N \ r .:•&; . THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. EUROPE, ITS PAST AND PRESENT CONDITION: BEING ^ (!l)0m|irthnstbij ^anniil OP EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY; WITH SEPARATE DESOEIPTIONS AND STATISTICS OF EACH STATE, AND A COPIOUS INDEX, FACILITATINa REFERENCE TO EVERT ESSENTIAL FACT IN THE UISTORY AND PRESENT STATE OF EUROPE. BY FRAXCIS H. UXGEWITTER, LL.D. NEW YOEK: A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET. CINCINNATI: — H. W. DERBT. 1854. A Enteekd, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S54, by A. 8. BARNES & CO. In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New-York, PREFACE. -♦♦■♦- As author of several extensive geographical works, which have been successfully published in Grermany, my native country, I have ventured to prepare this vol- ume with the view of offering to the American public a guide in European Geography and History. It is superfluous to say that the value of such a work depends entirely upon its authenticity and accuracy : and that these qualities are, especially in Germany, es- sential to success. In endeavoring to avoid all superficial and unfounded statements, I have hoped also to steer clear of pedantry and prolixity. For such a volume, in the present state of popular information, I should not have felt justified in using any other than original and authentic materials. Fortunately, materials of this kind are not at all lack- ing in Europe. First, in most European countries an official almanac is published every year, which contains more or less copious statistical particulars to be relied ir PREFACE. on. Secondly, a census is taken in certain periods, not restricted to the population only, but extended to a great variety of other statistical matters. Thirdly, there is scarcely a European state without its special geographi- cal and historical description, written by a native scholar. Beside these abundant materials, the official parliamen- tary reports and documents in many states furnish au- thentic statements with regard to the public finances, the army, the navy, etc. Moreover, I have visited most of the European countries, and have thus been enabled to fill up deficiencies almost inevitable with him who knows a people or a country merely by books. The index, annexed to this volume, and containing nearly teii thousand names, will enable the reader to find readily any essential fact connected with European geog- raphy or Jiistonj. The table of contents, prefixed to the volume, gives at once a clear view of all those fifty-six states, which constitute Europe in a political sense. The arrangement with reference to the mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, etc., of all Europe, by compressing them within the compass of one common description, will perhaps meet with the approbation of the reader ; tedi- ous repetitions being avoided in this way. Beside this, the introduction contains a general, yet condensed history of Europe. Concerning the description of each of these fifty-six European states, the order observed is thus: first, the statements about area and population, surface, soil, PREFACE. natural products, manufactures, commerce and trade, public finances, form of government, strength of the army and (with maritime states) of the navy, and the orders of honor ; secondly^ the history ; and thirdly, the topography of the state. Trusting that the public will kindly make allowance for my want of an elegant English stylo, the more so as until the last year I never had any suitable oppor- tunity to improve in it practically, I sincerely wish, that for the rest this volume may answer every reasonable expectation on the part of the reader. F. H. UNGEWIT-TER. New York, June 26iA, 1850. w I CONTENTS. ■♦♦» FAQ I INTRODUCTION, OR GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, 1 The Mountain Ranges of Europe, 4 Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits, 9 Lakes of Europe, 10 Rivers of Europe 12 Independent States of Europe, 21 SOCL&.L AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 23 PORTUGAL, 62 History of Portugal, 67 SPAIN, 76 History of Spain, 84 ITALY, 99 1. The Kingdom of Sardinia 103 2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 115 3. The Duchy of Parma, 115 4. The Duchy of Modena, 117 6. Tlie Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, (including Lucca) 120 6. The States of the Church, 127 7. Tlie Republic of San Marino, 136 8. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 137 9. Malta, 149 SWITZERLAND, 151 History of Switzerland, 154 viii CONTENTS. PAOK FRANCE, no History of France, 179 The Provinces of Isle de France, Noriiiundy, Picardy 182 The Provinces of Artois, Frencli Flanders, Champagne 189 The Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, 193 The Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comte 199 The Provinces of Bourbonuais, Nivernais and BeiTy 203 The Provinces of Orleanais, Touraine and Anjou 205 The Provinces of Maine, Perche and Brittany, 207 Tlie Provinces of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumais, La Marche, 210 The Provinces of liraousiu, Auvergue and Lyonnais, 213 The ProTinces of Guyenne and Gascony, 214 The Provinces of Navarre, Beam, Foix and Roussillon, 218 The Provinces of Lauguedoc and Dauphiny, 219 The Provinces of Provence, Avignon and Corsica, 223 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 227 Britbh History, 232 A. The Kingdom of England, 234 B. The Kingdom of Scotland, 248 C. The Kingdom of Ireland, 256 THE NETHERLANDS, 2C1 1. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, 265 2. The Kingdom of Belgium, 275 GERMANY, , 284 1. German Provinces of Austria, , 809 2. German Provinces of Prussia, 310 3. The Kingdom of Bavaria, 311 4. The Kingdom of Wirtemberg 329 5. The Grand-Duchy of Baden, .337 6-7. Tlie Principalities of Hohenzollern, 347 8. The Principality of Liechtenstein, 350 9. The Grand-Duchy of Hesse, 351 1 0. The Landgraviate of Hesse, 368 11. The Duchy of Nassau 360 12. The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, and Duchy of Limburg, 365 13. Tlie Electorate of Hesse, , 368 14. Tlie Principality of "VValdeck, 375 1 6. Tlie Kingdom of Saxony 876 16. The Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weimar 886 17. The Duchy of Saxc-Mciningcn 389 CONTENTS. ix FAOB 18. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 392 19. Tlie Ducliy of Saxe-Altenburg, 395 20-'21. The Principalities of Reuss S97 22-23. The Principalities of Schwarzburg, 399 24-25. The Duchius of Anhalt, 402 26. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin, 406 27. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 410 28. The Duchies of Holstcin and Lauenburg, 412 29. The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg 420 30. The Principality of Lippe-Detmold, 42T 31. The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, 428 32. The Kingdom of Hanover, 430 33. The Duchy of Brunswick, 444 34. The Free City of Hamburg, 448 35. The Free City of Lubec, 451 36. The Free City of Bremen, 453 37. The Free City of Frankfort, 454 THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 457 History of Prussia, 462 THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE 501 1. The German Provinces of Austria, 508 2. The Kingdom of GaUcia 518 3. The Kingdom of Hungary, 520 4. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania, 530 5. The Military Frontier 533 6. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, 534 7. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 536 DENMARK, 543 1. The Danish Islands 549 2. Jutland 552 3. The Duchy of Sleswick, 554 4. The P'aroe Isles 557 5. Iceland, 559 SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 562 A. The Kingdom of Sweden, 567 B. The Kingdom of Norway, 575 RUSSIA IN EUROPE, 579 1. Great Russia, 590 CONTENTS. FAQI 2. IJttlo Russia, 594 3. The Baltic Provinces, 595 4. The GraiulDuchy of Finland, 598 6. West, or I'olish Russia, 600 6. Tlic Kingdom of Poland 603 7. Tlie Kingdom of K!isan, 607 8. The Kingdom of Astracban, 608 9. South Russia, 610 THE IONIAN ISLANDS, 614 History of the Ionian Islands, 615 GREECE, 617 History of Greece, 619 EUROPEAN TURKEY, 624 1. Roumclia, 628 2. Bulgaria, 629 3. Macedonia, 630 4. Tlicssalia 631 5. The Islands, 631 6. Albania 632 7. Bosnia, 633 8. Tributary Provinces, 634 Scrvia 634 Wallachia, 635 Moldavia 636 EUKOP.E, PAST AND PRESENT. INTRODUCTION: GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Aeea of Eukope: 3,816,936 square miles. Population of Efrope : 262,800,000 inhabitants. 1. Before entering upon the subject, it may bo remarked that most of the statistical statements in this work, especially those concerning the population of states, cities, towns, etc., correspond with the official and other authentic reports from the beginning of the year 1848. The political revolutions which since have occurred in most of the European countries, have in many in- stances changed the state of things, caused numerous emigrations, and, at all events, prevented a careful investigation in statistical matters. Moreover, a census is in Europe nowhere taken annu- ally, but, for instance, in France every fifth, in Germany every third year, and so on. However, the statements in this work being thoroughly authentic^ they will afford a sure stand-point with regard to all future events, until matters and things arc completely settled again in Europe. 2. The above-stated area of 3,816,936 square miles, is distrib- uted as follows : — Germany, 244,375 square miles. The Prussian proYinces of Prussia .ind Posen, 36,508 " " Hungary, Galicia, etc., . . . 164,521 " " EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Area and Population of each country. Italy, . Switzerland, . Holhuul luid Bflgiiim, France, Spain aiid Portugal, British Islands (including Guernsey, etc.), Denmark (including Iceland), Sweden and Norway, Russia (in Europe), Ionian Islands, Greece, . Turkey (in Europe), Total. 119,706 square milea 15,315 u M 24,644 « M 204,825 i< M 216,429 » U 117,921 u tt 49,927 « M 293,280 « M 2,099,903 » U 1,108 ({ t 19,149 (I « 209,422 « « 3,816,936 « Thus, the extent of Europe is almost equal to that of the •United States, and of Mexico, put together. 3. The population of Europe, is distributed as follows : — Germany, The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen Hungary, Galicia, etc., Italy, . . . Switzerland, . Holland and Belgium, France, . Spain, . Portugal, British Islands (including Guernsey, etc.) Denmark (including Iceland), Sweden and Norway, Russia (in Europe), Itmian Islands, Greece, . Turkey (in Europe), Total,, 42,000,000 in] htabit , 3,865,000 « 20,082,000 « 24,573,100 H 2,400,000 U 7,558,000 M 35,401,000 U 12,000,000 U 3,750,000 U 28,500,000 U 1,800,000 U 4,650,0f0 t 62,000,000 t 220,000 N 1,000,000 - u 12,500,000 u 262,269,100 GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. nensity of I'upulatiun — Boundaries— Climate. This makes a population of about 70 inhabitants to a square mile — the highest ratio in any division of the world. For Asia (including the Indian Archipelago) has only 32, Africa has 13, America (i. e., North and South America) has but 3, and Aus- tralasia and Polynesia have no more than 1 inhabitant on a square mile. If the United States, whose extent (including Texas, but excluding California) is estimated at 2,620,000 square miles, and where, upmi an average^ at present only 9 souls live on a square mile, were as thickly settled as Europe, they would have a population of 183,400,000 inhabitants ; and not less than 801,720,000, if the proportion were like that of Holland and Belgium, where the population is 306 to a square mile. 4. The most northerly point of the European continent is North Cape (which belongs to Norway), N. lat. 71^ 11' ; and its most southerly point is Gibraltar^ N. lat. 36° 7'. Thus these parallels correspond with those of the northern part of Hudson's Bay, and of Hillsboro, or Louisburg, in North Carolina. The distance between North Cape and Gibraltar, is 2,424 miles. The most easterly point of Europe is Cathariyiburg (at the frontier of European Russia and Siberia), long. 60^ 40' E. from Greenwich ; and its most westerly point is Cape Roxa7it (belonging to Portu- gal), long. 9^ 31' W. from Greenwich; and the distance between these two extreme points, is 3.370 miles. •5. Europe is boimded on the north by the Arctic, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. On the east the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Bosphoius, the Dardanelles, and the Archi- pelago, form the boundaries towards Asia ; and on the south, Europe is separated from Asia by the Black Sea, and from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea. 6. The climate is generally much warmer than in the same parallels in America and Asia, and the difference is equivalent to eight or ten degrees of latitude. This may be accounted for by EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Surface. — Mountaina : Alps— Pyrenees. the almost uuiversal cultivation of the soil in Europe, and by the absence of those extensive forests, which are to be found in America and Siberia. 7. In the north (with the exception of European Russia) and in the south, the surface is generally mountainous ; but in the middle parts of Europe, plains, here and there intersected by ranges of low mountains and hills, are prevailing. From the mouths of the Rhine, an immense plain runs through Holland, the north of Germany, the provinces of West and East Prussia, Poland, and Russia, to the Ural Mountains ; and its highest elevation, near the sources of the Volga, Dnieper, and Don, is 1,064 feet. Other plains of smaller extent are to be found in Hungary, Wallachia, Lombardy, France, &c. The mountainous regions of the Euro- pean continent, occupy together an area of about 979,800 square miles. The most remarkable mountain ranges of Europe are the following : — a. The Alps, the principal chain of mountains in Europe, occupying au area of nearly 74,550 square miles, run from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, at the boundary between France and Italy, through Savoy, Switzerland, Tyrol, and other provinces of Austria, to the -western parts of Turkey, at a distance of about 550 miles. Several regions of them have particular names, as, Maritime Alps (nearest to the coast), Cottian Alps (with the Pelvoux de Yallouise), Gray Alps (between Savoy and Piedmont), Pennine Alps (with the Mont Blanc), Lepontine Alps (with the Mount Rosa), etc. The highest peaks of the Alps, are: the Mont Blanc (in Savoy, 15,668 feet high). Mount Rosa (in Savoy, but near the frontier of Switzerland, 15,527 f ), Finsteraar- horn (in Switzerland, 14,325 f), Pelvoux de Vallouise (on the French territory, 14,044 f), Juufifrau (or Virgin, 13,730 f), Schrcckhorn (13,310 f.— the two latter in Switzerland), Ortles (in Tyrol, 13,065 f), Watzmann (in Bavaria, 9,150 f.), and Ttrglou (in Carintliia, 10,194 f. high). h. The Pyrenees separate France from Spain, running in an^ilmost westerly direction from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, to that of the Bay of Bi-cay. The higliest peaks of this mountain range, are: the Maladrtta (11,436 f), Mont Perdu (10,482 f.), and Pico Las Posets (10,684 f.) on the Spanish side, GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Mountains : Sierra Nevada — Appenines— Carpathians, etc. and the Marbore (10,374 f.), Vignemale (10,350 f.), Piclong (9,972 £), and Canigou (8,800 f.) on the French side. c. The Sierra Nevada, the principal mountain range of Spain, covers chiefly that part of the country commonly caUed Upper Andalusia, or the province of Granada. Its highest peaks are the Cumbre de Mulhacen (11,678 £), and Picacho de Velcta (11,200 f ). One branch of the Sierra Nevada, running in the direction of Cadiz, and ending in Cape Trafalgar, is partly named Alpvr jarras, partly Sierra de Honda. Parallel witli the Siena Nevada, and in the direction of Algarve (the southern province of Portugal), runs the Sierra Moreno, which, in Portugal, bears the name of Sierra Monchique. Other mountain ranges in Spain, are the Cantabrian and Iberian Ifountains, the Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Chiadarama, and Sierra de Guadalupe. d. The Apennines skirt the Gulf of Genoa, and rim south-east to the south extremity of Italy. They bear particular names, according to their local position. Ligurian Apennu^ (with the Monte Cimone, in the Duchy of Modena, 6,778 feet liigh), Etruscan Apennines, Roman Apennines (with the Monte di Sib>/lla, 7,038 f.), Neapolitan Apennines, and Abruzzi (in the northern part of the kingdom of Naples, with the Gran Sasso d' Italia, 9,577 £ high). The volcano Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, is 3,932 feet high. On the island of Sicily are, besides the volcano Mount Etna or Monte Gibello (10,870 f high), to be noted the Callata bellata (3,699 f), Cuceio (3,329 £), and Scuder)/ (3,190 £); on the island of Sardinia, the Gennargcntu (5,630 £), and Gigantinu (3,744 £) ; and on the island of Corsica, the Monte Rotondo (8,500 £), Pagalia Orba (8,100 £), and Cinto (7,900 £). e. The Carpathes, forming the boundary between Hungary and Galicia, run in a south-easterly direction from the sources of the Oder River to the Danube. The western part bears the particular name of the Beskides, the middle part that of the Carpathes Proper or Tatra ^fountains, and the south- east part, comprising Transylvania, Upper Hungary, and the nortli of WaUa- chia, is called the Highland Erdely. llie highest peaks of the Carpathian Mountains are, the Ruska Poyana (9,912 £), Gailuripi (9,000 f), Lomnitzer Spitze (Peak of Lomnitz, 8,316 £), and Krivan (7,818 f ). The highest peak of the Beskides in particular, is the Babia Chira, which rises to 5,420 feet. /. The Scandinavian Mountains form, for a great part, the boundary be- tween Sweden and Norway, where they are called Kolen (literally, the Keel). Near Roeraas, in Norway, the chief branch of the range, running south-west, assumes the name of D&vre-fjeld (fjeld has the signification of Alpine range). EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Mountains : in Turliey, France, Germany. and its highest peak is here the SkagastceUind (8,400 f.). Other peaks of tlie Skaiitlinaviiui Mountains, arc tlie Sncehcetta (8,1 2'2 f.), ami Sulitobna (6,o40 f.). g. Tlie Balk.\n or Haeinus, running east through the midst of Turkey, rises to the hi-ight of no more thau 3,000 feet, and is thoroughly covered with extensive forests. Among its five passes, those of Schumla are renowned in military liistory. Another mountain range in Turkey, and partly in Greece, is the Pi7ulus, rising to the height of more than 5,000 het, and some of its divisions are called the Bora, Mczzovo, and Agrapha Mountains. h. In France are, besides the Pyrenees, to be noted : the Jura Mountains, forming the boundary between France and Switzerland (with the Reculet, 6,280 f, and Grand Colomhier, 5,220 f., on the French side ; and with the Z>o/^ 5,147 U^ont Tendre, 5,170 f., Chasseron, 4,976 f., Creux du Vent, 4,512 f., and Tite de Rang, 4,384 f., on the side of Switzerland) ; the Seve.vnes, commencing near the east end of the Pyrenee^^nd running north, form ^he dividing ridge between the valleys of the Iwlne and Loire (their highest summits are, the Mezin of 6,162 f, Lozere of 5,584 f., Tarare of 4,350 f., and Pilat of 3,696 f in height) ; the Mountains of Auvergne, branching from the Sevcnnes and running north-west, form the dividing ridge between the valleys of the Loire and the Garonne ; their principal part is known by the name of Mont Dore, and their highest peaks, commonly called Puy, are : Puy de Sancy (5,838 f ), Puy de Dome (4,548 f ), and Ploiub de Cantal (5,718 f ) ; tlie Vosges, running parallel with the Rhine, separate the provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, and rise to 4,400, 4,300, 3,900, and 3,100 feet, in the Ballon de Sulz, Tite d' Ours, Ballon d' Alsace, and Grand Donnon (branches at the north end of the Vosges, bear the names of Monts de Faucille and Hardt Mountains, the latter with the Mont de Tonnere, 2,035 f. high) ; the Cote d'Or (in the prov- ince of Burgundy), and Morwan Mountains (on the high road between Paris and Lyons), rise to 1,842 and 2,000 feet; lastly, the Ardennes, running from the northern parts of Champagne to Luxemburg, are woody liills rising to 1,800 feet, and part of them are called the Argonncs. i. The highest mountain range in the 7iortk of Germany, are the Sudetes, or Sud/iic Mountains, along the southern frontier of Silesia, with different divisions and names. The Sudctic Mountains proper form the boundary between Austrian Silesia and Moravia (with the Altvater 4,640 f , and the Great Srhnecherg or Snow-peak, 4,400 f high). Tlie Riesengebirge, or Giants' Mountains, form the boundary between Silesia and Bohemia, (with the Riescn, or Schneckoppe, 5,056 I, the Great Sturmhaube, 4,540 f, lA'.ile Sturmhaubt GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Mountains of GertnuDy. 4,400 f., and Oreat Rod, or Wheel, 4,707 f), and the Lusatian Mountains (with the t/tsc/t^-ew, 3,140 f., and iawsc/ie, 2,460 f.), form the boundary between Lusatia and Bohemia. Other divisions of the Sudetes are : the Moravian Mountains, (between Moravia and Bohemia), the Habehchwerdt Mountains (in Silesia), the Eulcn-Oebirge, or Owl Mountains, (with the Jlohe Eule, 3,082 f., in Silesia), and Heuscheuer Gebirge, or Haybarn Mountains (partly in Silesia, partly in Bohemia). Between Breslau and the Eulen-Gebirge, rises the Zobtenberg to 2,280 feet j. Other mountain ranges in Germany, are : the Boehmeewald Mountains, •which form the boundary between Bohemia and Bavaria, and rise to 4,000 and 4,500 f. ; the Erzgebiege, or Ore Mountains, which form the boundary between Bohemia and Saxony, and rise to 3,870 f. (in the Sonnenwirbel), 8,732 f. {Kleine or Little Fichtelberg), and 3,721 f. {Grosse or Great Fichtel- berg); the Fichtel-Gebirge, in the north-east part of Bavaria, with the Schneeberg, 3,221 f, and Ochsenlcopf, 3,123 f ; the Black Forest {Schwarz- wald), partly belonging to Wirtemberg, but chiefly occupying the southern part of Baden ; it is covered with gloomy pine forests (hence its name), and its middle elevation is between 3,000 and 3,500 feet ; although the Feldberg and Belchen (both in Baden), rise to 4,(550 and 4,397 feet ; the Alp (which has nothing in common with the Alps in Switzerland and Italy), in Wirtem- berg, where it is commonly called Swabian Alp (with the Obcr-IIohenberg, 3,160 f, Schafberg, 3,121 f., and Plattenberg, 3,100 f.), and partly Rauhe (rough) Alp, and then running north-east through Bavaria, by the name of Franconian Alp; the Odenwald, branching from the Black Forest and running north through Hesse Darmstadt (with the Katzenbuchel, 2,180 f, and Malchen, or Melibocus, 1,690 f); pai-aUel with it runs on its western side •the so-called Bergstrasse, between Frankfort and Heidelberg ; the Spessaut, between Aschaffenburg and Wurtzburg, in Bavaria, with an elevation not exceeding 1,900 feet, and having in its neighborhood tlie inferior ranges of the Hass-Gebirge, and the Steigerwald ; the RnoEX-GEBiKGE, on the north-west boundary of Bavaria, with the Holy Kreuzberg (2,856 £), Dammcrsfeld (2,840 £), and Beierberg (2,264 f.) ; to the westward, in Hesse Darmstadt, is to be noted the range of the Vogehberg, with an elevation of 2,388 feet ; the Thuringerwald {Forest of TJmringia), forming the boundary between Bavaria and the Saxon Duchies, with the Beerberg (3,064 f), Schneekopf (3,043 f ), Insehberg (2,855 f.), and Kickelhahn (2,643 f.) ; its eastern extrem- ity is called the Frankenwald; the Hartz, a more or less isolated mountain EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Mountains of Great Britain, Iceland, Russia. range, occupying the south of Hanover, part of Brunswick, and part of the IMissian province of Saxony ; it has its highest elevation in the Brockcn or Bloclfhcrg (8,600 f ), and tliat part situated on the west side of the Brocken is called Upper Hartz, and the other part is called Lower Ilartz ; the Hras- ni-cKEN, or Hundsnick (dog's back), a rough and woody table-land between Treves and Coblcntz, rising to 2,263 feet in the Idarkopf; the Eifel, between Aix la Chapelle and Treves, rising to 2,2G0 feet; the Taunus, in Nassau, with the GrnU Fddberg (2,605 f), and Altkonig (2,400 f.); the Westebwald, piutly in Nassau, partly in the Prussian province of Westphalia ; its north- west slope is formed by the Siebengebirge, or Seven Hills, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to Bonn ; the Osning, or Teutoburger Wald, in Lippe- Detmold ; the Weseegebirge, or Weser Mmmtains, along the Weser River. Other inferior or hilly ranges, are : the Habichtswald, near Cassel, the Sollin- ger Wald, the Deister, and Siintel, in Hanover. k. The principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, are : the Geampian Hills (with the Ben Lawers, 4,051 f., Ben Nevis, 4,379 f, and Cairngorm, 4,050 £), running from the head of the frith of Clyde, north-east through the centre of Scotland ; and the Cheviot Hills, on the southern boundary of Scotland. Tlie highest peaks in England are, the Wharnside (4,052 f), and Ingleborough (3,987 f), and, in Wales, the Snowdon (3,568 f), and Coder Idris (3,550 £). I. Iceland— this rocky island on the borders of the frigid zone, is almost entirely covered with volcanoes, among them the celebrated Mount Hecla, rising to 5,210 feet. The highest peaks of the island are, the Oeraefe-Joekvl (6,240 f), and the Oester-Joekul, or Eyjafialle-Joekul (5,794 f). m. In European Russia is only to be noted the Taueio Mountains, in Crimea, rising to 4,740 feet in the Tschadyrdagh. The Wolchonsky Forest, between St. Petersburg and Moscow, is nothing else but a ridge of low hills, not exceeding 1,000 £ in height; although the Volga and other mighty rivers have their sources here. The Ural and Caucasus Mountains belong to Asiatic Russia. 8. The Northern and Atlantic Oceans, by which Europe is bounded on the north and west, penetrate in many parts of the continent, thus forming a great number of peninsulas, bays, and inland seas. The most remarkable of the latter, formed by the GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits. Arctic Ocean, is the White Sea, which penetrates the northern coast of Russia to the extent of 27G miles. The principal inland seas, bays, etc., formed by the Atlantic Ocean, are the following : — The North Sea, which separates the British Islands from the European continent, and has an extent nearly equal to that of Germany. A branch of the North Sea, called Skagerack, and 69 miles wide, separates the Danish plliinsula of Jutland from Norway; the then following Cattcgat (about 140 miles long and 70 wide), separates Jutland from Sweden ; and the following three channels, or straits, lead from the Cattegat into the Baltic Sea, viz. : the Oeresound, commonly called Sound (between Zealand and Sweden), the Great Belt (between Funen and Zealand), and the Little Belt (between Sleswick and Funen). The Baltic Sea, with an extent of 135,680 square miles, and surrounded by Sweden, Russian, Prussian, German, and Danish countries, is, between Ystad and the island of Rugen, only 53 miles wide. Two gulfs set up from the Baltic : the Gulf of Bothnia, between Sweden and Finland, and the Gulf of Finland, between Finland and Esthland. Inferior to them in extent is the Gulf of Riga, before the mouth of the Duna River. Between Tilsit and Memel is the Curische Haff, or Sea, almost entirely enclosed by a long and small tongue of land, with a narrow pass- 'age into the Baltic. Other seas of the same kind, are the Fresh Haff, before the mouths of the Pregel and other rivers, and the Great and Little Haff, before the mouth of the Oder. A great inland sea, or bay, in the north of Holland, is the Zuyder Zee, 90 miles long, and 45 miles wide. Far inferior to it in extent is the Dollart, before the mouth of Ems River. The Strait of Dover, separating England from France, is about 27 miles wide ; and the well-known English Channel, is, upon an average, 70 miles wide. 1* 10 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Seas, Channels, Straits, Lakes. Sf. George's Channel separates Ireland from England and Wales ; at its south end is to be noted the Bristol Channel^ be- bre the mouth of Severn River, and at its north end the North Channel, which separates Ireland from Scotland. Between the French peninsula of Bretagne, and the northern joast of Spain, is the Day of Biscay^ about 345 miles wide. A narrow passage, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea, is ihS'Strait of Gibraltar, which separates Spain from Africa. The Mediterranean Sea, separating Europe from Africa, and on the east bordered by Asia, has an extent of 1,011,750 square miles, and is 2,415 long, while its breadth is very different. Before the mouth of the Rhone, is the Gulf of Lyons, and before the city of Genoa, the Gulf of Genoa. The Strait of Bonifacio separates the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, and the Strait of Messina separates the island of Sicily from continental Italy. At the south-east extremity of Italy, is the Gulf of Taranto ; farther to the east, the Strait of Otranto separates Italy from Turkey, and connects the Ionian Sea (between the Ionian Islands and Sicily) with the Adriatic Sea, which latter separates Italy from Dalmatia, and whose extent is estimated at nearly 63.900 square miles. The Grecian Archipelago separates Greece and European Turkey from Asia Minor, and is connected by the Dardanelles Strait, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus Strait, with the Black Sea, the extent of which is computed at 182.115 square miles. The Strait of Jenikale connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Azof, before the mouth of the Don. 9. The most remarkable lakes are in the north of Europe, and in the region of the Alps. lu Kf.s.siA are to be noted : Lake Ladoga, east of the Gulf of Finland, and in llie noigl)t>orliood of St. Petersburg; its extent, computed at 6,220 square miles, exceeds that of the kingiom of Saxony ; Lake Onega, east of the former, GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 11 Lakes. with an extent of 4,2G0 square miles; Lake llmen, 28 miles long and 20 wide, iu tlie province of Novogorod ; Lake Saima, about 40 miles long and wide, in Finland. In Sweden, which abounds in lakes, are to be noted : Lake Wener, not very far from Gottenburg, with an extent of 2,130 square miles ; Lake Wetter, m the midst of the country, celebrated for its romantic environs, and remark- able by its extraordinary depth, is 100 miles long, and between 14 and 28 miles wide; Lake Maelar, near Stockholm, contains about 1,300 islands and islets, with many handsome mansions and castles on them ; Lake Iljelmar, in the neighborhood of the former, 46 m^^ long and 20 wide ; Lake Stor (htcrally, Great Lake), in the province of Jemtland, and Lake Silja, in the province of Dalarne. In Norway, are I^ake Mjos (north of Christiana, 83 miles long and 11 wide), and Lake Faemund (at the frontier of Sweden, about 40 miles long). On the boundary of Switzeeland and Germany, is the Lake of Consta?ice, 37 miles long and about 9 wide. Three bays set up from it, and are called Ueberlingen, Lower, and Zeller Lakes. On the confines of Switzerland and SAVor, is the Lake of Geneva, 42 miles long and 7 wide. ^^In Switzerland are to be noted: the Lake of Neufchatel, 18 miles long and about 5 wide, in the canton of Neufchatel ; Lake of Biel, in the canton of Bern ; Lake of Thun, in the canton of Bom ; Lake of Luzerne, in the centre of Switzerland ; Lake of Zurich, surrounded by the cantons of Zurich, St. Gall, and Schwytz ; and Lake of Lugano, in the canton of Tesino. The most remarkable lakes of Italy are: Lake 3fagglore, in Lombardy and Piedmont, 37 miles long and about 8 Avide ; Lake Como, in Lombardy, 32 miles long; Lake di Garda, east of the former; Jjake of Perugia, in the States of tlie Church. In Hungary, are the Lake of Balaton, or Platten-See (in Lower Hungary, 46 miles long), and Lake of Neusiedl, near the frontier of Austria. In Germany are to be noted : the Lakes of Gmunden, of Ossiach, of Cla- genfurt, and of Cirknitz, in Austria; the Lakes of Chiem, of Starenberg, and of Tegern, in Bavaria ; of Muritz, Schwerin, and Malchin, in Mecklenburg ; of Ploen, in Holstein, and Lake of Madue, in Prussia. In Holland is the Haarlem Lake, covering a tract of 33,000 acres. In Scotland are to be noted : the Loch Lomond (23 miles long and 9 18 EUROPE, PAST -AND PRESENT. Rivers. wide), Loch Kc$s (20 miles long), and Loch Awe ; in Ireland, Lough Nearjh (18 miles long) ; and in Engl.vnd, Lake Winander (14 miles long). Li the otlier countries of Europe, are no remarkable lakes to be found. 10. Among the rivers of Europe, rants, foremost, the Volga; next in length is the Danube; then follow the Dnieper, Do?i, Rhine, etc. We describe the course and tributaries of the prin- cipal rivers of Europe in the following order: — Through Russia flow : the Votc^iaving its head in the Wolchonsky Forest (see § 7, m.), and a length of course of 2,166 miles, and emptying by about 70 outlets into the Caspian Sea. Its chief branches are the Oka, Sura, Mologa, Kostroma, Wetbiga, and Kama. The Dnieper (the Borysthenes of the ancients), having its sources in the province of Smolensk, and a length of course of 1,209 miles, and emptying, in the neighborhood of Odessa, into the Black Sea, forming there the Gulf of Liman. Its chief branches are the Beresina,Fripct, Bog, Desna, and Sa- mara (the latter is by the Cossacks called the Holy River). The Don (in ancient times Tanais) : its sources in the neighborhood of Tula, its length of course 1,081 miles, emptying into the Sea of Azof. I^ chief branches are the Choper and Lonez. % The Dniester (in ancient times called Tyras, or Danastris) : its sources in the Carpatliian Mountains, not far from Lemberg ; its length 506 miles, and emptying into the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Dnieper. The Kuban (by Herodotus called Hypanis, by Ptolemy Vardanes, and by the Genoese, in the niiddle ages, Copa) ; its sources in the Caucasus Mountains ; its Icngtli 473 miles, and emptying by one outlet into the Sea of Azof, and by another into the Bhick Sea. The Terek, liaving its sources in the Caucasus Mountains, and emptying into the Ca.«pian Sea. The Petschoiia: its sources in the Ural Mountains; its length 690 miles; its mouth in the Arctic Ocq^n. The Mezen : its sources in the province of Wologda ; its length 552 miles ; its mouth ill the White Sea. The Dwina; hn head in the province of Wologda; its length 736 miles; it« mouth in the White Sea. Its chief branches are the Wytschegda, Finega and Waga. GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. ll Rivers. The 0>rEGA,«having its sources in the province of Olonetz, and emptying into the White Sea. The Kemi, havmg its sources in Finland, and emptying into the GuK of Bothnia. The Newa, issuing from the Lake Ladoga, and emptying into the Gulf of Finland, has a length of only 39 miles, but is at St. Petersburg from 1,800 to 2,400 feet wide. The DuNA, rising near the sources of the Volga, has a length of 644 mQes, and flows, below Riga, into the Gulf of Riga. The ToaNEA, emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia, forms the boundary between Russia and Sweden. Tlie NiE.ME>f rises in the Russian province of Minsk, has a length of 530 miles, and crossing Prussia, where it receives the name of Mejiel, empties into the Curische Hafif (see § 8). Poland and Prussia are crossed by the Vistula, which rises at the frontier of Austrian Silesia, has a length of 681 miles, is in Prussia from 1,000 to 2,000 feet wide, and empties into the Baltic Sea by two outlets, of wliich the eastern is called Nogat. The chief branches of the Vistula are the Brig, San, Wieprz, Drewenz, Ossa, Pilica, and Mottlau. Through Prussia flow : the Pregel, in East Prussia, empties into the Fresh Haff [see § 8]. The Passarge, in East Prussia, empties into the same Haffi The Persante and the Rega, in Pomerania, emptying into the Baltic Sea. The Oder, which rises in the Sudetic Mountains, at the frontier of Moravia, crosses Silesia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania, and empties, below Stettin, into the Great Haff, which, by the Peene, Swine, and Divenow, is connected •, with the Baltic Sea. Its length is 616 miles. The chief tributary of the Oder b the Wartlie, into which flows the I^eize. Other branches are the Oppa, the Silesian, and the Lusatian Neisse, the Ohlau, Katzbach, Boher, Olsa, Klod- nitz, Malapane, and Stoher. In Sweden are to be noted : the Clara river which has its sources in the Dovrefjeld, flows tlu-ough the Wener Lake after wliich it is called the Gotha river, and empties, below Gottenburg, into the Cattegat Its whole length is 322 miles. The Dal river, which rises in the province of Dalame, and empties into the Gulf of Bothnia. 14 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Rivers. In Norway are to be noted : the Glommen, which rises in Dovrcfjeld, and empticii into the Cattcgat The LouvEN : sources in Dovrefjeld, and mouth in the Skager Rack. Denmark has no remarkable river, besides the Guden, in Jutland, where it empties into the Cattegat. The Eider, wliich has ever formed the boundary between Denmark and Germany since the days of Charlemagne, has its source in Holstein, and empties into the North Sea. In Geeat Britalv and Ireland are to be noted : the Thames and Humber |formed by the united rivers Oiise and Trent), emptying into the North Sea, -^ — -.^ — .^_ Slaves — Croates — Servians, etc. had they set their foot on the Spanish ground, in 711, when they attacked the Visigoths and defeated them completely in a battle at Xcres do la Frontera, which lasted nine days. The fate of Rod- eric, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain, was never known ; his horse and weapons were found near the field of battle, but his body was nowhere to be seen. Felagio, a prince of the blood- royal, took command of the Goths who had not been slain by the Moors, led them into the mountainous region of Asturias, and founded there a little kingdom, the boundaries of which his suc- cessors enlarged in the course of time. But for the present, and for the next centuries, the Moors possessed the greatest part of the Pyrenean peninsula. 11. During the migration of nations, many countries in tho east of Europe were depopulated, and this circumstance gave oc- casion to the Slaves (see Introduction, § 12, Z»), to move farther to the west, and occupy the abandoned seats. The main body of the Slaves remained in Russia and Poland, but some tribes peopled Bohemia, others settled themselves in the German coun- tries bordering on the Baltic Sea ; while lower Hungary and Austria were occupied by the Avares (who had their primitive seat between the Black and Caspian Seas), Dalmatia, and other countries in the vicinity, by the Croates and Serviatis, and Bul- garia by the Bulgarians (a Tartar tribe, who in the 5th century 'had emigrated from their primitive seat between the Volga and Ural rivers). About the Magi/ars, see Introduction, § 12. 12. The European territory of the Eastern empire^ or of the Roman empei-ors residing at Constantinople, had, by all these circumstances, been greatly reduced ; nevertheless, it yet ranked highest among the Christian kingdoms by its civilization, wealth, and flourishing commerce. Constantinople was then the largest and handsomest city in Europe, and the imperial court displayed much splendor and luxury, though the history of this court pre- 80 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Scandinavians— Normans— Charlemagne. sents a series of cruelties and infamous actions, seldom or never heard of in other countries. 13. The Scandinavian countries, or Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark, were, if not first, yet chiefly peopled by the German tribe of GoTiis, who immigrated there about the Christian era. In the course of time those countries became, in a certain degree, overpopulated, which gave rise to the famous naval expeditions of the Normans, who after the 9th century invaded the shores of England, Germany, Holland, ]Jelgium, and France, every- where plundering and ravaging. They proved themselves to be as daring freebooters, as they were gallant warriors, and acted an important part in the political affairs of several European countries in the west and south. 14. Charlemagne (see ^ 8), who was born in 742, reigned from the year 768 to 814, and in this whole period he was almost continually at war. In 774 he wrested the kingdom of Italy from the Lombards (see § 9), and added its crown to that which he wore already as king of the Franks. Meanwhile the long- nourished hostile sentiments between the Franks and their next neighbors in the north, the Saxons, had finally led to an erup- tion, which was followed by a war of more than thirty years. Charlemagne was indeed in this war the aggressor ; but beside his anxious desire to introduce Christianity among the pagan Saxons, he had well-founded political reasons to act as he did. For the Saxons had made frequent inroads into his empire, and moreover being a very valiant and enterprising people, it was to be feared they would sooner or later try to conquer it, or at least wrest some provinces from it. Thus the war commenced against them in 772, and lasted, though with some intervals, until 804, when a final treaty of peace was concluded, according to which the Saxons acknowledged the sovereignty of Charle- magne, and adopted the Christian faith. In one of those inter- SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 81 Uivisiou of llie Kin|)irL> of Cliurlema^e — (Jeiniany. vals, in 778, the Moorish governor of Saragossa requested Charle- majrne to lend him his assistance against the Emir Abderrahman. Accordingly, a Prankish army was sent to Spain, and this cam- paign terminated in the annexation of all the country north of the Ebro to the FrankisH empire. This new acquisition was called the Spanish mark (margraviate). A war against tho Danes was in 810 terminated by a treaty of peace, which stipu- lated that the Eider river was to be considered as the boundary between the Danes and Franks ; and indeed this river has since continually been the boundary between Denmark, and Germany. To secure the boundaries in the east and south-east, Charlemagne founded there several maigraviates, for instance ; the Avarian mark (comprising what is now called the arch-duchy of Austria) against the Avares (see § 11); Friaul. etc. In the year 800 when Charlemagne happened to be at Rome, the pope (who for many substantial services, was highly indebted to him) placed the imperial crown upon his head, and thus, as it were, revived the Western Rovian Evipire. Charles the Great died in the year 814 at Ais-la-Chapelle, and was succeeded by his son Louis, sur- named the Pious, who was in point of mental power almost the reverse of his father. Louis the Pious died in 840, and left h'" dominions to his three sons, Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, wh< divided them by a treaty, concluded at Verdun in 843, in t^ following manner : Louis (since surnamed the German) acquired Germany, whip* since that time has ever been separated ffom France, and where after the death of the last descendant of Louis (which occurred in 911) an elective monarchy was established, and so it continued, even so late as the year 1806. Louis the German had shortly before his death inherited the rights to the imperial croion, as well as to Italy, Burgundy, part of Switzerland, to Alsace, Lor- raine, etc., and entailed these rights on his descendants and sue- 32 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. France — Kingdom of Italy — England. cessors to the German crown. They were realized for the first time by his grandson Aruulph (reigning in the period from 8S7 to 899), who not only was crowned as Roman-German emperor, but also brought the kingdom of Italy and Burgundy into a po- litical connection with Germany. Charles (surnamed the Bald) acquired France, which was ruled by his descendants until the year 987, when the Capetians supplanted the race of the Carlovingians. Lolhaire acquired the imperial crown and the kingdom of Italy, and besides this a long tract of land situated between France and Germany, viz. Frove7ice, Dauphiny^ Burgundy^ Al- sace, Lorraine and the Netherlands. But his race became extinct even so early as the year 875 ; and thus the German kings, his nearest relations, became the heirs of his rights. 15. As for England (see ^ 4), all the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy were united into one, under the government of Egbert^ King of Wessex. This occurred in the year 827. Egbert was therefore the first King of England — a name de- rived from tliat of Anglia, the home of the Angles, and sub- stituted for the former name of Britannia by Egbert. During his reign, and for many years afterwards, the Normans (see § 13) made frequent incursions into England, and sometimes overran the whole country. King Alfred the Greal (who reigned from the year 871 to 901) opposed them with good success, but a hun- dred years after his death the Normans again broke into Eng- land, and were now completely victorious, so that in the period from 10 IG to 1042 three Danish kings governed the country in succession (Swen, Canute, and Ilardicanute). In the year 1042, the Normans or Danes were driven out of England, and another Saxon King, Edward II., surnamed the Confessor, was placed upon the throne. Meanwhile the Normans had settled in France, and acquired there (at the end of the 9th century) a large tract SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. SS Norman Conquest of England — Moora in Spain. of land, since called Normandy. William duke of Normandy, who was related to King Edward, made claim to the English throne, and after Edward's death, which occurred in 1066, he in- vaded England, at the head of sixty thousand men, defeated his rival Harold (son of the mighty Count Godwin ; for Edward had left no children) in the battle of Hastings (on the 14th of Oct. 1066), and became King of England. He was now called Wil- liam the Conqueror., and is the ancestor of the still reigning royal family of Great Britain. 16. The Moors va. Spain (see § 10) were in the beginning ruled by governors of the Caliphs then reigning at Damascus (the seat of the latter not being transferred to Bagdad until the year 754) ; but in 756 the Arabian prince Abderrahman founded an inde- pendent empire in Spain, and took his seat in Cordova (north-east, and 120 miles distant from Cadiz), which soon rose to be a splen- did city, and at one time numbered 1,000,000 inhabitants. The Moorish empire was at that time separated from that of the Christians by the Duero. Concerning the Christian empire, the little kingdom of Asturias, founded by Pelagio (see ^ 10), was since its first enlargement called the Kingdom of Leon. The Spanish mark., conquered by Charlemagne (see § 14), having meanwhile been divided into two counties, Barcelona and Navarre, and the count of Navarre having since assumed the royal title, there were now two Christian kingdoms in Spain ; which, in the course of time, brought into existence the kingdoms of Arago7i, Castile, Galicia, the principality of Catalonia, etc. Portugal, being first a province of the united kingdoms of Cas- tile and Leon, became in 1139 an independent kingdom. The power of the Moors in Spain was more and more restricted by the conquests of the Christian kings, till in 1492 Granada, the last Moorish possession on the Pyrenean peninsula, was conquer- ed by the Queen Isabella of Castile, and King Ferdifiand, of 2* 34 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ferdiuand and Isabella— Society in the Middle Ages. Aragon. At this time the kingdom of Aragon comprised not only Aragon, but the whole north-east part of Spain, while the kin'i'dom of Castile comprised all other parts ; and as Ferdiuand and Isabella were united by marriage, all Spain came after their death under the sway, first of their daughter Johanna (or rather their son-in-law Philip), then of their grandson, the celebrated King Charles I. (or Charles V. as emperor of Germany), who entailed the Spanish crown on his descendants. 17 This sketch of the political history of Europe will suffice for the present ; and deferring the further particulars of it to the his^ torical introduction of each separate state, we shall now give a condensed description of the state of European culture in the mid- dle ages. Had the time of blooming and vigor of the Roman empire last- ed forever, there is no doubt but Roman culture would at last have prevailed throughout Europe. But the migration of nations (see ^ 2), and with it perpetual wars, interfered and destroyed almost the last remains of it. Thus a commencement was to be made anew. But a quiet and peaceful development being impos- sible at that time, matters went on in the following suecessio-u : 1. Improvement of warlike or military conditions. 2. Agriculture. 3. Foundation of new towns and cities. 4. Commercial intercourse and rudiments of industry. 5. A more general efficiency and propagation of Christianity, and subsequently the extension of the clerical power. 6. The foundation of universities and the generalization of other schools. 7. The gradual improvement of sciences and fine arts. 8. Fresh life and activity in commercial and industrious enter- prises, generated by the Crusades. 9. Origination of free citizens and corporations. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 86 Social Progress in the Middle Ages. 10. New progress of sciences and fine arts. 1 1. The invention oi gunpowder and of the art of printing ; the Reformation and the discovery of America^ and of the passage by sea to India ; and the immense social and intellectual revolu- tions brought on by these events, whose consequences are still apparent. In the period from the latter time of the migration of nations until the crusades, Italy (as the former millennial seat of the Roman empire), Spain (as the seat of the industrious and intel- ligent Moors since the 8th century), and the Eastern empire (as retaining the remains of Roman culture) were to be considered as illuminated directly, and the other European countries as il- luminated indirectly, by the beams of the sun of culture. Mean- while the progress of culture went on in the above indicated man- ner. Thus we shall begin with the (a.) Improvement of warlike or military conditions ; — of course only with reference to the Germanic tribes (see §§ 1, 2, 3, etc.), as all other European nations (with the exception of the Romans) lived at that time in a state of complete barbarity. Among the Germanic tribes it was the custom and practice to wage war in two different ways: viz, either to call to arms all freeborn war- riors under the command of dukes elected by each tribe (this way .was less frequent, and chiefly used in defensive wars) ; or to select warriors of profession out of those freeborn men, who were upon terms of a particular political depen'dence with the com- mander-in-chief With this warfare the feudal system was closely connected. As soon as a foreign country was conqueredj either the whole (as in the case of the Saxons in England, and of the Lombards in Italy), or some part of it (sometimes one third, but most frequently two thirds) was divided between the king (as commander-in-chief) and his military retinue ; each member of the latter receiving a lot, called Allodium, which as a patrimonial .•56 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Feudal System — Agi-icullui-e— Bondage. estate -was at Lis free disposition. The king, receiving a far greater lot than any member of liis retinue, used to confer parts of it, bj the name of fees (in Latin fevda or bciieficia)^ on single members of this retinue in usufruct for lifetime. The feoffees, called vassals, were bound to faith and homage towards the feofler, and to warfare in case of war. In this way all allodial proprietors became gradually feudal tenants also. The feoffer was under the obligation to protect his vassal, and for this reason many allodial proprietors, being incompetent to their own pro- tection, conferred their estate upon any powerful neighbor, and received it back again from him as a fee. At first the fees were not transmissible by inheritance, but in the course of time the heritable quality was partly conceded, partly usurped ; and since that time, only in ease of felony the fee was allowed to be with- drawn. Considering the peculiar condition of society in the middle ages, it cannot be denied that the feudal system was quite adapted to it, and afforded many advantages. {b.) Agriculture, formerly in a more or less flourishing state throughout most of those European countries that were under the Eoman sway, but since the beginning of the migration of nations almost totally neglected (except in the Eastern empire), made but poor progress in the period from the year 476 till 752 (when the sway of the Carlovingians commenced), because the freeborn men being for -the most time engaged in warfare, gave themselves seldom the trouble to cultivate the soil, which thus was chiefly tilled by the bondsmen or serfs. Bondage or servitude Lad from the earliest time been in pi-actice not only among the Germanes, but also among the Slavonians (see ^ 12 of the Intro- duction), and has not, in most of the countries where it existed, been abolished before the last and the present centuries. It may indeed be called a kind of slavery, but in various respects it dif- fers from proper slavery, which was in use among the ancient SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 37 Foundation of Towns and Cities. Romans, Greeks, etc., and is still in use among the Mohammedans and other peoples ! — In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries agriculture was in the Christian countries of Europe promoted chiefly by the endeavors of the monks ; and since the beginning of the crusades (at the end of the 11th century), when many bondsmen entered the armies of the cross, in order to partake of their privileges of personal freedom, agriculture and other branches of husbandry became more and more the occupation of free farmers, and at the same time attained a higher degree of importance. In the East- ern empire the culture of silk-worms was introduced during the reign of Justinian I. (527-565). The Moors in Spain managed the cultivation of the soil in an exemplary manner ; and even steep and sandy hills were by their perseverance transformed into fertile arable land. The meadows of Andalusia were never parched by the scorching sun, as the Moors took care to keep theni humid by irrigating canals. Along the Guadalquivir river were situated more than 12,000 flourishing villages, and the township of Seville alone contained not less than 100,000 villages and farms. (r.) In speaking of the foundation of towns and cities since the commencement of European culture in general, we of course have only in view those countries which but then emerged from their state of barbarity, and where hitherto the people had more or less "been accustomed to live in huts lying scattered about in the woods or open field. This was the custom among the ancient Germans (for the towns and cities on the left bank of the Rhine had been founded by the Romans), among the Poles, Magyars, Britons, and in general among all the northern nations of Eu- rope. In the north and north-east of Europe, the foundation of towns and cities, in the style of those in the southern countries, did not take place before the middle of the 13th century, and the few existing ones were not endowed with municipal laws before 88 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Roeskilde— Moscow — London— Constantinople. that time. lu Sweden the city of BJocrkoe, on an island of the lake Maolar. (see i^ 9, of the Introduction), was indeed, even so early as iu the first half of the 9th century, distinguished by its numerous population, its riches and power ; but the country in general had but few towns of any importance. Roeskilde, the capital of Denmark until the year 1443, was founded at a very early period, and had since the 11th century a population of 100,000 inhabitants, and not less than 27 magnificent churches and monasteries ; but this was rather an exception from the rule. Moscoic in Russia may have been founded in the 9th century, but it is more probable that its foundation did not take place before the middle of the 12th century. In 13G7 the first palace of stone was built here. . The first foundation of London was laid by the Romans even so early as the year 52 ; in the beginning of the 7th century it was, says a contemporary, " a commercial town freijuented by many nations by sea and by land ;" and since the 11th century, the commercial intercourse was still more ac- tive here ; yet until towards the end of the 12th century most of the houses here were built of wood and thatched, till in 1189 King Richard I. ordered all bouses with more than two stories to be built of stone, and roofed with tiles or slates. In Germany, the lack of cities or fortified towns was first felt when the fierce Magyars or Huns (as they commonly were called, and from which name originated that of the Hungarians) made their plundering incursions at the end of the 9th, and in the beginning of the lOth century; and not until now most of the principal towns in the interior of Germany were founded. Constantinople was at that time not only the emporium, but also in other respects the most important city of Europe. Besides this capital, the Eastern empire had many other fine cities ; while in Italy ihosa which had been founded by the ancient Romans, were multiplied by new SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY 89 Commercial Intercourse— Industry. ones, for instance, by Venice. Likewise in Spain and in some parts of France, there were many cities of early origin. {d.) In the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th century, the commercial intercourse as well as the industry, was in general very insignificant, and almost entirely confined to Co7i- stantinop/e, where industry was considerably promoted by the luxury of the magnificent imperial court, and an important trade was at that time carried on with several maritime countries on the Mediterranean Sea. In the next period until the beginning of the crusades or of the 12th century, the Moors in Spain ex- celled all other nations of Europe in point of manufactures and other branches of industry. Their woollen cloth, silk stuffs, em- broideries in gold and silver, Morocco-leather, hardware, their ex- cellent workmanship in arms, etc. found everywhere in Europe as well as in Africa and Asia, a lucrative market. In the art of dyeing, the Moors were eminently skilled. Likewise the work- ing in the Spanish gold and silver mines was managed by them with ability and circumspection, and added greatly to their wealth. In other countries of Europe in the latter period, the commercial preponderance of Constantinople gradually went over to the Italian sea-towns of Venice, Pisa, Genoa and AmaJfi (the last-named town is situated in the vicinity of Naples). These towns had risen to be independent commercial states, while in 6ther western countries of Europe (with the exception of the Arabian part of Spain) the commercial intercourse was almost confined to trade by barter, or provision only for the daily supply. But now the circumstances there were more favorable. Indian and Levantine goods were sent from Constantinople by way of the Danube river up to Ratisbon (on the Danube), which was at that time the most considerable and populous city of Germany, and mediated the intercourse not only between the eastern and west- ern countries, but also between the north-east part of Europe and 40 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Chrisliauity — Monastic Life. Italy. In France the southern cities, above all Marseilles, traded with the Levant, while those of the north carried on commerce chiefly with England. Even the Slavonian tribes in the vicinity of the Elbe lliver and on the Baltic Sea, especially the citizens of Julin (on an island at the mouth of the Oder River; it was de- stro3-ed in 1170), kept up a commercial intercom-se with neigh- boring countries. The increasing number of towns and cities, the establishment of fairs, and the discovery of gold and silver mines in the Hartz (see ^ 7, k. Introd.) and in other parts of Germany were promoting the industry in those quarters. (e.) A more general efficiency and propagation of Christianity was almost impossible during the troubles and disturbances in the period of the migration of nations. Yet a roundabout ground of it was laid by the transplantation of monastic life from the dioceses of the oriental church to those of the occidental. This was effected by St. Benedict of Nursia, who in 529 founded a mon- astery on Mount Cassino, near Naples, that gave rise to the es- tablishment of monasteries in other countries of Europe. These institutions "were not only the seminaries for nearly all those heroes of the faith, who in the earlier time of the middle ages, aa missionaries, propagated Christianity among the pagan tribes of Europe, frequently at the risk of their lives ; but may likewise be considered as the only nurseries and preservers of classical literature and of sciences in general in those dark ages. With- out the monasteries, even genuine manuscripts of the Holy Bible might be very rare. That monks deserved well for their cultiva- tion of the soil, has already been mentioned ; and moreover they were engaged in handiwork, in the instruction of youth, in writ- ing chronicles, in copying classical manuscripts, etc. Before the time of Charlemagne, the pope, as the visible head of the occiden- tal church, had but little influence or authority in temporal mat- ters ; but since he had placed the imperial crown upon the head SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 41 Papal Power — Instruction of the People. of this king (see ^ 14), he assumed the privilege of crowuing all his successors, and subsequently (in the next period until the 1 1th century) the supreme legislative power in ecclesiastical matters, the supreme judicial power in the same matters and in all causes concerning the clergy, and the right of pronouncing the interdict (a papal prohibition to the clergy to celebrate the holy offices) against whole districts and even countries, and the anathema against persons, in cases of transgressions against the church. Cut the preponderance of the papal authority dated from the time of Pope Gregory VII. (1073-1085) and of the crusades (from the end of the 11th to that of the 13th century). The popes now went so far as to declare that God had given them all the kingdoms of heaven and earth ; they actually dethroned kings, treated them as their vassals, and continued for more than three hundred years to exercise an almost undisputed sway over both kings and peoples of the Christian world. It was about the pe- riod of the reign of Innocentus III. (1198-1216) that the power of the pope was at its highest pitch. But after Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) had been deeply humbled, and treated with con- tempt by King Philip IV. of France, the papal power went rap- idly to decay. (/) It cannot be denied that the Roman Catholic church has done far more for promoting knowledge and instruction than the oriental church, especially in the middle ages. Yet many kings were not behind in their endeavors, among them Charlemagne, who established a great number of schools and interested himself even personally in the progress of the pupils. In the preceding period, the objects of instruction in the higher schools consisted of the so-called seven liberal arts, viz. study of the. classical liter- ature, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. The best schools of this kind were at that time those of Cambridge, York and Canterbury in England^ from whence sci- 42 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Schools — Universities. entific knowledge gradually spread over the European continent. In the Eastern empire the lloman literature had lost its strength- ening freshness by the prevalence of a depraved taste ; all attain- ments in literature and science were nearly concentrated in Con- stantinople ; yet until the reign of Justinian I (527-5G5) there ■was still a renowned academy at Athens. The 31oors in Spain, so distinguished in other branches of human exertions, excelled also in the cultivation of sciences, especially in the period from the 8th to the 12th century. Cordova was the seat of literary institutions, academies and numerous common schools. The academies were celebrated, and much resorted to from other countries. Both Christians and Jews attended the instruction in matters of philosophy, medicine, mathematical and physical sciences. In the last-named period (752-1100) France. Ger- many and SiL'itzerland were possessed of excellent cloister, cathe- dral and episcopal schools in Paris and Normandij, at Corvcy, Fulda, Paderborn and Hildesheim, and at tants), Torre de Moncoroo (with 2,000 inhabitants), Ifiranda de Douro {^Niih 1,G00 inhabitants), Miran- delta (with 1,800 inliabitants,) etc. 5. The province of Alexitejo, on the south side of the Tagus ('livided into the 3 districts of Evora, Beja, and Portalegre), contains : Evoea, the capital of the pro^'inco, 74 miles south-east from Lisbon, with many Roman antiqui- ties, and 9,100 inliabitants, cultivating much vine. Beja, a town with Roman antiquities, and 5,000 inhabitants. Elvas, a strongly fortified city near the Spanish frontier, with a remarkable aqueduct built by the ancient Romans, and 10,000 inhabitants. Villa Vicosa, a fortified town, with a royal pakice, and 3,000 inhabitants. Ourique, a town near the frontier of Algarve, south- eastward, and 100 miles distant from Lisbon, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for the defeat of the Moors byAlphonso L,in 1139 (see History of Portugal). Other towns of this province are : Portalegre (with 6,400 inhabitants), Estre- moz, (with 5,000 inhabitants), Moura (with 6,000 inliabitants), Serpa (with 5,000 inhabitants), Campo Mayor (with 4,500 inhabitants). Sines (with 1,200 inhabitants), etc. 6. The province (or kingdom) of Algarve, the most southerly pro^-ince of 4 74 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Azores. Portugal (witli an aiea of 2,151 square miles, and a population of 136,000 in- habiUuits), conaprising only the district of Faro, and contiining : Lagos, the ancient capitjil of Algarve, on a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, with 9,000 inhab- itants. Tavira, the modern capital of Algarve, near the mouth of the Gua- diana River, with 9,000 inhabitants. Near Cape St. Vincent (noted for a naval victory of the English in 1797) is situated the little town of Sagres, witli the ruins of an old castle, the former seat of Don Henry, when he super- intended tlie famous voyages of discovery (see History of Portugal). Other towns of Algarve are : Faro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Monchique (with 3,000 inliabitants), Silvcs (with 3,000 inhabitants), Villareal de San Antonio (with 2,000 inliabitants), Albufeira (with 1,800 inhabitants), etc. The Azores, or "Western Isles, constitute, as has already beeu stated, together with continental Portugal, one and the same political body, and rank among the other Portuguese provinces as well as, for instance, the Balearic Isles rank among the Spanish provinces. It is not improbable that the existence of the Azores Isles was known to the Phoonicians, or at least to the Cartha- ginians ; yet to Europe they were unknown until the year 1432, when they were di.scovered by the Portuguese (see History of Portugal). In 1449 the first Europeans settled here. The climate of the Azores, situated between the parallels of 40^ and 37^ of N. lat., and between 25^ and 3P long, west from Green- wich, is peerless mild, and healtliful ; and, besides grain and wine, oranges, lemons, and other similar fruits, thriving marvellously here, are the chief staples of the isles ; which latter yield to the government an annual revenue of about $30,000, while the ex- penditure amounts to little more than §10.000. The Azores, having together an area of 1,150 square miles, and a population of 250,000 inhabitants, comprise 9 islands, which are the follow- ing :— 1. San Miguel, or St. Michael (area : 341 square miles; population : 100,000 inhabitants), productive of grain and fruits. Its capital is Punta Delgade, PORTUGAL. 