 
 picturesque ? What animals graze ? What animals lap in drinking ? 
 Why do they ? With what ones do we use the word flock ? Herd ? 
 Drove? Pack? Is horse-flesh used for food? Where are dogs 
 used as beasts of burden ? What famous breed hunt for travellers 
 lost in the snow? What sacred animal did the children of Israel 
 make in the wilderness ? What Greek goddess was called ox-eyed ? 
 Did the Indians have domestic animals when America was dis- 
 covered? How is steam-power measured ? What is the ordinary 
 age that horses reach ? Dogs? Cats? Sheep? Cows? What star is 
 called the Dog-star ? Why ? How many teeth has a cow ? A 
 sheep ? For how many years can a horse's age be told by his teeth ? 
 Are a cow's horns before or behind her ears?
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 81 
 
 EXAMPLES OF DESCRIPTIONS OF ANIMALS. 
 THE WAR HORSE. 
 
 Hast thou given the horse his strength? Hast thou 
 clothed his neck with his quivering mane ? The glory 
 of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley and 
 rejoiceth in his strength, he hurries on to meet the armed 
 man, — he mocketh at fear, — he turneth not his back 
 from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, — 
 the glittering spear and the shield, — he swalloweth the 
 ground with fierceness and rage ; neither believeth he 
 that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among 
 the trumpets Ha ! lia ! and he smelleth the battle afar 
 off, and heareth the thunder of the captains and the 
 shouting-. — Bible. 
 
 "&• 
 
 THE COW, 
 
 The cow belongs among the picturesque animals. 
 Her shaggy, loose-jointed body, her irregular, sketchy 
 outlines, her tossing horns, her bushy tail, her swinging 
 gait, her tranquil habits, — all tend to make her an object 
 upon which the artist's eye loves to dwell. 
 
 The cow appears in pictures much often er than in 
 literature, yet she has given us some good words and 
 liints. How could we get along without the parable of 
 the cow that gave a good pail of milk and then kicked 
 it all over? Or the parable of the cream and the 
 skimmed milk, or of the buttered toast? We know, too, 
 through her aid, what the horns of a dilemma mean, and 
 what comfort there is in the juicy cud of revery. The 
 cow has not been of much service to tlie poet, and yet I 
 remember that Jean Ingelow couhl hardly have man- 
 aged her " High Tide " without " Whitefoot " and " Light-
 
 82 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 foot," and " Cusha ! Cusha ! Cuslia ! " calling. Or Trow- 
 bridge his " Eveninor at the Farm," without the musical 
 refrain of " Co boss ! Co boss ! Co ! Co ! " which is the 
 real call of the American farm boy. — John Burrour/hs. 
 
 Note. — This is not such a description as would be fouud in a boolv of 
 natural history. It is less accurate, hut more readable. It is a literary, not 
 a scientific description. The selection is taken from Oar Rural Divinity. 
 
 TROWSERS. 
 
 " Trowsers was an animal concerning whose breed and 
 parentage there existed the profoundest uncertainty. He 
 belonged distinctly to no class, but had the peculiarities; 
 of many; his outer dog, however, formed but a small 
 portion of his nature. The virtues of Trowsers' dispo- 
 sition were absolutely without number. He had the 
 fidelity of the terrier, the sporting proclivities of the 
 setter, the speed of the greyhound, the dignified self- 
 respect of the mastiff, — everything, in short, was in him 
 combined. 
 
 " In his tastes he was a creature of sensitive discrim- 
 inations. His leading passions were an all-absorbing 
 adoration for his master, and an equally absorbing 
 hatred for street-boys — the latter born, no doubt, of 
 bitter memories concerning those ringed scars by which 
 his hind legs were still decorated. Upon these fundamen- 
 tal mainsprings of his being were grafted other and lesser 
 loves and hates. He loved those who loved his master, 
 and scented out with unerring exactitude those who were 
 unfriendly to him. Duns were his detestation ; all trades- 
 men, as possible bearers of bills, came in for a share of 
 his disapprobation. 
 
 " His feelings toward women were of the most deadly 
 animosity. The landlady, whom he grudgingly suffered
 
 NARRATIOlSr AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 83 
 
 to live because he conceived that in some way she was 
 of use to his master, came in for nothing better, even 
 toward the dinner hour, than suppressed growls ; the 
 timid little servant-maid lived in terror of her life by 
 reason of him ; the laundress left the linen, tremblingl}', 
 at the street door, and took to her heels at the distant 
 thunder of his voice ; whilst as to the occasional working- 
 woman, a double fee was necessary to induce her to 
 venture into the rooms where 'that there wild beast' 
 was to be met with. There w^ere no distinctions in this 
 sweeping condemnation." 
 
 LESSON XXXL— GENEEAL SUBJECTS EELATINQ TO 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 Dogs of History and Tradition. 
 
 Argus, the dog of Ulysses ; the dog of Alcibiades (the story- 
 is told by Plutarch) ; Math, the dog of Richard 11. of England; 
 Barry, the St. Bernard, instrumental in saving the lives of forty 
 persons; Sirrah, Hogg's dog, told of in The Shepherd's Calendar; 
 Maida, Sir Walter Scott's greyhound, etc. 
 
 Poems about Dogs. 
 
 Beth Galert, William Spencer. Flush, My Dog, Elizabeth Barrett 
 Browning. Epitaph of Boatswain, Lord Byron. Roger and 1, 
 J. T. Trowbridge. The Twa Dogs, Robert Burns. 
 
 Dogs in Literature. 
 
 The works of Sir Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, and Charles 
 Kingsley abound in dogs. 
 
 Attributes of the Dog. 
 
 Love, faithfulness, obedience, sensitiveness, jealousy, patience, 
 curiosity, mercy. Relate anecdotes which illustrate these attributes.
 
 84 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The Gaits of a Horse. 
 
 Walk, trot, gallop, run — natural gaits. Describe them. Pace, 
 rack, single-foot — acquired gaits. What do photographs of dif- 
 ferent gaits show? ]s the luuuan eye sensitive enough to grasp 
 the different attitudes? 
 
 Are Animals Happy ? 
 
 Happiness of domestic animals dependent upon man. Since 
 man has destroyed their wild instincts, the least he can do is to 
 cai-e for them kindly and wisely. 
 
 " I would not enter on my list of friends the man who need- 
 lessly sets foot upon a worm." — WiUicuii Cowper. 
 
 " For the bliss of animals lies in this, that on their lower level 
 they shadow the bliss of those — few at any moment on the earth 
 — who do not look before and after, and pine for what is not, but 
 live in the holy carelessness of the eternal now." 
 
 George Macdonald. 
 
 The Cat. 
 
 The cat family — history of our domestic cat — her characteris- 
 tics. The beauty of kittens. 
 
 Characteristics of Various Breeds of Cattle. 
 
 The Devon, the Jersey, the Durham, the Alderney, the Hol- 
 stein, etc. 
 
 Animals as Symbols. 
 
 Hog, of greed ; ox, of patience ; dog, of fidelity ; horse, of 
 strength ; fox, of cunning ; bear, of rudeness : cock and hen in 
 Japanese pictures signify domestic happiness. 
 
 Sacred Animals of the World. 
 
 Bull — cat — crocodile — ibis, in ancient Egypt; white elephant, 
 in Siam ; cow, in India ; monkey, in Benares. 
 
 Noted Painters of Animals. 
 
 Paul Potter, Verboeckhoven, Rosa Bonheur, Landseer, Schreyer, 
 Troyon, Beard.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 85 
 
 MytlioJogical Animals. 
 
 Centaur, Griffin, Sphinx, Cerberus, Dragon, Unicorn, Pegasus, 
 Cliinisera, Mermaid. 
 
 Emotional Expression of Animals. 
 
 Do"- waa's his tail — horse moves his ears — cat raises her hair; 
 bark — whine — howl — whinney — mew — purr — spit. 
 
 Animals of the Bible. 
 
 Select quotations with reference to the characteristics indicated. 
 Ex. "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib; but 
 Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider." — Isaiah i. 3. 
 
 A World without Domestic Animals. 
 
 Picture the condition of the world as we know it, if in a single 
 night all the domestic animals were destroyed. Could any foi'ces 
 of nature be made to take the place of horses? Would plants sup- 
 ply sufficient food ? 
 
 Stories of Pets. 
 
 Write from personal experience or what you liave heard, not 
 from books. 
 
 Read Queer Little People^ by Harriet Beecher Stowe. 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 Researches into the History of the British Dog George R. Jesse. 
 
 Animal Intelligence George J. Romanes, 
 
 The Horse of America Henry William Herbert. 
 
 The Dog of Flanders Ouida. 
 
 History of My Pets Grace Greenwood. 
 
 Animal Memoirs Samuel Lockwood. 
 
 Horse and Man J. (J. Wood. 
 
 Black Beauty Marie Sewell. 
 
 Rah and His Friends Dr. John P.iown. 
 
 Our Cats and All about Them .... Harrison Weir.
 
 86 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 JfAERATIO.K AMD DESCRIPTIOJV COMBINED. 
 
 STUDIES IN NATURAL HISTORY (Continued). 
 
 LESSON XXXIL — STUDY OF TEEES. 
 
 These questions should be answered orally, the pupils finding the 
 answers from any available source. Many of the questions will 
 properly provoke discussion and difference of opinion. 
 
 How do trees affect the rainfall? Why are our Western prairies 
 treeless ? What is a timber claim ? Where are the tallest trees in 
 the world? To what age do trees live? How is the age of a tree 
 determined ? Why is the test not an accurate one ? From what 
 trees is sugar obtained ? Oil ? Wax ? Where do they get these 
 substances? AVhen is the resting time of trees? Do evergreens 
 rest? How does a tree act as a pump? Wherein is the great 
 value of the Eucalyjjtus ? Are forest trees cultivated in any coun- 
 tries? Can you name any treeless tracts of South America? Of 
 Europe? Of Asia? At what time do the buds form on trees in 
 our climate? What tree is a symbol of strength? Which one is 
 called " The Lady of the Forest"? What one did the Indians use 
 to make canoes? AVhy do our trees turn a more brilliant color in 
 autumn than the trees of Europe? W^hat makes the knots in 
 wood ? Wliere does ebony grow ? Why is rosewood so called ? 
 How do the prevailing winds affect the trees of a given region? 
 What is the distinction between a tree and a bush ? What is the 
 most graceful tree of the Northern states ? What palm grows in 
 the United States? What trees have determinate trunks? inde- 
 terminate? How many leaves do you think there are on a maple
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 87 
 
 tree? (Select one and estimate by counting the leaves on a small 
 branch.) If they were laid, side by side, how great a space would 
 they cover ? If laid in line, how far would they reach ? Is the 
 shade of all trees equally cool ? Have trees any warmth in wintei- ? 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. — THE AMEEIOAN ELM. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 WHITE ELM (Ulmiis Americana). 
 
 The American elm is one of tlie most magnificent 
 trees of Eastern United States. From a root, which in 
 old trees spreads much above the surface of the ground, 
 the trunk rises to a considerable heiglit in a single 
 stem. Here it usually divides into two or three princi- 
 pal branches which go off by a gradual and easy curve. 
 These stretch upwards and outwards with an airy 
 sweep — become horizontal, the extreme branchlets, 
 and in ancient trees the extreme half of the limb, 
 become pendent, forming a light and regular arch. 
 This graceful curvature and absence of all abruptness 
 in the primary limbs are entirely characteristic of the 
 tree, and enable an observer to distinguish it in winter, 
 and even at night, when standing in relief against the sky. 
 
 The American elm has three most striking and dis- 
 tinct shapes. The tall Etruscan vase is formed by four 
 or five limbs, separating at twenty or thirty feet from 
 the ground, going up with a gradual divergency to 
 sixty or seventy, and then bending rapidly outward, 
 forming a flat top with a pendent border. The single 
 or compound plume is represented by trees stretching 
 up in a single stem, or two or three parallel limbs to
 
 88 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COlNrrOSITION. 
 
 the height of seventy, or even a luindred feet, and 
 spreading out in one or two light, feathery plumes. 
 Sometimes the elm assumes a character akin to the oak : 
 this is when it lias been transplanted young into an 
 open situation and always remained by itself. It is 
 then a broad, round-headed tree. 
 
 The character of the trunk is almost as various as 
 that of the general form of the tree. You sometimes 
 see it a straight, gradually tapering column, shooting 
 up to sixty or seventy feet without a limb ; at other 
 times you see it a verdant pillar of foliage feathering 
 from the branches to the ground. 
 
 With the earliest spring the outmost and uppermost 
 branches are fringed with numerous bunches of reddish 
 brown blossoms, soon to give place to the soft green of 
 the young leaves. The flowers are in numerous clusters, 
 of from eight to twenty in a cluster, on the sides of the 
 terminal branches. Each flower is supported on a 
 green slender thread, from one-flfth to half an inch 
 long, and consists of a brown cup parted into seven or 
 eight divisions, and containing about eight brown sta- 
 mens, and a long compressed ovary, surmounted by two 
 short styles. This ripens into a flattened seed-vessel, 
 called a samara, which is winged on every side with a 
 thin fringed border. The flowers appear early in April 
 or even in March, and the samarse are mature before 
 the expansion of the leaves. 
 
 The leaves are on very short petioles, broad ovate, 
 heart-shaped or rounded at base, acuminate at apex, 
 doubly serrate at margin ; divided by the midrib into 
 very unequal parts of which the upper is larger — 
 somewhat woolly when young, afterwards roughish on 
 both surfaces ; usually from two to four inches long,
 
 NAERATION AND DESCEIPTION COMBINED. 89 
 
 and one and a half to two and a half broad, but varjdng 
 extremely in size. The rich green of the leaves turns 
 in autumn to a sober brown, which is sometimes touched 
 with a bright golden yellow. 
 
 The elm grows from Nova Scotia to Georgia, and 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The Washington Elm 
 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, is the most famous elm 
 in this country, so-called because under its shade Gen- 
 eral Washington is said to have first drawn his sword 
 on taking command of the American army. The cele- 
 brated Whitefield preached under the shade of this tree 
 in 1744. A single crop of the leaves of this tree, if laid 
 side by side, would cover, it is estimated, two acres of 
 ground. — From Trees and Shruhs of Massachusetts, by 
 G-eorge B. Umersoti. 
 
 What is an Etruscan vase? How many forms of elm trees? 
 Distinguish tliem. How do the roots of the ehn grow, deep or 
 near the surface? Do you know a tree which has the Etruscan 
 form? the round liead ? the plume? feathery trunk? What 
 time does the elm blossom ? What time does it ripen its samarre ? 
 What is an acuminate apex? serrate margin? doubly serrate? 
 Measure the largest elm in your neighborhood one foot from the 
 ground. Compare any elm that you know with the foregoing 
 description. Make out the skeleton or plan upon which this de- 
 scription was written. 
 
 LESSON XXXIV. — THE OAK. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — OUTLINE OF DESCRIPTION. 
 
 The writer should verify this outline by some tree that is well- 
 known, and then write it with whatever changes are needed to 
 make it a correct description of a particular tree. 
 
 Size. — Circumference one foot from ground. Estimate the 
 height of the tree. Height of trunk before branches appear.
 
 90 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Characteristics. — Sturdy trunk. Limbs go out at a large angle 
 and stretch horizontally a long distance. Limbs large, crooked, 
 gnarled, bent. 
 
 Root. — Descends deep into the earth. 
 
 Leaves. — Two families of oaks. While Oak Family have more 
 or less deeply lobed leaves — lobes round or blunt. 
 
 Red Oak Familij have deeply cut leaves, with the divisions ter- 
 minating in a long bristle-like point. 
 
 Leaves come out with or just before the flowers; turn brown or 
 scarlet in autumn. 
 
 Flowers. — Two kinds, sterile and fertile. Sterile are in long, 
 slender, pendulous catkins, which are in groups. Fertile are small, 
 in a bud-like scaly cup. Flowers appear with or just after the 
 leaves. 
 
 Fruit. — Acorns. Different species vary in acorns; some long 
 and slender, others short and round. All acorns grow in cups ; 
 these vary. Acorns of Wliite Oak Family are almost sweet and 
 grow in one season. Those of the Red Oak Family require two 
 seasons to come to maturity. 
 
 Varieties of Oak. — Red, black, scarlet, scrub, white, chestnut, 
 etc. 
 
 Use of Oak. — Ship timber, — woodwork of houses, — articles 
 of furniture. 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Druids' regard for oak trees. — Oak grove at 
 Dodona. — Oak galls. — Famous oaks. — Poems about oaks. 
 
 LIST OF TEEES FOE, SIMILAE DESCEIPTION. 
 
 Cherry 
 
 Willow 
 
 Beech 
 
 Poplar 
 
 Maple 
 
 Birch 
 
 Apple 
 
 Linden 
 
 Hickory 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Pine 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 Dogwood 
 
 Buckeye 
 
 Larch 
 
 Note. — The cherry gives beautiful wood for cabinet work ; takes a very 
 high polish. There are three varieties of the maple which are common, — 
 sugar, white or silver, and red. May be distinguished by their leaves, also 
 by their blossoms. The twigs and flowers of the red maple are a deep 
 scarlet color in the spring ; long before any other flowers appear. Lowell 
 says, "The maple reddens to a coral reef." Both sugar and red maple 
 show the curly and bird's-eye varieties. Hickory gave the well-known 
 sobriquet of General Andrew Jackson. Chestnut is cultivated in the West
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 91 
 
 for its nuts ; its wood is very lasting. Willow is used most extensively in 
 the production of charcoal for gunpowder. Bark of birch was used by the 
 Indians in making their canoes. Several varieties grow in the United 
 States. The black birch is the one whose bark is pleasant to eat. The 
 white birch was called by Coleridge "The Lady of the Forest." Beech is 
 noticeable for its smooth gray bark and fine delicate twigs ; its nuts are 
 small but sweet, and much loved by squirrels. The apple tree in old age 
 is one of the most picturesque of trees ; it is so bent and gnarled as to pos- 
 sess a beauty of ugliness. Dogwood bears the buds of its flowers very 
 plainly in the fall. On one branch in October you find the leaves, the ripe 
 fruit, and the buds for next year's blossoms. The sycamore is perhaps 
 better known by its name button-ball. Seeds of the pine are the thin 
 scales found in the cones; and the pollen of the pine is the substance 
 popularly supposed to be sulphur which frequently falls during rain-storms. 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 Trees and Shrubs of Maxsnch usctts .... George B. Emerson. 
 
 A Year amoncj the Trees Wilson Flagg. 
 
 Trees and Tree-Planting J. S. Brisbin. 
 
 LESSON XXXV. — GENERAL SUBJECTS OONOEENINa 
 
 TEEES, 
 
 Shade Trees for Cities. 
 
 What are the adverse conditions in cities ? What trees can be.st 
 withstand them ? Care which city trees shoukl have to compensate 
 for their disadvantages. Kinds that are best for cities. 
 
 Autumn LeaA-es. 
 
 Note the autumn colors of the leaves of maple, elm, beech, oak, 
 willow, etc. 
 
 Read Autumnal Tints, by Henry D. Thoreau. 
 
 Evergreen Trees. 
 
 Different varieties. When do they lose their leaves ? Character 
 of their leaves — form of their tniidvs. Mammoth trees of Cali- 
 fornia are evergreens.
 
 92 STUDIES IN EN(Ji;iSH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Niit Trees. 
 
 Hickory, walnut, butternut, chestnut, beechnut, oak, etc. 
 
 Effect of Forests upon a Country. 
 
 Kainf all — fertility — streams — " windbreaks " for crops — 
 beauty — animal life. — Destruction of forests. — Ways in which 
 the wood of the country is being used apart from its use as fuel. — 
 Railroad ties — houses — barns — furniture — wooden ware — han- 
 dles of utensils — matches — pencils — spools — toothpicks. 
 
 Historic Trees. 
 
 The cypresses of Montezuma at Chapultepec, Mexico. The 
 chestnut of a hundred horsemen upon Mt. Etna. The Wadsworth 
 Oak at Genesee, N.Y., said to be five centuries old. Washington's 
 Elm at Cambridge, Mass. The Charter Oak at Hartford, Conn. 
 The Old Elm on Boston Common. Arnold's Willow opposite West 
 Point. Treaty Elm on the banks of the Delaware, under which 
 William Penn made a treaty with the Indians in 1682. Pope's 
 Willow at Twickenham, England. Tell somethhig of the history 
 of these trees, why famoiis, and if now in existence. 
 
 Trees in Mythology. 
 
 Oaks of Dodona ; Olive of Pallas Athene ; Igdrasyl, the tree 
 of the universe ; Laurel as Daphne ; Soma, the sacred tree of 
 India. 
 
 Trees as Symbols. 
 
 Palm, of victory; laurel, of triumph ; oak, of strength; cypress, 
 of woe ; olive, of peace ; willow, of grace. 
 
 Arbor Day. 
 
 How it is generally observed. Is it the same day in all states ? 
 Why not? What peculiarity of Nebraska made its authorities 
 think of instituting an Arbor Day ?
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION CO^NIBINED. 93 
 
 Fruit Trees. 
 
 Peach — plum — apple — cheriy — apricot. Xative land of each. 
 How fruits are improved — grafts — seedlings. Wild fruits of the 
 United States — their value as food. 
 
 Poems about Trees. 
 
 Woodman, spare that Tree George P. Morris. 
 
 The Planting of the Apple Tree . . . William Cullen Brj'ant. 
 
 A Forest Ilijmn William Cullen Bryant. 
 
 The Oak James Russell Lowell. 
 
 The Palm Tree John G. Whittier. 
 
 The Brave Old Oak Henry F. Chorley. 
 
 The Oak Tree MaryHowitt. 
 
 The Trees Lucy Larcom, 
 
 LESSON XXXVL — PLOWEES. STUDY OP TEEMS. 
 
 The botanical terms relating to the flower — calyx, 
 sepal ; corolla, petal, perianth ; stamens, filament, anther ; 
 pistil, ovary, ovules, style, stigma — must be thoroughly 
 understood. 
 
 Also the terms of inflorescence, — scape, raceme, 
 catkin, umbel, head, spike. 
 
 And the terms descriptive of kinds of leaves, — 
 simple, compound, lobed, cut ; of venation of leaves, — 
 net-veined, parallel- veined ; of forms of leaves, — oval, 
 lanceolate, orbicular ; margins of leaves, — serrate, den- 
 tate, crenate, entire ; the apex of leaves, — acute, 
 obtuse ; the bases, — acute, obtuse, cordate, sagittate, 
 auriculate. 
 
 Note. — Any botany will give the meaning of these terms, and suffi- 
 cient time should bo given to tlieir study to make them familiar. Tlicy 
 can best be learned and most quickly by means of study of sijeeiuieus.
 
 94 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XXXVII. — DESOEIPTIONS OP PLANTS. 
 
 EXERCISE I.- — THE WILD ROSE. 
 
 The rose which grows by the roadsides and in the 
 fields blossoms in June. The bush is low, and the 
 flowers grow in loose clusters or solitary. The calyx 
 consists of a single green cup with five lobes that look 
 like separate sepals. The corolla is made up of five 
 separate petals, each of a delicate pink color, and some- 
 what notched at the edge. There are many stamens 
 with light yellow filaments and bright yellow anthers. 
 There are many pistils growing out of the calyx cup ; each 
 has its ovary, style, and stigma. The fruit of the rose 
 is the hip, a bright red ball crowned with the calyx lobes. 
 
 The rose leaf is compound, made of five leaflets. It 
 has a stipule at the base. Each leaflet is oval in shape, 
 has an obtuse base and an acute apex. Cultivated roses 
 differ from wild ones in that they have more petals, 
 with fewer stamens and pistils. 
 
 LIST OF PLANTS FOR SIMILAR DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 The Petunia. 
 
 Note its bushy shape ; its clammy, sticky leaves ; the shape of 
 the leaves, — apex, base, and margins. Observe how the flowers 
 grow ill the axils of the leaves; shape of the flowers — funnel- 
 form — five lobes of calyx — five lobes of corolla — five stamens 
 inserted on corolla tube. Note the different colors, — single and 
 double varieties. Natives of South America ; grow rapidly from 
 seed ; can be propagated by slips. Add any personal experiences 
 in growing petunias. 
 
 The Fuchsia. 
 
 Named from a German botanist, Dr. Fuchs. South American 
 plant — many varieties; color, all sliades and tints of red with
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 95 
 
 white and purple; woody, like a little tree. Observe the arrange- 
 ment of leaves on branches ; shape of leaves ; blossom in fours, 
 instead of fives, as in the petunia. iSTecessary care that the fuchsia 
 requires. Does it ripen seed? How propagated? 
 
 The Nasturtium. 
 
 Common garden flower, — very irregular, — brought from Peru. 
 " Peru is apt to grow sun-colored flowers, and thence comes what we 
 call the nasturtium, though it has one very good English name, — 
 Indian Cress, and one Latin one, Tropajolum, or trophy, — given 
 because the leaves are like shields and the flowers like golden hel- 
 mets. It is a droll flower, with its yellow calyx growing out into 
 a long spur behind, and the little fringes to its yellow or orange 
 petals." — Charldtte M. Yonge. 
 
 Tulip. 
 
 Care of a tulip bed — when planted — when blossoms. Describe 
 leaf — note the venation — observe that the flower is in threes, as 
 the fuchsia is in fours, and the petunia in fives. Colors of flower. 
 Add something of the history of tulips. Where do the bulbs 
 come from ? 
 
 Note. — There is no intention of confining the list to those mentioned ; 
 members of the class may select for description any flowers that they 
 know. 
 
 LESSON XXXVIII. — GENEEAL SUBJECTS EELATING TO 
 
 PLOWEES. 
 
 National Flowers and those Associated with Em- 
 inent Persons. 
 
 Rose, the national flower of England ; the thistle, of Scotland ; 
 the shamrock, of Ireland ; the lily, of France ; the marguerite, of 
 Italy ; the stephanotis, of Austria ; the mignonette, of Saxony ; 
 the chrysanthemum, of Japan ; the cactus, of IMexico ; the maple 
 leaf, of Canada. United States has none. Old Egypt had the 
 lotus.
 
 96 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The red rose was the badge of the House of Lancaster; the 
 white rose, that of York ; the violet was tlie favorite flower of 
 Napoleon T. ; the cornflower, or blue bachelor's button, that of 
 Kaiser William I. of (iermany. Tell as many of the stories as 
 you can find which give the reason for the selection of these 
 flowers. Since the United States has no national flower, how can 
 she get one? What would you prefer as the national flower? 
 Why? 
 
 The Rose Family. 
 
 Roses, apples, peaches, plums, pears, strawberries, raspberries, 
 blackberries. How are all these roses? In what do the flowers 
 differ ? In what are they alike ? 
 
 Wild Flowers of Spring. 
 
 Read Tlie Procession of the Floioers, in Out-Door Papers, by 
 Thomas W. Higginson. 
 
 Wild Flowers of Autumn. 
 
 Aster, golden-rod, iron-weed, milkweed, eupatorium, sunflower. 
 
 " The wind-flower and the violet, they perished long ago ; 
 And the briar-rose and the orchis died amid the summer glow ; 
 But on the hill the goldeu-rod, and the aster in the wood, 
 And the yellow sunflower by the brook, in Autumn beauty stood, 
 Till fell the frost from the clear cold heaven, as falls the plague on men, 
 And the brightness of their smile was gone from upland, glade, and glen." 
 ZVie Death of the Floioers, by William Cullen Bryant. 
 
 Varieties of Wild Flowers found in November. 
 
 It will be found a very interesting enterprise to hunt for wilil 
 flowers in November ; and the number found will be much larger 
 than any one who has never tried it, would suppose. 
 
 The Flowers of the Months. 
 
 Elm blossoms in February and March ; maple, in April and 
 May ; cherry and apple, in May ; rose, in June ; golden-rod, 
 aster, and sunflower, in August, September, and October ; witch- 
 hazel, in November. Add others to the list.
 
 NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION COMBINED. 97 
 
 Care of House Plants. 
 
 Soil — sunlight — moisture — care of leaves. Effect of gas, 
 steam, hot air. What varieties flourish in the house? 
 
 Flowers as Decorations. 
 
 Suitable for all occasions — joy — sorrow. Always an appro- 
 priate gift. Skill required in arrangement of flowers. The Japan- 
 ese have made the arrangement of flowers a fine art, with definite 
 rules, not to be ti'ansgressed. — See "Japonica," by Sir Edwin 
 Arnold, in Scribner's Monthly, December, ISSK). 
 
 Flowers of the Bible. 
 
 Any concordance will give the names and references. 
 
 Mythological and Sacred Plants. 
 
 Mistletoe, sacred to the Druids, and still a Christmas decoration. 
 Passion-flower typifies in its parts the passion of Christ. Daffo- 
 dil, or Poet's Narcissus, was sacred to Persephone. Asphodel grew 
 in the meadows of Hades. Lotus, sacred to Buddha, and also the 
 sacred flower of the ancient Egyptians. Pomegranate was revered 
 by the Hebrews, and placed by them on the robe of the High 
 Priest. Moly is the unknown plant that Homer says was able to 
 fortify one against the transformations of Circe. The lily and the 
 rose were sacred to the Virgin Mary. Witch-hazel was believed to 
 possess occult powers. 
 
 The Flowers of American Poets. 
 
 Study the poems of Bryant, Lowell, Longfellow, Whittier, or 
 Holmes, for allusions to flowei's. An interesting comparison may 
 be made betw^een the flowers of Bryant and those of Lowell, or 
 those of Longfellow and those of Whittier. 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 Folk-lore of Plants T. F. Thistleton Dyer. 
 
 Out-Door Papers Thomas Wentworth Higginson. 
 
 The Herb of the Field .... Cliarlotte M. Yonge. 
 
 Flowers and Flower Lore . . . liev. Hilderic Friend.
 
 98 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XXXIX.— POEMS TO BE EEAD. 
 
 Each pupil should bring one or more of the following poems to 
 read in class : — 
 
 Daffodils William Wordsworth. 
 
 The Rhodora Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
 
 To the Fringed Gentian .... William Cullen Bryant. 
 
 The Death of the Flomrs . . . William Cullen Bryant. 
 
 Jack in the Pidpit From Cldld Life. 
 
 Trailing Arbutus Rose Terry Cooke. 
 
 The Yellow Violet William Cullen Bryant. 
 
 Light and Shade Jean Ingelow. 
 
 Daffy-down-dilhj IVIrs. Warner. 
 
 Florvers Thomas Hood. 
 
 Talking in llieir Sleep .... Edith Thomas. 
 
 To a Mountain Daisy .... Robert Burns. 
 
 A Song of Clover Saxe Holm. 
 
 To the Dandelion James Russell Lowell. 
 
 The Clove?- James Whitcomb Riley. 
 
 Field Floivers Thomas Campbell. 
 
 The Thistle Flower Alice Cary. 
 
 The Floiver Alfred Tennyson. 
 
 'Tis the Last Rose of Summer . . Thomas Moore. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING PLANT 
 
 PROVERBS. 
 
 A pine tree wishes herself a shrub when the axe is at her root. 
 Plant a crab where you will, it will never bear pippins. 
 With time and patience the leaf of the mulberry becomes satin. 
 He that would have fruit must climb the tree. 
 The smallest axe may fell the largest oak. 
 
 Wherever a man lives he is sure to have a thorn-bush near his 
 door. 
 
 He that handles a nettle tenderly is soonest stung. 
 
 Get tliy spindle and thy distaff ready, and God will send the flax. 
 
 The tree is no sooner down, but every one runs for his hatchet.
 
 STUDY OF KHETOJRICAL FIGURES. 99 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 STUDY OF RHETORICAL FIGURES. 
 
 Rhetorical figures are intentional deviations from the 
 plain and ordinary mode of speaking, for the sake of 
 greater effect. The following are the figures most com- 
 monly used. 
 
 LESSON XL. -FIGURES BASED ON COMPARISON. 
 
 Simile. — A simile is a compari,son, definitely ex- 
 pressed, between objects that are not of the same class. 
 
 As and like are the usual signs of a simile, but so, just as, similar 
 to, and many others may be used for the purpose ; but only such 
 objects as belong to different classes, when compared, form a 
 simile. "John is as slender as his brother," is no simile; but 
 " John is as slender as a young sapling," is a simile. 
 
 EXERCISE I. IN THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES POINT 
 
 OUT IN WHAT THE SIMILE CONSISTS. 
 
 And ice, mast high, came floating by, 
 As green as emerald. — S. T. Coleridge. 
 
 The sails are scattered abroad like weeds ; 
 The strong masts shake like quivering reeds. 
 
 She told me her story once ; and it was as if a grain of corn that 
 had been ground and bolted had tried to individualize itself by a 
 special narrative.
 
 100 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. — Byron. 
 
 Bent like a laboring oar which toils in the surf of the ocean ; 
 Bent but not broken by age was the form of the notary public. 
 
 Longfellow. 
 The lovely luoon climbs np the sky 
 
 As one who walks in dreams, 
 A tower of marble in her light, 
 A wall of black, a wall of white, 
 
 The stately vessel seems. — Loiif/felloir. 
 
 Simile, being the great illustrative figure, is especially adapted to pro- 
 mote clearness of thought and expression ; it is not so well adapted to 
 force and passion. It is very common in imaginative prose and in poetry. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Write original or well-known similes. 
 Write similes using the names of animals that we 
 take as the type of the following conditions : strength 
 
 — weakness —   poverty — bravery — brusqueness — cold 
 
 — happiness — sickness. 
 
 What is the type of freedom ? of weight ? uncer- 
 tainty ? Quote a simile from Longfellow ; from Whit- 
 tier; from Shakespeare. 
 
 Metaphor. — A metaphor is a comparison which is 
 implied between two objects that are not of the same 
 class. 
 
 A simile says that two objects are alike ; a metaphor 
 says that one object is another, leaving the comparison 
 to be understood. 
 
 " That man is like a fox in his dealings," is a simile. 
 " That man is a fox in his dealings," is a metaphor. 
 
 Sometimes a metaj^hor consists sim2)ly of a transferred 
 ejiithet. 
 
 The plowman homeward plods his weary way.
 
 STUDY OF KHETOlilCAL FIGUEES. 101 
 
 EXERCISE I. — POINT OUT THE METAPHORS IN THE 
 FOLLOWING EXAMPLES. 
 
 Si^are moments are the goid-dust of time. 
 
 A steep and watery mountain rolls apace. 
 
 Necessity is the mother of invention. 
 
 My winged boat, a bird afloat, 
 
 Swims round the purple peaks remote. — iJMcAanan Read. 
 
 Aloft on sky and mountain wall 
 
 Are God's great pictures hung. — Whittier. 
 
 The bluebird carries the sky on his back. — Thoreau. 
 
 Metaphor is the most common aud spontaneous of all the figures. Many 
 metaphors can be made directly from similes, — in such case the metaphor 
 is always stronger than the simile. For example, "Ingratitude ! thou fiend 
 with a heart like marble ! " is not as strong as " Ingratitude ! thou marble- 
 hearted fiend ! " 
 
 An extended metaphor is called an allegory, and in an allegory the prin- 
 cipal subject is frequently omitted. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Write a metaphor, comparing pride to a rocket ; truth 
 to hght ; sorrow to a cloud ; water to crystal ; sunlight 
 to gold ; hope to sunlight. 
 
 Write original metaphors. Quote four metaphors. 
 
 LESSON XLL- FIGUEES BASED ON SUBSTITUTION. 
 
 Metonymy. — Metonymy is a ligure of rhetoric in 
 which the name of one object is put for another, the 
 two being so related that the mention of one recalls the 
 
 other.
 
 102 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The most common forms of metonymy are : — 
 Cause for effect. 
 Ex. He writes a good hand (handwriting). 
 
 Effect for cause. 
 
 Ex. Death fell in showers (bullets) . 
 
 The container for the thing contained. 
 Ex. The kettle boils (water). 
 
 Tlie sign for the thing signified. 
 
 Ex. The pen is mightier than the sword (intelligence vs. force). 
 
 The name of an author for his works. 
 Ex. We read Longfellow. 
 
 EXERCISE I. TELL WHAT KIND OF METONYMY IS 
 
 FOUND IN THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES. 
 
 Strike for your altars and your fires. 
 
 Beware the cup. 
 
 They have Moses and the Prophets. 
 
 He smokes his pipe. 
 
 The sun drove us indoors. 
 
 The stars and stripes now float over Alaska. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Write an example of metonymy in which the ballot 
 represents the voter, and the bullet tlie soldier. One 
 using the name of an author for his works ; cause for 
 effect ; sign for thing signified ; container for thing 
 contained. 
 
 Synecdoche. — Synecdoche is a figure of rhetoric in 
 which the name of a part is used for a whole, or the 
 whole for a part. It is really a specialized form of
 
 STUDY OF RHETORICAL FIGURES. 103 
 
 metonymy ; the idea being that the name of a whole 
 and of a part are interchangeable. 
 
 The variations of synecdoche are : — 
 
 Use of a definite number for an indefinite. 
 
 Ex. Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vahi! 
 
 Tlie species for the genus. 
 
 Ex. A second Daniel come to judgment. 
 
 The material for the thing made. 
 
 Ex. The marble speaks. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — EXPLAIN THE SYNECDOCHE IN THESE 
 
 EXA]VIPLES. 
 
 Fifty sail are on the horizon. 
 
 Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay. — Pope. 
 
 He stands a Saul among his fellows. 
 
 He employs a score of hands. 
 
 His hoary head in silver rolled ; 
 
 He seemed some seventy winters old. — Scott. 
 
 All hands to the pumps ! 
 
 He raised his glittering steel on high. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF EACH KIND OF 
 SYNECDOCHE, EITHER ORIGINAL OR QUOTED. 
 
 LESSON XLII. - ADDITIONAL PIGUEES. 
 
 Personification. — Personification consists in giving 
 human feeling and intelligence to inanimate things. 
 
 The English language is especially adapted to effective personi- 
 fication, because the gender of nouns depends upon the sex or want 
 of sex of the objects named, and not upon grammatical distinctions.
 
 104 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES. 
 
 Grim-visaged war has smootlied his wrinkled front. — Shakespeare. 
 
 And freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell. — Camphell. 
 
 The conscious water saw its Lord and blushed. — MtY/on. 
 
 I chatter, chatter as I flow, 
 
 To join the brimming river, 
 For men may come and men may go, 
 
 But I go on forever. — Tenni/son's Brook. 
 
 Allusion. — Allusion is an historical or literary refer- 
 ence more or less distinct. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING ALLUSIONS. 
 When I was a beggarly boy 
 
 And lived in a cellar damp, 
 I had not a friend or a toy, 
 
 But I had Aladdin's lamp. — Lowell. 
 
 The wolf, in order to justify his intended slaughter, complained 
 loudly of the misdeeds of the lamb. 
 
 Climax. — Climax, or the rhetorical ladder, is the 
 arrangement of a succession of words, or clauses, in 
 such a way that the weakest may stand first ; and that 
 each in turn may rise in importance and make a deeper 
 impression on the mind than that which preceded it. 
 Anti-climax reverses the order: this is often used in 
 humorous writings. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES. 
 
 I came, I saw, I conquered. 
 
 Since concord was lost, friendship was lost, fidelity was lost, 
 liberty was lost, — all was lost. 
 
 We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we liave supplicated, 
 we have prostrated ourselves before the throne. — Patrick Henry. 
 
 Hyperbole. — Hyperbole is exaggeration. It is some- 
 times very effective, but should be used sparingly.
 
 STUDY OF RHETORICAL FIGURES. 105 
 
 EXERCISE I. EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING HYPERBOLES. 
 
 They were swifter than eagles; they were stronger than lions. 
 
 Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
 
 And fired the shot heard round the world. — Emerson. 
 
 Irony. — Irony is language that, taken literally, ex- 
 presses the contrary of what is meant. The tone or 
 manner of the speaker shows the meaning. 
 
 Ex. Then Elijah said to the prophets of Baal, " Cry aloud, for 
 he is a god." 
 
 LESSON XLIII. — STUDY Or EXAMPLES OE EHETOEIOAL 
 
 FIGUEES. 
 
 Point out and explain the figures in these examples. 
 
 The quality of mercy is not strained ; 
 
 It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
 
 Upon the place beneath. — Shakespeare. 
 
 Lo, with a mournful sound like the voice of a vast congregation, 
 Solemnly answered the ocean. — Longfellow. 
 
 But he the favorite and the flower, 
 Most cherished since his natal hour, 
 
 ***** 
 He, too, was struck, and day by day 
 Was withei'ed on the stalk away. — Byron. 
 
 The sceptre shall not depart from Judah. — Bible. 
 
 Soon as the evening shades prevail, 
 The moon takes up the wondrous tale, 
 And nightly to the listening earth 
 Repeats the story of her birth. — Addison. 
 
 A thousand shall fall at thy side ; and ten thousand at thy right 
 hand, but it shall not come nigh thee. — Bible. 
 
 Give us this day our daily bread. — Bible.
 
 106 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 IIow sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank. — Shakespeare. 
 Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice. — Shakespeare. 
 Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. — Patrick Henry. 
 Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend nie your ears. — Shakespeare. 
 
 Yes, the year is growing old 
 
 And his eye is pale and bleared ; 
 
 Death with frosty hand and cold 
 
 Plucks the old man by the beard. — Lojir/fellow. 
 
 Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day 
 
 Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. — Shakespeare. 
 
 With storm-daring pinion and sun-gazing eye, 
 
 The Gray Forest Eagle is king of the sky. — A. B. Street. 
 
 Olympus is but the outside of the earth everywhere. 
 
 An Austerlitz is not Heaven's stamp of approval. 
 
 Sport that wrinkled Care derides. 
 
 And Laughter holding both his sides. — Milton. 
 
 He then di-ew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his 
 trial before Pilate, his ascent up Calvary, his crucifixion, and his 
 death. — William Wirt. 
 
 The waters slept. Night's silvery vail hung low. 
 On Jordan's bosom. — Willis. 
 
 Tender-handed grasp the nettle, and it stings you for your pains; 
 Grasp it like a man of mettle, and it soft as silk remains. 
 
 One sees with each month of the many-faced year, 
 
 A thousand sweet changes of beauty appear. — Owen Meredith. 
 
 What has the gray-haired prisoner done? 
 Has murder stained his hands with gore ? 
 Not so; his crime is a fouler one — 
 God made the old man poor. — Whittier. 
 
 Announced by all the trumpets of the sky 
 Arrives the snow, and driving o'er the fields 
 Seems nowhere to alight. — Emerson.
 
 STUDY OF AUTHORS. 107 
 
 CHAPTER XL — STUDY OF AUTHORS. 
 
 LESSON XLIV. — HENRY WADSWOETH LONGPELLOW. 
 
 Born at Portland, Me., Feb. 27, 1807. 
 Died at Cambridge, Mass., March 24, 1882. 
 
 Each pupil should have a complete copy of Longfellow's poems. 
 
 t 
 
 EXERCISE T. — STUDY OF BALLADS. 
 
 Class should read carefully these ballads, and be prepared to 
 answer orally the questions below. 
 
 Tlie Skeleton in Armor. 
 The Wreck of the Hesperus, 
 The Luck of Edenhalh 
 The Elected Knight. 
 
 What is a balhid ? How was the poem The Skeleton in Armor 
 suggested to Longfellow? What is the meaning of Viking? skald? 
 saga? skoal? What tower is referred to in the poem? Note the 
 similes in the poem. How many syllables in each line of the 
 stanza beginning, " I was a Viking bold " ? Which ones are 
 accented? Which lines rhyme? How many syllables in each line 
 of the first stanza of The Wreck of the He.^perus ? What circum- 
 stances suggested this poem ? Which lines rhyme ? How many 
 figures in the second stanza? What are they? Where is the 
 Spanish Main ? What is a skipper? What allusion in this poem? 
 Is there any historical basis for The Luck of Edenhall ? What was 
 the luck? What is a Fountain Sprite? Who once believed in 
 them? What makes a kind of refrain to the poem? Are there 
 any stanzas in The Elected Knighl that are without rhymes? 
 Which of the four poems do you like the best ?
 
 108 • STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — KEAD THE FOLLOWING TALES OF A 
 
 WAYSIDE INN. 
 
 Paul Revere's Ride. 
 
 The Falcon of Ser Feclerigo, 
 
 King Robert of Sicily. 
 
 Tlie Bell of Atri. 
 
 The Legend of Rabbi Ben Levi. 
 
 The Ballad of Camiilhan. 
 
 The Legend Beautiful. 
 
 Each member of the class should be able to give orally the story 
 of one of these poems, noting its figures, its historical and geo- 
 graphical allusions ; telling the number of syllables in each line of 
 the first stanza, the number of lines in that stanza, and which lines 
 rhyme. AVho sent Paul Revere on his ride ? Did Revere himself 
 reach Concord? The real name of the North Church is Christ 
 Church, and it still stands on Salem Street. AVhy were the British 
 soldiers called Regulars ? Redcoats ? Does the English army still 
 wear red? Where is the Arno? How large is it? What is a 
 falcon? What time of year is it in the poem, The Falcon of Ser 
 Federi(jo? What is the Talmud? What country is Allemaine? 
 What is the Magnificat? Where do we find it? Who first re- 
 peated it? What day is Holy Thursday ? What kind of a festival 
 is Easter, fixed or movable? What is the Angelus? Where is 
 Stralsund ? Who is Klaboterman ? Learn at least two selections 
 from these poems. Find and copy at least four figures of rhetoric. 
 
 LESSON XLV. — STUDY OF EVANGELINE. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — PART THE FIRST. 
 
 Pupils should read the poem carefully, and be prepared to answer 
 the following questions. 
 
 Where is the Basin of Minas ? What does Grand Pre mean ? 
 Who were the Acadiaus? In what year were they removed? By
 
 STUDY OF AUTHORS. . 109 
 
 whom was the removal made ? What charges were made against the 
 Acadians as a reason for their removal ? Are those charges sub- 
 stantiated by history. From whom did Longfellow get the idea 
 of writing this poem V Learn the introduction. How many sylla- 
 bles in each line ? How many accented syllables ? Observe that 
 no lines rhyme. When there are six accented syllables in a line, 
 the measure is called hexameter. This is an unusual measure in 
 English. Who were the Druids? AVhat nearly obsolete word do 
 you find in the introduction ? Select six similes, four metaphors, 
 two examples of metonymy, two of synecdoche, four allusions. 
 
 Make selections which describe places, persons ; which relate 
 stories ; narrate events. Name the characters in the poems and the 
 relation they bear each other. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — PART THE SECOND. 
 
 What is Part Second the story of ? Where were the Acadians 
 taken? What characters of Part First are found in Part Second? 
 Observe the description of the Mississippi. What river is called the 
 Beautiful River? What birds are mentioned in Part Second? 
 What trees ? What flowers ? Observe especially the beautiful 
 description of the prairies — the Jesuit mission — the infirmary of 
 Philadelphia — the death of Gabriel. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISES. 
 
 The Story of the Poem. 
 
 The Proportion of Description to Narration. 
 
 The Characters of the Poem. 
 
 Rhetorical Figures of the Poem. 
 
 The Flowers of Evangeline. 
 
 The Birds of Evangeline. 
 
 Impression of the Poem as a Whole. 
 
 'Tis truth that I speak, 
 Had Theocritus written in English, not Greek, 
 I believe that his exquisite sense would scarce change a line, 
 In tliat rare, tender, virgin-like pastoral Evangeline. 
 That's not ancient nor modern, its place is apart 
 Where time has no sway, in the realm of pure Art. 
 
 James Russell Lowell.
 
 110 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XLVL — GENERAL STUDY OP LONGEELLOW. 
 
 exercise i. — oral exercise upon selections from 
 Longfellow's poems. 
 
 Note. — For this exercise there should be assigned to each member of 
 the class either a single poem or a group of poems. For example, one 
 might take The Voices of the Ntijlit ; another, the poems Bij the Seaside ; 
 another, Morituri Halutamus ; and so on. The preparation of the exer- 
 cise should be thorough. The poem or poems should be studied until they 
 are well known ; if a group, each poem should be treated by itself ; 
 its subject given; a slight sketch of it; the measure; its rhetorical 
 figures; its allusions exjilained; its especial excellences marked; and 
 quotations made from it. The poem may be compared to similar poems 
 of other autliors, or to other poems of Longfellow. 
 
 All this should be put together with as much skill as each speaker 
 possesses, and brightened by as much wit and learning as possible. The 
 speaker should keep an easy conversational tone and manner throughout, 
 and be prepared to answer questions put by different members of the class 
 at the close of the exercise. 
 
 LIST OF SUITABLE SELECTIONS. 
 
 Voices of the Night. The Masque of Pandora. 
 
 Keramos. Poems on Slavery. 
 
 Songs. Morituri Sahitanius. 
 
 By the Fireside. Birds of Passage — Flight the First. 
 
 By the Seaside. Birds of Passage — Flight the Second. 
 
 Longfellow is probably the most popular poet of the country. The 
 breadth of his sympathy, the variety of his acquisitions, the plasticity of 
 his imagination, the vividness of his imagery, the equality, the beauty, the 
 beneficence of his disposition, make him universally attractive and uni- 
 versally intelligible. Each of his minor poems is pervaded by one thought, 
 and has that artistic luiity which comes from the economic use of rich 
 material. The Htjitin to the Night, A Psalm of Life, The Skeleton in 
 Armor, The Villaf/e Blacksmith, and other of his minor poems have found 
 a lodgment in the memory of everybody, and it will be found that their 
 charm consists in tlieir unity as well as their beauty, that they ai'e as 
 much poems, complete in themselves, as Evangeline or Hiawatha. Long- 
 fellow's iM)wer of picturing to tlie eye and the mind a scene, a j^lace, an 
 event, a person, is almost unrivalled. His command of many metres, each 
 adapted to his special subject, shows also how artistically he uses sound to 
 re-enforce vision, and satisfy the ear while pleasing the eye. — Whipple.
 
 STUDY OF AUTHORS. Ill 
 
 EXERCISE II. LIFE OF LONGFELLOW. 
 
 Short sketches of Longfellow's life may be found in School 
 Readers, Literatures, and Encycloppedias. In James Russell Low- 
 ell's Fable for Critics is an appreciative criticism of Longfellow. 
 In Stedman's American Poets his characteristics as a writer are 
 clearly given. There are lives of Longfellow by Francis H. Under- 
 wood, W. Sloane Kennedy, George Lowell Austin. Also, Life and 
 Letters, by Rev. Samuel Longfellow. 
 
 The -poems, My Lost Youth, Footsteps of Angels, The Children's 
 Hour, and Moriluri Salutamus, contain personal allusions. 
 
 From these various sources the members of the class should 
 give a sketch of his life and his characteristics as a writer. This 
 may be either oral or wa-itten, and should be enlivened by incident 
 and anecdote, and should not be simply a dry narration of facts. 
 
 LESSON XL VII. — QUICK WORK UPON LONGPELLOW'S 
 
 POEMS. 
 
 Each pupil should complete the following exercise under the 
 eye of the teacher. 
 
 Give a quotation from Longfellow. 
 
 Name a favorite poem. 
 
 Tell from what poem quotations read by the teacher are taken. 
 
 Name the poems written in hexameter verse. 
 
 Name one poem written in tetrameter verse (four accented syl- 
 lables in a line). 
 
 Name poems with refrains — narrative poems — descriptive 
 poems — poems with morals attached. 
 
 Name a dramatic poem — a ballad — a song — a religious poem 
 — a poem of friendship — of childliood. 
 
 Give the story of any poem remembered. 
 
 Note. — In order that this exercise may have its greatest value it should 
 be absohUcly (juic-k work, tht- class 7int knowing beforehand what they will 
 be asked to do. It may be either written or oral.
 
 112 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XLVIII. -NATHANIEL HAWTHOENE. 
 
 Born at Salem, Mass., ,Tiily 4, 1804. 
 Died at I'lyinoutb, N.II., May 19, 1864. 
 
 There is Hawthorne, with genius so shrinking and rare 
 
 That you hardly at tirst see the strength that is there ; 
 
 A frame so robust, witli a nature so sweet, 
 
 So earnest, so graceful, so solid, so fleet, 
 
 Is worth a descent from Olympus to meet. — James Rvssell Lowell. 
 
 EXERCISE I. STUDY OF THE HOUSE OF SEVEN 
 
 GABLES. 
 
 Each pupil should read the story, and be ready to answer the 
 
 following questions. 
 
 This story is called a romance. Why? What is the difference 
 between a romance and a novel ? Was the House of Seven Gables 
 a real house or a structure of the imagination? Describe it. Name 
 the principal characters in the book. Give selections which charac- 
 terize each, either in personal appearance or in conduct ; e.g. Hep 
 zibah, Judge Pyncheon, Clifford, Phoebe, and Holgrave. Give selec- 
 tions which describe places ; e.g. the garden, Hepzibah's shop, etc. 
 What were the relations between Judge Pyncheon and Clifford? 
 Why would Hejizibah receive nothing from her cousin? What 
 makes the description of Judge Pyncheon 's death in the parlor so 
 impressive? Explain Ilexvibah's and Clifford's flight. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR WRITTEN EXERCISES. 
 
 Hawthorne's Descriptions of Persons. 
 
 His Descriptions of Places. 
 
 The Implied Mystery of the Story. 
 
 How far the Story is derived from Real Life. 
 
 Impression of the Story as a Whole. 
 
 The scene of The House of Seven Gables, by Nathaniel Hawthorne, is 
 laid in the old Puritanic town of Salem, and extends from the period of the 
 witchcraft excitement to the present time, connecting the legends of the 
 ancient superstition with the recent marvels of animal magnetism, and 
 affording full scope for the indulgence of the most weird and sombre fancies. 
 
 In no former production of his pen, are his unrivalled powers of descrip- 
 tion displayed to better advantage. The rusty wooden house in Pyncheon 
 Street, with its seven sharp-pointed gables, and its huge clustered chimney 
 — the old elm tree before the door — the grassy yard seen through the lat-
 
 STUDY OP AUTHORS. 113 
 
 tice-fence, with its enormous fertility of burdocks, and the green moss on 
 the slopes of the roof, with the flowers growing aloft in the air iu the nook 
 between two of the gables, present a picture to the eye as distinct as if our 
 childhood had been passed in the shadow of the weather-beaten edifice. 
 
 Nor are the characters of the story drawn with less sharp and vigorous 
 perspective. They stand out from the canvas as living realities. In spite 
 of the supernatural drapery in which they are enveloped, they have such a 
 genuine expression of flesh and blood, that we cannot doubt we have known 
 them all our days. They have the air of old acquaintances — only we 
 wonder how the artist got them to sit for their likenesses. The grouping 
 of these personages is managed with admirable artistic skill. 
 