16 Colonies. ■wliich is considered as the capital of the whole group too, and has 20,000 inhabitants. Another important staple-town is Ribcira Grande, with 12,000 inliabitants. The romantic valley of Furnas is noted for its hot and cold mineral springs. 2. Teuceira (area : 224 square miles; population: 40,000 inhabitants), with excellent pastures and numerous herds of cattle ; containing Anejra, fortified town and seat of the governor of the Azores, with 15,000 inhabitants. Praya, a towni with 4,000 inhabitants. 3. Pico (area: 287 square miles ; population : 80,000 inhabitants), Avith many vineyards and a vulcan 6,500 feet high ; containing the towns of Lagcs (with 3,000 inhabitants), Magdalcna and St. Roca. 4. San Jorge, or St. George (area: 10(5 square miles ; population : 20,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry and vines, containing tlie towns of Velas (with 4,000 inhabitants), Catheta and Topo. 5. Fatal (area: 53 squai-e miles; population: 24,000 inhabitants), noted for its deUghtful climate and tropic fiuits. Horta is an important commercial town and sea-port, with 10,000 inhabitants. 6. Sta. Maria (area : 43 square miles; population: 8,000 inhabitants), productive of grain and wine. Its chief town Porto has 2,000 inhabitants. 7. Flores (area : 43 square miles ; population : 10,000 inliabitants), the most charming island of the whole group ; productive of grtiin and with numerous herds of cattle. Its chief town, Santa Cruz, has 3,000 inhabitants. 8. Guaciosa (area : 32 square miles ; population . 12,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry, and productive of barley and wine. Its chief town bears, hke that of the preceding island, the name of Santa Cruz, and has likewise 3,000 inhabitants. 9. Corvo (area: 21 square miles; population: 1,000 inliabitants), the smallest and most northerly island. Since the loss of Brazil {see History of Portugal), the Portu- guese Colonies are reduced to the following : — 1. In Africa: settlements and possessions \n Lower Guinea and Eastern Africa^ the Madeira and Cape Verd Islands^ and two islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 2. In Asia: the cities and townships of Goa and Diu in Hln dostan, Macao in China, and part of the island of Tiinor in the Indian Archipelago. SPAIN. Akea : 119,921 square miles. Population : 12,000,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Spain comprises nearly four fifths of the Pyrencan peninsula, separated from France by the Pyrenees. The statements about the actual amount, of the population dif- fer materially, even in the so-called pfFicial reports ; for want of a regular census of tne people. Yet the estimation of 12,000,000 can, in all probability, not much fall short of the actual number of inhabitants. Besides the Spaniards proper, or Casiilians (as they, in Spain, are called byway of eminence), there are- 500,000 Basques (see Introduction, ^ 12) in the Basque provinces and Navarre, about 60,000 Modejares, or descendants of the Moors, and nearly 45,000 Gipsies The Roman Catholic is the estab- lished church ; yet all other denominations are at present not only tolerated but enjoy almost the same political privileges as the Catholics. At least the recent endeavors of protestant mis- sionaries to propagate the sound doctrines of the gospel among the Spanish people, have met with far less obstacles than could have been expected, considering the catholic zcalotism pre- vailing here formerly. In 1830 the catholic clergy of Spain numbered 8 archbishops (the archbishop of Toledo ranks fore- most as primate), 77 bishops, 2,393 canons, 1,869 prebendaries, 16,481 curates, 4,929 vicars, 17,411 beneficiaries, 27,757 seculars in orders, 15,015 sacristans, and 3,927 servitors. In the begin- i SPAIN. 77 Geographical Features. ning of the year 1835, there were still 1,940 monasteries with 30.90G monks, and a proportional number of nunneries with about 24,000 nuns. But in the same year 884 of these cloisters were abolished, and the sale of their estates had yielded (accord- ing to official reports in June, 1835) a sum of 16,093,260 reals, which was designed for the alleviation of the public charges. We shall soon sec, under the head of Spanish finances, whether this intention was realized or not. Spain is thoroughly mountainous ; in regard to its chief moun- tain range, the Sierra Nevada^ and the other ranges, see Introduc- tion, § 7, c ; and about the Spanish part of the Pyrenees, see § 7, b. The rivers peculiar to Spain are the Ebro, Guadalaviar, Xucar, Segura. and Guadalquivir, and those in common with Portugal ; the Tagus, Duero, Minho. and Guadiana (see Introduction, § 10). There is not any remarkable lake to be found throughout Spain, the Albufera, near the city of Valencia, being rather a lagoon than a lake. The Imperial canal (along the right bank of the Ebro), and the canal of Castile, scarcely deserve to be mentioned as canals. The climate is generally mild and pleasant, except in some tracts along the northern coast. The provinces of Valencia and Murcia enjoy the charms of an almost perennial spring, while in Granada and Andalusia the sugar-cane and other tropical pro- ductions thrive. Noxious winds are the cold and rough Gallego from the north, and the scorching and enfeebling Solano from Africa ; yet they commonly do not last long. The soil is generally very fertile except in some tracts of the Sierra Morena, in Estremadura and Asturias, producing in abundance, in most parts of Andalusia, and in the Mediterranean provinces, the vine, the olive, and southern fruits (among them the delicious pomegranate). The natural riches of the country consist chiefly of salt (rock- 78 EUROPE, PAST AJ^D PRESENT. Katural Producls of Spain. salt in Catalonia ; spring-salt in Valencia ; sea-salt in Valencia, Sevilla. and on the Balearic Isles), olives, and other fruits of southern Europe, icines (the choicest sorts are those from Malaga, Xeres. and Alicante), silk (in the southern provinces), horses (the finest breed in Andalusia, and next in Asturias), mules (which in Spain generally are preferred to the horses), and sheep, for which latter Spain has been renowned since the middle ages. Besides the merinos, there are two other less valuable breeds, called Churros and Metis. During summer the sheep feed on the ele- vated table lands of Castile and Leon, and are driven in winter to the low plains of Estremadura, and the adjoining provinces. Yet since the last civil war the flocks have greatly diminished in number ; and moreover, the Spanish merinos have long since dis- continued to outdo those of Germany and other countries. From the remotest ages until the beginning of the 16th century, Spain was renowned for the richness of her gold and silver mines, that were worked successfully by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Moors, and finally by the Spaniards, but were closed since the discovery of the exceedingly rich mines of Mexico and Peru. In the most recent time they have been re-opened and worked again so successfully, especially in Upper Andalusia, that in 1843 they yielded 229,090 marks of silver. For the rest, the Spanish mines yield excellent copper (yet only 300 quintals in 1843), great quantities of lead (next to England, Spain is said to possess the richest lead-mines in Europe), and quicksilver (at Almaden in the Castilian districts of La Mancha ; the annual produce is com- puted at 20.000 quintals) ; moreover, iron (chiefly in the Basque provinces ; the annual produce is on the increase), cobalt, alum, etc. Agriculture, once so flourishing in the days of the Moorish sway (see History of Europe, ^ 17, h), is long since in a backward state ; chiefly wheat is raised. With regard to other branches of industry^ there are indeed SPAIN. 19 Industry — Commerce. woollen, silk, cotton, and various other manufactories, still to be found in Spain ; yet being unable to rival with those of Great Britain, and the English having availed themselves of their political influence, acquired during the last civil war, for the purpose of exercising a kind of monopoly in Spain, the Spanish manufactories are far from being in a prospering state. Since the expulsion of the Moors (the last remnants of them were driven away in 1609, and by this fanatic and insensate proceeding Spain lost 800,000 of its most diligent and most industrious inhabi- tants) Spain has ceased to be a manufacturing country. Only the woollen manufactories of Castile, the damask and silk manu- factories of Andalusia, the manufactories of arms in the north- western, and the paper manufactories in the eastern provinces, were prospering in the 17th century, while the cotton manufacto- ries of Catalonia rose in the iSth century. Nevertheless the woollen and silk looms did not exceed the number of 10,000 throughout Spain, and in 1768 there were in the whole country not more than 2,200,000 operatives, mechanics, husbandmen, and others depending for subsistence on handiwork. Since the beginning of the present century, Spain has been in an almost uninterrupted state of war, political convulsions, and internal dilacerations, which has proved fatal to most of the existing manufactures, and even to the commerce. The chief articles of export are : wines, fruits of southern Europe, salt, olive oil, corks, quicksilver, and a rather inconsiderable quantity of wool (scarcely one tenth of the quantity which was formerly exported). Of 2.830 vessels that in 1844 entered the port of Cadiz, 2.060 were Spanish coasters, while of the remainder 4S0 were English vessels, 75 from the United States, 6 from Hamburg, 4 from Bremen, 4 from Prussia, etc. Now let us see of what consist the articles of import. Besides colonial produces and spices, they consist chiefly of cloth, calicos, silks, linen, hardware, copper and 80 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESEIH' Education in Spain. pewter utensils, glasswares, furniture, toys and trinkets, fancy articles, timber, corn, flax, hemp, dried and salt fish, salted beef, butter, cheese, poultry, and hogs. Now we ask, what conception can be formed of the actual state of industry in a country where kitchen and other domestic utensils, and even victuals, must be imported ? The means of education are in Spain in the same backward state as in Portugal. According to the assertion of a member of the Cortes in 1839. all Spain numbers not far above 900 schools of every description. At this ratio, 13,333 Spaniards must resort to one single school ! Nominally, there are still 8 universities : at Salamanca (founded in 1222, and in 1845 frequented by 302 students), at Valladolicl (founded in 1346, and in 1841 with 1,300 students), at Valencia (founded in 1401, and in 1841 with 1,600 students), at Saragassa (founded in 1474, and in 1841 with 1,100 students), at Seville (founded in 1504, and in 1845 with 800 students), at Granada (founded in 1531, and in 1845 with 810 students), at St. Jago (founded in 1532, and in 1845 with 1.030 students), and at Oviedo (founded in 1580, and in 1845 numbering 450 students). Yet by all the distractions and revo- lutions, brought on by the last civil war, they have been deprived of most of their revenues, and many of their best teachers and professors. The universities at Huesca (founded in 1354), at Alcala (founded in 1499), at Toledo (founded in 1499), at Ori- huela (founded in 1555), at Cervera (founded in 1717), and at Palma (founded in 1827), have been transformed into secondary schools. Of the first-named universities, only a few are endowed with the privilege of instruction in all branches of science (see note, or explanatory annotation, under the head of Portugal). In 1832, there were still 56 colleges and seminaries, numbering altogether 3,810 pupils, and moreover, 774 Latin schools (see the SPAIK 81 Government— Finances. just-mentioned note) ; yet they likewise are at present in a mis- erable condition. Spain is a kingdom, and its government a limited hereditary monarchy, the supreme power being vested in a King, or Queen (at present Isabella II., born in 1830, and at full age in 1843), and a legislative body. Since the end of the 15th century, the kings of Spain bear the predicate of '•'• Catholic Majesty," in re- membrance of the zeal for the catholic creed evinced by Ferdi- nand and Isabella in subduing the Moors (see History of Europe. 6 16). There is scarcely any kingdom or state to be found in the whole world, where the public finances are in such decayed circum- stances as in Spain. Every year brings a more or less consider- able fZ(yici<, which in 1841 amounted to 174,421,846 veals. Ac- cording to an official statement of the year 1845, its amount would have been no more than 45.112,665 reals, the expendi- ture being rated at 1,250,635,353, and the revenue at 1,205,- 522.688 reals. Yet in reality the deficit amounted to more than double that named sum, the revenue being designedly estimated too high, while the expenditure had by far been exceeded. The amount of the public debt does not fall short of the immense sum of 20,000,000,000 reals (say in words : twenty thousand mil- lions), besides about twenty millions of recently contracted debts, partly not consolidated and partly without paying interest. Con- sidering that the sale of the estates of convents (see above) has yielded large sums, and that in 1843 the Spanish silver mines shall have yielded 229,090 marks of silver, it must at the first sight appear strange, that the Spanish finances should be in such miserable circumstances. Yet sifting the question to the bottom, the riddle is soon solved. The leaders of the Spanish revolution have been in the skill of making money quite as experienced and assiduous as the leaders of the Portuguese revolution. Thus, 4* EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ministerial Corruption. for instance, the Spanish minister of finances, Mr. Mendizabal, had been for years but a poor Jewish pedlar, yet by his shrewdness he insinuated himself into the favor of the Queen Regent, Chris- tiana, who appointed him Minister of Finances. This office fur- nished ample opportunities for him to fill his pockets, as well as those of his adherents and of his benefactress. He sold the estates of convents, a great deal of church property, sacred vessels, and utensils ; nay, even church-bolls ; and according to official returns from the month of June, 1835, the sum received .out of the sale of 559 estates of convents, amounted to 16,693,- .260 reals, and according to official returns from the same month^ 1840, the sum received out of the sale of 31,433 estates of con- vents and churches, amounted to 1,245,549,569 reals. Now it is a fact that the Spanish people have not since been released from a single item of their taxes, which number not less than 94 of various descriptions : but, on the contrary, they have at present to pay more taxes than ever, while the ci-devant poor pedlar, by his •industry in financial aifairs, has amassed a fortune to the amount of at least $3,000,000 ! If Mr. Mendizabal should be asked to give an account of his stewardship, and to restore all property illegally acquired, he would indeed be reduced to very low circumstances, and that deservedly. For he has evidently despoiled the public treasure of the Spanish nation, and to these spoiliations alone does he owe his wealth. His predecessors as well as his succes- sors in that lucrative office have practised the same arts, and in this way acquired immense riches, while the Spanish nation has been burdened with taxes at the ratio of more than 120 reals per head. The Spanish ar7}ij/, notwithstanding the unsettled state of the political institutions of Spain in general, is in good order, for the plain reason of being the principal support of the present rulers. It numbers nearly 100.000 men, and is arranged in 31 SPAIN. 83 Army — Navy— Orders of Honor. regiments and 3 battalions of foot, 18 regiments of cavalry, and about 12,600 artillerists, etc. The Spanish navy is scarcely worthy to be mentioned. In 1802 it numbered not less than 68 ships of the line, 40 frigates, etc. ; but in 1834 it was reduced to 2 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 smaller men of war, and at present most of them have become disqualified for service. This being the state of facts, the once so important and renowned navy-departments (as they were styled) of Ferrol, Cadiz, and Carthagena have been abolished, and reduced to one navy station at Cadiz. The Spanish orders of honor are the following : 1. The order of the golden fleece, instituted in 1430 by Philip the Bountiful, duke of Burgundy.* 2. The order of Maria Louisa, instituted by the Queen Maria Louise (+ 1819) only for ladies. 3. The order of CAar/cs /iZ, instituted by this king in 1771. 4. The military order of St. J(.r(/i/ia?if?, instituted by Ferdinand VII. in ISlo. 5. The military order of St. Hcrmenegild, instituted by Ferdinand VII., in 1815. 6. The so-called Navy-order for distinguished seamen, instituted in 1816 by the same king. 7. The order of St. Isabella, from the year 1815. 8. The military or^er of Maria Louisa Isabella, instituted in 1833 by Ferdinand VII. Besides these there are still to be mentioned the following religious orders of knighthood : the orders of C alatrava {m?,t\iniedi\xx 1158), of St.'Jago de C omposiella {instiinied in 1 170), of J./c(j?i^ara (insti- tuted in 1177). and of Montesa (instituted in 1319). * The present kingdom of Belgium nnd Holland constituted the ancient duchy of Burgundy, whose only lieiress, Mary, was married to Prince Maxi- milian of Austria, the grandfather of King Charles I. of Spain. Tlius since the beginning of the 16th century the duchy of Burgundy was one of the constituent parts of the Spanish kingdom until the year 1714, when the remaining Burgundian provinces were ceded to Austria. For this reason, the originally Burgundian order of the golden fleece has become an Austrian as veil as a Spanish order. 84 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Spain. Jlisfor;/. — Tlie aborigines of Spaiii (which, in the Old Testament, e. g., Ezek. xxvii. 12, is called TarsJiish), in as fai- as they arc noticed by history, were the Iberians and tlie Celts (see Introduction, § 12), both descendants of Japhetli, and immigrated here at an unknown period. The former prevailed in the eastern and southern, and tlie latter in the western and northern phrt of the country. Tlie Celts having in the course of time been intermingled with the Iberians, were since called Celtiberians. But these people lost thcu" political independence at a very early period, when the Phoenicians came liither, settled here (they founded, for instance, Cadiz), reaped great profit from the rich gold and silver mines (see above), and forced the aborigines to work them. Next to tlie Phoenicians came the Carthaginians, who treated the aborigines hke savages and slaves, as also the Romans did, who since the year 20C, before the Christian era, became gradually possessed of the Cartha- ginian settlements in Sjiain, tliough they did not finally conquer all Spain anterior to the year 25, B. C. The whole Pyrenean peninsula became a Roman province, with Roman language, and Roman customs and manners. Before the time of the Emperor Augustus, the peninsula was divided into Hispania cifcrior, or Tarraconcnsis (all the country between the Pyrenees and the Ebro River), and Hispania ulterior, or JOusitania (Portugal), and Bactlca (all parts of Spain situated to the south of the Ebro River). At the time of Augustus, the province of Tarraconcnsis comprised the wliole northern and north-western part of the peninsula, and Baetica comprised the south-eastern part, or Andalusia and Murcia. Lusitania comprised all Portugal with the exception of the provinces on the north side of the Douro. At the time of Emperor Constantino, the extreme north-western part of Tarraconcnsis was called Gallaecia (Galicia), and the extreme south-eastern part of Baetica was called Carthaginic7isis (Murcia). Since the beginning of the migration of nations, Germanic tribes immigrated and settled in the Pyrenean peninsula (see History of Eiu-ope, §§ 2 and 3) ; at first (in 409 and the following years) the Alans, Sucvcs, and Vandals, 'i'he Alans settled chiefly in Lusitania and Carthaginicnsis, the Suevcs in Gallaecia, Baetica, etc., and the A^andals first in the north and subsequently in Baetica (hence its name Yandalitia, or, at present, Andalusia). Yet in 428 the Vandals emigrated to Africa and con- quered its northern part, at present called Barbary. In 414 the Visigoths invaded Spain, subdued the Alans and Sueves together with the last remnants of the Romans, and were in the Cth century masters of the whole peninsula. About the invasion of the Moors, the gradual foundation of CIi|iistian king- SPAIN. 85 History of Spain— House of Hapsburgh — of Bourbon. doms, etc., see History of Europe, §§ 10, 14, and IG, -where we left Spain under the s-\vay of King Charles I., witli -v^hoin began the reign of the house of Hapsburg in Spain. Charles I., who ascended the Spanish throne in 1516, resigned in 1556, and was succeeded by liis son Phihp II., who was the most powerful king in Europe at that period. He was the ruler not only of Spain, but likewise of the Netlierlands, of Xaples, of the islands of Sicily and Sar- dinia, of the duchy of Milan, of the Canarian and Phihppine Islands, and of the immense colonics in America and partly in Africa. Since the year 1580 he became moreover possessed of Portugal and its colonies (see History of Portugal). Yet Spain itself derived no real benefit either from her rich American colonies (for instead of staying at home to cultivate the soil, the inhabitants crossed the ocean in search of gold and silver), nor from the power of her king, who, by his perpetual wars, bui-dened Spain with a heavy public debt. Philip II. died in 1598, and was succeeded by his son Philip III. (1598-1621). Then succeeded Philip IV. (1621-1665), and Charles II. (1665 -ITOO). With Charles II. the male line of the house of Ilapsburg, in Spain, became extinct, and now the female line was to succeed. The chief pretenders to the throne were the French prince Phihp of Anjou (great-grandson of Phihp IV.), and the Austrian Archduke Charles (subsequently emperor of Germany), great-grandson of Phihp III., both by their grandmothers. As the parties did not come to an accommodation, a war ensued, known by the name of the Spanish tear of succession, which lasted from the year 1701 to 1714. England and Holland partook in it by the instigation of William III., prepossessed by liis fancies of European equihbrium (see History of Europe, § 18), and filled with personal hatred against Louis XIY., the grandfather of prince Pliilip. The German empire and the duke of Savoy partook likewise in this war. At last, m the treaties of peace concluded in 1713 at Utrecht, and in l'7'l4 at Rastadt, matters were settled thus : the prince of Anjou, or Phihp V., was acknowledged as king of Spain and both Indies (such was the title since the possession of the colonies in America, etc.). Charles, or the house of Austria, acquii-ed the Spanish possessions iii the Netherlands and in Italy with the excep- tion of the island of Sardmia, which was ceded to the duke of Savoy, henceforth entitled king of Sardinia. England became possessed of Gibraltar and of the island of Minorca (the latter until the year 1755), and Holland acquired — noth- ins, in reward for all its sacrifices made to the foncics and immoderate ambition of William III. With Philip V. (1701-1746) the house of Bourbon ascended the throne of Spain. In 1713 he convocated the Spanish cortes, or states ■ A 8C EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Spain — Its Provinces. (the legitimate representatives of the Spanish nation), chiefly for the purpose to fix the order of succession permanently. In agreement with the king this legislative body laid down as a rule, that only the male descendants of the reigning family should ascend the Sjianish throne ; and thus the so-called Salic law (which excludes all females from the throne) became a fundamental law of the kingdom. The successors of Philip V. were: Ferdinand VI. (1746 -1759), Charles III. (1759-1788), Charles IV. (1788-1808). In 1808 Napo- leon enticed both Charles IV. and his eldest son (subsequently King Ferdinand VII.) to renounce their rights to the Spanish crown in favor of the French emperor, who now appointed his brother Joseph king of Spain. Yet Great Britain intervened, and the ensuing peninsular war ended in the restoration of the Bourbons in Spain, whither Ferdinand VII. (his father having resigned) returned in 1814. During his reign, Spain lost her colonies on the American continent ; a far greater evil was, however, the king's weakness in listening to female intrigues and excluding his brother Charles, the legitimate heir of the throne, from the succession, in favor of his daughter Isabella. This act, as arbitrary as illegal, being in contradiction with the clear terms of the funda- mental law (see above), would indeed have been of little consequence but for the interposition of the French revolution of 1830, and the busy intermeddling of Louis Philipe and Lord Palmerston (the British secretary of state for foreign aflfairs), who nourished in Spain the flames of civil war for more than six years, and supported, by the whole weight of their power and influence, the pretensions of the Queen Regent Maria Christiana (since the year 1833, when Ferdinand VII. died) and her infant daughter. How matters went on during this period, is manifested by the facts above-stated under the head of finances, means of education, navy, etc. In 1833 Spain was divided into 48 departments, and their names were derived from their capitals. Yet since the middle ages Spain has been divided into 17 provinces, styled (with two single exceptions) kingdoms and principalities ; and as their names continually occur in history and other reading, we shall retain them in the following topographical descriptions ; denoting only the capitals of departments with this sign: -\-. It may still be remarked that the 1 1 provinces, beginning with New Cas- tile and ending with Murcia, are called the dominions of the SPAIN. 87 Geography— Statistics. crown of Castile, and the remainder the doininious of the crown of Anigoii (sec History of Europe, ^ 16). 1. The kingdom of New Castile, near the centre of the peninsula, and sepa- rated from the Mediterranean Sea by Valencia and Andalusia. It was wrested in 1085 from the Moors by Ferdinand surnamed the Holy, and con- tauis the following cities and towns : -j- Madrid, the capital of all iSpain, and (since the year 1560) royal residence, on the Manzanares, a branch of the Tagus, south-westward and 240 miles distant from Bayonne (in France), is situated on a sandy and sterile table-land, and numbers 9,000 houses, and according to the census of ISil, about 207,000 (exactly, 206,714) inhabitants. The royal castle is an extremely large and very magnificent building. There are many other noble edifices, besides 77 churches. The royal library num- bers 250,000 volumes. Among the beautiful walks of the city the most frequented are the celebrated " Prado" and the " Paseo de las delicias." At the Prado is situated the royal palace Buen Rcliro (built during the reign of Philip lY.), with extensive gardens. About 7 miles distant from Madrid is situated the royal castle of pleasure cl Pardo (built in the 1 6th century) ; and between 4 and 5 miles distant from the capital is another castle, called Villa viciosa, where Ferdinand VII. died in 1833. Alcala de Hen ares, a town on the Henares River, with 5,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of Cervantes, the celebrated Spanish poet. The former university of Alcala (see above) was next to that of Salamanca the most renowned in Spain- -|- Toledo, a city on the Tagus, south-soulh-west and 27 miles 'distant from Madrid, with silk and sword -blade manufactories, and 16,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages Toledo was the largest city in the Christian part of Spain and in the 14th century it numbered 200,000 udialutants. The magnificent cAthedral was during several centuries a Moorish mosque. . The archbishop of Toledo had formerly an annual revenue of 300,000 ducats. Aranjuez, a town on the Tagus, southward and 27 miles distant from Madrid, with 4,000 inliabitants, and with a splendid royal castle of pleasure (founded by Phihp II.),where the court uses to reside in the season between Easter and Whitsuntide. In the vicinity of Aranjuez is situated the town of Ocana (with 12,000 inliabi- tants) noted for the victory of the French over the Spaniards in 1809. Tala- vera de la IIeyna, a town on the Tagus, south-westward and 64 miles distant from Madrid, with 8,000 inliabitants. It was formerly renowned for its silt manufactories, and is remarkable for Wellington's victory over the French on 88 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Stalislics, etc. — Old Castile. the 27th and 28th of March, 1809. -|- Guadalaxara, a town on the Henares, nuith-wcstward and 37 miles distant from Madrid, witli cloth manufactories, and 7,000 inliabitants. Otlier towns of tliis district are : Sujucnza (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Brihuega (with 2,000 inliabitants). -(- CuExgA, a town on the Xucar, south-south-east and 83 miles distant from Madrid, with 9,000 inliabitants. Molina and Itcqueiia, towns with respectively 5,000 and 6,000 inhabitants. The southern part of New Castile is called La Mancha, on the south bordered by Andalusia, and on the west by Estrcmadura. It contains : -{- CiCDAD Real, capital of La Mancha, near the Guadiana, southward and 92 miles distant from Madi'id, with the most renowned mule marts in Spain, and 8,000 inhabitants. Aljl\den, a town near the frontier of Andalusia, with 10,000 inhabitants, and a mining academy, is noted for its rich quicksil- ver mines (see above). Other towns of La Mancha are : Valdepenas (with 8,000 inhabitants), Ahnagro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Alcaraz (with 3,500 inliabitants), Calatrava and Manzanarcs. 2. The kingdom of Old Castile, on the north side of New Castile, extend- ing northward to the Bay of Biscay. It was originally a country under the sway of the kings of Leon, imtil in 1016 it was raised to the rank of a king- dom. It contains : -j- Burgos, fortified capital of Old Castile, on the Arlan- zon River, northward and 138 miles distant from Madrid, with a magnificent Gothic cathedral (containing the sepulchres of many Spanish kings), and 12,000 inhabitants. At Burgos are still the remnants of the house in which the famous Spanish warrior, Ruy Dias de Vivar, surnamed the Cid, was born in 1026. He died in 1099, and was buried in the neighboring monastery of San Pedro de Cardcna. Other towns in this district are : Aranda de Buero and Laredo. -{- Santander, a fortified maritime toAvn on the Bay of Biscay, westward and 115 miles distant from Bayonne (m France), with a good liar- bor, rather active commerce, and 25,000 uiliabitants. Other, but smaller neighboring seaports are : Santana and Santillana. The town of Espi.iosa de los Monteros (with 2,000 inhabitants) is remarkable for the victory of the French over the British and Spaniards, on the 12th of November, 1808. Briviesca, a fortified t^iwn with 2,500 inhabitants. Near Pancorvo is an im- portant mountain pass on the high-road between Burgos and Vittoria. -f" ^o- fjRONO, a fortified to\vn on the Ebro, eastward and 70 miles distant from Burgos, with fairs, and 8,000 inhabitants, -j- Calauorra, a town on the table- land, called Rioja, has 4,000 inlmbitants, and is noted as tlie birth-place of the ancient Roman author Quhitilianus. Medina Cell, a town with 1,200 in- SPAIN. 89 Statistics, etc. — Leon. habitants. -\- Soeia, a town on the Duero, south-eastward and 78 miles dis tant from Burgos, with considerable trade in wool, and (j,000 inhabitants Here or close by stood the ancient town of Numantia. Osma, a town neai the Duero, with 4,000 inhabitants, -f- Segovia, a town on the Erasnia River, southward and 92 miles distant from Burgos, with a remarkable old castle, once the scat of Gotliic and Moorish kings, 22 churches, and 1^,000 inhabi- tants. Between Segovia and Madrid is situated the town of San lUlcfonso, with 4,300 inliabitants, and the royal castle La Granja, built in 171G by the model of the palace of Versailles. In a wilderness of the Guadarrama Mountains, 23 miles west-north-west of iladrid, is situated the town (with 2,000 inhabitants) and celebrated palace of Escuuial, built in the years loC3-15S4, at an expense of 5,000,000 ducats, by order of Philip II., in re- membrance of his victory over the French at St. Quentin in 1557. The edi- fice, half palace, half monastery, is 740 feet long, 580 feet wide and 60 feet liigh, and has 5,000 windows. Chinchon, a town with 2,000 inliabitants. -j-AviLA, a town on the Adaja River, 55 miles west-north-west of Madrid, with a remarkable Gotliic cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. Until the year 1808 was here a university, founded in 1482. Other towns of this district are : Piedrahita and Arevalo (with 4,500 inhabitants). 3. Tlie kingdom of Leo.\, between Old Castile and Portugal, and separated from the Bay of Biscay by Asturias. About its history, see History of Europe, § 16. It contains : -[-Leon, capital of Leon, 170 miles north-north- west of Madrid, with an ancient Gothic cathedral considered as the finest in all Spain, 7 otlier churches, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- trict are : Astorga (with 4,000 inhabitants), Sahagun (with a formerly cele- brated Benedictine abbey, and 4,000 inhabitants), and Bembibre (with 1,600 inhabitants). -(- Palencia, a town on the Carrion River, south-westward and 41 miles distant from Burgos, witli a beautiful cathedral, and 11,000 inhabi- tants. Torquemada and Saldana, towns with respectively 2,300 and 4,000 inhabitants. -|- Vai.ladolid, a town on the Pisuerga, 100 miles north-north- west of Madi'id, with a royal castle, in wliich Philip II. and several of liis ancestors were born, a magnificent cathedral, a university (see above), and 21,000 inhabitants. At Valladolid Columbus died in 1506, and at that period its population amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- trict are: Medina del Jiio seco (with 8,000 inhabitants, and noted for the battle on the 14th of August, 1808), l\idel a {vdWi. 2,000 inhabitants, and noted for the battle on the 22d of November, 1808), Tordesillas (with 4,000 inhabi- M EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. Statiatics, etc. — Asturias— Galicia. tants). and Shnaneas (with 1,200 inhabitants). -{"Zamoiia, a fortified town on the Diiero, and near the frontier of Portugal, with 10,000 inliabitants. FcrtnosrUe and Toro, towns on the Duero, with respectively 3,000 and 8,000 inhabitants. -(- Salamanca, a town on the Tormes (with an ancient Roman bridge), north-westward and 115 miles distant from Madrid, has since the middle ages been celebrated for its university (see ante), contains a re- markable cathedral, 24 other chui-ches, and numerous magniiicent pubhc edi- fices in general, but at present only 15,000 hihabitants. Battle on the 21st of July, 1812. CiUD.\D RoDRiGO, a fortified town near the frontier of Portu- gal, with 5,000 inhabitants. Wellington's victory in 1812. Other towns of this district are ; Ledesma (with 2,000), Bejar (with 5,000), and Alba de Tor- mes (with 4,000 inhabitants). 4. The principality of Asturias, along the Bay of Biscay, between Old Ca.'stile and Galicia, and on the south bordered by Leon. (About its history see History of Europe, § 16.) The crown-princes of Spain are, by way of eminence, titled princes of Asturias. This province contains : -j- Oviedo, the capital of Asturias, half way between Bilbao and Corufia, with a univer- sity (see above), 5 churches (one of which is remarkable for its high steeple), and 10,000 inhabitants. Gijon, a maritime town, 18 miles north-east of Oviedo, with 6,000 inhabitants. Gijon was the primitive seat of Pelayo (see History of Europe, § 10), whose successors were called kings of Gijon, until Alphonso the Chaste assumed the title of Idng of Oviedo. Other towns of Asturias are : Villa viciosa, Cudillero, Aviles, Mures, Navia, and Cangas de Onis. 5. The kingdom of Galicia, forming the extreme north-western part both of Spain and of the peninsula. It was at an early period wrested from the Moors, and in 1060 raised to the rank of a kingdom by Ferdinand, king of Castile and Leoa It contains : -\- Coru.vna, fortified capital of Galicia and maritime town, northward and 156 miles distant from Oporto, with a very spacious harbor, packet lines to the West Indies and Falmoutlj, various toanufaotories, commerce, and 23,000 inhabitants. Xorth-eastward and 23 miles distant from Corunna, is situated the fortified town of Feukol (with 13,000 inhabitants), formerly the principal station of the Spanish navy. St. Jaoo de Compostella, a town southward and 32 miles distant from Corunna, with 28,000 inhabitants, a imiversity, numerous linen and other manufactories, and a very large cathedral, to which since the 9th century innumerable pil- grims have resorted, as containing the bones of St. James the Less according to general belief Betanzos, a maritime town, with 2,000 inhabitants. SPAIN. »1 statistics, etc. — Estremadura — Andalusia. -f- Lugo, a town near the head of the Minho River, vnth a remarkable cathe- dral, and 12,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Mondoncdo (with 6,000 hihabitants), Ribaduo (witli '2,000 inliabitants), Vivcrro (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Redondela. -\- Okense, a town on the Minho, with a remarKable cathedral, and 5,000 inliabitants. -|- Pontevedra, a maritime town, with 5,000 hihabitants. Other towns of tliis district are : Tuy (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Vigo (with active commerce, and 6,000 inliabitants). 6. The province of Estkemaduha, between New Castile and Portugal, bor- dered on the south by Andalusia. It was conquered in 713 by the Moors, and wrested from them in the 11th and 13th century. It contains: -j-Bada- joz, strongly fortified capital of Estremadura, near the frontier of Portugal, eastward and 138 miles distant from Lisbon, and south-westward and 170 miles distant from ]\Iadrid, with 13,000 inhabitants. Olivex^a, a fortified town quite near the frontier of Portugal, to which kingdom it belonged until the year 1801, when it was ceded to Spain ; it numbers 10,000 inhabitants. Otlier towns of this district are : Xeres de los Cavalleros (with 5,000 inhabitants), Zafra (with 10,000 inhabitants), Llcrena (with 7,500 inliabitants), and Mcrida (with 9,000 inhabitants). -\- Caceres, a town on the river of the same name, with 1 0,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : 7'ruxillo (native place of Pizarro, with 4,000 inhabitants), Coria (with 4,500 inhabitants), Alcantara (with 3,000 inhabitants), Abnaraz (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Plasexcia (115 miles west- south-west of Madrid, with 7,000 iuhuljitants). Eastward and 23 miles distant from the last-named town, is the dehghtful valley of la Vera de Plasencia, with the famous convent of San Geronimo de Juste (founded in 1410), where Iving Charles I. died in 1558. 7, 8, and 9. Andalusia, comprising the southern part of Spain, and con- taining the following three provinces, styled kingdoms, and wrested from the Moors chiefly dm-ing the 13th century: — a. The kingdom of Seville, contain- ing : -|- Seville, the capital of this province, as well as in some respects of Andalusia too, on the Guadalquivir, 46 miles north-north-east of Cadiz, is 16 miles in circuit, and has 13,500 houses, but at present only 91,000 inhabitants, while under the sway of the Moors it numbered 500,000 inhabitants. Seville abounds in magnificent ancient buildings and edifices, and among them are the splendid cathedral, the steeple named Giralda (364 feet in height), an ancient Roman aqueduct, an ancient palace of the Moorish kings, etc. Other cities and towns of this district are : San Lucar, surnamed de Barrameda (seaport of Seville, with considerable commerce and 20,000 inhabitants), Utrera (with 92 EUROPE, PAST A?fD PRESENT, statistics, etc.— Seville — Cordova. 11,000 inhabitant*), Carmona (with 13,000 inhabitanis), Osmna (with 15,000 bhabitants), and Ecija (with 35,000 inhabitants). -{-Huelva, a maritime town, 55 miles west-south-west of Sevilla, with 8,000 inliabitants. Quite near riuelva is situated the little town and seaport of Palos, from which Columbus sailed on his first voyage to America. Other towns of tliis district are : Niehla (with 9,000 inhabitants), Mocjucr (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Ayamonte (with 6,000 inhabitants). -\- Cadiz, a strongly fortified city and chief seaport of Spain, on the Isle of Leon, with 70,000 uihabitants. Cadiz is not only one of the oldest towns of Europe (see History of Spain), but since the years 1717 and 172C, the centre of the rich trade with America and India (until that period, Seville had been the centre). So late as in the year 1803, the imi^orts of Cadiz were ?61,000,000 in value. On the other or eastern end of the named isle, is situated the town of Isla de Leon, or San Fernando, with 15,000 inliabitants, and in its vicinity the village of Las Cabczas de San Juan, where, on the 1st of January, 1820, the miUtary revolution, contrived by Riego, took place. On the continental part of tliis district are situated the following towns : Puerto de Santa Maria (with 20,000 inhabitants), Puerto Real (with 7,000 inhabitants), Medina Sidonia (with 10,000 inliabitants), Cliidana (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Conil (with 1,500 inliabitants). Off Cajye Ta^ui-ALCui (23 miles south-east of Cadiz) the British gained the great naval victory on the 21st of October, 1805, at which the renowned admiral Lord Xelson was killed. Eetween this cape and Gibraltar are situated the \o\;ns.oi Algeziras (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tarifa (with 9,000 inhabitants), and San Roque (with 3,000 inliabitants). Xeres de la Feontera, a city situated north-eastward, and 14 miles from Cadiz, is noted for its excellent wines, and has G0,000 inhabitants. Near this city it was where, in 711, the Visigotlis were defeated by the Moors in a battle that lasted nine days. Arcos de la Frontera, a town 11 miles north-east of Xeres de la Fi'ontera, 12,000 inhabitants. Zahara, a small town at the head of the Gaudaleta River, and situated on a rock, with houses cut out in the rock. h. Tlie kingdom of CoEuovA, containing : -[" Cordova, capital of this province, and once the splendid residence of the Moorish caliphs (see History of Europe, §§16 and 17), at which period its population amounted to about 1,000,000 inhabitants, while at present it numbers only 60,000. Tlie city is situated on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, north-eastward and 120 miles distant from Cadiz, aind contains an exceedingly large and splendid cathedral (once a Moorish mosque), and, moreover, an ancient Moorish palace of great extent. Cordova SPAIN. 93 statistics, etc. — Gibraltar— Granada. was captured by the Christians in 1236. Other to\rns of this province are: Ziiccna (with 12,000 inliabitants), J/on4rens de Mar (with 4,000 inhabitants), CasteUo de Ampurlas (now only with 1,500, but during the sway of the Romans Avith 100,000 inhabitants), Cadaqiies (witli 2,000 inhabitants), and Hostalrlch (with 3,000 inhabitants). About the Uttle republic of Andorra, see under the head of France. 14. The kingdom of Valencia, between New Castile and the Mediterra- nean Sea, on the south bordered by Slurcia, and on the north by Aragon and Catalonia. Since the year 78S a Moorish kingdom, it was conquered in 1238 by the Christian king of Aragon. The Valencians are distinguished by their bdustry and diligence, and for this reason Valencia is the best cultivated 96 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Statistics, etc. — Balearic Islands. province of Spaiu. It contains : -j- Valencia, the capital of this province, on the Guatlahiviar and quite near its mouth, south-eastward and 193 miles distant from Madrid, with a university and numerous other literary institu- tions, important book-trade and silk manufactories, a magnificent catheJral and 72 other churches, and 66,000 inhabitants. Its seaport is called Grao. Northward and 32 miles distant from Valencia is situated Murviedro, a town with 6,000 inhabitants, and in ancient ages famous by the name of Saffiiitt. Other towns of this district are: Liria (with 12,000 inhabitants), San Felipe (with 15,000 inhabitants, founded by Philip V. in place of the town of Xativa, which in 171-i was demolished), Carcarcnte (with 6,000 inhabitants), and ^4^tvVa (with 9,000 inhabitants), -j- Castlllox de la Plana, a maritime town, 55 miles north-north-east of Valencia, with 15,000 inhabitants. Near tlie coast are the uninhabited isles of Columbretes. Other towns of this district are: Peniscola (with 2,500 inhabitants), Vinaroz (with 9,000 inhabitants), Segorbe (with 6,000 inhabitants), Cervera and Morella. -j- Alicante, a mari- time town, southward and 83 miles distant from Valencia, with important wine-trade and salt-works, and 25,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Orihuela (with 26,000 inhabitants), Elche (with 20,000 inliabi- tants). Ahoy (with 18,000 inhabitants), Gandia (with 6,000 inhabitants), Dcnia (with 2,000 inhabitants), Gxiardamar (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Benidorme (with 2,500 inhabitants). 15. The kinr/dom of Majorca, or the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterra- nean Sea, opposite to the coast of A'"alencia. The Carthaginians were for a long time possessed of these islands, which subsequently were conquered by the Romans. In 429 A. D. the Vandals settled here, and since the year 798 the Moors took jwssession of the islands, which were wrested from them in the years 1229-1254 by King James I. of Aragon. There are altogether 4 isLinds, and two of them (Majorca and Minorca) are emphatically named Ha- /caric, while the two other (Ivica and Formentera) are called the Pithyusian Island-t. The island of M.uorca (area : 1,342 square miles ; population : 200,000 inhabitants) contains : -|~ Palma, fortified capital, with a secondary school, for- merly a university, a remarkablx: cathedral, and 34,000 inhabitants. Other towns of the island are: Alcudia (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Soller (with 5,600 inhabitants). Tlie island of Minorca (area : 256 square miles ; popu- lation: 50,000 inhabitants), belonging to the British in the period from the year 1708 to 1755 (see History of Spain), contains: Maiion, or Port Mahon capital of the island, with one of the finest harbors in the Mediterranean, and SPAIN". 97 Statistics, etc.— Navarre— Basque Provinces. 6,000 itJiabitants. Tlie former capital of this island was Cuidadela, with 2,500 inhabitants. Besides Majorca and Minorca, the Balearic Islands com prise the Isles of Cabrera (a kind of convict colonj-), Forwkida, Fantaleu, Dragonera, and Colombo. Of the P'dhyusian Manda, that of IvicA has an area of 192 square miles, and a population of 20,000 inhabitants, -while the other named Formexteua, is 43 square miles in extent, and numbers 2,000 inliabitants. IC. The kingdom of Nav^vkre, between Aragon and tlie Basque provinces, on the north separated from France by the Pyrenees. About its early his- tory, see History of Em-ope, §16; and it is only to be added here, that iu 1284r the kingdom of Navarre was inherited by the Count Theobald of Cham- pagne, who entailed it upon his French descendants, until in 1512 King Fer- dinand of Aragon wrested from them the southern part of it. It contains i -f- Pampeluna, fortified capital of Navarre, 20*7 miles north-north-east of Mad- rid, with 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Estella{'v^'\.\X\ 5,000 inhabitants), Vlana (with 3,500 uiliabitants), Tudcla (with 8,000 inhab- tants), Olite (with 1,200 inhabitants), Tafalla (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Sangucsa (with 2,500 inhabitants). The valley of Roncevalles in the Pyrenees, 28 miles north-east of Pampeluna, is noted for the attack on the Frankish warriors of Charlemagne in 800, and the glorious death of Roland. 17. Tlie Basque Provinces, along the Bay of Biscay, and on the other sides surromided by Xavarre and Old Castile. Tliey entered into a political con- nection with the kingdom of Castile by the treaties of the year 1202, with the reservation of particular privileges. There are three of them, viz. : — a. Biscay, containing : -j- Bilbao, fortified capital of Biscay, on the Ybaizabal, 7 miles distant from its mouth, 73 miles west-south-west of Bayonne (in France), with export of wool, and 15,000 inhabitants. Bilbao's seaport is called Portugaldc. Nea'r the little town of Sorromanfro, or Somorrostro, are important iron mines Otiier towns of Biscay are : Ordtina (with 4,000 inliabitants), Durango (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Bermeo (with 1,500 inhabitants), b. Guipuzcoa, con- taining: -j-Sax Sebastiax, strongly fortified capital of Guipuzcoa, on the Bav of Biscay, 27 miles west-south-west of Bayonne (in France), with iron trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Otlier towns of Guipuzcoa are : Los Passages (with 2,000 inhabitants), Fucntcrahia (witli 1,800 inhabitants), Iran (with 1,100 inhabitants), Guctaria (with 500 inhabitants), Plasencia (with 1,300 inhabi- tants), Bergara (with 4,000 inhabitants), JTojidragon (with 2,500 inhabitants), Tolosa (with 4,200 inhabitants), Alegria, and Azpeytia. The chief town of a 5 98 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESEXT. Spanish Colonies. little district called Encartationes, is Oxate (with hardware manufiictories, and 4,000 inhabitants), whose former university is at present united with that of Valladolid. c. Alava, containing : Vittoria, capital of Alava, southward and 28 miles distant from Bilboa, has 12,00Q inhabitants, and is noted for its sword-blades. Battle on the 21st of June, 1813. Other towns of Alava are : Salvatierra (with 1,200 inhabitants), Aiiana, and Banos de Ebro. The Spanish Colonies, at present reduced to an area of 110.760 square miles (with about 4,500,000 inhabitants), are the following : — 1. In Afhica: the so-called Presidios^ or four fortified towns on the northern coast of Africa, opposite the province of Granada (Ceuta, Penon de Velez, Alhucemas, and Melilla) ; the Canary Islands, and two islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 2. In America : the West Indian islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. 3. In Asia : the greatest part of the Philippine Islands. 4. In Polynesia: ih.Q Ladroiie, ox Marianne Islands. In the period from the year 1580 to 1640. when the immense Spanish dominions on the American continent and the Portu- guese colonies were united, the total extent of the Spanish pos- sessions amounted to 9.239.855 square miles. ITALY. Area: 119,706 square miles. Population: 24,573,100 inhabitants. Italy forms a great peninsula on the south of Europe, extend- ing into the Mediterranean Sea. It is fancied to have the shape of a boot, the island of Sicily l^'ing at the toe. Of the above-stated area and population, the Italian continent and its smaller isles comprise 99.652 square miles, and 21,785,100 inhabitants, while the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta, comprise 20,054 square miles, and 2,788,000 inhabitants. In a political sense, the island of Corsica forms a constituent part of France, and thus it can only in a geographical sense be considered as belonging to Italy. Its area (3,791 square miles) is for this reason added to that of the French continent. Of those Alps (see Introduction, ^ 7) which separate Italy from other countries, the Maritime and the Cottian Alps form the boundary towards Fkance, the Pennine and the Lepontic Alps towards Switzerland, and the Rhaclic Alps towards Germany; while the Graij Alps belong exclusively to Italy. About the Apennines, see Introduction, \ 7. About the rivers and lakes of Italy, see Introduction, ^^9 and 10; the seas^ gulfs, and straits, washing the shores of Italy, are noted under § 8. The climate is generally mild and delightful ; and even in the northern parts of Italy, the short winter is of great mildness. 100 EUROrE, PAST AXD PRESENT. Italian Scenery — Productions— Manufactures. Besides this, Italy is noted for the beauty, diversity, and romantic character of its scenery. Nevertheless, the country has in this respect its unfavorable side as well as other countries. Thus, for instance, the south wind proves often to be exceedingly hot and enfeebling, and is in this case called Sirocco; and the coast between Leghorn and Naples (likewise the country near the mouths of the Po) suffers much from malaria, or the bad air of the marshes. With respect to natural^ producimis, Italy is very poor in min- erals, especially in metals, with the exception of iron (its annual produce is about 150,000 quintals), and some lead (2,000 quintals). Yet Italy is noted for its excellent marble of Carrara (in the duchy of Modena), and the island of Sicily abounds in sulphur. Moreover, great quantities of lava and pumice are exported from Naples, Chief products of the vegetable kingdom are : rice (in Lombardy), 7naizc and ichcat (chiefly in Upper Italy and Tuscany), icine (in all parts of the country ; yet the best sorts are those known by the name of Lachrymae Christi, Monte Piilciano, Monte Fia.scone, Vino Santo, etc.), olive oil, and fruits of southern Europe. Naples has the finest breed of horses ; in many of the mountainous parts of Italy are mules, and in the States of the Church and Tuscany, buffaloes are reared. But, in general, the rearing of cattle and sheep is of no great importance. As nox- ious animals, may be mentioned, vipers, tarantulas, and scorpions ; while, the silk-worm, kept in great number throughout Italy, is of substantial benefit to the country. Agriculture flourishes in Lombardy and Tuscany. During the middle ages, Italy excelled in various manufactures, which are still important, though not so much so as formerly The kingdom of Lombardy and Venice ranks first in manufac- tures, and those of other Italian countries are at least not in a backward state. Thus may be mentioned the manufacture of ITALY. 101 Italian Commerce — Education— Religion. silks at Turin, Genoa, Lucca, Naples, Palermo, Ancona, Florence, and Bologna ; of leather gloves at Naples, Genoa, Rome, and Lucca ; of paper at Lucca, Genoa, Turin, Pescia, etc. ; of pergamen at Rome, in Piedmont, etc. ; of artificial Jloicers at Genoa, Turin, Bologna. Rome, etc. ; of straw hats, in Tuscany ; and of catguts for musical instruments, at Rome, Naples, etc. The Italian commerce is very considerable, though chiefly re- stricted to the intercourse •with the Levant. The principal sea- ports and first commercial cities of Ital}", are Leghorn and Genoa ; next to them are to be mentioned, Ancona, Naples, Messina,Venice, Civita Vccchia, Gallipoli, etc. The most important inland trade is carried on by Milan, Turin, Yerona, Alessandria, Florence. Rome, Lucca, Modena, and Parma. The chief articles of export are silk, olive oil, oranges and other fruits, and marble ; while tropical produce, corn, British, French, and German manufactures, fancy articles, etc., are chiefly imported. In the means of education, Lombardy and Venice, Tuscany and Parma, surpass by far the other Italian countries, where the lower classes are, for the most part, ignorant, and averse to improve- ment. Nevertheless there are throughout Italy learned men to be found, who are distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. In music, and perhaps even in sculpture, the Italians excel most of the other European nations. The Roman Catholic is the established religion in all the Italian states ; although others are at present, and some have long been, tolerated. The Waldenscs, in Piedmont, who have almost the same religious faith as the Moravian brethren, do, since the year 1848, enjoy the same political privileges as their catholic fellow-citizens ; while the Armenians, Greeks, Mo- hammcdans, and Jews, in the commercial cities, have free exerci.se of religion. During the wars and differences between the Em- peror Charles V. and the Pope, in the 16th century, the Refor- 102 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. History of Itnly. mation made such progress in Italy, that but for the subsequent rigorous and bloody proceeding of the inquisition, perhaps the majority of the Italians would have embraced the Protestant faith. History of Italy. — Tlie aborigines of Italy, in as far as liistory has noticed them were the Umhrians, Siculians, Sabines, Vohci, Ausoiiians, Samnites, etc. At a very early period foreign immigrants joined them, for instance, lUyrians, Pelasgians, Celtes, and Veneics ; and from their mixture arose vari- ous other people, as the Etruscans, Lalina, Campanians, etc. In the period between the years 1000 and TOO B. C, many of the ancient Greeks settled in the southern parts of the Italian peninsula, and founded there the cities of Ta- rant, Sybaris, Croton, Brundusium, Naples, Reggio, etc. After that time the south of Italy was called Great-Greece. Anterior to the first settlement of the Greeks, Aeneas, a Trojan prince, shall have immigrated into Latium with many of his fugitive countrymen, and their descendants fonnded Rome in 754 A. C In the beginning the Romans were ruled by kings in the following succession : Romulus (754-715), Numa Pompilius (715-672), TuUus Hostilius (672-640), Ancus Martins (640-616), Tarquinius Priscus (616-578), Servius TulUus (578-534), and Tarquinius Superbus (5-34-510). The monarchic form of government having been abolished in 510 B. C, Rome became a republic with aristocratic forms of government, which lasted until the year 45 B. C, when Julias Cajsar was appointed dictator for lifetime and assumed the title of imperator. The first actual Roman emperor was Octavius or Augustus, who after a reign of 44 years died in 14 A. D. ; and the last Roman emperor was Romulus Augustulus, who in 476 A. D. was dethroned by Odoacer, the leader of a Germanic tribe called the Heruli. About the subsequent politi- cal fate of Italy, see History of Europe, §^ 6, 7, 9, and 14. Since the con- quest of the Lombardian kingdom of Italy by Charlemagne, the greatest part of Italy was under the sway of the Prankish, and since the end of the 9th century under that of the German kings and emperors (see History of Europe, § 14 at its end). But as soon as the latter began to yield to the pretensions of the popes, many parts of the country became independent, as republics or as duchies, etc., while in Lower Italy the Normans founded the kingdom of Naples. In the last three centuries most of the Italian states were the subject of a quarrel between Austria, France, and Spain, and the wars subsequent to the first French revolution brought on new political ITALY. 108 Divisions of Italy — Sardinia. changes there. But -vve must defer the further particulars to the history of each separate Itahaji state. Italy comprises the following states : — In Upper Italy : 1. The Kingdom of Sardinia. 2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. 3. The Duchy of Parma. 4. The Duchy of Modena. In Central Italy : 5. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany G. The Slates of the Church. 7. The Republic of San Marino. In Lower Italy : 8. The Kingdom of Naples.* ^^~ I. THE KINGDOM OF SARDIN^L^. Area : 29,245 square miles. Population : 5,292,000 inhabitants. Until the peace of Utrecht (in 1713) this state was known by the name of the duchy of Savoy. Since that time and at present it embraces the western section of Upper Italy, together with the large island of Sardinia. 'o^ * Besides these states, the geographical description of Italy must necessa- rily embrace that of the really Italian island of Malta also. 104 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardiuia: Geographical Description. According to the census of 1844, the population of the whole kingdom amounted to 5.108.601 inhabitants; but since it has increased to the above-stated number. With the exception of about 22.000 Waldcnscs (see above) and of 8,000 Jews, all inhab- itants are Catholics, under the church authority of 7 archbishops and 34 bishops. There are still 334 monasteries and 95 nunne- ries in this kingdom. • The north-west part of continental Sardinia comprises the highest branches and summits of the Alps (see above, and Intro- duction, ^ 7), while the Ligurian Apennines run through its southern part. The chief river is the Po ; and one of its tributaries, the Ticino (see Introduction, ^ 10), forms the boundary on the side of Lom- bardy and Venice. Of the continental provinces. Savoy is thoroughly mountainous, and for this reason not much adapted to agriculture. Piedmont and the adjacent districts are for the most part level, and at the same time fertile and well cultivated. Genoa and Nice, sheltered by the Apennines against the cold northerly winds, are noted for the mildness of the climate, and abound in fruits of southern Europe. Although in Savoy the rearing of cattle, and in Pied- mont, etc., the agriculture is in a high state of prosperity, yet the chief staple of the kingdom is only silk. Other articles of export are rice, olive-oil,*cattle; and hemp. About the manufac- tures, see above. There are 4 universities in the kingdom, viz.: at Turin (founded in 1412, and in 1842 frequented by 1,250 students), at Genoa (founded in 1812, and in 1842 with 610 students), at Cagliari (founded in 1720, renewed in 1764, and frequented in 1842 by 499 students), and at Sassari (founded in 1766, and in 1842 with 240 students). Besides these there are 85 colleges and 39 semi- naries. The common schools are still in a backward state. ITALY. 106 Sardinia: Government, etc. — History, Until the beginning of the last revolution in Italy the power of the king (at present Victor Emanuel^ born 1820, March 14) in most of the provinces was absolute ; and in Genoa and the island of Sardinia more or less limited. The annual revenue of the state is upon an average 79,000,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure about 77,500,000 lire. The public debt amounts to nearly 150,000,000 lire, about 830,000,000 The army numbers on the peace footing 34,500, and on tha war footing 135,300 men. The nary numbers 5 large frig- ates, 2 sloops of war, 2 brigs, 4 schooners, 12 gun-boats, and 3 steamers. The orders of honor of Sardinia are the following: 1. The order of St. Amiunciata, in one class, instituted in 1362, and re- newed in 1518 and 1720. 2. The order of St. Mauritius and Lazarus., in 3 classes, instituted in 1434, and altered in 1527. 3. The military order of Savoy ^ in 4 classes, instituted in 1815. 4. The order of merit, from the year 1831. 5. The order or cross of loyalty., instituted in 1814. The royal title is: " King of Sardinia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem, Duke of Savoy, Genoa, etc., Prince of Piedmont, Margrave of Italy," etc. History. — Tlic ancestral seat of the Sardinian monarchs is Savoy, -which since the year 879 formed part of the kingdom of Arelat (see under France), an^l whose governor, Berold or Beroald, made himself independent in 1016, an3 was the first count of Savoy. His descendants acquu-ed in tlie course of time, partly by marriage, partly by purchase, Piedmont, Asti, and JVice. In 1416 Count Amadeus VIII. was by the German emperor Sigismund raised to tlie rank of a duke of Savoy. In 14.38 the heu-ess of the kingdom of Cyprus (established at the end of the 12th centiu-y) bequeathed that island to her nephew, Charles I. duke of Savoy, hence the claims of this house upon the above-stated title. In the history of Spain it has already been stated that the duke of Savoy (at that period Victor Amadeus II., whose great -grand- mother was the daughter of King Philip II. of Spain) partook in tlie war of tttccession. As confederate of Austria in this war, he acquired the duchy of 5* 106 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Geographical Division — Piedmont. Montfcrrat and part of the duchij of Milan, and by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, tlie i^hind of Sicily, wliich he however in 1720 ceded to Austria, that indeinnitied him by tlie island of Sardinia. Since that time the dukes of Savoy transformed this title into tliat of kings of Sardinia. In 1792 the French invaded the continental part of the kingdom, and incorporated first Savoy and Nice, and sub.