 Old Maid Pyncheou, concealing under her scowl the unutterable tender- 
 ness of a sister — her woman-hearted brother, on whose sensitive nature 
 had fallen such a strange blight — sweet and beautiful Phoebe, the noble 
 village maiden whose presence is always like that of some shining angel — 
 the dreamy, romantic descendant of the legendary wizard — the unscrupu- 
 lous Judge and wise old Uncle Venner — are all made to occupy the place 
 on the canvas which shows the lights and shades of their character in the 
 most impressive contrast, and contributes to the wonderful vividness and 
 harmony of the grand historical picture. — //arper's Magazine. 
 
 LESSON XLIX. — GENERAL STUDY OP HAWTHOENE. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — STUDY OF SHORTER STORIES. 
 
 Each pupil should read one or more of the books named. 
 
 Grandfather's Chair. 
 
 Twice-Told Tales. 
 
 Snow Image, and Other Stories. 
 
 American Notes. 
 
 Mosses from an Old Manse. 
 
 Tangle-Wood Tales. 
 
 Note. — Each member of the class should make selection of a story, 
 and give a short sketch of it. Note those tilings which are peculiarly char- 
 acteristic of Hawthorne, — the clear, simple, minute descriptions; the 
 line of weird thought that runs through so many of his tales; the modern 
 tone in wliich lie retells tlie old stories; tlie graph!<! way in which the 
 revolutionary scenes are pictured. The Life of Hawthorne may very prop- 
 erly be part of this exercise. 
 
 A study of the writings of ITowolls, Miss Alcott, Aldrich, Whittier, 
 Bryant, and others can easily be made upon plans similar to those here given.
 
 114 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. 
 
 Style is the manner in wliich a writer expresses his 
 thoughts by means of words. The essential qualities 
 of a good style are usually considered under four divis- 
 ions, — Clearness, Unity, Strength, and Harmony. If 
 these qualities are found in the sentence, they are very 
 apt to be found in the paragraph; — if found in the 
 paragraph, they are likely to characterize the entire dis- 
 course. 
 
 LESSON L. — OLEAENESS. 
 
 The first thing to be considered in writing a sentence 
 is that it shall say what it is meant to say, that its 
 meaning shall be evident. Any sentence that fails in 
 this respect is an incorrect sentence, though it may vio- 
 late no rule of syntax. 
 
 A writer should know exactly what he wishes to say. 
 Then by the use of words which he fully understands, 
 taking care that his sentences are not too long, he can 
 easily make himself understood. A few definite rules 
 must be followed. 
 
 Rules for Clearness. 
 
 Never use a word whose meaning you do not know. 
 
 Never use a word simply because it sounds well, unless it says 
 what you wish to say. Take nothing for granted in the meaning
 
 THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. 115 
 
 of words. It often happens that careless writers transfer words 
 from books of reference into their own writing witliout carefully 
 ascertaining what tlie words mean. 
 
 Choose carefully between two words of similar mean- 
 ing. 
 
 Here is an opportunity to apply all that has been learned in the 
 lessons on synonyms. Daily reference to a dictionary or book of 
 synonyms is invaluable to clearness of expression. 
 
 Always place the adverb near to the word it limits. 
 
 Just before or just after the limited word is the best place. In 
 the two sentences, The enemy nearly lost Jive liundred men, and The 
 enemy lost nearly jive hundred ??ien, the meaning is entirely different, 
 owing to the change in position of the word nearly. 
 
 Place adjective and adverbial phrases so that there 
 will be no question as to the word they limit. 
 
 The sentence. He ivas driving aivay from the church ivhere he had 
 been married in a coach and six, seems to say that he had been mar- 
 ried in a coach and six. That, of course, is absurd. By changing 
 the position of a coach and six the meaning and the sense are both 
 preserved. 
 
 The sentence, / saw my old friend ivhen 1 teas in Neio York, last 
 winter, walking down Broadway, does not tell who was walking 
 down Broadway, the friend or the speaker. A change in the 
 position of ivalking down Broadicay would make it plain. 
 
 Construct the sentence so there can be no doubt as 
 to the antecedent of each pronoun, personal, relative, 
 or adjective. 
 
 Note. — The incorrect use of personal pronouns, already considered in 
 Chapter III., is a fault against clearness. 
 
 See that the thoug-ht you wish to convey to others is 
 clearly conceived in your own mind before you attempt 
 to express it.
 
 116 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LL — UNITY. 
 
 By unity we mean tliat a sentence shall possess but 
 one fundamental idea. Its parts should be put together 
 so as to make a whole. The principal rules are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Rules of Unity. 
 
 In the course of one sentence, change the subject as 
 little as possible. 
 
 In the sentence, They told me if I would do as you wished, viy father 
 ivho loves me devotedly woidd answer all the questions she asked, the 
 various subjects make it difficult to understand what is really 
 meant. 
 
 Things that are slightly connected in sense should 
 not be crowded into one sentence. 
 
 The boy loent to the fields ivitli the horse which his father bought at 
 Jackson, where Mr. Williams lives, who lost four children by the scar- 
 let fever last tvinter, tvhen ive had that dreadful snow-storm. This sen- 
 tence should be separated into at least two distinct sentences. 
 
 Avoid using and to the exclusion of other and more 
 appropriate connectives. 
 
 This is a common fault of inexperienced writers and speakers, 
 and has already been mentioned in Chapter I. It should be 
 guarded against continually, as it utterly destroys the unity of a 
 sentence. 
 
 Do not insert relative clauses into clauses that are 
 themselves relative. 
 
 The gentlemen who came to the place which we had selected for the 
 dinner that we meant to prepare, said it was private grounds. Such a 
 construction makes an awkward, cumbersome sentence. 
 
 Do not add a supplementary clause to a sentence 
 already complete. 
 
 There is to be a grand party next toeek to which we shall all have 
 invitations, at least so I hear. It would be better to drop the supple- 
 mentary clause and begin the sentence, / hear there, etc.
 
 THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. 117 
 
 LESSON LII. — STRENGTH. 
 
 A sentence may be correct, it may be clear, it may 
 have but one fundamental idea, but it may not convey 
 the meaning in such a way as to hold the interest of the 
 reader. Such a sentence lacks strength. The principal 
 rules for strength are the following : — 
 
 Rules for Strength. 
 
 Avoid all unnecessary words. Such words appear in 
 three ways, — Tautology, Redundancy, Circumlocution. 
 
 Tautology i« the useless repetition of the same sense in different 
 words. 
 
 Never did Atticvs succeed better in gainiyig the universal love of all 
 men. Universal and <dl express the same idea; and when one has been used, 
 the other is not needed. Tautology is sometimes permitted in order to ex- 
 press strong passion or for the sake of emphasis. 
 
 Redundancy is the addition of words which are not necessary to 
 the thought.   
 
 They returned hack again to the same city from whence they came 
 forth. Redundancy also is permitted to express passion or for the sake of 
 emphasis. We have seen vjith our eyes, we have heard vnth our ears. 
 
 Circumlocution is the use of many words in a loose way to ex- 
 press a thought. 
 
 Avoid closing sentences and clauses with short and 
 unimportant words. 
 
 While examples of such sentences can be found in the writings 
 of our best English authors, nevertheless, as a rule they are to be 
 avoided. 
 
 Frequently arrange words, phrases, and clauses to a 
 climax. 
 
 If possible use the direct discourse rather than the 
 indirect when quoting the words of another.
 
 118 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The sentence, Napoleon mid, " If I luere to r/ivc (he liberty of the 
 press, my power could not last three days," is stronger in that form 
 than if it were, Napoleon said that if he were to yive the liberty of the 
 press, his power could not last three days. 
 
 An assertion stated in the interrogative form is often 
 stronger than when pnt in the dechirative. 
 
 O death ! where is thy stiny ? grace ! where is thy victory f 
 
 Strength is often gained by the use of particuLar in- 
 stead of general terms. 
 
 "As we do not think in generals, but in particulars, — as when- 
 ever any class of things is referred to we represent it to ourselves 
 by calling to mind individual members of it, — it follows that when 
 an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to choose from 
 his stock of images one or more by which he may figure to himself 
 the genus mentioned." — Herbert Spencer. 
 
 LESSON LIIL — HAEMOKY. 
 
 By liarmony is meant sucli an arrangement of the 
 words of a sentence tliat they shall be pleasant to the 
 ear. Not many definite rules can be given, but the 
 following may be of use. 
 
 Rules for Harmony. 
 
 When two or more words are used in the same rela- 
 tion, it is usually best to place the shortest first. 
 
 For example, a warm, jjleasant day instead of a pleasant, warm 
 day. 
 
 Avoid an unpleasant succession of similar sounds in 
 a sentence. 
 
 The descent was comparatively easily and quickly made. The suc- 
 cession of words in ly is unpleasant to the ear.
 
 THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. 119 
 
 A balanced sentence is usually harmonious to the ear. 
 
 It is an excellent plan, when composing any discourse, 
 to read or speak it aloud, as the ear will then detect 
 the faults of arrangement. None of the other qualities 
 of style should be sacrificed to harmony, but when har- 
 mony can be added to the others it is a great gain. 
 
 LESSON LIV. — STUDY OF EXAMPLES OF VAEIOUS 
 KINDS OF STYLE. 
 
 The following is a paragraph composed of a single 
 sentence which has no quality of style except clearness. 
 Its clearness and simplicity give it a pathos which finer 
 writing might not have. It is the words of a little girl, 
 telling of her desertion. The many ands show the inex- 
 perience of the speaker. 
 
 "I do not know where she has gone; but I am afraid she has 
 lost herself ; for, when we got to the large town, she told me to sit 
 down on a door-step until she came back to me ; and I sat a long 
 time, until it was quite dark, and I was very cold and hungry ; and 
 she never came back to me ; and I could not help crying ; so the 
 lady that lived in the house heard me, and came to me and asked 
 me what was the matter ; and when I told her, she took me into 
 the kitchen, and gave me something to eat, and was very kind to 
 me." 
 
 Here is another example of clearness of style. It is 
 a description by Bayard Taylor, of his travels in Sweden. 
 His aim has been simply to tell an easily understood 
 story. 
 
 "I made my journey iu the winter, because I was on my way to 
 Lapland, where it is easier to travel when the swamps and rivers
 
 120 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COjSIPOSITION. 
 
 are frozen, and the reindeer sleds can fly along on the smooth snow. 
 It was very cold indeed the greater part of the time ; the days were 
 .sliort and dark, and if I had not found the people so kind, so cheer- 
 ful, and so honest, 1 should have felt inclined to turn back, more 
 than once. But 1 do not think there are better people in the world 
 than those who live in Norrland, which is a Swedish province 
 commencing about two hundred miles north of Stockholm." 
 
 Note. — Observe that so kind, so cheerful, so honest, are arranged to 
 a flimax. The sentences are long, but well put together, so there is no 
 doubt as to what they mean. 
 
 The following is an example of strength. It is taken 
 from Emerson's essay on Culture. Its strength lies 
 largely in its use of particulars in place of general 
 statements. The force of this paragraph cannot be 
 gained without an understanding of the allusions to 
 Napoleon, Scott, Wellington, etc. 
 
 " I wish cities could teach their best lesson, — of quiet manners. 
 It is the foible, especially of American youth, — pretension. The 
 mark of the man of the world is absence of pretension. He does not 
 make a speech ; he takes a low business-tone, avoids all brag, is 
 nobody, dresses plainly, promises not at all, performs much, speaks 
 in monosyllables, hugs his fact. He calls his employment by its 
 lowest name, and so takes from evil tongues their sharpest weapon. 
 His conversation clings to the weather and the news, yet he allows 
 himself to be surprised into thought, and the unlocking of his 
 learning and philosophy. How the imagination is piqued by anec- 
 dotes of some great man passing incognito, as a king in gray clothes, 
 — of Napoleon, affecting a plain suit at his glittering levee; of 
 Burns, or Scott, or Beethoven, or Wellington, or Goethe,^ or any 
 container of transcendent power passing for nobody ; of Epami- 
 nondas, ' who never says anything, but will listen, eternally '; of 
 Goethe, who preferred trifling subjects and common expressions m 
 intercourse with strangers, and to appear a little more capricious 
 than he was." 
 
 Harmony of style is frequently the result of due 
 attention to unity, clearness, and strength. The fol-
 
 THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. 121 
 
 lowing passages from Old Curiosity Shop, by Dickens, is 
 an excellent example. 
 
 "She was dead. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from 
 trace of pain, so fair to look upon. She seemed a creature fresh 
 from the hand of God, and waiting for the breath of life ; not one 
 "who had lived and suffered death. Her couch was dressed with 
 here and there some winter-berries and green leaves, gathered in a 
 spot she had been used to favor. ' When I die, put near me some- 
 thing that has loved the light, and had the sky above it always.' 
 These were her words. She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, 
 noble Nell was dead. Her little bird — a poor, slight thing the 
 pressure of a finger would have crushed — was stirring nimbly in 
 its cage ; and the strong heart of its child-mistress was mute and 
 motionless forever. Where were the traces of her early cares, her 
 sufferings and fatigues? All gone. Sorrow was dead, indeed, in 
 her ; but peace and perfect happiness were born — imaged in her 
 tranquil beauty and profound repose." 
 
 Note. — Here is a pleasing succession of short and long sentences. The 
 second sentence compares death with sleep, and the ideas are arranged to 
 a climax. The next is a balanced sentence. The fourth sentence is longer 
 than any that has preceded it, and is pleasant to the ear on that account. 
 Observe that the direct discourse is used to give the last words of the little 
 girl. She iv(ts dead is repeated for the sake of emphasis. Dear, i/entle, 
 palient, noble, are arranged to a climax. The short word is placed first, 
 and the words gradually grow stronger in their meaning, noble being the 
 highest. Observe t\\a,t poor inecede^i si /(/ht, and mute precedes inotionless. 
 A comparison between the child and her little bird — one so strong but 
 dead; the other so weak but living — adds a touch of pathos to the nar- 
 rative. The interrogative form of tlie sentence referring to the traces of 
 her suffering, adds to its strength. The last sentence is balanced. The last 
 words — tranquil beauty and profound repose — have in themselves a 
 pleasing succession of sounds. Observe that the entire paragraph is met- 
 rical and may be broken into blank verse. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 » 
 
 Class may select paragraphs from various writers which shall illus- 
 trate the characteristics of different styles.
 
 122 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XIIL 
 FLAIM HISTORICAL WlilTIJ^G. 
 
 This is essentially a narrative style. In every his- 
 torical narrative there are digressions that are purely 
 descriptive; often narration and description are com- 
 bined ; but in the main the style is narrative. 
 
 The order of events in great measure makes the plan 
 of the narrative, but it does not destroy the necessity 
 of the writer's seeing the whole as a unit, and forming 
 and acting upon a definite plan. 
 
 Moreover, this kind of writing deals with particulars, 
 not generals ; the concrete, not the abstract. These 
 particulars follow a law of succession ; and in un- 
 skilled narration this succession is the order of time. 
 But as a writer becomes skilful, the law of cause and 
 effect comes in to modify this order ; and particulars 
 are related not merely because they occurred at such a 
 time, but because they grew out of preceding events. 
 
 The chief error to be avoided in historical writing is 
 the failure to discriminate between essential and non- 
 essential events. 
 
 The advantage resulting from practice in this kind 
 of writing is twofold. In the first place it trains the 
 mind to seize upon the main events of any historical 
 topic, and secondly it necessitates condensation of 
 thought and expression. As a result of this condensa- 
 tion the quality of style most desired here is clearness. 
 All else must be subordinated to that.
 
 PLAIN HISTORICAL WRITING. 123 
 
 LESSON LV. — HISTOEIOAL SUBJECTS. — AMERICAN 
 
 TOPICS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR REPRODUCTION. 
 THE BEGINNING OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Each of the thirteen original colonies — " the old 
 thirteen," as they were often called — had something 
 peculiar in its history to distinguish it from the rest. 
 To begin with, tliey were esta])lished by different nations. 
 Most of them, it is true, Avere founded by Englishmen ; 
 but New York and New Jersey were settled by the 
 Dutch and Delaware by the SAA^edes, while the Caro- 
 linas were first explored and named by a French colony. 
 Most of them were founded by small parties of settlers, 
 among whom no great distinctions of rank existed. 
 Two of them, Pennsjdvania and Maryland, were founded 
 by a single proprietor in each case, who owned the whole 
 soil. New York had its " patroons," or large landhold- 
 ers with tenants under them. Some of the colonies 
 had charter governments ; some had royal governments 
 without charters ; and others Avere governed b}^ the 
 original pi'oprietors, or those Avho represented them. 
 
 But lioweA'er differently the thirteen colonies may 
 have been founded or governed, they Avere all alike in 
 some things. For instance, they all had something of 
 local self-government; that is, each community, to a 
 greater or less extent, made and administered its OAvn 
 laAvs. Moreover, they all became subject to Great 
 Britain at last ; and, finally, they all groAV discontented 
 AA'ith the I>ritish government because thej^ thought them- 
 selves ill-treated. This discontent made them at last
 
 124 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 separate themselves from England and form a complete 
 union with one another. liut this was not accomplished 
 without a war, — the war commonly called the Amer- 
 ican Revolution. 
 
 We are very apt to suppose that the colonies deliber- 
 ately came together and resolved to throw off the yoke 
 of Great Britain. But this was not the case at all. 
 Even after they had raised armies and begun to fight, 
 the Continental Congress said, " We have not raised 
 armies with the ambitious design of separating from 
 Great Britain and establishing independent states." 
 They would have been perfectly satisfied to go on as 
 they were if the British government had only treated 
 them in a manner which they thouglit just ; that is, if 
 Great Britain either had not taxed them, or had let 
 them send representatives to Parliament in return for 
 paying taxes. But this was not allowed ; and so when 
 the famous " Stamp Act " was passed in 17G5, the 
 popular indignation was very great. 
 
 There was nothing very bad about this law in itself, 
 and Englishmen would not have complained of it at 
 home. It was such a law as had always existed in 
 England, and, indeed, taxes have since been imposed in 
 a similar way in America. The colonists objected to it 
 only because it involved a principle. No matter how 
 trifling the tax might be, they objected to it. "No 
 taxation without representation" was a phrase con- 
 stantly heard in the colonies in those days ; and the 
 excitement about the Stamp Act was the real beginning 
 of the Revolutionary War. 
 
 The first sign of opposition was given in Virginia. 
 In the Virginia Assembly, in May, 1765, a young 
 lawyer named Patrick Henry offered resolutions declar-
 
 PLAIN HISTORICAL WRITING. 125 
 
 ing- that no power but the General Assembly of the 
 colony had the right to levy taxes upon it, and that to 
 allow such right to any other body was to destroy all 
 freedom. These resolutions were adopted by a small 
 majority. Thus Virginia gave the signal of resistance 
 for the colonies. — TJiomas Wentivorth Higginson. 
 
 Note. — In the beginning of this chapter it was stated that the 
 chief requisite of historical writing was clearness. Xotice that 
 characteristic in the above extract, which is somewhat condensed 
 from the original. Though brief, it gives first a comprehensive 
 view of the foundation and government of tlie colonies ; then a 
 clear idea of the 'state of feeling which culminated in the Revo- 
 lution ; and the reasons for discontent ; and finally the several 
 measures which resulted in the united action of the colonies against 
 Great Britain. 
 
 LESSON LVL — OUTLINES OF SUBJECTS ON AMEEIOAN 
 
 TOPICS. 
 
 The Discovery of America. 
 
 The coming of the Vikings ; Columbus's long struggle to con- 
 vince the kings of Europe that there was land across the ocean ; 
 popular views respecting the Atlantic Ocean ; his success in con- 
 vincing Isabella. Relate the circumstances of Columbus's starting. 
 Describe the voyage — the log books — dissatisfaction of crew — 
 indications of land — discovery of land. Name of land discovered 
 
 — date of discovery — erroneous views concerning it. 
 
 The Pilgrims. 
 
 Their origin — emigration to Holland — desire to come to 
 America — circumstances of their departure — voyage — landing 
 
 — settlement at Plymouth — privations, disease, and hardships of 
 that first winter. Famous men of the colony.
 
 126 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 The Settlement of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Origin of name. Brief sketch of William Penn — how he came 
 into possession of the country — effect of Penn's character and 
 religious views upon the settlement of Pennsylvania. How and 
 when settled — incidents and anecdotes — reasons for rapid growth 
 in population and wealth (free government, liberty of religious 
 faith, friendly relations with the Indians) — length of time Penn- 
 sylvania remained in the Penn family. 
 
 Life in Colonial Times. 
 
 Kind of houses, how built — furniture, where obtained — kinds 
 of food, ways of cooking it. Modes of travel — education — found- 
 ing of Harvard College — of Yale College. Occupations of the 
 peojile — amusements — bond-servants — slaves. Laws and cus- 
 toms — peculiar punishments — superstitions — religious perse- 
 cutions. MciNIaster's Historij of the People of the United States, 
 Vol. I., Chap. I., gives an excellent picture of Social Life in the 
 Colonies. 
 
 Expulsion of the Acadians. 
 
 Acadia included what is now Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. 
 Settled by French peasants about 1.500. Wrested from the French 
 by the English in 1610. Inhabitants remained French in language 
 and sympathies for fifty years afterward. English feared a French 
 alliance — despotic measures to prevent this. Read the historical 
 account of the expulsion of the Acadians, then read Longfellow's 
 Eranfjeline, and give a clear and graphic account of this tragic 
 episode. 
 
 The Capture of Quebec. 
 
 Who was General Wolfe ? Who was the French commander? 
 Describe situation of Quebec — the several attacks and defeats — 
 season of storms — sickness in army. Heights of Abraham finally 
 scaled — battle fought and won. Both commanders mortally 
 wounded. Effect of the capitulation of Quebec upon French and 
 English claims.
 
 PLAIN HISTORICAL WRITING. 127 
 
 Outbreak of the Revolution. 
 
 Give a brief review of tlie events which led to the battles of 
 Lexington and Concord, e.g. tyrannical governors, objectionable 
 navigation laws, internal revenue restrictions, search warrants, 
 Stamp Act, and consequent troubles. " Tea party " at Boston — 
 Congress of 1774 — military stores gathered by colonists — battle 
 of Lexington and opening of wai'fare. 
 
 Bcattle of Bull Run. 
 
 First important battle in the Civil War. Give brief description 
 of battle-ground. Object of the battle (to take Richmond). Ex- 
 pected results (end of war). Name commanders on both sides, 
 relative number of troops on both sides, etc. Reasons for the de- 
 feat — the retreat — loss of life — incidents of battle. Effect on 
 the South — on the North. 
 
 Battle of Gettysburg. 
 
 In what caraiiaign fought? Object of the campaign. Name 
 some of the engagements which preceded this battle — their results. 
 Commanders in Confederate army — succession of conmianders in 
 Federal army. Wliich array had been n)ost successful up to this 
 time? Result of this battle looked for with fear and anxiety on 
 both sides. Where, when, and how fought. Incidents of battle 
 
 — courage displayed on both sides. Retreat of Lee. 
 
 Note. — If any one lias been so fortunate as to have seen the cyclorama 
 of tliis or any other battle, he might give a description as an eye-witness, 
 v.-riting in the present tense and making a vivid word-picture'. 
 
 Discovery of Gold in California. 
 
 Existence of gold known for many years to the Spanish priests 
 
 — also to the Mormons — Mexicans — Indians. Effect of chance 
 discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill on the Sacramento in 1848. Rush 
 of gold seekers in 184!) — perils encountered in crossing the isth- 
 mus — enormous prices of food and clothing. Character of first 
 gold found — primitive methods of mining — picsont methods of
 
 128 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PICTURESQUE HISTORICAL W^RITIJVG. 
 
 Ill all historical writing there is in the very hody of 
 the composition something which, for lack of a l)etter 
 name, we may call the movement of the Narrative. 
 If a long period of time is covered l)y a very brief 
 narration, we say that tlie movement is rapid. If, on 
 the other hand, a minnte account is given of all the 
 details of an action, the movement is slow. 
 
 The movement of an historical narrative should, in 
 the main, be even and regular; but it often happens in 
 real life that the calm succession of events is inter- 
 rupted by some startling occurrence, or by the appear- 
 ance of some marked and powerful person ; and in 
 order that the historian may give to his readers a cor- 
 rect idea of the relative value of events, it is often 
 necessary to interrupt the even course of the narration, 
 to cliange the movement, and direct as much attention 
 to the pro'ceedings of a few hours or days as has before 
 been given to years. 
 
 When this is done, the writer strives to bring before 
 his readers as vivid a picture of the event, or the per- 
 son, or the condition, as can be done with words. Such 
 descriptions or narrations we call picturesque. No his- 
 tory should be written in tliis style alone ; no good 
 history is without examples of it.
 
 PICTURESQUE HISTORICAL WRITING. 129 
 
 LESSON LVII. — HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 THE TRIAL OF WARREN HASTINGS. 
 
 The Hip-h Court of Parliament was' to sit, accordiiifr 
 to forms handed down from the days of the Phmta- 
 genets, on an Englishman accused of exercising tyranny 
 over the lord of the holy city of Benares, and over the 
 ladies of the princely house of Oude. 
 
 The place was worthy of such a trial. It was the 
 great hall of William Rufus ; the hall which had re- 
 sounded with acclamations at the inauguration of thirty 
 kings ; the hall which had witnessed the just sentence 
 of Bacon ; the just absolution of Somers ; the liall 
 where Charles had confronted the higli court of justice 
 with the placid courage which half redeemed his fame. 
 Neither military nor civil pomp was wanting. The 
 avenues were lined with grenadiers. The streets were 
 kept clear by cavalry. Tlie peers, robed in gold and 
 ermine, were marshalled by the heralds under Garter 
 king-at-arms. The judges, in their vestments of state, 
 attended, to give advice on points of law. Near a Iniu- 
 dred and seventy lords — three-fourths of the upper 
 house — walked in solemn order from their usual place 
 of assembling to the tribunal. The junior l)aron present 
 led the way, and the long procession was closed by 
 the bi'otliers and sons of the king. The gray old ^^■alls 
 were hunsf witli scarlet. Tlie lonof o-alleries were 
 crowded by an audience such as has rarely excited 
 the fears or the emulations of an orator. There were 
 gathered togetlier, from all parts of a great, free, en- 
 lightened, and prosperous empire, grace and female
 
 130 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION". 
 
 loveliness, Avit and leai-nino-, the representatives of every 
 science and every ait. . . . 
 
 The Serjeants made proclamation. Hastings advanced 
 to the bar, and bent the knee. The culprit was indeed 
 not unworthy of that great presence. He had ruled 
 an extensive and populous country, had made laws and 
 treaties, had sent forth armies, liad set up and pulled 
 down princes. And in his high place he had so borne 
 himself, that all had feared him, that most had loved 
 liim, and tliat liatred itself could deny liim no title to 
 glory, except virtue. He looked like a great man, and 
 not like a bad man. A jDcrson small and emaciated, 
 yet deriving dignity from a carriage which, while it 
 indicated deference to the court, indicated also habitual 
 self-possession and self-respect ; a high and intellectual 
 forehead ; a brow pensive but not gloomy ; a mouth of 
 inflexible decision ; a face pale and worn, but serene. 
 Such was the aspect with which the great Proconsul 
 presented himself to the judges. 
 
 Neither the culprit nor his advocates attracted so 
 much notice as the accusers. In the midst of the blaze 
 of red drapery, a space had l)een fitted up with green 
 benches and tables for the Commons. The managers, 
 with Burke at their head, appeared in full dress. Even 
 Fox, generally so regardless of his appearance, paid to 
 the illustrious tribunal the compliment of wearing a 
 basf and sword. Pitt had refused to be one of the 
 conductors of the impeachment, and his commanding 
 eloquence was wanting to that great muster of various 
 talents. — Macaulay. 
 