^eqnently all Sardinian provinces on the continent, with France. Thus the •whole kingdom was reduced to the island of Sar- dinia ; but in 1814 the king was not only reinstated into tlie possession of his dominions, but amply indemnified by the annexation of the former republic of Genoa. In 1831 the elder branch of the house of Savoy became extinct, and Charles Albert of the collateral line of Savoy- Car iff nan (whose ancestor was a younger son of the above-named Duke Emanuel) ascended the throne. But the reverse3 be met with in the war against Austria in 1849, induced him to abdicate, and he was succeeded by his eldest son, the now reigning king Victor Emanuel. The whole kingdom is divided into 10 counties, or general intendancies. as they are styled (of Turin, Cuneo, Alessandria, Aosta. Novara, Savoy. Nice, Genoa, Cagliari, and Sassari), which are subdivided into 48 districts. But in the following topog- raphy, we shall retain the historical division into the provinces of Piedmont, Savoy, Nice, etc., as these names are more in use. Although Savoy is the ancestral seat, we must begin with Piedmont, as containing the metropolis and royal residence. 1. Tlie principality of Piedmont, of which the counts of Savoy became possessed in the 11th and 12th century, contains : Turin, the capital ot tlie kingdom and royal residence, on the Po, 73 miles west-south-west of Milan, and north-westward and 70 miles distant from Genoa, is the most regularly built of all the Italian cities, and adorned with numerous magnificent public edifices and palaces, and has 135,000 inhabitants. It contains 110 churches and chapel-i, a university (see p. 104), and many other literary institutions, and is noted for its manufactures of silk. In the beautiful environs of Turin, are the royal country-seats and palaces of Stupinigi (buUt in 1740, and one of the most splendid palaces in Europe), of Moncalieri, or Montecalieri (near ITALY. 107 Sardinia : Statistics of Piedmont. tlie town of the same name, with 1,000 inhabitants), of La Veneria (near the to\TO of the same name, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a fine royal stud), and of Jiivoli (near the town of tlie same name, with 6,000 inhabitants). La Superga is a magnificent clmrch and convent, built in the years 1715-1731. Carignan, or Carignano, a town on the Po, soutliward and 11 miles distant from Turin, is the ancestral seat of tlie reigning royal family, and has 8,500 inhabitants. CuiERi, a town in the vicinity of Turin, has 1-4,000 inhabitants, and was in the middle ages a republic by the name of Cairo. Other towns of this district are: Cannagnola (with 12,000 inhabitants), Chivasso (with 7,000 inliabitants), Cirie (with 4,000 inhabitants), Caselle (with 4,500 inhabitants), San Maurizio (with 3,000 inhabitants), Lanzo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Viu (with 4,600 inhabitants), Vsseglio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Rivarolo (with 6,000 inliabi- tants), and Rivara (with 1,700 inhabitants). Susa, in the middle ages, chief town of a margraviate of the same name, on the Dora Riparia, westward and 30 miles distant from Turin, with 3,500 inhabitants, and the remarkable remains of the strong fortress oi Brunetta, demolished in 1797. Other towns of this district are : Exilles (with 1,500 inhabitants), San Amhrogio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Giaveno (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Avigliana (with 3,000 inhabitants). Pinerolo, or Pignerol, a town on the Clusone, south- westward and 25 miles distant from Turin, with a beautiful cathedral, and 14,000 inhabitants. Vmcrolo, Fcncsirclle (with 4,000 inhabitants), Oulx (with 1,000 inliabitants), and Cesana (with 1,000 inhabitants), together with the valley of Cluxone, belonged to France in the period from the year 1631 to 1713. Other towns of this district are : Cavoux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Cumiana (with 3,500 inhabitants), Vigone (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Villafranca d'- Piemonte (with 8,000 inhabitants). The valleys of Lucerna, Peroso, and San Martino, are the seat of the above-mentioned Waldenses, with 13 churches. Saluzzo, formerly the chief town of a margraviate of the same name, on the Po, 32 miles south-south-west of Turin, with an old castle (once the residence of the renowned margraves of Saluzzo), a splendid cathedral, and 15,000 inhabitants. Quite near is situated the magnificent abbey of Staffarda (founded in 1135 by Manfredo I., margrave of Saluzzo, and built in the Gothic etyle). Victory gained by the French marshal Catiuat,in 1690. Other towns of this district are: Savigliano (with 16,500 inhabitants), Racconigi (with 10,500 inhabitants), and Barge (with 7,000 inliabitants). Cuneo, or Coni, a town at the junction of the Gesso and the Hura, 92 miles south-south-west of Turin, with 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Busca (with 108 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Statistics of Piedmont. 8,000 inhabitants), Dromro (with 7,000 inhabitants), Fossano (with 13,000 inliabitants), Viiiad^o (with 2,000 inhabitants), Bemonte (with 7,000 uilijbi- tants), C/iiusa or La Chlusa (with G,500 inhabitants), Valdicri (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Boves (with 8,000 inhabitants). Mondovi, a town on the Ellero, southward and 46 miles distant from Turin, with 10,500 inhabitants. Victory gained by Napoleon Bonaparte, on the 22d of April, 1796. A short time before, Bonaparte had gained another victory at Mlllcstmo (a town, eastward and 18 miles distant from Mondovi, with 1,300 inliabitants). Other towns of this district are : Ceva (with 3,500 inhabitants), Bene (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Cherasco (with 12,500 inhabitants). Alba, a town on the Tanaro, soutli- castward and 32 miles distant from Tui-in, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants. Bka, a town on the Hura, with 12,000 inhabitants. Govonc, a town on the Tanaro, with 2,500 inhabitants. Polcmo, a village with a Gothic castle and beautiful park. Another village with an ancient castle, is Barolo. Asti, once the chief town of the coiuity of Asti, of which the dukes of Savoy became possessed in 1531, with a magnificent Gothic cathe- dral, and 24,000 inhabitants. Cocconato and San Damiano, towns with respectively 3,500 and 7,000 inhabitants. Ivrea, a town on the Doria Baltea, northward and 32 miles distant from Turin, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8.500 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Locana (wiTh 4,000 in- habitants), Agile (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cuorgne (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ponte (with 2,500 inhabitants), Caatellamonte (with 6,000 inhabitants), Borgo- masino (with 2,000 inhabitants), C'aluso (with 5,500 inhabitants), and San Giorgio (with 4,000 inhabitants). Veucelli, once the chief town of a Lord- sliip belonging to the famous barons of Yisconti, and since the year 1427 belonging to the house of Savoy (the Dukes Amadeus IX. and Charles III. resided here towards the end of the 15 th, and in the beginning of the 16th century), is situated on the Sesia, 39 miles east-north-east of Turin, and con- tains many remarkable Gothic edifices, and 19,500 inhabitants. Other towns of tliis district are : Santhia, or St. Ya (with 3,500 inhabitants), Crcsccntino (with 4,400 inhabitants), and Trino (with 7,000 inhabitants). Biella, a town 41 miles north-north-east of Turin, with 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Oropa (with 1,200 inhabitants), Andorno (with 3,000 inliabi- tants), Occfiieppo super lore (with 1,700 inhabitants), Croce Mosso (with 1,000 inhabitjuits), and I'ollovc (witii 1,500 inhabitants). Masseraxo, a little prin- cipality belonging to the barons of Ferreri, under the sovereignty of Sardinia. Aosta, a town, at the foot of Mount St. Bernard, 50 miles north-north-west ITALY. 109 Sartlinia: Statistics of Savoy. of Turin, with 7,000 inliabitants. St: Vincenzo, a to\m, with mineral springs, and 2.000 inhabitants. Chattillon, a town,Avith iron works, and 1,500 inhabi- tants. CoRMAGcaoRE (in French, Courmayeur), a village between the Ber- nardins, with frequented mineral springs, and 1,200 inhabitants. Bardo, or Bard, a fortress between Aosto and Ivrea, dominating the road over the Great St. Bernard, and therefore presenting the last serious obstacle to Bonaparte, when in 1800 he crossed the Alps with his army. 2. The duchy of Savoy, between Piedmont and France, on the north bor- dered by the lake of Geneva (its population was 606,-396 inhabitants, accord- ing to the census of 18-14; about its history, see p. 105) ; containing: Cham- BERT, capital of Savoy, at 9 miles distance from the French frontier, 46 miles south-south-west of Geneva and 8-3 miles west-north-west of Turin, with an ancient castle once the residence of the dukes of Savoy, active trade with Lyons, and 18,500 inhabitants. Not far off is situated, in a delightful valley, the town of Aix, noted (even from the days of the Romans) for its mineral springs, and with 3,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Alta CoMBA, in French Haute Combe (with a renowned abbey from the year 1125, and with 1,000 inhabitants), Echcllcs (with 1,200 inhabitants), Mommeliano, in French Montmelian (with 1.300 inhabitants), Rumilly (with 4,500 inliabi- tants), St. Pierre d'Albic/ny (with 4,000 inhabitants), Yenne (with 3,500 in- habitants), ^l///o?4 (with 3,000 inhabitants), ^ri'ais, or San Gervaslo, a village at the foot of Mont Blanc, with mineral .springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. MoNTiERS, or Monsticrs, surnamed en Tarentaise, a town on the Iscre, 30 miles cast-soutli-east of Chambery, with 2,800 inliabitants. Avne, a town with 9u0 inhabitants. San Giovanni, or St. Jean de Mauricnne, a town 28 miles south-east of Chambery, with frequented mineral springs, and 3,000 inliabitants. Other towns of tliis district are: Lans-lc-Bounj (with 1,500 inhabitants), Modane (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Termvfnon (with 1,800 inhabitants). 3. The county of Nice (area : 1,448 square miles ; population : 247,483 in- habitants, according to the census of 1844), along the coast and on the French border, once belonging to Provence, but since the year 1388, to the house of Savoy. It contains : Nice, a maritime town and the capital of the county, much frequented by the English, Germans, and others, on account of its salu- brious air, with 37,000 inhabitants. Other towns of the county are : Villafranca (with 3,000 inliabitants), Sospello (with 9,000 inhabitants), Turbia (with 800 inhabitants), Tenda (with 3,000 inhabitants), Brixja (with 3,000 inliabitants), and Oncglia (with 5,000 inhabitants). The principality of Monaco (area: 53 square miles; population: 7,000 inliabitants), surrounded by the county of Nice, is independent in its local affairs, but in other respects under the protection and supremacy of Sardinia. It yields an annual revenue of 100,000 francs to the prince of Monaco (at present Florestan I., belonging to tlie family of Giimaldi), and contains the following towns: Monaco (the capital, with 1,200 inhabitants), Mentone (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Rocca hruna. 4. Tlie (/uc% of MoNTFEERAT (area : 1,065 square miles ; population : 170,000 inhabitants), situated between Turin and Genoa. Montferrat was originally a rnargraviatc, and in 890 it was ruled by the margrave WilHam, whose male hne became extinct in 1305. The heiress of the margraviate, lolantha, was married, in 1330, with a prince of Savoy, and by the right of succession, the house of Savoy became possessed of the margraviate, or duchy, in the years 1627 and 1703. It contains: Casale, capital of Montferrat, on the Po, eastward and 37 miles distant from Turin, with several remarkable palaces, and a cathedral, and 20,000 inhabitants. Acqui, a town on the Bormida, with 8,500 ITALY. lU Sardinia: Statistics of Duchy of Milan, etc. inhabitants. The little town of Cucarro is considered as the actual hirth-place of Columbus, Tvho, according to recent investigators, was born here in 1442 , "while others arc of the opinion that he was born in Cogoleto (see under duchy of Genoa). Nizza dclla Pacjlia, a town on the Belbo, with 5,000 inhabitants. 5. The Sardinian portion of the duchy of Milan (see history of this duchy in the description of the Austrian eniph-e), containing : Alessandria, sur- named dclla Paglia, a city on the Tanaro, eastward and 46 miles distant from Turin, and northward and 42 miles distant from Genoa, witli several literary institutions, frequented fairs, and 46,000 inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated the village of Marengo, noted for the battle of the 14th of June, 1800. Bosco, a great village, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a magnificent abbey, founded in the 16th century. Valcnza, a town on the Po, with 7,000 inhab- itants. LuMELLO (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mortara (with 4,200 inhabi- tants), and Vigevano (with 12,000 mhabitants). Novara, a town on the Agogna, north-eastward and 55 miles distant from Turin, with a magnificent cathedral, several literary institutions and societies, and 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Olcggio (with T.OOO inhabitants), Borgmnanero (with 7,000 inhabitants), Maggiora (with 2,000 inliabitants), Borgosesia (with 8,000 inliabitants), and Varallo (with 3,000 inliabitants). Near the village of Alagna, at the foot of Moimt Rosa, are important copper mines. On the Lake Maggiore is situated the town of Arona, with 65,000 inhabitants, noted for a colossal statue of Charles Borronieo, born in 15.38 at Arona, and distin- guished for his works of Cliristian charity. He was cardinal and archbishop of Milan, where he died in 1584. Near Arona, and in the Lake Maggiore, are the Borromean Isles {Isola dei Pescatori, laola lella, and Isola madre), with beautiful gardens, belonging to the fimiily of Borromeo. Pallama (vrith 1,600 inhabitants). Intra (with 6,000 uihabitants), and Canobbio (with 2,000 inliabitants), towns on the Lake Maggiore. Other towns of this district are : Domodossola, or Donio d'Ossola (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Vogogna (with 1,500 inhabitants). Tortona, a to^^ni on the Scrivia, eastward and 9 miles distant from Alessandria, with 9,000 inhabitants. Serravalle, a town, with 2,400 inhabitants. Bocbio, a town on the Trebbia, and near the frontier of the duchy of Parma, with 5,000 inliabitants. Voghera, a town 18 miles east-north-east of Alessimdria, with 12,000 inhabitants. 6. The former republic (at present styled duchy) of Genoa (area : 2,343 Bquare miles ; population, according to the census of 1844: 705,708 inhabi- tants). The city of Genoa was alicady in the days of the ancient Eomans 112 EUROPE, TAST AND PRESENT. Sardinia: Puchy of Genoa— flistory and Statistics. noted for its extensive commerce. In tlie period of the migration of nations it came imder the sway of the Ostrojjoth';, and since changed hand^, until in the middle ages it threw off obedience to the German emperors, and became independent, witli republican forms of government like those of Venice. So early as the year 806 it had conquered the island of Cor.sica, which it kept first until the 11th, and then, since the year 1284, until the latter half of the 18th century, when the island was ceded to France. About the liiglily -im- portant and extensive commerce of Genoa in the middle ages, see History of Europe, § lY. Since the year 1464, Genoa, with its territory, was consid- ered as part of the duchy of Milan. It was conquered by King Francis I. of France, and again by Charles V. emperor of Germany. At last, in 1 528, it re- acquired its independence, which it maintained until the wars brought on by tlie French revolution. In 1797, it was transformed into a Ligurian lirpuhlic ; in 1805, incorporated into the French empire ; and in 1815, into the kingdom of Sardinia. The duchy of Genoa contains the following cities and towns : Genoa, fortified capital of the duchy and chief seaport of Sardinia, on the Gulf of Genoa, with 120,000 inliabitants. It is built on the declivity of a mountain which half encircles its liarbor, and is surnamed the Superb on accoimt of its numerous and magnificent palaces and other edifices, among which arc more than 100 churches. Besides a university (see p. 104), there are many other scientific and literary institutions. (About the birtli-place of Columbus, see Cucarro, p. Ill, and Cogolcto, p. 113.) Tlie shore to the riglit and to the left of the city, is covered with numerous and splendid villas. As Genoa's suburb is considered the neighboring town of San Piar d'Arena, or San Pietro (V Arena, with many villas and magnificent palaces, and 7,000 inhabitants, Westward and 23 miles distant from Genoa, is situated the village of Montenotte, noted for the victory gained by Bonaparte on the 14th of April, 1796. Other remarkable villages in the vicinity of Genoa are: Arenzano, San Cipriano, La Foce, and Sori. Voltri, a maritime town, witli docks, paper manufactories, and 8,000 inhabitants. Otlier towns of this dis- trict arc: CurnifjUano (with 3,000 inliabitants), Scstri di Ponente (with 6,000 inhabitants), Pra, or Pria (with 4,000 inliabitants), Pegli (with 4,000 inhabi- tants), Camogli (with 5,000 inhabitants), JSfcrvi, Torrirjlia, and Melc. Novi, a town at the foot of the Apennines, 23 miles north-north-east of Genoa, with many palace-like houses and villas of the Genoese, and 10,800 inhabitants. Savona, a maritime town, 20 miles west-south-'west of Genoa, with 17,000 inhabitants. Pope Pius VIL Uved here forcedly, in the years 1809-1812, ITALY. lis Sardinia: Statistics — Island of Sardinia. Cofjohto, a village on the GuK of Genoa, -with 1,000 inhabitants, is considered as the birth-place of Coliunbus, according to the prevailing opinion, wliile others consider Cucarro (see p. Ill) as his birth-place. Other towns of tliia district are: Vado (with 2,000 inhabitants), ^/J/^oZa (with 1,300 inhabitants), Varazze (witli 1,500 iiJiabitants), aiul Xoli (with 2,000 inhabitants). Albenga, a maritime town, south-westward and 32 miles from Savona, with 4,000 iidiab- itants. Other towns of this district are : Alaasio (with 6,000 inhabitants), Langueglia, or Laigtceglia (with 2,200 inhabitants), Loano (with 3,000 inliabi- tants). Finale (with 5,000 inJiabitants), and Varigotti (with 1,500 inhabitants). Porto Mauritio, or Porto San Maurizio, a maritime town, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Savona, with 5,'700 inhabitants. San Remo, a maritune town, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Nice, with 12,000 inliabitants. It is said, in praise of this town, that within the memory of man, a murder has never happened tliere. Another maritime town is Venti- MiGLiA, or Vintimkjlia, with 5,500 inhabitants. Chiavari, a maritime town, eastward and 23 miles distant; from Genoa, with 11,000 inliabitants. Other towns of this district are : Eapallo (with 6,000 inliabitants), Lavagna (with 2,500 inhabitants), Sestri di Levante (with 2,000 inhabitants), Borzonasca (with 5,000 inliabitants), and Varcse (with 6,000 inhabitants). Spezia, or Sprzzia, a maritime town on the Gulf of Spezia, between Genoa and Leghorn, with a fine harbor, and 10,000 inhabitants. In and near the Gulf of Spezia, are situated the small isles of Palmaria, Tino (with a light -house), and Tinello. Of greater e.xtent is the island of Capraja, between Corsica and Leghorn, with 3,660 inhabitants, according to the census of 1844. In the district of Spezia, are stiU the following towns to be mentioned : Portovenere (with 2,000 inhiibitants), Lerici (with 4,700 inliabitants), Levanto (with 4,000 inhabitants), Sarzana (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Monterosso (with 1,000 inhabitants). 7: The island oi Sardinia (area: 9,287 square miles; population: 598,000 inhabitants), next to Sicily the lai-gest kland in the Mediterranean Sea, situ- ated in the latitude of Naples. The soil of the low country is generally very fertile in grain, of which great quantities are exported, chiefly to Algiers. The rearing of cattle is also very considerable. In the moimtainous districts lives the imifflon, bearing a great resemblance to the Rocky Mountain slieep. The aborigines of the island of Sardinia were Iberians (see Introduc- tion, § 12), and in the course of time, Greek and Carthaginian inmiigrants settled here. The Romans conquered the island in 238 B. C, and in 720 A. D., it came under the sway of the Arabs, in 1050 under that of the Pisans. lit EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. Island of Sardinia — Statistics. In 1324 tlie king of Aragon became possessed of it, and since that period the island continued to be under Spanish sovereignty, until in 1714 it was ceded to Austria, and in 1720 ceded to the duke of Savoy, in exchange for Sicily (see ante). With regard to the administration, the island is divided into two divisions, or provhices, which are subdivided into eleven districts ; and it contiuns : Cagliari, fortified capital of the island, on the gulf of the same name, with a university (see above), 38 churches, 20 convents, ship docks, active commerce, salt works, and 30,000 inhabitants. Quarto, a town, with 5,800 inhabitants. Here, and in the neighborhood, the female sex is distin- guished for its beauty. Bcsachi, chief town of a district, with 1,800 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this district are : Oristano (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Ales (with 1,000 inhabitants), wliile Cabras (with 3,500 inhabitants), Paulila- tino (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sorgono (with 1,300 inliabitants). and Aritzu, are more or less remaikable villages. The district of Iglesias contains the fol- lowing towns: Iglesias (chief town, with a fine cathedral, and 8,500 inhabi- tants), Villacidro (with 5,800 inhabitants), Guapini (with lead mines, and 3,000 inliabitants), and Carloforte (on the isle of San Pictro, near the south- west coast, with 2,300 inhabitants). Isili, cliief town of a district, with 2,200 inhabitants. Nurri and Sardara, villages, with respectively 2,000 and 1,700 inhabitants. Lanusei, chief town of the district of Ogliastra, with 1,700 in- habitants. Tortoli and Bavi, towns, with respectively 1,300 and 1,200 inhab- itants. NuoRO, chief town of a district, with 3,600 inhabitants. Orosei, Fonni, and Posada, towns, with respectively 2,000, 2,800, and 2,500 inliabi- tants. Montesanto, Orgosola, and Siniscola, are moimtain villages, whose inhabitants are notorious for their wild manners. Dorgali, a village, with 2,900 inhabitants, and noted for its manufactory of arms. The fair sex of the village of Benetulti are distinguished for their beauty. Sassari, the second city on the island, near its northern coast, with 25 churches, 1 3 convents, a university (see above), and 23,000 inhabitants. Other towns of tliis district are : Osilo (witli 4,800 inhabitants), Sorxo (with 4,300 inhabitants), Castel Sardo (with 2,100 inluabitants), and Porto Torres (with 800 inhabitants). Alghieri, or Alghero, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cuglieri (with 3,900 inhabitants), and Bosa (with a magnificent cathedral, and 6,000 inliabitants), towns. OziERi (with 8,000 inliabitants), Osc/iiri (with 2,000 inliabitants), and Pattada (with 3,000 inliabitants), towns. Tempio, chief town of the district of Gallura, with 9,500 inhabitants. To this district belong, moreover, the town of Terranova (with 1,600 inhabitants), and the isles of Tavolara or Bucina, Maddalcna, and Caprera. ITALY 116 Duchy of Parma. n.— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. Area: 17,59-1 square miles. Population : 5,068,000 inliabitants. This kingdom will be described together with the Austrian empire. TIL— THE DUCHY OF PARMA. Area: 2,279 square miles. Population: 479,900 inhabitants. It is situated between the duchy of Modena and the conti- nental part of Sardinia, and on the north separated from Lom- bardy by the Po. The soil is generally very fertile, and agriculture in a rather high state of improvement. Yet the commerce and manufactures are of no great importance. The clergy are charged with the care of the schools. IMost of the' teachers are monks, and the schools for girls are under the "direction of nuns. There was a university in the capital, founded in 1422, but it was abolished in 1832 and transformed into two higher special schools. The higher catholic clergy consist of 7 bishops. There are still 21 convents in the country. The public revenue was of late about 7,200,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure little more than 0,000,000 lire. The public debt amounted to 7,600,000 lire, or 81,428,800, in 1840. The military numbers about 800 men. There is an order of honor, 116 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT Duchy of Parnia. called the Constantinian order of St. George^ originally instituted by the Greek emperor Isaac, in 1190, and in 1G99 sold to the Duke Francis I. of Parma. In 1815, it was renewed by the late Duchess Maria Louisa. History. — The country embraces 3 duchies, viz.: of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, of which the two first-named were always united, while Guastalla was not added to them until the year 1*748. The cities of Parma and Pia- cenza shared the fate of Upper and Middle Italy after the fall of the Western Empire, until in 1183 they succeeded in becoming independent, with repub- Mcan forms of government. Yet in the next century they were unable to maintain tlreir independence, and they were ruled alternately by the Visconti, Este, Sforzas, and other dynasties, until in 1514 the apostolical see became possessed of them. Pope Paul III. raised Parma and Piacenza to the rank of duchies, and invested with them his natural son, Peter Aloys Farncse (father of the great warrior, Alexander of Farnese), in 1543. In 1731 the male line of the house of Farnese became extinct. Pliilip V. of Spain was married to a princess of Parma, and for this reason liis son, Don Carlos became possessed of the duchies, which since (with the exception of a short interval) were ruled by Spanish Princes. First in 1802, and formally in 1805, the duchies of Parma and Piacenza were incorporated into the French empire ; wliile the prince Borghese, Napoleon's brother-in-law, was invested with the duchy of Guastalla. In 1815, according to the determination of the congress of Vienna, the former empress of France, Ifaria Louisa, became possessed of these three duchies for hfetime. She died on the 18th of Decem- ber, 1847, and the duchies now devolved upon the legitimate heir, the Spanish prince, Charles, until then (since the year 1824) duke of Lucca, which latter duchy is since annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany. The whole country is divided into the 5 districts of Parma, Piacenza, Borgo Saudonnino, Borgo Taro, and Guastalla. Yet in the description we shall retain the historical division of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. (a.) The duchy of Paema, embracing the eastern half of the state, and con- taining: Parma, the metropolis and ducal residence, north-westward and ITALY. IIT Duchy of Parma: Duchy of Modena. 31 miles distant from Modena, and northward and 92 miles distant from Leghorn, with an extensive ducal elastic, several remarkable churches, many literary institutions, and 41,000 iiiliabitants. Other towns of this duchy are: Colorno (with 1,800 inhabitants), Fornovo (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Soda (with an ancient ducal castle). The ducal park at the village of Castelguelfo is one of the tinest in Italy. {b.) The dicchy of Piacenza, embracing the western half of the state, and containing: Piacenza (in French, P/aisajtce), the capital of this duchy, on the right bank of the Po, north-westward and 36 miles distant from Parma with a beautiful cathedral and 30,000 inhabitants. Austria exercises the stipulated right of garrisoning tlie citadel of Piacenza. In the vicinity is the field of battle on the Trebia, where in 217 B. C, Hannibal defeated the Romans. OUier towns of this duchy are : Borgo Sandonnino (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Borgo Tare (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Fiorenziiola (with 3,300 inhabitants). (<•.) The duchg o{ Guastalla (area: 85 square miles; popnlation : 33,500 inliabitants), about 18 miles north-east of the city of Parma. Its ancient dukes belonged to the house of Mantua, and became extinct in 1746. The duchy as an imperial fee escheated now to the German emperor, who in 1748 ceded it to the Spanish prince Don Carlos (see above). It contains: GuASTALLA, Capital of tliis duchy, on the Po, with a magnificent cathedral, and 6,000 inliabitants. Besides this are to be remarked the villages of Baccanello, San Giorgio, San Rocco, and Brocada. IV.— THE DUCHY OF MODEJf A. Area : 2,109 square miles. Population : 490,000 inhabitants. It is situated between Parma and the northern extremity of the popedom, has a fertile soil, and is noted for its fine Carrara marble. The manufacturing industry is of no great importance. 118 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Duchy of Modena. There was in the capital a university, which, however, in 1832, was transformed into three higher schools. The higher catholic clergy consist of G bishops. There are still 14 monasteries and 9 nunneries in the country. The public revenue was of late about 8540,000, and the public debt amounted only to $252,000. The army, on the peace foot- ing, numbers 1,860 men. History. — Modena became in the niiddl'^ ages a fee of the German empire, and in the 14th century the renowned house of Este was invested with it. This house, whose ancestral seat of the same name is situated in the kingdom of Lombardy Venice, belonged to the most ancient families of Italy, and its ancestor w'as the margi-ave Albert of Este, who lived about the year 960, and was possessed of great estates in Lombardy. His great-grandson, Albert Azzo IL, went to Germany and mherited there, by his wife, the large possessions of the Guelphs ; while the collateral degrees of kindred remained in Italy. To these belonged margi-ave Borso, who in 1452, was raised to the rank of a duke of Modena and Reggio. In 1806 the male line of the house of Este became extinct, and the heiress of the duchy being married to the Austrian archduke Ferdinand, the reigning dynasty was henceforth called Austria-Este. His grandson Francis V. (born in 1819) is the reigning duke since 1846. The whole duchy is divided into the six provinces of Modena, Reggio. Garfagna, Massa-Carrara, Lunigiana, and Frignano. Yet we shall, in the topography, follow the historical division into the duchies and principalities of Modena, Reggio, Correggio, Miran- dola, Novellara, and Massa-Carrara. Modena, capital of the whole country and residence of the duke, on a canal Uiat unites the Panaro with the Secchia, south-eastward and 32 miles distant from Parma, and 60 miles north-north-west of Florence, with a magnificent palace of the duke, numerous churches (the liigh steeple of the cathedral is known by the name of Guirlandina), and 28,000 inhabitants (inclusive 1,500 Jews). Other towns of this district are : Sassuolo (with 3,000 inhabitants). ITALY. yg Ducby of Modena. Finale (with 0,500 inliabitants), Frignano (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pavidlo (with 2,000 inliabitants), and Acquaria (with hot springs). Castelnuovo di Garfagna, a town on the Serchio, with 3,000 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of tJie Lordship of Garfagna, which previously was annexed to Bologna. Carpi, a to'rni situated northward and 9 miles distant from Modena, has 5,000 inhabitants, and was formerly the capital of the principality of Carpi, that in 1530 was ceded to Modena by tlie house of Pico, for the sum of 100,000 ducats. Reggio, the capital of the ancient duchy of Reggio, which has always been united with the duchy of Modena, is situated between the cities of Modena and Parma, and has 23 churches, several convents, and 19,000 inhab- itants. The renowned poet Ariosto, was born here in 1474. In the vicinity of this city, are to be found the ruins of the ancient castle of Canossa, where the German emperor Henry IV. humbled himself before the Pope Gregory VII., in 1077. Brcscello, a fortified town on the Po, with 2,000 inhabitants. The province of iK?i/<7ia)ia contains the towns of ^w/Za (with 1,800 inhabi- tants), and Fosdinovo (with 2,000 uihabitauts). Correggio, ancient capital of a principality of the same name, wliich in 1635 was annexed to Modena, near the Po, with a remarkable cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. The great painter Antonio Allegzi, generally known by the name of Correggio, was born here. Mir.\ndola, ancient capital of a duchy of the same name, which in 1711 was annexed to Modena, on the Burana, with 5,500 inhabitants. Con- cordia, a town on the Secchia, "with 3,500 inhabitants. Novellara, ancient capital of a principality of the same name, with which the duke of Modena was invested in 1737, 20 miles north-north-west of Modena, with 5,000 inhab- itants. The duchy of Massa- Carrara, bordering on the sea, and having an area of 95 square miles, with more than 30,000 inhabitants, was annexed to the duchy of Modena in 1741, by marriage of its heiress -with the hereditary prinCe of Modena. It contains : iLvssA, a cily on the Frigido, and near the western coast of the Itidian pemnsula, with 10,000 inhabitants, and active commerce in olive oil and marble. In its vicinity is situated the town of Carrara, with 8,500 inhabitants, an academy of sculptors, and numerous workshops, where more than 400 artists are engaged in sculptural works. About 100 vessels are annually employed in exporting the marble of Carrara. Lavenza, a maritime to'wn, with 1,300 inhabitants. 120 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Grand-Duchy of Tuscany. v.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF TUSCANY. Area : 8,844 square miles. Population: 1,'752,000 inhabitants, Tms state, comprising the north-western part of Middle Italy, consists, since the year 1817, of Tuscany Proper (8,418 square miles, and 1,570,000 inhabitants), and the Duchy of Lucca (426 square miles, and 182,000 inhabitants), which latter, according to the determinations of the congress at Vienna in 1815, was annexed to the grand-duchy as soon as the duchess of Parma died, and the duke of Lucca became her successor (compare the History of Parma). The Etruscan Apennines extend across the north-eastern part of the country. The principal river of Tuscany is the Arno, while the Tiber has its sources here. Besides these, the Ombivne in Tuscany, and the Serchio in Lucca, may be mentioned. The soil is for the greatest part very fertile, although marshy at the mouth of the Arno, and along the coast, down to the frontier of the States of the Church. These marshes are known by the name of the Maremma. Agriculture flourishes in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca, and has attained here a high state of improvement. Besides the silk manufactures at Florence, Tuscany is renowned for its fine straw hats, and in the valley of the Arno thousands of country girls arc engaged in plaiting straw. The manufactures in Lucca are various, and embrace chiefly silk, cotton, and woollen goods. With regard to the commerce, Leghorn may be considered as the chief seaport of the Italian peninsula, and besides this, the inland trade of Florence is also very important. With regard to the means of education, there are 3 universi- I i 4 ITALY. 121 Tuscany: Education — Revenue — Army, etc. tics in Tuscany, viz. : at Pisa (founded in 1338, and in 1841 frequented by 580 students), at Siena (founded in 1351, and in 1841 with 257 students), and at Florence (founded in 1438, and in 1841 with 218 students). Moreover, there are 4 colleges for the sons of nobles, 16 gymnasiums, and IG seminaries (see the ex- planatory note at the introduction to Portugal). The common schools are numerous in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca. At the head of the Catholic clergy are 4 archbishops (one of them in Lucca) and 16 bishops. In 1840 Tuscany numbered still 133 monasteries (with 2,540 monks) and 69 nunneries (with 3,907 nuns). In the duchy of Lucca the number of convents amounted to 23. Until the last revolutions in Italy, which commenced in 1847, the Tuscan government was absolute, but is now limited. The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, for the last year has been about $5,000,000 annually. In 1836 the revenue of Tuscany was exactly 25,104,898 lire, and the expen- diture only 23,078,029 lire (or francs). Since 1829, Tuscany is without any public debt. In the duchy of Lucca, whose public debt amounted to about 500,000 lire, the public revenue was of late 3.700,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure somewhat less. The Tuscan army numbers on the peace footing 5.500 men. (The military of Lucca consisted of 700 men.) There are also some vessels of war, consisting of 4 schooners (one of them be- longed to the duchy of Lucca) and some gun-boats. The Tuscanese orders of honor are the following : — 1. The order of St. Stephen., instituted in 1562, and renewed in 1817, in 4 classes. 2. The order of St. Joseph^ instituted in 1807, at Wurtzburg (see below), and renewed in 1817 for Tuscany, in 3 classes. 3. The order of the white cross^ instituted in 1814. (The duke of Lucca had instituted the order of St. Louis, in 3 classes.) 6 122 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Tuscany : History. History. — The present gr.nnd-duchy of Tuscany comprises for the greatest part the ancient Etruria, or the land of the Etruscans, which in 284 A. C. was conquered by the Romans, and, after tlie fall of the Westem Empire, came under the sway first of the Lombards, and then of the Franks. Charlemagne appointed margraves as governors of Tuscia (as the country now was named), who in the course of time became independent, but without being able to retain the whole of the country. For Florence, Pisa, Siena, etc., became free cities or repubUcs in the 13th century. (See History of Europe, § 17, d, h, and ?'.) Pisa was for a long time the most powerful among them, but waa subdued, first in 1407, then in 1509 by Florence, that in 1286 had purchased its independence from the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg at the sum of 600,000 gold florins. Among the eminent families of Florence were the Medici, renowned for their attainments and riches, who became at last (espe- cially since the year 1434) the rulers of the republic. To Alexander of Medici was the ducal title conferred by the emperor Charles V. in 1531, and to his son and successor Cosimo I. the title of a grand-duke by the pope in 1569. In 1554 Spain had taken possession of the republic of Siena, which for the greatest part was ceded to Cosmo I. in 1557. In this way the former republic of Florence was enlarged to a grand-duchy of Tuscany. With John Gaston the race of the Medici became extinct in 1737, and now, according to former stipulations, the duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine (married to the renowned Maria Theresa, heiress of Austria) ascended the throne. He was subsequently elected emperor of Germany, and died in 1765. His successor m Tuscany was first liis son Leopold, and then (in 1790) his grandson Ferdi- nand HI. In the treaty of peace concluded at Luneville in 1801, it was Btipulated that the hereditary prince of Parma should become possessed of Tuscany by the name of a kingdom of Etruria, in return for which the grand- duke Ferdinand III. was indemnified first by the archbishopric of Salzburg, and in 1805 by the grand-duchy of Wurtzburg (see introduction to Germany). Tuscany, or Etruria (as it was then called), Avas m 1807 annexed to the French empire, of which it formed a constituent until 1814, when Ferdinand III. was reinstated. He died in 1824, and was succeeded by liis son, the still reigning grand-duke Leopold II. (born in 1797). In 1849 he was obliged to leave the country on account of a revolution which had the tendency to transform the grand-duchy into a republic. But an Austrian army entered the country and defeated the republicans, whereupon the grand-duke returned ITALY. 128 Tuscany: Geographical Division?. to Florence. About the annexation of the duchy of Lucca, see above, and the History of Parma. Tuscany proper is divided into the 5 compartiraenti or prov- inces of Florence^ Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, and Grossetto, which are subdivided into Territorii comunitativi, or townships. Part of the compartimenti of Pisa and Grossetto consists of the Slato degli Presidii, or the former territory of the ancient republic of Siena, which not before the year 1815 was annexed to the grand-duchy. For this reason we shall first give the topography of Tuscany proper, and then describe the Stato degli Presidii, and finally the duchy of Lucca. 1. Ticscany proper contains: Florence, the capital of the prand-ducliTj and residence of the grand-duke, on the Arno, westward and 115 miles dis- tant from Ancona, and 50 east-north-east of Leghorn, with 105,000 inhabi- tants. Florence, one of the finest cities of Europe, is noted for its churches, palaces, galleries, and libraries. The most magnificent among the 1*72 churches is the cathedral, which was reared in the period from the year 1294 to 1448, and whose beautiful cupola rises to the height of 400 feet. The palace Pitti, the usual residence of the grand-dukes, contains 900 apartments. Another palace, reared by Cosmo L, contains, besides the so-called Maglia- becchian hbrary, the celebrated Florentine gallery of sculpture, paintings, and other works of art. In the vicinity of the city are situated the beautiful Villa Bemidof (belonging to the Russian count Demidof), and the giand-ducal mansions of Poggio Imperiale, Poggio a Cajano, Pratolino, and Ca&tello. On the Stella, 23 miles north-west of Florence, is situated the city of Pistoja, with 28 churches (among them, a magnificent cathedral), a manufactory of organs, various other manufiictories, and 12,000 inhabitants. Tlie villages of Brozzi and Signa, are noted for their straw hats, which are plaited here in great quantities. Fiesole, a town in the vicinity of Florence, is remarkable for the remains of cyclopic walls and other ancient buildings. Other towns of the compartimento of Florence are : Prato (with 11,000 inhabitants), Peseta (with 11,000 inliabitants), Voltcrra (with 6,000 inliabitants), San Miniato (with 4,000 inhabitants), Figline (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Modigliano (with 2,300 inhabitants). The town of Certaldo is remarkable as the birth-place of 124 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Tuscany Statistics. the poet Boccacio. Abezzo, capital of the compartimento of the same name, south-eastward and 37 miles distant from Florence, with a magniticeut cathe- dral, and 9,500 inhabitants). The town of Montepulciano, with 3,000 inhab- itants, is noted for its wines. The town of Chiusi, which now has only 1,600 inliabitants, was in the days of old, or about 500 years before Christ, the residence of Porsenna, and then named Clusium. Stia, a town near the Arno, with cloth manufactories and 1,500 uJuibitants. In its neighborhood is situated the celebrated abbey of CamaldoU, originated in 1012. Other towns m this compartimento are : Cortona (with 3,500 inhabitants), BorgoSan Sepolcro (with 3,000 inhabitants), ^l«^/((«?"j (with 3,000 inhabitants), und Bibbkna (the wealthiest town in the district of Casenth.o). Siexa, Uie capital of the com- partimento of the same name, situated in a picturesque country, southward and 30 miles distant from Florence, with a splendid cathedral ranking next to that of Milan, numerous palaces, a university and several other literary insti- tutions, silk and other manufoctories, and 24,000 inliabitants. In the middle ages, when Siena was a republic (see above), the population of the city amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Piexza, a town formerly called Corsignano, has 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this compartimento are : Colle (with 4,000 inliabitants), Montalcino (with 2,500 hiliabitants), and Radicofani (with 1,000 inhabitants). Near the last-named town are the renowned watering- places of San Filippo and San Casciano. Geossetto, fortified to^vn and capital of the compartimento of the same name, southward and 70 miles distant from Florence, in a marshy and very unwholesome country, near the coast, with salt works, and 3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province (besides those that belong to the Stato degli Presidii) are : Soana, or Sova/na (remarkable as the birth-place of Pope Gregory VII.), Massa di 3faremma (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Pitlgliano (with 2,600 inliabitants). The com- partimento of Pisa contains : Pisa, a city on the Arno, about 4 miles distant from its mouth, and 12 miles north-north-east from Leghorn, had in the middle ages, when it was a powerful repubhc (see above), a population of 150,000, but has at present only 22,000 inhabitants. Yet it is still a most remarkable city, not only for its celebrated university, one of the best in Italy, but for its edifices and buildings. There are nearly 80 churches, among them the highlj'- intcresting cathedral founded in 1063, richly decorated in the interior, and containing the tomb of the German emperor, Henry VII. (who died here iu 1313). Near the back part of the cathedral is the remarkable Campanile, or leaning tower, 168 feet high, and incUning 14 feet from the perpendicular. It ITALY. 125 Tuscany : Statistics. was roared in 1174. On the other side is the Campo Santo, or church-yard, with line paintings in fresco on the walls, with which it is surrounded. In the neighborhood of Pisa are mineral baths, Tfshich are much frequented. The grand-ducal farm of San Rossore, in the vicinity of Pisa, is noted for its studs and a herd of camels that have been kept here suice the year 1622. Leghorx (in Itahan, Livorno), the chief seaport of Tuscany, and the first commercial city in Italy, 50 miles west-south-west of Florence, with two harbors, ship docks, numerous manufactories, and 88,000 inhabitants, among whom are nearly 25,000 Jews, who have here one of the most splendid syna- gogues in Europe. In the vicinity is the picturesque mountain Montenero (or Monte Xegro), with a rich convent and numerous mansions. B.vrga, a town with 2,000 inliabitants, is situated in the district called Garfayna Crranducale. Fivizzaxo, a town with a Benedictine nunnery, and 2,500 inliabitants, is situated in the district called Lunigiana. Pontremoli, a town on the Magra, with a fine cathedral, a strong citadel, and 6,000 inliabitants. Other towns are : Castcllina Marittima (with 1,000 inhabitants), Castelnuovo (with 1,000 inhabitants), Serravezza (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pietrasanta (with 3,000 inhabitants). Near the coast, and at no great distance fi-om Leghorn, are situated the isles of Pi.a.nosa. (to which Agrippa Posthumus, grandson of the Roman emperor Augustus, was exiled), Guxuti, Giglio (with 1,300 inhabitants), Monte Cristo, Palmajola (between Elba and the continent), Gorgona (right against Leghorn), and Meloria. 2. The Slato degli Presidii (area : 298 square miles) is a territory that once belonged to the ancient republic of Siena, and which, together with the city itself, was conquered by Spain in 1554. When, in 1557, the city of Siena was ceded to Tuscany by PhiUp II. of Spain, he kept its territory, wliich since formed a constituent part of the kingdom of Naples (then under Spanish 6way). In 1801, Naples ceded it (or the Stato degli Presidii) to France, which kept the island of Elba for itself, while the principality of Piombino was given to Felix Bacchiochi, the brother-in-law of Napoleon, and the re- maining part of the Stato' dcgh Presidii annexed to Tuscany. Accordii;g to the stipulations of the congress of Vienna, in 1815, the whole was annexed to the grand- duchy. The Stato degli Presidii comprise the following towns on the continent: Oubitello, about 13 miles distant from the frontier of the States of the Church, with 2,000 inhabitants, Ercole and San Stefano (little seaports) ; Piombixo, a maritime town, and capital of the ancient principality of Piombino (whose princes of the houses of Appiani, Ludovici, and Buon- 126 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Tuscany : Duchy of Lucca— Statistics. campagni, ■were under the sovereignty first of the German emperor, then of Spain, Naples, etc.), with 1,000 inhabitants, Caldano, Scarlino, and Lili; and, moreover, the island of Elb.\ (area: 32 square miles, witli important iron mines, and the toAvns of Porto Ferrajo, with 2,000 inhabitants, and Porto Longone, with 1,000 inhabitants). In 1814, the sovereignty of this island was given to Napoleon in exchange for the imperial crown of P'rance. He remained here until March, 1815. 3. The dM<'% of Lucca (area : 426 square miles; population: 182,000 in- habitants), of which the statistical and geographical particulars have already been given above. It comprises the north-western extremity of the grand- duchy of Tuscany. Lucca became in the middle ages a fee of the German empire, and was ruled under this sovereignty by various families. But in 1370 it purchased its independence from the emperor Charles IV., and since it was a republic, first with a democratic, but since the years 1430 and 1556 with an aristocratic constitution. Lucca continued to be a republic until the year 1805, when Napoleon appointed his brother-in-law, Bacchiochi, prince of Piombino, hereditary president of Lucca, and thus transformed the republic into a kind of monarchy. In 1815 it was transformed into a duchy, and the widow of the hereditary prince of Parma (see History of Tuscany) invested with it. She died in 1824, and was succeeded by her son, the now (since 1847) reigning duke of Parma (see History of Parma). Since the end of the year 1847 the duchy of Lucca is annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany (see above). It contains the following places : Lucca, the capital and former resi- dence of the duke, near the Serchio, 12 miles north-north-east of Pisa, with an extensive and richly-decorated ducal palace, 22 churches (among them a Gothic cathedral reared in the 11th century), various manufactories, and 25,000 inhabitants. The famous mineral baths of Lucca are in the neighbor- ing towns of Bagni, Bagno alia Villa, and Ponte a Seraglio. Other towns of the duchy are : Caponnori (with 3,000 inhabitants), Borgo (with 2,000 in- habitants), Camajore (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Viareggio (a marituue town, with 6,500 inhabitants). ITALY. 12*7 states of the Church. VI.— THE STATES OF THE CHURCH Area: 17,280 square miles. Population : 2,970,000 inhabitants. The territory forming the States of the Church, or the Pope- dom, occupies the centre of Italy, extending from the western coast of the peninsula to its eastern coast, and northward up to the mouths of the Po. The chief river of the Popedom is the Tiber. In the vicinity of Rimini, between Ancona and Ravenna, is the little river of Luao, or Uso, emptying into the Adriatic Sea. It is the same rivulet which anciently was so renowned by the name of Rubicon. About the mountains of the States of the Church, see Introduction, § 7, d. Near the mouths of the Po, and along the high road between Rome and Naples, are extensive marshes exhaling bad air ; they are known by the names of Valli di Comacchio and Pontine marshes. The soil is generally good and fertile, but only in some parts of the country the agriculture is conducted with skill and dili- gence. The annual produce in grains is on an average computed at about 615,-500 quarters of wheat, 295.G00 quarters of maize, 20,000 quarters of oats, and 11,200 quarters of barley. Suffi- cient corn for home consumption is seldom raised throughout the country. The produce of the richest lands is only to the advan- tage of the clergy and nobility, while by far the most of the pub- lic charges press heavily upon the farmer. With the money got by the sale of his fruits, wines, olive-oil, hemp, flax, and silk, the farmer pays his debts, contracted beforehand, his taxes and necessaries of life. The numerous holidays and pilgrimages, jointly with the warm climate, are seducing the people into indo- lence, the more so as in many convents the poor can have their 148 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. states of the Church : Classes, Secular and Ecclesiastical. daily scanty food for nothing. Nevertheless a good deal of the population would starve but for their frugalit}', and the plenty and cheapness of a great variety of fruits. Though the rivers, lakes, and coasts afford great facilities for the fisheries, yet these are by no means a great object of pursuit ; and as there are an- nually about IGO days of abstinence on which only fish meals are allowed, great quantities of dried fish arc to be imported from foreign countries. The commerce in general is of no great importance, and the imports are far exceeding the exports. Thus, for instance, in Civita Vecchia, the only seaport on the western coast of the country, the imports for the year 1842 were valued at 81,742,000, while the exports were only valued at S588,000. This being the actual state of things, the manufactures are, with few exceptions, in a backward state. The nation is divided into four classes : the clergy, nobility, burghers, and farmers. The nobility comprises princes and dukes belonging to collateral lines of the popes, the so-called senatorial nobility, or Roman aristocracy, and the lower degrees of nobility. The highest state ofiices are generally occupied by the cardinals, and most of the other public oflGices either by pre- lates or nobles. The Roman Catholic is of course the established church, which in this country is governed by 6 archbishops and 72 bishops, In 1847 there were, moreover, 53,000 secular and regular clergy men, 1,824 monasteries, and 612 nunneries. Austins. Barna bites, Benedictines, Camaldulenses, Capuchins, Carmelites, Cis tercians, Coelestians, Cordelians, Dominicans, Jesuits, Minims Philippines, Recollectians, Somascians, Trinitarians, Theatins etc. — all these religious orders are to be found in the States of the Church. As for the rest, all other religions are tolerated. In Rome are 8,000, and in Aneona 5,000 Jews. There are 7 universities : at Bologna (see History of Europe, ITALY. 129 States of the Church: Universities — Government. § 17,/; this university was in 1841 frequented by 5G0 students), at Home (founded in 1248, and in 1841 with 680 students), at Ferrara (founded in 1264, and in 1841 with 200 students), at Perugia (founded in 1307, and in 1841 with 210 students), atilJa- ccrata (founded in 1548, and in 1841 with 320 students), at Fermo (founded in 1589, and in 1841 with 235 students), and at Cavie- ritio (founded in 1727, and in 1841 with 200 students). More- over, the clergy numbers many learned men, distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. Nevertheless the means of education in general are very deficient, and the mass of the people grossly ignorant. That Rome is the chief seat of fine arts, and at the same time noted for the value of its libra- ries, is universally known. The form of government is an elective monarchy. The States of the Church are ruled by the pope, who is the head of the Catholic church, and is invested with absolute (although at pres- ent somewhat modified) power, both spiritual and temporal. He is elected out of the college of the cardinals (whose number is fixed at 70). The reigning pope, Pius IX. (previous to his elec- tion, Jos. Maria, Count Mastai Ferreti, archbishop of Imola, born on the 13th of May, 1792, at Sinigaglia), was elected on the 16th of June, 1846. The public revenue was lately estimated at about $9,000,000, ari!d the expenditure at nearly $9,800,000, thus a deficit of $800,000. The public debt is computed at $34,000,000. The clerical revenues (for dispensations, taxes from the property left by clergymen, etc.), which still in the last century amounted to more than 8650,000 per annum, fall at present short of 8300,000. The army numbered 12.669 men with 1,382 horses at the end of the year 1844. Besides these there were two regiments of Swiss, numbering 4,100 men. The navy consists of some small vessels. p.* • 130 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT Slates Iff the Church : History. There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. Gregory the Great, instituted in 1832. 2. The order of St. John the Baptist, also called the order of Christ, instituted in 1319. 3. The order of the golden spur., instituted in 1559. History. — The pope, as ruler of the. States of the Church, is invested with temporal, and as the head of the Cathohc church, with spiritual power. We shall first speak of the latter. In tlie days of tlie apostles the Christian church was governed by seniors (presbyters), superintendents (bishops), and deacons, under the direction of the apostles. In the course of time it became the custom to select one of the seniors or superintendents, who by way of eminence was called bishop, and had a decisive vote in the affairs of the church community. About the middle of the third centuiy the bishops of Home, Carthage, Alexandria, Antiochia, and other principal cities of the Ro- man empire, began to enjoy higher credit than those of the remaining dio- ceses. At a later period the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, were called patriarchs, and Rome being still revered as the former metropolis of the Roman empire, the bishop or patriarch of Home began to exercise more and more a kind of supremacy, until in the year 607 Boniface 111. assumed the papal title for the first time. Thus the spiritual power of the pope, as head of the Catholic church, dates from this period. For a long time, the popes of Rome had authority only in matters of religion, but in tlie 9th century and after the death of Ciiarlemagne, they began to claim the authority of God's agents or vicegerents on earth ; and towards the end of the 11th century Gregory VII. (1073-1085) established the formal privilege of the pope to dispose freely of temporal crowns and kingdoms. He and several of his successors exercised tliis riglit on the largest scale, until first in the beginning of the 14th century. King Pliilip IV. of France, and then above all the reformation in tlic 16th century, put an end to tliis usurpa- tion. (See History of Europe, § 17, e and /<.) The temporal power of the pope dates from the year 755, when Pepin the Little, king of the Franks, wrested the so-called exarchate (comprising, among others, the cities and towns of Ravenna, Forli, Frosinone, Velletri, and Rieti) from the Lombards, and gave it to the holy See. His son, Charlemagne, enlarged this territory considerably. In the 11th century the duch}^ of Benevento, and in the 12th the duchy of Spolcto and part of the mark (margraviate) of Ancona, etc., were added by way of donation. Tlie city of Rome did not become subject ITALY. 131 States of the Church : Ueographical Division. to the papal power until in 1216. In the year 1273 tlie county of Venaissin (in the French province of Provence) was, by King Philip IV. of France, ceded to the popes, who in 134S purchased the city of Avipnon (quite near to Venaissin) for 80,000 gold florins. In the 16th century Bologna, the duchy of Ferrara, and the remaining part of the mark of Ancona, and in the I7th cen- tury the duchies of Urbiuo and Castro were acquired. In this way the States of the CIiuitIi in Italy were gradually enlarged to that extent wliich they have now. Only Avignon and Venaissin, of which the French took possession in 1790, were lost forever; while the Italian territories wrested from the Popedom by the French and Napoleon in the years 1797, 1808, and 1809 (in the last-named year the pope, then I'ius VII., was completely de- prived of his temporal power), were restored by the determination of the congress of Vienna in 1815. Since the year 1832 the States of the Church are divided into 21 provinces, of which 13 are styled Delegations, and those of Bologna, Ferrara, Eavenna, Urbino-Pesaro, Forli, and Velletri are styled Legations, while the province of Rome bears the name of Comarca, and that of Loretto the appellation of Commissariat. In an historical relation the legation of Velletri, the comarca di Roma, the delegations of Frosinone and Rieti, and the legations of Eavenna and Forli, comprise the above-mentioned exarchate, given to the holy see in 755, or the ancient duchy of Rome and the Romagna. The delegations of Civita Vecchia and Viterbo comprise the so-Called estates oj Matilda, which were given to the popes in 1077 and 1102 by ihe margravine Matilda of Tuscany. The delegations of Spoleto, Camerino, and Perugia, comprise the ancient duchy of Spoleto (see above). The legation of Bologna comprises the ancient Bolognese, or the city of Bologna and its territory. The delegations of Ancona and Macerata, jointly with the commissariat of Loretto, comprise the ancient Mark of Ancona. The delegations of Fermo and Ascoli comprise the ancient Mark of Fermo, acquired in the 16th century. The legation of Ferrara comprises the ancient duchy of Fermo, acquired in 1598 ; 182 EUROPE, TAST AND TRESENT. States or the Church : Statistics. and the legation of XJrbino and Pcsaro comprises the ancient duchy of Urbino, acquired in 1631. 1. Tlie comarca di Roma contains ; Rome, the capital of the States of the Church, and residence of the pope, on the Tiber, at 18 miles distance from its mouth, had, according to the census of 1847, a population of 175,883 inhabi- tants, exclusive of Jews, Avho?e number was computed at 8,000. That Rome was once the capital of the Roman empire, is universally known ; it had then, or at least in the days of the Emperor Augustus, a population of 2,000,000 inhabitants, and "was 50 miles in circumference. Though now much decayed, and a great part of it in ruins, it is still one of the most interesting cities in the world, and is noted for its chm-ches, palaces, columns, arches, and otlier monuments of splendid architecture, among which are the Coliseum (a vast amphitheatre for 82,000 spectators, built in the days of the Emperor Titus), the column of Trajan, the arches of Titus, Septimus Severus, etc. Among the 304 churches of the city, ranks first St. Peter's, the largest churcii in the world (it was nearly 200 years in building, and not before the year 1626 completely finished : it is 666 feet long, and 284 feet w'ide, and its magnificent cupola rises to the height of 408 feet). Tlie Vatican is the largest palace in the world: it is 1,080 feet long, and contains 4,422 saloons, halls, and apart- ments, moreover the most valuable librarj^ in Europe, and the finest -woiks of Raphael and Michael Angelo. The popes have usually resided here in the win ter months. Other palaces are, the Quirinal (the residence of the pope in the summer season), the vast palace of Barberini, the palaces of Faruese, Colonna, Borghese, etc. Tlie number of hterary institutions, academies of fine arts, etc., in Rome, is yexy great. In the year 1845, there were at Rome 404 foreign artists, of whom 14 were from America. The environs of Rome, comprising the ancient Latium, arc at present known by the name of the Camparjna di Roma. Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, a town on the Teverone, 18 miles east-north-east of Rome, with a beautiful cataract (GO feet in height), numerous remains of antiquity, and 6,300 inhabitants. Ostia, a maritime town at the mouth of the Tiber, was once the seaport of Rome, but it is now almost deserted, on account of the bad air of the surrounding marshes. Other toTvns of the Campagna di Roma are : Albano (with 5,600 inhabitants), Castcl Oandolfo (with a palace of the pope, who resides here some weeks in the summer season), Frascatl (fonnerly Tusculum, with 4,000 inhabitants). Pales- inna (formerly Praeneate, with 2,500 inhabitants), Siibiaco (with 6,000 inhab- ITALY. 133 Slates of the Church : Statistics. itants), and Fiumicino (-with 600 inhabitants). 2. The lerjation of Vellelri, or Maritthna, contains: Yellktri, chief town, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Rome, witli many remains of antiquity, and 12,000 inluibitants. Tereacina (the ancient Anxur), a town near the coast and the frontier of Naples, amidst the Pontine marshes, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cori and Norma, towns with respectively 4,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 3. The delegation of Frosinone contains : Frosincne, chief town on the Cosa, 40 miles east-south- east of Rome, with '7,500 inhabitants. To this delegation belongs likewise the district of Pontecorvo, northward and 23 miles distant from Gaeta, and entirely surrounded by the Neapolitan territory. It occupies a tract of 43 equare miles, has a population of more than 7,000 inhabitants, and belonged in the period from the year 1806 to 1810, to the Lite king of Sweden, Bernadotte. The town of Pontecorvo has a population of 6,000 inhabitants. 4. The delegation of Rieti contains : Rieti, chief town on the Velino, north- eastward and 37 miles distant from Rome, with 12,600 inhabitants. Magliono, a town, with 5,500 inliabitants. 5. The delegation of Spoleto contains : Spoleto, chief town at the foot of the Apennines, and on the Mareggia, crossed by a handsome bridge, with a magnificent cathedral, an aqueduct built by the ancient Romans, and 8,500 inliabitants. Narni and Terni, towns, with re- spectively 5,500 and 8,500 inhabitants. 0. The delegation of Civita Vecchia contains : Civita Yecchia, a fortified maritime town, and next to Ancona, the chief seaport of the States of the Church, 37 mUes north-north-west of Ostia, or the mouth of the Tiber, with 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this dele- gation are : Tolfa (with 2,800 inhabitants), Corneto (with 3,800 inliabitants), Montalto, Canino, and Ponte Sodio. 7. The delegation of Viterbo conlaixis: YiTERBO, chief tow^n at the foot of Mount Cimitio, northward and 46 miles distant from Rome, with 15,000 inhabitants. Montefiascone, a town on the Lake Bolsena, is noted for its excellent wines, and has 4,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this delegation are: Acquapendcnte (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ronciglione (with various manufactories), and Bolsena (with curious remains of antiquity. 8. The delegation of Orvieto contains : Orvieto, cliief town on the Paglia, northward and 18 miles distant from Yiterbo, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, excellent wines, and 8,000 inhabitants. Civita Castellaiia, a town, with 4,500 inhabitants. 9. The delegation of Perugia contains : Perugia, a city between the Trasimenian Lake and the Tiber, northward and 83 miles distant from Rome, with several remarkable churches, a univer- eity, and 32,000 inhabitants. Assisr, a town renowned as the birth-place of 184 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Stales of the Church : Statistics. St. Franci.'icus, author of the Franciscan order, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of tliis delegation are: FoUgno (with 16,000 inlialiitants), Spello (with 4,000 iiiliabitants), Cita di Castdlo (Avith 0,000 inhabitants), Noccra (with 3,000 inhabitants), and C/to c/eWa Pieye. 10. Tha delegation of Ascoli, sAong the coast of the Adriatic, contains : Ascoli, cliief town on tlie Trento, and lear the Neapolitan frontier, with a citadel, and 9,000 inliabitants. Other owns arc: Montalto and Ripa Tranxone. 11. The delegation of Fcnno con- *ins : Fermo, cliief town, near the Adriatic, with 20,000 inhabitants, a uni- rersity, and the little seaport Porto Fermo. 12. The delegation of Corner ino contauis: Camerino, chief town, in the Apennines, with a university, and 7,500 inhabitants. 13. The delegation of Macerata contums: Maceuata, chief town on the liigh road between Rome and Ancona, with a university, and 18,000 inhabitants. Tolextino, a town on the Chienti, south-westward and 30 miles distant from Ancona, with 3,500 inhabitants, is noted for a treaty of peace concluded here in 1797 between France and the pope, and for a battle in 1815, where King Murat, of Naples, was defeated by the Austrians. /a6?7'a»io, a town, with 7,000 inliabitants. 14. The Commissariat of Loreto contains: Loreto, or ioreWo, a town near the Adriatic, southward and 13 miles distant from Ancona, has 8,000 inhabitants, and has, for many hundred years, been renowned for its holy shrine, or a httle cottage, in which the holy virgin is said to have lived, having been transported by angels from Gali- lee to Dalmatia, and thence to Loreto. This cottage, called Casa Santa, is in the interior of a splendid church. Loreto has, therefore, long been a place of great resort for pilgrims, but the number has of late decreased. 15. The delegation of Ancona (about the mark of Ancona, see p. 131) contains: Ancona, a fortified city and chief seaport of the Popedom on the Adriatic, north-eastward and 30 miles distant from Rome, with very important trade with the Levant, an excellent pier built in the days of the Roman emperor Trajan, a remarkable cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Jcsi and Osimo, towns, with respectively 6,000 and 7,000 inhabitants. 16. The legation of Urhino and Pesaro contains : Urbino, chief town at the foot of the Apennines, westward and 46 miles distant from Ancona, is noted as the birth-place of Raphael (born in 1483, in a house which still exists), and has 14,000 inhabi- tants. SiNiGAGLiA, a fortified m.iritime town on the Adriatic, is celebrated for its annual fair, and has 11,600 inhabitants. Other towns and cities of this legation arc: Fano (with I7,0fi0 inhabitants), Fossombro7ie (with 6,400 inhab- itants), Gubbio (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pesaro (with 15,000 inhabitants). ITALY. 186 States of the Church : Statistics. 17. The legation of Forti contains: Forti, chief town in a fertile country, noith-Avestwiud and 83 miles distant from Ancona, with a remarkable cathe- dral, and 17,000 inhabitants. Rimini, a maritime town at tlie mouth of the Marecchia, with several fine churches and well-conserved remains of antiquity, and 18,000 inhabitants. Cesena, a town on the Savio, with 10,000 inhabi- tants. 18. The legation of Ravenna contains: Ravenna, chief town in a marshy country near the Adiiatic, north-westward and 87 miles distant from Ancona, with several interesting remains of antiquity and edifices reared in the days of Honorius, Theoderic, etc., and 26,000 inliabitants. Ravenna was the residence of the last Roman emperors, of some Gotliic kings, and of the exarch, or governor, of the Greek emperors. The seaport of Ravenna is called Porto Corsini. Other towns of this legation are : C'ervia (with 4,000 inhabitants), Faenza (with 20,000 inliabitants), and Imola (with 9,000 inhabi- itants). 19. The legation of Bologna coi\i-jLi.ns : Bologna, next to Rome the most important city of the States of the Chmxh, in a romantic country, south- eastward and 23 miles distant from Modena, and northward 46 miles distant from Florence, with a magnificent cathedral, and several other remarkable churches and palaces, a university, and a great variety of other literary insti- tutions, and 75,000 inhabitants. Cento and Medicina, towns, with respectively 4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants. 20. The legation of Ferrara coniams: Fekraka, a city on a branch of the Po, in a marshy, unwholesome country, 27 miles north-north-east of Bologna, with a citadel, a vast Gothic castle, once the residence of the princes 9f Este (see History of Modena), a university, and 28,000 inhabitimts. Comaccuio, a fortified town amidst tlie marshy Valli di Comacchio (see above), with 6,000 inhabitants. Ponte di Lago Scuro, a town on the Po, with 5,000 inhabitants. 21. The delegation of Bencvento comprises the ancient duchy of the same name, is entirely sm-rounded by Keapolitan territory, and situated north-eastward and about 32 miles distant from the city of Naples. It occupies a tract of 89 square miles, and has a population of 25,000 inhabitants. Tlie duchy of Benevento was created in 571 by the Lombards, and had a far greater extent than now. In 851 it was divided into three principalities, of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua. The Emperor Ilcnry III. gave Benevento to the holy See in 1053, and since that time it has formed a constituent part of the States of the Church. In the period from the year 1806 to 1815, the French minister Talleyrand was in possession of this principality, whose capital, Benevento, has a remarkable cathedral, many interesting remains of antiquity, and 15,000 inhabitants 136 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Republic of S:in Miuiuo. VIL— THE REPUBLIC OF SAN ilARINO. Area : 32 square miles. Population : 8,200 inliabitants. The republic of San Marino is the smallest of all European states with regard to the extent (for with regard to the popula- tion, the principality of Liechtenstein is inferior to it), is entirely surrounded by papal territory, and situated between Ancona and Florence. It is at the same time the oldest republic in Europe, dating its origin from the year 469. In this year St. Marinus, or Marino, originally a mason from Dalmatia, retired to a solitary mountain here, and led a hermit's life. lie soon became famous as a holy man, and the proprietress of the mountain, a pious lady, gave it to him. A great number of devouts joined him, and in this way the little state came into existence. The consti- tution is partly aristocratic, partly democratic. The executive power is vested in two Capitani reggenti, who are elected only for the period of six months. The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, is about $G,000. The regular military con- sists of only 24 men and 7 commissioned and non-coinmissioned officers, but the militia co^nprises 850 men. Besides the capital, there are only four villages in the country. Sa>- Marino, the capital and the seat of government, i3 situated on the above-mentioned momitain, and has 5 churches (in one of them is the tomb of San Marino), 3 convents, and 6,000 inhabitants. The 4 villages alluded to are : Serravalle, Faetano, Acquaviva, and Feglio. ITALY. 137 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. VIII— THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES. Area : 42,110 square miles. Population: 8,313,000 inhabitants. Tins state, commonly called the kingdom of Naples^ comprises the whole of Lower Italy, together with the island of Sicily and some neighboring isles. With the exception of 80,000 Greek Christians and 2,000 Jews, the inhabitants are Catholics, under the church authority of 16 archbishops and 77 bishops. In 1842 the whole kingdom numbered 32.360 priests, 12,751 monks, and 10,056 nuns. About the Neapolitan Apennines and Abruzzi, the Gran Sasso d'llalia and Mt. Vesuvius on the continent, and Mt. Etn^, etc., on the island of Sicily, see Introduction, ^ 7, d. In the Abruzzi is the laic of Cclano, about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide. Be- sides the Volturno and GarigUano (see Introduction, § 10), there are no rivers worth mentioning. The climate is in most parts of the country very delightful, and even during the winter months the trees are covered with green leaves. On the island of Sicily the sugar-cane and other tropical products thrive very well. The wine which grows in the environs of Syracuse is excellent, like that on Mt. Vesuvius, known by the name of Lacrymae Christi (see Introduction to Italy). On account of the peerless fertility of the soil in Sicily, wheat is raised here in such quantities, that in some years it has been exported at the value of 4.500.000 Neapolitan ducats ; not- withstanding that the agriculture is in a very backward state throughout the kingdom. Besides wheat and wine, the staples are olive-oil, silk, and sulphur. That the Neapolitan horses are of a very fine breed, has already been mentioned in the Introduc- tion to Italy. The kingdom of Naples is the only country in 1S8 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Two Sicilies — Education, etc. Europe where the porcupine is met with. Manufactures have of late improved, both on the continent and in Sicily. With regard to the means of education, there are 4 universi- ties: at i\7ij9/e5 (founded in 1224, and in 1841 frequented by 1,550 students), at Catania (founded in 1445, and in 1841 with 600 students), at Palermo (founded in 1447, and in 1841 with 735 students), and at Messina (founded in 1838, and in 1841 with GO students). Moreover there are lyceums at Salerno, Bari, Catan- garo, and Aquila, 4 gymnasiums in the city of Naples, and in each province at least one gymnasium. The number of Latin schools amounts to 780 ; and in the continental part of the kingdom there are 2,130 common schools. (About the terms of gymna- sium, etc., see the note annexed to the Introduction of Portugal.) The government is almost absolute, as it was before the last revolution, which in 1849 has been completely suppressed. The public revenue and expenditure is computed at about 20,000,000 Neapolitan ducats annually ; and the public debt at 86,000,000 ducats. The army numbers on the peace footing 60,000, and on the war footing nearly 100,000 men, besides several regiments of Swiss. The navy consists of 1 ship of the line, 3 frigates, 4 sloops of war, and 4 smaller vessels. < There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. /:ing the mc^t northerly part of the Neapohtan continent, contains : Teramo, chief toAvn of tiie province of Abruzzo ulteriore I., on the liigh road between Naples and Ancona, north-eastward and 83 miles distant from Rome, with a botanic garden, and 10,000 inhabi- tants. Teramo was in ancient ages called Interamnia, and subsequently Abruzzo, hence the nomination of the Abruzzi. Other towns of this province are : Atri (with 5,000 inhabitants), CivitcUa del Tronto (with 2,(i00 inhabi- tants), Penne, or Civita di Penne (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Senarica (whose inhabitants are altogether nobles, and endowed with various privileges). Aquila, fortified capital of tlic province of Abruzzo ulteriore II., on the Aterno, south-westward and 28 miles distant from Teramo, belongs to the most industrious trading places of the kingdom, and has a population of 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Sulmona (with 10,000 inhabitants), Avezzano (with 6,000 inhabitants), Celano (with 2,200 inhabi- tants), Civita Pucalc (Avith 10,000 inhabitants), and Tagliacozzo (a small town situated south-westward and 23 miles distant from Aquila, and eastward and 42 miles distant from Rome, noted for the battle in 1268, which the unhappy Conradin, of Hohenstaufen, lost against Charles of Anjou). Chiett, or Civita di Chieti, capital of the province of Abruzzo citeriore, on the Pescara and near the Adriatic, northward and 101 miles distant from Naples, with a beautiful catiiedral, and 14,000 inhabitants. From this town, formerly called Theate, or Teate, the monastic order of the Theatines has derived its name. Lanciano, the most important trading town of the Abruzzi, on the Feltrino, and quite near the Adriatic, with 15,000 inhabitants. Ortona a Mare, a town on the Adriatic, with 6,000 inhabitants. Pescara, a fortified town on the river of the same name, and on the Adriatic, with 3,000, or, according to others only with 600 inhabitants. 3. The section o{ Apulia (area: 9,351 square miles; population: 1,525,382, according to the. census of 1844), comprising, exclusive the Abruzzi, the eastern half of the Neapolitan continent, and containing : Lecce, capital of the province of Terra di Otranto (which comprises the eastern great tongue of land of Italy), in a fertile plain, eastward and 207 miles distant from Naples, with 12 churches (among which is a remarkable cathedral), 8 con- vents, several higlier schools, and 21,000 inhabitants. Otraxto, a fortified towh at the stry.it of Otranto (entrance into the Adriatic Sea), with a citadel, 144 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. a remarkable cathedral, and 4,600 inliabilants. BaiNDisi, the ancient Brun- dusium (the common place of passing over to Dyrrachium on the opposite coast of Eplrus), a maritime town on the Adriatic, 46 miles north-north-west of Otranto, with Roman antiquities, and 7,000 inhabitants (in the period of the crusades the population amounted still to 60,000 inhabitants). Taranto, a fortified town on a bay of the same name, with 8 churches, great salt-works., and 19,000 iuliabitants. In the 5th century B. C. Taranto had a population of 300,000 iuliabitants. Gallipoli, a fortified maritime town, on the bay of Ta- ranto, with very important trade in olive-oil, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bari, fortified capital of the province of Terra di Bari, on the Adriatic, opposite to Cattaro in Dalmatia, with a renowned chapel to which pilgrims resort, and 2 1 ,000 inliabitants. Trani, a fortified maritime town on the Adriatic, with a beauti- ful ancient cathedral (whose steeple is one of the highest m Italy), and 15,000 inliabitants. Other towns of this jirovince are : Barlctta (with great salt- works, and 22,000 inhabitants), Molfetta (with 13,000 inliabitants), Terlizzi (with 12,000 inhabitants), Ruvo (with 10,000 inhabitants), Altamura (with 16,000 inhabitants), Monopoll (with 16,000 inhabitants), Mola, surnamed di Bari (with 8,000 inhabitants), Giovenazzo (with 6,000 inliabitants), Bisceglia (with 10,000 inhabitants), Bitonto (with 15,000 inhabitants), and Canosa (on the Ofanto, with 4,000 inhabitants). In the vicinity of Canosa is situated, 106 miles east-north-east of Naples, and 193 miles east-south-east of Rome, the little town of Canne, in ancient times called Cannae, so renowned for the victory Hannibal gained over the Romans in 216 B. C. Foggia, capital of the province of Capitanata, on the Cervaro, north-eastward and 83 miles dis- tant from Naples, with an annual fair much resorted to, 20 churches, and 26,000 inhabitants. San Severo, formerly the capital of this province, with a medical faculty, and 18,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Manfredonia (with important commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants), Lucera (with 8,000 inhabitants), Monte Sant' Angela (with 12,500 inhabitants), Ascoli, sur- named di Satriano (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bovino, (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Vicsii (with 6,000 inhabitants). To the province of Capitanata belong also the 4 Tremitian hies, or hole de Tremiti, lying in the Adriatic Sea, but of which only two, viz. : San Nicola or Tremiti, and Domino, are in- habited. Campobasso, capital of the province of Molise, 55 miles north- north-east of Naples with important corn-trade, and 9,000 mhabitants. Other towns of this province are : hernia (with 6,000 inhabitants), Trivento (with ITALY. 145 Kiogdom of Naples— Neapolitan Continent. 3,000 inhabitants), Bojano (with 2,500 inhabitants), Sepino (with 5,000 inliab- itants), and Agnone (with 7,000 inhabitants). 4. The section of Calabria (area: 10,107 square miles; population: 1,670,824 inhabitants, according to tlie census of 1844), comprising the west- ern half of the Neapolitan continent, and containing : Reggio, capital of the province of Calabria ulteriore I. (which comprises the most southern part of the western great tongue of' land of Italy), on the straits of Messina and in an exceedingly fertile country, with 12 churches, various manufactories, very active trade and 20,000 iidiabitants. Other towns of this province are : Gerace (with 6,500 inhabitants), Sciglio (near the promontory wliich the ancients called Scylla, has a population of 4,500 inhabitants), Seminara (with 9,000 inliabitants) and Palmi (with 6,500). Cataxzaro, capital of the province of Calabria ulterior II., north-eastward and 74 miles distiuit from Reggio, with important trade in silk and olive-oil, and 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Jlonieleone (with 7,000 inhabitants), Nicastro (with 10,000 inliabitants), Squlllace (with 2,000 inhabitants), Tropea (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cotrone (anciently Croton, with 5,500 inhabitants), Santa Scverina (anciently Syberona, with 1,800 inhabitants), F'lzzo (with 5,500 inhabitants ; here was Joachim Murat in Oct. 1815 taken and shot), and Stilo (with important iron mines). Cosexza, capital of the province of Calabria citeriore, in a romantic and fertile country, south-eastward and 165 miles distant from Naples, with a beautiful cathedral, and 15 other churches, an orphan asylum for 700 cliil- dren, considerable trade in silk, and 8,000 inhabitants. Quite near, in the bed of the httle river of the Bisenzio, Hes biu-ied Alaric I., king of the Visigoths, who died here in 410 A. D. Other towns of this province are : Cassano (with 7,000 inhabitants), Castrovillari (with 5,000 inhabitants), Corigliano (with 7,000 inliabitants), Jiossano (with 8,500 inhabitants), Amantra (with 8,500 inhabitants), Paida or Paola (with 5,500 uihabitants ; the holy Francis of Paula was born here), Longobuco (with iron mines), and Altomonte (with salt mines). Potenza, capital of the province of Basilicata (comprising the ancient lAicania), in the Apennines, 92 miles east-south-east of Naples, with 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this provmce are: Matera (with 12,000 inhabitants), Montepeloso (with 5,000 inhabitants), Melfi (with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants), Tursi (with 6,000 inhabitants), Venosa (with 4,500 inhabitants), Lacjonegro or Lagoncro (with 5,500 inhabitants). Franca- villa (with 12,000 inhabitants), Acercnza (with 1,800 inhabitants), and JBer- nalda or Bernaldo (with 3,000 inhabitants). 7 146 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Naples — Island of Sicily. -B.— THE ISLAND OF SICILY. Area : 10,554 square miles. Population : 2,050,000 inhabitants. This island is, as has already been mentioned, divided into 7 val, or prov- inces, bearing the name of their respective chief towns. In the following de- scription we shall separate them from each other by dashes. — Palermo, capital of the whole island, and the seat of its governor, on a small bay of the northern coast, 193 miles south-south-west of Naples, and westward and 124 miles distant from Jlessina, is splendidly and regularly built, and has 60 churches (among which are to be noted the magnificent Gothic cathedral, St. Joseph's, and the church of the Capuchins, the latter remarkable for its vaults), a vast and ancient royal castle, 8 abbeys and 71 other convents, a university, and numerous other similar institutions, a great many manufactories, consider- able trade and commerce, and 180,000 inhabitants. The environs of Palermo are adorned with numerous and magnificent villas. In the vicinity of the city is situated the town of Monreale or Montreale, with a splendid cathe- drd, and 14,000 inhabitants. In Monreale it was, where, on the 30th of March, 1282, the massacre of the French, or the Sicilian Vespers (see His- tory of the kingdom of the two Sicilies), commenced. San Martino, a cele- brated abbey of the Benedictines, in whose church is one of the greatest organs in Italy. Termini, a maritime town, with renowned hot springs, and 19,000 inliabitants. Other towns of this province are: Cefalu (with 10,000 inhabitants), Corleone (with 16,000 inhabitants), Cine.ti (with 4,500 inhabi- tants), Polizzi (with 4,500 inhabitants), Castronuovo (with 6,600 inhabitants), Busachino (with 9,000 inhabitants). Piano de' Greet (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Carini (with 8,000 inhabitants). Northward and 18 miles distant from Palermo lies solitary in the Mediterranean Sea the little island of Ustica, with 2,400 inhabitants. — Tr^vtani, a strongly fortified town on a peninsula, westward and 46 miles distant from Palermo, with 18 churches, 24 convents, important salt-works, and 26,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Alcamo (witli 15,600 inhabitants), Monte Giuliano (with 10,300 inhabi- tants), Casiellamare (with 6,500 inhabitants), Calatafimi (with 11,000 in- habitants), Salemi (with 12,000 inhabitants), Castclvdrano (Avith 16,000 ITALY. 1-17 Kingdom of Naples : Island of Sicily. inhabitants), Mazzara (with a remarkable cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants), and Marsala (noted for its vines, and with 16 churches, 14 convents, salt- works, and 23,400 inhabitants). Marsala is situated close by the promontory of Bocco, anciently renowned by the name of Lilylaeum. Westward fi-ora Trapani, at a distance of about 20 miles from the coast, are lying in the Mediterranean Scathe Aegades or Aegadian Islands, with 12,000 inhabitants. The largest and most remarkable of them are : Favirjnana (with 4,000 in- habitants), Levanzo (woody, with rearing of cattle, and 5,000 inliabitants), and Maretimo, or Marithno (with a castle for state-prisoners). — Gikgexti, a town on the southern coast, 60 miles south-south-east of Palermo, with a remarkable cathedral, and 18,000 inhabitants. Quite near was situated the so renowned ancient city of Agrigent, which in its most flourishing days had a population of 800,000 inhabitants. Favara, a town with 9,000 inhabitants, and situated in the midst of the so-called sulphur-districts, which occupy a tract of 596 square miles, and where in 150 mines about 4,400 workmen are occupied, earning annually about 1,000,000 quintals of sulphur. Contessa, Plana, Mezzafuso, and Palazzo Adriano, 4 tovrns which together bear the common name of Casale de 'Grecchi, and whose inhabitants are descendants of emigrated Albanians who settled licrc in the year 1480. Other towns of this provbce are: Aragona (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sciacca (with 18 churches, 14 convents, and 15,000 inhabitants), Bivona (with 6,000 inhabi- tants), Catolica and Regalmuto (with 8,000 inhabitants). Westward and 69 miles distant fi-om Girgenti, and at about 36 miles distance from the Tunesian coast, lies the exceedingly fertile Island of Pantelaria, or Pavtalaria, with a town of the same name (also known by the name of Oppidolo), mineral springs, and 7,000 inhabitants. Other smaller isles in its vicinity are : Lodh- pedu^a, Lampione, and Cinosa. Only the first-named is inhabited since the year 1834.' — Caltaxisetta, a town situated in a fertile elevated plain, towards the midst of the island of Sicily, south-eastward and 64 miles distant from Palermo, with 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Piazza (with 13,000 inhabitants), ^Varo (with 10,000 inhabitants), Castro Giovanni (with 12,700 inhabitants), Alicata, commonly called Licata (with 12,000 in- habitants), Tcrranova (with 9,800 inhabitants), Mazzarino (with 10,000 in- habitants), Cannicatti (with 17,000 inhabitants), and Pa/>«a (with 6,000 inhab- itants). — Syracuse, a fortified city on the eastern coast of Sicily, southward and 83 miles distant from Messina, is renowned for its excellent wines, and has two seaports, 22 churches (among wliich is the cathedral, anciently a tern- 14S EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdum of Naples: Island of Sicily. pie of Minerva), and 18,000 inhabitants. The celebrated ancient Syracuse was 23 miles in circuit, and said to liave had a population of 1,200,000 in- habitants. NoTO, a town south-westward and 13 miles distant from Syra- cuse, with a remarkable cathedral, and 19,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Modica (with 26,000 inhabitants), Ragusa (with 21,500 inhabitants), Spaccaforno or Spaccafurno (with 9,000 inhabitants), Vittoria (with 10,000 mhabitants), Agosta (with 15,000 inhabitants), ^yo/a (with 7,000 inhabitants), Pachino (with 1,500 inhabitants), Chiaramontc (with 6,500 in- habitants), Comiso (with 11,500 inhabitants), Biscari (with 3,000 inhabitants)^ and Floridia (with 4,500 inhabitants). — Catanea, or Catania, a city on the Sicihan east coast, and at the foot of Moant Etna, northward and 36 miles distant from Syracuse, with a university, a magnificent cathedral, 25 convents, considerable silk manufactories, and 60,000 inhabitants. Near the town of Mascoli (with 3,000 inhabitants), at the foot of Mount Etna, is the renowned chestnut-tree, considered as the largest tree throughout Europe. The circum- ference of its trunk is immense. Other towns of this province are : Aei Reale (with 20,000 inhabitants), Nicolosi (with 2,400 inhabitants). Glare (with 17,700 inhabitants), Nicosia (with 13,000 inhabitants), Paterno (with 10,700 inliabitants), Andertio (with 13,500 inhabitants), Mineo (with 8,300 inhabi- tants), CWiagrirwte (with 21,600 inhabitants), Fi^ziut (with 11,100 inhabitants), Lentlni (with excellent potteries, and 7,300 inhabitants), Bronte (with 11,000 inhabitants), Biancavilla (with 6,500 inhabitants), Spcrlinga (with 1,500 in- habitants), Leonforte (with 10,000 inhabitants), and San Filippo d'Argyro (with 7,500 inhabitants). — Messi.na, a city on the strait of the same name, with a university, considerable commerce, and 85,000 inliabitants. The cita- del of this city is very strong. Taormixa, a town at the southern entrance of the strait of Messina, and on a steep and almost inaccessible rock, with 6,500 inliabitants. In the middle ages this town sustained a siege of 80 years, the longest known in history. Other towns of this province are : Zlelazzo, or Milazzo (with 9,200 inhabitants), Poccalumera (witli 12,000 in- habitants"). Patii (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barcellona (with 10,000 inhabitants), MtHtretta (with 11,000 inhabitants), liandazzo (with 15,000 inhabitants), and Castrorcale (with 15,000 inhabitants). At a distance from 18 to 46 miles northward from the coast of the province of Messina, are lying, in the Medi- terranean Sea, the Lipari Mands (anciently called the ^ro//aH Ida'ids), 13 in number, and alt(jgether of volcanic origin, altliough tliey ])roduce wines, figs, cotton, etc. The most remarkable of tlicm are : Lipari (the principal island, ITALY. 149 Island of Malta: Geographical Description. 106 square miles in extent, with hot mineral springs, and 16,000 inhabitants), Volcano (uninhabited, with two burning volcanic mountains), Salina (with 4 villages, salt works, and 4,000 inhabitants), Stromboli (a volcanic mountain, constantly burning, and called the light-house of the Mediterranean-, only with 300 inhabitants), Felicudi (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Volcaneuo (un- inhabited). IX.— MALTA. Area: 213 square miles. Population : 140,000 inliabitants. This group, consisting of the islands of Malta, Gozzo, and Comino (together with the uninhabited isle of Cominotto), is lying in the Mediterranean Sea. between the island of Sicily and the northern coast of Africa, and belongs to Great Britain since the year 1800. The islands are in themselves, it is true, bare calcareous rocks, yet for the most part covered with fertile mould. The climate is peerlessly mild and pleasant, and the inhabitants being very diligent in cultivating the soil, they raise corn, cotton, wine, sugar-cane, and other tropic productions. Besides this, sheep, goats, and donkeys, are reared. The inhabitants, for the most part Catholics, and speaking a corrupted Arabian, intermixed with modern Grecian, Italian, and French words, do not only till the ground, but are also manufac- turing cotton goods, and carry on a considerable trade. They have retained their ancient laws and privileges, and are ruled by a British military governor. In 1829, the public reve- nue amounted to £133,072, and the expenditure to only £103.610. 160 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Island of Malta: History, etc. Histori/. — Malta was primitively called Iperia, and subsequently Ogygia (tliough the island'bf Gozzo was properly denoted by tliis latter name) ; at a later period, the Greeks named it Melite, wliich the Arabs finally transmuted into Malta. The most ancient inhabitants were Phjeacians ; however, they were expelled by the Phoenicians, and these again by the Greeks. Subse- quently the islands came under the sway of the Carthaginians, from whom they were wrested by the Romans. At last they formed a constituent part of the Eastern, or Greek Empire, until in 818 the Arabs took possession of them. In 1090 the islands were conquered by the Sicilian Normans, and since that period, Malta and Sicily were under the sway of one and the same ruler. The Emperor Charles V., in his quality as king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily (see History of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), ceded, in 1530, Malta to the knights of St. John (see History of Europe, § 17, /(), who since assumed the name of knights of the order of Malta. They had engaged themselves to wage war continually against the Turks and pirates, and kept for this purpose a navy, which in 1770 consisted of 4 ships of the line, 1 frigate, 4 galleys, and several other smaller vessels. In 1798 the French con- quered Malta, but in 1 800 it was wrested fi-om them by the British, who since have continued to be in possession of the isLinds. We shall now describe them in the following succession : — 1. The island of Malta (area: 128 square miles; popidation: 120,000 in- habitants), containing : La Valetta, capital of the whole group, and one of the strongest fortresses, with numerous ancient and modern palaces, a univer- sity, a public library with 100,000 volumes, a botanic garden, sliip docks, two seaports, considerable commerce, and 50,000 inhabitants. In the midst of the island is situated Citta Vecuia (also called Malta, or Melite), the ancient capital, with a remarkable cathedral, several convents, and 6,500 inhabitants. Other towns are : Fiuto (with 4,000 inhabitants), Zorrica (with 3,500 inliabi- tants), and Zebug (with 4,000 inhabitants). 2. The island of Gozzo (area: 88 square miles; population: 19,000 inhabi- tants), containing: Gozzo, chief town, with 3,000 inliabitant«, and the little fortress of liahatto. C'hambra is a mansion of the English governor. 3. The island of Comino, with a fortress of the same name, has only a pop- ulation of 1,000 inhabitants. 4. The isle of Cominotto is uninhabited. SWITZERLAND. Area: 15,315 square miles. Population : 2,400,000 inhabitants. Switzerland (instead of wliich, the ancient name of Helvetia is sometimes used) is situated between Germany and Italy, and on the west bordered by France. In point of religion, the Swiss are divided into Reformists (or Calvinists) and Catholics ; in some cantons the former, in others the latter prevail. Of Lutherans, there are perhaps only 400 to be found throughout the country. In 1845, the total popula- tion amounted to 2,303,000 inhabitants, of whom 998,000 were Catholics, and about 1,364,000 Reformists. The Catholics are under the church-authority of 5 bishops, viz. : of Lausanne (residing at Friburg), of Bash (residing at Soleure), of Sion (for the canton of Valais), of Chur and St. Gall (residing alternately at Chur and St. Gall), and of Como (for the canton of Tesino). The number of Jews in Switzerland amounts to about 2,000. What regards the origin, the majority of the Swiss belongs to the great family of the Germanians^ and the remainder (speaking partly French, partly Italian, and partly the so-called Ladinian language, or a corrupted Latin) to the great family of the Roma- nians (see Introduction, ^ 12). Switzerland is thoroughly 7nountainous, and traversed by several branches of the Alps (see Introduction, § 7). while the Jura Mountains form the boundai-y on the west towards France (see the particulars in the just-named paragraph of the Introduction). 162 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland: Geographical Features. Two of the principal rivers of Europe rise in Switzerland, viz. : the Ehine (whose tributaries are here the 111, Thur^ and Aar^ which latter receives here the Emmc, Rcuss, and Lmviat), and the KiioNE, which has no remarkable tributaries in Switzerland, ^loreover, the Tesmo, or Ticino, tributary of the Po, and the Inn, tributary of the Danube, rise here. The lakes exclusively belong- ing to Switzerland, are described in ^ 9 of the Introduction, where also the particulars about the lakes of Constance and Geneva are to be found. The climate is wholesome throughout the country, although of course the temperature varies according to the higher or lower elevation of the country. In the higher mountainous regions the air is much cooled by the glaciers, or extensive fields of ice that cover the lofty summits of the Alps. It may be meujiioned on this occasion, that sometimes vast masses of snow, called ava- layiches, break away from the glaciers, and slide down the declivi- ties with a tremendous roar, overwhelming in a moment the villages below. Remarkable winds are. the Bise, coming from east or north-east, and the Foehn, a humid south wind. Notwithstanding the mountainous character of the country, some parts of it are very fertile. Many valleys have a rich soil, and renowned for their nutritious and aromatic herbs are the excellent. Alpine pastures. Pasturage and the making of cheese are therefore the chief objects of the farmer. The Swiss breed of cattle is, in some respects, considered as the finest in Europe. The rearing of sheep is inconsiderable, but goats abound every- where. The horses, which generally are strong and durable, are, together with mules, used as sumpters, to carry goods on their backs across the mountains. The Swiss delight in hunting the chamois, which dwells among the highest precipices of the Alps, while the ibex is not more, or at least very seldom, found. The principal other wild animals found in Switzerland are, the bear, SWITZERLAND. 15 J? Man\ifactures— Political Division. wolf, lynx, and marmot. The rivers and lakes abound in various kinds of excellent fishes, and the Alpine brooks especially in trouts. In some of the western and southern cantons, the vine is cultivated. There are a great many manufactories in Switzerland, especially of cotton, silks, icatckcs, etc. The trade is considerable, and, besides the manufactured goods, chiefly cattle, cheese, and drugs, are exported. Concerning the means of education, there are 3 universities : at Basle (founded in 1459. and frequented by about 130 students), at Zurich (founded in 1833, and in 1845 frequented by 125 students), and at Berne (founded in 1834, but not much resorted to). Moreover, there are so-called academies, or faculties, at Geneva and Lausanne, and gymnasiums in most of the cantons. At Friburg is a college of Jesuits, and at Hofwyl (near the city of Berne) a celebrated boarding-school, founded by Mr. Fellen- berg. Common schools are numerous. Switzerland is divided into 22 cantons, and the government is that of a federal republic (also called Helvetic Republic). Each canton is independent, and has the exclusive control of all concerns merely local ; but the defence of the country, and the general interest of the confederacy are committed to a general government, or rather Diet — a kind of congress, called Tagsatzung, and composed of two deputies from each canton (Berne and Zurich have the privilege of sending each three deputies, while Glarus sends only one). During the time when the Diet is not assembled, the so-called Vorort, that is the directory or directorial government, vested alternately in the cantons of Berne, Zurich, and Lucerne, for two years at a time, manages the affairs of the confederacy. The ordinary public expenditure of the confederacy was in 1818 fixed at 539,275 Swiss francs (these are somewhat more in 164 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History. value tbau the French francs) annually ; its public debt, which. in 1814 amounted to 3,000,000 francs, is long since paid. The total revenue of the cantons may be computed at 10,000,000 francs. The wealthiest cantons are Berne, Vaud, and Zurich (the revenue of the first-named amounted in 1844 to 3.055,400 francs, that of the second to 1,655,200, and that of the third to 1,100,000 francs), and the poorest are Unterwaldcn, Lug, and Uri, with a revenue of respectively 20,000, 11,000, and 10,000 francs. The Helvetic Republic has no standing army, but keeps in time of peace only a small number of regular troops, not exceed- ing 1,200 or 1,300 men. Yet in time of war the confederacy raises a federal army, whose strength is fixed at 64,019 men, with 3,426 horses. History. — Switzerland, until the year 406 A. D. a Roman province and inhabited by Germanic tribes, called Helvetians by the Romans, was, since the beginning of the migration of nations, occupied by the Burgundlans and Alemanni (belonging to the great tribe of the Sueves ; compare History of Europe, § 3), and came about tlie year 500 under tlie sway of the Franks. After the death of Charlemagne, many Swiss counts and barons made them- selves independent, while part of the country belonged to the Burgundian empire (see History of Europe, §§3 and 8, and History of Burgundy under France). The German emperors were to be considered as sovereigns of this empire, and consequently of Switzerland too, and the latter would perhaps until the present day have formed a constituent part of the German empire, if not the political interest of the country itself and of France had prevented it. In Switzerland, the clergy was possessed of considerable estates and tracts of land, beside tlic barons, among whom the most powerful were the counts of Uapsburg, Kyburg, Toggenburg, Netichaiel, Thierstein, and Savoy, the barons of Wyssenburg, Grandson, etc. All these lords acknowledged tlie sovereignty of the German emperors, at least nominally, as also those cities and towns did, that were endowed with imperial privileges, and ruled by imperial gov- ernors, or baihfs of the empire. Cantons did not then exist ; however, there were privileged provinces, of which Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden, elected SWITZERLAND. 155 History — Geography. in 1257 the mighty Count Rodolph V., count of Hapsburg (subsequently German emperor), their protector, but refused allegiance to his son, Emperor Albert I., because they pretended to be injured by liim in their privileges. In the beginning of the year 1308, they destroyed the castles of the imperial governors (among whom was one, named Gesler), and united into a confederacy, at first for ten years. In the course of time, other provinces joined in this confederacy, and as the canton of Schwcitz was then the most po-\verfui, the German name of Schweitz (Switzerland), fur denoting the whole country, came into vogue. In 1513, the number of cantons ■was 13, since and before the year 1803, six other joined them, and in 1815 the whole number of 22 was completed by the addition of Valais, Neuchatcl, and Geneva. Not before the Westphalian treaty of peace, concluded in 1648, the independence of the Helvetic Republic was formally acknowledged by the foreign powers. It must be remarked here, by the way, that many modem historians are of the opinion that William Tell did never exist, but all what is related about him is to be considered as a legend, derived from the Scandinavian traditions. Be this as it may, the fact is, that the above-named three cantons united into a confederacy without William Tell, and that also in every other respect he did not exert the slightest political influence on the revolution of the year 1308. In this respect it made no difference, whether he shot Gesler or not. To place the pohtical institutions and liberty of Switzerland on a par with those of the United States, would be a great mistake ; for since the end of the last century the Helvetic Repubhc has been in a very unsettled condition, wliich in the last twenty years has almost degenerated into complete anarchy. Liberty and lawlessness are at present nearly synonymous in the opinion of tlie great majority of the Swiss ; and sooner or later the country will doubt- less, become a prey of the adjacent powers, which, hitherto, only the jealousy among them has prevented. In order to facilitate the finding out of the several cantons, •we shall describe them in an alphabetic order ; and it only be remarked here, that Schafhausen is the most northerly, Valais the most southerly, Vaud the most westerly, and Grisons the most easterly canton. The population stated in the following descrip- tion is according to the last census of 1845. 156 EUROrE, TAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland — Cantons of Aargau and AppenzcU. 1. The canton of Aahgau (area: 511 square miles; population: 190,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and for the most part Ihformists, while only 90,000 are Catholics), between tlie cantons of Basle and Zurich, crossed by the Aar river, and on the north separated from tlie German grand-duchy of Baden by the Rhine. It belonged formerly to the canton of Berne until in 1803, when it became an independent canton, and contains; Aar au, capital of the canton, on the Aar, south-eastward and 26 miles distant from Basle, with cotton, silk, and hardwai-e manufactures, considerable trade, and 4,500 inhabitants. Aaebueg, a town on the Aar, south-wiestward and 9 miles dis- tant from Aarau, with the only fortress of all Switzerland, and 1,700 inliabi- tanta. Baden (sometimes also called Oberbaden, to distinguish it from the grand-ducal Badish town of the same name), a town on the Limmat, north- westward and 14 miles distant from Zmich, with renowned hot mineral springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. On the 7th of September, 1714, a treaty of peace between France and the German empire, was concluded here. Muri, formerly a rich and celebrated abbey of the Benedictines, which was founded either in 991 or in 1027. This remarkable building is 725 feet long. Close by is the town of the same name, with a silk manufactory, and 1,800 inhabitants. Beugg, or Bnick, a town on the Aar, has 1,000 uihabitants, and was once the property of the counts of Hap.sburg, of whose ancestor's castle IlArsBURO considerable remnants are still extant in the neighborhood. This castle was reared in 1027. Not far from here, near the vdlage of Windisch, it was where, on the 1st of May, 1308, Emperor Albert I. was murdered by his nephew. His widow and daughter reared a nunnery on the very place, named Koenigsfelden, which in 1528 was transformed into a liospital. Zokingen, a town on the Wigger, with various manufactures, and 3,400 inliabitants. Other towns of this canton are: Bremgarten (with 1,050 inhabitants), Lenzburg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (with 1,600 inhabitants), Lauffenburg (with 1,000 inhabitants), /r/mg'/iaM (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zwr^ac/t (with 1,000 inhabitants), Villmergen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Frick (with 2,000 inhabitants), IFd^/n^f^w (with 1,050 inhabitants), Ober-Kubn (with 1,700 inhab- itants), and Uyiter-Kulm (with 1,800 inhabitants). 2. The canton of Appenzkll (area: 149 square miles ; population: 54,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and p.artly Reformists, partly Catholics), en- tirely surrounded by the territory of the canton of St. Gall, and situated near the lake of Constance. It became an independent canton in 1513, and was since the reformation divided into two distinct districts, called Inner-llhoden SWITZERLAND. 167 Canton or Basle. and Ausser-Rhoden, the former inhabited only by Catholics, and the latter only by Reformists. Inncr-llhodcn contains: Apfe.vzell, capital of the whole canton, on the Sitter, southward and 7 miles dititant from the city of St. Gall, and 26 miles south-south-east of Constance, with a Gothic church, 2 convents, linen trade, and 3,200 inhabitants. Wcisshad and Gonten, villages, with mineral springs. Ausser-Rhoden contains: Tkouex, chief town of this district, with considerable linen trade, and 2,500 inliabitants. Other towns of tliis district are: Herisau (noted for its manufactures, with 1,900 inhabitants), Teuffen (with 4,200 inhabitants), Zum Stein (with 3,000 inhabitants), Urnaesch (with 2,100 inliabitants), Gais (noted for its whey, with 2,900 inhabitants), and Hundwijl (with 1,100 inhabitants). 3. The canton of Basle (area: 192 square miles; population: 66,000 inhab- itants, of whom only 6,500 are Catholics, while the majority consists of Reformists, all speaking German), on and near the Rhine, bordered on the west by France, and on the south by the canton of Soleure. It joined the confederacy in 1491, and is since the year 1833 divided into Basic-City and Basle-Campagne. The former contains: Basle, capital of the canton, on the left bank of the Rhine, which is crossed here by its only stone bridge (all the other bridges over the Rhine are constructed by boats), southward and 73 miles distant from Strasburg, and northward and 46 miles distant from Berne, is noted for its considerable trade and manufactures, its university and board of missions, its ancient Gothic cathedral (founded in 1010; the council or synod of the years 1431-1448 was held here ; and, moreover, it contains the sepulclire of the renowned Erasmus, of Rotterdam), and has a population of 23,000 inliabitants. One of its suburbs, called Little Basle (Klein-Basel), is situated on the right bank of the Rliine. Basle, founded in the 4th century, wa4 until the year 1529 the seat of the catholic bishop of Basle, who at the same time was a prince of the German empire, and sovereign of a territory, which in 1814 was annexed to the canton of Berne. The present bishop of Basle resides at Soleure, wliile his antecessors since the year 1529 resided at Pruntrut (see next canton). To the district of Basle-city belong, moreover, the small townships oi Bettingen, Riehen, an6. Kleinhueningen (Little Iluenin- gen). Basle-Campagne contains: Liestall, or Liechstall, chief town of this district, on the Ergolz, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Basle, with various manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants. Other towns of tliis district are : Sissach (with 1,200 inhabitants), lla/cfejiiMrgf (with 800 inhabitants), ^rteAem 168 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland— Canton ol" Berne. (with 800 inhabitants), and Mutlenz (with a remarkable old church, and 1,350 inhabitants). 4. 'ilie canton of Berne (area: 2,576 square miles; population: 440,000 inhabitants, for the most part speaking German, but in the western part French ; the majority consists of Reformists, and only 53,000 are Catfiolics), occupying nearly the centre of Switzerland, and on the south bordered by the canton of Valais. It joined the confederacy in 1352; and until 18U3 the present cantons of Aargau and Vaud formed parts of it. In 1815, it was indemnificated by the former territory of the bishop of Basle (see above). It contains : Berne, the capital of the canton, on the Aar, southward and 46 miles distant from Basle, and north-eastward and 82 miles distant from Geneva, with a university and several other schools and literarj^ institutions, various manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. About 4 miles distant from here is situated the estate of Hofwyl, where is the before-mentioned school of Fellenberg. Laupen, a town on the Saane, with 900 iuliabitants. In the district of Ohcr-Aarciau (Upper Aargau) are situated the towns of Aarwaxgen (with 1,450 inhabitants), and Wangen (with 900 inhabitants). In the romantic valley of the Emme (noted for its fine cattle, cheese, and industry) are situated the towns of Langenthal (north- eastward and 23 miles distant from Berne, with 2,800 inhabitants), Langnau (with 5,700 inhabitants), Huttweil, or Uutwyl (with 900 inliabitants), and Burgdorf (with 2,300 inhabitants). Saanen, chief town of tlie valley of the same name (noted for its cheese), and in French called Gessenay. In the so-called Berner Oherland (Higlilands of Berne) are situated : Tiiun, a town on the lake of the same name, 16 miles south-south-east of Berne, is the seat of a military academy of the confederacy, and has a population of 5,000 inhabitants. Near the village of Lautcrbrunnen are the celebrated falls of the Staubbach. Meyringen, on the Aar, is the chief town of the Haslithal (valley of Hasli), whose inhabitants are noted for their fine shape. Wimmis is the chief town of the eminently cultivated valley of the Siinnien, or Sim- menthal. Other towns in the Bernese Oberlands are : Fnitingcn (with 1,800 inliabitants), and Untersecn (with 1,250 inhabitants). Interlakcn, or Liter- lachen, formerly a renowned monastery of Austin friars, founded in 1 1 30. In the district called Secland (lake-land, because it is bordered by the lake of Eiel) are situated : Erlach (in French, Erlier, or Cerlicr), a town on the lake of Biel, I'J miles west-nurtli-west of Berne, with 1,200 inhabitants, Nidau (a town, with 1,000 inhabitants), Buercn (a town on the Aar, with 1,350 inhabi- SWITZERLAND. ]59 Cantons of Freiburg and St. Gall. tanf ?), and Aarherg (a town on the Aar, with 800 inhabitants). In the former territory of the bishop of Basle (see above) are situated : Pruntrut (in French, Porentruy), a town on the Halaine, 37 miles nortli-north-west of Berne, was until 1803 the seat of the bishop of Basle, who resided here in a magnificent palace, and has a population of 2,700 inhabitants. Biel (in French, Bicnne), a town (^ the lake of the same name, with 2,800 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Delsberg, in French, Z>f/«>ion< (with 1,450 inhabitants), St. Ursanne, or St. Ursitz (with 1,000 inhabitants), Laufeii, (with 900 inhabi- tants), and Neuenstadt, in 'Fxench,Neuveville, or Bonneville (with 1,300 inhabi- tants). 5. The canton of Friburg, or Freiburg (area : 564 square miles ; popula- tion: 95,000 inhabitants, partly speaking French, and partly German, and the majority consisting of Catholics, only 6,400 being Reformists), bordered on the north-west by the lake of Neuchatel, and on the east by the canton of Berne. It joined the confederacy in 1481, and contains : Freiburg, or Friburg, the capital, on the Saane (crossed by a wire suspension bridge, which is 834 feet in length, and 145 feet above the surfoce of the water), south-westward and 19 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 73 miles distant from Geneva, is the seat of the bishop of Lausanne, and has the above-mentioned college of Jesuits (in 1842 with 676 pupils), a Gothic cathedral (whose steeple 13 365 feet in height), 8 convents, and 9,200 inhabitants. In the vicinity h situated the Cistercian monastery Altenryf, in French, Ilauterive. Murten (in French, Morat), a town on the lake of the same name, is noted for the battle agahist Charles the Temerarious, of Burgundy, in 1476, and has 1.700 inhabitants. Other towns of tliis ciinton are : Greyerz, in French, Gruyires (noted for its cheese, and with 1,050 iiiliabitants), Romont (with 1,400 inhabi- tants), and Staefis, in French, Estavayer (with 1,800 inhabitants). 6.' The canton of St. Gall (area: 744 square miles; population: 172,000 inliabitants, speaking German, and in point of religion at the ratio of 106,000 Catholics and 66,000 Reformists), separated by the Rhine (before this river enters the lake of Constance) from Tyrol. This canton, which joined the confederacy in 1798, was until then (with the exception of the city of St. Gall) the territory of the Benedictine abbey of St. Gall, whose seat was in the just-named city, though separated from it by a high wall Tlie abbey originated from a cell, built by the holy Gallus (from Ireland, and a pupil of Columban), who in the beginning of the 7th century came here to preach the gospel to tlie neighboring Allemani. He converted many of them, who set- 160 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Switzerland — Canton of Geneva. tied themselves around him, and at last a monastery was built, whose first regular abbot was elected in 720. The abbey was endowed with many privileges ; the abbot was only subjected to the pope, and in his temporal quality as prince of the German empire, to the emperor, and was at the same time sovereign of a pretty large territory. Since the year 1451 he partook in the direction of the general affairs of the Helvetic Republic, witli^ut being an actual member of the confederacy, until in 1798 the whole bishopric (or the territory of the abbey), together with the city of St. Gall, was trans- formed into a canton. (About the present bishop of St. Gall, see above.) The canton contains : St. Gall, its capital, on the Steinach, 20 miles south- south-east of Constance, and eastward and 9 miles distant from Zurich, with the former edifice of the abbey, now the residence of the government, 6 churches, several schools and valuable libraries, important hnen trade, and 11,500 bhabitants. Pfeffers (in French Favicre), a village situated in the wild, romantic I'amhia Valley (Taminathal), and noted for its warm baths. Here is also a Benedictine abbey, founded in 720. Wildhaus, a village near the head of the Thur river, remarkable as the birth-place of the reformer Zwingli, who was born here in 1484, in a house which is still extant. Ror- schach, a town on the lake of Constance, with important commerce, and 1,700 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Rapperswyl, or Jlappersckw&il (with 2,000 inliabitants), Sargans (with 750 inhabitants), Wallenstadt (with 800 inhabitants), Rheineek (with 1,800 inhabitants), Rayatz (with 1,300 in- habitants), Werdenherg (with 950 inhabitants), Lichtenstdg (chief town of the ancient county of Toggcnburg, with 7,500 inhabitants), and Wyl (with 2,400 inhabitants). 7. Tlie canton of Gejjeva (area : 92 square miles ; population : 05,000 in- habitants, speaking French, and for the most part Reformists, only 19,700 being Catholics), situated along the south-west corner of the lake of Geneva. It partook since the year 1558 in the direction of the pubhc affau-s of Swit- zerland, without being an actual member of the confederacy. In 1798 it was, by the name of Leman- department, aiuicxed to France, but in 1815 restored to its independency, and now it became a formal member of the confederacy. It contains : Geneva, fortified capital, on the lake of the same name, and on the Rhone (at the point where this river issues from tlie lake), south-westward and 82 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 69 miles distant from Lyons, is the most populous and industrious city of Switzerland, and especially noted for its extensive manufactures of watches and jewelleri * SWITZERLAND. 161 Cantons of Glarus and Grisons. (annually about 60,000 ounces of gold, 5,000 marks of silver and precious stones, at tlie value of 500,000 francs, are used up for this purpose), and moreover for its literary institutions, and has a population of ul,u00 inhabi- tants, among whom are 5,800 Catliolics. Geneva was founded by the AUo- brogi (a Gaulic tribe in the south-eastern part of Gaul and in the adjacent country, now called Savoy), came in the beginning of the 5th century of the Christian era under the sway of the Burgundians, and formed since part of tlie Burgundian kingdom, but was at the same time held in some dependency of the bishop of Geneva. In 1418 the bishop and the city entered into a league with the cantons of Berne and Freiburg, which in 152C was renewed, till in 1558 (the bishopric being meanwhile dissolved) matters were arranged in the above-mentioned manner. The territory of the city conkiins, among others, the towns of Veusoix or Versoy (with 1,200 inliabitants), and Caeouge (with 4,000 inhabitants). 8. The canton of Glarus (area : 2*76 square miles ; population : 32,000 in- , habitants, speaking German, and for the most part Reformists, only 4,300 being Catholics), situated in the interior of Switzerland, at about 14 miles distance from Tyrol, and on the south bordered by the canton of Grisons. It joined the confederacy in 1352, and contains : Glarus, capital on the Linth, 32 miles south-soutli-west of St. Gall, and south-eastward and 36 miles distant from Zurich, with mmierous cotton and cloth manufactures, important trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Mollis, Schimnden, and Naefcls, towns with re- Bpectively 2,600, 2,200, and 1,800 inhabitants. Naefels is noted for a battle in 138S. 9. The canton of Grisoxs (area: 2,981 square miles; population: 92,000 iidiabitants, of whom about two parts are Reformists and one part Catholics, speaking partly German, partly Italian, and partly the above-mentioned Ladinian, or corrupt Latin language), comprising the south-eastern part of Switzerland, and bordered by Tyrol and Lombardy. There are not less than 241 glaciers and 170 valleys in this canton, from wliich two great roads cross the Alps to Italy ; one over the Bernardin, and the other over Mount Spliigea Grisons, once a constituent part of Rhaetia (as TjtoI anciently was called), came in the 5tli century under the sway of the Ostrogoths, and in 529 under that of the kings of Austrasia (see History of Europe, § 8), who annexed it to the duchy of Swabia, or Alemannia. The German emperor, Otho I., and the duke Louis of Alemaimia endowed in 951 the bishop of Chur with various privileges in this city, which subsequently were extended over a great 162 EUROPE, TAST AND PRESENT. Switzprlaud — CanUms of Grisons, Luzerne and Neiichatel. part of Grison?, •where, moreover, free communities had arisen. The latter entered into three leatjnes, viz. : the Gret/ League, the God's-house League, and the League of the ten Jurisdictions ; while about the same lime, or in 1419, the bishop and the city of Chur entered into a confederacy with Zurich. Yet it ■was not until the year 1798 Grisons became a canton and actual member of the Helvetic Republic. The goverimicnt of the canton consists of representatives of the above leagues, still existing; and it may be remarked that Chur is the chief town of the so-called God's-house League, Ilanz that of the Grey League, and Meyenfeld the chief town of the League of tlie ten Jurisdictions. The canton contains : Chur, capital of all Grisons, near the sources of the Rhine, southward and 46 miles distani from St. Gall, with a remarkable cathedral, 2 convents, considerable transit trade, and 5,800 inliabitants. Especially in the valley of Engadin the Ladinian language is spoken, and many of its inhabitants are spread over all Europe as expert confectioners and keepers of coffee-houses. Puschlaf, or Poschiavo and Zizers, towns with respectively 900 and 800 inhabitants. Ilanz (see above), the uppermost town on the Rhine (the nethermost is Leyden, in Holland), westward and 18 miles distant from Chur, with 750 inliabitants. Splugen, a town at the north- em foot of Mount Splugen, 28 miles south-south-west of Chur, with 800 in- habitants. Other towns of this district are: 2>isc?iartment are : Coutances (with one of the finest cathedrals in France, and 9,500 inhab- itants), Valogne (with 7,000 inhabitants), Morta'm (with 3,000 inhabitants), Granville (with 8,500 inhabitants), Avranchcs (with 8,000 uiliabitants), and Villedicu les Poeles (with 3,000 inhabitants). 10. The Orne Department contains: -|- Alen^on, chief town on the Sarthe, 110 miles west-south-west of Paris, with various manufactures, and 15,000 inhabitants. The manufocturing of lace, straw hats, and crystal wares, for which Alenfon formerly was renowned, are at present almost left oK Other towns of this department are : Seez (with a beautiful cathedral, and 5,800 inhabitants), Argentan (with 6,500 inhabitants)," FzwoM^jers (chief seat of linen manufactures, with 4,000 inhabi- tants), L'Aigle (with needle manufactures, and 6,000 inhabitants), Tinchchray ■with 3,500 inhabitants), and Domfront (with 2,600 iidiabitants). The towns of Mortagne, La Trappe, etc, belonging to this department, are situated within the limits of Perche (see province XVIII.). III. Picardy. — This province, on the north side of Normandy and Isle de France, and bordering upon the English Channel between Dieppe and Calais, was since the year 823 ruled by mighty counts, who, however, continued to 1S8 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Picardy. be more or less dependent on the French crown. Out of its chief territory has been formed the Somme Department, yet being of far greater extent, tlie province of Picardy comprises also parts of the Pas de Calais and Aisne Departments. 11. The Somme Department contains : -]- Amiens, the fortified ancient capital of Picardy, on the Somme, northward and 13 miles distant from Paris, with a cathedral considered as a masterpiece of Gothic architec- ture, importimt manufactmx's of velvet, carpets, etc., considerable inland trade, and 48,000 inhabitants. Treaty of peace concluded here between France and Great Britain, on the 25th of March, 1802. Abbeville, a fortified town on the Somme, with velvet, cloth, and other manufixctures, considerable trade, and 19,500 inhabitants. Peiionne, a fortnled town on the Somme, on the high road between Valenciennes and Paris, with a remarkable old castle (in wliich Charles the Simple was kept prisoner and died in 929, and where also Louis XI. was confined for three days by Charles of Burgundy, in 1468), and 4,200 inhabitants. Crecy, or Cressy, a town, with 1,600 inhabitants, is noted for the battle of the 26th of August, 1346, in which Philip of Valois was defeated by King Edward III. of England. Ham, a town on the Somme, with an ancient strong castle, whose walls are 36 feet thick, and where, among other state-prisoners, Polignac and his fellow-ministers, Louis Napoleon Bona- parte, etc., were confined. Other towns of tliis department are : Contl (from which Bourbon princes of a collateral hne derived their title), Doullcns (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Valery (north-eastward and 42 miles distant from St. Valery en Caux, with 3,500 inhabitants, and a harbor where William the Conqueror embarked for England in 1066), Rue (with 1,600 inhabitants), Crotoy (with 1,000 inhabitants), ^?(ft (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Montdidicr (with 4,000 inhabitants). Of the towns belonging to the Aisne Department (sec Isle de France) are situated within the limits of Picardy the following : St. Quentin, a fortified city on the Somme, eastward and 37 miles distant from Amiens, with important manufactures of laces, shawls, etc., and 20,000 inhabitants. Battle in 1557 between the Spaniards and French. St. Gobain, a town, with 2,000 uihabitants, is renowned for its looking-glass manufactory wliich makes plate-glasses of more than 150 inches in height, and more than 90 inches wide. La Feee, a fortified town on tlie Oise, witii an artillery school, and 3,000 inhabitants. Vervins (noted for a treaty of peace concluded here in 1598, between France and Spain) and Auhenton, towns, with respect- ively 3,000 and 1,500 inhabitants. Of the towns belonging to the Pas de Calais Department (see Artois) are situated within the limits of Picardy tho FRANCE. 