 Note. — The foregoing selection is from an essay upon Warren 
 Hastings, published in the Edinlmrgh Reinew, October, 1841. Until 
 this point the movement of the historical narrative has been very
 
 PICTURESQUE HISTORICAL WRITING. 131 
 
 rapid, but here it has been cliecked, and tlie power of the writer 
 and the attention of tlie reader are directed to a picture of the 
 opening scene of the trial. Note the form and structure of the 
 sentences ; the various alkisions ; the clearness of style. Observe 
 the description of Hastings's personal appearance and the added 
 strength which it gives to the picture. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR PICTURESQUE NARRATIONS. 
 
 Pupils are recommended to consult the books named under the 
 
 topics. 
 
 The Destruction of Pompeii. 
 
 Letters of the Younger Pliny in Pompeii, by Thomas H. Dyer, 
 Part I., Chap. IT. ; closing chapters of Ld^t Da/js of Pompeii, by 
 Bulwer-Lytton ; The Degtruclion of HercuUvieutn, by Lord ^Licaulay. 
 
 The Assassination of Abraham Lincohi. 
 
 Life and Public Services of Abraliam Lincohi, by Henry J. Ray- 
 mond; Abraham Lincoln: a History, by Nicolay and Hay, Vol. X. 
 
 The Trial of Socrates. 
 
 The Apolo(jij in Dialogues of Pluto, translated by B. Jowett. 
 
 The Battle of Marathon. 
 
 Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, ]>y E. S. Creasy. 
 
 The Signing of Magna Charta. 
 
 Time, June L5, 1215. Picture the beauties of the English sum- 
 mer — refer to the famous yew tree still standing on the banks of 
 the Thames — Runnymede — council meadow — used by Saxons 
 long years before. John came down from Windsor — Barons from 
 London. ^Meeting — signing of Charter — provisions of Charter — 
 effect upon the liberties of England. 
 
 History of the Encjlish People, by John U. Green, Book HI., 
 Chap. L 
 
 Luther at the Diet of Worms. 
 
 Life of Martin Luther, by Peter Bayne, Vol. H., Book IX., Cliaps. 
 IV. and V.
 
 132 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The Siege of Leyden. 
 
 Rise of (he Dutch Republic, by John L. Motley, Vol. II., Part 
 IV., Chap. 11. 
 
 The Night March to Schouwen. 
 
 Rise of the Dutch Republic, by John L. Motley, Vol. III., Part 
 IV., Chap. III. 
 
 The Discovery of America. 
 
 Life and Voi/aycs if Columbus, by AVashington Irving, Book III. 
 
 Tlie Landing of the Pilgrims. 
 
 History of the United States of America, by George Bancroft, 
 Vol. I., Chap. VIII. 
 
 LESSON LVIII. — PIOTUEESQUE EirEOT BT CONTRAST. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOE, STUDY. 
 TWO SCENES IN THE LIFE OF MARIE ANTOINETTE. 
 
 On Monday, the 14th of October, 1793, a cause is 
 pending- in the Palace of Justice, in the new Revolu- 
 tionary Court, such as those old stone Avails never 
 witnessed, — the trial of INlarie Antoinette. The once 
 brightest of queens, now tarnished, defaced, forsaken, 
 stands here at Fouquier-Tinville's Judgment-bar, an- 
 swerino- for her life. The indictment was delivered her 
 last night. To such changes of human fortune what 
 words are adequate ? Silence alone is adequate. 
 
 Marie Antoinette, in this her abandonment and hour 
 of extreme need, is not wanting to herself, the imperial 
 woman. Her look, they say, as that hideous indictment
 
 PICTURESQUE HISTOEICAL WHITING. 133 
 
 was reading, continued calm. " She was sometimes 
 observed moving her fingers, as when one plays on the 
 piano." You discern, not without interest, across that 
 dim Revolutionary Bulletin itself, how she bears her- 
 self queen-like. Her answers are prompt, clear, often 
 of laconic brevity; resolution which has grown con- 
 temptuous without ceasing to be dignified, veils itself 
 in calm words. " You persist, then, in denial ? " "My 
 plan is not denial : it is the truth I have said, and I 
 persist in that." 
 
 At four o'clock on Wednesday morning, after two 
 days and two' nights of interrogating, jury-charging, 
 and other darkening of counsel, the result comes out, — 
 sentence of Death ! " Have you anything to say ? " The 
 accused shook her head, Avithout speech. Night's can- 
 dles are burning out ; and with her, too. Time is finish- 
 ing, and it will be Eternity and Day. This hall of 
 Tinville's is dark, ill-lighted except where she stands. 
 Silently she witlidraws from it, to die. 
 
 Two processions or Royal Progresses, three and 
 twenty years apart, have often struck us with a strange 
 feeling of contrast. The first is of a beautiful arch- 
 duchess and dauphiness, (][uitting her mother's city, at 
 the age of fifteen, towards hoi)es. such as no other 
 daughter of Eve then had. " On the morrow," says 
 Weber, an eye-witness, "the daupliiness left Vienna. 
 The whole city crowded out, at first with a sorrow 
 which Avas silent. She appeared ; you saw her sunk 
 back into her carriage, her face bathed in tears ; several 
 times putting out her head to see again the palace of 
 her fathers, whither she was to return no more. She 
 motioned her regret, her gratitude, to the good nation 
 which was crowding to bid her farewell. Tlicn arose
 
 134 STUDIES IN ENtiLlSJl COMi'OSlTlON. 
 
 not only tears, but piercing cries, on all sides. It was 
 an audible sound of wail iu the streets and avenues of 
 Vienna. The last courier that followed her disappeared, 
 and the crowd melted away." 
 
 The young imperial maiden of fifteen has now become 
 a worn, discrowned widow of thirty-eight, gray before 
 her time. This is the last procession. Few minutes 
 after the trial ended, the drums were beating to arms 
 in all sections ; at sunrise the armed force was on foot, 
 cannons getting placed at the extremities of the bridges, 
 in the squares, cross ways, all along from the Palace of 
 Justice to the Place of Revolution. By ten o'clock, 
 numerous patrols were circulating in the streets, — 
 thirty thousand foot and horse drawn up under arms. 
 At eleven, Marie Antoinette was brought out. She 
 had on an undress of white pique ; she was led to the 
 place of execution in the same manner as an ordinary 
 criminal ; bound on a cart, accompanied by a constitu- 
 tional priest in lay dress, escorted by numerous de- 
 tacliments of infantry and cavalry. These and the 
 double row of troops all along her road, she appeared to 
 regard with imlifference. On her countenance there 
 was visible neither abashment nor pride. To the cries 
 of " Live the Republic ! " and " Down with tyranny ! " 
 which attended her all the way, she seemed to pay no 
 heed. She spoke little to her confessor. The tricolor 
 streamers on the house-tops occupied her attention in 
 the Streets du Roule and Saint-Honore ; she also no- 
 ticed the inscriptions on the house-fronts. On reach- 
 ino- tlie Place of Revolution, her looks turned toward 
 the Tuileries ; her face at that moment gave signs of 
 lively emotion. She mounted the scaffold with courage
 
 PICTURESQUE HISTORICAL WRITING. 135 
 
 enough; at a quarter past twelve lier liead fell; the 
 executioner showed it to the people, amid universal 
 long-continued cries of " Live the Republic ! " 
 
 Eroni The French Revolution, by Thomas Carlyle. 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMILAR TREATMENT. 
 
 America — in 1492 and 1892. 
 
 Two Scenes in the Life of Anne Boleyn. 
 
 Coronation and Execution. 
 
 Joan of Arc. 
 
 A simple peasant girl in Domremy. 
 
 At the head of the armies of France. 
 
 At the stake in the market-place of Rouen. 
 
 Queen Victoria. 
 
 At her accession to the throne, — 1837. 
 The Jubilee Year, — 1887. 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 In his father's employ at Galena. 
 
 At the head of the victorious Northern army. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 A boatman on the Mississippi. 
 A lawyer at Springfield, 111. 
 The President in Washington. 
 
 William I., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 Crown Prince of Prussia, flying from Berlin. 
 
 King of Prussia, struggling with Austria. 
 
 Proclaimed Emperor of Germany, in the palace of Versailles. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 A boy in the military school of Brieune. 
 As Emperor of tlie French. 
 .\ prisoner at St. Helena.
 
 136 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LIX. - PIGTUEESQUE EFEEOT BY SUGaESTION. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — MODEL FOR STUDY. 
 THE EXECUTION OF SIDNEY CARTON. 
 
 She kisses his lijjs, he kisses hers, they solemnly bless 
 each other. Tlie spare hand does not tremble as he re- 
 leases it, nothing worse than a sweet, bright constancy 
 is in the patient face. She goes next before him, — is 
 gone, — the knitting women count Twenty-two. 
 
 "/am the Resurreetio7i and the Life, saith the Lord; he 
 that belteveth in me, though he tvere dead, yet shall he live; 
 and ivhosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die.''^ 
 
 The murmuring of many voices, the upturning of 
 many faces, the pressing-on of many footsteps in the 
 outskirts of the crowd, so that it swells forward in a 
 mass like one great heave of water, all flashes away; 
 Twenty-three. 
 
 They said of him about the city that night, that it was 
 the peacefullest man's face ever beheld there. Many 
 added that he looked sublime and prophetic. 
 
 Charles Dickens. 
 
 Note. — This example is from Dickens's Tale of Tivo Cities. 
 Tlie scene is laid in Paris, at the time of the Terror. It is a fact 
 that groups of women, who brought their knitting with them, sat 
 about the foot of the guillotine and counted the number of the 
 victims. 
 
 Dickens has utilized this well-known fact in order to suggest the 
 picture of the execution without describing it. The words Twenty- 
 two and Twenty-three tell the story completely — no further words 
 are needed — the imagination of the reader can be relied upon to 
 fill in all details. 
 
 The introduction of the beginning of the Burial Service is 
 perhaps the only thing that could add to the impressive character 
 of the description.
 
 PICTURESQUE HISTORICAL WRITING. 137 
 
 LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMILAR TREATMENT. 
 
 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 
 Limit the time to the morning of the execution. Give the climax 
 by suggestion only. A pathetic ending may be made by relating 
 the incident of her little dog, found under her skirts after she was 
 dead. Her famous Latin prayer, said to have been composed in the 
 gray of the morning of her execution, may be used with effect : — 
 
 " O Domino deus, speravi in te, 
 O care mi Jesu, nunc libera me. 
 lu dura catena, in niisera poena, 
 Desidero te. 
 
 Gemeudo, lugendo, et genu Hecteudo, 
 Adpro, imploro ut liberes me." 
 
 Leonidas at Thermopylae. 
 
 Limit the scene from the time the Persians came up in the rear 
 and discovered the Spartans combing their long yellow haii', — to 
 the end of the battle. Its result may be indicated by the fate of 
 the one deserter who escaped to tell the news. Quote the lines 
 of Simonides upon the tomb of the heroes : — 
 
 "Go, stranger, and to Lacedemon tell 
 That here obedient to her laws we fell." 
 
 General Wolfe at Quebec. 
 
 Limit the time to the events of a single day. Picture the boats 
 gliding down to the landing in the darkness — the hasty climb up 
 the rocky heights — the quick defeat of the picket-guard — the posi- 
 tion on the Plains of Abraham — the battle — its result. 
 
 To indicate Wolfe's fate, use the well-known incident of his 
 quoting from the Elegy loritlen in a Country Church-yard : — 
 
 " The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
 Await alike the inevitable hour : 
 The paths of glory lead but to the grave." — 
 
 followed by reference to the monument raised to the memory of 
 Wolfe and Montcalm, bearing the following inscription : — 
 
 MORTEM - VIRTUS   COMMUNEM 
 
 FAMAM   HISTORIA 
 MONUMENTUM   POSTERITAS 
 DEDIT.
 
 138 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 STUDIES IJV SHORT STORIES FOR CHILDREN. 
 
 So many short stories are now written that it seems 
 better to suggest some that should be read, rather than 
 attempt to give any as examples. In St. N'icJiolas, Wide 
 Awake, and The Youth'' s Compmiion can be found excel- 
 lent models in great variety. 
 
 The Story of a Short Life and Jackanapes by Mrs. 
 Juliana Horatia Ewing, The Story of Patsy and The 
 Birds' Christmas Carol by Kate Douglas Wiggin, and 
 Wee Willie Winkie by Rudyard Kipling, are stories 
 almost perfect of their kind. 
 
 The charm of many short stories lies not so much in 
 the incident upon which they are based as upon the way 
 they are told. The power of telling things pleasantly 
 can be attained: it comes with practice, based upon a 
 careful study of models, and is within the reach of any 
 one who really and intelligently tries to acquire it. 
 
 Tlie tendency of inexperienced writers to use the 
 third person instead of the first, to tell what the char- 
 acters say, rather than allow them to say it themselves, 
 should be carefully avoided. Keep to the direct dis- 
 course as much as possible ; care in this particular 
 alone will often give life and spirit to an otherwise 
 dull story. 
 
 In the following lesson full outlines of three stories 
 are given for trial practice in tliis kind of writing.
 
 STUDIES IN SHORT STORIES. 139 
 
 LESSON LX. — OUTLINES OF STOEIES. 
 
 Adrift. 
 
 Little girl — Mary — lived on canal boat with father, mother, 
 and baby brother. Describe a canal boat — size, shape, cabins, etc. 
 Mode of life on a canal boat — modes of locomotion. This canal 
 boat travelled from Buffalo along Erie Canal and Hudson River 
 to New York during the summer months — laid up in winter at 
 Jersey City, where IMary, with other little boat-dwellers, went 
 to school. Once, when in tow with twenty other boats on the 
 river, the Betsey Jane happened to be last in line. The families 
 on the different boats used to visit back and forth. One night 
 when her father and mother are away, and Mary is alone, absorbed 
 in a book, the tow-line breaks, and before she realizes what 
 has happened, she finds herself adrift on the Betsey Jane. The 
 boat may drift ashore and sink, or may be run down by a steam- 
 boat — she tries to steer the boat — wind is ahead — rigs a mutton- 
 leg sail (find out and describe) with a sheet, some rope, and a 
 boat-hook — keeps from drifting ashore and makes good time 
 down the river. Picture consternation of father and mother — 
 search — finally, delight of all to see the Betsey Jane sail into 
 the little bay at Peekskill, where all had anchored to wait and 
 to search. 
 
 The Runaway Train. 
 
 Jake Handy, the engineer on the night freight, lives at Browns- 
 ville, where his train lays by for the passenger-train every night 
 for two hours, giving him time to go home and get a hot supper. 
 He leaves the " Nestor," his engine, in charge of his fifteen-year- 
 old son Dave. Dave has often ridden with his father and he 
 knows the engine well — knows how to start, slow up, reverse, 
 stop, etc. 
 
 One night, after his father had gone as usual, a terrific wind- 
 storm comes up. Dave is getting very nervous and frightened, 
 when he sees rush by on the main line a runaway train of heavily 
 loaded cars, going down grade. Tt flashes across Dave's mind 
 that the passenger express is soon due, coming up the same track. 
 The thought of the terrible disaster imminent, nerves him to
 
 140 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 supreme el't'ort. He uncouples the " Nestor," puts on full steam, 
 and starts after tlu; runaway. At length lie overtakes it, and 
 returns, barely reaching the side track when the express dashes 
 past. 
 
 Describe Dave and how he watches the engine — describe the 
 storm and his nervous fears. Narrate the ti-ausition of feeling 
 from fear for self on account of storm, to fear for others on 
 account of collision. Narrate incidents of the chase — of finally 
 getting in sight of the train — of extreme difficulty in coupling — 
 of stopping speed of heavy train — of final success in reversing — 
 of frantic terror on hearing the express in the distance, — return, 
 etc. " The true hero is he who realizes a danger and yet faces it 
 bravely." 
 
 How the Cat cauglit a Mouse. 
 
 Told by herself and adapted for children about seven years of 
 age. Heard her Mistress say that the mice did a great deal of 
 harm — decided to heljJ all that she could — waited until after 
 dark — hid — heard the little mouse's teeth making a hole through 
 the floor — saw its little head come through — then its body — it 
 looks about — sees no one — conies out — cat gives one great leap 
 and catches it — it cries — cat plays with it — tosses it up — once 
 — twice — third time it falls very near the hole — before cat can 
 catch it, is gone. 
 
 The Mouse's Story of the Same Adventure. 
 
 Story of the Violets that went to Sleep under the 
 Oak-Tree. 
 
 Picture their spring, summer, and autumn life. 
 
 A City without a Name. 
 
 A field full of spider webs, as is often seen in the country in mid- 
 summer — its inhabitants — their occupations, etc. 
 
 The Little Old Man of the Forest. 
 
 There are among the German Folk-lore stories many different 
 ones based upon the belief that there once lived in the forest, a
 
 STUDIES IN SHORT STOKIES. 141 
 
 little old man, who frequently appeared to passers-by, and tested 
 their unselfishness. They were always asked to sacrifice something 
 for others ; if they followed their better natures and gave up some- 
 thing for others, they came out best in the end ; if they did not, 
 they were in some waj' punished. Ruskin's King of the Golden 
 River is only another version of the old story. Tell the tale witli 
 any characters and incidents you may prefer. 
 
 The Wedding of Gold Pen and Inkstand. 
 
 Describe the wedding on the library table — name the guests. 
 After the ceremony the guests offer congratulations. See that 
 each guest has an appropriate sentiment to oifer to the newly 
 wedded pair. -For example, " May life's cares I'est lightly upon 
 you," said the Paper "Weight. " Stick to each other through thick 
 and thin," said the Mucilage Bottle. Complete the story, bringing 
 up each object that is commonlv found on a library table to give 
 its consfratulations. 
 
 *o^ 
 
 Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn ; 
 
 The sheep are in the meadow, the cows in the corn. 
 
 Weave a story of the war aboait Little Boy Blue, after the style 
 of Nine Little Goslings, by Susan Coolidge. 
 
 The Story of the Willow Pattern. 
 
 The well-known willow pattern on Canton china, is said to be 
 an illustration of an old Chinese story. Make up a story which 
 the picture will illustrate. 
 
 Rewrite the old stories of " Baucis and Philemon " — " Midas and 
 the Golden Touch " — " Jason and the Golden Fleece " — " Theseus 
 Meeting his Father," etc. — Imitate the style of Hawthorne's 
 Wonder-Book. 
 
 Note. — It will bo found tliat the members of the class have many inci- 
 dents in mind which can be molded into better stories than any indicated 
 here, if they are encouraged to write them.
 
 142 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Poetry is a kind of Composition in which the sense of 
 prose is combined with tlie time of music. No poetry 
 can be good which does not cominne both elements in 
 a liigh degree — the thouglit must be fine, tlie rliythm 
 perfect. Rhyme is not essential to poetry, but exists in 
 most modern forms of it. 
 
 By Verse we mean Avords arranged in a succession of 
 accented and unaccented syllables. 
 
 Accent is a stress of voice laid on some syllable or 
 syllables of a word. In English, monosyllables have 
 no natural accent, but may take one from their mean- 
 ing or position. Words of two syllables always have 
 one accented. The accent of poetry must always fall 
 upon the syllable of a word which is naturally accented, 
 — in addition it may sometimes fall upon an unaccented 
 syllable. 
 
 LESSON LXI.-METEE, OE POETICAL MEASUEES. 
 
 A Foot is a group of accented and unaccented sylla- 
 bles. English Verse has four standard feet, besides 
 several irregular feet, which frequently appear. 
 
 The Standard Feet of English verse are Trochee, 
 Iambus, Dactyl, and Anapest. Each of these feet has 
 one accented syllable and one or two unaccented sylla-
 
 VERSIFICATION. 143 
 
 bles. The kind of foot depends npon the number of 
 syllables in the foot and the particular syllable accented. 
 A Trochee is a foot of two syllables, the first accented, 
 the second unaccented. Its time can be marked precisely 
 as two-part time is marked in music : as one '-two, one'- 
 two, one '-two, one '-two. An accented syllable in the 
 following examples is marked (— ), an unaccented (^). 
 A line of four feet is marked thus : — ^ I — ^ I — ^ I _w |. 
 
 A typical example of Trochaic verse is the following : — 
 
 w w v_y \y 
 
 I^ives of I great men | all re | niiiul us. 
 
 The word Trochee is a trochee; that is, it has two syllables, and is 
 accented on the first. 
 
 An Iambus is a foot of two sjdlables, having the first 
 unaccented, the second accented. Its time can be 
 marked in the same way as the time of music, only 
 the accent should fall upon the last beat of the measure : 
 as one-two', one-two', one-two', one-two'. 
 
 vy w, \^ w w 
 
 Ex. The cur | few tolls | the knell | of part | iug day. 
 
 The first two syllables of the word Iambus make an iambus. 
 
 A Dactyl is a foot of three syllables, having the first 
 accented, the second and third unaccented. Its time is 
 the regular three-part time of music: one '-two-three, 
 one '-two-three. 
 
 Kj \j \j \^ \J w \y <^ 
 
 Ex. Bird of the | wilderness, | blithesome and | cumberless. 
 
 The name Dactyl is derived from SaKTvXns, a finger. The reference 
 seems to be to the length of the bones in the finger, beginning at the 
 knuckle joint. 
 
 An Anapest is a foot of three syllables, having the 
 third sylhible accented, the first and second unaccented. 
 Its time is the three-part time of niusit;, w itli Uic accent
 
 144 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 on the last beat instead of the first: one-two-three', 
 one-two-three', one-two-three'. 
 
 Ex. And tlie eyes | of the sleep | ers waxed-dead | ly and chill. 
 
 The name Anapest is from avdnaiaTos, struck back, i.e. reversed. It is 
 a reversal of the dactyl. 
 
 Tlie greater portion of English poetry is v^^ritten in iambic verse. 
 Tlie anapest and dactyl give a musical swing to the verse, but have 
 a more artificial effect than the iambus. The character of trochaic 
 verse is light and tripping. Any one of these feet may be substi- 
 tuted for any other, and as a matter of fact, verse in which such 
 substitutions occur is pleasanter to the ear than that in which they 
 do not. Such substitutions change the rhythm, but do not alter 
 the meter. 
 
 Irreguhir Feet in English are the following : — 
 Amphibrach, consisting of three syllables, first and 
 third unaccented ; the second accented. This is some- 
 times regarded as a standard foot, but as it can always 
 be resolved into other feet, it is well to be very care- 
 ful concerning it. 
 
 o 
 
 yj vy \y ^ \j yj 
 
 Ex. And o'er his | cold ashes | upbraid him. 
 
 Pyrrhic consists of two short or unaccented syllables. 
 The fact that English uses so many prepositions, con- 
 junctions, and articles makes this irregular foot very 
 common. 
 
 Sometimes one accented syllable takes the place of 
 an entire foot. This happens oftenest at the end of a 
 line — not infrequently at the beginning. An entire 
 line is sometimes made in this way, as for example : — 
 
 Break, break, break 
 
 KJ \J \y KJ \J 
 
 At the foot I of thy crags, | sea. 
 
 Sometimes an unaccented syllable is found at the end of a line, 
 but this is held not to mar the regularity of the verse. It simply
 
 VERSIFICATION. 145 
 
 does not count. The real principle seems to be that there should 
 be so many accented syllables, and the unaccented are not closely 
 considered. Now and then a foot appears containing four syllables. 
 License was greater in Shakespeare's and Milton's time than now. 
 
 Lines of poetry are named according to the number 
 of feet that compose them ; as, — 
 
 \j 
 
 Monometer. — turning. 
 
 Dimeter. — Take her up | tenderlj'. 
 
 v_y w w 
 
 Trimeter. — Up tiie | airy | mountain. 
 Tetrameter. — Froze the | ice on | lake and | river. 
 
 \y \y \y \^ \^ 
 
 Pentameter. — And lost | to life 1 and use | and name | and fame. 
 
 Hexameter. — Known to me | well are the | faces of | all; their | 
 
 _ w v_/ 
 
 names T re | member. 
 
 Lines may also be named both from the kind of foot and the 
 number of them; as, Iambic monometer, Dactylic dimeter, etc. 
 
 Iambic tetrameter predominates in old English ballads. Scott 
 uses it in tlie Lm/ of the Last Minstrel, Marmion, and the Lady of 
 the Lake. The Prisoner of Chillon, by Lord Byron, is also written 
 in this measure. 
 
 Iambic pentameter verse without rhyme is called blank verse, 
 or the heroic measure. All English epic and dramatic poetry, as 
 well as many descriptive poems, are written in this measure. 
 
 LESSON LXII. - SCANNING. 
 
 Scanning is dividing a line of poetry into feet, or 
 reading it according to the accent, pausing slightly at 
 the end of eacli foot.
 
 14G STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMrOSITION. 
 
 The easiest waj'^ to learn to scan poetry is to exaggerate the 
 accented syllables so as to get the time of the verse. When sure 
 of the accented syllables, mark them. Observe that the accented 
 syllables of words keep their accent in verse. Afterward mark the 
 unaeoented syllables. Then try if the verse can be divided into 
 feet of two sylhibles; if not, try three. Only one accented syllable 
 is found in a foot. Frecpiently a verse will contain one or more 
 feet which differ from the prevailing foot ; for example, a trochee 
 may appear among iambics, or an iambic among dactyls, and often 
 an accented syllable takes the jilace of an entire foot at the end of 
 a line, sometimes at the beginning. The verse is named from the 
 prevailing foot. 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 \j <^ \-j w 
 
 The muf [fled drums'] sad roll] has beat 
 
 The sol 1 dier's last | tattoo ; 
 No more on life's parade shall meet 
 
 That brave and fallen few. 
 On Fame's eternal camping ground 
 
 Their silent tents are spread. 
 And glory guards with silent round, 
 
 The bivouac of the dead. — Theodore O'Hara. 
 
 How many syllables in a foot in this poem ? Which syHable is acceuted ? 
 Name the loot. How many feet iu the first liue ? What should the line be 
 called? How many in the second line? What should it be called? What 
 lines rhyme ? How many lines iu the stanza ? Beat the time of the first 
 line ; of the second. 
 
 Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee 
 
 Jest and youthful Jollity ; 
 
 Quips, and cranks, and wanton wiles, 
 
 Nods, and becks, and wreathed smiles. 
 
 Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, 
 
 And love to live in dimple sleek — 
 
 Sport that wrinkled Care derides. 
 
 And Laughter holding both his sides. — Milton. 
 
 Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the first four lines. 
 What is the time? Which syllable of the foot takes the accent? Name 
 the first line. How many syllables in the last foot of the second line?
 
 VERSIFICATION^ 147 
 
 Name that foot. How has the measure changed in the last four Hues? 
 Wliat nymph is referred to? What figures of rhetoric in the selection? 
 
 Cannon to right of them, 
 
 Cannon to left of them, 
 
 Cannon in front of them 
 
 Volleyed and thundered. — Tennyson. 
 
 Mark the accented and unaccented syllables. What kind of foot is here 
 used ? Name the lines. 
 
 I am monarch of all I survey, 
 
 My right there is none to dispute ; 
 From the centre all round to the sea, 
 
 I am lord of the fowl and the brute. — Coicper. 
 
 Beat the tim^ of this measure. What kind of foot is here ? What kind 
 of foot begins the second line? 
 
 The mossy marbles rest 
 
 On the lips that he has prest 
 
 In their bloom ; 
 And the names he loved to hear 
 Have been carved for many a year 
 
 On the tomb. — Oliver Wendell Holmes. 
 