189 The Provinces of I'icardy, Artois, and Rouloiinuis. following: Calais, a fortified town on the Strait of Dover (here about 18 miles wiJe), with important cotton manufactures, sea-baths, and 12,000 inhabitants- A daily intercourse with Dover is kept up here by steam navigation. Edward III. of England conquered Calais in 1346, and the Enghsh since continued to be possessed of it until the year 1558, when the French wrested it from them again. ArJres, a fortified town in tlie midst of marshes, with 2,301) inhabi- tants. Near this town, Francis I. held an interview with Henry VIII. of England, in 1520. Montrcuil and St. Pierre, towns, with respectively 4,100 and 7,000 inhabitants. IV. Artois. — This province, comprising a tract of land between Amiens and Lille, once formed part of Flanders and Hainault, and was in 1180 brought in dowry by Isabella of Hainault, to her consort King Philip II. of France. It comprises at present : 1 2. The Pas de Calais Department, which contains : -\- Arras, fortified ancient capital of Artois, on the Scarpe, north- eastward and 32 miles distant from Amiens, with a strong citadel, a remark- able Gothic cathedral, manufiictures of lace, cotton goods, etc., and 24,500 inhabitants. St. Omer, a fortified town on the Aa, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Calais, with tobacco manufactories, and 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : 8t. Pol (with 4,000 inhabitants), Bapaume (with 3,000 inhabitants), Belhunc (with 7,000 inhabitants). Aire (with 0,000 inhabitants), Ilcsdin (with 4,000 inhabitants), and is (with 4,000 inhabitants), J/a^<6eM(7e (with (5,000 iniiabitants),andylw5«es (with 3,000 inhabitants), fortified towns. The village of Malplaquct is noted for the battle in 1709, between tlie French and the allied army under the command of Marlborough and Prince Eugene ; and the village oi Dcnain for the capture of tlie important Austrian magazines by Yillars in 1712, in consequence of which, Prince Eugene was compelled to retreat. Bavay, a town, with Roman anti- quities, and 2,000 uihabitants. To the former province of French Flanders was annexed, since the treaty of Utrecht, the little province of Dunkirk, com- prising, beside some villages, tlie fortitied maritime and commercial city of DuNKJRK, on tlie North Sea, and at the northern extremity of France (north- ward and 580 miles distant from I'erpignan, the most southern town of France), before the first revolution with 54,000, but at present only with 25,000 inliabitants. First in 1646, and then in 1658, Dunkirk was wrested from the Spaniards by the French, who then ceded it to the English, in reward for their assistance in this war. But four years later, Charles II. sold it to France for 5,000,000 livres. The French part of the former county of Namur comprises the following towns, which are situated within the limits of French Flanders, but belong at present to the Ardennes Department (see Champagne) : Givet, a fortified town on the Meuse, 40 miles east-south-cast of Valenciennes, has 4,000 inhabitants, and consists of the three united towns of Givet Notre Dame, Givet St. Hilaire, and Charlemont. Other towns on the Meuse are : Fumay (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Revin (with 2,000 inhabitants). VII. Ch.\mpagxe. — This province, situated between Isle de France and Lorraine, had in the days of the Carlovuigians, their proper dulces, subse- quently counts, who ruled it until the latter part of the 13th century, when its only heiress, princess Johanna, brought it in dowry to her consort, Philip IV;j or the Fair, in 1284, together with that part of it which was caUed Brie. Champagne comprises at present 4 departments, viz. : the Anbe De- partment (chief town, Troyes), the Marne Department (chief town, Chalons), the Upper Marne Department (chief town, Chaumont), and the Ardennes Department (chief town, Mezieres). Beside these, parts of the Seine and Marne, Meuse and Aisne departments are within its limits. 14. The Auhe Department contams : -j-Troyes, ancient capital of Champagne, on the Seine, 83 miles east-south-east of Paris, with a magnificent Gothic cathedral, numer- ous cotton manufactures, and 26,500 inhabitants. Arcis s^ir Aube and Bar ntr Aube, towns on the Aube, with respectively 3,000 and 4,200 inhabitants. 192 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Cliampagne. Other towns of this depai-tment arc : Nogent sur Seine (-vrith 3,000 inhabitants), Pont sur Seine (witli '2,000 inliabitants), Briennc (formerly ■with a mihtary academy where Napoleon vras educated, and with 3,500 inhabitants), Riceya (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Clairvaux (formerly the seat of a renowned abbey of the Cistercians, whose abbot the holy Bernard was from 1115 to 1153). 15. The Marne Department contains : -{"Chaloxs sur Marne, chief town, on the Slai'ne, eastward and 92 miles distant from Paris, and northward and 147 miles distant from Chalons sur Saone, with a great cathedral, and 13,600 in- habitants. By the Romans Chalons was called Catalaunum, hence the name of the neighboring Catalaunian Fields, where Attila, king of the Huns, was defeated in 451. Rheims, a city situated north-eastward and 83 miles distant from Paris, is noted for its splendid cathedral (in which the kings of France were formerly crowned, for the last time in 1825), and for its consid- erable wine trade, and has 40,000 inhabitants. Sillery, a village, and A'i, a town with 3,000 inhabitants, are noted for their culture of the vine. The chief seat of the trade in wines of Champagne is Epernay, a town on the Marne, southward and 14 miles distant from Rheims, with 5,800 inhabitants. St. Menehould, a town on the Alsne, with 4,200 inhabitants. Here it was where Louis XVI. on his flight from Paris was discovered by the postmaster Drouet, on the 22d of June, 1791, and upon this apprehended on the next stage at Varennes (in Lorraine), and reconvcyed to Paris. Other towns of this department are : Chatillon sur Marne (with 1,800 inhabitants), La Fere Champenoise (with 2,000 inhabitants), Vitry le Francais (with 7,500 inhabi- tants), and Vienne le Chateau (with 1,800 inliabitants). (About Montmirail in this department, see below under the head of Brie.) 16. Tiie Upper Marne Department contains : -j-Chaumont, fortified cliief town, eastward and 46 miles distant from Troyes, with iron-works and 6,800 inhabitants. Nogent LE Roy, a town on the Treire, 184 miles east-south-east of Nogent le Roy in Orleanais, is renowned for its cutleries, and has 2,800 inhabitants. Boua- BOJfNE LES Bains, a town renowned for its mineral baths, has 3,700 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this department are : Lanr/res (with a magnificent cathedral, renowned manufactures of cutleries, considerable trade in mill- stones, and 8,000 inhabitants). Vassi/ (with 2,800 inhabitants), St. Dizicr (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Joinville (with 3,200 inhabitants). 17. The Ardennes Depiarlment contains: -\- Mczicres, fortified chief town, on the Meuse, westward and 92 miles distant from Treves, and southward and 83 miles distant from Brussels, with 4,400 inhabitants. On the opposite bank FRANCE. 193 The Province of Champagne and Lorraine. of tlie Mcusc is situated the town of Charlevillc, with a manufactory of fire- arms, and 8,500 inliabitants. Sedan, a fortilied town on the Meuse and near the frontier of Belgium, is renowned for its cloth manufactures, has a popula- tion of 14,500 inliabitants, and was formerly the capital of a principality, belonging to the dukes -of Bouillon, who in 1624 ceded it to France. Other towns of this department arc: Chene le pop^dcux {with 1,000 inhabitants), licthel (with 7,000 inhabitants), Rocroy (with 3,700 uihabitants), Urandpre. (with 1,600 inhabitants), FoM22>rs (with 2,300 inhabitants), J/ow,:o7i (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Chateau Rcgnaud (yi'iih 1,800 inliabitants). (About Givet, Fumay, and Bevin, belonging to the Ardennes Department likewise, see French Flanders, towi\rds the end.) Beside the above-stated places, the following, which belong to several other departments, are situated also within the limits of Champagne : Bray sun Seine (with 2,300 inhabitants), and MoNTEEEAU FAULT YoNNE (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns belonging to the Seine and Marne Department (see Isle de France) ; Domuemy (village and birtli-place of Joan d'Arc, the Maid of Orleans, born here in 1411), belonging to the Vosges Department (see Lorraine) ; Vaucouleues, a town on the Meuse, with 5,500 inhabitants, belonging to the Meuse Department (see Lor- raine) ; Sens (on the Yonne, with a splendid Gothic cathedral and 9,400 in- habitants), Joirjny (with 5,000 inhabitants), Tonncre (with 4,000 inhabitants), Chablls (with 2,500 inhabitants), Villeneuve le Hoy (with 5,500 inhabitants), Villeneuve rArchevegtie (with 2,000 inhabitants), and St. Florentin (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns belonging to the Yon7ie Department (see Burgundy). That part of Champagne, which is called Beie (about Brie franroise, see under the head of Isle de France), or rather Dric champcnoise, comprises the following towns : Meaux (ancient capital of Brie in general, on the Marne, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants), Provins (with 6,500 inluobitants), La Ferte so^ts Jouarre (with 4,300 inhabitants), and Coulommiers (with 4,000 inhabitants), all four belonging to the Seine and Marne Depart- ment (see Isle de France) ; Chateau Thierry (a town on the Marne, 46 miles east-north-east of Paris, with 5,000 inhabitants), belonging to the Ainne De- partment (see Isle de France) ; Montmirail (a town on the Moriu, eastward and 54 miles distant from Paris, with considerable trade in millstones, and 2,300 inhabitants), and Sezanne (a town on the Auge, with 4,500 inhabitants), belonging to the Marne Department (see above). VIII. Lorraine. — This province, situated between Champagne and Alsace, on the north bordered by Germany, formed a constituent part of that tract 9 lU EUROPE. PAST AXD PRESENT. The French Province of Lorraine. of land, which by the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see History of Europe, § 14) fell to the sliare of Lothar ; but was at that time of far greater extent than at present, stretching from the Vosges Mountains in a north-westerly direc- tion down to the shores of the North Sea. In 954 it was divided into Upper and Lower Lorraine, out of which latter, comprising the Netherlands, Belgium, and Holland, including Luxemburg, arose in the course of time more or lesa independent duchies and counties, at last reunited under tiie sway of the dukes of Burgundy. On the other hand Upper Lorraine continued to be a German duchy, whose last duke was Francis Stephen, who married the renowned Austrian archi-duchess, Mary Therese (daughter of the German emperor Charles VI.), and was subsequently elected emperor by the name of Francis I. The king of France, Louis XV., was married to the daugliter of Stanislaus iLeczinski, who had been king of Poland in the period from 1704 to 1710. Thus, when King Augustus IL of Poland died in 1733, France supported the claims of Stanislaus Leczinski upon the Polish throne by armed force, while Austria conjointly with Russia supported the claims of Augustus III. (son of Augustus IL). At last a treaty of peace was concluded on the ,3d of October, 1735, according to which Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, should become sovereign of the grand-duchy of Tuscany after the death of John Gasto, the last descendant of the Medici (see History of Tuscany), and on the other hand Stanislaus Leczinski should then succeed in Lorraine. In 1737 John Gasto died and was succeeded by Francis Stephen, wliile Stanislaus Leczinski became sovereign of Lorraine and Bar (the official name of the duchy). He died in 1766, and his duchy (considered as an inheritance of his daughter, the queen of France) was now annexed to France, in conformity to the stipulations of the above-mentioned treaty. Lorraine comprises at present 4 depart- ments, viz. : tlie Mcurthe Department (chief town, Nancy), the Vosges Bepart- tiunt (chief town, Epinal), the Meuse Department (chief town. Bar le Due), and the Moselle Department (chief town, Metz). 18. The Meurthe Depart- ment contains: -}-Na\cy, ancient capital of Lorraine, near the Mcurthe, west- ward and 74 miles distant from Strasburg, and soutliward and 74 miles dis- tant from Luxemburg, is one of the finest and most regularly built cities of France, was until 1690 the residence of the dukes of Lorraine, and has 32,500 inhabitants. Nancy is also noted for the battle of 1477, in which Charles the Temerarious of Burgundy was killed. Llxeville, a town on the Meurthe, south-eastward and IG miles distant from Nancy, with a magnificent palace (the residence of the ancient dukes of Lorraine in the period from 1690 to FRANCE. 195 The Province of Lorrainu. 1Y66, but at present transformed into a military barrack), and 13,500 inhabi- tants. Luneville is noted for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 9th of February, 1801, between France and the German empire. Saarburg (in French, Sarrebounj), a \oym on the Saar, 37 miles west-north-west of Stras- burg, with 2,500 inliabitants. Other towns of this department are : Pont a Mousson (with 7,000 inhabitants), Gondrcville (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nico- lan de Fort (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Mahevillc (with 4,000 inhabitants), Rosiircs aux Salines (with 3,000 inhabitants), Chateau Salins (with 3,000 iuliabitants), Bieuze (with 4,000 inliabitants), Vic (with 3,000 inhabitants), J/oyou'/c (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Baccarat {noted for its crystal-glass manufactures, with 3,000 inhabitants). The villages of St. Qnirin and Cirey are also noted for tlieir crystal and plate-glass manufactures. (About the towns of Pfahburg and Toul, within this department, see below.) 19. Tlie Vosges Department contains : -|-Epixal, chief town on the Moselle, 37 miles south-south- east of Kincy, with 10,000 inliabitants. The neighboring vilLage oiArchcttcs is noted for its paper manufactures. Plombieres, a town ui the Yosges Mountains, is noted for its warm baths and liardware manufactuies, and has 1,500 inliab- itants. Otlier towns of this department are : St. Die (with 8,200 inhabitants), Rambervillers (with 5,000 inliabitants), Reiniremont (with 5,200 inhabitants), Gerardmer (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mirecourt (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Neufchatcau (with 4,000 inliabitants). About the village of DomrcmyMrWx- place of Joan d'Ai-c, see under the head of Champagne. 20. Tlie Meus« Department contams : -j-B.^R l^ Due, ancient capital of the former duchy of Bar (see above), which since the middle of the loth century formed a con- stituent part of the duchy of Lorraine, is situated on the Ornain, westward and 40 miles distant from Xancy, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Varexnes, a town on the Aisne, 13 milfes north- north-east of St. Menehould (in Champagne, to which town we refer with regard to the seizure of Louis XVL), with 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Lixjny (with 3,200 inhabitants), St. Mihiel, or St. Michel (with 6,000 inhabitants), Commercy (with 4,000 inhabitants), Damvillierx (with 1,000 inhabitants), Marville (with 1,200 inliabitants), and Montmedy (with 2,400 inliabitants). (About Verdun in this department, see below.) 21. The Moselle Departinent (whose capital, Metz, shall be described below) contains : Saargemund (in French, Sarregue- mine.t), a town on the Saar, at its junction with the Bli^s, eastward and 42 miles distant from Metz, with 4,500 inliabitants. The villages of Monther- hamen, Maisenthal, Goetzenhruck, and Munzthal, are noted for their great 196 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace. glass-works. BiTscn, a town in the Vosges Mountains, is noted for its re- markable and strong citadel, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Tiiioxvillf. (in Gorman, Dkdcnhofcn), a sti'ongly fortified town on the Moselle, southward and 1 3 miles distant from Luxemburg, with 6,000 inhabitants. It belonged formerly to the ancient duchy of Luxemburg, and was in 1659 ceded tc France. Other towns of this department are : St. Avoid (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Sarralbe or Saaralbe (on the Saar, at its junction with the Albe, has 4,000 inhabitants), Sierk (in French, Sierqucn, with 2,000 inhabitants), Brley (with 2,000 inhabitants), Longwy (a fortified town, with 2,500 inhabitants), and Faulquemont (in German, Falkenherg, with 1,500 inhabitants). Beside these is situated witliin the limits of Lorraine the town of Bourmont (on the Meusc, with manufactures of cutlery, and 2,000 inhabitants), belonging to the Upper Marne Department (see vmdcr the head of Champagne). The following three cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, did indeed originally belong to Lorraine, but separated from it so early as towards the end of the 10th century, and became since German free towns. In the days of the Emperor Charles V., the Protestant German princes formed a league against him, and induced King Henry IL of France, to make common cause with them, upon condition that he was to occupy the tliree named cities for his security. The GeiTnan princes had, it is true, no right at all to dispose thus of the imperial cities; however, the latter were in 1552 actually occuj)ied by the French, and in 1648 by the Westphalian treaty of peace, formally ceded to them. To the Moselle Department (see above) belongs at present : -|- Metz, strongly fortified chief town of this department, on the Moselle, south-west- "ward and 50 miles distant from Treves, and southward and 37 miles distant from Luxemburg, with a magnificent cathedral, a remarkable arsenal, several miUtary schools, many literary institutions, and 48,000 inhabitimts. To the Meurthe Department (see above) belongs: Toul, a fortified town on the MoseUe, southward and 30 miles distant from Metz, with a remarkable cathe- dral, and 1,700 inhabitants. To the Mouse Department (sec above) belongs: VERDU>f, a fortified town on the Meuse, westward and 34 miles distant from Metz, with a citadel, and 11,000 inhabitants. IX. Alsace. — This province, situated along the left bank of the Rhine, by which it is separated from the German grand-duchy of Baden, on the south bounded by the Swiss canton of Basle, and on the north by the Bavarian Palatinate, belonged since the year 870 to the German empire, and formed a constituent part of the ancient duchy of Swabia (see introduction to the FRANCE. 197 The Province of Alsace. Bavarian province, Swabia and Neuburg) in the period from the year 916 to 1'268. Since tlie solution of this duchy in the last-named year, Alsace became an immediate territory of the empire, although Austria got possession of a great part of Upper Alsace. France had long since lusted after this fine country, and having been called for assistance by the German Protestants in the Avar of thirty years, France reserved to herself Alsace, which actually -was ceded to it in the Wcstphalian treaty of peace in lG-18, -with the exception of Strasburg and some other imperial cities. However, France took possession of them too in 1681, and in 1G07 they were formally ceded to her. Alsace comprises two departments, viz. : the Lower Rhine Department (or that part of Alsace which formerly was called Lower Alsace, or Kortltgau), and the Upper Rhine Department (formerly called Upper Alsace, or Sundgau, i. e., South District). 22. Tlie I^otver Rhine Department (or Lower Alsace) con- tains : -|- Strasburg, formerly the capital of all Alsace, and untU the year 1681 an imperial city of the German empire, quite near the Rhine, south- westward and 46 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 70,500 inhabitants, numer- ous and important manufactures, is one of the strongest fortresses in France, and noted for its magnificent cathedral reared in the period from 1015 to 12*75, and whose steeple is 4-15 feet high. Strasburg was founded in the middle of the 6tli century by the Franks. Since the beginning of the Ith century it was the seat of a bishopric, wliose bishop was an immediate member of the German empire, and whose territory was situated partly on the right bank of the Rhine, partly in Alsace, there comprising : Zaberx, in Frencli, Saverne (a town, with 5,500 inhabitants, and a magnificent palace, where the bishop resided since the reformation), and the towns of Molshcim (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Mutzig (with 4,000 inhabitants), Damhach (with 3,000 inhabitants), Beiin/elden, and 3Iarkolsheim. IIagexau, a fortified town on the Jloder, northward and 18 miles distant from Strasburg, with 10,000 inhabitants. Wasselonne (in German, Wasselnheiin) and Roshcim, towns, with respectively 5,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. EnExnEiM (in French, Ohernay), a town at the foot of Mount St. Odiha (2,364 feet high), with calico manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. In a neighboring valley of the Vosges is situated the village of Klingenthal, noted for its manufactures of sword blades, cutlery, etc. Barb, a town romantically situated at the foot of the Vosges, south-westward and 18 miles distant from Strasburg, with numerous cotton and woollen manufac- tm"es, and 5,000 inhabitants. Not flir from here is the valley called, in French, Ban de la Roche, and in German, Steintlud, where the celebrated Lutheran 8' 198 • EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Alsace. minister J. F. Oberlin. lived in tlie period from 1166 to 1826, who transformed tliis rough and sterile valley into a little paradise, and by tliis, as well as by his truly Christi.in ministry, proved himself the benefiictor of his parishioners. He resided in the village of Waldbach. Liciitenueug, a remarkable ancient feudal castle, until the year 1480 of barons of the same name, whose estates then were entailed upon the counts of Hanau (see the Bavarian Palatinate under the head of Germany). BucHSWEiLEa (a town, with various manufac- tures, and 4,000 inhabitants) was formerly the capital of the Lordsliip of Lichtcnberg. Lauteeburg, a fortitied town near the junction of the Rhine with the Lauter, did until the first French revolution belong to the imme- diate German bishopric of Spire, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Here terminate the so-called Lines of Wdssenburg, noted in the military history of the wars between France and Germany, ami consisting of a rampart and moat running upwards along the Lauter to the town of Weissexburg (with 0,200 inhabi- tants), situated on this river, westward and 14 miles distant from Lauterburg. Other towns of this department are : Biachweiler (with 6,000 inhabitants), ScldetUtadt (with 10,000 inliabitants), Nicderbronn (with 2,000 inhabitants), fiwA Saar-Union (with 3,000 inhabitants), i'bri Zoi^'s, formerly also called Fort Vauhan, at present a village, with 600 inhabitants, but formerly a fortified town on an island of the Rhine, founded in 1689 by order of Louis XIV. The above-mentioned fortified town of Pfalzburg, belonging to Lower Alsace, but at present situated within the limits of the Mcurthe Department (see under the head of Lorraine), has 4,000 inhabitants. (To Lower Alsace belonged also the towns oi Latulan, Jihchizabern, Kcmdcl, and Ucrr/zaberri, v;hich in 1815 were ceded from France to Germany, and then annexed to the Bavarian Palatinate.) 23. The Upper Rhine Department (or Upper Alsace) contains : -}- CoLMAR, chief town of the department, on the Lauch, 41 miles soutli-south- west of Strasburg, is famous for its extensive cotton manufactures, and has 16,500 inhabitants. New Breisach, a fortified town on the Rhine, right oppo- site and Old Breisach in Baden, founded in 1699 by Louis XIV., has 2,000 inhabitants. Munster, surnamed im Gregorienthal (in the valley of Gregoiy), with important cotton and paper manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants Other towns of this dep.artment arc : Kaiscrsberg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Turkhcim (with 2,30u inhabitants), Rappoltsweiler (in French, Ribeauviller, with impor- tant cotton manufactures, and 7,000 inhabitants), Rufach, or Rouffac (with 4,400 inhabitants), Egifheim (with 1,900 uihabitants), Ilerliahcim (with 1,200 inhabitants), Gcbweiler (with 4,000 inhabitants), IFaiwetVcr (with 1,600 inhabi- FRANCE. 199 Tho Provinces of Alsace aiid Burgundy. tants), St. Amarin (with 2,000 inhabitants, and an extensive calico and indienne manufactory in the neifjhboring ancient ciistle of Wcsserliiig), Emislieim (with 3,000 inhabitants), !Z7(f(?at (with 7,000 inhabitants), &nw/te»«, or Cernay (with 8,000 inhabitants), Beamourt (with extensive manufactures of hardware, etc, and 1,100 inhabitants), AWa (with 5,300 inhabitants), and J./<^-«rt7t (with 3,U00 inhabitants). Near Basle (in Switzerland) and on the Rhine, is situated the town of HuMNGEN (with 1,000 inhabitants), Avhose strong fortifications, erected in 1681 by order of Louis XIV., but demolished in 1815 according to the terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Paris, were renowned in the military history. Bekort, or Belfort, a town on the Savoureuse, with 6,000 inhabi- tants, was once the capital of the Sundgau (see above). St. Maeie aux Mines, in German, Jlarkirch, a town, with various manufactures, and 10,500 inhabi- tants, is situated within the limits of tliis department, but is properly belonging to Lorraine. The city of Muhlsausen (on the 111, and 14 miles distant from Basle, with the most extensive cotton manufactures of the Upper Rhine Department, and 25,000 inhabitants), was formerly a German imperial city, and at the same time a member of the Helvetic confederation, but in 1793 ceded to France. X. BouEGOGNE, or the ancient duchy of Bukgundv, at the southern frontier of Cliampagne, and separated from Switz3rland by the Franche Comte (or ancient county of Burgundy). Tliis province conserving by its name still the memory of ancient Burgundy in general, so often mentioned in the European history of the middle ages, it may be here the most convenient place to give a historical sketch of ancient Bm-gundy. The Bnrgundians, mentioned in § 3 of the History of Eiu-o]:)e, founded after the begimiing of the 5th century in the eastern parts of Gaul an extensive empire, which comprised not only the present French provinces of Bourgogne, Franche Comte, Lyonnais, Dauphiny, and Provence, but also Savoy and the western part of Switzerland. It was of greater extent than the present kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and ruled by Icings who resided alternately at Geneva and Lyons. In the year 500 it was attacked by Clovis I, king of the Franks, who vanquished the Burgundiaus in a battle near Dijon, made them tributary, and wrested from them the greatest part of the subsequent Lyonnais. In 533 the kingdom of Burgundy was completely conquered by the sons of Clovis, and formally annexed to the Prankish empire. By the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see History of Europe, § 14) Lothar, the third son of Louis the Pious, became among other territories possessed of Burgundy too, and his claims upon it 200 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Province of Burgundy. were subsequently transferred, by way of inheritance, to the German empe- rors aiul in several periods realized by them. Yet in the years 879 and 887 tliis ancient and primitive kingdom of Burgundy was divided into three more or less independent parts : the kingdom of Provence, the kingdom of Bur- gundy, and the duchy of Burgundy. 1. The kingdom of Provence, whose first king (since the year 879) was Boso duke of Provence (hence the name of the kingdom), did not only comprise the subsequent French province of this name, but also Savoy, Daupliiny, Lyonnais, and part of Franche Comtc, and was subsequently often called the Ci.tjuranian kingdom of Burgundy. 2. The second division of ancient Burgundy comprised the gi-eatest part of Switzerland and parts of Savoy and Franche Comte ; its first king was Ro- dolph, duke of West Franconia ; it was called par excellence tlie kingdom of Burgundy, or (to distinguish it from the just-mentioned other kingdom) the Tranyuranian kingdom of Burgundy. In 933 it was united with the Cisju- ranian Idngdom, and this united kingdom was since called the Arelatian kingdom, or kingdom of Arelate, because its kings resided in the city of Arle3 (in Provence and on the lILone). In the course of time several of the govern- ors of its provinces made themselves independent, at a later period they became vassaLs of the French crown, and thus at last all the western provin- ces were uicorporated into the kingdom of France, while of the otlier prov- inces Savoy became an independent duchy, and those situated in Switzerland were annexed to the Helvetic confederation. 3. What regards the third division of ancient Burgundy, or the duchy of Burgundy (of which is properly the question here), its first duke, since the year 887, was Richard, brother of Bo«o (see above), but since the beginning of the 1 1 th century its rulers were French princes, or younger brothers of the reigning kings of France and their descendants. In 1369 Philip, duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, heiress of Flanders, and since the dukes of Burgundy became gradually possessed of the Netherlands too. In 1384 Philip's son John inherited likewise the Franche Comte (see the next province), which was generally known by the name of the county of Burgundy, or Upper Burgundy, and had for a long period been a constituent part of the Transjuranian kingdom. Towards the end of the 14th and during the 15th century the dukes of Burgundy resided alternately in Dijon, Besan^on, Bruges, and and other cities of the Netherlands. In 147*7 their mule line became extinct, and tlie duchy now as vacant fee fell back to the French crown. The duchy, or province of Burgundy comprises at pres- ent 4 departments, viz. : the Cote d" Or Department (chief town Dijon), the FRANCE. 201 The Province of Burgundy. Saone and Loire Department (cliief town Macon), the Yonne Department (chief town Auxenc), and the Ain Dcpartincnt (Bourgen Bresse). 2i. The Cote d' Or Department contains: -j-DuoN, ancient capital of the duchy of Burgundy, at the junction of the Ouze and Suzon, south-eastward and 166 miles distant from Paris, is noted for its mustard, wax candles and wines, and has 27,000 inliabitants. Citeaux (in Latin Clstercium), formerly a renowned abbey and cliief convent of the Cistercian monks. Pommard and Volenay, great villages, noted for their excellent Burgundy wines. Nuits and Beaune, towns with respectively 3,000 and 12,000 inhabitants, are likewise noted for their Burgundy wines. Other towns of this department are: Fontaine Francaise (with 2,000 inhabitants), Ismrtille (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. Jean de Losne (with 2,000 hihabitants), Auxonne (with 5,800 inhabitants), Chutillon sicr Seine (with 4,600 inhabitants), Semur, surnamed e« Auxois (with 4,300 inhabitants), Monthard (with 2,400 inhabitants), Saulieu (with 3,000 inliabitants), and Arnay le Due (with 3,200 inhabitants). 25. The Saone and Loire Department contains : -[-Macon, chief town, on the Saone, southward and 12 miles ilistant from Dijon, and westward and 65 miles dis- tant firom Geneva, with important wine trade, and 12,500 inhabitants. Cha- lons suu Saone, a town on the Saone, southward and 147 miles distant from Chalons sur Marne, and westward and 72 miles distant from Lyons, with 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Tournus (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cluny or C'lugny (with 5,000 inhabitants), Charolles (with 3,400 inhabitants), Bourbon Lancy (with 2,700 inhabitants), Louhans (with 3,000 inhabitants), Autnn (with 10,800 inhabitants), Crcuzot (with 1,600 in- habitants), and Semur, surnamed en Brionnais (with 1,500 inhabitants). 26. The Yonne Department contams : -f-AuxERRE, chief town, on the Yonne, north-westward and 78 miles distant from Dijon, with 14 churches, among which is a remarkable cathedral, important wine and timber trade, and 12,500 hihabitants. Avallon, a town on the Voisin, with 5,700 inhabitants. Cou- LANGES LES ViNEUSES, a towni on the Yonne, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. The small town of Vezelay, with 1,6U0 inhabitants, is remarkable in history for that the holy Bernard preached here the second crusade. (The other towns of tliis department to be noticed, see under the head of Champagne.) 27. The Ain Department contains : +Bourg, sur- named en Bresse (having been the capital of the Burgundian district of Bresse), chief town, on the Rcyssouse, westward and 46 miles distant from Geneva, with a magnificent Gothic church, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bellet 9=^ 202 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Provinces of Burgundy and Tranche Comt6. a town on the Rhone, with 4,400 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the Burgundiau district of Bugcy, that was for a long time in the possession of the dukes of Savoy, but was restored to France in 1601, and to which be- longed moreover the towns of Nantua, (with 4,000 iuliabitants), Lagnieu (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. Rambert (with 2,000 iuliabitauts), Oyonnar (with 2,000 inhabitants), Scysacl (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Vllle Bois, surnamed som Bcllcy (with 2,000 inhabitants). Tkevoux, a town on the Saone, with 3,000 inliabitants, is noted for its manufactures of watch-cases, etc. Trevoux was formerly the capital of the sovereign principality of Dombcs, to which moreover belonged the towns of Toissey (with 1,500 inhabitants), and St. Trivier en Dombes, or sur Mognand (witii 1,400 inhabitants). Other towns of the Aiu department are : Pont de Vaux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Pont d'Ain (with 1,400 inhabitants), Pont de Veyle (with 1,500 inhabitants), Mont- luel (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Chatillon les Dombes (with 3,000 hihabi- tants). Gex, a town at the Jura Mountains, is noted for its watch manufac- tures, and has 3,000 inhabitants. At about 2 miles distance from Geneva is situated the village of Ferney, where Voltaii'e lived. To the province, or duchy of Burgundy did moreover belong the town of Bae sue Seine, with considerable wine trade, and 2,100 inhabitants, at present situated within the limits of the Aube Pepartment (see Champagne), and the town of Arc ex Baeeois, ■nnth 2,000 inhabitants, at present situated withm the Umits of the Upper Marne Department (see Champagne). XL Feanche Comte, or the ancient county of Burgundy, situated between the duchy of Burgundy and Switzerland, and on the north bordered by Lor- raine and Alsace. It at first formed a constituent part of the Transjm'anian kingdom of Burgundy (see above, under the head of Burgundy), became since an independent county, and devolved in 1384 by inheritance to the dukes of Burgundy. Though the male line of these dukes became extinct in 1477, the Franche Comte continued to form part of the Netherlandish estates of the house of Burgundy, until in 1679 it was ceded to France. Franche Comte comprises at present 8 departments, viz. : tlie Doub,^ Department (chief town Besamjon), the Jura Department (cliief town Lons le Saulnier), and tlie Upper Boone Department (chief town Vesoul). 28. "Ilic Doubx Department contains : -f- Besani;ox (in German, Bisanz), fortified former capital of Franche Comte, on the Doubs, eastward and 46 miles distant from Dijon, with a splendid Gothic cathedral, numerous manufactures, especially of watches, and 32,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : St. Hippolyte (with 5,000 FRANCE. 203 Tho Provinces of Francho Comto?i (area: 2,386 square miles ; population: 110,000 inhabi- tants), settlements on the Sewgal^ etc. 2. In Asia: The cities and towns of Pondicheri/, Karikal, AIah{', and Chandcnagor. occupying together 532 square miles, with 180,000 inhabitants. 3. In America: French Guyana, or Cajcnne (with 30,000. 10* 226 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The French Colonies. inhabitants), the "West Indian islands of Guadeloupe (682 square miles, and 120.000 inhabitants), Martinique (362 square miles, and 1 16,000 inhabitants), etc., and the isles of St. Pierre^ Miqvdon^ and LanglcT/, near Newfoundland. 4. In Polynesia, the French government has assumed a mock protectorate over Oiahcite and other islands, but nowhere estab- lished a regular colony. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Area: 117,921 square miles. Population : 28,600,000 inhabitants. The united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it is officially styled) comprises two large islands (with several groups of smaller ones), lying right opposite to the middle part of con- tinental Europe, and separated from it by the Strait of Dover. The largest of the two islands, embracing England (with Wales) and Scotland^ is called Great Britain since the year 1603. when, by the accession of King James YI. of Scotland to the English throne, both kingdoms were united. The other and smaller of the two islands is Ireland, which in 1172 was conquered by the English, and ever since has formed a constituent part, first of the kingdom of England, and since 1603 of the united kingdom. About the seas, bays, etc., washing the shores of the British islands, see Introduction, § 8, pages 19 and 20. According to the census of 1841, the total population was 26,861,464 inhabitants ; and according to that of 1845, the popu- lation of Great Britain (exclusive Ireland) amounted to 19,572.574 inhabitants. The nation is divided into three classes : the nobility, gentry, and commonalty. The first comprises dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons ; the second, all who are distinguished for wealth, education, talents, or office ; and the third, tradesmen, artificers, and laborers. "With regard to reli- gious concerns, the Church of England is established by law ; its 228 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Englaud, Scotland, Irvland, and Wules. supreme Lead is the sovereign, and under him are 2 archbishops, 25 bishops, GO archdeacons, and more than 10,000 deans, vicars, rectors, etc. The members of other churches arc called dis- senters, and they comprise Methodists, Baptists, Independents, etc. This has, however, regard only to England (and Wales). In Ireland, there are four fiftljis of the people Roman Catholics, and nearly one half of the other fifth Presbyterians. On the other hand, in Scotland the established religion is Presbyterian- ism, the fundamental principle of which is the equality of the clergy, in opposition to Episcopacy and Prelacy. Lately a divi- sion has taken place, one half of the preachers having seceded, and formed the '• Free Church of Scotland," in which the min- isters are elected by their hearers. About the principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, see Introduction, ^ 7, k. While thus Wales and most of the western counties of England are mountainous, the rest of England is diversified with beautiful hills, vales, and plains ; as it is for the most part also the case with Ireland, where, however, about an eighth part of the surface is covered with bogs, while in the south- west are mountains of about 3.000 feet high. Scotland is divided into the Highlands and Lowlands, which latter embrace the counties south of the rivers Forth and Clyde, and some tracts north of them. About the principal rivers, see Introduction, i^* 10. England is intersected by numerous canals, which extend about 2,800 miles in length. Most of them are of the most costly and perfect construction. In Scotland and Ireland are likewise excellent canals. At present England is, as it were, covered with a net of rail-roads, many of which have also been constructed in Ireland and Scotland. The climate is generally healthful, though moist in England and Ireland, and cold in the Highlands of Scotland. In Ireland GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 229 The Products of England and Scotland. it is more mild than iu England, and produces there a beautiful and continued verdure. The soil is, upon the whole, fertile, though, especially in the Scotch Highlands, generally poor. With the exception of timber and wine, the Britit;h islands are supplied with natural products in such quantities that, in case of necessity (as was the case in the period of the continental system from 1806 to 1S13), they can dis- pense Avith any importation from the Em-opean coutuient But, on the other hand, there are but few articles of this kind, which can be exported Avithout prejudice to the home consumption. Until the last quarter of the last century, England, indeed, was enabled to export, upon an average, about two million bushels oi grain annually, but since the year 1793 it could never afford that, although agriculture is conducted here with a skill almost unrivalled, and most of the gram is raised here. The chief products of England, in this and similar other respects, are, wheat, barley, oats, hops, etc. In Scotland, oats are the staple agricultural production. In Ireland, agricidture is in a less improved state than in England or Scotland ; barley, oats, wheat, and flax, are exten- sively cultivated ; but potatoes are tlie chief product, and form the principal food of the poor. The rearing of cattle is in a high state of perfection throughout most parts of tlie islands. There are about 11,500,000 head of cattle, more than 50,000,000 sheep of more or less improved breed, about 2,250,000 horses, etc. In Ireland, grazing and the dairy are the best managed parts of husbandry. The British coal mmes may be considered as inexhausti- ble. The tin mines of Cornwall have been renowned ever since the days of the Phoenicians. The lead mines of Cornwall yield, beside the lead, from 12,000 to 20,000 marks of silver annually. Other productions from the mineral kingdom are, copper (Cornwall, "Wales, and Anglesea island), iron (of which in 1842 about 1,500,000 tons were produced in England and Scotland), and black lead. England (and in some respects, Scotland too) is the first man- vfacluring country in the world. The chief articles are cotton and tcoollcn goods, hardware^ earthen icare, silks, and leather. These six articles give employment to about 2,000,000 persons, who manufacture them to the value of about 8500,000,000 an- nually. In Scotland, the principal manufactures are fine cotton 230 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. Commerce — Educntion, etc. goods, and coarse linens ; and in Ireland, it is linen, which, for instance, in Ulster is made in almost every village and family. In 1844, the aggregate value of the exported English cotton goods was estimated at £18,823,402. In the years 1840 and 1841 there were imported respectively 50,002.979 and 53,130,440 pounds of wool, and exported woollen goods at the value of respectively £5,780,810 aud£G,27G,888 ; and in 1844 this value had increased to more than £9,300,000. The value of other articles exported in the years 1840 and 1841, was r^ore than £3,300,000 for linen, respectively £1,349, 137 and £1,025,191 for hardware, respectively £792,648 and £786,066 for silks, respectively £573,184 and £590,772 for porcelain and earthen ware, respectively £417,178 and £421,271 for glass wares, etc. The commerce is superior to that of any other nation, and extends to all quarters of the world. The capital vested in it is estimated at £1,500,000,000, or at more than $6,000,000,000. In 1844, the exports were in value of £50,615,265. The commerce with the colonies was, in 1840, in value of £17,852.600. The British merchant vessels (exclusive those of the colonies) were on the 1st of January, 1845, 23.253 in number (among them, 897 steam vessels), of the burthen of 2,995,196 tons. In the colonies, were 3,579 merchant vessels, of the burthen of 214,878 tons, in 1837. With regard to the means of education, there are, upon the whole, 8 universities, viz. : 3 in England, 1 in Ireland, and 4 in Scotland. About the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, it has already been observed in the History of Europe (^ 17, /), that they were founded in a very early period of the middle ages ; yet, commonly, the years 1249 (for Oxford) and 1279 (for Cambridge) are considered as those when they were first formally and per- manently organized. In 1841, Oxford numbered 5,204, and Cambridge 5.530 students. In 1828, a third English university GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 281 Goveromeot and Finances uf Great Britain. was founded iu London^ but ou a different system than the other two; in 1842, it was frequented by 886 students. The Irish university, founded in 1591, is in Dublin, and numbered 1,350 students in 1841. The annual revenues of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, amount to £834,038. The Scotch universities are, St. Andrews (founded in 1411, and in 1841 with 200 students), Glasgow (founded in 1454, and in 1841 with 1,570 students), yl^erf/eere (founded in 1471, and in 1841 with 510 students), and Edinburgh (founded in 1581, and in 1841 with 2,140 students). The higher seminaries of learning are numerous ; but the common schools are by far not in so high a state of improvement as, for instance, in Germany. Those of Scotland are in general better arranged and managed, than those of Ireland, and even England. The government is a limited hereditary monarchy, the supreme power being vested in a King (at present, a Queen), and Parlia- ment. The Parliament consists of two houses, viz. : a House of Lords, composed of bishops (i. e., of the established church), and hereditary peers of the above-stated five different ranks, and a House of Commons, composed of more tlian 600 representatives elected by the people. In the financial year, from the 5th July, 1845, to the 5th July, 1846, the public expenditure amounted to 49,895,800 pounds sterling, and the revenue to £52,715,871, which yielded a surplus of nearly £3,000,000. But since, in consequence of political events and other circumstances, the revenue has in the same degree decreased, as the expenditure has increased ; so that, upon the whole, the ratio of the public charges is thus, that every inhabitant of the united kingdoms has to contribute to them about $9 00 annually. The public debt had, on the 5th of January, 1844, attained the enormous height of 790,576,393 pounds sterling, the interest of which amounted to £28,161,959. EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Early History of England. The army comprises about 122,000 men. inclusive more than 30,000 which the government keep in India, besides the troops of the East Indian Company. The navy numbered in 1845, upon the whole, 680 vessels, 125 of which were steamers, 99 were ships of the line, 80 frigates, etc. The British orders of honor, are the following: — 1. The garter, instituted in 1349 by Edward III. ; it is the highest order of English knighthood. 2. The order of Bath, instituted in 1399 by Eichard II., and renewed in 1725 by George I., in 3 classes since 1815. 3. The Scotch thistle order, or order of St. Afidrew, from the year 787, but renewed in 1540 by James V. of Scotland, and in 1703 by Queen Anne. 4. The Irish order of St. Patrick, insti- tuted in 1783. 5. The order of St. Michael and George, instituted in 1818, only for Malta. 6. The order of British India, insti- tuted in 1837, only for officers in India. History. — About the early part of British history, see History of Europe. §§ 4 and 15. William the Conqueror reigned from 1066 to 1087, and was succeeded by two of liis sons, first by William II. (1087-1100), then by Henry I. (1100-1135). After the death of Henry I. — who left an only daughter mar- ried to Godfrey Plantagcnet, pari of Anjou — a civil war broke out on account of Henry's nephew, Stephen of Blois, having mounted the English throne, in- stead of Henry's grandson (son of his daughter), Henry Plantagenet. At last a conciliation was brought about, and in 1154 Henry Plantagcnet mounted the throne by tlie name of Henry II. He in 1172 conquered Ireland, died in 1189, and was succeeded by his son Richard I., surnamed of the Lion Heart, who died in 1199, and was succeeded by his brother John (surnamed without land). Jolm was as weak and feeble as cruel, and was in 1215 com- pelled by the English barons to sign the Magna Charta, the foundation of the Britisli constitution. He died in 1216, and his successors of the principal line of the hou^e of Plantagenet were the following kings: Henry III (1216- 1272), Fdward I (1272-1307), Edward II. (1307-1327), Edward III (1327- 1377), and Richard II. (1377-1399). Tlie last-named king, son of the Black Prince and grandson of Edward III, was by his cousin, Henry of Lancaster (hkewise a grandson of Edward HI.), taken prisoner and compellod to resign, GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 288 Ilisturical Sketch of England. after which his cousin mounted the throne by the name of Henry IV. (1399- 1413). He was succeeded by his son, Henry V. (1413-1422). Against his son Henry F/. (1422-1461), rose his cousin, the duke Richard of York (great- grandson of Edward III.), ju'ctending that he had nearer claims upon the tlirone than Henry. Thus began (in 1455) the war of the Rosea, or between the Yorkists (wearing white roses as emblems) and the Lancastrians (wearing red roses). Richard of York was killed iu a battle, but his son mounted the throne by the name of Edward IV. (1461-1483). The whole house of Lan- caster was exterminated, with the exception of Henry Tudor, earl of Rich- mond, who madiv his escape to France. Edward IV. died in 1483, and wa.s succeeded by his eldest son, Edward V., who however, together with hia younger brother, was murdered by his uncle, the duke Richard of Gloucester, who mounted the throne by the name of Richard III., but only reigned until 1485, when he was subdued and killed in the battle of Bosworth by Henry Tudor, the last descendant of the house of Lancaster. Henry ascended the throne by the name of Henry VII. He died in 1509, and has the foUowirig successors from the house of Tudor (Lancaster) : Henry VIII. (1509-1541), Edward VI (1547-1553), JIary (1553-15;58), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). With Elizabeth the house of Tudor became extinct, and as her father's (Henry VIIl.'s) sister 31argaret had been married to James IV. of Scotland, the great-grandson of the latter, James VI. of Scotland (son of Mary Stuart), ascended the English throne by the name of James I. (1603-1625), and thus united both kingdoms. He died in 1625, and was succeeded by his son, Charles I, who after a very troublesome reign leading to a civil war, was be- headed on the 30th of January, 1649. The government was now called a republic, although Oliver Cromwell exercised an almost absolute power until his death, which occurred in 1658. His son Richard succeeded him in the dignity of a Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, but resigned spontaneously, upon which the eldest son of Charles I. ascended the throne by the name of Charles /Z (1660-1685). He died in 1685, and was suc- ceeded by his brother James II., who only reigned until 1688, when he was dethroned, and his sister Mar\', or rather her consort WiUiam of Orange, in- vested with the royal power. After William's death (in 1702) his sister-in- law, Anne, ascended the throne, and when she died (in 1714), she was suc- ceeded by George I, elector of Hanover and great-grandson of James I. (whose daughter Elizabetli, married to the elector of the Palatinate, had a daughter who was the mother of George I.). George I. died in 1727, and 234 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England: its Geographical Divisions has had until now the following successors: George II. (1727-1160), George in. (1760-1820), George IV. (1820-1830), William IV. (1830-1837), and Victoria, who is still reigning. The British emjiire proper embraces the three united king- doms of England (inclusive Wales), Scotland., and Ireland., which are divided into coimlies, or shires (as they in England and Scot- land are called by preference). The capitals of the counties will be found marked with a cross (+). ^.— THE KINGDOM OF ENGLAND. It comprises the southern half of the great eastern island, and consists of two unequal parts, the greater of which being England proper, and the by far smaller part constituting what is called Wales. The total area amounts to 58,4G8 square miles — England having an extent of 51,20.5 square miles, and Wales of 7,2G3 square miles. The total population is about 17,000,000 inhabi- tants— 15,975,000 in England, and 1,000,000 in Wales. England proper contains 40 counties or shires. 1. Middlesex, on the northern bank of the Tliames, containing : -f- London, the metropolis of the British empire, and greatest city in Europe, on the Thames, 40 miles from its mouth, had in 1844 a population of 2,007,550, and at present more than 2,250,000 of inhabitants. The number of the houses is estimated at more than 300,000 ; that of the streets, lanes, etc., at 14,000. London embraces, besides the city proper, where the chief shops and ware- houses are, We.ilmi7ister (containing the royal jialaces, houses of Parliament, the grand Gothic edifice known by the name of Westminster Abbey, etc.), and Sauthwark (on the south side of the Thames, and containing the usaul ^1 GREAT BRITAIN AXD IRELAND. 235 England : its Geographical Divisions. residence of the aiclibishop of Canterbury, called Lambe ih palace, King's Bench, etc.), and numerous other districts with distinct names, covering a space of nearly 50 square miles. Tlie most remarkable public buildings are, besides Westminster Abbey, especially, St. Paul's cathedral (next to St. Peter's at Rome, the greatest structure in Cluistendom), the Tower, the Bank of England, St. James' palace (royal residence in the period from 1695 to the beginning of the present century), Mansion house, Guildhall, etc. Tlie bridges of London are seven in number, all built of stone, excejjt one, which is constructed of iron ; one of these is a suspension bridge. The Tunnel under the Thames, is one of the most remarkable works of the age. London, which was already in tlie days of the Roman emperor Nero, a considerable trading town, became the capital of England during the reign of King Alfred. The ancient royal palace of Hampton Court, in the vicinity of London, was reared by the cardinal Wolsey, and in 1516 ceded by him to King Henry VIII. Another royal palace is at Kensington, a towai, with 24,000 inhabitants. Above London, on the Thames, is Chelsea, a town, with 36,000 inhabitants, and containing the great national asylum for invalid soldiers. 2. Berkshire, at the western frontier of Middlesex, and on the south side of the Tliames, containing : -i-llE.\DiNG, a town, with 20,000 inliabitants. Windsor, a town 22 miles from London, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for its castle, which was originally erected nearly 8 centuries ago, and has been the chief and favorite residence of most of the sovereigns of England. Xewhury (with 6,000 inliabitants), and Isley (noted for its sheep fairs), towns. 3. Bucks, or Buckinghamshire, separated from the former shire by the Thames, containing : -j-Buckingh^vm, a town on the Ouse, with 4,000 inhabi- tants. Etox, a town on the Thames, right against Windsor, is noted for its <5ollege, and has 4,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the village of Slough, where the renowned astronomer Hcrschul had his observatory, and died in 1822. Aylesbury, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants. 4. Surrey, between Berkshire and Greenwich, contauiing : -["Guildford, a town on the Wye, with 5,000 mhabitants. The village of Epsom (with 4,000 inhabitants) is noted for its culture of hops, and that oi Addiscombe for its military school of the British East Indian Company. At Kingston (a town with 5,000 inhabitants), the Saxon kings used to be crowned. The town. of Croydon has 1 3,000 inhabitants. That above-mentioned part of London, called Southicark, containing 150,000 inliabitants, is situated within the limits of this Bhire. 236 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ungl^iiid : its Geographical Divisions. 5. Kent, the most extensive and finest of the soutliern counties, contains ; -j-Caxterbury, the ecclesiastical metropolis of England, on the Stour, north- westward and 14 miles distant from Dover, and 92 miles east-south-east of London, -with a highly remarkable cathedral, and 15,000 inhabitants. Green- wich, a town on the Thames, is fi\mous for its naval hospital for infirm seamen, and its observatory, from which longitude is reckoned, and has IG.OOO inhabi- tants. Dover, a town on the Straits of Dover (here 21 miles wide), has 25,000 inhabitants, is the station of packets for France, and one of the so-called Cinque Ports, to which, moreover, belong the towns and seaports of Sandwich (with 9,000 mhahitants), Homnei/, and Ill/the (the four others: Winchelsea, Jiye, Hastings, and Seaford, are situated vitliin the limits of Sussexshirc). Other remarkable towns of this county are : Maidstone (with 33,000 inhabi- tants), Tunbridge (with 8,000 mhabitants, and the watering-place, Tunhridgc Wells), Deptford (with 26,000 inhabitants, noted for its naval depot), Woolwich (noted for its immense train of artillery, has 18,000 inhabitants), Chatham (noted for its gi-eat arsenal of the navy, has 18,000 inhabitants), Gravcsand (with 6,000 mhabitants), Rochester (with 10,000 inhabitants), Ramsgate (with 9,000 inhabitants), and Margate (with 11,000 inhabhants). 6. Sussex, on the English Channel, containing: -|-Cuichester, a town on the Levant, eastward and 18 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 9,000 inhabi- tants. Tlie towns and seaports of Hastings (with 11,000 inhabitants, and noted for the battle in 1066), Winchelsea (with 8,000 inhabitants). Rye (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Seaford (which, however, is to be considered as a part of Hastings), belong to the above-mentioned Cinque Ports. Biugutok, a splendid city since the days of George IV., whose favorite residence it was, has 50,000 inhabitants, and is much resorted to for sea-bathing. 7. Easex, along the northern bank of the Thames, containing : -|-Chelms- FORD, a town 32 miles east-north-east of London, with 6,000 inliabitants. Harwich, a maritime town on the North Sea, formerly the station of packets for Sweden, Hamburg, and Holland, has 18,000 inhabitants. Colchester, a maritime town, noted for its oysters, has 20,000 inhabitants. 8. Suffolk, on the north side of Essexshire, containing : -{-Ipswich, a town near the mouth of the Orwell, with 22,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are: Bury St. Edmunds (with 15,000 inhabitants), Lmucstoff (with 12,000 inhabitants), Sudbury (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Woodbridge (with 4,000 inhabitants). 9. Norfolk, on the north side of Suffolkshn-e, containing : -|-Norwich, the I GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 23T England: its Geographical Divisions. finest city in the east of England, on the Winsder and Yare, north-eastward and 1'2'J miles distant from London, is noted for its ancient and beautiful ca- thedral, and its •woollen goods, and has 62,000 inhabitants. Yarmouth, a maritime town, is noted for its herring fishery, and has 24,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are: Lynn lirgis (witli 17,000 inhabitants), Swaff- Jiavi (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Dovmfiam (with 2,000 inhabitants). 10. Cambridgeshire, bordering upon the two former cpunties, and contain- ing : -{"Cambridge, a town on the Cam, northward and 50 miles distant from London, is celebrated for its university, and has 25,000 inhabitants. New- M.VRKET, a toAvn with 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for horse-races, and Ely, a town with 6,000 inhabitants, for its splendid cathedral, whose steeple is 400 feet in height. Wisbeach, a town with 7,000 inhabitants. 11. Huntingdonshire, partly surrounded by Cambridgeshire, contains: -j-HuNTi.vGDON, a town on the Ouse, northward and 40 miles distant from London, with 4,000 inliabitants. Cromwell was born here hi 1599. St. Ives is a fine village, or town, on the Ouse, with 3,000 inhaljitants. 12. Lincolnshire, between Cambridgeshire and the Humber, containing : -}-LiNCOLN, a city on the Witham, northward and 119 miles distant from Loudon, is celebrated for its venerable cathedral with 3 high steeples, and has 36,500 inliabitants. Another beautiful Gothic church is in the town of Boston, at the mouth of the "Witham into the "Wash, with 35,000 inhabitants. In the neighboring village of Woolsthorpe the celebrated Sir Isaac Newton (+1727) was born in 1642. Grimsby, a maritime town at the mouth of the Humber, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Spalding (with 7,000 inhabitants), Gainsborough (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Stam- ford (with 6,000 inliabitants). 13. Hertfordshire, between Cambridge and London, containing : -j-Hert- Fdfen, a town northward and 23 miles distant from London, with 6,000 in- habitants, and an mstitution where civil officers of the East Indian Company are instructed and prepared for their future desthiation in India. St. Albans, a town with a remarkable Gothic chuixh and 6,000 inhabitants. 14. Oxfordshire, hovAeving upon Middlesex, and containing: -|-Oxford, a town on the Thames, is celebrated for its university, and has 22,000 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this county are : WoodstocJc (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Banbury (with 6,000 inhabitants). 15. Bedfordshire, between Oxford and Cambridgeshire, containing : -[-Bed- FOKD, a town on the Ouse, 23 miles west-south-west of Cambridge, with 8,000 233 EUROPE, PAST A2s^D PRESENT. ^ England : its Geographical Divisions. inliabitants. WoBuax, a borough witli 2,000 inhabitants, and the splendid mansion of the family of Russell, called Woburn Abbey. 16. Hants or Hampshire, between Berkshire and the English Channel, con- taining: -|-WiNxnEST£R, a city on the Itching, south-WL'stward and 65 miles distant from London, -with a cathedral reared by the Saxon kings, and 10,000 inliabitants. Dmiug part of the middle ages Winchester vras the capital of England, and is at present noted for . its college. Portsmouth, a strongly fortified city on the southern coast, has 64,000 inhabitants, and the best har- bor in Great Britain, is the great arsenal and rendezvous of the navy, and situated near the famous roadstead of Spithcad. The maritime town of Southampton, with 27,500 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade with the Norman islands and the south of France, and is much resorted to for sea bathing. Gosport (with 14,000 inliabitants), and Christchurch (with 5,000 in habitants), boroughs. The fertile Me of Wight (192 square miles, and S6,000 inliabitants) is noted for it beautiful and romantic sceneries. 17. Dorsetshire, on the southern coast, contains : -|-Doechestee, a town on the Frome, westward and 65 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 6,000 in- habitants. Other towns of this county are : Weymouth (with 4,000 inliabi- tants), Brldport (with 5,000 inhabitants), Foole (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Shaftsbury (with 4,000 inhabitants). The fertile Bill of Portland is noted for its quarries. 18. Devonshire, between Dorsetshue and Cornwall, contains: -{-Exetee, a city on the mouth of the Exe, west ward and 115 miles distant from Portsmouth, and north-eastward and 42 miles distant from Plymouth, with a magnificent cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Plymouth, a fortified city on the English Cliannel, with 76,000 inhabitants, is one of the great naval stations, and noted for its breakwater, which cost more than §5,000,000. The city embraces at present Plymouth proper, Devonport (formerly called Plymouth Dock), and Stonehonse. At about 14 miles distance from the roadstead of Plymouth on a sohtary cliflf, stands the well-known lighthouse of Eddystone. There are many beautiful and splendid country-seats in Devonshire, among them Mount Edijecomhc and U'jbrook. Remarkable towns are, among others : Tavistock (with 6,000 inhabitants), Dartmouth (with 5,000 inhabitants), Teifj7imouth (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barnstable (with 8,000 inhabitants), Tiverton (with 10,500 inhabitants), Biddeford (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Sidmouth (with 3,000 inhabitants). 19. Cornwall, forming a peninsula at the south-western extremity of Eng- GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 239 England : its Geographical Divisions. land, is celebrated, even since the time of the Phoenicians, for its tin, and 6inco the middle ages, for its copper also. At an early period it was ruled by earls, but at the beginning of the 9th century subdued by King Egbert. Edward III. promoted the county of Cornwall to the rank of a duchy, in favor of his son, the renowned Black Prince ; and since that time the first- born royal prince assumes the title of a duke of Cornwall, after which he is created prince of Wales. It contains : -(-Lau.ncestox, a town on the Tamar, with 5,000 inhabitants. Falmouth, a maritime town at the mouth of the Fal, 46 miles west-south-west of Plymouth, is a stopping-place of steamers for Spain and the West Indies, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Cornwall are : Truro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Penzance (with 7,000 inhabi- tants), and Penryn (with 5,000 inhabitants). The south-western extremity of Cornwall is known by the name of Land's End, and its southern extremity by that of Cape Lizard, or Lizard Point. Not far from Land's End are lying in the Atlantic Ocean the Scilly Isles, six of which are inliabited, having a total population of 3,000 kihabitants. To the Phcenicians and other people of antiquity they were known by the name of Cassiterides, or Tin-Islands. 20. Wilts, or Wiltshire, towards the interior, containing : -}-Salisbuey, a city on the Avon, 70 miles west-south-west of London, is celebrated for its elegant Gothic cathedral, the spire of which is 410 feet high, and has 10,000 inhabi- tants. Bradford, a town on the Avon, with 12,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of fine cloth. Other towns are : Wilton (with 8,000 inhabi- tants) and Chippenham (with 6,000 inhabitants). Near Wilton is the splendid country seat of Lord Pembroke, called WiUonhouse. Another one, belonging to the Himily of Radnor, and called Longford, is noted for its fine collection of pictures. 21. Somersetshire, between Wilts and the Bristol Channel, containing : -:|-Bristol, a city on a branch of the Severn, westward and 115 miles distant from London, has 120,000 inhabitants, and is the third commercial town in England. About 9 miles from here is Bath, a city, with 70,000 inhabitants, is noted for its hot mineral waters, and visited by persons (sometimes to the number of 8,000 in the season) in quest of health and pleasure. The Gothic cathedral of Bath is very remarkable, as is also that of Wells, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Somerset, for the most part noted for their woollen manufactures, are : Calne (with 5,000 inhabitants), Froome (with 25,000 inliabitants), Taunton (with 33,500 inhabitants), and Bridgewater (with 10,000 inhabitants). Tlie town of Glastonbury is noted for the ruins of a 240 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. England : its Geographical Divisions. monastery which covered sixty acres, and whose foundation was laid in a very early period of the Christian era ; at least, King Artlmr, son of Uther Pen- dragon, who reigned from 516 to 542, was buiied here. 22. Gloucestershire, bordering upon Oxfordshire, contains : -}"GrLOUCESTER, a city on the Severn, north-eastward and 37 miles distant from Bristol, with a remarkable ancient cathedral (where William the Conqueror and Edward II. are bui-ied), manufactures of pins, and 27,000 inliabitants. Chcltcnhain, noted for its mineral waters, and Stroud, for its cloth manufactures, are towns, with respectively 40,500 and 10,000 inhabitants. Tewkesbury, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants, has a Gotliic church with the sepulchres of the English king of the house of Plantagenet. Bcrkeleij, a town, witli 5,000 inliabitants, is remark- able as the birth-place of the renowned Dr. Jenner. 23. MonmoxUhshire, between Wales and Gloucestersliire, contams: -["^Ion- MODTH, a town in a romantic situation, northward and 23 miles distant from Bristol, with 6,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity are the highly interesting ruins of Tintcrti Abbey, and of Ragland Castle, which latter was once the residence of the dukes of Beaufort. Chepstow (with 6,000 inliabitants), NewpoH (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Aberciavenny (with 5,000 inhabitants). 24. Herefordshire, at the northern frontiers of Gloucestersliire, containing : -j-Herefoud, a city on the Wye, northward and 42 miles distant from Bi-istol. with a remarkable cathedral, and 34,500 inliabitants. Leominster, or Lcmpster, a town on the Lugg, with 6,000 inliabitants. Ross, a borough on the Wye, with 4,000 inliabitants. Here lived Pope's " man of Ross." 25. Worcestershire, towards the interior, containing : -{-Worcester, a city on the Severn, north-westward and 105 miles distant 'from London, is noted for its porcelain, and has a highly remarkable cathedral, and 27,500 inhabitants. Kidderminster, a manufacturing town on the Stour, with 30,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Stourbridge (with 7,000 inhabitants), Dudley (with 24,000 inhabitants), and Droitwich (with 3,000 mhabitants). 26. Warwicksliire, at the northern frontier of Oxfordsliire, containing ; -{-Warwick, a town on the Avon, north-westward and 82 miles disUmt from London, with 9,500 inhabitants. Near it lies on a rock Warwick Castle, belonging to the earl of Warwick, and reared in tlie middle ages. Coventry, a manufacturing town, noted for its watches and ribbons, has 31,500 inhabi- tants. Kenilwortli, a borough, with 3,000 inliabitants, and the ruins of the once so renowned castle of the same name, reared in the Tith century by King Henry L Stratford, a town on the Avon, with 6,000 inhabitants, is remark- GREAT BRITxVIN AND IRELAND, 241 England : its Geographical Divisions. able as iho birth-place of Sliakspeare. The borough of Leamington, -with 6,000 inhabitants, is much resorted to on account of its mineral batlis. Ritgby, a town, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its college. Bieminguam, a city, with 183,000 iiiliabitants, about half way between Liverpool and London, is the great centre of the manufacture of hardware, including fire-arms, steam engines, locks, screws, buttons, and such a variety of small articles that it has been styled the " toy-shop of Europe." Similar manufactures are at Soho, which is considered as a suburb of Birmingham, though it is situated within the hniits of Staffordsliire. 27. Staffordshire, at the northern frontier of the former, contains: -j-Staf- FORD, a town, north-westward and 23 miles distant from Birmingham, with 8,000 inhabitants. Burslcm, a town on the Great Trunk Canal, with 14,000 inliabitants, is noted for its manufactures of earthen ware, and is at the same time the centre of the so-called Potteries, a district comprising numerous villages (among them, that of Etniria), where the Wedgewood ware is fabri- cated. Burton, surnamed upon Trent, a town on the Trent, is noted for its excellent ale, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Lichfield, a town, with 8,000 inhab- itants, and a renowned college, instituted by Edward VL Wolveehajipton, a city, with a rejnarkable Gothic church, and 50,000 inhabitants, is noted for its hardware, and Bradley for its iron works. Other towns of this county are: Wahall (with 16,000 inhabitants), Wcdnesburij (with 9,000 inhabitants), Newcastle under Lyne (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bihtoii (with 16,000 inhabi- tants), and Tamworth (with 8,000 inhabitants). 28. Northamptonshire, on the northern side of Oxfordshire, containing: -[-NoRTiL\MrTON, a town on the Nen, 64 miles north-north-west of London, with 28,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is Althorp, the ancestral seat of the earl of Spencer. Peterborough, a town with 1,000 inhabitants, and a reniarkable cathedral, where the unfortunate Scottish queen, Mary Stuart, lies buried. She was beheaded on the Sth of February, 1587, in the neigh- boring castle of Fotlieringay, which, by order of her son, James I., waa entirely demoUshed. Stamford, a town, with 5,000 inliabitants. 29. Rutland, northward from Northamptonshire, containing : -|-Oakham, a town in the fertile valley of Cathross, 92 miles north-north-west of London, with 4,000 inhabitants. Uppingham, a town with 2,500 inliabitants. 30. Leicestershire, on the western side of Rutland, containing : -{-Leicester, a city on the Sour, 37 miles east-north-east of Birmingham, with manufac- tures of stockings, and 51,000 inhabitants. The borough of Lutterworth is 11 242 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT England: its Geographical Divisions. remaikable as tlic birth-place of WicklifFe ; and Bclvoir is the splendid coun- try-seat of the duke of Rutland. Loughborough (with 25,000 inhabitants), and Melton Mowbray (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. 31. Shropshire, or Salop, at the frontier of Wales, containing : -|-Shrew3- BURY, a town on the Severn, southward and 56 miles distant from Liverpool, with the beautiful remains of an ancient castle, and 22,000 inhabitants. Otlier towns of this county are : Ludlow (with 8,000 inliabitants), Broseley (with 5,000 inhabitants), Bridgenorth (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Oswestry (with 10,000 inhabitants). The borough of Skiff nail (with 4,000 inhabitants), and the extensive village of Colebrookdalc are noted for their iron- works. 32. Cheshire, or the Palatinate of Chester, at the frontier of Wales, and inorthward from Shropshire, containing: -{-Chester, a city on the Dee, southward and 14 miles distant from Liverpool, is noted for its cheese, and has a remarkable cathedral, and 23,000 inhabitants. The town of Mac- clesfield (with 25,000 inhabitants), is noted for its silks. Other towns of this county are : Northwich (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nantwiclt (with 6,000 iinhabitants), and Stockport (with numerous manufactures, and 86,000 inhabi- tants). 33. i\^o<', a town on the Grand Canal, bears its name in honor of King Philip of Spain, consort of the above-named Queen Mary, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Tullamore (with 8,000 inhabitants), Banagher (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Birr, or Parsonstown (with 6,000 inliabitants). 9. The county of West Meath, containing : -j-Mullixgar, a town on the Royal Canal, with 6,000 inliabitants. Athlone, a town, with 12,009 inhabitants. 10. The county of East Meath, or Meath, containing: -j-Trijt, a town on a branch of the Boyne, with 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Kells (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Navan (with 7,000 inhabitants). 11. The comity of Longford, containing : -{"I'ONGford, a town on the Camlin, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Granard (with 4,000 in- habitants), and Lanesborough (with 5.000 inhabitants). 12. The county of Louth, containing : -(-Duxdalk, a town on the bay of the same name, carries on a considerable commerce, and has 16,000 inliabitants. Drogheda, a town at the mouth of the Boyne, with considerable commerce, and 22,000 inhabi- tants. Other towns of this county are : Carlingford (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Ardee (with 4,000 inhabitants). II. The province of Ulster, comprising the northern part of Ireland, is divided into 9 counties, viz.: — 13. The county of Antrim, containing: -|~Car- eickfergcs, a town on the Belfast Lough, with 4,000 inhabitants. Belfast, the emporium of the north of Ireland, and centre of the linen trade, at the 258 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ireland: iu Geographical Divisions head of the Belfast Lough, northwiud and 92 miles distant fi-ora Dublin, has 56,000 inhabitants. Antrim (with 3,000 inhabitants), Lisburn (with 7,000 inliabitants), Balleyma (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lame (with 5,000 inhabi- tants), and Ballycastle (with 2,500 inhabitants), to'rnis. Within the limits of tliis county is the Giant's caicseway, an astonishing work of nature, consisting of vast numbers of perpendicular columns of basaltic rock, from 200 to 400 feet high, compacted together over a space 600 feet long by about 180 broad, and projecting into the sea an unkno^vn distance. 14. The county of London- derry, or Berry, containing : -j-Londonderry, a considerable seaport town, at the mouth of the Foyle river, 115 miles north-north-west of Dublin, is strongly fortified (in 1690-1 it sustained a siege by the forces of James II.), carries on an important trade with America and the West Indies, and has 18,000 inhabit- ants. Co/eraine, a town with 7,000 inhabitants. 15. ThQ county of Donegal,or Tyrconel, containing : -(-Lifford, a town on the Foyle, with 2,500 inhabitants. J)oN'EOAL, a town at the mouth of the Eask, with 4,500 inhabitants. The town of Ballysliannon (with 9,000 inhabitants) is noted for its linen manu- iactures. 16. The county of Fermanagh, containing: -{-Enniskillen, a romantically situated town, near the Lough Erne, with linen manufactures, .and 8,000 inhabitants. 17. The county of Tyrone, contauiing: -{-Omagh, a town on the Roe, with 4,000 inhabitants. Dungannon, a town on the Lough I^eagh, has 7,000 inhabitants, and is the cliief seat of the O'Neals, known by their animosity against the English. Strahane, a town oa the Foyle, with 8,000 inhabitants. 18. Tlie county of C'avan, containing : -j-Cavan (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Belturhet (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns. 19. The cou7ity of Monaghan, containing: -j-Monaghan, a town witli linen manufac- tures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Carrickmacross, a town, with 3,500 inhabitants. ■20. The county of Armagh, containing : -(-Armagh, a town on the Callen, is the ecclesiastical metropolis of Ireland, and has 10,000 inhabitants, who are much engaged in the linen trade. The town of Lurgan (with hnen trade, and 5,000 inhabitants), is sometimes called Little England. 21. Tlie county of Down, containing : -{-Downpatrick, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants, is noted as the burial-place of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Newry, a considerable seaport town, with 1 0,000 inliabitants. Doxaghadee, a maritime town, with 5,000 inhabitants, and a ferry between it and Port Patrick in Scotland, the shortest route by sea to Great Britain. Bangor (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Strangford (with 1,800 inhabitants), towns. Ill The provuice of Connaught, comprising the middlemost part of western GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 259 Ireland: its Geographical Divisions. Ireland, is divided into 5 counties, viz. : — 22. The county of Galway, contain- ing: -J-Galwav, a town on the Galway Bay, has 36,000 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade, and is noted as a resort of the gentry for sea-bathing. TuAM, a town on the Clare, is the seat of an Anglican archblsliop, and lias 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are: Loughrea (with hnen trade, and 7,000 inhabitants), and Ballinasloe (noted for the greatest cattle fairs in Ireland, with 8,000 inhabitants). 23. The county of Mayo, containing : -j-Castl^bar, a town near Lough Lanach, with linen manufactures, and C,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Killala (with 3,000 inliabitants), Ballinrobe (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Ballina (with 7,000 inhabitants). 2-4. The county of Sligo, containing : -(-Sligo, a considerable seaport town, on the bay of the same name, with 15,000 inhabitants. 25. The county of Leitrim, containing: -|-CAaRicK ox Shannon, a towni on the Shannon, with 2,500 uihab- itants. The town of Leitrim (with 3,000 inhabitants) is also situated on the Shannon. 26. Tlie county of Roscommon, containing : -|-1^oscommon, a town, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county ai-e : Boyle (with 6,000 inhabitants), Athlone, or Etholone (with 10,000 inliabitants), and Castlereagh (with 2,500 inhabitants). IV. The province of Munster, comprising the south-western part of Ireland, is divided into 6 counties, viz. : — 27. The county of Cork, containing: -(-Cork, the second Irish city in population, having 130,000 inhabitants, is the emporium of the south of Ireland, and chief mart of the provision trade ; and its harbor, called the Cove, is strongly fortified and one of the best in the world On the isle Great-Island, within the harbor, is the town of Cove, witli 7,000 inhab- itants. Bandon, a town on the river of the same name, with linen and cotton manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Kinsale (with 8,000 inliabitants), Micheltoicn (with 4,000 inhabitants), Youghall (w^th 10,000 inhabitants), Mallow (with 6,000 inliabitants), and Fermoy (with 6,000 inliabitiuits). 28. The county of Wntcrford, containing : -|-W.\terford an import seaport town, 70 miles east-north-east of Cork, and 92 miles south- south-west of Dubhn, has 60,000 inhabitants, and an extensive intercourse with England and Wales, and is noted for its trade in provisions, and New- foundland fishery. Dlxgarvan, the largest fishing town in Ireland, westwai'd and 30 miles distant from 'Waterford, with 6.000 inhabitants. Lismore, a town on the Blackwater, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral, and a castle, reared in 1185 by King Henry II., and at present belonging to the duke of Devonshire. 29. The county of Tipperary, containing : -|-Clonmel, 260 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ireland : its Geographical Divisions — The British Colonies. a town on the Suire, is the centre for the Irish butter trade, and has 18,000 inliabitants. Tipperaey, a town near the Suii-e, soutli-westward and 100 miles distant from Dublin, with 8,000 inliabitants. Cashcl, a town, with 9,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of an ancient cathedral, where the kings of Munster were crowned. Other towns of tliis county are : Carrick on Suire (with 8,000 inliabitants), and Thurles (with 6,000 inhabitants). 30. The county of Clare, containing : -|-Exxis, a town on the Fergus, is noted for its stately Gothic abbey, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Killaloe, a town on the Shannon, with 2,500 inhabitants. 31. The county of Limerick, containing : -f-LiMERicK, an important commercial town, on the Shannon, north-westward and TO miles distant from Waterford, has 70,000 inhabitants, is largely engaged in the provision trade, and was formerly noted for the strongest fortress in Ireland, and for its firm stand in the cause of the Catholics. 32. The county of Kerry, containing : -|-Tr.\lee, a town on the Atlantic Ocean, with considerable fishery, and 10,000 inhabitants. Killarnev, a to-wn, with 8,000 hiliabitants, is situated on the lake of Killarney, which is celebrated for the beauty and grandeur of its scenery. Dingle, a town, with 6,000 inhabitants. The British possessions and colonies are the following : — [a.) In Europe : 1. The isle of Heligoland (see above). 2. Gib- raltar (see under the head of Spain). 3. Malta (see under the head of Italy). 4. The Ionian Isles, which will be found described elsewhere in this work. (Z».) In Africa : Settlements in Senegambia and Upper Guinea ; moreover, Cape Colony^ St. Helena, Mauritius, etc. (c ) In Asia: Ilindoostan^ provinces in Farther India, Ceylon (belonging to the crown), Singapore, Hojigkong, etc., etc. [d.) In Australia : The continent of Australia, Van Dicmen's Land, New Zealand, and Norfolk Island. (c.) In America : British North America, Guiana, and many islands of the West Indies, Bahamas, etc. The total area of all these possessions and colonies is estimated at 4,086.000 square miles, and the total population at 131,000,000 inhabitants. THE NETHERLANDS. Total akea : 24,644 square miles. Total roruLATiox : 7,558,000 inliabitants. Holland and Belgium, together, were from old styled the Netherlands, or Lowlands, on account of their level physical character, so that parts of their surface are even lower than the sea, which is prevented from overflowing the land by vast dikes, or embankments. Thus, while Holland and Belgium are political names, the Netherlands are a geographical name, like that of Italy, for instance. By first giving a general view of all Netherlands, in their common physical and natural character, we avoid, at the same time, the inconvenience of numerous repeatings. The Netherlands are a maritime country, at the north-western frontier of Germany, and on the north bounded by the North Sea. Since the revolution of 1830, they are divided into two kingdoms, the northernmost of which is styled the Kingdom of the Nether- lands* (until the year 1795, it was a republic known by the name of the United Provinces of the Netherlands), while the southern is styled the Kingdom of Belgium (till towards the end of last century, known by the name of Austrian Netherlands). * In common life, it is sometimes called the kingdom of Holland, but a kingdom of this name has never existed, except in the short period from 1806 to 1810; and Holland has never been anything else than a province of the whole state. 262 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Nelherlnnds : Political PIvision, Climate, etc. Both were however united, first until the last quarter of the 16th century, and then again in the period from 1815 to 1830. Of the above-stated total area and population — Square miles. Inbabilants. The kingdom of the Netherlands proper takes up . 11,832 2,926,000 Its provinces of Luxemburg and Liiiiburg, which politkalbj belong to Germany, take up .... 1,395 282,000 The Kingdom of Belgium takes up 11,417 4,350,000 Total, 24,644 7,558,000 The country, as has already been mentioned, is level, with the exception of a small part in the south-east, where low hills grad- ually rise to the Ardennes (see Introduction to Europe, page 6). Mostly there is no great variety in the scenery of the landscape ; especially in the North Netherlands, grass and cows, canals and wind-mills, and cleanly villages, or towns, invariably relieve one another with picturesque effect. About the Zuydcr Zee, DoUart, the lakes and rivers, as the Meuse, Scheldt, etc., see pages 9, 11, and 16. The country is intersected by numerous canals, the most remarkable of which is the great canal of North Holland, extending from the Holder to Amster- dam, cost several million of florins, and will float a ship of the line. The climate is in general more moderate than in eastern coun- tries in the same parallels, but frequently moist. In the southern half of the Netherlands it is somewhat more wholesome than in the northern half. The more or less marshy soil is (with the exception of the North Netherland province of Drenthe, and the Belgian province of JjUxemhuTg) extraordinary fertile. In North Netherlands is the rearing of cattle prevailing, and in Belgium agriculture which has attained here the highest pitch of improvement. THE NETHERLANDS. 263 Geographical Features — History. Belgium abounds in iron and coal ; the kingdom of the Neth- erlands abounds in peat, ■which is almost the only fuel used there. The cattle is of an excellent breed, especially in the provinces of Groningen, Utrecht and Holland, South Brabant, East and West Flanders. The horses too are of a good breed. Butter of hue quality is indeed raised in Belgium, but by far more in the king- dom of the Netherlands, v?here butter and cheese are largely exported, partly even to America and India. The most numer- ous flocks of sheep are to be found in the provinces of Luxem- burg, Flanders, Groningen, Friesland, and North Holland. The rearing of hogs is chiefly carried on in the provinces of Liege, Namur, Luxemburg, and Friesland. The waters abound in fishes of various kinds. Extensive forests are not to be found in the kingdom of the Netherlands, and are in Belgium very scarce, except in Luxemburg, and partly in Hainault, Liege, and Namur. The Belgian soil yields excellent wheat ; moreover, hemp and flax, rape-seed, hops, and tobacco. In the northern half of the Netherlands sufficient corn for home consumption is not raised, but so much the more vegetables (even largely ex- ported), rape-seed, etc. Besides this the province of Holland is several centuries since noted for its culture of flowers, especially of tulips. In this province are also raised vast quantities of ex- cellent strawberries. "Of commerce, manufactures, etc., shall be treated separately below ; and we will now give an historical sketch of all Nether- lands until their separation during the reign of King Philip II. of Spain, their sovereign then. History. — In the days of the Romans, the southern half of the Netherlands was inhabited by the Belgians, and the northern half by the Batavians ; at the northern boundaries of the latter lived the Frieses, or Frieslanders. About the year 54 before the Christian era, JuUus Ciesar subdued the Bel- gians and Frieses, and entered upon friendly terms with the Batavians. Since 264 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT The N'elherUnds — Ilistoricul Sketch. tlie decay of the Roman empire the Netherlands came under the sway of the Franks; and by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see page 32) the northern, and after 887 also the remaining part of the Netherlands was an- nexed to the German empire. The German emperors appointed dukes and earls governors of the Netherlandish provinces ; yet gradually they made their office inheritable and themselves independent so early as in the 10th century. In this way arose the earldoms of Flanders, Holland, the duchy of Brabant, and other lordships. In 1360 Margaret, the only heiress of Flanders entered into marriage with Pliilip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus be- came possessed of that earldom (see History of Burgundy, page 200). At the same time the line of the ancient dukes of Brabant had become extinct, and the only heiress, Johanna of Brabant, bequeathed the duchy to her grand- nephew, Anton of Burgundy, the son of Pliilip the Bold. In the com'se of time other parts of the Netherlands were annexed to these possessions, and in the latter half of the 15th century, nearly the whole was under the sway of the duke of Burgundy. The last duke in the male Ime of this house, Charles the Bold, died in 1477, and liis only daughter, Mary, inherited the Netherlands together with Burgundy proper. She was married to the Aus- trian archduke Maximilian ; and their son Philip was married with Johanna of Castile, the only heiress of the united crowns of Castile and Aragon. Philip's and Johanna's eldest son, the renowned emperor Cliarles V., inherited all these immense possessions, and bequeathed the Netherlands, together with Spain, etc., to his son Philip II of Spain. During the reign of the latter the northern provinces of the Netherlands separated themselves from the south- ern provinces, as an independent state, by the name of the " Republic of the United Provinces." As such they were preliminarily acknowledged by Spam in 1609, and definitively in 1648. The southern provinces continued to be an- nexed to Spain, until by the terms of the treaty, concluded at Rastadt on the 7th of March, 1714, they were ceded to Austria, which in 1797 ceded them to France. In 1814 they were restored to Austria, that however re- nounced them m favor of an arrangement, by which the northern and southern provinces were reunited under the name of the " Kingdom of tlie Nether- lands." But, as has already been told, tlie revolution in 1830 separated them again ; and since that time the northern provinces have retained the name of a kingdom of the Netherlands, while the southern provinces are united to a " Kingdom of Belgium." THE NETHERLANDS. 2C6 The Kingdom of the Netherlands. L— THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS.* Area: 13,227 square miles. PopuLATiOxN : 3,208,000 inhabitants. Of the here-stated area and population are to be deducted 1,395 square miles, and 282.000 inhabitants, as belonging to the grand- duchy of Luxemburg and the Limburgian district of Roeremonde. which politically form part of Germany, though they are ruled by the sovereign of the Netherlands. Thus the kingdom of the Netherlands proper has 2,926,000 inhabitants, among whom the prevailing religion is Calvinism. But all religions are tolerated, and more than one third of the people are Catholics (according to the census of 1844, their number was 1,100,616. inclusive those of Luxemburg). In point of origin, the Netherlanders, or Dutch, belong to the great Germanic tribe. (See Introduction to Europe, page 19.) Beside the rearing of cattle and other branches of husbandry, the chief means of sustenance is the commerce, that extends over all parts of the world. The etnporiums are Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Some provinces are noted for their manufactures, especially of linen and paper. Yet, upon the whole, this kingdom is more a commercial than a manufacturing state. Concerning the means of education, iheve are 3 universities, viz.: at Lcyden (instituted in 1575, and in 1846 frequented by 602 students), at Groningen (instituted in 1616, and in 1846 frequented by 300 students); and at Utrecht (instituted in 1636, and in 1846 frequented by 444 students). Three other similar institutions, * Frequently called Holland, but that a kingdom of Holland does not exist, has been already remarked. 12 266 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Kingdom of the Netherlands : its Finances — \avy — Army. on a smaller scale, styled Athenaea, are in Amsterdam, Franeker, and Deveuter. Beside these, there are 68 Latin schools, 9 seminaries,* 70 secondary, 2,125 public schools, etc. The government is a constitutional monarchy, limited by rep. resentatives of the people in two chambers, styled General States. In 1S47, the public revenue was estimated at 70,742,323, aad the expenditure at 70,283,555 florins, which thus would have yielded*a surplus of 458,768 florins. The public debt amounted to 1,232,96 1,7 11 florins, but inclusive more than 203,000,000 from the period 1815-1830, which are to be paid by Belgium. The Netherlandish colonies in India, yielded in 1844 a nett revenue of 2,123,424 florins. The army amounted, hitherto, to 43,000 men during peace, and to 76.000 during war, beside 25,000 men of Schutters, or militia, who could be increased to 80,000 men in case of neces- sity. Yet lately a reduction of the army has taken place. The 7iavi/ consists of 9 ships of the line, 19 frigates, and 37 sloops of war, brigs, etc., 14 steamers, and 87 gun-boats. (About the year 1790, the navy consisted of 24 ships of the line, and 40 other vessels of war, but the English seized nearly the whole of it.) The Xetherlandish navy in the eastern colonies, consists of 1 frigate, and 20 other vessels. There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The viilitary order of William^ in 4 classes, instituted in 1 8 15. 2. The Netherlandish /ioa o/Y/er, likewise in 4 classes, and instituted in 1815. 3. The Luxemburgian order of the oak c;-02£7?it, instituted in 1841. Hhtory. — In the history of the Netherlands, the above mentioned separa- tion of the northern provinces from the whole political body, was chiefly urged by the Prince William of Oranrje (see page 223), who by King Philip II. had been appointed goveraur of tlie provinces of UoUand, Zealand, and Utrecht, and, filled witli immoderate ambition and personal hatred against his sove- * About the signification of these terms, see the note, page 65. I THE NETHERLANDS. 267 History of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. reign, instigated the people under the pretext of maintaining their rights He, in 1579, prevailed upon the just-mentioned three provinces and those of Geldern and Frieslaud, to declare their independence, if not directly, yet indi rectly, by uniting themselves into the so-called Union of Utrecht, to which sub sequently also acceded Groningen and Overyssel. These thus united seven provinces (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Geldern, Friesland, Groningen, and Overyssel) chose the prince of Orange their chief, conferring upon him the modest title of a Statthohkr, or vice-regent (to wit, of tlie king of Spain) ; because they would fain not to appeal- in the light of rebels, but of having only maintained their rights and privileges. Nevertheless, they actually established an independ- ent republic that became one of the most influential states, and whose navy was m the 17th century the most powerful for a while. Yet their own Stattholder, William III. of Nassau-Orange, having only in view his personal interest, and aiming at the British crown (see British History, page 233), set aside the interest of the republic, and gradually brought it down from its high pitch of power, in fixvor of England. To the renowned Netherlandish East Indian Company, established in 1602, all the important Netherlandish colonies in Asia, Africa, and America, did belong (though they were held in the name of the General States, or government), and the nett annual profit, earned by this company, was estimated at 3,000,000 ducats. In 1794, the French waged war against the republic, and transformed it into a so-called Batavian Republic ; its last Stattholder, "William V., fled to England, and was base enough to deliver over nearly the whole navy to the English. On the other hand, the French compelled the republic to share in their wars, and in tliis way the Netherlandish colonies were lost and conquered by the English. In 1806, Napoleon transformed the Batavian Republic into a Kingdom of Holland, of wliich he appointed king his brother Louis, who, however, abdicated in 1810, upon which this state was incorporated with the French empire. In 1813, the Netherlanders, or Dutch, proclaimed the son of "William V. their sovereign; England restored most of the conquered colonies, but retained three of the most valuable ones, viz. : Ceylon, Cape Colonij, and Demerara. For this loss. Netherland should have been indemnified by the above-stated arrangement of a reunion with the southern provinces. However, in 1830, it was again England that ui-ged the separation, without caring in the least for that' stipulation. William I., king of the Netherlands since 1813, abdicated in 1840, and was succeeded by his son William II., who died in 1 849, and was succeeded by his son William III, born on the 19th of February, 1817. 268 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of the Netherlands: ils Geographical Divisions. The kingdom of the Netherlands is divided into 10 provinces, 2 of which, North and South Holland, comprise the ancient province of Holland, while of the 8 others, Drenthe was formerly only a district, and North Brabant (conquered by the ancient republic) belonged to what was styled the '• Gcucralty countries." (About Luxemburg and the Limburgian district of Roeremonde, see under the head of Germany.) 1. The province of Holland (2,007 J square miles, and, according to the census of 18-16, with a population of 1,027,574: inhabitants), which anciently formed the chief constituent part of the earldom of Holland, that in 1299 was inherited by the earls of Hainault, and in 1425 by the duke of Burgundy. At present it is divided into North and South Holland. North Holland (894i square miles, and in 1846 with 468,737 inhabitants), contains : Amstee- D.\ii, the principal city and emporium of the kingdom, on the Amstel river, that disembogues here into the Y (as a branch of the Zuyder Zee is styled), with 225,000 inhabitants. The city is intersected by canals, over whicli there are 290 bridges, and which mostly are bordered by rows of trees. The houses and streets are kept remarkably clean, and the arrangements in the interior of the former give evidence of great comfort. Among the numerous public edifices, the most remarkable is the royal palace, formerly the city- hall, which was reared in the period from 1648 to 1655, at the expense of 18 million florins. It has 282 feet in front, 235 in breadth, and 116 in height, while its magnificent cupola (containing the finest chime of bells in the Neth- erlands) rises 41 feet above the roof It is built of freestone, and rests upon a foundation of 13,659 piles, or long timbers, driven into the ground. Am- sterdam was founded in the 12th century. Zaakdam, or jSaart/am, formerly the largest village in Holland, at present a town, in the neighborhood of Am- sterdam, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is not(?d for its numerous windmills (more than 700) and docks, where the Russian emperor, Peter I. in 1697 suf- fered himself to be engaged as an apprentice, in order to get a practical knowledge of the art of ship-building. The vilLige of Brock in't Watcrland, the residence of rich inhabitants of Amsterdam, who liave retired from busi- ness, is noted for the remarkable cleanliness of its houses and streets. No stranger is allowed to enter any house without having previously pulled oflF his boots and put on clean slippers. Mliden, or Muyden, (with 1,800 inLabi- THE NETHERLANDS. 269 The Province of Holland. tants), and Naarden (with 3,000 inhabitants), fortified towns on the Zuydcr Zee. Medemblik, on the Zuyder Zee, with 2,800 inhabitants, is considered as the most ancient town in North Holland, and as the residence of the an- cient kings of Friesland. Other towns in North HoUand are : Weesp (with 3,200 inhabitants), Monnikendam (with 2,900 inhabitants), Purmerend (with 3,300 uJiabitants, largely engaged in the cheese trade), Edam (noted for its cheese, with 4,600 inhabitants), Alkmaar (also noted for its cheese, with 10,000 inliabitants), Enkhuyzen (noted for its herring fishery, with 7,000 in- habitants), and Hoorn (with 10,000 inliabitants, who likewise are largely en- gaged in the butter and cheese trade). The village of Heldeh, at the entrance to Zuyder Zee, has 2,000 inhabitants, who for the most part consist of pilots, is noted for its excellent harbor, called Nieuwe Biep. Near Helder is the Island of Texel (53 square miles, and 5,000 inhabitants), noted for its sheep and cheese. Other smaller islands here are : Vlieland and Terschelling. The town of Haarlem, near the lake of the same name, westward and 12 miles distant from Amsterdam, has 23,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its organ with 8,000 (or, according to other statements, only with 4,500) pipes and 64 registers, and its trade in flowers. South Holland (1,113 square miles, and in 1846 with 558,837 inhabitants) contains : the Hague (in Dutch also styled sGraavcnhaag), the capital of the kingdom and royal residence, near the North Sea, 28 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, with 60,000 inhabi- tants, is one of the most regidarly and best built cities in Europe, and con- tains many handsome buildings. The neighboring village of Schevexixgex (with 5,600 inhabitants) is much resorted to for sea-batliing. Near the Hague is also the village of Ryswick, with an ancient castle, where the peace of Ryswick was concluded in 1697. Leyden, a town between the Hague , and Haarlem, with 36,000 inhabitants, is celebrated for its university. Delft, a town situated between the Hague and Rotterdam, with 17,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the burial-place of the princes of Orange, of the Admiral Tronip, etc. The prince, William I. of Orange, was murdered here in 1584. Rotterdam, a city on tlie Merwe (as the Meuse is called here, see page 16), 52 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, is next to Amsterdam the empo- rium of the kingdom, contains a great many stately houses and remarkable public edifices, and has 83,000 inliabitants. Tlie renowned scholar Erasmus was born here, in 1467. In its neighborhood is the town of Dort, with im- portant commerce, and 21,500 inhabitants ; it is noted in history for the Synod (in 1618 and 1619), -which condemned Arminianism. Other towns of South 270 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Provinces of Holland and Zealand. Holland are : Ottdcwater (with 2,000 inhabitants), Goitda (noted for its earthen ■ware, especially tobacco pipes, lias l-t^OOO inhabitants), Schiedam, (noted for its gin, and herring fishery, has 12,500 inhabitants), Maaxshiis (with 4,500 mhabitants), Vlaardingen (with 8,000 inhabitants), Vianen (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Schoonhovcn (with 3,000 inhabitants), Kicuwpoort (with 800 inhabi- tants), Aspcren (with 800 inhabitants), Leerdam (with 1,9U0 uihabitants), and GoRKUM (with 8,500 inhabitants). Between Dort and the sea, is the island of VooRNE, with the towns of Hehoetsluis (formerly the station of the packets for England, with 2, GOO inhabitants), and Brkl (witli 5,000 inhabitants, noted in history for its occuixation by the so-called Watergeuses in 1572). Another island is Over-Flakkc, or Zuyd- Voorne, with the town of Goree (with 800 inhabitants). 2. The province of Zealand (649 square miles, and in 1846 with 157,062 inhabitants), comprising islands formed by the mouths of the Scheldt, and a part of the main land, known by the name of Staatsjiandera. It was anciently an earldom, which belonged to the earls of Holland, and in 1436 came under the sway of the dukes of Burgundy. Its chief islands are the following : — a. The island of Walcherex, containing ; Middelburg, fortified capital of the province, has 16,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent town halL Flusuing, a strongly fortified town, the great naval depot of the kingdom, and station of the navy, with a fine and spacious harbor, and 8,500 inliabi- tants. The renowned Dutch admiral Ruyter, was born here in 1607. Other towns of this island are: Wcstkapdlcn (with 1,900 inhabitants), Veere (with 1,500 inhabitants), Domhurg (with 600 inhabitants), axifl Ariiomiyden (with 900 inliabitants). b. The island of Zuid-Beveland, ths largest and finest of the province, containing : Goes, a town, with 5,500 inhabitants. Bath, a fort com- manding the entrance to the Scheldt, c. ITie island of Noord-Bevelaxd, once the most beautiful and most fertile of Zealand, but in 1530 and 1532 laid waste by terrible inundations, contains at present several villages, and the borough of A'ortjrenejWith 700 inhabitants, d. The is/awc? of Schodwen, noted for its madder, and containing the towns of Zieriksee (with trade in madder, and 7,500 inhabitants) and Brouwcrshaven (with numerous breweries, and 1,000 inhabitants), e. The island of Tuolex, containing the towns of TJiolcn (with 3,000 inhabitants) and St. Martcnsdyk (with 1,500 inliabitants). f. The continental part of Zealand, until 1648 belonging to the ancient earldom of Flanders, and since called Staats-Flanders, or Dutch Flanders, contains the following towns: Sluis (in French, called Ecliiae, strongly fortified, with THE NETHERLANDS. 271 The Provinces of Zealand, Utrecht, and Geldern. 2,100 inhabitants), Bieuvliet (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sas van Gent (vnth 1,000 inliabitants), Axel (with 2,800 inhabitants), Hulst (with 3,000 inhabi- tants), Ysendi/k (with 1,300 inhabitants), Aard^nburg (with 1,500 inhabitants), Oosthurg (with 900 inhabitants), Ter Neuse (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Philippbie (with 600 inhabitants). 3. Tlio province of Uteecht (532^ square miles, and in 1846 with 153,083 inhabitants), situated between Holland and Geldern, on the north bounded by the Zuyder Zee, was since the year 695 the lordship of a sovereign bishop, and in 1528 purchased by the Emperor Charles V., who annexed it to the government of Holland. It contains : IlTREcnT, the capital of the province, on a branch of the Rhine, 20 miles south-south-east of Amsterdam, has 45,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its imiversity, its St. Martin's church, reared in the 14th century, whose steeple is 388 feet high, and for tlie peace concluded here in 1713. The neighboring village of Zeyst, settled by Moravian Brethren, is noted for its boarding school for young ladies, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Amersfoort, a town on the Eem, 12 miles east-north-east of Utrecht, with 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Rhenen (with 3,000 inhabitants, and the so-called king's house, where the unfortunate Elector Frederic V. lived in 1621), Yssclstcia (with 3,000 inhabitants), Woerdcn (with 2,800 inhabitants), Wyk, surnamed te, or by JDuurstede {vnth 3,000 inhabitants), and Montfort (with 1,850 inhabitants). 4. The proviiice of Geldern, or Gelderland (2,007 i square miles, and in 1846 with 366,468 inliabitants), situated between the German frontier and the Zuj'der Zee, did primitively belong to the German empire, and was in 1543 annexed to the duchy of Burgundy. It contains: ARXHEijr, or Arnhem, tlie capital of the province, 37 miles east-south-east of Utrecht, is strongly fortified, has 15,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of the earls and dukes of Gelderland. Nimeguen, a fortified town on the "Waal, southward and 9 miles distant from Arnheim, has 19,000 inliabitants, and is remarkable for the peace concluded here in 1679. On the neighboring Heath of Ifook, the adlierents of the Prince "William of Orange were in 1574 totally defeated by the Spaniards. Harderwtk, a town on the Zuyder Zee, ^nth 5,200 inhabi- tants, was formerly noted for a university founded in 1 648. Zctphex, a town on the Yssel, has 11,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of sove- reign earls of Zutphen, and in the middle ages a member of the Hanseatic League. In its vicinity is the fine royal palace het Loo, with a beautiful garden and park. Other towns of this province are : T/iiel (with 5,200 iohab- 2*r2 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Netherlandish Provinces of Overyssel and Friesland. itants), Bommel, or Salt-Bommel (with 5,000 inhabitants), Kuylenhurg (with 5,300 iiiliabitants), Oroenlo, or Grol (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lochem (with 1,800 iniiabitants), Borkelo (with 1,200 inliabitants), Doesburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Deutichem (with 2,200 inhabitants), Wageningen (with 4,500 inhab- itants), Elburg (with 2,500 hihabitants), Nieuwkerk (with 5,000 inliabitants), Hattem{v;\i]\ 2,800 mhahiianii), Zcvcnacr, or Scvenaer (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Hiiisscn (with 1,100 inhabitants). 5. The province of Overyssel (1,299 square miles, and in 1846 with 211,279 inhabitants), was anciently, together with Utrecht, under the sway of a sove- reign bishop, and m 1528 purchased by Charles V. and annexed to the duchy of Burgundy ; it contains : Zwoll, strongly fortified capital of the province, near the Yssel and Vechte rivers, north-eastward and 52 miles distant from Utrecht, with 17,500 inhabitants. Deventee, a town on the Yssel, is noted for its honey-cakes, and has 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Campen (with 10,000 inliabitants), Vollenhoven (with 2,200 inhabitants), Hasselt (with 1,500 inhabitants), -<-l//?je^o (with 3,200 inhabitants), Ommcn (with 1,050 inhabitants), Zrarc?cnier5r (with 3,000 inliabitants), Oldenzaal (with 4,800 inhabitants), JEnschede (with 4,400 inhabitants), and Steenwyk (with 2,500 inhabitants). C. The province of Friesland (l,043f square miles, and in 1846 witli 245,266 inliabitants), situated on the North Sea and Zuyder Zee, and sepa- rated from East Friesland (belonging to Germany) by the province of Gronin- gen. Friesland, formerly by way of distinction fi'equently called West Fries- land (with reference to East Friesland), anciently formed part of the country inliabited by the Frieslanders, and was subsequently ruled by native princes. In the period from 1436 to 1523 it was gradually annexed to the duchy of Bur- gundy, or the Netherlands. It contains : Leeuwardex, the capital of the province, 83 miles north-north-east of Amsterdam, carries on a considerable trade, and has 22,500 inhabitants. Franeker, a town, formerly noted for a university, has 4,800 inhabitants. Other towns of tliis province arc : Haarlingcn (with 8,500 inliabitants), Dokkum (with 3,800 inhabitants), Sneek (with 7,500 inhabitants), Workum (with 3,000 inhabitants), Hindelopen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Sta- vcren (once the largest town of Friesland, and the residence of its princes, but at present only with 1,800 inhabitants), Bohward {v{\i\\ 2,800 inhabitants), and Ileercnvcen (with 1,900 inhabitants). Near the coast of Friesland are the ides of Amelaxd (with 3,300 inliabitants), and Schiermonnikooq (with 2,000 inhabitants). THE NETHERLANDS. 273 Tlie Provinces of Groningen, Drf nthe and North Brabunt. 7. The province of Groni.vgen (905 J square miles, and in 1846 with 189,71-1: inhabitants), situated between Friesland and the German frontier, on the north bounded by the North Sea, was primitively ruled by Clermaii governors, who in the course of time made tliemselves independent, and came in 1536 under the sway of the Netherlandish sovereign. It contains: Gronixgen, fortified capital of the province, half way between Leeuwarden and Emden (the latter town belongs to East Friesland), has 31,000 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its university, its town-hall, and St iLxrtin's church with high steeple and excellent organ. Delfzyl, a fortified town on the DoUart, with 3,700 inliabitants. The town of Dam, or Apingadam, with 3,600 inhabitants, is noted for its horse marts. Winschoten, a fortified town on the Rensel, with 4,000 inhabitants. Rottum, a little island near the coast, with 250 uihabitants. 8. The province of DaEPn'HE (958i square miles, and in 1846 with 80,978 inhabitants), situated between Overyssel and Gelderland, did for a long while belong to the German empire, and came in 1536 under the sway of the Netherlandish sovereign. In the time of the republic, Drenthe was not a province, but a territory under the immediate government of the General States. It contains : Assek, the capital of the province, on a canal connect- ing it with the Zuyder Zee, southward and 15 miles distant from Groningen, with 2,800 inhabitants. Frcdcriksoort is a settlement for the poor, who are engaged here in husbandry and other branches of industry, and get in this manner amply the means of sustenance. Its population amounts to 2,500 inhabitants. In the -s-icinity is situated the town of Meppel, with 6,500 in- habitants. Eoevoerden, a fortified town near the frontier of Germany, with 2,800 inliabitants. 9. The province of North Brabant (1,970 square miles, and in 1846 with 390,386 inhabitants), formerly a constituent part of the ancient duchy of Bra- bant, and in the beginning of the 17th century conquered by the Dutch, contains : Bois le Due (this is the French name, while the Dutch call it Herto- genbosch), strongly fortified capital of the province, in a plain, intersected by canals, 32 miles south-south-east of Utrecht, with a remarkable church and town-hall, numerous manufactures, considerable commerce, and 21,500 inhab- itants. Breda, a strongly fortified town, 23 miles west-south-west of Bois le Due, with 14,500 inhabitants, is noted for its principal church with 2 organs and the sepulchres of several earls of Nassau. By the terms of the treaty of peace concluded here on the 10th of July, 1668, the Netherlandish repubhc 12* Sn EUROPE, PAST AND PRESEXT. The Kingdom of the Netherlands: its Geographical Divisions and Colonies. ceded the city of New York (theii called New Amsterdam) to England- Other more or less strongly fortified towns of this province are : Berg ex op Zoom (with 8,000 inhabitants), Geetruidenbeug (with 2,000 inhabitants), Steenhergen (with 4,300 inhabitants), the Klundert (with 900 uihabitants), Willcmstadt (with 2,000 iiihabitants), //(?««rfe«. (with 2,100 inhabitants), Gi-ave (with 2,800 inhabitants), Rnvensteen (with 1,200 inliabitants), and Workum (with 800 inliabitants). Eixdhovex, a town on the Dommel, has 4,100 inhab- itants, and is noted for its manufactuies of cotton goods, hnen, etc. The town of TiLBURG (with 13,500 inhabitants) is noted for its cloth manufactures; and the town of Helmond (with 3,200 inhabitants) for its linen manufactures. Osterhout, a borough, with numerous potteries, and 7,600 inhabitants. 10. The duchy of Limburg has, as Netherlandish province, an extent of 852 ■square miles, and a population of 198,000 inhabitants, but is divided into two districts, of which the one (viz. : the district of Roeremonde) is politically •forming part of German}/, and, for this reason, to be described under that ■bead ; while the other, viz. : the district of iLtESTRicuT (468J square miles, and in 1816 with 103,931 inhabitants), forms a constituent part of the king- dom of the Netherlands proper, and contains : Maestricht, the capital of this district, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, on the Meuse, has 31,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its leather manufactures, and its quarry in St. Peter's hill containing not less than 20,000 horizontal galleries, which have been cut out here in a period of nearly 2,000 years. The town and fortress of Maestricht was conquered by the Dutch in 1632, and ceded to them formally in 1648. Venloo, a fortified town, on the Meuse, with 7,000 inhabitants. About Luxcmhurg, see under tlie head of Germany. To the kingdom of the Netherlands belong the following colonics : — 1. In Asia : the islands of Java, Sumatra, Amboina, and other of the Spice Islaiuls, etc.. the greatest part of the island of Celebes, and settlements on Borneo, the total area of which is computed at 97,405 sr^uare miles, and the total population at 9,750,000 inhabitant's. 2. In Africa : settlements on the coast of Upper Guinea, estimated at 2,790 square miles, with 200,000 inhabitants. 3. In America: the colony of Surinam in Guiana, and the THE NETHERLANDS. 275 Kingdom of Belgium. West Indian islands of Curacoa^ St. Eusiatius, and two smaller ones, the total area of which is estimated at 39,064 square miles, and the total population at 101,500 inhabitants. That Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Denierara, were likewise Neth- erlandish colonies, but ceded to England in 1814, is already mentioned above. II.— THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM, Area: 11,417 square miles. Population : 4,350,000 inhabitants. The population of this kingdom consists (with the exception of about 2.5,000 Protestants, etc.) of Roman Catholics, under the ecclesiastical direction of 1 archbishop (at Mechlin) and 5 bishops (at Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, Namur, and Liege), and with nearly 500 monasteries and nunneries. In point of origin, the majority of the people belongs to the great Germanic tribe, and is known by the name of Flemings^ differing but little from the Dutch, in language, customs, and manners. The people in the south, or the Walloons, are, for the most part, descendants of the ancient Gauls, and speak the French languag-e. It has already been remarked, that agriculture is on a high pitch of improvement in Belgium. However, the various branches of husbandry are, by far, not the only means of sustenance here, as the Belgians do also excel in manvfadures ; and, moreover, as Belgium is the most thickly settled country in Europe, the 276 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kinjjdom of Belgium : it.' Munufuclures, Commerce, etc. ratio of population being 381 inhabitants on a square mile, suffi- cient corn for home consuoiption cannot be raised, so that, for instance, in the years 1842 and 1843 corn was imported at the value of 6,600.000 florins. The chief objects of manufacture are lace (renowned from old : the centres of its fabrication are Brussels and Mechlin ; other places noted for it are Bruges, Ghent, and St. Tron ; a pound of the finest twisted thread for bone-lace, costs about 2,000 florins), cloth (especially in the province of Liege), lineii (especially iu Flanders, but also in Brabant and Hainault), cotton goods (Ghent, Brussels, etc.), fire-arms^ cutlery^ and steam engines (Liege, JS'amur, Charleroi), leather (Stablo, Liege, and Ghent), and carpets (Tournay, etc.). Though Belgium possesses, altogether, no more than 128 mer- chant vessels, beside some steamers, and therefore its own ship- ping is very insignificant, its commerce is of great importance. Thus, in 1843, the exports and imports were estimated at the value of 516,738,461 francs, viz. : the imports at 294.584,180, and the exports at 222,154,281 francs. In 1845, the exports had increased by the value of nearly 26,000,000, and the imports (for a great part, transit goods and cotton for fabrication) by that of 57,500.000 florins. The prevailing system of education, is more or less impregnated with the spirit of Catholicism ; at least, all Catholic schools are under the immediate control of the clergy, which, however, does not precisely prejudice the instruction itself There are 3 uni- versities, viz. : at Louvain (founded in 1426, renewed in 1815 and 1835, and in 1841 frequented by 660 students), at Ghent (founded in 1816, and in 1841 with 340 students), and at Liege (founded in 1817, and in IS 11 with 350 students). Beside these three bearing the Catholic stamp, there was founded in 1 837 at Brussels a fourth university, as it were, in spite of the Catholic clergy, and THE NETHERLANDS. 277 Kingdom of Belgium: iU Finances, Army, and History. styled " Free University;" the number of its students, however, is very moderate. The number of the various other schools amounted in 1840 to 5,189, but 2.284 of them were private schools, which are, for the most part, very defective. The government is a constitutional monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in a king, a senate, and a chamber of repre- sentatives. The public revenue was in 1846 estimated at 126,681,575 francs, and the expenditure at 126,459,281 francs. The 'public debt amounted to 317,887,632 francs, on the 1st of January, 1845. The army consists of about 32,000 men on the peace, and of nearly 86,000 men on the war footing. Except some gun-boats, Belgium has no navy. In 1832, an order of ho7ior was created by the name of Leopold order, for civil and military officers, in 5 classes. History. — The essential points of Belgian history are ahready stated above ; we will, therefore, only add some particulars. Since the establishment of the Netherlandish repubUc, towards the end of the 16th century, the southern provinces of the Netherlands, continuing to be under the sway of Spain, and retaming the Catholic creed, were for this reason commonly styled either the Spanish, or the Catholic Netherlands, and since 1714, when they were ceded to Austria, they were known by the name of the Austrian Netherlands. In 1794, they were conquered by the French, and, by the terms of the treaty of peace, concluded at Campo Formio in 1797, formally ceded to them. That they in 1S14 were restored to Austria, but that this power renounced them in favor of the united kingdom of all Netherlands, and that finally this latter was dissolved again in consequence of the Belgian revolution of 1830, has already been mentioned. By the terms of an agreement brought about in 1839, the grand-duchy of Luxemburg was divided between the kingdoms of the Neth- erlands and of Belgium, the latter acquu-ing its western, and the former retaining the eastern loalf. In 1831, the Belgians elected Leopold duke of Saxe-Coburg (consort of the late British princess Charlotte, who died in 1817), their hereditary king. 278 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kingdom of Belgium : the Province of South Brabant. The kingdom of Belgium, since the alterations and arrange- ments just mentioned, is divided into 9 provinces. 1. Tlic province of South Brabant (1,278 square miles, and, according to the census published on the 1st of January, 18-14, \vitli 05-1,758 inhabitants), towards the centre of the kingdom, bears the appellation of South, m order to distinguish it from North Brabant (see under the head of " Kingdom of the Netherlands"), though both these provinces were once constituent parts of the ancient duchy of Brabant, to which also belonged the greatest part of the present province of Antwerp. Tliis duohy was since the days of the Frankish sway ruled by native dukes, who at first were vassals of the German empire, but made themselves independent in the course of time. About the remaining part of its history, see page 264. The province of South Brabant contains : Brussels, the metropolis of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the river Senne, westward and 76 miles distant from Aix la Chapelle, had in 1846 a population of 124,781 inhabitants, exclusive of the suburbs, whose total population amomits to more than 40,000 inhabitants. Brussels ranks among the finest cities of Europe, and is noted not only for its extensive manufactures of lace, carpets, etc., but also for several of its public edifices, especially for its Gothic city hall (facing the chief market place, where in 1568 the counts of Egmont and Hoorn were executed), whose steeple is 364 feet high, and the St. Gudule chm"ch, containing pictures by Rubens and other masters of the Flemish school Southward and 10 miles distant from Brussels, is situated the village of Wateei.oo (with 1,900 inhabitants), noted for the great battle fought on the ISth of June, 1815. Louvain, a town on the Dyle, 15 miles east-north-east of Brussels, with 28,000 inhabitants, is noted for its university, its churches, and town-halL In the middle ages, Louvain was a city, with nearly 200,000 inliabitants, and remarkably flourishing by its cloth and other woollen manufactures, that gave employment to more than 1 50,000 operatives But the latter revolted in 1382, and having been punished for it, they mostly emigrated to England. The university of Louvain was in the 16th century sometimes frequented by 6,000 students. Other towns of this province are : Vilvorden (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tirlemont, or Ticnen (with 8,500 inhabi- tants), Wavre (with 5,500 inhabitants), Nivelles, or Nyvel (with 7,700 inhabi- tants), Haulx, or Halle (with 6,000 inhabitants), Diest (with 8,000 inhabitants), Montaiyu, in YIgxsusIi, Scherpenheuvel (with 1,800 inhabitants), ^er«cAo< (with THE 2,'ETnERLAXDS. 279 Tlie Belgian Provinces of Antwerp and Eiist Flanders. 4,000 inhabitants), and Iloegaerden (with 3,000 iuliabitants). Tnlhe and Braine-Lallcu, boroughs, with respectively 2,000 and 3,000 inhabitants. 2. The jorownce of Antwerp (1,097 square miles, and in 1844 with 385,894 inliabitants), anciently a constituent part of the duchy of Brabant, coutakis : Antwerp, fortified capital of the province, and the chief commercial city ia Belgium, on the right bank of the Scheldt (wliich river is here 2,1 GO feet broad), nortliward and 28 miles distant from Brussels, has 80,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent Gothic cathedral (whose steeple is 444 feet high), its merchant's exchange (reared in 1531, and the most ancient and largest one in Europe), and its citadel (reared in 1507 by the duke of Alba, and valorously defended in 1832 by the general Chasse). Antwerp was towards the end of the 15th and during the greatest part of the 16th century the emporium of nearly all Europe. At a later period it was the residence of Rubens, and other eminent pauiters of the Flemish school Lier, a town, 10 miles east-south-east of Antwerp, is noted for its breweries, and has 14,000 inhabitants. IIi rentals and Hoogstraten, to'mis, with respectively 8,000 and 1,600 inhabitants. Arendonk (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Ghecl (with 8,500 inhabitants), boroughs. Mechun, a city on the Dyle, half way between Antwerp and Brussels, is the residence of the archbishop and Primas of Belgium, has a remarkable cathedral (founded in 1250, but not completed before the year 1475 ; its steeple is 348 feet high), and 26,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for its lace, considered as the finest in Brabant. 3. The province of East Flaxdees (1,150 square miles, and in 1844 with 799,428 inhabitants), which once formed the eastern half of the ancient earl- dom of Flanderx, whose first earl was Baldwin I., who lived in the 9 th cen- tury. Margaret, the daughter and heiress of the 24th earl, Louis II., was in 1369 married to Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus became pos- sessed of all Flanders. This province is the most thickly settled in Belgium, and noted for its linen. It contains: Guent, the capital of the province (anciently also the capital of the eai'ldom), on the Scheldt, 34 miles west- south-west of Antwerp, and north-westward and 34 miles distant from Brus- sels, has various remarkable ancient edifices, among them the cathedral, the palace where Charles V. was born in 1500, and a castle, once the residence of the earls of Flanders and of the dukes of Bm'gimdy, and a population of 90,000 iidiabitauts. Moreover, Ghent is the centre of the Belgian cotton mau- ufactures, and is also noted for its trade in flowers. In 1814 the treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain was signed here. Olde- 280 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. The Belgian Provinces of East and West Flanders. NA.\RDE, a fortified town oa the Scheldt, with a remarkable town-hall, and 6,000 inhabitants. Dexdermoxde (in French, Ttnreinomk, or Tcrmondc), a fortified town at the mouth of the Dender into the Scheldt, is noted for it8 flax and linen- bleacheries, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Other remarkable towns and boroughs of this province are: Alost, or Aalst (noted for its hops, has 16,000 hihabitants), Geertsbcrrjlicn, in French Graimnont (with 7,700 in- habitants), lionse, in French Renaiz (with 13,00 hihabitants), Ninove (with 5,000 mliabitants), Deynse (with 5,000 inhabitants), Eecloo (with 9,500 inhab- itants), Zcle (with 11,000 inhabitants), Wetteren (with 9,500 inliabitants), Wacrschot (with 5,500 inhabitants), Hamme (with 8,500 inhabitants), Loke- ren (with 16,500 inliabitants), Bevcren (with '»,500 inhabitants), and Rupel- monde (noted for its bricks, has 2,500 inliabitants). The town of St. Nikolas (with 18,500 inhabitants, and numerous manufactures, especially of leather), is the chief place of the so-called Wacsland, a tract of land noted for its higlily cultivated soil and its fine flax. The above-stated boroughs of Hamme, Lokeren, Beveren, and Rupelmonde are also situated in this tract. The for- tified borough of Zwyndrccht (with 1,200 inhabitants), on the left bank of the Scheldt, right opposite Antwerp, is considered as the tete-de-pont of Antwerp, and is for tliis reason also named Tete de Flandres, or (in Flemish) Vlaamsch- Hoofd. 4. Tlie province of West Flanders (1,257 square miles, and in 1844 with 659,270 inliabitants), which formed the western half of the ancient earldom of Flanders (see above), contains : Bruges, the capital of the province, north- westward and 28 miles distant from Ghent, has 45,000 inliabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (with the sepulchres of Charles the Bold and his daughter Mary), and its numerous manufactures of linen, lace, etc. In the 14th and 15th centuries Bruges was famous for its commerce. Courtray (in Flemisli, Cortryk), a town on the Lys, and near the Frencli fiontier, has 20,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen of the finest quahty. Commines, a town on the French frontier, has 2,700 inhabitants, and is by the river L3's divided into two parts, of wliich that on the right bank belongs to France since 1714. RouLERS (in Flemish, Roufisclaer), a town, ^vith 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its flax and linen. Yperk, in French Ypres, a fortified town on the little river Yperle, with a Gothic town-hall, a remarkable ancient cathedral, lace manufactuies, and 17,500 inliabitants. Ostende, a fortified maritime town on the North Sea, is much resorted to for sea-bathing, and has 12,500 inhabitants Another fortified maritime town is Nieupoet, or Nieuwport (with 3,300 ia- THE NETHERLANDS. 