 This is an example of varied rhythm. Mark the accented syllables and 
 divide them into feet. Name the different lines from the prevailing foot. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Scan the following lines : — 
 
 Cheerily, then, my little man. 
 
 Live and laugh as boyhood can. — Whittier. 
 
 How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood. 
 When fond recollection presents them to view ! 
 
 The orchard, the meadow, the deep tangled wild-wood, 
 
 And every loved spot which my infancy knew. — Wuodworth. 
 
 Comrades, leave me here a little, while as yet 'tis early morn. 
 
 Leave me here and when you want me, sound upon the bugle horn. 
 
 — Tennijson. 
 Work, work, work, 
 
 Till the brain begins to swim. — Hood.
 
 148 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Good Hamlet, cast thy iiiglitcd color off 
 
 And let thine eye look like a friend on Denmark. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 
 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea; 
 The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to nie. — Gray. 
 
 Is this a fast, — to keej-) 
 
 The larder lean, 
 
 And clean 
 From fat of veals and sheep? — Herrick. 
 
 And oft as on my couch I lie. 
 
 In vacant or in pensive mood, 
 They flash upon that inward eye 
 
 Which is the bliss of solitude ; 
 And then my heart with pleasure thrills 
 
 And dances with the daffodils. — Wordsworth. 
 
 Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 
 Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime ; 
 
 Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle 
 
 Now melt into softness, now madden to crime? — Byron. 
 
 Creator, Preserver, Redeemer of men, 
 
 Divine Intercessor above — 
 Oh ! where shall the song of thy praises begin, 
 
 Or how shall I speak of thy love ! 
 
 This may be scanned as amphibraclis, with iambics at the end of each 
 line. 
 
 LESSON LXIII. - WRITING OP JINGLES. 
 
 There are few persons, perliaps, who can write poetry, 
 but the ability to write jingles, — that is to put ordinary 
 commonplace thought into the form of meter and 
 rhyme, — can be easily acquired by nearly every one.
 
 VERSIFICATION. 149 
 
 EXERCISE I. 
 
 One of tlie simplest forms of jingle is that which 
 appears so often in the hrst books for children : — 
 
 Ex. A is the apple tree out in the field, 
 
 B is the bird's nest by blossoms concealed ; 
 C is the carol that ■welcomes the dawn, 
 D is the dew that besp)angles the lawn ; 
 E is the egg which the robin has laid — 
 F is the forest flower blooming in shade. 
 
 If you observe this simplest of all jingles, you see it is made up 
 of lines which have four accented syllables. The lines will run in 
 dactylic measure, the last foot being represented by one accented 
 syllable. The only irregularity is in the last line, which has five 
 syllables that should take an accent, and one is slurred over some- 
 wliat in reading. This kind of work is so easy, one might say 
 with Touchstone, " Til rhyme you so eight years together, dinners 
 and suppers and sleeping hours excepted." 
 
 Rhyme the alphabet in this or some similar way. 
 
 EXERCISE II. 
 
 Imitate or complete the following alliterative jingle: — 
 
 A was an athlete, of archers afraid ; 
 B was a blanket bound with brocade. 
 C was a cynical, charming cashier ; 
 D was a dolx^hin, who dreamed of a deer. 
 
 EXERCISE in. 
 Complete the nonsense rhyme : — 
 
 Ten little sparrows sat in a line, 
 
 One flew away, and then there were niue. 
 
 Nine little sparrows flew over the gate, 
 One alighted, and then there were eight. 
 
 Write similar rhymes with boys, girls, dogs, kittens, rosos, etc., 
 in place of sparrows.
 
 150 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Rhyme the mouths, seasons, days of week, either with their 
 characteristics or the occupations associated with them. 
 
 ]\Ialve Rhyming Riddles about Common Tilings, such as matches, 
 watch, pen, lead-pencil, etc. Examples: — 
 
 A dozen bold riders IMarblo walls, as white as milk, 
 
 Astride of oue naj;;, Lined witli slviu, as soft as silk; 
 
 No clothes ou their bodies, Within a crystal fountain clear 
 
 Not even a rag. A golden apple doth appear. 
 
 They ride without bridles There is no door to this stronghold, 
 
 Or stirrups or spurs, Yet thieves break in and steal the gold. 
 And stick to their saddles —An Egg. 
 
 Like so many burrs. 
 
 • — Clothes-Pins. From St. Nicholas. 
 
 EXEllCISE IV. 
 
 Take two pairs of rliyining words and write a four- 
 line stanza. 
 
 For example, with tlie words night, wlaite, storm, warm, these 
 lines were written : — 
 
 Snowfiakes, falling through the night, 
 Robe the leafless trees in white; 
 On the fields the whirling storm 
 Spreads a blanket soft and warm. 
 
 Write the Song of tlie Cricket with the words trill, shrill, stone, 
 alone. 
 
 Song of the Crow — using go, row, snow, crow. 
 This exercise can be varied and extended indefinitely. 
 
 EXERCISE V. 
 
 Complete the following jingle : — 
 A HUNGRY SPIDER. 
 
 A hungry spider made a web 
 
 Of thread, so very tine 
 Your tiny fingers scarce could feel 
 
 The little slender line. 
 Rouud about and round about 
 
 And round about it spun. 
 Straight across and back again, 
 
 Until the web was done.
 
 VEESIFICATIOK. 151 
 
 Observe that the first four lines are regular iambic tetrameters 
 and trimeters. The last four are slightly irregular, which makes 
 the meter pleasant to the ear — the first foot being represented by 
 one accented syllable. 
 
 Fill out the second stanza. 
 
 Oh, what a shiniug 
 
 It was when it was done ; 
 The little flies came to 
 
 It hanging in the . 
 
 Eound and   
 
 And round about they danced, 
 Across the — - and back 
 
 They darted and they . 
 
 Write out a third stanza — telling how the hungry spider watched 
 the flies, and that it coidd see all round because it had so many 
 eyes. Make flies and eyes rhyme. Keep the meter true, that is, 
 no more than four or three accented syllables in any line ; the 
 unaccented syllables may vary. Change the refrain slightly. 
 
 Write out a fourth stanza with the spider telling the flies how 
 hungry he is. Vary the refrain slightly. 
 
 Write out the conclusion either happily for the flies or for the 
 spider. 
 
 LESSON LXIV. - CLASSIFICATION OF POETRY. 
 
 Poetry may be divided broadly into three great 
 classes : the Narrative, the Lyric, and the Dramatic. 
 
 Narrative Poetry. 
 
 The first among narrative poems is the Epic. The 
 Great Epics — Plomer's Iliad and Odyssey^ Virgil's 
 JEneid, the Niehelunyen-Lied, Dante's Divine Comedy^ 
 and Milton's Paradise Lost — are long poems, dealing 
 with grave, heroic subjects, and whose characters in- 
 clude both gods and men.
 
 152 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The Metrical Roinancu is a narrative poem, less dig- 
 iiilied than a great Epic. Scott's Marmion and Lady of 
 the Lake, Tennyson's LlyU of the King, and Long- 
 fellow's Evangeline are well-known examples. 
 
 The Tale is also narrative and may or not be humor- 
 ons. Chaucer's Knight's Tale, Tennyson's Enoch 
 Arden, Pope's Bape of the Lock, Lowell's Vision of 
 Sir Launfal, and Whittier's Mogg Mego7ie are ex- 
 amples. 
 
 The Ballad is a poem, short, simple, and condensed. 
 This is usually the first form of literature which appears 
 among any people. Well-known ballads are The Ballad 
 of Chevy Chase, The Diver, by Schiller, The Lays of 
 Ancient Rome, by Macaulay, and The Skeleton in Af-mor, 
 by Longfellow. 
 
 Lyric Poetry. 
 
 This name was originally applied to those poems 
 which were intended to be sung. They are, primarily, 
 poems of emotion and sentiment. It is not now con- 
 sidered necessary that they should be sung. Lyric 
 poetry may be broadly divided into the Song, Ode, 
 Elegy, and Sonnet. 
 
 A Song may be sacred or secular. Of sacred songs, 
 The Psalms of David, the Greek Hymns, and the hymns 
 of our churches are examples. Secular songs may be 
 patriotic, convivial, comic, or sentimental. The Star 
 Spangled Banner and Hail Columbia are examples of 
 patriotic songs. 
 
 An Ode is more complex in structure than the song. 
 It is not usually sung. Dryden's Ode to St. Cecilia, 
 Lowell's Commemoration Ode, and Tennyson's Ode on 
 the Death of the Duke of Wellington are examples.
 
 VERSIFICATION. 153 
 
 An Elegy is like an Ode in structure and is sad in 
 its character. 
 
 A Sonnet is a complete poem. The common form 
 has fourteen lines of iambic pentameters, grouped into 
 two quatrains (four lines) and two tercets (three lines). 
 The two outside lines of each quatrain rhyming to- 
 gether, and likewise the two middle lines of each ; 
 the first, second, and third lines of the first tercet 
 rhyming with the first, second, and third lines of 
 the second. This will be better understood by an 
 example : — 
 
 MILTON'S SONNET ON HIS BLINDNESS. 
 
 When I consider how my life is spent 
 
 Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, 
 
 And tliat one talent, which is death to hide, 
 
 Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 
 
 To serve therewith my jNIaker, and present 
 
 My true account, lest he, returning chide ; 
 
 Doth God exact day-labor, light denied ? 
 
 I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent 
 
 That nuirraur soon replies, God doth not need, 
 
 Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best 
 
 Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state 
 
 Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed, 
 
 And post o'er land and ocean without rest; 
 
 They also serve who only stand and wait. 
 
 Select the quatrains — the tercets. Variations in the sonnet 
 occur in the tercets. 
 
 Dramatic Poetry. 
 
 This is poetry written to be acted. The two great 
 divisions are Tragedy and Comedy. 
 
 Tragedy in its severer tyj)e leans to a fatal catas- 
 trophe, as in Hamlet and Macbeth,
 
 154 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Comedy once meant all dramas that were not trage- 
 dies, but now it means those in which the comic element 
 predominates. Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors is an 
 example of pure comedy in the modern sense. 
 
 LESSON LXV. -LIST OF SUBJECTS RELATING TO 
 POETRY AND POEMS. 
 
 Compare The Iliad and The Odyssey. 
 
 Use Bryant's Translation. Subject matter of each — Iliad deals 
 largely with fighting — Odyssey is story-telling. The heroes of 
 each — their distinguishing characteristics — which is most inter- 
 esting V — why ? 
 
 Give the Story of any one of the Great Epics. 
 The Poets of a Single Poem. 
 
 Many well-known poems were written by obscure persons, and 
 frequently only one poem of an author is well known. 
 
 My Favorite Poems. 
 
 Name several of your favorite poems. Give the reasons for 
 your preference — make quotations. 
 
 Some Famous Odes. 
 
 Study one or more of the following odes : — 
 
 Ode to the Passions, by Collins. 
 
 Alexander's Feast, by Dry den, considered by Macaulay his best 
 and greatest work. It was set to music by Handel, in 1736. 
 
 A Song for St. Cecilia's Day, by Dry den. 
 
 Ode on St. Cecilia's Dai/, by Pope. Observe in the first seven- 
 teen lines, and to some extent throughout the poem, a variation 
 of the meter to correspond with the varying sentiments and feel-
 
 VERSIFICATION. 155 
 
 iugs expressed. St. Cecilia's day is the 22d of November, and 
 ■was formerly celebrated in England with musical entertainments, 
 and it was for such entertainments that these St. Cecilia Odes were 
 written. 
 
 Ode on the Intimations of Immortality, by Wordsworth. Emerson 
 says of this poem " that it is the high-water mark which the intel- 
 lect has reached in this age." 
 
 Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington, by Tennyson. 
 
 Commemoration Ode, by Lowell. 
 
 National Songs of Different Conntries. 
 
 Yankee Doodle — Hail Columbia — Star Spangled Banner — 
 God Save the Queen — The Marseillaise — The Watch on the 
 Rhine — Scots wha' ha'. 
 
 War Songs of North and South during the Civil 
 War. 
 
 Battle Hymn of the Republic — Dixie — My Maryland — The 
 Bonny Blue Flag — Tramp, Tramp, Tramp, the Boys are March- 
 ing — Kingdom's Coming — Rally Round the Flag, Boys — Tent- 
 ing To-night — When Johnny Comes Marching Home — Just 
 Before the Battle, Mother — Marching through Georgia — John 
 Brown's Body. 
 
 Some Famous Ballads. 
 
 The Battle of Chevy Chase — The Battle of Otterbourne — Sir 
 Patrick Spens — Childe Maurice — The Twa Corbies — Lord Lovell 
 — Thomas, the Rhymer — The Children in the Wood. 
 
 Famous and Weil-Known Hymns. 
 
 Among old Latin Hymns are Dies Ircc, of which Scott begins a 
 translation in "The Lay of the Last Minstrel"; Veni Sancte Spir- 
 ilus, famous as being the work of King Robert of France; Stabat 
 Mater, which is so frequently sung ; The Hymn of St. Bernard ; 
 Jesus, the Very Thought of Thee; and Jerusalem, the Golden, 
 which appears in the hymn-books in so many different forms. 
 
 Ein fester Burg ist unser Gott is Luther's well-known hynni.
 
 156 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Of inodeni liyimis ca few staiul unsurpassed: Ilock of Ages — 
 Jesus, Lover of ]My Soul— By Cool Siloain's Shady Kill — From 
 Greenland's Icy Mountains — Nearer, My God, to Thee — Nearer 
 Home — Lead, Kindly Light — All Hail, the Power of Jesus' Name 1 
 
 — and many others. 
 
 Give the several authors, circumstances under which the hymns 
 were written, and (quotations. 
 
 Songs of the Bible. 
 
 Song of Moses, Exodus xv. Song of Deborah, Judges v. Song 
 of Hannah, I. Sam. ii. Psalms of David. The Song of Solomon. 
 Magnificat of Mary, St. Luke i. 46-56. Gloria in Excelsis, St. Luke 
 ii. 14. Nunc Dimittis of Simeon, St. Luke ii. 29. The passage 
 1. Tim. iii. 16 is best explained as a quotation from a hymn in 
 praise of Christ. The Proverbs are didactic poems ; their poetic 
 structure is shown by the parallelism which runs through them. 
 
 The Poet Laureate of England. 
 
 The duties of the office — its history — who have held it — the 
 present laureate. 
 
 Dialect Poems. 
 
 Such poems comparatively recent. Writers of dialect poems : 
 Lowell, Bret Harte, John Hay, James Whitcomb Riley. 
 
 Living American Poets. 
 
 Name those well known — divide into groups according to merit 
 
 — characteristics of each. Those who write poetry only — those 
 who also write prose.
 
 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEARE. 157 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 STUDIES IJV SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 Shakespeare's magic could not copied be, 
 
 Within that circle none durst walk but he. — Dryden. 
 
 The sweete, wittie soul of Ovid lives in melifluous and honey- 
 tongued Shakespeare. — Frances Meres. 
 
 I loved the man and do honor his memory on this side idolatry 
 as much as any. He was, indeed, honest, and of an open and free 
 nature, had an excellent fancy, brave notions, and gentle expres- 
 sions... — Ben Jonson. 
 
 Sweetest Shakespeare, Fancy's child. — Milton. 
 
 A popular player — nobody suspected he was the poet of the 
 human race. — Emerson. 
 
 LESSON LXVI. — BIOGEAPHIOAL SKETCH OP SHAKE- 
 
 SPEAEE. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — ORAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Let the class find the answers to these questions from any trust- 
 worthy source. 
 
 Born in 1504; Died in 161 G. 
 
 Note. — These dates can be remembered perh.aps if it is observed that 
 half of eac'h K! is 8, and tliese multiplied together give G4, which is the 
 year of the Kith century in which he was born. 
 
 Name of father — maiden name of mother — father's occupa- 
 tion — where educated — youthful marriage — maiden name of 
 wife — nuniber of children — boyish exploit that sent him to 
 London — life there — how he made his fortune — return to Strat-
 
 158 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 ford — business — last illness — death — burial — his will. Has he 
 any direct descendants? How many autographs are in existence? 
 How many portraits? What was the fate of Shakespeare's home, 
 the New Place? Of his mulberry tree ? Why has his body never 
 been removed to Westminster Abbey ? Who now owns the house 
 where he was born? How many plays did he write? Date of 
 first edition of his plays? of second edition ? How did Shakespeare 
 spell his own name? For whom has the claim of authorship of 
 Shakespeare's plays been made ? Is this claim accepted by Shake- 
 spearian scholars? Name five Englishmen who were Shakespeare's 
 contemporaries. During what reigns did he live? What has 
 Shakespeare written beside plays? 
 
 Sir Thomas Lucy was the magistrate who punished Shakespeare 
 for poaching, and a rhyme, in which there was a play upon the 
 country pronunciation of Liicy as Lousie, is said to be the cause 
 of Shakespeare's departure for London. 
 
 "The house at Stratford, where Shakespeare lived, no longer 
 exists. New Place descended from his daughter Susanna* to his 
 grand-daughter IMrs. Nash, afterwards Lady Barnard, and there, 
 during the civil wars, that lady and her husband in 1643 received 
 Henrietta Maria, the queen of Charles I., who remained with them 
 three weeks. After passing through the hands of several interven- 
 ing proprietors, it fell into the possession of Sir Hugh Clopton, 
 who pulled down the ancient house and built one more elegant on 
 the same spot. This was in its turn destroyed by the Rev. Mr. 
 Gastrell, because he conceived himself assessed too highly; and it 
 was by the same barbai-ous hands that the celebrated mulberry 
 tree which Shakespeare himself had planted was cut down, because 
 he found himself inconvenienced by the visitors who were drawn 
 by admiration of the poet to visit the classic ground on which it 
 stood." 
 
 For the belief that an autograph of Shakespeare exists in Chi- 
 cago, see Charles Dudley Warner's Studies in the South and West. 
 
 Note. — The following lines are   engraved on the stone which covers 
 Shakespeare's grave : — 
 
 Good frend for .Tesus sake forbeare 
 To digg the dust encloased heare 
 Blest be ye man y' spares these stones 
 And curst be he y' moves my bones.
 
 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAKE. 159 
 
 EXERCISE II. — WRITE A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 LESSON LXVII.-THE PLAY OF JULIUS OllSAR. 
 
 This tragedy was probably written about the year 1607. The 
 real length of time in Julius Ccesar is as follows: About the middle 
 of February, a.u.c. 709, a festival sacred to Pan and called Luper- 
 calia was held in honor of Caesar, when the crown was offered to 
 him by Antony/ On the 15th of March in the same year he was 
 slain. November 27, a.u.c. 710, the triumvirs met at a small island 
 formed by the river Rhenus, near Bononia, and there arranged their 
 cruel proscription, a.u.c. 711, Brutus and Cassius were defeated 
 near Philippi. 
 
 Class should first read the play carefixlly, principally for the 
 story. Study words sufficiently to make the meaning clear. Ob- 
 serve Shakespeare's tendency to rhyme the last two lines of a 
 scene. Also his love of puns. Find the answers to the following 
 questions : — 
 
 Who is the hero of this play ? Whence does the story of the 
 ghost come ? Was it Caesar's ghost ? Where did Shakespeare get 
 his materials? What is the date of the Ides of jNIarch ? What 
 was the feast of Lupercalia? What omen terrified Calphurnia? 
 What allusion in Hybla bees? Who was Epicurus? What were 
 tlie unities of the ancient play-writers? Did Shakespeare have any 
 regard to the unities? Why is this called a tragedy? Give the 
 derivation and history of the word tragedy. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — ORAL. 
 
 Give the story of the play connectedly. 
 Give the acts of the play and the action m each one. 
 Make four quotations from memory. 
 
 Give a sketch of Brutus's character ; e.f/. honesty, weakness, lack 
 of judgmont. fortitude, prido. lllnstrate by quotations.
 
 160 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Give a sketch of the character of Cassius ; e.g. jealousy, craft, 
 keen judgment, anger, fortitude, greed for money. Illustrate by 
 quotations. 
 
 Give a sketch of Antony; e.c/. dissipation, devotion to CiBsar, 
 craft, oratorical power, dishonesty. Illustrate by quotations. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — WRITTEN. 
 
 Give the plot of the play in not more than one thousand words. 
 Give a sketch of the character of Brutus, of Cassius, of Antony, 
 of Portia. 
 
 Make a collection of the well-known quotations of the play. 
 Tell wherem the play differs from the facts of history. 
 
 LESSON LXVIII. -THE PLAY OE MIDSUMMEK NIGHT'S 
 
 DREAM. 
 
 Read the play as before, principally for the story. Find the 
 answers to these questions. 
 
 How many groups of characters in this play ? Name the indi- 
 viduals of each group. Who were the supernatural people? Who 
 was Theseus in mythology? Hypolyte? Whence did the story of 
 Pyramus and Thisbe come ? What part of the play is absolutely 
 original with Shakespeare? How does Shakespeare's treatment 
 of the fairies differ from all other? (He allows the fairies to speak 
 for themselves.) Does Shakespeare give the fairies a conscience ? 
 What kind of places do they love? What objects do they fear? 
 What are their duties ? What compliment to Queen Elizabeth in 
 the play? Wliat flower is Love-in-idleness? Does Puck enjoy his 
 mischief? Give illustrations. Does Bottom really know whether 
 he is a donkey or a man? Is there anything in his previous con- 
 duct that makes the change to a donkey's head seem poetic jus- 
 tice? Can this play be easily acted? Where would the difficul- 
 ties lie ?
 
 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEARE. 161 
 
 EXERCISE I. — WRITTEN. 
 
 Give the plot of the play in not more than one thousand words. 
 Give the story of the four lovers. 
 The story of the fairies. 
 
 The characteristics of fairies as shown in this play — size, occu- 
 pation, disposition. 
 
 Give the well-known quotations from this play. 
 
 LESSON LXIX. -LIST 01 SUBJECTS EELATING TO 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 The Portraits of Shakespeare. 
 
 The Stratford Bust in the chancel of Holy Trinity Church at 
 Stratford-upon-Avon. The Droeshout Engraving, which appears 
 upon the title-page of the first collected edition of Shakespeare's 
 plays, published in 1623, and generally known as the first folio. 
 Upon the same page are the well-known verses by Ben Jonsoii, 
 certifying to its accuracy. The Chandos Portrait, which is the 
 popularly accepted representation of Shakespeare. The Death 
 Mask, otherwise known as the Kesselstadt Mask. The Hilliard 
 Miniature and the Monument in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Read Portraits of Shakespeare, by J. Parker Norris. 
 
 Sources from wliich Shakespeare obtained his 
 Plots. 
 
 Any good English Literature will give all necessary information. 
 
 The Tragedies of Shakespeare. 
 
 The tragic in art, according to the ordinary conception, is that 
 which portrays an unhappy end. 
 
 Thnon of Athens, the tragedy of property. Romeo and Juliet, 
 the tragedy of lovers. Othello, the tragedy of husband and wife. 
 Kin(/ Lear, the tragedy of parent and childi-en. Macbeth and
 
 162 STUDIES IIT ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Hamlec are both "tragedies in wliicli into the natural world of real 
 shapes is woven a .supernatural world of mysterious shapes — the 
 Weird Sisters and llauilet's Ghost." These are tragedies of family 
 and state. 
 
 Note the hero in each play — his fate and the cause. 
 
 The Fairies of the Pkiys. 
 
 Oberou is a fairy name which came into the language from the 
 French. Titania is another name for Diana. Puck is a name 
 once applied to the whole race of fairies. Robin Goodfellow is 
 also an old name. The names Peasblossom and Cobweb are Shake- 
 speare's creation. 
 
 In the description of Puck nearly all fairy characteristics are 
 given. Haunts of Fairies, — 
 
 "I know a bank whereon the wild thynie grows." 
 
 What are fairy rings? Compare Ariel with Puck. Note the 
 size of Queen Mab in Romeo and Juliet. 
 
 The Ghosts of Shakespeare's Plays. 
 
 The ghost in Hamlet. Banquo's ghost. The ghost in Julius 
 Ccesar. Nature and vocation of ghosts according to Shakespeare. 
 
 Clowns and Fools of Shakespeare. 
 
 The originals of these characters — their wise sayings — their 
 dress — their relations to their master. For example, Touchstone 
 in .4s You Like Tt, Clown in Twelfth Night, Clown in The Winter's 
 Tale, Fool in Ki)ig Lear. 
 
 Was Hamlet Insane ? 
 
 Follow Hamlet through the play with the one thought in mind : 
 Is his behavior sane or not? Observe his own references to his 
 condition — " antic disposition " — " my wit's diseased " ; also his 
 persistent desire to tease and mock Polonius. Polonius' opinion of 
 his sanity — the king's — his mother's. Observe, too, that with 
 Horatio he is always sane, nor does Horatio ever give any evidence 
 of thinking him insane. Would a madman plan so cunningly the 
 death of Guildenstern and Pvosenkrantz ? Study particularly Ham- 
 let's conduct in the grave scene. Remember that four hypotheses
 
 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAEE. 163 
 
 are possible : first, that his madness is real ; second, that it is 
 feigned; third, that it is both real and feigned; and fourth, that 
 it is neither real nor feigned. 
 
 Read The Shakespearian Drama, by Denton J. Snider. 
 
 The Three Witches m Macbeth. 
 
 Follow them carefully through the play. Note three things 
 concerning them : in their surroundings they prefer the disagree- 
 able ; in personal appearance they are repulsive ; in moral qualities 
 they are evil. In describing them Shakespeare has followed the 
 common beliefs of his time — " killing swine " — " sailing in a 
 sieve," etc. He has also given them additional powers — the third 
 sister is prophetic and by her prophecies she tempts Macbeth and 
 Lady Macbeth to the murder of Duncan. Part of the time they 
 can be seen by any one ; part of the time they are only visible to 
 Macbeth. Note particularly the scene where Hecate brings up the 
 apparitions, and their deceiving prophecies which lure Macbeth to 
 his ruin. 
 
 The Flowers of Shakespeare. 
 
 Columbine, Hamlet, Act IV. sc. 5. This was anciently termed a 
 thankless flower. 
 
 Crow-flower, Hamlet, Act IV. sc. 7. This formerly meant ragged- 
 robin ; now means buttercup. 
 
 Cuckoo-buds, Love's Lahor Lost, Act V. sc. 2. 
 
 Daffodil, The Wintei-'s Tale, Act IV. sc. 3, 4. Wild daffodil of 
 England. 
 
 Darnel, Kinr/ Lear, Act IV. sc. 4. The name was used in Shake- 
 speare's day to denote any hurtful weed. 
 
 Fennel, Hamlet, Act IV. sc. .5. Emblematic of flattery. 
 
 Fern, /. Klnr/ Henry IV., Act II. sc. 1. Fern seed was supposed to 
 possess the power of rendering persons invisible. 
 
 Flower-de-luce, //. Kifig Henry VI., Act V. sc. 1 ; /. King Henry 
 VI., Act T. sc. 2. The flower meant and the derivation of the 
 ■word are both doul)tful. 
 
 Lady-smocks, Love's Lahor Lost, Act V. sc. 2. This plant so 
 called from the resemblance of its white flowers to little smocks 
 hung out to dry.
 
 IG-i STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Long Purples, Hamlet, Act IV. sc. 7. The early purple orchis of 
 
 "Warwickshire. 
 Love-in-idleness, A Midsummer NigJil's Dream, Act 11. sc. 1; Act IV. 
 
 sc. 1. This is the pansy, and was used in love philters in Shake- 
 speare's day. 
 ]\Iandrake or Mandragora, II. King Henry VI., Act III. sc. 2 ; 
 
 Romeo and Jidiet, Act IV. sc. 3; Othello, Act III. sc. 3; Antony 
 
 and Cleopatra, Act I. sc. 5. Much folk-lore gathers around the 
 
 mandrake. It was believed to have an inferior kind of animal 
 
 life. It was also believed to be an opiate. 
 JNIarigold, The Winter's Tale, Act IV. sc. 4 ; Cymheline, Act II. sc. 3. 
 Primrose, Hamlet, Act I. sc. 3 ; The Winter's Tale, Act IV. sc. 4. 
 Rose, Hamlet, Act III. sc. 4 ; Act III. sc. 1 ; Kinr/ John, Act I. 
 
 sc. 1. /. King Henry VI., Act IL sc. 4, refers to the roses of 
 
 York and Lancaster. 
 Rosemary, Hamlet, Act IV. sc. 5; The Winter's Tale, Act IV. sc. 
 
 4 ; Romeo and Juliet, Act I. sc. .5. 
 Violet, Hamlet, Act V. sc. 1 ; Pericles, Act IV. sc. 1 ; The Winter's 
 
 Tale, Act IV. sc. 4; A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act II. sc. 1. 
 
 The beauties of Greece tinged their eyes of an obscure violet 
 
 color. 
 
 Birds of Shakespeare. 
 
 Blackbird, called Ousel, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act III. 
 sc. 1 ; II. King Henry IV., Act IIL sc. 2. 
 
 Cock, Hamlet, Act I. sc. 1, refers to the old superstition that spirits 
 fly at cock-crow. Diversion of cock-fighting referred to in Antony 
 and Cleopatra, Act II. sc. 3. 
 
 Crow, Julius Ccesar, Act V. sc. 1. 
 
 Cuckoo, A Midsummer Night^s Dream, Act III. sc. 1 ; King Lear, 
 Act I. sc. 4; 1. King Henry IV., Act V. sc. 1 ; Antony and Cleo- 
 patra, Act II. sc. 6. It is still a common idea among the peas- 
 ants of Europe that the cuckoo will tell by its cries, if asked, 
 how long any one has to live. 
 
 Dove, Hamlet, Act V. sc. 1 ; I. King Henry VI., Act II. sc. 2 ; The 
 Winter's Tale, Act IV. sc. 4 ; The Merchant of Venice, Act II. 
 sc. 2. An emblem of fidelity, modesty, and devotion. 
 
 Eagle, 111. King Henry VL, .Act 11. sc. 1 ; Julius Cmsar, Act V. sc. 
 1 ; Cymbeline, Act IV. sc. 2 ; Titus Andronicus, Act IV. sc. 4.
 
 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEARE. 165 
 
 Lapwing, Hamlet, Act V. sc. 2; The Comedy of Errors, Act IV. sc. 
 2; Much Ado About Nothing, Act III. sc. 1. It was a common 
 notion in Shakespeare's time that yoiing lapwings ran out of the 
 shell with part of it sticking on their heads, they were in such 
 haste to be hatched. 
 
 Lark, Cymheline, Act II. sc. 3; Love's Labor Lost, Act V. sc. 2; 
 The Merchant of Venice, Act V. sc. 1 ; Romeo and Juliet, Act III. 
 sc. 5; King Henry VIII., Act III. sc. 2. 
 
 Nightingale, The Merchant of Venice, ActV. sc. 1 ; Romeo and Juliet, 
 Act III. sc. 5; A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act II. sc. 2. 
 
 Owl, Troilus and Cressida, Act II. sc. 1; Macbeth, Act II. sc. 3; 
 III. King Henry VI., Act V. sc. 6 ; A Midsummer Night's Dream, 
 Act V. sc. 1 ; Julius Coisar, Act I. sc. 3 ; The Comedy of Errors, 
 Act II. sc. 2; The Tempest, Act V. sc. 1. Hamlet, Act IV. sc. 5, 
 refers to an old legend that a baker's daughter was changed into 
 an owl for refusing Christ a piece of bread. 
 
 Pelican, King Lear, Act III. sc. 4. 
 
 Pigeon, Titus Andronicus, Act IV. sc. 3; Act IV. sc. 4; The Win- 
 ter's Tale, Act IV. sc. 3; ^.s^ You Like It, Act III. sc. 3. 
 
 Raven, Julius Caisar, Act V. sc. 1 ; Othello, Act IV. sc. 1 ; Macbeth, 
 Act I. sc. 5 ; As You Like It, Act II. sc. 3. 
 
 Swallow, The Winter's Tale, Act IV. sc. 4; Timon of Athens, Act 
 
 III. sc. 6; Antony and Cleopatra, Act IV. sc. 12. 
 
 Swan, The Merchant of Venice, Act III. sc. 2 ; Othello, Act V. sc. 2 ; 
 
 King John, Act V. sc. 7. 
 Wren, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act III. sc. 1 ; Macbeth, Act 
 
 IV. sc. 2. 
 
 Customs Connected with the Calendar, as Illus- 
 trated by Shakespeare. 
 
 Twelfth Day (Jan. 6). Shakespeare's play, Twelfth Night, took its 
 origin in the festivities associated with this festival. 
 
 St. Valentine's Day (Feb. 14). Birds are supposed to choose their 
 mates on this day, hence A Midsummer Night''s Dream, Act IV. 
 sc. 1. 
 
 Shrove-Tuesday (Tuesday before Ash-Wednesday, the beginning 
 of Lent). A day devoted to merriment; whence originated the 
 custom of eating pancakes is unknown. All's Well That Ends 
 Well, Act II. sc. 2 ; II. King Henry IV. Act V. sc. 3.
 
 166 STUDIES IN ENGLISTI COMPOSITION. 
 
 Lout. A figure made up of straw and cast-oif clothes was drawn or 
 carried through the streets amid much noise and merriment; 
 afterwards it was usually burned. This image was called Jack- 
 a-Lent, and was probably intended to represent Judas Iscariot. 
 The Merry Wives of Windsor, Act Til. sc. 3; Act V. sc. 5. In the 
 reign of Elizabeth butchers were not allowed to sell flesh meat 
 in Lent, though sometimes they got special permission to do so. 
 II. Kin f/ Henry VI., Act IV. sc. 8; //. Kijig Henry 1V.\ Act 
 II. sc. 4. 
 
 Good Friday. Last Friday in Lent. /. King Henry IV., Act I. sc. 2. 
 
 Easter. It was considered unlucky not to wear something new ou 
 Easter Day. Romeo and Juliet, Act III. sc. 1. 
 
 St. David's Day (Mai'ch 1). Observed by the Welsh in honor of 
 St. David, their patron saint. On this day they wear a leek. 
 King Henry V., Act IV. sc. 1, sc. 7. 
 
 St. Patrick's Day (March 17). Hamlet, Act I. sc. 5. 
 
 St. George's Day (April 23). Patron saint of England, "whose 
 name should be revered on earth, but whose deeds are known 
 only in heaven." I. King Henry VI., Act I. sc. 1 ; King Henry 
 v.. Act III. sc. 1 ; /. King Henry VI., Act IV. sc. 2 ; King John, 
 Act IL sc. 1. 
 
 May-Day (May 1). King Henry VIII., Act V. sc. 3; A Midsummer 
 Night's Dream, Act I. sc. 1. In olden times nearly every village 
 had its Maypole, decorated with flowers, ribbons, and flags, romid 
 which the people danced from morning until night. //. King 
 Henry VI., Act III. sc. 1. Feature of May-Day festivities was 
 the Morris-dance. 
 
 Midsummer Day (June 24). Twelfth Night, Act III. sc. 4. A 
 period when imagination ran riot. 
 
 Michpelmas Day (Sept. 29). The Merry Wives of Windsor, Act I. 
 sc. 1. 
 
 St. Crispin's Day (Oct. 25). Pati'on saint of shoemakers. King 
 Henry V., Act IV. sc. 3. 
 
 Hallowmas (Nov. 1). Tiro Gentlemen of Verona, Act II. sc. 1. 
 
 All Souls' Day (Nov. 2). King Richard III., Act IV. sc. 1. 
 
 St. Martin's Day (Nov. 11). /. King Henry VI., Act I. sc. 2. 
 
 Christmas. Hamlet, Act I, sc. 1,
 
 STUDIES FOIl BOOK REVIEWS. 167 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 STUDIES FOR BOOK REVIEWS. 
 
 A book review aims to give the reader a general idea 
 of the book reviewed, telling in what department of 
 literature it falls, — as history, biography, story, essay, 
 — also the general aim or purpose of the book. 
 
 A review should also consider the style and manner 
 in which the book is Avritten — both its strong and its 
 weak points. The characters should be sketched and 
 their peculiarities remarked. The work may be com- 
 pared with other works of the same author, or with 
 others of the same class. If the book reviewed is a 
 history, the time it covers should be noted; if essays, 
 the topics treated ; if a novel, a brief sketch of the 
 plot may be given ; if a poem, its metrical character, 
 as well as its thought, should be considered. 
 
 Book reviews do not fall under any one rule ; they 
 vary from the lengthy essays of Macaulay and Jeffrey 
 to the brief references in the book columns of the daily 
 newspaper. 
 
 LESSON LXX. — STUDY Or MODEL. 
 
 EXERCISE I. — AX EXAMPLE FROM MACAULAY. 
 
 One of the best known book reviews is that of Macau- 
 lay upon Southey's Edition of the Pilgrim^s Progress.
 
 168 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The review begins with a notice of the engravings of 
 the book. Some of these are complimented, others are 
 not. Indeed, considerable space is given to a sharp 
 criticism upon the work of one artist. The writer then 
 comes to the subject-matter of the book itself. He 
 begins : '^ The characteristic peculiarity of the Pilgrim's 
 Progress is, that it is tlie only work of the kind which 
 possesses a strong human interest. Other allegories 
 only amuse the fancy ; the allegory of Bunyan has 
 been read by thousands with tears." The reviewer 
 then goes on to specify the different well-known alle- 
 gories, — Tlie Vision of Mirza, The Contest between Rest 
 and Pleasure, The Fairy Queen, — and compares them 
 to the Pilgrim'' s Progress. He continues: "Dr. John- 
 son, all whose studies were desultory and who hated, 
 as he said, to read books through, made an exception 
 in favor of the Pilgrim's Progress. That work, he 
 said, was one of the two or three which he wished 
 longer. ... In the wildest parts of Scotland the Pil- 
 grim's Progress is the delight of the peasantry. In every 
 nursery it is a greater favorite than Jach the Giant- 
 Killer. Every reader knows the straight and narrow 
 path as well as he knows a road in which he has gone 
 backward and forward a hundred times. This is the 
 highest miracle of genius, that things which are not 
 should be as though they were ; that the imaginations 
 of one mind should become the personal recollections 
 of another. And this miracle the tinker has wrought. 
 The wicket gate and the desolate swamp which sepa- 
 rates it from the City of Destruction ; the long line 
 of road, as straiglit as a rule can make it; the Inter- 
 preter's house, and all its fair shows; the prisoner in 
 the iron cage ; the palace, at the doors of which armed
 
 STUDIES FOR BOOK REVIEWS. 169 
 
 men kept guard, and on the battlements of which 
 walked persons clothed all in gold ; the cross and the 
 sepulchre ; the steep hill and the pleasant arbor ; the 
 stately front of the House Beautiful by the wayside ; 
 the low green valley of Humiliation, rich with grass 
 and covered with flocks, all are as well known to us 
 as the sights of our own street." 
 
 In this way the reviewer recounts the story to the 
 end of the book. He then continues: " We follow the 
 travellers through their allegorical progress with inter- 
 est not inferior to that with which we follow Elizabeth 
 from Siberia to Moscow, or Jennie Deans from Edin- 
 burg to London. Bunyan is almost the only writer 
 that ever gave to the abstract the interest of the con- 
 crete. . . . The Pilgrim's Progress undoubtedly is not 
 a perfect allegory. The types are often inconsistent 
 with each other, and sometimes the allegorical disguise 
 is altogether thrown off. But we do not believe that 
 any man, whatever might be his genius, could long 
 continue a figurative history without falling into many 
 inconsistencies. The best thing, on the whole, that an 
 allegorist can do, is to present to his readers a succes- 
 sion of analogies, each of which may separately be 
 striking and happy, without looking very nicely to see 
 whether they harmonize with each other. This Bunyan 
 has done, and the effect Mdiich the tale produces on all 
 persons, learned and unlearned, proves that he has 
 done well." 
 
 The Prisoner of Cldllon. Lord Byron. 
 
 For prologue, a sonnet on Chilloii ; coiii[)arc the structure of 
 the sonnet with tliat of Milton on /fis Blindness. The poem is 
 written in fourteen cantos of iambic tetrameters. Each canto has
 
 170 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 a central idea as a paragraph has ; find what these central ideas 
 are. Observe the pathetic ending of Canto II. By whom is the 
 poem assnmed to be written? How complete is the description of 
 the younger brother — of the second brother? What is the effect 
 upon the reader of Cantos VII. and \'III. In what way did com- 
 fort finally come to the cui)tive ? Has l>yron pictured correctly the 
 effect of long iniprisonmetit upon the human mind? Was the 
 hero of the poem a real character ? 
 
 A Dissertation upo7i Roast Pig. Charles Lamb. 
 
 Begin by telling who Lamb was, and relating a few of the 
 circumstances of his life. Never mind the dates of birth and 
 death, those facts are common to all, and need not be emphasized 
 unless for especial reasons. The time of his literary activity may 
 be approximately given. 
 
 This essay one of many. Observe the mock-historic air with 
 which it begins — the reference to the Chinese manuscript — the 
 careful narration of events — finally, the climax. Also the same 
 mock-historic air in the account of the trial — the humor of the 
 verdict — finally. Lamb's own directions for the roasting of a pig. 
 Give the characteristics of Lamb's style as they seem to you. 
 
 The Vision of Sir Launfal. James Russell Lowell. 
 
 The quest of the Holy Grail is one of the legends of the INIiddle 
 Ages which still keeps its significance to the modern mind. No 
 more exquisite retelling of it exists in the language than The 
 Vision of Sir Launfal. The poem opens with a Prelude, which 
 is a series of pictures of early summer. Give quotations which 
 shall show these. Part I. gives the young man's con.^eption of the 
 way he is to find the Holy Grail. Is it a correct one? What is 
 the climax of Part I. ? What does the Prelude of Part II. fore- 
 shadow? What lesson has the old man learned? What is the 
 climax of Part II. ? Why is the ending particularly happy? 
 
 Rah and His Friends. Dr. John Brown. 
 
 Boy-like introduction — interest in dog fights — devotion to the 
 conqueror. Personality of Rab made quite as clear as that of his 
 master or mistress. Beautiful character of Ailie — devotion of her
 
 STUDIES FOR BOOK REVIEWS. 171 
 
 husband. Explain Rab's conduct after the death of botli. Is it 
 true to dog nature ? Is it artistically correct to have llab and his 
 master both die after the death of Ailie ? 
 
 Tlie Man Without a Country. Edward Everett 
 Hale. 
 
 Invented history — devices to strengthen its appearance of 
 reality — repetition of incidents to deepen the illusion — the one 
 reality of the story made clear, and that is, the effect upon a man 
 to live without a country. A lesson in patriotism. Observe how 
 skilfully the quotation from the Lcvj of the Last Minstrel is woven 
 into the story. The skill of the writer makes out of a fictitious 
 character and an impossible situation a most pathetic story. 
 
 LESSON LXXL — PEOSE PIOTION. 
 
 By the term fiction, a narrative composition is always 
 understood. Works of fiction are of two kinds — those 
 in which the agencies are entirely within ordinary expe- 
 rience and those in which they are not. In the latter 
 case the}^ are called romances ; in the former, stories of 
 common life. 
 
 Stories of common life are divided into tales of adven- 
 ture and novels. The novel in its highest and best 
 form is the counterpart in prose to the epic in poetry, 
 and like it, treats of " one great complex action in a 
 lofty style and witli fulness of detail." Whatever be 
 its form, the novel should possess unity of plan. Novels 
 may refer to the past and deal with great historical 
 characters, oy picture great events ; in which case, they 
 are called historical novels. The ordinary novel, how- 
 ever, pictures either the present or an immediate past.
 
 172 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Sometimes the distinction is made between romantic 
 novels and realistic novels. A romantic novel would 
 partake more or less of the nature of a romance, while 
 a realistic novel would aim to represent life exactly 
 as it is. Sir Walter Scott's novels may be taken as a 
 type of the romantic school, while those of William D. 
 Howells would well represent the realistic. 
 
 LIST OF NOVELS TO BE STUDIED FOR REVIEWS. 
 
 In order to write upon any of the following topics, it is necessary 
 to read carefully the book under which they stand. 
 
 David Copperjicld. Charles Dickens. 
 
 , Family Groups of the Characters. 
 Descriptions of Places and Persons. 
 The Characteristic Sayings of Different Characters. 
 A Sketch of David's Boyhood. 
 Betsey Ti-otwood. 
 The Micawber Family. 
 Peculiarities and Characteristics of Dickens's Style. 
 
 Ivanlioe. Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 The Home and Household of Cedric the Saxon. 
 The Tournament of Prince John. 
 The Holy Clerk of Copemanhurst. 
 Storming of the Castle of Fi-ont de Boeuf. 
 The Trial and Release of Rebecca. 
 The Feudal Age as Pictured by Scott. 
 
 Silas Marner. George Eliot. 
 
 How Silas Marner became a Miser. 
 
 Squire Cass's Household. 
 
 Eppie's Childhood. 
 
 The Character of Godfrey Cass. 
 
 Effect of the Care of Eppie upon Silas Marner. 
 
 Descriptions of Persons and Places.
 
 STUDIES FOR BOOK REVIEWS. 173 
 
 Descriptions of George Eliot and Dickens, Compared. 
 George Eliot as a Delineator of Motives. 
 
 Lorna Doon. R. D. Blackmore. 
 
 The First Meeting of John Ridd and Lorna Doon. 
 
 The Doon Stronghold. 
 
 John Ridd's Home. 
 
 Tom Faggus. 
 
 The Rescue of Lorna. 
 
 Overthrow of the Doons. 
 
 Descriptions of Persons and Places. 
 
 The Tiiiie,s of the Restoration as Pictured by Blackmore. 
 
 Lorna Doon as a Guide-book to Bagworthy Forest. 
 
 Ben Hur : A Tale of the Christ. Lew Wallace. 
 
 The Meeting of the Three Wise Men. 
 
 The Character of Messala. 
 
 The Sheik Ilderim. 
 
 The Chariot Race. 
 
 Christ as a Character in the Story. 
 
 Ben Hur as a Christian. 
 
 Little Women. Louisa Alcott. 
 
 A New England Home, as Pictui'ed by Miss Alcott. 
 Character of the Four Daughters, as Shown by Incidents. 
 Different Plans for Amusement. 
 Little Women, Compared with Its Sequel, Little Men. 
 
 The Rise of Silas Lapham. William D. Howells. 
 
 The Newspaper Interviews. 
 
 The Partnership with Mr. Rogers. 
 
 The Coreys, Father and Son. 
 
 Penelope's Conscience. 
 
 The Character of Silas Lapham. 
 
 Impression of the Book as a Whole. 
 
 Mr. Howells's Characteristics as a Writer.
 
 174 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 
 
 LESSON LXXIL — THE ART OF PEESUASION. 
 
 A man convinced against iiis will 
 
 Is of the same opinion still. — Old Proverb. 
 
 Not he is great who can alter matter, but he who can alter my 
 state of mind. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
 
 There is probably no one, young or old, who has 
 not at some time felt a desire to influence the opinion 
 and conduct of others. The child tries to induce his 
 parents to grant his requests, the boy to lead his com- 
 panions to do as he wishes, to think as he does ; the 
 man to influence his friends, the lawyer to win his jury, 
 the minister to benefit his congregation, the politician 
 to carry the people with him. Each one has attempted 
 to persuade. If he has succeeded in doing this, he has, 
 consciously or unconsciously, followed certain definite 
 principles. It is to the study of these principles that 
 this chapter is devoted. 
 
 Persuasion is an effort to influence the will, and 
 through the will to affect the conduct. The will is 
 influenced in two ways : through the emotions or 
 through the judgment. In the first instance, the appeal 
 is made to the feelings; in the second, to the reason. 
 These appeals are named, respectively, exhortation and
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOUliSE. 175 
 
 argument. Both are necessary to successful persuasion, 
 but which is to be used most depends upon the charac- 
 ter of the person or audience to be influenced, as Avell as 
 upon the character of the speaker. The following funda- 
 mental principles underlie all persuasive discourse : — 
 
 It is best to decide at first whether you will use argument to 
 influence the reason, or exhortation to move the feelings, or both. 
 
 No one would address an audience of lawyers as he 
 would a mixed audience, or a group of children as he 
 would a company of adults. Instinctively, in trying 
 to persuade people, we appeal to their feelings or their 
 reason, according as we think the one or the other will 
 move them. It is well, usually, to use both methods, 
 and the character of your listener will decide which 
 one will predominate. 
 
 It is easier to move the feelings by narratives and descriptions 
 than by direct appeals. 
 
 Persons are frequently armed against direct appeals, 
 but a telling story or a pathetic description finds them 
 quite unprepared to resist, and they yield at once. 
 Attend a missionary meeting and see how the audience 
 are brought into sympathy with the speakers by tales 
 of foreign lands. Uncle Tonis Cabin doubtless con- 
 vinced thousands of the wrong of slavery, who would 
 not have listened for one moment to a direct appeal 
 for the slave. 
 
 The question to be discussed should be clearly stated. If neces- 
 sary, define it. 
 
 It is of the utmost importance that the point at issue 
 should be perfectly clear. A great deal of useless dis- 
 cussion is often indulged in because the disputants do 
 not understand what they arc talking about.
 
 176 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Always be fair to those wlio oppose you. 
 
 Whatever temporary advantage may be gained by 
 unfairness is usually lost in the end. Nothing helps 
 a debater more than to be fair to liis opponents. 
 Mr. Lincoln's great success in debate was largely due 
 to his habit of stating his opponents' case quite as well 
 as they could, and then when he had overthrown it 
 there was nothino- further to be said. 
 
 Put yourself on good terms with your listeners. 
 
 Experienced speakers do this in a variety of ways. 
 Sometimes by means of a story or an anecdote, to make 
 their hearers good-natured, sometimes by agreeing with 
 them as far as possible, sometimes by flattery more or 
 less concealed. Especially, if a speaker is addressing a 
 person or audience prejudiced against his cause, it is 
 necessary to win the willing attention of his hearers at 
 any cost, otherwise he might as well keep silent. 
 
 It is sometimes well to anticipate possible objections 
 and answer these in the first part of your argument. 
 This may free the minds of your hearers of possible 
 prejudice. 
 
 State the arguments separately. It is well to begin with a 
 strong argument and usually to end with one. Sometimes they 
 may be arranged to a climax. 
 
 It is well to make a good impression at the beginning 
 and also at the close of your argument. It is necessary 
 to have clearly in mind what your arguments are before 
 you attempt to arrange them. 
 
 Do not dogmatize. Let the conclusions follow from your argu- 
 ments rather than from your personality. 
 
 Let the conclusions follow from your arguments, 
 rather than state the conclusions first, and then give
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 177 
 
 your reasons. People are willing to be convinced, but 
 not so willing to be told beforehand what they should 
 do or think. Arguments stated in the form of ques- 
 tions are frequently very effective, for the reason that 
 they do not assert, but compel the hearer to draw the 
 conclusion for himself. 
 
 Guard against the fallacy of supposing that because two events 
 occur together, or in succession, one is the effect of the other. 
 
 It often happens that a statement seems to be true 
 when it is not. When such a statement is used as an 
 argument, it is called a fallacy. People often use falla- 
 cious arguments Avithout recognizing tliem as such. 
 This kind of argument is also used by speakers who 
 know better, and is often heard in political debate. 
 If "times are hard," it is often charged as the result 
 of this or that political condition which in fact has 
 nothing to do with it. 
 
 Guard against the fallacy of supposing that because one thing 
 is true, another thing very much like it must be true. 
 
 This is the fallacy of reasoning by analogy. The 
 error lies in supposing because two things are very 
 much alike that they are necessarily exactly alike. 
 The very point in which they differ may be the one 
 which makes it impossible for them to be judged alike. 
 Do not understand tliat no arguments by analogy are 
 good ones, — many are, — l)ut see to it that the cases 
 compared are alike in that for which they are compared. 
 
 It is well at the end to make a summary of your arguments. 
 State what you think you have disproved and what you think you 
 have proved. 
 
 This is an assistance to the memories of your hearers. 
 It impresses what you have said.
 
 178 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LXXm. — STUDY OF ANTONY'S OEATION. 
 
 One of the finest examples of the Art of Persuasion 
 is the speecli of Antony over tlie dead body of Csesar, 
 in Sliakespeare's play of Julius Ccesar. Cajsar has 
 been assassinated by the conspirators, and Brutus has 
 already addressed the Roman populace in defence of 
 the deed. The people have agreed that it was well 
 and wisely done. 
 
 Antony ascends tlie pulpit to deliver the funeral 
 oration over the body, according to the Roman custom, 
 and speaks by the express permission of Brutus. Indeed, 
 Brutus begs the people to remain and hear Antony's 
 speech, which they are very reluctant to do. Their 
 sympathy is all for Brutus — against Caesar and against 
 Antony, who is to speak in his honor. The only condi- 
 tion that Brutus has made is that Antony shall not 
 blame the conspirators. 
 
 Antony begins : — 
 
 Aiit. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; 
 I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 
 The evil that men do lives after them; 
 The good is oft interred with their bones ; 
 So let it be with Cassar. The noble Bi-utus 
 Hath told you Cajsar was ambitious : 
 If it were so, it was a grievous fault ; 
 And grievously hath Cajsar answered it. 
 Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest, 
 (For Brutus is an honourable man ; 
 So are they all, all honourable men,) 
 Come I to speak in C.Tsar's funeral. 
 He was my friend, faithful and just to me: 
 But Brutus says he was ambitious ; 
 And Brutus is an honourable man.
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 179 
 
 This is the introduction. Antony knows his audi- 
 ence, knows how prejudiced they are, and desires to 
 win them. He assumes a friendly rehition between 
 himself and them with his very first word. Then he 
 explains, — "I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him." 
 What he really means is " You do not wish to hear 
 Csesar praised. I am not going to praise him. I will 
 agree with you in this." He passes on to the principal 
 charge made by Brutus, that Caesar was ambitious. 
 He does not admit it, nor does he deny it; had he 
 denied it, his audience might have attacked him at 
 once, — but he says, "if it were so, it was a grievous 
 fault, and grievously hath Csesar answered it." 
 
 Shakespeare, with fine art, has put into Antony's 
 mouth the past subjunctive which denies the assertion 
 by implication. He assures them that he speaks by 
 Brutus' permission, repeats twice that Brutus is an 
 honorable man, and explains his appearance there upon 
 the ground that Ctcsar, whatever his faults might be, 
 had been a just and faithful friend to him. 
 
 He continues : — 
 
 He hath brought many captives home to Rome, 
 
 Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill : 
 
 Did this in Cfesar seem ambitious ? 
 
 When that the poor have cried, C,x\sar hath wept : 
 
 Ambition should be made of sterner stuff : 
 
 Yet Brutus says he was ambitious ; 
 
 And Brutus is an honourable man. 
 
 You all did see that on the Lupercal 
 
 I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 
 
 Which he did thrice refuse : was this ambition ? 
 