281 The Belgian Provinces of West Flanders, Hainault and Naraur. habitants), noted in history for a battle in 1600 between the Dutch and Span- iards. Veurne (in French called Furucn), a town near the Xorth Sea, carries oa a considerable trade in corn and provisions, and has 4,800 inhabitants. Other towns and boroughs of this province are : Meenex, or Menin (is noted for its lace and linen, and has 8,000 inhabitants), Waenetox, or Waesten (also noted for its lace, has 6,000 inhabitants), Werviick (with 5,800 inhabiUint?), Iseqhcm (with 9,000 inhabitants), Thielt (with 12,500 inhabitants), Meultbeke (with 9,000 inhabitants), Moorzele or iloorslcde (with 4,400 inhabitants), Dixmuydcn (with 3,500 inhabitants), Poperingen (with 11,000 inhabitants), Blankenberghe (with 2,000 inhabitants), Thorout (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Liclitervdde (with 7,000 inhabitants). 5. The province of Haixault (1,449 square miles, and in 1844 with 679,5.36 inhabitants), anciently an earldom of the same name, which, however, so early as in the 12th century came imder the sway of the earls of Flanders, and subsequently under that of the dukes of Burgundy. It contains: Mo\s (in Flemish it is named Bergen), fortified capital of the province, on the former high road between Brussels and Paris, is noted for its coal mines, and has 24,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is the village of Jemappes (with 3,000 inhabitants), noted for a battle in 1792, between the French and the alhed powers. Atu, a fortified town, on the Dender, is noted for its linen manufac- tures, and has 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Roulx (with 2,800 inhabitants), Soignics (with 7,000 inhabitants), Leuze (with 5,500 inhabitants), Lesnines (Avith 5,000 inhabitants), Enghien (with 4,000 inliabi- tants), Braine le Comte (with 4,700 inhabitants), Binche (with 6,500 inhabi- tants), Fontaine VEveque (with 2,800 inhabitants), Beaumont (with 1,900 inhabitants), Chimay (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ligiie (with 2,000 inhabi- - tants). Thuin, a town on the Sambre, with 4,000 inliabitants, did fonnerly belong to the sovereign bishopric of Liege. Charleeoi, a fortified town, on the Sambre, with 7,500 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of fire-armg and hardware, and did anciently belong to the earldom of Namur. Tourxat (in Flemish, Boornik), a fortified city, on the Scheldt, south-westward and 46 miles distant from Brussels, is noted for its manufactures of carpets and porcelain, and has 30,500 inhabitants. The villages of Fontenay and Fleurui are noted for battles at different times. 6. The province of Namur (1,422 square miles, and in 1844 with 251,326 inhabitants), chiefly comprising the ancient earldom of Kamxtr, which in 1421 was sold by Earl John III. (who had no descendants) to Philip, duke of Burgundy. It contains: Namue (in Flemish and Dutch, named Kainen), EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Belgian Provinces of Namur and Liege. fortified capital, on the Meuse, 35 miles south-soutli-east of Brussels, is noted for its fire-arms aud cutlery, and has 24,oOU inliabitants. Marienburg and Fhlllppeville, little but fortified towns, with respectively 700 and 1,500 inhab- itants. DiNANT, a town on the Meuse, is noted for its freestone and marble, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Otlier towns and boroughs of this province are : Bouvifjnes (with 1,(300 uiliabitants), Walcourt (with 1,1U0 inhabitants), Rochffort (witli 1,200 inhabitants), Aiidcnne (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Gembloux (with 2,000 inhabitants). The village of i/jrHy, 18 miles south-south-east of Waterloo, is noted for-a battle on the 16th of June, 1815 (but two days previous to the battle of Waterloo), in which the Prussians were defeated by the French. 7. The province of Liege (1,123 square miles, and in 18-14 with 425,758 inliabitants), between South Brabant and the Prussian Rhenish province, com- prising in substance the territory of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Liege, which was established in the city of Liege in the beginning of the 8th century by St. Hubertus, and was an actual member of the German empire until towards the end of last century, when it was conquered by the French, together with the Catholic Netherlands, with which it has since continued to be united. It contains: Liege (in Flemish and Dutch, named Luik), tho capital, at the junction of the Ourthe and Meuse, 54 miles cast-south-east of Brussels, and 28 niUes west-south-west of Aix la Chapelle, has a strongly fortified citadel, a remarkable cathedral, and 73,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its fire-arms, cannon foundry, iron works, and coal mines. The neighboring village of Seraing (with 3,500 inhabitants) is noted for its manufactures of steam engines, etc. The ancient abbey of St. Lamhertthal is at present noted for one of tiie most considerable glass manufactures. The borough of Herstaj.l (5 miles north-east of Liege, with iron works, aud 5,500 inliabitants) is remark- able as the ancestral seat of the Frankish Majordomus Pipin of Jleistall, great-gi'andfather of Cliarlemagne. Verviers, a town on the Weze, half-way between Liege and Aix la Chapelle, has 21,000 inliabitants, and is celebrated for its numerous and excellent cloth manufactures. The boroughs of TIteux (with 3,500 inliabitants) and Glons (with 2,000 uihabitants), are noted, tJie former for its iron foundry and marble, and the latter for its manufactures of Btraw hats. Spa, a town, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Liege, and 20 miles south-south-west of AL\ la Chapelle, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is celebrated for mineral waters, which are also to be found in the neigh- boring village of Chaudfontaine. Tlie town of Hnr (on the Meuse, between Liege and Namur, with 8,000 inhabitants) is noted for its mountain castle, and THE NETHERLAXDS. 283 The Belgian Provinces of Ljcge, Limburg and Luxemburg. romantic environs. The town of Vise, or Wcset, on the Meuse, with 2,200 inhabitimts, has hkewise romantic environs. The town of Limbcrg (noted for its cheese and cloth manufactures, and with 2,200 inhabitants) did not belong to the bishopric of Liege, but was formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Limhurg (whose history will be found under the head of Germany), to wliich also belonged tlie towns of Herve (noted for its cheese, and with 3,500 inhabitants), Z'aZ/ifl^J (with 900 iuiiabitants), and //oc/iwioni (with 1,500 inliabi- tants). To the ancient duchy of Brabant did belong the towns of Stablo (with very considerable leather manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants), Hanut (with 1,000 inliabitants), and Landen (with 1,050 mhabitants). 8. The province of Limburg (937 square miles, and m IS-W with 177,18-1: inhabitants) has, but for the name, nothing in common with the ancient duchy of Limburg (whose history will be found under the head of the Netherlandish German states), but does only comprise parts of the territory formerly belonging to the bishopric of Liege, containing : H.^sselt, the capital of this province, on the Demer, north-westward and 14 miles distant from ilastricht, ■with 7,-100 inhabitants. St. Tkox (in Flemish, St. Trujcn), a town, south- westward and 9 miles distant fiom Hassclt, is noted for its manufactures of lace and fire-arms, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Tongcrn (with 5,600 inhabitants), Bilscn (with 3,000 inhabitants), Maaseyk (with 4,200 inhabitants), Looz, or Borchlocn (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Reeckcm (with 1,000 inliabitants). 9. The province of Luxemburg (1,704 square miles, and in 1844 with 180,709 inliabitants), comprising the western half of the ancient duchy (at present grand-duchy) of Luxcmhurg (see above, in the History of Belgium : the history of this duchy, or grand-duchy, will be found under the head of Germany), and containing : Aulox, the capital of this province, amidst exten- sive forests, 14 miles west-north-west of the city of Luxemburg, with leather manufactures, and 4„000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Bastogne (with 2,600 inhabitants), J/tf/"cAe en Famine (with 1,600 inliabitants), St. Hubert (with 1,600 inliabitants). La Roche (with 1,000 inhabitants), Xeuf- chateau (with 1,600 inhabitants), Chiny (with 1,150 inhabitants), and Viel Salin (with 2,900 inhabitants, and the ruins of the castle of Salm, the ancestral seat of the German princes and earls of Salm). Bouillox, a fortified town near the French frontier, with 2,800 inliabitants, and a mountain castle, anciently the residence of the renowned leader of the first army of crusaders, and first king of Jerusalem (in 1099), Godfrey of Bouillon. This town was formerly the capital of a duchy of the same name. GERMANY. Area : 244,3'75 square miles. Population : 42,000,000 inhabitants. Germany 13 situated in the centre of Europe, between 55^ and 45° north latitude, and between 5^ 45' and 19° 45' east from Greenwich. On the north it is bounded by the North and Baltic Seas and by Denmark ; on the south by the Adriatic Sea, Italy and Switzerland ; on the east by Hungary and the Polish provinces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria ; and on the icest by France and the Netherlands. The distance between Germany and Gibraltar is nearly equal to that between Germany and Moscow^ viz. : more than 1000 miles ; and to Stoclfholin in Sweden it is just about as far as to Naples m Italy. In the northern and western parts of Germany the surface is more or less level ; the southern and eastern parts are traversed by the mountain ranges described pages G-8 ; and towards the southern extremity branches of the Alps are running in an east- erly direction. About the rivers and lakes of Germany, see Introduction to Europe, ^§ 9 and 10. pages 11, 13, 16 and 17. The climate is both moderate and healthful throughout Ger- many. Thouq-h the country is intersected by about GO navigable riv- ers, which thus would afford the greatest facility of connecting them one to another by canals, the latter are rather few in num- GERMANY. 285 Natural Products. ber. The principal and most useful canal is the so-called Louix Canal, crossing the northern half of Bavaria and uniting the Rhine with the Danube. Thi.s deficiency is however amply com- pensated by numerous public roads and rail-roads, which latter are at present crossing almost every German country. The chief natural products of Germany are the following : Corn, whicli not only is raised sufficiently for home consumption, but even for exportation. For the soQ is generally fertile, and agriculture is carried on with diligence and great skill Wixe, especially along the Rhine and most of its tributaries, and in the German provinces of Austria. TunsER, which is exported in considerable quantities from the southern and middle parts of Germany. The mountain ranges are generally covered with exten- sive forests ; hence the final syllable wald (forest) in the proper names of so many of them ; for instance, Schwarzwald (Black Forest), Odenwald, Boeh- merwald, etc. Fruits, in great variety, and partly in immense quantities. Flax, which is cultivated throughout Germany, but especially iu Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia, "VYestphalia, etc. Moreover hops (the best quality is to be found in the northern part of Bavaria, and in Bohemia), and hemp (chiefly in the kingdom of Hanover). — Horses, more than 5,000,000 in number, and for the most part of excellent breed. Tliose of Mecklenburg, Hanover, Holstein, and Oldenburg, rival the finest Enghsh horses, and are even frequently superior to them, if perhaps not in swiftness on the turf, but in other more useful qualities. Nearly the whole remount of the French army is supplied with German horses. Cattle, whose total number of heads •amounts to more than 15,000,000 (double tlie amount of the cattle in France), and the finest breed of which is reared in Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, East Fries- land, Holstein, Oldenburg, Dessau, and Mecklenburg. Sueep, about 30,000,000 in number, and at present for the most part of improved breed ; for which reason their wool is one of the chief staples. Hogs (more than 8,000,000) are reared in vast numbers in Westphalia (noted for its exceUent hams), Ba- varia, etc. Moreover, Germany abounds in game, fowls, bees (great quantities of wax and honey are exported), etc. — Silver, extracted from the mines in Saxony, Bohemia, Hanover, and Prussia, to the annual amount of between 160,000 and 200,000 marks. Iron (more than 4,000,000 quintals annually); Tin (especially in Bohemia and Saxony) ; Copper (about 30,000 quintals an- 286 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Manufactures and Commerce of Germany. nu.iUy) ; Qlicksilver (in Ulyii.i) ; Lead (nearly 200,000 quintals) ; and above all. Salt, of which about 5 million quintals are annually made. There is perhaps no country -where mineral springs of any descrijition are more abundant than in Germany, -where moreover the spas, or watering-places, especially those of Bohemia, Silesia, Bavaria, Baden, and Nassau, are every year, in the summer season, visited by foreigners from various parta of Europe in quest of health or pleasure. The German manufactures are important and various, and their chief articles are the following : li/ie?i (the finest qualities in Silesia, Bohemia, Lusatia, and Westphalia), woollen goods (especially in the Rhenish province of Prussia, and moreover in Moravia, Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), cotton goods (above all in the kingdom of Saxony, and at Berlin, Elberfeld, Barmen, in Bohemia and Lower Austria), silks (especially in Crefeld and Berlin, which moreover are famed for their velvet; in Vienna, in the southern part of Tyrol, etc.), hardware^ cutlery, and fire-arms (in the llhenish province of Prussia, in some parts of Westpha- lia and of the Prussian province of Saxony, in Austria, etc.), leather (Malmedy is famous for it, but also some places in Bohe- mia, Silesia, etc.), porcelain (the porcelain manufactures of Ber- lin, Vienna, and Meissen may be considered as the finest in Europe), glass (no country in the world fabricates so much glass as Germany, especially Bohemia is celebrated for it), musical in- struments (first-rate pianos are constructed not only in Vienna, Augsburg. Prague, and other cities, but even in villages of the southern and middle parts of Germany ; excellent violins, espe- cially in Tyrol), gold- and silver-smithes wares (in which excel, Augsburg, Vicuna, Berlin, and Breslau), and finally, optical, chi- rurgical, and other similar instruments, which are partly superior to those of England or France. In COMMERCE, Germany is surpassed by Great Britain, France, and Russia, nevertheless it is carried on to a great extent, espe- GERMAXY. 287 Commerce, Trade, and Means of Education. cially by Hamburg, Bremen, and Trieste, and next to thera, by Altona, Lubeck, Stettin, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar, Kiel, and Emden. The chief exports are : grain, timber, wool, linen, hard- ware, lead, zinc, quicksilver, glass, salt, woollen and cotton goods, horses, cattle, and butter (the latter, especially, from Holstein and Mecklenburg). The inland trade is very considerable, and the principal cities and towns engaged in it are, Vienna, Leipsic, Cologne, Elberfeld, Magdeburg, Berlin, Breslau, Prague. Augs- burg. Frankfort on the Mayne, Frankfort on the Oder, Botzen, Laibach, etc. The literary institutions in Germany, are both numerous and celebrated. The universities, all on a large scale, and comprising the four faculties of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and phi- losophy (inclusive astronomy, etc.), are so eminently arranged, and answer the purpose so well, that they are much resorted to, even from other countries. At present, there are 23 universities on this scale in Germany, viz. : — Five in the German provinces of Austria : at Prague (founded in 1348), Vienna (in 1365), Olmutz (in 1581), Gratz (in I486), and J/ifispruck (in 1672). Five in the German provinces of Prussia: at Greifswald (founded in 1456), Halle (in 1694), Breslau (in 1702), Berlin (in 1810), and Bonn (in 1818). Three in Bavaria: at Wurtzburg (founded in 1403), Erlangcn (in 1743), and Munich (in 1826). Two in Baden: at Heidelberg (founded in 1386), and Freiburg (in 1457). One in Saxony: at Leipsic (founded in 1409). One in Mecklenburg: at Rostock (founded in 1419). One in Wirtemberg: at Tubingen (founded in 1477). One in Hesse-Cassel : at Marburg (founded in 1527). One in Saxe-Weimar: at Jena (founded in 1557). 288 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESEXT. Public Libraries, Picture Galleries, etc., arid Schools in Germany. One in Hesse-Darmstadt: at Giessen (founded in 1G07). One in Holsteiu: at Kid (founded in 1GG5). One in Hanover: at Gocltingen (founded in 1737). (Towards the end of last century, there were, moreover, uni- versities at Erfurt. Wittenberg, Frankfort on the Oder, Helmsttidt, Kinteln. Duisburg, Altdorf. and in IS other places, which, however, since have been abolished, or united with others.) The public libraries are likewise on a large scale, and while there are about 50 of them, which contain more than 25,000 volumes each, there are nearly as many that contain above 100,000 volumes. So, for instance, at Munich there is one with 600,000, and another with IGO.OOO volumes; the royal library at Berlin numbers 500,000, the imperial at Vienna 350.000 volumes ; beside these, there are public libraries at Dresden (with 220,000), Goettingen, (with 300.000), Hamburg (with 200,000), Stuttgart (with 200,000), Wolfenbiittel (with 190,000), Prague (with 130,000), Weimar (with 120,000), Darmstadt, Frankfort, Breslau (with 200,000 volumes), etc., etc. Munich, Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, and Goettingen, may, in some regard, be considered as central points of sciences and arts, not only wfth regard to Germany, but also to other countries. Highly distinguished are the picture galleries in Dresden,Vienna, Munchen, and Berlin (that of Dusseldorf is since the year 1806 removed to Munich), the cabinets of natural curiosities in Vienna, Prague, Munich, Berlin, Goettingen, and Hamburg, and the observatories in Berlin. Vienna, Goettingen, Munich, Prague, and near Gotha. No country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of knowledge; and common school education is the more widely extended, as parents are forced by the law to send their children to school, or at least to give evidence of having in a suitable manner provided for their education. The children of the poor enjoy, of course, the benefits of instruction, free from expenses. GERMANY. 289 The Common School System of Germany. The total number of cliildron frequenting the common schools in Germany, amounts to more than 6,000,000. The common public schools in the kingdom of Saxony, for instance, were in 1840 frequented by 303,506 children, and those of Prussia in 1843 fre- quented by 2,328,146 children ; and as in 1840 the total popula- tion of Saxony was 1,709,880, and that of Prussia in 1843 was 15,471,765 inhabitants, it is impossible to imagine, with regard to common school education, a more just ratio between school- children and adults (inclusive of infants), than this, v.'hich is one to five, or six. About 15,500,000 Prussian dollars are, in Germany, annually bestowed upon this branch of school education ; and the 927 teachers in the common public schools of Saxony, for instance (where, as in other German countries, most of these schools are in the villages of the peasantry), receive a salary of respectively 120, 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, and 700, Prussian dollars, which, there^ is equal to as many American dollars. But while they thus are placed in a situation more or less free from cares for sustenance, they are not allowed to occupy any teachership without having previously been carefully instructed in the so-called school-seminaries, and given evidence of solid knowledge in a rigorous examination. That with these arrangements scarcely none above six years old are to be found throughout Germany, who cannot read, and but very few who cannot write, is not to be wondered at. Some years ago, there were among 122,897 men of the standing Prussian army, only two soldiers who could not write, and these were not Germans, but Poles from the province of Posen. The particulars about the higher schools, will be found in the description of the various German states : and it may only be remarked here, that the total number of lycea in Germany amounts to nearly 100, oi gymnasia to more than 400, of so-called Laiiyi schools to about 800, and of school seminaries to nearly 1,100. (About the signification of these terms, see the note page 65.) 13 290 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT, Characteristic of the German Scholars in general. Many of the learned men in Germany are, indeed, distinguished for their attainments iu literature and science, but in general only in philology, history, pathology and other branches of medical sciejice, Jurisprudence, mineralogy, and metallurgy ; while in nearly all other scientific branches, the learned men of other European countries rival, and, even in some points, by far surpass them. This deficiency is chiefly owing to an unlucky tendency to hibliola- try, which much prevails among the German scholars. They are more or less filled with the wrong idea, that all and every knowledge may be acquired from boqks, even tlie art of ship-building, for instance. Indeed there are many scientific branches, which can and must be learned chiefly from printed books ; but for obtaining a soimd judgment, it is mdispensable to study, at the same time, the open book of practical life. About eighty years ago, it became fashionable to babble after the manner of atheistical philosophers of the Voltaire school, and since that time, not only RationaUsm sprung up in the province of theology, but also other theories and hypotheses of the most nonsensical kind were brought forward in Germany. Thus, for instance, one scholar, named Ballenstadt, pretended that the human race had sprung from a primitive slime, or mud, that had been quickened by electric flashes and thunder claps ; another, of the name of Wagner, has, by a profound study in .his closet, discovered that our globe is an animal, whose sweat presents itself in the evaporation of the waters, while its circulation of the blood makes itself known by the tide ! Even in recent times, several German naturalists still harbor the opinion, that man is properly nothing else but a monkey fully developed, and has descended either from the Orang Outang in Borneo, or from the Boggo (Pan Africanus) in Guinea ! Had these learned men, who never have been much out of doors, compared monkey skulls with human skulls, and, above all, carefully studied the natural history of these animals, they would long since have been restored to reason, and become sensible of the palpable truth, that a brute can never become a rational being, and that, for this same reason, monkeys will still remain monkeys, even if those scholars should be fooUsh enough to try to instruct or educate them. How fiir the constructors of pliilosophical systems in Germany liavc gone, may be inferred from the f:ict, that ill-. Miclielet, professor of pliilosophy in the university of, Berlin, boldly maintains, in his works and lectures, the following proposition : " "What we call God, is nothing else tut human culture in its highest potency 1" "Whoever has troubled himself with reading the debates in the so-called German parliament, which gave up the ghost last . siuamcr, will have had GERMANY. 291 Origin and Religion of the Germans. ample opportunity to notice the total lack of practical capacity on the part of German bookworms and shallow literati. Fortunately there are also a great many eminent and devout theologians, as well as pliilosophers endowed ■with sound judgment ; and by these and the common sense of the German nation in general, those bookworms are at least prevented from doing more mischief than they have already done. In point of origin, the majority of the population belongs to the great family of the Germanic tribe, while about 6 or 7 million inhabitants of north-eastern, eastern, and south-eastern provinces belong to the Slavic tribe (see Introduction to Europe. §12, pages 18 and 19). These latter are known by the names of Wenden and Kassuben (in Pomerania), of Sorben (in Lusatia, etc.), Czechen (in Bohemia), etc. ; however, with the exception of the tribe in Bohemia, they have assimilated themselves almost entirely to other Germans. In point of religion. Catholicism is prevailing in the southern half of Germany, and Protestantism in the northern. The num- ber oi Roman Catholics ishetv^een •22 and 23 millions, and that of Protestaids amounts to more than 18 millions. Since the year 1817 the Lxitherans and Reformists in Prussia, Baden, Hesse- Darmstadt, Nassau, and the Bavarian Palatinate have united into one common church, styled Evangelical. But in Saxony, Hanover, Mecklenburg, and Ilolstein. the Lutheran, and for in- stance, in Hesse-Cassel the Reformed religion still prevails. The number of Jews in Germany amounts to about 500.000. Before entering into German hi.story, it may be suitable to give some particulars with regard to the ancient German Empire^ which was formally dissolved in 1806. Officially it was styled either the Iloli/ Roman, or the Roman German Empire. The term '■ Roman" had reference to the historical fact, that the first wearer of the German imperial crown, viz. : Charlemagne, was crowned Roman emperor (see History of Europe, §14, page 31). 292 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Mistorical rarliciilars about the ancient German Empire. The term " Holy" rested upon the opinion of the emperor being the protector and defender of the holy see and of all Christen- dom. The States of Empire (Reichsstilude), nominally 1762, or at least 376, yet actually only 221 in number, consisted of independent (i. e., in local aflFairs), or immediate (reichsunmittel- bar) archbishops, bishops, abbots, provosts (Reichsprobste), duchies, margraviatcs, principalities, earldoms, lordships, and imperial cities (Reichsstadte). Besides these, there were certain territories be- longing to knighthood (rittershaftliche Gebiete), imperial villages (Reichsdorfer), etc. Most of these States formed part of those 10 circles, into which Germany was divided since the days of Emperor Maximilian I., for the purpose of maintaining public peace and order, and executing sentences of the supreme courts of the Empire with armed force, in case of necessity. They were organized in a similar manner as the empire itself, but had for the rest no political power. These 10 circles were the fol- lowinor ; o 1. The Austrian circle, comprising the present German provinces of Aus- tria, with the exception of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia. 2. The Burgundian circle, comprising the present kingdom of Belgium, with the exception of the ancient bishopric of Liege, which belonged to the Westphalian circle. Tlie political connection between the Burgundian circle and tlie German empire was however only a nominal one. 3. The Lower Rhenish circle, comprising the former three ecclesiastical electorates of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the electoral Palatinate, etc. 4 The Upper Rhenish circle, comprising Hesse Cassel, the greatest part of Hesse-Darmstadt, the Bavarian palatinate, the imperial cities of Frankfort, "Worms, Spire, etc. 5. The Prankish circle, comprising the greatest part of the northern half of the present kingdom of Bavaria, etc. 6. Tlie Bavarian circle, comprising the southern half of the present king- dom of Bavaria. 7. The Swabian circle, comprising the duchy of Wirtemberg, the margra- GERMANY. 293 Germany: its ancient Geographical Divisions. viate of Baden, tlie principalities of Hohenzollern, and in substance the Swa- bian district of the present kingdom of Bavaria. 8. The Westphalian circle, comprising the present Prussian province of "Westphaha, and some parts of the Rhenish province (Elberfeld, Diisseklorf, Cleve, Aix la Chapelle, etc.), moreover, the bishopric of Liege, some parts of the present kingdom of Hanover (Osnabriick, Verden, etc.), etc. 9. The Upper Saxon circle, comprising the present Saxon kingdom, grand- duchy and duchies, the present Prusian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomera- nia (with some exceptions) and Saxony, the principalities of Schwarzburg, etc. 10. The Lower Saxon circle, comprising the greatest part of t}io jiresent kingdom of Hanover, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, Lubec, etc. The above-mentioned states of the empire were since the latter half of the I7th century seldom or never personally present at the Diet, but were repre- sented there by plenipotentiaries. According to the terms of the constitution, the diet was to be convoked at least every tenth year, but since the year 1G63 it was permanent, and held its sessions at Ratisbon (on the Danube and in the present kingdom of Bavaria). The supreme judicial power was vested in two imperial tribunals, viz. : the Imperial Chamber (Reichskammergericht) at Wetzlar, and the Imperial Atilic Council (Reichshofrath) in Vienna. If not exactly since its existence, but at least since the death of the last German Caroluigiau, Louis III., or since the year 911, the German empire was not a hereditary, but an elective nvonarchy. The right and privilege of elect- ing the emperor was exclusively vested in the electors, i. e., those most powerful states of the empire that had exercised this right from the begin- ning. Primitively they were only 7 in number (viz. : the electors of Mentz, Treves, Cologne, Bohemia, Palatinate, Saxony, and Brandenburg), but in the l'7th century two others (of Bavaria and Brunswick-Lunchurg) were added to them. The principal elector was the archbishop of Mentz. llie election of the emperor took place at Frankfort on the Mayne, where at the same time (since the year 1664) the emperor was crowned by the archbishop and elector of Mentz. Though the emperor was the nominal sovereign of all Germany, he was in the exercise of his executive power restricted even more than the king or queen of Great Britain. lu consequence of the conquests of the French on the left bank of the Rhine, and the treaty of Luneville in 1801, the German empire underwent many substantial alterations. The archbishops of Treves and Cologne not 294 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ilecent Political Changes in Germany. only were deprived of tlieir territories, but also of their clmracter as actual electors. Tlie elector of Mentzwas restricted to his principality of AschiiHen- burg on the Mayne. In short, all German territories on the left bank of the Rhine were to be ceded to France, and in order to indemnify their princes, the sovereign bisliopric^, etc., were secularized and divided differently. But for these alterations, the German empire retained its ancient forms and organization. Yet, m ISOtJ, Napoleon induced the majority of the German princes to unite into a confederation, which was styled the Rhenish Confederor tion. As by this arrangement the German empire had actually ceased to exist, the emperor, then Francis II., did on the 6th of August, 1806, proclaim its formal dissolution. In 1806 and 1807, Napoleon created the following new states in Germany, viz. : — 1. The grand-duchy of Berg, \fhich was first given to Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, and in 1809 to Napoleon's nephew; it comprised the ancient duchy of Berg, and several parts of Westphaha, and had in 1809 an area of 6,709i square miles, and a population of 878,157 mhabitants. 2. The grand- duchy of Wurzburg, which in 1 806 was given to the former grand-duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand Joseph (see History of Tuscany). It had, in 1808, an area of 1,651 square miles, and a population of 256,331 inhabitants, and consisted of the secularized sovereign bishopric of Wurzburg. 3. The kingdom of Westphalia, in 1807 created and given to Napoleon's brother Jerome. It had then an extent of 14,825 square miles, with 1,912,303 inhabitants, and comprised the greatest part of Hesse-Cassel and Hanover, Brunswick, and many parts of the present Prussian province of Saxony, and district of Minden. Its capital and royal residence was Cassel. 4. The grand-duchy of Frankfort, which comprised, besides the city of this name, the principahty of Aschaffeu- burg (see above), and the districts of Hanau and Fulda, and was in 1809 created in favor of the above-mentioned former archbishop and elector of Mentz, Charles Theodore of Dalberg. It had an extent of 1,874 square miles, and a population of 300,000 inhabitants. After the political events in 1814 and 1815. these new creations disappeared, and the respective territories were restored to their former sovereigns; other sovereign.?, who until then had retained their sovereignty, were mediatized,* and, according to the tenor * That is, their territories were annexed to larger neighboring states, under GERMA^'•Y. 295 The Germun Confederation of 1816-48. of a treaty concluded at Vienna on the 8th of June, 1815, a union of the several German states was formed by the name of Germanic CoxFEDERATioN, the objcct of which was to provide for mutual safety and defence. Each state was independent within itself, but for general purposes the whole was governed by the Diet, a body composed of plenipotentiaries from the different states, and residing at Frankfort on the Mayne. On the 5th of November, 1816, the Diet held its first session. It was voted, according to circumstances, either in a committee, or in full session. The Austrian plenipotentiary presided. Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, etc., had each one vote ; while of the smaller states, several together had one vote in common. The order of succession was the following : — Austria, . ha^^ng in the committee, 1 vote. Prussia, " " Bavaria, " " Saxony, ....... « " Hanover, " " Wirtemberg, " " Baden, " « Hesse-Cassel, " " Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse -Homburg, together, " " Denmark (on accoimt of Holstein and Lauenburg), " " Netherland (on account of Luxemburg and Limbmg), " " Saxe-Weimar and the 3 Saxon duchies, together, " " Mecklenburg-Scliwerin and M. Strelitz, . " " Brunswick and Nassau, .... " " Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Schwarzburg, . " " Hohenzollern, Liechtenstein, Reuss, Schaumburg- Lippe, Lippe-Detmold, and Waldeck, . " " Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, " " Total in the committee, 17 " whose sovereignty they themselves were placed, while they in substance retained their independence in local affairs. 296 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Organization of the Tormer German Diet. The so-called plenum, or full session, was held whenever the question was of fundamental laws of the Confederation, or arrange- ments concerning its organization, etc. ; and in this plenum was voted in the following order of succession : — Austria, .... h: iving in th e pleniun, 4 Prussia, .... u 4 Saxony, .... « 4 Bavaria, .... « 4 Hanover, .... u " 4 Wirtemberg, . . . u " 4 Baden, .... u 8 Hesse-Cassel, u 3 Hesse-Darmstadt, . . tt 3 Holstein-Lauenburg, . « « 3 Luxemburg- Liniburg, . « 3 Brunswick,. M 2 Mecklenburg-Schwerln, « 2 Nassau a 2 Saxe- Weimar « « 2 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, . « U 1 Saxe-Meiningen, . « U 1 Saxe-Altenburg, . . , « " 1 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, . M « J Oldenburg,. it « 1 Anhalt-Dessau, . . . . « " 1 Anhalt-Bcrnburg, « (( 1 Anhalt-Kothen (since Nov., 1847 become void), (C it 1 Schwarzburg-Sondershauscn, l( " 1 Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, . « ({ 1 Hohenzollern-Hechingen, . « " 1 Liechtenstein, « fi 1 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, , « ii J Waldeck, .... (1 " 1 Reuss, elder line, « " 1 Reuss, younger line, . M ii 1 Schaumburg-Lippe, . « II 1 GERMANY. 297 The Supreme Tribunals in Germany. Lippe-Detmold, having in the plenum, 1 vote. Lubeck, " » i « Frankfort, « « i « Bremen, " « 1 .. Hamburg « « j « Hesse-Homburg " « j « Total in the plenum 69 votes. Since the dissolution of the ancient German empire, there are no supreme courts for all Germany more, but the larger states have their own, while the smaller German states have supreme courts in common. Thus, the Saxon grand-auchy and duchies, together with the principalities of Reuss, have a supreme court tbt Jena in common ; the duchies and principalities of Anhalt and Schwarzburg at Zerhst ; the grand-duchies of Mecklenburg at Ros- tock ; Brunswick and the principalities of Lippe and Waldeck at Wolffcnbiiltd^ and the 4 Free Cities (Hamburg, etc.) at Lubeck ; while Liechtenstein appeals to the supreme court at Lmspruck, Hesse-Homburg to that of Darmstadt , and the principalities of Hohenzollern to that of Stuttgart. The strength of the confed- eral army was in 1830 fixed at 303,484 men. History of Germany. — Little or notliing is known of German history ante- rior to about 100 years before our Christian era. The country was known to the Romans by the name of Germania, and its southern and western parts conquered by them, especially Rhaetia (comprising in substance the present Tyrol), Vindclicia (South Bavaria and the south-eastern part of tlie present kingdom of "Wirtemberg), and Noricum (arch-duchy of Austria, Styria, Carin- thia, and part of Carniola). The chief German tribes, mentioned by the Romans, -were the Cimbrians (whose principal seat was in Jutland), Teutoms (in Mecklenburg), Chatts (chiefly in Hesse), Cherusks (in the centre of the present kingdom of Hanover and Lippe-Detmold), and Marcomans (in Bohe- mia). About the Vandals, Suevians, etc., see History of Europe, § 3, page 24. The ancient Germans were ruled by native princes elected out of illua- 13* 298 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Germany. trious families ; their leaders in time of war were commonly called dukes, and elected from among the most valiant warriors. They had no cities or towns, but hved in rough huts or cottages scattered about, and in only rather few instances united to a village. Chastity and hospitality were their character- istic virtues. Since the discontinuance of the migration of nations (see His- tory of Europe, g 8), which had brought about many political alterations in Germany, and at the period of the foundation of the Prankish kingdom by Clovis (see History of Europe, § 8, page 26), the most powerful of the Ger- man tribes were the following : — 1. The Fujeslanders, along the coast of the North Sea, between the Zuydcr Zee and the mouth of the Weser. 2. The Saxons, occuj^ying the whole tract of land between the Rhine and Eider rivers, that comprises at present Westphalia, the principalities of Lippe, the middle and southeni parts of Hanover, Brunswick, and Holstein. Those of Westphalia were particularly also called Westphalians (those in the neighbor- hood of Minden sometimes Enters), those of Holstein North Alblngians, and those of Brunswick somethnes Eastphalians. 3. The Franks, consisting of Rlpuariaii Franks (in the present Rhenish province of Prussia), who under the reign of their king, Clovis, conquered nearly all Gaul and imparted their name to this country, and of Scdic Franks, from whom is derived the name of Francouia, wliich is still the common name of the northern half of Bavaria, where they had their principal seat. 4. The Alemanxi, primitively called Suevia7is, and occupymg the whole tract of land, which in a later period formed the Swabian circle (see above). 5. The Bajoarians, the forefathers of the Bavarians proper, had theu* principal seat in the southern half of the present kingdom of Bavaria. 6. The Thluixgiaxs, living in the countries at present consisting of the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies. All these tribes were subjected partly by Clovis and his Merovingian successors, partly by Charlemagne, and thus incorporated to the great Prankish empire ; and not before the year 843, when this empire was divided, by the treaty of Verdun (see History of Europe, § 14, page 31), Germany became independent. Char- lemagne's grandson, Louis II., surnamed (he German, was its first independ- ent king (see History of Europe, § 14). He was called Louis the Second on account of his father, Louis the Pious, having been the first sovereign of Ger- many with the name of Louis. When Louis II. died (in 870), the German kingdom was divided among his three sons, of whom the two eldest died successively in 880 and 882, after which the youngest, Charles III., surnamed the Fat, attained to the power, first in Germany, and then in nearly all GERMANY. 290 History of (Jorniniiv. other parts of the ancient Frankish empire. His great-grandfather Charle- magne was, as first emperor, consltlered also as first sovereign of Germany, and for this reason denoted with the name of Charles I. Ciiarles tlie Bald (biother of Louis the German), was crowned emperor (in 875), considered as Charles II., though he was properly only the sovereign of France (see His- tory of Europe, § 14). Charles the Fat havhig been dethi-oned in 887, he was in Germany succeeded by his nephew, the duke of Caiinthia. Aunulpu (887-899), who was the first German king realizing the claims upon the im- perial cromi (see page 32). With his son and successor, Louis III., surnamed the Child (899-911), the German line of the Carlovingians became extinct, and henceforth the German empire was an elective monarchy. For, the weak- ness of Charlemagne's successors had allowed the most powerful among the vassals to make themselves abnost independent, and these were the dukes of Saxony (to whom the Thurmgians had for the most part been subjected), of Fraticonia, Suevia (Swabia), Bavaria, and Lorraine. However they finally agi'eed upon electing a common sovereign, and they first chose the duke of Franconia, who, as Coxrad L, reigned from 911 to 918. After his death the duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Foivler, was elected king of Germany. Henry I. united in himself all the virtues of a truly great man ; he maintained internal peace and order, built a great many regular towns (for instance) Merseburg, Meissen, Quedliiiburg, Nordhauscn, Go-lar), and put to the rout (in 933, near Merseburg) the Magyars, who until tlien had nearly every year made plundering and devastating inroads into Germany. Endowed with similar great qualities was his son and successor Otho I. (936-972). In 962 he was in Rome crowned emperor by the pope, and as since this example was followed by his successors, the German kings were henceforth commonly styled Roman-German emperors. Otho's next three successors were Otho II (972-983), Otho IIL (983-1002), and Henry IL, surnamed the Holy (1002- 1024). With Henry II. the imperial line of the Saxon house became extinct and now Coxrad II. (1024-1039) was elected, belonging to tlie ducal house of Franconia, or the Salic Franks (for which reason the emperors of this house were frequently called the Salic emperors). His son and successor, Henry III. (1039-1056), was the most energetic of all German emperors; and it is no doubt, that had he lived longer than actually was the case (for he •was only 39 years old when he died in 1056), he not only would have tm-ned the elective monarchy into a hereditary one, but also made of Germany a very powerful empire, with whose domestic afifairs the popes would never 300 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Germany. have dared to meddle, as they in later periods did, to the greatest prejudice of the political mdependencc of Germany. This was first tried successfully by Pope Gregory YII. during the reign of Henry's son, Henry IV. (1056- 1106), whom he treated in the most humihating manner. With Henry IV.'s son and successor, Hexry V. (1106-1125), the line of the so-called Sahc em- perors became extinct ; next to him was elected Lotuar II. (earl of Supplin- genburg, in the present duchy of Brunswick : Lothar the Second he was styled with reference to Lothar I., who by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 had borne the imperial crown), who reigned from 1125 to 1137, in which period the long-lasting struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibcllines, or between the adherents of the powerful Louses of Saxony (which duchy, together with that of Bavaria, was under the sway of the Guelphs) and Ho- henstaufen (under whose sway was the duchy of Swabia), originated, by that Lothar, whose son-in-law was duke of both Saxony and Bavaria, grossly offended his rivals. But after his death these very rivals of the celebrated house of Hoheiistaufcn were elected, first Co.vrad III. (1137-1152), then his nephew Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa (1152-1190), and next to him his son Hexry VI. (1190-1197). When the last-named emperor died, his son Frederic was only 3 years old, and of this circumstance the Guelphs availed themselves, and elected (in 1198) one of their adherents, Otho (son of Henry, surnamed the Lion, duke of Saxony), while their adversaries elected Henry's younger brother Philip, surnamed of Swabia (1198-1208), king of Germany. But the latter was mm-dered in 1208, and since Otho IV. reigned without opposition until the year 1215, when Henry's son (see above), Fred- eric II. (1215-1250), was elected. With Frederic's son and successor, CoxRAD IV. (1250-1254), the house of Hohenstaufen became extinct, and now a period of nearly 20 years ensued, which in Gorman history is known by the tiarae of Ixterreign, and to which conveniently could be appUed what is said in Judges, xvii. 6 : "In those days there was no king in Israel, but every man did that which was right in his own eyes." For not only the sword-law exercised its barbarous sway uncontrolled throughout Germany, but also the number of petty sovereigns increased from year to year, so that at the ^id of the 13th century it amounted already to almost 150 (duchies, principalities, earldoms, bishoprics, free cities, etc.). Some of the German princes tried indeed to put an end to this anarchy, by electing in succession the earl William, of Holland (-(-1256), Richard of Cornwall (-[-1272), and Kiag Alpho7iso of Castilia (who never set a foot on the German ground); but GERMANY. 301 History of Germany. these mock-king3 had no authority at all, so much the less as they actually were not recognized as kings or emperors of Germany. No German prince was, under the existing circumstance?, willing to accept the crown. Finally it became evident to all that the continuance of such a state of things would lead to common ruin ; even the pope insisted energetically upon the election of a new sovereign of all Germany, and so then Eodolph I. (1273-1291), earl, or count of Hapshurg in Switzerland (see page 156), was elected. He proved himself worthy of the confidence shown to him, and succeeded in a rather short time to restore tranquillity and order to the country. Ottokar, king of Bohemia and sovereign of nearly all the other present German prov- inces of Austria, refusing to acknowledge Rodolph as emperor, was declared outlawed, defeated in two decisive battles, and, with the exception of Bohe- mia and Moravia, deprived of his possessions. Carinthia was given in fee to the earl Mainhard of Tyrol, but with Austria (i. e., the present aichduchy of Austria), Styria, and Carniola, Rodolph invested his own sons, Albert and Rodolph, and thus laid the foundation to the domestic power of the house of Ilapsburg in Austria. It was perhaps owing to this somewhat selfish proceeding, that not his eldest son but the earl AnoLPmis of 2iassau (1291- 1298) was elected king and emperor of Germany. However Rodolph's son acquiesced not in it, but took the field against Adolphus, defeated and killed him in a battle at Gellheim (in the present Bavarian Palatinate), and was now recognized as emperor, by the name of Albert I. (1298-1308). In the period from his death (in 1 308 ; he was murdered by his own nephew) until towards the middle of the 15th century, princes from different houses mounted the imperial throne. First, Henry VII. (1308-1313), from the house of Luxemburcj ; and next to him, Louis IV. (13 13-1 34*7), surnamed the Bavarian, •because he belonged to the reigning Bavarian house of Wittelsbach. Then one party elected the Earl Gcnthee of Schwarzhurg, while another party elected Henry VIL's grandson, Charles of Luxemburg, and the latter, or Chaeles IV. (1347-1378), got the better of the other, the more so, as Giinther soon died (in 1349). Charles IV. is remarkable as the author of the so-called GolJfn Bull, i. e., a public document concerning the election of an emperor, the rank or dignity of the 7 electors, etc., which was published in 1356. He was suc- ceeded by his eldest son Wenceslaus (1378-1400), who cared so little for the public welfare, that in 1400 four electors elected the Palatine Rupert (1400- 1410) in his place. Rupert, however, made himself unpopular, likewise moreover, he had not been generally recognized as emperor ; one party elected 302 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. History of Germany. the margrave lodocus of Moravia (a cousin of Wenceslaus) ; another, Wences- laus' brother Sigismund ; and thus there were at one period 3 Gernaan kings, or emperors, at once (for Wenceslaus lived until 1419). Finally, Sigismund (1410-1437) maintained himself in the possession of the imperial crown. During his reign, the Coitncil at Constance was held in 1415, and John Huss burnt there, which gave rise to the war of the JIu.isitcs in Bohemia, that lasted from 1419 to 1436. It may be noticed here also, that Sigismund sold the margraviate of Brandenburg (which he had inherited), together with the electoral dignity, to the burgra\e Frederic of Hohenzollern, at the price of 400,000 ducats. Sigismund died in 1437, and was succeeded by his son-in-law Albert IL (1437-1439) of Austria, and henci:forth only princes of this house (with one single exception) were elected emperors. Albert's successor was his cousin, Feedeeic ILL (1439-1493), who was the last-elected German king crowned emperor at Rome ; while his son Maximilian I. (1493-1619) was the first who proclaimed himself " elected German emperor^' wliich since was the usual title of the sovereigns of the German empire. Dui-ing Maxiniilian'a reign, the Reformation bsgan ; by that, Luther published his ninety -five prop- ositions on the 31st of October, 1517. Most of the ptiblic acts of Maximil- ian's grandson and successor, Charles V. (1519-1556), had reference to the Reformation, as, for instance, the diets at Worms (in 1521), Spire (in 1529), Augsburg (in 1530), the so-called Schmalkaldian war (in 1546), the treaty of Passau (in 1552), the treaty of peace, concluded at Augsburg in 1555, by which the religious differences were settled, and the Council at Trent (since the year 1545). Charles renounced the Austrian estates (which he had inherited from his grandfather Maximilian) in favor of liis younger brother, Ferdinand I. (1556-1564), who at the same time had been elected emperor. Ferdinand was succeeded by his son AIaximilian II. (1564-1576), who, like his father, was noted for his clemency and equity. His son and successor RoDOLrH II. (1576-1612), was a very learned scholar, but the much more unfit for ruling, which also may be said of his brother Matthias (1612-1619), under whose reign the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) originated. It is easy to conceive that an event of so important consequences, as the Reformation had proved to be, must produce a violent fermentation in the minds of the majority of Roman Catholics, and at last lead to a reaction and open hostilities. Thus, in the course of time the mutual exasperation between the Catholics and Protestants had increased to the highest pitch, and both parties waited, as it were, only for a plausible pretext to strike the first blow. This pretext GERMANY. 303 History of Germany. was offered, by that the Protestants at Prague precipitated the imperial governors from the windows of the royal castle, on the 23d of May, 10 18. The Bohemians then elected the elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate tlieir kuig, but were defeated in the battle near Prague, on the 8th of November, 1620, and soon the war extended to all parts of Germany. Meanwhile, the cousin of Matthias, Feudinand II. (1619-1C3T), had been elected emperor, and during his reign the principal events of the said war took place : the total defeat of King Christian V. of Denmark in the battle of Lutter on the Baren- berg (27th of August, 1626), the taking of Magdeburg by storm (20th of May, 1631), the battle of Breitenfeld (7th of September, 1631), the battle of Liitzen (16th of November, 1032), etc. Ferdinand II. was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III. (1637-1657), whose reign is noted for the Westphalian treaty of peace, concluded on the 24th of October, 1648, respectively at Miinster (with reference to the Catholic concerns) and Osnabruck (with reference to the Protestant concerns). By the terms of this treaty, the execu- tive power of the emjjeror was restricted still more than ever before. Ferdi- nand II. died in 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold I. (1657-1705), who was succeeded first by his eldest son Joseph I. (1705-1711), and then by a younger son Charles VI. (1711-1740), with whom tlie male hue of the house of Ilapsburg became extinct. He bequeathed all his i^atrimonial dominions (comprising the present Austrian monarchy, with the exception of the PolL-h provinces and of the former Venetian territories) to his only daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary Theresa, who was married to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, from which cause the house of Hapsbuig has since been styled Hapsburg-Lorraine. There arose claims upon the Austrian dormnions on the part of several German princes, above all of Charles Albert, .elector of Bavaria, and cousin to Mary Tlieresa. Yet the latter prevailed, both against him and the other pretenders, with the exception of Frederic II. of Prussia, to whom she ceded the greatest part of Silesia. Charles Albert was, however, elected emperor by the name of Charles VII., but as he already died in 1745, Mary Theresa's consort was elected emperor by the name of Francis I. (1745-1765). He died in 1765, and was succeeded first by his eldest son Joseph II. (1765-1790), and then by a younger son I^opold II. (1790-1792). Leopold's son, Francis XL (1792-1806), was the last Gervian emperor, as has akeady been mentioned above, wliere also the alterations the political body of Germany underwent since the beginning of the present century, have been alluded to. The revolutions wliich occurred in Germany io 804 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. History of Germany— Recent Revolutions. the years 1848 and 1849, are too fresh in remembrance than that they needed to be related here ; yet with reference to their actual causes, we cannot forbear to draw the attention of the reader to the following facts. First, we have seen above that no country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of knowledge, and that its literary institutions are both numerous and celebrated. Secondly, Germany is renowned for various branches of its numerous manu- factures. Thirdly, both its commerce and inland trade is very considerable. Besides this, the agriculture is in general conducted with a skill almost umivalled, and the horses, sheep, and cattle, there belong, for the most part, to the finest breed. Still we add, that, for instance, the system, long since adopted there in medical concerns, may be called exemplary, and that the admmistration of justice is likewise m the best order. Now we ask, whether all these advantages could possibly have been obtained, if Germany had been under the sway of tyrants and despots, as German party-leaders would make foreigners believe ? On the contraiy, the very fact of these advantages pre- supposes liberal and benevolent principles on the part of the governments in general. The assertion of those party-leaders, that the German people had to bear enormous public charges, and especially all the expenses of the princely courts in that country, is completely a talk at random. First, in Germany the taxes are lower than in almost any other country of Europe — for, upon an average, each inhabitant has to pay only one and a half dollars per annum ;* whereas, the proportion of taxes in England is at tlie rate of ten, and in France, at present, at the enormous rate of fourteen dollars. (The particulars of the proportion of taxes in Germany will be found below, and in the description of the several German states.) And, secondly, with regard to the expenses of the princely families and courts in Germany, the people have to contribute out of their pockets not one single cent towards them, llie fiict is, that these families subsist entirely on the revenues of their domains, or family estates. They are possessed of property, as well as millions of private * In the financial year ending on the 80th of June, 1844, the public expendi- ture of the United States was §32,958,827. At the same period, the total population of the Union was about 19,500,000 inhabitants. Thus, 19,500,000 divided into 33,000,000 gives a ratio of $1 69 per inhabitant. But, let even the average amount of the expenditure be only §25,000,000, the ratio per inhabitant is still at least §1 25 — i. e., exclusive of the separate pubUc charges in the single states. GERMANY. 805 Recent Revolations in Germany. men throughout the whole world ; and that this property consists chiefly of family estates, commonly called domains, makes no dilference. We have seen above, that the ancestor of the reigning royal family in Prussia, Frederic of Hohenzollern, was able to pay 400,000 ducats in cash to Emperor Sigis- mund — an immense sum at that time ! Rodolph of Hapsburg was, before his accession to the imperial throne, one of the wealthiest earls in Switzerland. The GueljDhs, ancestors of the house of Brunswick-Hanover, were wealthy and powerful barons in Italy and Southern Germany. "We could cite other instances to show that the German princes descend from wealthy ancestors, who entailed their large estates as feoffments in trust upon their descendants. The revenues from these estates far exceeding the expenses of the princely households, it is evident that the assertion that German princes did live at the charges of the people, is a fabrication. On the contrary, in former times the surplus of the revenues, applied to purposes of public service tJien as well as at present, proved almost sufficient for the public expenditure ; and what the people liad to pay in taxes, was a trifle. Only the wars and other extraordinary contingencies since the first French revolution, have increased the taxes of the German people, still to a comparatively very low ratio. In the table, page 308, that of some countries is indeed higher than the average ratio of one and a half dollars, but this is chiefly owing to the rail-roa- — -i ^ Cl ^ S X ! 52 = 5 5 £555 = 55355s= o o £ Si^'^SS^SSS^ci o S ^ s I- S ir s Ti oj o ;= = o L-5 -T s> o g « - -■ .v^ ui = "?).■; S ^ '' ^ c B ■il" Ol O >0 M L-5 O !.•: 51 X ■=• '^ irt C-. CI X 00 C> CI O li^Pu^o ^ CI — I-; rc -T,^ 1- -r =1 1- lO lo o O^ -^ C^ t-^ i/T «~ rn — « -^ LC »-l I- t^OI c< (£; 3 C-: t- -T I- 9 c; T ■— c T O 00 -^ I^ -v ■* f-< X^ i-C^ ^-1 ^- •" i-T ^" ri « Cl" "I"' «" - 4i *r ?« e C 5; 5 ^ P; t ^i' ''^ S S ^ ^ -^ *- -C ^ •'. S t> ^^ S=e S S *. - . •o d 2 H 3 ^6t "9^ he -^ • -_ • = • 2 .£■=§ o =_- s ^1 g ''' ^ 5 •" = I^ -S -i K*-S SH=. "KJ5 = £= g c = S OS -r It" S ~ £ -I s -' 'I '-^ •3 :>? . ;- c3 CTfi — 'o ^ - 2 'x S 3 S3 ^ -J •- £ J 'a c UC5 c; ^2 :_ u JJr;£.- ■ • • *^ . C 3. Q K O O < '/i :- K E- 1, o -^J o c3 E ,o -CJ 5-::5£fe~£2: OJ r 1> a; ci o £5S£ = £ -" c = a <1 ^ a O :z-i — : 3 _.- X SS - K - 3 > M =: £ * = F - a ait; K 5 ■< S ^ 7: "mm i-t-2^- •< "^ 2 5 = e- M •• * J - 2 j-r = 23 U r" ■-) -MO ^ • . . [C-o-'f. y. X •< -1 . >* >. C C 4< o = ==--£C_. (1^ a ii.5^sz^t.;^-^--3 CI 4 -C t« -C C.' >t c :a "t •^ 'r 7 ci. ■^ i' •3 c ■^ ^ «j '■J "o fl> c3 c3 i e: .1: ~ ~ •^ M '^r^C^CCXCU. « CI ri •fl' o ts ''t-' ci d ^ c! « ^' ;2 1£ U 2i 2 S -* «D I ' x' ;^ C -- C* C^i "f "> 'S ^ S c> SI s> 5i cc c. sn n « rt « M GERMANY. 309 The German Provinces of Austria. I. GERMAN PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA. Area : 76,147 square miles. Population : 12,700,000 mliabitants. They consist of the following constituent parts of the Aus- trian empire : («.) The arch-duchy of Austria (15,070 square miles, and 2,400,000 inhab- itants), on both sides of the Danube, with Vienna as capital. (6.) The duchy of Styria (8,690 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants), on the south side of the former, -with Grdtz as capital. (c.) The kingdom of Illyria (9,052 i square miles,»and 1,125,000 inhabi- tants), comprising Carintlda, Carniola, and the so-called Austrian Friaul, with Klagenfurt, Laibach, and Trieste as capitals. (d.) Tlie earldom of Tyrol (11,140 square miles, and 900,000 inhabitants), between Bavaria and Italy, on the west bounded by Switzerland, and on the east connected with the Austrian arch-duchy and Illyria. Its capital is Innsprxtck. ((?.) The kingdom of Bohemia (20,096 J square miles, and 4,600,000 mhabi- tants), between the arch-duchy of Austria and the kingdom of Saxony, with Prague as capital. ( f.) The margraviate of Moravia and Austrian Silesia (10,607 square miles, and 2,310,000 inhabitants), between Bohemia and Hungary, with Brunn as capital. (^.) The duchies of Auschwitz and Zator (1,491 square miles, and 865,000 inhabitants), near Cracow, belonging pohtically to Germany, but in every otlier respect to Galicia, with Auschwitz as capital The detailed description of these German provinces will be found under the head of the Austrian empire, as it would be in- convenient to describe them separately. 310 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The German Provinces of Prussia. IL— GERMAN PROVINCES OF PRUSSIA. Area: 1l,Q'i& square miles PoPUL.\TioN : 12,230,000 inhabitants. They consist of the following constituent parts of the kingdom of Prussia" (a.) The province of Brandenburg (15,634 square miles, and 2,020,000 inhabitants), between the Oder and Elbe rivers, with Berlin as capital. (b.) The province of Pomerania (12,233 square niile3,and 1,106,000 inhabi- tants), on the Baltic, and crossed by the Oder river, with Stettin as capital. (c.) The province of ^ilesia (15,199 square miles, and 3,049,500 inhabitants), along tlie north-eastern frontier of the kingdoms of Saxony and Bohemia, with Breslau as capital. ((/.) Tlie province of S.vxony (9,818^ square miles, and 1,741,500 inhabi- tants), between Brandenbui-g and the kingdom of Saxony, crossed by the Elbe river, with Magdeburg as capital. (e.) llie province of Westphalia (7,838J square miles, and 1,470,000 inhab- itants), between Central Germany and the kingdom of the Netherlands, with Minister as capital. (/".) The Rhenish Province (10,373 square miles, and 2,783,000 inhabitants), on both sides of the Rhine, but chiefly on its left bank, with CoUentz, the seat of its governor. The detailed description of these German provinces will be found under the head of the Prussian Kingdom, as also in this case it would be inconvenient to describe them separately. It is true, that in the period when the so called German parliament was still alive, the other Prussian provinces (at least the province of Prussia) were declared constitiient parts of Germany like- wise ; but this arrangement is to be considered as a transitory GERMANY. 311 The Kingdom of Bavaria. one, SO much the more as it is yet very doubtful wliat part Prussia generally may act with regard to the political organiza- tion of Germany. III.— THE KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. Area : 29,703 square niiles. PopUL-XTiON : 4,450,000 inhabitants. This kingdom (officially styled Bayern in German), next to Austria and Prussia, the most important state in Germany, forms the middle part of Southern Germany, is on the south separated from Italy by Tyrol, and consists of two distinct territories, sit- uated about 40 miles apart, the smallest of which being on the left bank of the Rhine. According to the census of 1843 the total population was 4,440,327 inhabitants, of whom 1,226,753 were Protestants (for the most part Lutherans), and more than 63,000 Jeics^ the re- mainder consisting of Roman Catholics^ with 2 archbishops (at Miiuchen and Bamberg), and 6 bishops (at Augsburg, Passau, Kegensburg. Eichstildt, Wiirzburg, and Spire). The most remarkable of the mountain-ranges are, beside branches of the Alps^ the Bohmerwald, Fichtclgcbirge^ Spessart. etc. (see page 7) ; and of the rivers the Danube, and one of the chief tributaries of the Rhine, the Mayne, with the branches noted, page 16. About the most remarkable /ate, see page 11. The Louis Canal, mentioned above (page 285), is crossing the S12 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. nortborn half of Bavaria from north to south, and its whole length is 107 miles. With regard to natural products. Bavaria is noted for its ex- tensive /orc5^ yielding annually about 2^ million cords of timber and firewood, its excellent wines (in Franconia and the Bavarian palatinate), and hops. It abounds in salt and niolybdena (plum- bago), and its other principal minerals are coal, iron, copper, and some quicksilver (in the Bavarian palatinate). Cattle, sheep, horses, and hogs, are abundant. Agriculture and other branches of husbandry furnish the chief means of subsistence. Breweries are very numerous, and the Bavarian beer is celebrated throughout all Germany. Man- ufiictures are carried on to a great extent, and the most noted among them are those of optical, chirurgical, and musical instru- ments, of crucibles, gold and silver articles, leather, and wax candles. The inland trade is considerable. Of the above-mentioned (see page 287) 3 Bavarian universities, that of Munich was in 1846 frequented by 1,406 students, that of Wiirzburg by 450, and that of Erlangen in 1842 by 309 stu- dents. Besides these institutions there are 9 lycea, 26 gymnasia, about 60 Latin schools, 9 seminaries (about the signification of these terms, see page 65), 3 poly technical, 5,400 common schools, etc. The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. In the budget for the period of 1843-1849, the public revenue was esti- mated at 31.736,407 florins, and the expenditure at 31,536,407 florins annually. The puhlic debt amounted in 1838 to about 126 million florins. The regular army consists during peace of 20,500, and in time of war of 50.200 men. The troops which Bavaria, as a member of the German confederacy, w^as bound to furnish, amounted to 35,600 men. GERMANY. 