 Yet Brutus says he was ambitious ; 
 
 And, sure, he is an honourable man. 
 
 I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke,
 
 180   STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 But here I am to speak what I do know. 
 
 You all did love him once, not without cause : 
 
 What cause withholds you, then, to mourn for him? 
 
 O judgment, thou art fled to brutish beasts, 
 
 And men have lost their reason ! — Bear with me ; 
 
 My heart is in the coffin there with Civsar, 
 
 And 1 must pause till it come back to me. 
 
 Here he advances three arguments to disprove the 
 charge that Ca3sar was ambitious. He has not yet 
 denied tlie charge, he is going to let his arguments do 
 that; he will allow his hearers to draw their own 
 conclusions ; he will simply state the facts and ask the 
 question. He will not dogmatize. They may answer 
 it for themselves. This is great skill ; he does nothing 
 to irritate his hearers. His three arguments are strong, 
 brief, and true. The ransoms of the captives, Caesar's 
 kindness to the poor, and the refusal of the crown were 
 all well known. Each one was strong against the 
 charge. Feeling this, Antony bursts out into an 
 apostrophe to judgment, and then giving way to his 
 own feelings for a moment, apologizes in the most 
 pathetic manner,— " Bear with me ; my heart is in the 
 coffin there with CsBsar, and I must pause till it come 
 back to me." 
 
 In the meantime, the citizens, who were so unwilling 
 to hear him at first, begin to say to each other that 
 what he says has much reason in it, and that they wish 
 him to go on. He has won their willing attention, 
 which is what he has sought from the first. After this 
 interruption he continues : — 
 
 A>it. But yesterday, the word of Csesar might 
 Have stood against the world : now, lies he there, 
 And none so poor to do him reverence.
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 181 
 
 masters ! if I were dispos'd to stir 
 
 Your hearts and luinds to mutiny and rage, 
 
 1 should do Brutus wrong, and Cassius wrong, 
 Who, you all know, are honourable men : 
 
 I will not do them wrong ; I rather choose 
 To wrong the dead, to wrong myself, and you, 
 Than I will wrong such honourable men. 
 But here's a parchment with the seal of Caesar, 
 I found it in his closet ; 'tis his will : 
 Let but the commons hear this testament, 
 (Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read,) 
 And they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds, 
 And dip their napkins in his sacred blood ; 
 Yea, beg a hrair of him for memory. 
 And, dying, mention it within their wills. 
 Bequeathing it, as a rich legacy, 
 Unto their issue. 
 
 4 Cit. We'll hear the will : read it, Mark Antony. 
 
 Citizens. The will, the will ! we will hear Caesar's will. 
 
 Ant. Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it; 
 It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you. 
 You are not wood, you are not stones, but men ; 
 And, being men, hearing the will of Caesar, 
 It will inflame you, it will make you mad : 
 'Tis good you know not that you are his heirs ; 
 For if you should, O, what would come of it ! 
 
 4 Cit. Read the will ; we'll hear it, Antony ; 
 You shall read us the will ; Caesar's will. 
 
 Ant. Will you be patient? Will you stay a while? 
 I have o'ershot myself to tell you of it : 
 I fear I wrong the honourable men. 
 Whose daggers have stabb'd Caesar ; I do fear it. 
 
 4 Cit. They were traitors : honourable men ! 
 
 Citizens. The will ! the testament ! 
 
 2 Cit. They were villains, murderers : the will ! read the will. 
 
 Ant. You will compel me, then, to read the will ? 
 Then make a ring about the corse of Caesar, 
 And let me show you him that made the will. 
 Shall I descend? and will you give me leave?
 
 182 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMroSITION. 
 
 Citizens. Come down. 
 
 2 Cit. Descend. [Antony comes down. 
 
 3 Cit. You shall have leave. 
 
 4 Cit. A ring- ; stand round. 
 
 1 Cit. Stand from the hcarso, stand from the body. 
 
 2 Cit. Room for Antony, most noble Antony! 
 Ant. Nay, press not so upon me ; stand far off. 
 Citizens. Stand back ; room : bear back. 
 
 Ant. If you have tears, pi-epare to shed them now. 
 You all do know this mantle : I remember 
 The first time ever Caesar put it on ; 
 'Twas on a summer's evening, in his tent, 
 That day he overcame the Nervii : — 
 Look, in this place, ran Cassius' dagger through : 
 See what a rent the envious Casca made : 
 Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb'd 
 And, as he pluck'd his cursed steel away, 
 Mark how the blood of Ctesar foUow'd it, 
 As rushing out of doors, to be resolv'd 
 If Brutus so unkindly knock'd, or no ; 
 For Brutus, as yoii know, was Caesar's angel : 
 . Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar lov'd him. 
 This was the most unkindest cut of all ; 
 For when the noble Caesar saw him stab, 
 Ingratitude, more strong than traitors' arms, 
 Quite vanquish'd him : then burst his mighty heart, 
 And, in his mantle muffling up his face. 
 Even at the base of Pompey's statue, 
 Which all the while ran blood, great Caesar fell. 
 O, what a fall was there, my countrymen! 
 Then I, and you, and all of us fell down. 
 Whilst bloody treason flourish'd over us. 
 O, now you weep ; and, I perceive, you feel 
 The dint of pity : these are gracious drops. ' 
 Kind souls, what, weep you when you but behold 
 Our C;esar's vesture wounded? Look you here. 
 Here is himself, marr'd, as you see, with traitors. 
 
 1 Cit. O piteous spectacle ! 
 
 2 Cit. O noble Ca?sar !
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOUESE, 183 
 
 3 Cit. O woful day ! 
 
 4 Cit. O traitors, villains ! 
 
 1 Cit. O most bloody sight ! 
 
 2 Cit. We will be revenged: revenge, — about, — seek, — 
 burn, — fire, — kill, — slay, — let not a traitor live. 
 
 Ant. Stay, countrymen. 
 
 1 Cit. Peace there ! hear the noble Antony. 
 
 2 Cit. We'll hear him, we'll follow him, we'll die with him. 
 
 Feeling that he has won his hearers, he ventures upon 
 a slight appeal to their pity, but stops himself by saying 
 that to do so would be to do Brutus wrong, and that 
 he will not do' him wrong, he will rather wrong Caesar. 
 Then he plays upon their curiosity by telling of Ctesar's 
 will, which he does not intend to read, but if they 
 only knew what was in it ! He gets the answer that 
 he expected, for they cry out at once that he shall read 
 it. This gives him opportunity to make that answer 
 which is a famous example of strength gained by using 
 particular in place of general terms, — 
 
 I fear I wrong the honourable men 
 Whose daggers have stabbed Caesar. 
 
 Then comes an appeal to the feeling of the popu- 
 lace, with an especial blow at Brutus as guilty of the 
 basest ingratitude. Shakespeare here writes one of 
 his double superlatives, of which he is so fond. The 
 climax comes when, after having shown the garments, 
 Antony shows the body of Caesar. This is the point 
 at which he has been aiming from the first; but he 
 did not wish to show the body until he was sure it 
 would be received witli sympathy. The result did not 
 disapf)oint him, for the citizens cry, burn! kill! daij ! 
 the conspirators.
 
 184 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 With wonderful skill he continues : — 
 
 Ant. Good friends, sweet friends, let nu; not stir you up 
 To such a sudden flood of mutiny. 
 They that have done this deed are honourable ; 
 What private griefs they have, alas, I know not. 
 That made them do it ; they are wise and honourable. 
 And will, no doubt, with reasons answer you. 
 I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts : 
 I am no orator, as Brutus is ; 
 But, as you know me all, a plain, blunt man, 
 That love my friend ; and that they know full well 
 That gave me public leave to speak of him : 
 For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth. 
 Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech, 
 To stir men's blood : I only speak right on : 
 I tell you that which you yourselves do know ; 
 Show you sweet Caesar's wounds, poor, poor dumb mouths. 
 And bid them speak for me : but were I Brutus, 
 And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony 
 Would ruffle up your spirits, and put a tongue 
 In every wound of C»sar, that should move 
 The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny. 
 
 Citizens. We'll mutiny. 
 
 1 Cit. We'll burn the house of Brutus. 
 
 3 Cit. Away, then ! come, seek the conspirators. 
 
 Ant. Yet hear me, countrymen; yet hear me speak. 
 
 Citizens. Peace, ho ! Hear Antony, most noble Antony. 
 
 Ant. Why, friends, you go to do you know not what : 
 W^herein hath Cassar thus deserv'd your loves? 
 Alas, you know not ; I must tell you, then : 
 You have forgot the will I told you of. 
 
 Citizens. Most true ; the will : let's stay and hear the will. 
 
 Ant. Here is the will, and under Caesar's seal : 
 To every Roman citizen he gives. 
 To every several man, seventy-five drachmas. 
 
 2 Cit. Most noble Csesar ! we'll revenge his death. 
 
 3 Cit. O royal Csesar ! 
 
 Ant. Hear me with patience.
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 185 
 
 Citizens. Peace, ho ! 
 
 Ant. Moreover, he hath left you all his walks, 
 His private arbours, and new-planted orchards. 
 On this side Tibei- ; he hath left them you, 
 And to your heirs for evei-, common pleasures. 
 To walk abroad, and recreate yourselves. 
 Here was a Caesar ! when comes such another? 
 
 1 Cit. Never, never ! Come, away, away ! 
 We'll burn his body in the holy place. 
 
 And with tlie brands fire the traitors' houses. 
 Take up the body. 
 
 2 Cit. Go fetch fire. 
 
 3 Cit. Pluck down benches. 
 
 4 Cit. Pluck down forms, windows, anything. 
 
 Exeunt Citizens, with the body. 
 Ant. Now let it work : mischief, thou art afoot. 
 Take thou what course thou wilt ! 
 
 He does not admit that he has aroused this feeling ; 
 indeed, he pretends to wish to calm it: but lest he 
 should be too successful, he reminds the people that he 
 has not yet read the will. When they hear that they 
 are Caesar's heirs their rage is ungovernable, and Antony 
 descends from the pulpit, feeling tliat his work is done. 
 The only hint we get of his satisfaction over the result 
 is found in the soliloquy beginning " Now let it work," 
 and the grim reply to a servant who announced that 
 Brutus and Cassius had fled from Rome, — 
 
 Belike they had some notice of the people 
 How 1 had moved them. 
 
 Observe that in this example there are but three 
 arguments. All the rest consists of appeals to the 
 emotions, especially the feelings of pity and gratitude, 
 as well as national pride.
 
 186 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LXXIV.- EXAMPLES OP PERSUASIVE DISOOUESE. 
 
 Each pupil should analyze one or more of the fol- 
 lowhig examples. Most of them can be found in the 
 different school readers. In the analysis note which 
 one of the two elements of persuasion — exhortation or 
 argument — appears most frequently. Observe if these 
 are separate or connningled. Note the figures of 
 rhetoric — particularly climax, antithesis, and allusions. 
 State the arguments in their simplest form, in order 
 that you may know their real value. 
 
 An Appeal to Arms. Patrick Henry. 
 
 This speech was delivered in the Virginia Convention of March, 
 1775, ill support of the resolution : That the colony be immediately 
 put in a state of defence. The speaker divides the hearers whom 
 he wishes to persuade into two classes, — the hopeful and the timid. 
 He addresses the former class first. He desires to win them. How 
 does he do it? Note that his arguments are presented in the form 
 of questions which appeal to his hearers' knowledge of the facts. 
 He compels them to draw his conclusions and that, too, without 
 any loss of their own self-esteem. 
 
 Observe the climax which he builds up in the passage beginning, 
 "We have petitioned," and also the strength of his final appeal to 
 these hopeful associates beginning, " If we wish to be free." This 
 is a fine example of a periodic sentence. 
 
 Then he addresses the ,timid members, and repeats their one 
 argument that the colonies are too weak to resist Great Britain. 
 Again he questions ; again his hearers must reply as he desires. 
 His final appeal is to three feelings, which are among the strongest 
 in the human breast, — confidence in God's care, the necessity which 
 every honorable man feels, of standing by his friends who are in 
 danger, and the desire for liberty. " Our brethren are already in 
 the field" refers to a Committee of Safety appointed by the Massa- 
 chusetts Assembly to muster the minute men and militia. The last 
 paragraph is an excellent example of balanced sentences.
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 187 
 
 Rienzi's Address to the Romans. Mary R. Mitford. 
 
 This selection is taken from the Drama of Rienzi. It consists 
 wholly of an appeal to the feelings. Observe the opening words 
 as a rare example of strength of style. What makes it strong? 
 What pi'inciple of persuasion is followed in the body of the 
 address ? " Struck — struck like a dog." What effect does it have 
 to repeat the word struck ? How would such a speech be likely to 
 aifect a Roman audience? What was Rienzi's object in appealing 
 to the ancient glories of Rome ? 
 
 Supposed Speech of John Adams. Daniel Webster. 
 
 A persuasive speech delivered long after the events to which it 
 refers, and assumed to be spoken by a person other than the 
 author, would naturally consist of arguments rather than exhorta- 
 tion. Put into simple form the question that Mr. Adams is sup- 
 posed to be discussing. Select and arrange in order the arguments 
 by which he sustains it. Note w^hat principles of persuasion he 
 applies. 
 
 Speech of Paul before Agrippa. Acts xxv., xxvi. 
 
 Chapter xxv. explains the circumstances under which the speech 
 was delivered. It opens with a compliment to the king — what 
 principle of persuasion is that ? Observe how clearly the question 
 at issue is stated. In what way does the narration of the circum- 
 stances of the vision become an argument? What effect did 
 Paul's speech have upon Festus ? Observe Paul's courteous reply 
 to Festus and his instant appeal to the king. The effect of all 
 this upon the king. 
 
 The First Oration of Cicero against Catiline. De- 
 livered in the Roman Senate. 
 
 Observe that Cicero had but one object in the entire oration, 
 and that was to drive Catiline from the city. To accomplish this, 
 he used both denunciation and argument. Arrange the arguments 
 in order — state them in their simplest form. Decide whether the 
 final appeal to the senators was intended for them or for Catiline. 
 What effect did this orati(ju liave upon Catiline?
 
 188 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LXXV. — STRUCTURE OF PERSUASIVE DIS- 
 COURSE. 
 
 Alihoiigli most of the persuasion used by all persons 
 is absolutely witliout form, yet in any formal discourse 
 a certain arrangement of parts is desirable, and the 
 simplest of these is the division into Introduction, Body, 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Introduction. — The introduction must not only in- 
 troduce the subject to be discussed, it must also intro- 
 duce the speaker to his hearers, and it should do both 
 in a pleasing manner. 
 
 When the nature of the subject will admit of it, a 
 pleasant anecdote, if appropriate in time and place, or 
 a well-turned compliment, will do much to establish 
 pleasant relations. 
 
 Finally, the question at issue should be stated, defined 
 if necessary, and the position of the other side clearly 
 and honestly put. This should be done with courtesy, 
 as nothing is gained by unprovoked rudeness. It should 
 be done with perfect honesty, as nothing harms a speaker 
 more than unfairness. Dishonesty may win once or twice, 
 but in the long run it does harm. Honesty is the best 
 policy here as in other relations of life. 
 
 Body of the Discourse. — This is the place for your 
 real arguments. It is well to answer your opponent's 
 objections at first, although sometimes that is not done 
 until after your own arguments are presented. Empha- 
 size your arguments by anecdote, illustration, and figures 
 of rhetoric. Take care to put what you have to say 
 clearly and strongly. Do not disregard the rules for 
 those qualities of style.
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 189 
 
 Appeals to the feelings may go hand in hand with 
 appeals to the reason, but the more formal Avay is to 
 leave exhortation until the speaker reaches the con- 
 clusion. 
 
 Conclusion. — This should contain a brief, strong- 
 summary of what you think you have disproved and 
 what you think you have proved. Here is the place 
 for a final appeal to the feelings of your audience. 
 Make as strong, graceful, and fitting conclusion as is 
 in your power. 
 
 LESSOK LXXVL — LIST OF SUBJECTS FOE FEESUASIVE 
 
 DISCOURSE. 
 Prohibition. 
 
 Assume to be speaking before a state legislature — take the side 
 upon which are your convictions, and make the best persuasive 
 speech that you can. State all the arguments in its favor — state 
 all the arguments opposed. The affirmative has greater resources 
 for exhortation than the negative. Do not assume that your oppo- 
 nent is wanting in moral character because he does not agree with 
 you. That is a common mistake with speakers in favor of prohi- 
 bition. 
 
 Capital Punishment. 
 
 Object of punishment twofold — reform of evil-doer and pro- 
 tection of society. Capital punishment protects society only. The 
 historical argument may be met by the fact that all punishiiients 
 are now lighter than formerly. Juries may be unwilling to find a 
 prisoner guilty if capital punishment is to be inflicted. On the 
 other hand, it may be urged that capital punishment is the only 
 kind that will deter the most daring villains. Evil results of 
 public executions. Results in various states wliich have abolished 
 the death penalty. Assume that you are speaking before a ])ublic 
 meeting.
 
 190 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Immigration. 
 
 Should immigration into the United States be restricted? Char- 
 acter of immigrants — value to the country of their labor — 
 Chinese immigration — advantages of further immigration — dis- 
 advantages. If restricted, in what way? 
 
 Pavements : stone, wood, asphalt. 
 
 Many towns and cities are in continual turmoil over the kind of 
 pavement that shall be used on the streets. Assume that you are 
 speaking before a counnitlee having the matter in charge, and urge 
 the adoption of the kind j'ou prefer. 
 
 Light for Cities and Towns : gas or electric. 
 
 Urge the adoption of the kind you prefer, giving your reasons. 
 Consider the character of the light, the expense, etc. 
 
 The Value of the Study of Latin. 
 
 Try to persuade some boy or girl, who does not wish to study 
 Latin, of its desirability. Give the different arguments in its 
 favor. Then appeal to the desire for self -improvement — desire to 
 equal one's companions, etc. 
 
 The Value of the Study of Science. 
 
 Try to persuade a board of education to make provision for 
 the establishment of a physical or chemical laboratory in its high 
 school. Such an argument should have introduction, body, conclu- 
 sion. You must aim to prove that the benefits to be secured by 
 tile laboratory offset the additional expense. 
 
 Manual Training : Shall it be introduced into city 
 schools ? s 
 
 Address a body of citizens and tax-payers. 
 
 Compulsory Education : Is it desirable or neces- 
 sary ?
 
 PERSUASIVE DISCOURSE. 191 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte : Was his career a benefit or 
 an injury to Europe ? 
 
 Tlie Execution of Mary Stuart : Was it justified ? 
 
 The Presidential Term of Ofhce : Should it be 
 lengthened ? 
 
 Protection vs. Free Trade. 
 
 Argument for Protection : Define protection. Theory of protec- 
 tion. Needs of infant industries. Tariff protects the workingnian. 
 Produces diversity of industries. Makes a country independent. 
 
 Argument against Protection : Can be no international trade 
 unless foreign goods are imported. Capital forced out of one 
 industry would find place in another. Not tariff keeps wages 
 high, but the resources of the country. Workingmen are not 
 protected unless the immigration of workingmen is prohibited. 
 
 Note. — Every community has local questions which will be 
 more interesting to its pupils than anything suggested here. When 
 these questions are not personal, they make the very best kind for 
 discussion. It is useless to write upon a subject in which one has 
 no interest, for in persuasion interest is essential to success. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE WRITER. 
 
 It is well sometimes to put the conclusion of a single argument 
 in the form of a question as Antony does when he asks, " Did 
 this in Caesar seem ambitious?" To succeed in argument one must 
 have the facts. Choice words, correct language, fine style, are all 
 very well, but avail little unless the facts are at hand. 
 
 Never forget the value of an anecdote or a comparison to give 
 point to an argument. 
 
 A speaker should always keep his temper. To lose self-control 
 gives one's opponents great advantage.
 
 192 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 PUBLIC SPEAKING. 
 
 The demands of modern life and society frequently 
 compel persons to speak in public who are really unwill- 
 ing to do so. It may be to further a social reform ; it 
 may be to promote some measure in which the interests 
 of an entire community are involved ; it may be to 
 defend the innocent; the causes are manifold which 
 combine to push unwilling men and women to their 
 feet and force them out of the fulness of their hearts 
 and for the sake of their cause to speak. Since this is 
 the case, the statement of a few of the principles which 
 govern all public addresses is not out of place, and 
 practise in such speaking should be given to advanced 
 pupils. 
 
 LESSON LXXVIL — PEINOIPLES GOVERNING PUBLIC 
 
 SPEAKING. 
 
 A speaker should strive to stand still. All nervous 
 movements of hands or feet should be controlled. 
 Nothino- shows embarrassment like aimless motion. 
 
 Never rise to speak unless you are certain you have 
 voice enough to carry what you wish to say to every 
 one among your hearers. In ordinary auditoriums this 
 requires neither a very loud voice nor a very strong 
 one ; but it does require good quality of tone with
 
 <v 
 
 PUBLIC SPEAKING. 193 
 
 clear and slow enunciation. It is quite as inappropriate 
 to speak low when one should speak loud, as to speak 
 loud when one should speak low. 
 
 Unless you have something clearly in mind, do not 
 attempt to say anything. Nothing tries the temper 
 and patience of an audience more than to attempt to 
 follow a speaker who does not clearly know what he 
 wishes to say. When you have made your point clearly, 
 stop. Many a speaker spoils the effect of his words by 
 talking too long. 
 
 It is best even for an extempore speaker to have 
 in mind an orderly succession of topics, and here and 
 there entire sentences in memory, in order that he may 
 not wander from his subject, weary his hearers, and so 
 defeat his own aims. 
 
 In an address which has been committed to memory, 
 or even in one which is read, the speaker should always 
 leave a few places where extempore and unpremeditated 
 remarks may be made. Such remarks will often hold 
 or regain the flagging attention of his audience. 
 
 No public speaking is successful unless it has held 
 the attention of tlie hearers. Whatever other excel- 
 lences it may have had, failing of this, it has failed 
 of all. 
 
 The best sentences for public speeches are short sen- 
 tences mingled with a few long ones. Relative clauses 
 should clearly show to what they refer. Statements 
 put interrogatively are effective. Everything should 
 be sacrificed to clearness of style. First of all, the audi- 
 ence must understand what is meant. 
 
 Anecdotes, figures of rhetoric, apt quotations, are all 
 valuable in an address to give point to the thought, to 
 make a statement clear. But a speaker should avoid
 
 194 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 filling Ills address with stories simply to amuse his 
 hearers, for he soon becomes noted lor his stories, and 
 not for his ideas. 
 
 A speaker should never rise to an impassioned style 
 unless he can take his audience with him. Nothing 
 makes a speaker more ridiculous than to be expressing 
 strong- emotion which his hearers do not share. 
 
 Every quality of style, all the resources of memory, 
 all the acquired knowledge of the individual, all the 
 experiences of life, are not too much to equip a person 
 for a successful public speaker. A truly fine oration 
 taxes every resource of the human mind. An orator 
 passes from narration to description, from anecdote to 
 argument, makes a point by an allusion, fixes his thought 
 in the minds of his hearers by a metaphor, recalls atten- 
 tion by a picturesque description, wins the good-will of 
 his audience by a compliment. He never allows himself 
 to become dull, yet he should be profound; should enter- 
 tain, but not simply amuse ; should instruct, but should 
 never become pedantic or dogmatic. A finished oration 
 is the very flower of literature. 
 
 LESSON LXXVIII.— STUDY OP SELECTIONS PROM FAMOUS 
 
 ORATIONS. 
 
 The number of great orators in any age or any coun- 
 try has not been large. A few well-known names have 
 come down to us from antiquity, as Demosthenes, 
 ^schines, and Cicero. 
 
 In modern times we have Burke and Pitt in Eng- 
 land ; Patrick Henry, John Quincy Adams, and Daniel 
 Webster in America.
 
 ^ 
 
 PUBLIC SPEAKING. 195 
 
 Below the greatest are many names. Such in this 
 country are Thomas Corwin, Henry Chxy, John C. Cal- 
 houn, Henry Ward Beecher, Edward Everett, and 
 Charles Sumner. 
 
 EXERCISE I. SELECTIONS FROM WEBSTEIl's ORATIONS. 
 
 The following is the introduction to Weljster's famous speech 
 at the trial of John F. Knapp, who was indicted for murder at 
 Salem, Mass., in 1830. Mr. Webster appeared to assist the prose- 
 cution. He is addressing the jury. Observe the calm, simple 
 statement of the case. Notice that he finds it quite within his 
 province to compliment both judge and jury. 
 
 I very much regret, gentlemen, that it should have 
 been thought necessary to suggest to you that I am 
 brought here to "hurry you against the law and 
 beyond the evidence." I hope I have too much regard 
 for justice, and too much respect for my own character, 
 to attempt either, and were I to make such an attempt, 
 1 am sure that in this court nothing can be carried 
 against the law, and that gentlemen intelligent and just 
 as 3'ou are, are not by any power to be hurried beyond 
 the evidence. 
 
 Though I could well have wished to shun this occa- 
 sion, I have not felt at liberty to withhold my profes- 
 sional assistance, when it is supposed that I might be 
 in some degree useful, in investigating and discovering 
 the truth respecting this most extraordinary murder. 
 
 The following is the conclusion of a speech delivered by Mr. 
 Webster in Washington, at the dinner given upon the hundredth 
 anniversary of the birthday of George Washington. It is always 
 affecting to every one to think of what will happen a hundred 
 years from now, when one's self and all whom one knows will be 
 dead; and Mr. Webster with great tact touched that chord to give 
 pathos and feeling to his closing words. The last sentence is a
 
 19G STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 long- one, but it is clear, easily understood, and when slowly spoken, 
 as he spoke it, must have been most impressive. 
 
 A Imiidred years hence other disciples of Washing- 
 ton will celebrate his birth with no less of sincere 
 admiration than we now commemorate it. When they 
 shall meet as we now meet, to do themselves and him 
 that honor, so snrely as they shall see the blue summits 
 of his native mountains rise in the horizon, so surely as 
 they shall behold the river on whose banks he lived, 
 and on whose banks he rests, still flowing on toward 
 the sea, so surely may they see as we now see, the flag 
 of the Union floating on the top of the capitol ; and 
 then, as now, may the sun in his course visit no land 
 more free, more happy, more lovely than this, our own 
 country. Gentlemen, I propose — 
 
 The Memory of George Washington. 
 
 EXERCISE II. — SELECTION FROM BURKE's ORATION. 
 
 The following selection was spoken by Edmund Burke in the 
 British Parliament, at the time of the Revolutionary War. He 
 opposed the coercive policy of George III., being in favor of con- 
 ciliation. He is considered one of the greatest of English orators. 
 He uses both long and short sentences, but none difficult to under- 
 stand. Observe that all his ideas go in pairs as it were, some- 
 times in more than two forms, but usually in two : Ex. light as 
 air — strong as iron — cling, grapple — cement is gone, cohesion 
 is loosened — decay, dissolution, etc., etc. Burke inclines to the 
 balanced style of sentence; he also uses moderately both simile 
 and metaphor. Rhetorical figures always strengthen an oration 
 if not used to excess. 
 
 My hold of the Colonies is in the close affection 
 which grows from common names, from kindred blood, 
 from similar privileges, and equal protection. These
 
 PUBLIC SPEAiaNG. 197 
 
 are ties which, though light as air, are as strong as 
 links of iron. Let the Colonies always keep the idea 
 of their civil rights associated with your government; 
 they will cling and grapple to you, and no force under 
 heaven will be strong enough to tear them from their 
 allegiance. But let it be once understood that your 
 government ma}^ be one thing and their privileges an- 
 other, that these two things may exist without any 
 mutual relation, the cement is gone, the cohesion is 
 loosened, and everything hastens to decay and dissolu- 
 tion. As long as you have the wisdom to keep the 
 sovereign authority of this country as the sanctuary of 
 liberty, the sacred temple consecrated to our common 
 faith, wherever the chosen race and sons of England 
 worship freedom, they will turn their faces toward you. 
 The more they multiply, the more friends you will 
 have ; the more ardently they love liberty, the more 
 perfect will be their obedience. Slavery they can have 
 anywhere. It is a- weed that grows in ever}'- soil. But 
 until you become lost to all feeling of your true interest 
 and your natural dignity, freedom they can have from 
 none but you. 
 
 EXERCISE III. — LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS, BY 
 CHARLES SUMNER. 
 
 Charles Sumner was a classical student and a great reader of 
 liistory. He saw the present continually on the background of the 
 past. This characteristic of his inind shows itself in this oration. 
 Observe tlie simple statement of subject, then the illustrations of 
 migrations from history — comparison of our Pilgrims with the 
 illustrious of the earth of their time — finally the peroration. 
 
 The landing of the Fathers on Plymouth Rock on 
 the 21st of December, 1620, marks the beginning of a
 
 198 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 new order of ages by which the whole liumau family 
 will be elevated. Then and there was the great 
 beginning. 
 
 Throughout all time, from the dawn of history, men 
 have swarmed to found new homes in distant lands. 
 The Tyrians, skirting Northern Africa, built Carthage. 
 The Carthaginians dotted Spain, and even the distant 
 coasts of Britain with colonies. The Greeks stemmed 
 Italy and vSicily with art-loving settlements. Rome car- 
 ried her multitudinous colonies with her conquering 
 eagles. Saxons, Danes, and Normans violently mingled 
 with the original Britons ; and in more modern times, 
 Venice, Genoa, Portugal, Spain, France, and England, 
 all sent fortli emigrants to people foreign shores. But 
 in all these expeditions, trade or war was the impelling 
 motive. Too often commerce and conquest moved hand 
 in hand, and the colony was reddened with blood. 
 
 On the day of this historic landing, the sun for the 
 first time in his course looked down upon a different 
 scene, begun and continued under different inspiration. 
 Our Pilgrims were few and poor. And yet this small 
 body of people, so obscure and outcast in condition, so 
 slender in number and in means, so entirely unknown 
 to the proud and great, so absolutely without name in 
 contemporary records, are now illustrious beyond the 
 lot of men. The Mayflower is immortal beyond the 
 Grecian Argo, or the stately ship of any victorious 
 admiral. 
 
 Confront the Pilgrims with those great in rank and 
 power, when the Mayflower, with her company, started 
 forth on its adventurous voyage — the crowned sov- 
 ereigns of Europe, whose names were mentioned with 
 awe, and whose countenances are handed down by art,
 
 PUBLIC SPEAKING. 199 
 
 SO that at this day they are as visible as if they walked 
 these streets. Now, mark the contrast. There was no 
 artist for our forefathers, nor are their countenances 
 now known to men, but far above that of any powerful 
 contemporaries is their memory saved. 
 
 Pope, emperor, king, sultan, grand-duke ! what are 
 they all by the side of the honorable company that 
 landed on Plymouth Rock? Theirs, indeed, were the 
 ensigns of the world of power ; but our Pilgrims had in 
 themselves that inborn virtue which was more than all 
 else beside, and their landing was an epoch — an epoch 
 not only never {o be forgotten, but to grow in grandeur 
 as the world appreciates the elements of the true great- 
 ness of mankind. 
 
 LESSON LXXIX. — LIST OP SUBJECTS TOR ORATIONS. 
 American Literature. 
 
 Quote from Sidney Smith, "Who reads an American book?" 
 Theological character of early American writings — why? Amer- 
 ican historians — poets — essayists — novelists — humorists. Does 
 American literature differ from English? Should it be expected 
 to differ? 
 
 The Stars and Stripes. 
 
 This may be the subject of a patriotic oration. 
 
 The Future of Africa. 
 
 Africa, the last continent to be conquered by civilization. 
 African explorers — Livingston, Galton and Andersson, Dr. Barth, 
 Lieutenant Burton, last and greatest, Henry M. Stanley. Topo- 
 graphical characteristics of the continent. Various native tribes. 
 Adaptability of native tribes to civilization. Claims of Portuguese,
 
 200 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 French. Germans, and English. Congo Free State. Africa, the last 
 home of slavery. The promise of the future. 
 
 The Wonders of Electricity. 
 
 Read A Century of Electricity, by Thomas W. Mendenhall. 
 
 The Year 2000 a.d. 
 
 Picture the advance in scientific thought — modes of life — 
 political and economic conditions. 
 
 Parents, Obey Your Children. 
 
 A humorous oration which shall set forth the inconsistencies of 
 modern life. 
 
 Our Transatlantic Cousins. 
 
 Treat this from the social and literary side. Compare English 
 and Americans in speech, habits, thought, manners, dress, etc. 
 
 "American accent" — how does it differ from English? Ameri 
 canisms in speech — what are they? Anglo-maniacs? What is 
 meant by the term ? What do we mean by the expression " in 
 plain English " ? 
 
 The Laying of the Atlantic Cable. 
 
 Read History of the Telegraph, by Cyi'us W. Field. 
 
 The Flags of all Nations. 
 
 What a flag is — what it means — various colors — various 
 symbols. The American flag. 
 
 Note. — These are but few of the many subjects available. 
 In point of fact, orations are usually produced for some especial 
 occasion and this occasion gives the subject. Subjects very appro- 
 priate to-day may be very stale next year. This makes a selec- 
 tion of permanent subjects for public speaking unusually difficult. 
 Above all things, the subject foi" an oration must be fresh, interest- 
 ing, and thoroughly in touch with the feelings of the hearers, else 
 it is a failure.
 
 RULES FOE, USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 201 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 The following Rules for the Use of Capitals and Marks of 
 Punctuation, together with the Abbreviations most commonly 
 used, are placed here for convenient reference. 
 
 RULES FOB THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 
 
 The first word of every sentence should begin with a 
 capital letter. 
 
 A sentence preceded by an introductory word or clause such as 
 Resolved, Be it enacted, etc., begins with a capital notwithstanding 
 the introductory word. 
 
 The first word of a direct quotation, of an important 
 statement, and of a direct question, should begin with a 
 capital. 
 
 The principle underlying this rule is that the subject-matter of 
 a subordinate clause may be important enough to overrule its posi- 
 tion and cause it to be treated as an independent sentence. 
 
 Ex. When thou saidst, Seek ye my face ; my heart said unto 
 thee, Thy face, Lord, will I seek. — Bible. 
 One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right. — Pope. 
 Ask yourselves this question : Are you doing right ? 
 
 The first word of every line of poetry should begin 
 
 with a capital. 
 
 Proper nouns should begin with capital letters. 
 
 The words sti-eet, road, lake, river, mountain, etc., should begin 
 with capitals when used in connection with proper names.
 
 202 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Ex. Crawford Road, Prospect Street, Lake Erie, Cuyahoga 
 River, Little Mountain. 
 
 North, South, East, and West should begin with capitals when 
 they mean sections of the country and not points of the compass. 
 
 Ex. Chicago, the largest city of the West, is south of J^ake 
 Michigan. 
 
 The names of the days of the week and of the months of the 
 year are considered proper nouns. Usage with regard to the names 
 of the seasons is variable. 
 
 Words of family relations, sucli as father, aunt, cousin, are con- 
 sidered proper nouns when they are used with the name of a 
 person, or without a possessive pronoun. 
 
 Ex. I had a letter from Father to-day, and one from Cousin 
 Mary yesterday. 
 When did you hear from your mother ? 
 
 Common nouns become proper when they denote 
 something of special importance. Great latitude of 
 usage is now allowed in this respect. 
 
 Ex. Every Poet, be his outward lot what it may, finds himself 
 born in tiie midst of Prose. — Carlyle. 
 
 Names of objects personified become proper nouns. 
 
 Ex. The wary, gray strategist Time, 
 
 With tlie armies of Life, lay encamped, — Grief and Crime, 
 Love and Faith, — in the darkness unheeded. 
 
 0%'.ien Meredith. 
 
 Words derived from proper names should begin with 
 
 capital letters. 
 
 Ex. American, Danish, Bostonian, Roman. 
 
 When such words by long usage have lost their association with 
 the nouns from which they are derived, they do not begin with 
 capitals. 
 
 Ex. China-ware.
 
 RULES FOR USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 203 
 
 All names of God, all words that may be regarded as 
 titles of the Deity, should begin with capitals. 
 
 Ex. Thou Great First Cause, least understood, 
 Who all my sense confined 
 To know but this, that Thou art good, 
 And that myself am blind. — Pope. 
 
 The usage with regard to pronouns referring to the Deity is 
 variable. The rule usually given is that they should begin with a 
 capital when necessary to make clear their antecedent, otherwise not. 
 
 Ex. O Lord and Master of us all ! 
 Whate'er our name or sign, 
 W'e own thy sway, we hear thy call. 
 We test our lives by thine. — Wliittier. 
 
 Titles of honor or office used alone or accompanied by 
 nouns should begin with capital lettei-s. 
 
 Ex. The royal barge, manned with Queen Elizabeth's watermen, 
 lay at the great stairs. — ScoU. 
 
 However, when the title is used informally, the capital is omitted. 
 
 Ex. " I pray you, my dear Walter, let us take the boat and 
 return." " Not till I see the queen come forth," returned 
 the youth, composedly. — Scolt. 
 
 All words in the written titles of books, essays, etc., 
 should begin with capitals except articles, prepositions, 
 and conjunctions. The first word, of course, has a cap- 
 ital, whatever it may be. 
 
 There are two ways of printing titles of books and essays. The 
 entire title may be put into capitals, which is the usual form of 
 book titles. The titles of essays on the title page of magazines and 
 the titles of books in Publishers' advertisements are frequently 
 printed as they would be written. 
 
 Ex. The title page of the North American Review and the inner 
 page of Harper's Magazine. 
 
 The words Zand sliould always be capitals.
 
 204 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 RULES FOB THE MARKS OF PTJMCTVJ.TIOK. 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 Words or phrases in the same construction, forming a 
 series, are separated from each other by commas. 
 
 Ex. Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his 
 sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend, 
 and sole mourner. — Dickens. 
 
 The use of tlie comma with a conjunction in the 
 series requires attention. The best usage seems to be 
 the following :   — • 
 
 If all the terms of the series are connected by con- 
 junctions, no commas are required. 
 
 If only the last two words are connected by a con- 
 junction, a comma separates each term of the series just 
 as if there were no conjunction. 
 
 Sometimes adjectives apparently form a series when really they 
 do not. 
 
 Ex. The kind old man. Observe that old limits man and kind 
 limits the phrase old man ; consequently the words are 
 not in the same construction, and no comma is required. 
 
 Co-ordinate clauses if simple in construction will often 
 form a series and should be separated by commas. 
 
 A word or phrase in apposition should be separated 
 from the rest of the sentence by commas. 
 
 Ex. Alcyone, the brightest star of the Pleiades, is the centre 
 of gravity of our vast solar system. 
 
 If one of the terms in apposition is a general title, the comma 
 should be omitted. 
 
 Ex. Thompson the poet was indolent.
 
 RULES FOR MARKS OF PUNCTUATION. 205 
 
 A title or degree, following the name of a person, should be 
 separated from the name by a comma. 
 
 Ex. James G. Blaine, Secretary of State. 
 
 Words and phrases in the absolute case by direct 
 address should be separated from the rest of the sen- 
 tence by commas. 
 
 Ex. Cold is thy brow, my son, and I am chill. — Willis. 
 
 Frequently as a mark of strong emotion the exclamation point 
 is used in place of the comma. 
 
 Ex. And the king was much moved, and went up to the cham- 
 ber over the gate and wept ; and as he went, thus he 
 said, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom ! 
 would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my 
 son ! — Bible. 
 
 When the absolute case occurs with the participle, the entire 
 phrase should be separated from the rest of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. The appointed day having come, the Declaration was taken 
 up and debated article by article. — Headley. 
 
 Words or phrases in pairs, and words or phrases con- 
 trasted, should be separated from each other b}' commas. 
 
 Ex. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand 
 and my heart to this vote. — Webster. 
 We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths ; 
 Tn feelings, not in figures on a dial. — Bailey. 
 
 Any word, phrase, or clause which is introduced into 
 the body of a sentence is set off from the rest by commas. 
 
 Ex. There was, as usual, a crowd of folk about the door, but 
 none that Rip recollected. 
 "My very dog," sighed poor Kip, "has forgotten me." 
 
 Irving. 
 If the interrupting matter is placed at the beginning of the main 
 sentence, it is followed by a comma. 
 
 Ex. In fact, he declared it was of no use to work on his farm. 
 
 Irving.
 
 206 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Adjective and adverbial phrases and clauses are sepa- 
 rated from the rest of the sentence by commas when 
 their connection is not close. 
 
 XoTE. — As a matter of fact, the punctuation of such phrases 
 and clauses must be learned by observation. Usage is very vari- 
 able regarding them, for the reason that a connection which seems 
 close to one writer does not seem so to another. 
 
 THE SEMICOLON AND THE COLON. 
 
 The members of a compound or complex sentence 
 when not closely connected in sense are separated by 
 semicolons. 
 
 Ex. As we proceeded, the timid approach of twilight became 
 more perceptible ; the intense blue of the sky began to 
 soften ; the smaller stars, like little children, went first 
 to rest ; the sister beams of the Pleiades soon melted 
 together ; but the bright constellations of the west and 
 north remained unchanged. — Everett. 
 
 Frequently the mere fact that commas have been already used 
 in the clauses, compels the use of semicolons which would not 
 otherwise be required. 
 
 A clause added to a sentence already complete is 
 usually separated by a semicolon, sometimes by a colon. 
 
 Ex. Apply yourself to study ; for it will redound to your credit. 
 
 When a general term is followed by an enumeration 
 of particulars, they are set off by, — 
 
 A semicolon when the particulars are merely men- 
 tioned ; 
 
 A colon when the particulars are formally introduced 
 and explained. 
 
 A direct quotation is set off by, — 
 
 A colon, when long and formal ;
 
 RULES FOR MARKS OF PUNCTUATION. 207 
 
 A semicolon, when long but informal ; 
 A comma, when short and informal. 
 
 Ex. Then said Mr. Greatheart : " We need not be so afraid of 
 this valley, for there is nothing to hurt us, unless we 
 procure it ourselves." — Bunyan. 
 "Oh! that flagon — that wicked flagon!" thought Rip; 
 " what excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle." 
 
 Irving. 
 " I wonder," said Mr. Lorry, " that he keeps that reminder 
 of his sufferings about liim ! " — Dickens. 
 
 Much laxity of usage prevails with regard to this rule. 
 
 THE PEEIOD. 
 
 Declarative and imperative sentences, when not con- 
 nected in construction with wliat follows, are closed by 
 periods. 
 
 When a number of such sentences are closely connected in mean- 
 ing, they are joined into a compound or complex sentence, and are 
 punctuated according to the rules already given. 
 
 A period should be placed after every abbreviation. 
 
 The period thus used is part of the abbreviation, and, except at 
 the end of the sentence, the point required by the construction 
 should be used after it. 
 
 Such expressions as 3d, 18th, 8mo, are not abbreviations and do 
 not require a period after them. 
 
 A period should always be placed after the Roman numerals. 
 
 THE INTEEROGATION POINT. 
 
 The interrogation point is used for marking all ques- 
 tions. When the question consists of several parts, or 
 when several questions are contained in one sentence, 
 there is some difficulty in deciding whether there shall 
 be one or more interrogation points. The principle
 
 208 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 is that if one answer is sufficient for all, one point 
 is enough ; if different answers are required, a point 
 should be placed after each question. 
 
 THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 
 
 The exclamation point is placed at the end of every 
 sentence, clause, phrase, or word intended to convey 
 
 strong emotion. 
 
 THE DASH. 
 
 The dash is used to mark a sudden change in either 
 the sense or construction of a sentence. 
 
 Ex. The breast of the Williamsburg dam has burst ! 
 The basin that nourished their happy homes 
 Has changed to a demon — It comes, it conies. — O'Reilly. 
 
 The dash is used to introduce an amplification or 
 explanation. 
 
 When thus used it is usually preceded by comma, semicolon, or 
 colon. 
 
 Two dashes are now often employed instead of parentheses to 
 set off expressions, independent in meaning, which are introduced 
 into the body of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. Is it a horse — 
 
 Hark to the sound of his hoofs, they say — 
 
 That gallops so wildly Williamsburg way? — O'Reilly. 
 
 QUOTATION MAEKS. 
 
 Every direct quotation should be enclosed in quota- 
 tion marks. 
 
 A quotation which is included within another should 
 be enclosed by single quotation marks.
 
 COMMON ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 209 
 
 COMMOJ{ ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 A.B. Artium Baccalaureus. Bach- 
 elor of Arts. 
 
 A.D. Aiuio Domini. In the Year 
 of Our Lord. 
 
 Ad. Lib. Ad libitum. At pleas- 
 ure. 
 
 iEt. ^tatis. Of age ; aged. 
 
 Ala. Alabama. ' 
 
 A.M. Artium Magister. Master 
 
 of Arts. Ante Meridiem. 
 
 Before noon. 
 
 Ariz. Arizona. 
 
 Ark. Arkansas. 
 
 A.U.C. Anno Urbis CondiKe. In 
 the Year from the Building of 
 the City (Rome). 
 
 B.A. Bachelor of Arts. 
 
 B.C. Before Christ. 
 
 Cal. California. 
 
 Capt. Captain. 
 
 Cent. A hundred. 
 
 Co. Company ; County. 
 
 C.O.D. Collect on delivery. 
 
 Col. Colonel ; Colorado. 
 
 Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. 
 
 Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secre- 
 tary. 
 
 Cwt. Hundredweight. 
 
 D.C. Di.strict of Columbia,. 
 
 D.D. Divinitatis Doctor. Doc- 
 tor of Divinity. 
 
 Del. Delaware. 
 
 Do. Ditto. The .same. 
 
 Dr. Doctor. 
 
 E.E. Errors excepted. 
 
 E.G. or e.g. Exempli Gratia. For 
 example. 
 
 Esq. Esquire. 
 
 Etc. Et co&tera. And others. 
 
 Fla. Florida. 
 
 Ga. Georgia. 
 
 Gen. General. 
 
 Gov. Governor. 
 
 H.M. His or Her Majesty. 
 
 H.M.S. His or Her Majesty's 
 Ship or Service. 
 
 Hon. Honorable. 
 
 H.R.H. His or Her Royal High- 
 ness. 
 
 la. Iowa. 
 
 Ibid. Ibidem. In the same place. 
 
 I.e. or i.e. Id est. That is. 
 
 Id. Idem. The same. 
 
 I.H.S. lesus Ilominnm Sulva- 
 Ijir. Jesus the Saviour of Men. 
 
 111. Illinois. 
 
 Ind. Indiana. 
 
 Incog. Incognito. Unknown. 
 
 Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. 
 
 I. N.R.I. lesus Nazarenus Rex 
 ludceorum. Jesus of Naza- 
 reth, King of the Jews. 
 
 lo. Iowa. 
 
 I.O.O.F. Independent Order of 
 Odd Fellows. 
 
 Kas. or Kan. Kansas. 
 
 Ky. Kentucky. 
 
 La. or Lou. Louisiana. 
 
 LL.D. Legum Doctor. Doctor 
 of Laws.
 
 210 
 
 STUDIES IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 M. ^fcridien. Mid-day. 
 
 M.A. Master of Arts. 
 
 Mass. Massachusetts. 
 
 Maj. Major. 
 
 M.D. Mi'dicimti Doctor. Doctor 
 
 of Medicine. 
 Md. Maryland. 
 Me. Maine. 
 Messrs. Gentli-men. 
 Mich. Michigan. 
 Miss. Mississippi. 
 Mile. Mademoiselle. 
 Mo. Missouri. 
 Mont, or Mta. Montana. 
 Mr. Mister. 
 Mrs. Mistress (pronounced 
 
 Misses). 
 MS. or Ms. Manuscript. 
 MSS. iir Mss. Manuscripts. 
 N.B. Nota bene. Mark well. 
 N.C. North Carolina. 
 N. Dak. North Dakota. 
 Neb. Nebraska. 
 Nev. Nevada. 
 N.H. New Hampshire. 
 N.J. New Jersey. 
 N. Mex. New Mexico. 
 N.Y. New York. 
 N.S. New Style (after 1752). 
 0. Oliio. 
 
 Ob. Ohiit. lie or she died. 
 Or. Oregon. 
 O.S. Old Style (previous to 
 
 1752). 
 Pa. or Penn. Pennsylvania. 
 Per cent or per cent. By the 
 
 hundred. 
 
 Ph.D. Philosophice Doctor. Doc- 
 tor oi Philosophy. 
 
 P.O. Post Office. 
 
 pp. Pages. 
 
 P.P.C. Pour prendre conge. To 
 take leave. 
 
 Prof. Professor. 
 
 Pro tem. Fro tempore. For the 
 time being. 
 
 Prox. Proximo. Next or the 
 next month. 
 
 Q.E.D. Qnod erat demonstran- 
 dum. Which was to be de- 
 monstrated. 
 
 Rec. Sec. Kecording Secretary. 
 
 Rev. Reverend. 
 
 R.I. Khode Island. 
 
 R.S.V.P. or R.s.v.p. Repondez., 
 s''il voiis plait. Answer, if you 
 please. 
 
 S.C. South Carolina. 
 
 S. Dak. South Dakota. 
 
 Tenn. Tennessee. 
 
 Tex. Texas. 
 
 U.S.A. United States of America. 
 
 Va. Virginia. 
 
 Vt. Vermont. 
 
 Viz. or viz. Videlicet. Namely ; 
 to wit. 
 
 Wash. Washington. 
 
 Wis. Wisconsin. 
 
 W. Va. West Virginia. 
 
 Wyo. Wyoming. 
 
 X. Christ. 
 
 Xmas. Christmas. 
 
 Y.M.C.A. 
 
 tian Association. 
 
 Young Men's Chris- 
 
 NoTE. — The abbreviations for the States are copied from the latest 
 instructions issued by the Post Office Department. Alaska, Idaho, 
 Utah, and Oklahoma have as yet no authorized abbreviations.
 
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 Allyti Or' Bacon, Bos/on and Cldcago. 
 
 Irviitgs Sketch Book. 
 
 With Notes 
 By Elmer E. Wentworth. 
 I2mo, cloth, 426 pages. Price 60 cents 
 
 This is the cheapest complete edition of Irving's 
 Sketch Book now before the pubh'c. It is strongly 
 and attractively bound in cloth. Paper and press- 
 work are of the best. The annotation is designed 
 not to supersede but to stimulate thought on the part 
 of the pupil, and to make him better able to read with 
 profit and enjoyment other literary masterpieces. 
 
 Prof. William Lyon Phelps, Yale University, A'eio 
 Haven, Conn. : Please accept my thanks for vour 
 handsome edition of the Sketch Book, which seems 
 to me surprisingly cheap in price for such a book. 
 
 Prof. Charles F. Eichardson, Dartmouth College: 
 I thank you for sending me Mr. Wentworth's well- 
 annotated edition of Irving's Sketch Book, a pleas- 
 ure to the eye and the hand, and sure to aid in the 
 enjoyment of an American classic. 
 
 Dr. C. F. P. Bancroft, Phillips Andaver Academy : 
 I thank you for a copy of the Wentworth's hand- 
 some edition of the Sketch Book. I do not see 
 how teachers can resist it. 
 
 Prof. 0. B. Clark, liifon College, Ripon, Wis.: 
 Permit me to congratulate you on the beauty of the 
 volume, on its cheapness, and above all on the 
 scholarly taste, modest reserve, and encouraging 
 suggestiveness of the notes. Reading and study are 
 made to beget reading and study, and the appetite 
 will surely grow with what it feeds on. 
 
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 Allyn &-= Bacon, Boston and Chicago. 
 
 From Milton to Tennyson. 
 
 Masterpieces of English Poetry, selected and edited 
 for High Schools. 
 
 By L. DuPont Syle, M.A. ( Yale), 
 
 Instructor in English, University of California. 
 
 Ready in June, 1894. 
 
 .^ 
 
 In this work the editor has endeavored to bring 
 together within the compass of a moderate-sized 
 volume as much narrative, descriptive, and lyric 
 verse as a student may reasonably be required to 
 read critically for entrance to college. From the 
 the eighteen poets represented, only such master- 
 pieces have been selected as are within the range of 
 the understanding and sympathy ftf the high-school 
 student. Each masterpiece is given complete, ex- 
 cept, for pedagogical reasons, in the cases of 
 Thomson, Cowper, Byron, and Browning. 
 
 The text of the selections will occupy about three 
 hundred pages, and the notes about one hundred 
 and sixtv pages. 
 
 The folhnving poets are represented : 
 
 Milton, Dryden, Pope, Thomson, Johnson, Gray, 
 Goldsmith, Cowper, Burns, Coleridge, Byron, 
 Keats, Shelley, Wordsworth, Clough, Matthew 
 Arnold, Browning, Tennyson. 
 
 British and American 
 Orations. 
 
 Edited by C B. Bradley, 
 Of the University of California 
 
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 Ally II (St" Bacon, Bosfon and Chicago. 
 
 Paragraph' Writing. 
 
 By F. N. Scott and J. V. Demiey. 
 
 l2mo. 272 pages. Price, 80 cents. 
 
 The principles embodied in tliis work were devel- 
 oped and put in practice by its authors at the Uni- 
 versity of Micliigan several years ago. Its aim is to 
 make the paragrajih the basis of a method of com- 
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 rhetoric in their application to it. 
 
 In Part I. the nature and laws of the paragraph 
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 isolated paragraph are discussed, and considerable 
 space is devoted to related paragraphs, that is, those 
 which are combined into essays. 
 
 Part II. is a chapter on the theory of the paragraph 
 intended for teachers and advanced students. 
 
 Part III. contains copious materials for class- 
 room work, . . . selected paragraphs, suggestions to 
 teachers, lists of subjects for compositions (about 
 two thousand in all), and helpful references of many 
 kinds. 
 
 Prof. J. M. Hart, Cornell University, Ithaca, N'.Y : 
 You are to be congratulated upon having such a 
 book. . . . The style of the writers is admirable for 
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 closely, I do not discover any passages where the 
 wording (from the authors' point of view) should be 
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 have produced an uncommonly sensible text-book, 
 . . . For college work it will be hard to beat. I know 
 of no other book at all comparable to it for Fresh- 
 man drill. 
 
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 Allyn &' Bacon 
 
 Boston. 
 
 A Drill Book in English. 
 
 > o 
 
 S Compiled by 
 
 \ George E. Gay. 
 
 \ i2mo, Boards. 45 cents. 
 
 This book is designed for the use of such pupils as 
 have previously learned the substance of the rules 
 which it contains. It does not aim to give all the 
 principles of the language, but emphasizes those which 
 are most frequently violated. It will be warmly wel- 
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 English. It contains, in brief form, rules for spell- 
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 exercises for practice are given, and these are ar- 
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 L. C. Hull, Laivrenceville School, N.J. : It im- 
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 It is the best thing in its line that I have ever seen. 
 
 A. F. Bechdolt, Superintendent of Schools, Mankato, 
 Minn. : I like it very much ; its examples are well 
 selected, and there is an abundance of them. 
 
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