313 Kingdom of Bavaria — its History. There are tho fo\\ov!iug orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. Hubertvs, instituted in 1444, and renewed respectively in 1708 and 1800, only for princes and officers of the highest rank. 2. The order of St. George, instituted in the days of the crusades, but renewed in 1729. 3. The order of Ma.ximilian Joseph, instituted in ISOG, only for military officers. 4. The order of the Bavarian cr(j?o/i, instituted in 1808, for civil officers. 5. The order of Louis, instituted in 1827. 6. The order of St. il^ic/iae/, instituted in 1693. but renewed and altered in 1808. 7. The order of St. The- resa, instituted in 1827, for ladies. 8. The order of St. Elizabeth, instituted in 17G6. History. — The present Bavaria, anciently forming part of Vindelicia and Noricum (see History of Germany), came since the fall of the Roman empire first under the sway of the Ostrogoths, then under that of the Frankish em- pire, though it was, since the end of the 6th century, governed by native dukes belonging to the house of Agilolf. The Bavarian dukes, who thus were vassals of the Frankish kings, continued in the same relation of depend- ence to the Gennan empire since the treaty of Verdim in 843 (see page 31). In the period from 947 to 1180, barons from ditferent houses were invested with the duchy, and the most renowned among them were those belonging to the house of the Guelphs {since the year 1071), until in 1180 the yet reigning dynasty of Wittelshach became possessed of it. The duchy of Ba- varia comprised however only the present provinces of Upper and Lower Bavaria ; all the otlier territories have in the course of time been annexed to it; the Upper Palatinate in 1623 (at the same time the c^eciora? J((7n(7,V was conferred on the duke of Bavaria), the formerly sovereign bishoprics of Augsburg, Bamberg, Wiirzburg, Eichstadt, and Passau, together with several imperial cities, in 1803 ; the imperial cities of Augsbm-g, Nuremberg, and Lindau, the greatest part of the territories in the province of Swabia, and the principality of Ansbach in 1806 ; the principality of Bayreuth and the imperial city of Ratisbon in 1810 ; the principality of Aschaffenburg and the greatest part of the present Bavarian palatinate in 1814. According to the terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Presburg on the 26th of December, 1S05, the electorate of Bavaria was raised to a hinrjdom. Tyrol (which was annexed to it in 1805), and the former sovereign archbishopric of Salzburg 14 814 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kiugdom of Bavaria. were in 1813 respectively restored and ceded to Austria. King Maximilian Joseph I. died in 1825, and was succeeded by his son Louis I., who abdicated in 1848, and was succeeded by his son Maximilian II., the still reigning king, born in 1811. In 1808 the kingdom was divided into circles, whose names, after the example of France, were derived from the rivers within their limits. But in 1837 these names were altered into others of historical signification and long since commonly used. They are still styled circles, and are 8 in number. The capitals of the circles are in the following description marked with a cross (-[-). I. The circle of Uppee Bavaeia, comprising chiefly that part of the ancient duchy of Bavaria, which ever has been styled Upper Bavaria, and besides it some other territories annexed to it since 1803. 1. The ancient duchy of Bavaria, within the limits of this circle, contains: -J-Munich (in German Miinchen), the capital of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the Isar, west- ward and 230 miles distant from Vienna, with 115,000 inliabitants, and 6 submbs (the most remarkable of which is called the Au), is to be considered as one of the central points of sciences and arts in Germany, and noted for its splendid galleries of paintings and sculpture, literary institutions (see In- troduction to Germany), palaces, churches, etc. Munich was founded in 1175 by the duke Henry of Bavaria and Saxony, surnamed the Lion. The neigh- boring village of Xymphenburc/ (with 1,200 inliabitants; is noted for its jwr- celain manufacture and loyal palace, where the royal family uses to reside in the summer season. The little village of Kdferloh is noted for its market for cattle held here in the month of September, and the village of Hohenlin- den (eastward and 18 miles distant from Munich), noted for a battle on the 3d of December, 1800. Ilohcnschwanf/au, an ancient feudal castle, once be- longing to the celebrated house of Hohenstaufen, at present arranged and furnished in a magniticent style, and the private property of the king. Traun- 8TEIN (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Reichenhall (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns between Munich and Salzburg, noted for their salt-springs. Ixgol- 6TADT, a fortified town on the Danube, northward and 44 miles distant from Munich, has 10,200 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its university (instituted in 1472), which in 1802 was transferred to Laadshut, and in 1826 GERMANY. 815 Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. united witli the university of Munich. Old OcUintj, a niarkct-toAvn near the Austrian frontier, has 1,700 iuliabitants, and is noted for its holy slirine, and the sepulchres of various princes, and of the field-marshal Tilly (-|-1632). Tegernsee, formerly a Benedictine abbey, at present royal residence in the Bummer season, is situated on a lake of the same name, 30 miles south-south- east of Munich. In its neighborliood is a noted batliiiig-place, named Krcut. The town of Rain (with 1,200 inhabitants), on the Lech, near its junction ■with tlie Danube, and at 23 miles distance from Augsburg, is noted for the victory gained by Gustavus Adolphus on the 5th of April, 1632, which opened to liim the way into Bavaria. The town of J/mA Wo?/ (with 1,000 inliabitants), on the Inn river and near Salzburg, is noted for battles in 1259 and 1322. Other towns, more or less deserving to be noticed, are : Erding (with 2,000 inhabitants), Ffaffenhofen (with 2,000 inhabitants), Moosburg (with 1,800 inhabitants), WeUheim (with 2,500 inhabitants), Schongau (with 1,600 uihabitants), Zandiibcrg (with 3,300 inhabitants), Wasscrburg (with 2,400 inliabitants), Friedberg (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aichach (with 1,800 inhabitants), Schrobeiihausen (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Burghausen (with 2,500 inhabitants). 2. The ancient sovereign bishopric of Freising (instituted in 724 and secularized in 1803) contains : Freising, a city on the Isar, 22 miles north-north-east of Munich, with a remarkaljle cathedral, and 5,400 inhabitants. G'arwij.sc/t (with 1,600 inhabitants), J/iV^ewwaW (with 2,100 in- habitixnts), and PartenMrchen (with 1,100 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. The once highly renowned j9»"oi'osf^5fc«t/or/ (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Grafenau (with '?50 inhabitants). The village of Eckmiihl, between Landshut and Regensburg, is noted for a battle on the 24th of April, 1809, between the French and Austrians. Tlie market-town of Ortenburg (with 1,100 uihabitants), westward and 9 miles distant from Passau, was formei-ly the capital of a sovereign earldom of the s.'ime name, and 32 square miles in extent. 2. The former teiTitory (of an extent of 426 square miles) of the ancient sovereign bishopric of JPassau (instituted in 731, and secularized in 1803), contains; Passau, fortified city on the Danube, at its junction with the Inn (which latter river separates the city from the Austrian territory), has a remarkable cathedral, and 11,000 inliabitants, and is noted for the beauty of its ladies. The market-town of Hafnerzell (with 1,350 inhabitants) is noted for its crucibles made of molybdena. In some of them can be melted 2,000 marks of silver at once. III. The circle of UrPER Palatinate and Ratisbon, chiefly comprising the ancient Upper Palatinate and the former imperial city of Regensburg, part of the ancient duchy of Bavaria, etc. 1. The former imperial city of -|-Ratisbox (in German, Regensburg), at present the capital of this circle, is situated on the right bank of the Danube (crossed by a stately bridge, built in the period from 1135 to 114G of freestone, and having a length of 1,091 feet), 64 miles north-north-east of Munich, and south-eastward and 50 miles distant from Nuremberg, with 18 churches, 4 convents, numerous breweries and manufactures, a considerable trade, and 22,000 inhabitants. The most remarkable pubhc edifices of this city (which in the 12th century was endowed with the privileges of an imperial one, and in 1809 anne.ved to Bavaria) are the cathedral, reared in the 13th century, the city hall (where, in the period from 1603 to 1806, the Diet of the ancient German empire held its sessions), and the buildings of the former immediate abbeys of Obermuaster, Nieder- GERMANY. 317 The Kiiidgom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. munstcr, and St. Emmcran. The latter is at present the property and resi- dence of tlie prince of Tliurn and Taxis, formerly postmaster-general of the German empire. These abbeys were instituted respectively about the years 896, 900, and 652. To the former sovereign or immediate binhopric of Rathbon (which was instituted in the beginning of the 8th century, and secu- larized in 1803, but which had nothing in common with the city of Ratisbon) did belong the market-towns of Worth (with 1,000 inhabitants) and Donattstaxf (with 750 uiliabitants). Near the latter is the Walhalla, a building reared in 1830-1842 by order of King Louis of Bavaria, and devoted to the memory of celebrated Germans. 2. The Upper Palatinate, primitively belonging to the dukes of Swabia, and in the period 1329-1623 annexed to the Palatinate on the Rhine, contains : Amberg, formerly the capital of the Upper Palatuiate, on the high road between Regensburg and Bayreuth, eastward and 34 miles distant from Nuremberg, with several remarkable public buildings, various manufactures, and 11,000 inhabitants. In the neighboring town of Hirschau (with 1,500 inhabitants), Jerome of Prague, the friend of John Huss, was taken prisoner in 1415, and conveyed to Constance, where be was burnt. Other more or less remarkable maiket and proper towns of the Upper Palat- inate are : Caatel (with 1,200 inhabitants), Neumarkt (with 3,200 inliabitants), A^aJiwr^ (with 1,700 inhabitants), 3^ci«(i*(r£ri'ort/«rt Waldc (with 2,100 inhab- itants), Rod'ing (with 1,500 inliabitants), Waldmunchen (with 2,200 iidiabitants), Tirschenreuth (with 2,500 inhabitants), Waldsassen (with 1,650 inhabitants), Eschenbach (with 1,850 inliabitants), and Kctnnath (with 1,650 inliabitants). 3. That part of the ancient duchy of Bavaria within the hmits of this circle, contains : Stadtamhof (literally : town at the court), a town on the left bank of the Danube, opposite to Regensburg, with 2,200 inliabitants. Cham, a town on the Regen river, with various branches of industry, and 2,200 inhabitants. JDietfurt (on the Altmuhl, with 1,000 inhabitants), and Ricdenburg (with 1,050 inhabitants), towns. 4. The former principality of Ncuburg (about its par- ticulars, see under the head of the circle No. VII.), witliin the limits of tliis cu-cle, contains : Hilpoltstein, a town on the Roth river, 46 miles west-north- west of Regensburg, with a remarkable ancient palace and town-hall, and 1,500 inhabitants. Kalbnunz (with 1,300 inhabitants), Parsberg (with 600 inhabitants), and Regenstauf (with 1,650 inhabitants), market-towns. 5. ITie former principality of Sulzbach (which in 1309 was annexed to that of Neuburg), contains; Sulzbach, once its capital, near Amberg, has 3,100 inhab- itants, and is noted for its ancient mountain castle. Weiden, a town, with 318 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 2,400 inliabitants. Voficnstrauss, a market-town, with 1,500 inhabitants. 6. "Within the Umits of this circle is also situated the mediate ducliy of Lcuch- tfinherg (anciently a lantlgraviate, -which in 1646 was annexed to Bavaria), belonging to the Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg (son-in-law of the Russian emperor Nicholas), whose father, Eugene Beauhamois, was in 1817 invested with it and the principality of Eichstadt. It contains : Leucutenberg, capital of the duchy, 52 miles east-north-east of Nuremberg, with 600 inliabitants. In its neighborhood is situated the town of Pfreimdt, with 1,600 inhabitants. 7. To various other territories did formerly belong : Neustadt, surnamed an der Wahlnab, a town on the Waldnab river (hence its surname), near the frontier of Bohemia, with 1,600 inhabitants. Sehdiisee, a town, with 1,300 mhabitants. Freystadt, a town on the Schwarzach river, with 900 inhabi- tants. Neustadt am Culm, a town in the vicinity of Bayreuth, -with 1,200 inhabitants. IV. The circle of Upper Fraxcoxia, comprising chiefly the ancient princi- pality of Bayreuth, and the formerly sovereign or immediate bishopric of Bamberg. 1. The former principality of Bayreuth was, together with the principality of Ansbach (see the next circle), primitively a constituent part of the ancient hurgraviate of Nuretnberg, which had its seat in a castle withia the walls of the city of Nuremberg, but in other respects nothing in common with the latter. The first historically-known burgrave, was Godfrey of Hohenlohe, who lived about the year 1138. But already so early as in 1164 the house of Hohenzollern was invested with the burgraviate, and since suc- cessively with other dominions, forming at last the two named principalities. When the burgrave Frederic VI. in 1417 was invested with the electorate and margraviate of Brandenburg (see page 302), he retained his pos- sessions in Franconia, but his two grandsons divided the inheritance in such a manner that the one succeeded in Brandenburg, and the other in Bayreuth and its dependencies. The latter line became extinct in 1791, and both prin- cipalities (of Bayreuth and Ansbach) were now annexed to the dominions of the other line, or to the kingdom of Prussia. The principaUty of Bayreuth (1,534 square miles, and in 1801 with 218,500 inhabitants) Avas in 1807 ceded by Prussia to France, which retained it until 1810, when it ceded it to Bavaria. Tlie principality of Ansbach (1,448 square miles, and in 1800 with 245,000 inhabitants) was ceded by Prussia to France in 1805, and by the latter power to Bavaria in 1806. The princes of Bayreuth and Ansbach bore the title of margraves, with reference to the margraviate of Brandenburg. Here is, for GERMANY. 319 The Kingdom of Bavaria— its Geographical Divisions. the present, only the question of the former principality tif Bayreuth, which con- tains (within the limits of this circle, or in the so-called Hiyhland of Baymith) : -j-Bayreutii, formerly its capital and princely residence, at present the capital of Upper Franconia, on a branch of the ilayne, 42 miles north-north-west of Nuremberg, with 17,000 inhabitants, a remarkable ancient castle, and one of the largest opera-houses in Germany. The former princely gardens here cover a space of about 84 acres. Culmbach, a town on a brancli of the Mayne, 14 miles north-north-west of Bayreuth, is noted for its breweries, has 4,250 inhabitants, and was, in the period from 1603 to 1726, the residence of a collateral Une of the princely house of Bayreuth. HoF, a town at the frontier of Bohemia and Saxony, is noted for its woollen, linen, and cotton manufiictures, and has 7,000 inhabitants. Wuxsiedel, a town half-way between Bayreuth and Eger, with various manufactm-es, iron mines, and 4,000 inhabi- tants. The market-town of Muggendorf, south-westward and 16 miles distant from Bayreuth, with 450 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive and highly remarkable caves. Other towns are: iVai/a (with 1,700 inliabitants), &/6 (with 3,400 inhabitants), Weisseii.Hadt (with 2,400 inhabitants), liehau (with 2,000 inhabitants), Ludwlgstadt (with 950 mhabitants), Milnchherg (with 2,300 inhabitants), Berneck (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Goldkronach (with 1,000 inhabitants). 2. ITie territory of the former sovereign, or immediate bishopric of Bamberg, wliich primitively, and until 908, belonged to the powerful earls of Babenberg, and in 1006 was transformed into this bishopric that continued to exist for nearly 800 years, when it was seculaiized in 1803, at which period it liad an area of 1384 square miles, and a population of 185,000 inhabi- tants, contains : Bamberg, formerly the capital of this bishopric, on the Regnitz, near its junction with the Mayne, northward and 32 miles distant from Xm-em- berg, with important trade, noted brew-eries, and 21,500 inhabitants. Its most remarkable pubhc edifices are : the cathedral (reared by Emperor Henry II., whose sepulchre is here), the palace of the former sovereign bishops (reared in 1702, and remarkable for that Alexander Berthier, Napoleons marshal, precipitated liimself out of one of its windows, on the 1st of Jmie, 1815), the extensive hospital reared in 1787, and the former Benedictme abbey. Bamberg, whose foundation was laid in 804, was in the middle ages frequently the gay and splendid resort of the imperial court, of the knight- hood, eta Ebermannstadt, a town romantically situated on the Wiesent river, south-eastward and 16 miles distant from Bamberg, with 750 inhabi- tants. Other towns are : Ilochstadt (noted for its hops, with 2,000 inliabitants), 320 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. Hollfeld (with 1,100 inhabitants), Wcissmain (with 1,100 inliabitants), Hcrzo- (jcnaurach (with 1,850 uihabitants), Forrhhehn (with ;),'200 inhabitants), Potten- stein (with 1 ,000 inliabitants), Siadlsteinach (with 1 ,400 inliabitants), Kupferbcrg (with 950 inhabitants), Lichtenfels (with 2,200 inhabitants), Teuschnitz (with 850 inhabitants), Staffelstein (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Kronach, or Cranach (remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated painter Lucas of Cranach, a contemporary of Luther, has 3,000 inliabitants, and carries on a considerable trade in timber and lumber). 3. To the Franconian immediate nobiUty of the empire did, among other places, belong : Thcrnau, a to^vn on the Au river, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Bayreuth, with 1,500 inhabitants, and a remarkable ancient castle, or palace of the count of Gicch. Pom- mersfdden, a village in the vicinity of Bamberg, with 650 inhabitants, belongs to the count of Schouborn, who occupies a magnificent palace here. 4. To the former territory of the city of Nuremberg did belong the towas of Crrafenherg (with 1,100 inliabitants), zx^dBeizen&idn (with "JOO inhabitants), the village oi Ecjcjlof stein (with 550 inhabitants), etc. V. The circle of Central Franco.nia, comprising the former principality of Ansbach, the Lowland of Bayreuth (see above), the city of Nuremberg and its former territory, etc. 1. The ioriaer principality of Ansbach (a his- torical sketch of wliich, together with other particulars, is given above, under . the head of Bayreuth), contains : -|- Ansbach, or Anspach (anciently also called Onolzhach), formerly its capital and princely residence, at present the capital of Central Franconia, on the Franconia Rezat river, south-westward and 23 miles distant from Nuremberg, with various manufactures, and 13,000 inhabitants. The former palace of the margraves, or princes, of Ansbach was reared in the years 1587 and 1588, and is at present noted for a valuable library and gallery of paintings. Schwabach, a celebrated manufacturing town, southward and 9 miles distant from Nuremberg, has 8,300 inliabitants, and is especially noted for its pins and needles. Another renowned manufac- turing town is Fl'rtii, in the vicinity of Nuremberg, with 10,000 inhabitants. Heilsbronn (not to be confounded with Ileilbronn in Wirtembcrg), a market- town on the little Schwabach river, soutli-westward and 10 miles distant from Nuremberg, is remarkable as the burying-place of most of the ancient bur- graves of Nuremberg, and has 850 inhabitants. Other more or less remark- able towns are : t//fWt/tcm (with 1,750 inhabitants), Wasserlriulmge.n {[, or Gellheim (a market-town, north-westward and 20 miles distant from Mannheim, noted for the battle on the 2d of June, 1298, and with 1,750 inhabitants, did belong to a collateral line of the house of Nassau). GERMANY. 829 The Kingdom of Wirtemberg. IV.— THE KINGDOM OF WIRTEMBERG. Aeea : 7,551 square miles. Population : 1,150,000 inhabitants. Wirtemberg (officially styled Wuritemberg in German) is situated between Bavaria and Baden, and surrounded by these states, except on the south, where it is washed by the waters of the lake of Constance. The majority of the population consists of Lvtherans, and the remainder (with the exception of about 12,000 Jews) of 500,000 Roman Catholics, with a bishop in Rottenburg. The chief mountain-range is the Swabian Alp, and next to it the eastern part of the Black Forest (see page 7). The Ncckar (one of the tributaries of the Rhine), with its branches of the Kocher and Jaxt, crosses the country in the direction from south to north, and the Danube in the direction from west to east. Besides the lake of Constance, the Feeler lake deserves to be noticed. The chief natural products are : grain (sufficiently raised not only for home consumption, but also for exportation), icitus, fruits (as, apples, pears, cherries, etc.), and timber ; furthermore, cattle, horses, and sheep ; finally, iron and salt. Among the manufactures of Wirtemberg, those of linen have long since been renowned. Other principal articles are : xcool- len, cottons, leather, cutlery, etc. The inland trade is rather consid- erable. The means of education are well arranged. Besides a uni- versity at Tiibingen (see page 287). which in 1846 was frequented by 863 students, there are 3 lycea, G gymnasia, 78 Latin schools, 880 EUROPE, PAST A^^D PRESE27T. Gennaiiy. — Kingdom of Wlrtemberg. several seminaries, etc. (sec the note, page 65), and 2,256 com- mon schools. The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. In the budget for the period of 1844-1845, the public revenue was esti- mated at 10,869.807 florins, and the expenditure at 10,711,210 florins per annum. The public debt amounted on the first of July, 1840, to 22,095,068 florins. The regular army consists on the peace footing of 7,426 men, and on the war footing of 20,094 men and 4,958 horses. Troops to be furnished with regard to the German confederacy, 13,955 men. There are the following orders of honor: — 1. The military/ order of merit, in 3 classes, and instituted respectively in 1806 and 1818. 2. The order of the Wirtcmberg croicn^ instituted in 1818. 3. The Frederic's order ^ instituted in 1830, in commemoration of the late king, Frederic I. History. — Tlie kernel of the present kingdom of Wirtemberg consists of the ancient duchy of Wirtembcrg, which piior to the ye.ir 1495 was an earl- dom, primarily forming part of the above-mentioned (page 324) duchy of Swabia. Tlie first historically known earl of Wirtemberg was Ulric L, wlio reigned in the period of 1246-1265, and whose patrimonial dominions em- braced only small parts of the present Nockar and Black Forest circles. His son (-)-1325) and grandson extended the limits of the earldom by annexing to it neighboring di.stricts, wliich they either inherited or purchased. That Mompelgard was towards the end of the 14th century acquired by marriage, lias already been mentioned under the head of France, page 203. In this way the earldom (who.=e name was derived from the ancestral castle of "Wir- iinebcrg, or Wiirtemberg, near Canstadt) gradually increased to an extent, that Emperor Maximilian I. was induced to raise it to the dignity of a duchy in 1495. Its last duke, since 1797, was Frederic II., who in the treaty of peace concluded at Luneville in 18(il, ceded Mompelgard to France, but was in 1803 amply indemnified by the territories of several immediate prelates and imperial cities ; at the same time the electoral title ■was conferred on him. By the terms of the treaty of Presburg in 1 805, the earldom of Hohenberg, GERMANY. 881 The Kingdom of Wirtemberg— Its Geographical Divisions. and several other dominions, were ceded to liim, and he assumed the royal title. He died, as King Frederic I., in 1816, and was succeeded by his son, the still reiyuing king, William I., born in 1781. The kingdom is, since 1817, divided into 4 provinces, styled circles, which are subdivided into 64 bailiwicks. The capitals of the circles will be found marked with a cross (-|-). I. Tlie Nkckar Circle, comprising chiefly parts of the ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, containing : Stuttgart, capital of the kingdom, and royal resi- dence, on the little Nesenbach river, a branch of the Neckar, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Carlsruhe, and north-westward and 120 miles dis- tant from Munich, has 46,000 inliabitant?, and is noted for its magnificent royal palace, its opera-house, and its royal library, which, among other valuable works, contains a collection of 12,000 bibles, in 68 different lan- guages. Stuttgart has been the seat of its sovereigns since the year 1321. -f-LuDWiGSBURG, Capital of the Neckar Circle, near the Neckar, northward and 9 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 10,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its extensive royal palace, containing valuable collections of paintings, etc. In its vicinity is situated the market-town of Asperg, with 1,700 inhabitants, and the fortress, or fortified castle of Hohenasperg. Caxstatt, a town on the Neckar, and in the vicinity of Stuttgart, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral waters. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Mark- groningen (with 3,000 inhabitants), Vaikingen (with 3,200 inhabitants), Lauffen (with 4,000 inhabitants), Brackenheim (with 1,700 inhabitants), (riiy- glingen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Besighcim (with 2,500 inhabitants), Bietig- 'Jieim (with 2,900 inhabitants), Bonnighcim (with 2,400 inhabitants), Nemtadt an der Lindc (with 1,500 inhabitants), Mochimhl (with 1,600 inhabitants), Widdcrn (with 1,400 inhabitants), Marbach (with 2,500 inhabitants), Crross- bottwar (with 2,500 inhabitants), Backnang (with 4,500 inliabitants), Murrhard (with 2,500 inhabitants), Waiblingen (with 3,100 inhabitants), Winn€nd>m (with 3,100 inhabitants), Boblingen (with 3,400 inhabitants), Sindeljingeii (with 3,700 inhabitants), and Leonberg (with 2,200 inhabitants). The village of M.WLBRONX is remarkable for its ancient Cistercian monastery (instituted in 1187), which after the Reformation was transformed into a theological seminary. Weixsberg, a town on the Sulm river, northward and 28 miles distant from Stuttgart, with the ruins of a once highly renowned castle, and 382 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Kingdom of Wirteraberg. 2,100 inhabitants. Obcrstenfchl, a market-town between Stuttgart and Weinsberg, has 1,600 inliabitants, and is noted for its pensionnaire, or board- ing-school for young ladies of rank. In its vicinity is situated the solitary village of Prevorst, with 450 inhabitants. 2. The following were imperial cities until 1803 : Heilbroxn, a city on the Neckar, northward and 20 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 11,700 inhabitants, carries on a considerable in- land trade, and is noted for its manufactures. Esslingen, formerly an impe- rial city, on the Neckar, south-eastward and 7 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 12,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its optical and other similar instru- ments, and its wines. "Weil, formerly an imperial city, on the Wiirra river, and north-westward and 9 miles distant fron. Stuttgart, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated astronomer Keppler (bom in 1571, and -j-1630 at Ratisbon). 3. The mediate earldom of Lowen- stein (53 square miles, and 7,000 inhabitants), belonging to the prince of Lowenstcin, contains : Lowensteix, its capital, in the vicinity of Weinsberg, is noted as a watering-place, and has 2,000 inhabitants. 4. The mediate lordship of Schwaigern, belongs to the earl of Ncipperg, (son-in-law of the reigning king of Wirtemberg), and contains, among others, the towm of ScHWAiGEEX, with a palace of the earl, and 2,000 inhabitants. 5. Tlie towns oi Xccharsuhn (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Gundclsheim (with 1,200 inhabi- tants), formerly belonged to the Teutonic order. II. The Black Forest Circle, comprising other parts of the ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, the former earldom of Hohenberg, and the following (until 1803) imperial cities : -)-Reutlingen, at present the capital of this circle, south- ward and 18 miles distant from Stuttgart, is noted for its numerous printing- offices and manufactures, and has 12,800 inhabitants. Rottweil, formerly an imperial city, on the Neckar, south-westward and 32 miles distant from KeutUngen, with considerable trade, and 5,600 inhabitants. 2. Tlie former earldom of Hohenberg, which since 1381 did belong to Austria, and was ceded to "Wirtemberg in 1805, containing: Rottenburg, a city in the neighbor- hood of Tiibingen, is the residence of the Catholic bishop of Wirtemberg, and noted for its musical instruments, and has 6,500 inhabitants. Horb, a town on the Neckar, with cloth manufiictures, and 2,050 inhabitants. Other towns are: Olcrmhrf {\\'\i\\ 1,900 inliabitants), jSt-Arawicr// (with 2,800 inhabitants), Spaichinr/cn (with 1,800 inhabitants), Schcmbcrg (with 1,600 inhabitants), and FricdlngCn (with 1,000 inhabitants). 3. Tlie ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, within the limits of this circle, contains : Tiebingen, considered as the second GERMANY. 333 The Kingdom of 'Wirtcmborg — its Geographical Divisions. capital of the kingdom, on the Neckar, 18 miles south-south--west of Stutt- gart, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and page 287). Ukach, a town on the Rough Alp, south-eastward, and 20 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is renowned for its damask linen. In its vicinity is situated the town of Metzingen, surnamed unter Uracil (beneath, or at the foot of Urach), with 4,200 inhabitants, and noted for its wines and corn-markets. Ehxixgem, the largest and finest market-town in the kingdom, in the neighborhood of Reutlingen, has 5,000 inhabitants, who for the most part consist of pedlars. Pfulltngen, a romantically situa- ted town, near Reutlingen, with 4,000 inhabitants, ia noted for its fruits and wines. Calw, one of the most industrious manufacturing towns in the coun- try, westward and 22 miles distant from Stuttgart, with 4,500 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Hirschau (with 800 inhabitants), was once noted for its magnificent Benedictine convent, instituted in 830. The romantically situated village of Deinach (with 500 inhabitants), is much resorted to as a watering-place. Other noted watering-places are the towns of Liehemell (with 1,1U0 inhabitants), and Wildbad (with 1,800 inhabitants). Tuttlingen, a town on the upper Danube, 28 miles north-northwest of Constance, has 5,700 inhabitants, carries on a considerable corn-trade, and is noted for its manufactures of cutlery. Not far from here is situated, on a sohtary steep rock, 2,174 feet high, the once celebrated fortress of Hohextwiel, now iu ruins. Tlie towns of Balingen (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Ebingen (with 4,400 mhabitants), cany on a considerable trade in corn and cattle. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Niirtingen (noted for its musical instru- ments, has 3,900 inhabitants), j\'eufen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Grotzhigen (with 1,100 inhabitants), Herrcnbcrg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Xagold (with 2,600 inliabitants), Altenstcig (with 2,100 iiJiabitants), Bulach (with 1,300 iu- liabitants), Neuenhurg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Freudenstadt (with 4,100 in- habitants). Dornstetten (with 1,250 inhabitants), Alpirspach (with 1,800 inhabitants), Suh (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Dornhan (with 1,500 inhabi- tants). III. The Danube Circle, comprising only a small part of the ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, while the remainder consists of territories annexed to the kingdom since the year 1803. +Ulm, at present the capital of this circle, formerly an imperial city, on the Danube at its junction with the Iller, south, eastward and 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, and westward and 42 miles distant from Augsburg, is strongly fortified, and has 18,400 inhabitants, and 334 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtcmberg. is, besides for numerous manufactures, especially noted for its magnificent Gothic minster or cathedral, wliich is 485 feet long, 200 wide, and 141 feet high, and whose steeple is 337 feet in height. In the middle ages, Ulm was in high reputation for its extensive trade. In 1805 tl\e Austrian general Mack capitulated here with 30,000 men. Ulm had, being an imperial city, a considerable territory, whicli, among other places, contained GeisUncfen, a town with 2,200 inliabitants, and noted for its fine turneries in ivory, horn, &c. Is^'Y, an imperial town until 1803, near the frontier of Bavariai with important linen trade, and 2,000 inhabitants. It belongs at present to the count of Quadt. Waxgen, formerly an imperial city, westward and 9 miles distant from Isny, with various marufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. Leutkiech, hkewise an imperial city until 1803, southward and 40 miles dis- tant from Ulm, is noted for its linen, and has 2,200 inhabitants. Buchiiokn, an imperial city until 1803, on the lid^e of Constance, received by the late king Frederick I., the name of Friedrkluhafen, and has 1,300 inhabitants. R.WEXSBURG, likewise an imperial city formeily, 46 miles south-south-west of Ulm, with various manufactures, important trade, and 5,300 inhabitants. BiBERACH, an imperial city until 1803, on the little Riss river, 23 miles south- south-west of Ulm, with various manufactures, and 5,100 inhabitants. Buchau, formerly an imperial city, on the Feder hike, 9 miles west-south-west of Bib- erach, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its stiitely castle or palace, of the prince of Thurn and Taxis (see Ratisbon), which was, until 1803, the seat of an independent abbey, instituted in the beginning of the 10th century. Among the other formerly independent abbeys, is especiallj to be noticed the Benedic- tine abbey of Weingarten (close by the market-town of Altdorf in the neighborhood of Ravensburg), instituted in 920 as a nunnery, but in 1047 transformed into a monastery. Its buildings are magnificent and extensive, and its church contains an organ with G,C66 pipes. In 1803, when this abbey was secularized, the house of Orange-Nassau became possessed of it, but in 1800 it was ceded to Wirtcmberg. 2. Of the territories of 8 princes, who respectively until 1803 and 1806 were sovereign or independent, deserve to be noticed the dominions of the princes of Waldburg (181 square miles, and 36,000 inliabitants), containing: Wlrzach, a town in the neighborhood of Leutkirch, with 1,100 iuhabilitnts, and a palace of the prince of Waldburg- Zeil-Wurzach, Aichstdten (with 700 inliabitants), and Whitcrsttttc7istadt (with 450 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. The formerly so-called Swabian Austria, which in 1805 was ceded by Austria to Wirtcmberg, contains: GERMANY. 889 The Kingdom of VVirtemberg — its Geographical Ui visions. Ehixgen, a town on the Schmiechen river, south-westward and 16 miles dis- tant from Uhii, witli considerable trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. Mcnderkis- GEN, a town on the Danube, has 1,900 inliabitants, and is noted for its horse- marts. Saulgau, a town on the Schwarzach, with considerable corn trade, and 2,300 inhabitants, is noted for its town-hall, and church with beautiful paintings on glass. Other more or less remarkable towas are : WalJsee (with 1,800 inhabitants), Mcngen (with 2,100 inhabitants), Riedlingen (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Tettnang (with 1,400 inhabitants). The market-town of Langenargen (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its corn trade. 4. The ancient duchy of Wirtemberg within the limits of the Danube circle, contains : Blaubeuren, a town on the Blau, a branch of the Danube, westward and 9 miles distant from Ulm, has 2,100 inliabitants, aud is noted for its linen, and especially fur its theological seminary, in the buildings of a former Benedic- tine convent, instituted in 1095. Goeppixgex, a town on the Fils river, 23 miles east-south-east of Stuttgart, is noted for its manufactures, and has 5,500 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the market-town of Hohexstaufex, with the ruins of the ancestral castle of the once so renowned family of this name, and 1,100 inhabitants. Munsisgex, a town on the Rough Alp, westward and 23 miles distant from Ulm, is noted for its damask linen, and has 1,550 inliabitants. Kirchueim, surnamed unter Teck, a town on the Lauter (a branch of the Danube, and thus not to be confounded with the Lauter in the Bava- rian palatinate), north-westward and 32 miles chstant from Ulm, with 5,600 inhabitants, various manufactures, and the ruins of the ancient castle of Teck once the ancestral seat of the dukes of this name, whose dominions were pur- chased by the Earl Eberliard of Wirtemberg in 1381. IV. The J.\XT Circle, comprising for the most part territories annexed to Wirtemberg since the year 1803. Among them are : — 1. Tliose of the formerly sbvereign or independent provostship of Ellwangen, which was instituted in 764 as a Benedictine convent, and secularized in 1803, containing: -{-Ell- WAXGKX, at present the capital of this circle, formerly the residence of the provost, on the Jaxt river, north-eastward and 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, with remarkable Gothic church, noted horse-marts, and 3,800 inhabitants. Wasseraljingen, a market-town, with iron-works, and 1,600 inhabitants. Ahtsgeinund, a village on the Kocher, with iron-works and 750 inhabitants. 2. The following 5 cities were imperial cities until 1803: H.\li,, oy Schwdll^ch Hall (Swabian Hall), on the Kocher, eastward and 27 miles distant fi'om Heilbronn, has 6,800 uoliabitants, and is noted for its salt springs, Gothic 836 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. church, town-hall, and trade in cattle. Gmund, or Schwdbisch Gmund (an- ciently it was called Kaiscrsreuth), on the Rems river, was once renowned for its manufactures of glass, wax-candles, gold and silver articles, but has at present only 7,000 inhabitants. Aalen, on the Kocher, southward and 9 miles distant from EUwangen, is noted for its breweries and iron-works, and has 3,300 inhabitants. Giengen, on the Brunz river, has 2,350 hihabitants, and is noted for its mineral water and manufactures of cutlery ; and Bopfin- GEN, in the vicinity of EUwangen, with 1,600 inhabitants. 3. The l^eutonic Order, instituted (as has already been related, page 46) in Palestine in 1190, and since the year 1230 conquering the ancient Prussia, left It, since its secu- larization in 1525, and went to Germany, h.iving there considerable dominions (together, 809 square miles, with 84,000 inhabitants), whicli were secularized in 1809, and partly ceded to Bavaria, partly to Wirtemberg. The grand- master of the order resided at Mergextueim, a town on the Tauber, near the frontiers of Bavaria and Baden, with a beautiful church, mineral waters, and 2,400 inhabitants. Laucuheim, a town on the Jaxt, with 1,200 inhabitants. 4. To the former margraviate or principality of Ansbach (see Bavarian circle of Central Franconia), did belong and were ceded to Wirtemberg in 1810: Ceailsheim, or Krailsheim (northward and 14 miles distant from EUwangen, with numerous manufactures and 3,000 inhabitants), Gerabronn (with 700 inliabitants), and Crcglingen {With 1,400 inhabitants), towns. 5. The formerly sovereign or independent, but since 1806 mediate principalities of Hohen- lohe, belonging to the princes of this name (descendants of Duke Eberhard of Franconia, brother to Emperor Conrad I.), who at present are divided into two chief branches; viz., the Cathohc branch of Hohenlohe-Waldenburg (M'ith the collateral lines of Bartenstein, Jaxtberg, and Schillingsfiirst), and tlie Protestant branch of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein (with the collateral lines of Langenburg, Kirchberg, and Oehringen, the latter being formerly named Ingelfingeii), and having together an area of 735 square miles, and a popula- tion of 114,000 inhabitants, contain: Oeurikgen, a town on the Ohrn river, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Heilbronn, is the residence of the prince of Hohenlohe-Oeliringen (formerly named Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen), and has 3,300 inhabitants, Ixgelfingen, a town on the Kocher, with 1,550 inhab- itants. Langenburg, a town on the Jaxt, with 900 hihabitants, is the residence of the prince of Holicnlohe-Langenburg. Kirchukug, a romantically situ- ated town on the Jaxt, eastward and 22 miles distant from Oehringen, has 1,300 inhabitants, and is the residence of the prince of Hohcnlohc-Kirchberg. GERMANY. 337 The Kingdom of Wirlemberg— its Geographical Divisions.— Grand- Duchy of Badon. Baetenstein, a town 13 miles east-nortli-east of Ingclfingen, has 1,100 inhab- itants, and a stately palace of the prince of Hohenlohe-Bartenstein. J.vxt- BEaG, a town on the Jaxt, witli 1,400 inhabitants, belongs to the prince of Hohcnlohe-Jaxtberg. The town of Waldenbukg (with 1,100 inhabitants), and the market-towns of Kupferzell (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Adolzfurth (with 600 inliabitants), belong to the prince of Hohenlohe-ScliiUingfiirst (see page S'22), Other more or less remarkable towns of these principalities are : Neuenstein (with 1,600 inhabitants), Forchtcnherg (with 1,600 inhabitants), Kunnzelsau (with 2,650 inhabitants), Niedcrnhall (with 1,700 inliabitants), Weikcrshcim (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sindringen (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Nicderstcttcn '{vfiih 1,700 inhabitants). 6. The ancient (/mcA^ of Wir- temberg, within the Hmits of this circle, contains : Scuorxdorf, a town on the Rems, 14 miles east-north-east of Stuttgart, with various manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants. BeuteUbach, a market-town in the neighborhood of Schorn- dorf, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is remarkable as the burial-place of some of the ancient carls of Wirtemberg. Heidenheim, a town on the Brenz, south- ward and IS miles distant from Ellwangcn, has 2,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen trade and numerous manufactures of linen, cotton goods and hardware. Wehheim, a town north-eastward and 7 miles distant from Schorndorf, with 1,800 inhabitants, and considerable trade in flax and timber. Lorch (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Konigsbronn (with considerable iron- works), market-towns. v.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF BADEN. Area : 5,932 square miles. Population: 1,379,000 inhabitants. It is situated along the right bank of the Rhine (by which river it is separated from France), on the south bound by Swit- zerland and the lake of Constance, and on the east bound by Wirtemberg. 15 88 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. The population consists of about 804,000 Catholics (with an archbishop at Freiburg), 553,000 Protestants^ and 22.000 Jews. The country in the neighborhood of the lake of Constance, and partly along the Rhine, is more or less level ; but in the interior the surface is mountainous. The chief mountain ranges are the Black Forest and the Odemvald (see page 7). The country is intersected by numerous branches of the Rhine (as for instance, the Aach, Murg^ Ji^iese, Drei/sam, Acher, Pfiiiz, etc.), but its prin- cipal tributary here, is the Neckar. About the lakcs^ see page 1 1. Other remarkable lakes, in the Black Forest, are the Miimmel, the Wilder, and the Nonnenmattweiher lakes. There are about 60 watering-places in the country, the most renowned of which are Baden and Ucberlingen. Some parts of the country have a most fertile soil, especially the former margraviate of Baden ; others, as for instance some of the mountainous districts, are less fertile, and partly even sterile ; yet, upon the whole, the grand-duchy rivals Wirtemberg in the natural products. Thus, the chief staples are almost the same as in the just-named kingdom, perhaps with the exception of iron, which abounds in Baden more than in Wirtemberg. The manufactures are various and mostly important. The prin- cipal articles of fabrication are clocks (nearly in all parts of the world known by the name of Black Forest clocks), hardware and jeu-dleries, next to them linen, woollen, cotton goods and chemical articles. The inland trade is very considerable. Besides the universities (see page 287) at Heidelberg (in 1840 frequented by 864 students), and Freiburg (in 1845 frequented by 213 students), there are 6 lycea, 5 gymnasia (about the sig- nification of these terms, see page 65), 1,916 common, and 65 other schools of various distinction. The government is a limited monarchy like that of Wirtem- berg, with the only diflference that the sovereign of Baden bears GERMANY. 889 GraiiU-Duchy of Baden— its Finances and History. the title of grand duke. The public revenue in the two years 1844 and 1845 amounted to 32,847,690 florins, and the total ex- pcruUlure in these two years to 30,950.034 florins. In 1845 the public debt was 41,271,434 florins (inclusive of a loan of 14 mil- lions which had been contracted for constructing the rail-roads of the country). The regular arviy consists respectively of 4,595 and 10.423 men. The troops to the confederacy (see under the head of Bavaria and Wirtemberg) : 10,000 men. There are the following orders of honor : 1. The order of loyalty (Orden der Treue), in 2 classes, instituted in 1715, and renew- ed in 1803. 2. The military order of merit ^ instituted by Charles Frederic in 1807, in 3 classes. 3. The order of the lion of Zdh- ringen, instituted in 1812, in 3 classes. ffi.sfori/. — The prei?ent ^•and-Juchy of Baden wliich, in re.=!pect to extent and population, rivals German kingdoms, was until the year 1803 a mar- gravtate with an area of only 1,38-4 square miles, and a population of no more than 220,000 inhabitants. All the remainder has since been annexed to this primitive country, which was first under the sway of the Bertilons, but already in the lOtli century under that of tlie Zdhringiann, whose ancestral seat Wivs the castle of the same name (now in ruins) near Freiburg. Berthold of Zahringen, proprietor of wealthy estates both in Swabia and Alsace, was in 1060 nominated duke of Carinthia and margrave of Verona, and since that period the title of margrave rested with the members of this dynasty. Berthold's sou Hermann acquired Baden by marriage ; and his son of the same name was the jimt inargrave of Baden, by the name of Hermann I. He died in 1130, and was succeeded by his son Hermann II. "When in 1190 his son Hermann III. died, he left behind two sons, the younger of w hom became the author of the collateral line of Hochberg. Margrave Christoph of Baden re- united the territories of both lines, but liis sons Bernhard and Ernesd divided them agiiin, and there were two reigning lines of Baden-Baden, and Baden- Durlach, until they were once more and permanently reunited in 1771 ))y the margrave Charles Frederic of Baden-Durlacli. The long reign of tliis sovereign (from re.spectively 1738 and 1746 to 1811) proved in every respect henelicial to the country. By the treaty of Luneville in 1801 he lost some 840 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ucrrauny. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. territories on the left bank of the Rhino, but was amply indemnified in 1803 by the Lower Palatinate, the territories of several prelates, imperial cities, etc., together at the extent of 1,949 square miles, with 215,000 inhabitants. At tlie same time he was raised to the dignity of an elector, and in 1 806 to tliat of a grand duke, and made fresh acquisitions in the years 1806, 1809 and 10. He died in 1811, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles Louis Frederic, who died in 1818, and was succeeded by his uncle Louis, who died in 1830, and was succeeded by his step-brother, the still reigning grand duke Leopold, born in 1790. About the revolution in 1849 see above, page 305. The grand-duchy is, since 1832, divided into 4 provinces, styled circles, which are subdivided into 79 bailiwicks. The capitals of the circles are in the following topography marked with a cross (-|-). L The Middle Rhine Circle, comprising chiefly the territories of the an- cient margraviates of Baden-Durlach and Baden-Baden, and besides them some former imperial cities, etc. 1. The ancient margraviate of Baden-Dur- lach (formerly also styled the Lower Margraviate of Baden), contains : Carls- EUHE, the capital of the whole country, and residence of the grand duke, at 3i miles distance from the Rhine, north-westward and 40 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 24,800 inhabitants, is very regularly laid out and fan-shaped, has many stately palaces, of which that where the grand duke resides is very extensive, and other remarkable public edifices, and is noted for its lite- rary institutions and manufactures. The foundation of the city was laid in 1715 by the margrave Charles of Baden-Durlach. On the Rhine is the vil- lage of Schrock, with 700 inhabitants, and a landing at present called Lcopolds- ha/en. Durlach, formerly the capital and residence of tlio margrave of Baden-Durlach, on the Pfinz, eastward and 2 miles distant from Carlsruhe, with some manufactures and 5,000 inhabitants, Grbtzingen, a village witli 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its madder and wines. Pforzheim, the most important manufacturing town in the country, on the Enz, south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 8,400 inhabitants, and its principal man- ufactures are those of jewelleries and similar other articles. Kurnhach, a market-town, one half of which belongs to Baden, and the other to Hesse- Darmstadt. Tlie former half has 550 inliabitants. 2. The ancient margra- viate of Baden-Baden (formerly also known by the name of the upper GERMANY. 341 The Grand-Duchy of Badon— its Goograpblcal Divisions. margraviate of Baden), contains : Baden, formerly the capital of this margra- viate, at present one of the most frequented watering-places in Germany, is romantically situated in a valley, about half-way between Strasburg and Carlsruhe, and has G,30ii inhabitants. -{-Rastadt, formerly the residence of the margrave of Baden- Ijaden, at present the capital of the Middle Rliine Circle, on the Murg, about 3 miles from its junction with the Rhine, and north- ward and 7 miles distant from Baden, is strongly fortified, and has 8,800 in- liabitants. The foundation of Rastadt was laid by the margrave Louis Wil- liam of Baden-Baden, who reigned in the period of 1691-1707. The little village of Afentkaf is noted for its wines. Steinbach, a town in the vicinity of Baden, with 2,300 inliabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of the cele- brated architect Envin of Steinbach (-f-1318), who was the chief architect for that fine structure, the cathedral of Strasburg. Tlie town of Kchl, on the Rhine, opposite to Strasburg, has 1,400 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its strong fortifications, which in 1815 were razed. Gernsbach, a town on the Murg, at about 9 miles distance from Rastadt, with considerable trade in tim- ber, and 2,400 inhabitants. Acherx, a town on the Acher, eastward and 16 miles distant from Strasburg, has 2,000 inliabitants, and is situated in a district called the Ortenau, of which the duke Ferdinand of Modena was pos- sessed in the short period from 1803 to 1805. Eitungen, a town on the lit- tle Alb river, with powder mills, paper manufactures, and 4,500 inhabitants. Buhl, a town southward and 12 miles distant from Rastadt, has 2,800 inhab- itants, and is noted fur its cattle-fairs. 3. The following imperial cities came in 1803 under the sway of Baden: Offenbueg, formerly an imperial city, on the Kinzig, 12 miles south-east of Strasbiu-g, with 4,200 ii\habitants. Gen- GENB.iCH, formerly an imperial city, in the vicinity of Offenburg, with 2,700 bdiabitants. Zell, surnamed am Ilatnmcrsbach, an imperial city until 1803, on a little river called Hammersbach, and in the neighborhood of Gcrgenbach, with 1,400 inliabitants. 4. The former territory of the ancient bishopric of Spire (see page 327), which in 1803 was annexed to Baden, contains: Bruchsal, formerly the residence of the bishop, whose magnificent palace is still extant, is situated north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Carlsruhe, and has 7,800 inhabitants. 5. To the former independent bishopric of Stras- burg (see page 197), belonged the towns of Oberkirch (has 2,000 inhabi- tants, and is noted for its wines and fruits), Oppenao (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Renchen (with 2,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its hemp), and the vil- lage of Sasbach (with 1,400 inhabitants), eastward and 14 miles distant from S4« EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Baden. Strasburg, is remarkable for that the French marshal, Turenne, was struck dead here by a canndii-ball, on the 27th July, 1675. 6. The towns of Bisoh- OFSHEiM, or Rhebi-Bishofakeim (near the Rhine, north-eastward and 10 miles distant from Strasburg, is noted for its hemp, and has 1,800 inhabitants), and LicHTEXAU (likewise noted for its hemp, and with 1,600 inliabitants), until 1803 belonged to the ancient lordship of Hanau-Lichtenberg (see page 328). The town of Laiir (18 miles south-south- cast of Strasburg, with important manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 7,500 inhabitants), did formerly belong to a collateral line of the house of Nassau. To Electoral Palatlnaf" (see below) belonged : Brettex, a town on the Sulzbach, eastward and 15 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 3,100 inhabitants, and is noted as the birtli- place of Melanchthon. The house where he was born is still extant. Evpin- GEN, a town on the Elsenz, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Carls- ruhe, with a remarkable Gothic ch\irch, and 3,100 inhabitants. Heidelsheim, a to\STi with 2,300 inhabitants. 7. To the dependent principality of Fursten- herg (see below, under the head of Donaueschingen and Trochtelfingen), belong the towns of Hausen, or Hausach (with 1,300 inhabit0 inhabitants. 2. To the former Electorate of 2'rcves (see its turticulars under the head of Coblenz) did belong : Llmburg, a town on the GERMANY. t»» The Duchy of Nassau— its Geographical Divisions. Lahn, at present the seat of a Catholic bisliop, with considerable trade and 8,300 inhabitants, is noted for its Gothic chuich. The village of Selters (properly styled Nieder-SeltcrK or Lower-Seltors), northward and 18 miles dis- tant from Wiesbaden, with 1,250 inliabitauts, has long been renowned for its mineral waters, of which about 2 million bottles are annually exported. MoNTABAUR (derived from the Latin Mons Thabor), a town (jn the Wester- wald, 12 miles east-north-east of Coblenz, has 2,800 inhabitants, and was in the middle ages frequently the residence of the electors of Treves. The vil- lages of Ilillschcid and Ilohr (witii respectively 1,150 and 1,300 inhabitants) are noted for their potteries. 3. To the former Electorate of Mentz (see un- der the head of Mentz) did belong : Hochst, a town on the Mayne, between Frankfort and Mentz, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures of snutT. In its neighborhood are situated tiie more or less remarkable mar- ket-towns of Hattcrsheim (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hcddcrnheim (with 1,950 inhabitants), and Hofhebn (with 1,900 inhabitants). TRe market-town of Hat. TENHEiM, on the Rhine, with 1,050 inhabitants, is noted for its excellent wines. Ei.TviLLK or EUfeld, a to'wii on the Rhine, has 2,300 inhabitants, and was for- merly con>idered as the capital of a district along the Rhine, which is still generally kno-wn by the name of Rheinrjau. The ancient castle of Eltville, at present in ruins, was for a while inhabited by Emperor Adolphus of Nas- sau, and in the 14th and 15th centuries frequently the residence of the electors of Mentz. The neighboring market-town of Ranenthal (with 1,000 inhabi- tants), is noted for its wines. Lorch, a market-town on the Rhine, with vine culture, mineral waters, and 1,950 inhabitants. Lorch, mentioned already in documents from the year 832, is, besides the ruins of remarkable ancient castles, noted for a steep rock known by the names of Kedrich and DeviVs iaddcr, to whicii several interesting common reports or tales have reference. The market-town of Geiseniieim (on the Rhine, with 2,550 biljabitants), and the village of Asmannshausen (with 600 inhabitants), are noted for their wines. Still more noted for their excellent wines is the town of Ruedesheim (romantically situated on the Rhine, opposite Bingen, has 2,550 inhabitants), and the magnificent castle of Johanxisberg (in the neigliborbood of Riides- heim), which in 1816 became the property of the prince of Metternich. Like- wise renowned for its wines is the town of Hochhkim, neai* the Mayne and the city of Mentz, with 2,150 inhabitants. Weilbach, a village with mineral springs and 850 inhabitants. Oberlahnsteix or Lahnstein, a town on the Rhine, near its junction with the Lahn, with iron-works, mineral waters and 364 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Duchy of Nassau. 1,850 inhabitants, is noted for the ruins of the ancient castle of Lahneck, reared in the beginning of the 13th century by the electors of Mcntz. Kding.itein, a town on the Taunus, north-eastward and 1-i miles distant from Wiesbaden with leather manufactures and 1,350 inhabitants. Epstein, a market-town bet-ween Koningstein and Wiesbaden, with 850 uiliabitants, is noted for an ancient castle of the same name. Kroxberg, a town romantically situated on the Taunus, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its nursery-gardens and fruits, and much resorted to as a watering-place. 4. The formerly so-called Lower Earldom of Katzenellnbogen (see page 354), which until 1813 did mostly belong to Hesse-Cassel, contains : St. Go.\kshausen, a town on the Rhine, opposite the at present Prussian town of St. Goar, 27 miles west-north- west of Wiesbaden, with consider.able trade and 950 inhabitants. Close by lies on a steep hill the ancient castle of Katz, wliich in 1393 was reared by the earl John III. of KatzeneUnbogen, and subsequently called Nevr (i. e. New) Katzenellnbogen, to distinguish it from Alt- (i. e. Old) Katzenelhiborjen, the ancestral castle of the earls of this name, who became extinct in 1479. The latter is situated close by the market-town of Katzenellnbogen, with iron- works, and 950 inhabitants. Not far from St. Goarshausen is in the Rhine the remarkable rock of Lurley. The ancient castle of Reichenberg, reared about the year 1284 by the earl William I. of Katzenellnbogen, was in the middle ages one of the strongest and most remarkable castles in G ermany. Schwal- BACii, a town situated in a deep valley, north-westward and 7 miles distant from Wiesbaden, with a remarkable Gothic church, iron-works, and 2,150 in- habitants, is renowned for its mineral springs, and much resorted to as a watering-place. Not less noted and resorted to as a watering-place is the neighboring village of Schlangenbad, with 250 inhabitants. Tlie town of Brauhach, on the Rhine, with 1,550 inhabitants, is noted for its strong castle of Marxburg, reared at an early period of the middle ages. The market- town of Ems, in the neighborhood of Coblenz, with 2,G00 inhabitants, is re- nowned and very much resorted to as a watering-place. Caub or Kaub, on the Rhine, opposite the Prussian town of Bacharach, with 1,500 inhabitants, did formerly belong to the Electoral Palatinate (see page 342), and is noted for a little castle on a rock in the Rhine, called die Pfalz (literally, the Palatinate), and reared at an early period of the middle ages. 5. The drjyendent ancient earldom of Ilolzappd (with which in 1G41 an Austrian general, named Peter Eppelmann, was invested, and which at present belongs to the Austrian arch- duke Stephen), contains : Holzatpel, its capital, near the Lahn, eastward and GERMANY. 865 The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg and Lirabnrg. 14 miles distant from Coblenz, with lead mines, and 950 inhabitants. In its neighborhood are the ruins of the above mentioned ancient castle of Laurcn- burg (see Uistory of Nassau). The village of Geilnau (with 300 inhabitants) is noted for its mineral waters. G. The dependent dominion of liunkel (53 square miles, and 9,500 inhabitants), belonging to the princely house of Neu- wied, contains the town of Runkel, on the Lahn, with 1,100 inliabitants, and several more or less noted villages. XII.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG, TOGETHER WITH THE DUCHY OF LIMBURO. Area: 1,395 square miles. Population: 282,000 inhabitants. The grand-duchy of Luxemburg was anciently a German earl- dom, named after the castle of Luzelinburhut {Lidzclburg, Lux- emburg), of whicli a neighboring wealthy earl, Siegfried, became possessed in the 10th century. The male line of his descen- dants became extinct in 1136, when the dukes of Lirabur? inherited the earldom, which in 1354 was promoted to the rank of a duchi/ by Emperor Henry VII., who had sprung from this house (see page 301). In 1444, the duchy was purchased by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy^ and since that period it formed a constituent part both of Burgundy and the Catholic Netherlands (see page 264). In 1797, Austria ceded it, together with the other Catholic provinces of Netherlands, to France ; and in 1815 the house of Orange (see page 267) was invested with it as an indemnification for domestic dominions in Nassau, which had been ceded partly to Prussia, partly to the reigning house of Nassau. At the same time the title of a grand-duchy was con- 366 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Ccrmnny. — Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg and Liraburg. ferred upon Luxemburg. Since the revolution of Belgium in 1830, the latter made claim to the whole grand-duchy, which however was divided into two parts, the western of which was an- nexed to Belgium (see page 277) ; while the eastern part (1,012 square miles, and 188,000 inhabitants) remained with the house of Orange-Nassau. But as the grand-ducliy of Luxemburg had since 1815 been an actual member of the German confederation, it was in 1839 agreed upon that the greatest part of the former Netherlandish province of Limburg, should (with the title of a duchi/ of Limburg) supply the ceded half of Luxemburg, in its political relations to Germany. Thus the grand-duchy of Luxemburg has in its present extent only an area of 1,012 square miles, and a population of 188,000 inhabitants, who are Roman Catholics. It forms the south--vYest- ern extremity of Germany, on the north-east and east bordering upon the Prussian Rhenish province, and on the west and south bound by Belgium and France. Its chief natural products are timber, iron, hemp, and flax ; the rearing of cattle is rather con- siderable ; the manufactures consist of linen, leather, paper, &c. The amount of the revenue and of the expenditure (in Luxemburg and Limburg) for several years, has been about 1,800,000 florins. The troops to be furnished to the confederal array consist of 2,556 men. In 1841 an orc/cr o/'Ao/ior ("of the oak-crown"), in 4 classes, has been instituted by the grand duke. The grand- duchy contains : Luxemburg (anciently in German called Lutzelburg), capital of the grand- duchy, and German confederal fortress, on the Elz river, 26 miles west-south- west of Treves, is noted for the strength of its fortifications, and has 1 2,000 inhabitants (exclusive the garrison). Vianijkn, a town on the Our, with a remarkable ancient caetle, leather manufactures, and 1,550 inhabitants. \Vii,z, a town on the river of tlie same name, with manufactures of cloth, leather, and paper, and 2,700 inhabitants. Grevkmacher.n, a town on the GERMANY. 961 The Grniid-Duchy of Luxemburg, and the Puchy of Limburg. Moselle, has 2,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Echternach (with 4,000 inhabitants), i)(VA-//-t7t (with 2,200 inhabitants), Mcersch (with 2,000 inhabitants), Remich (with 2,2.50 inhabitants), Esch (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Clairvaux (with 700 inhabi- tants). The DUCHY OF LiMBORG, -wliicb, considered as a Netherlandish province, has an area of 852 square miles, with 198,000 inhabi- tants (although only its district of Roeremonde, having an area of 383-^ square miles, and a population of 94,000 inhabitants, actually belongs to the German Confederation), was primitively an earl- dom, originated about the middle of the 10th century. Henry I., earl of Limburg, who lived in the latter half of the 11th centu- ry, was married to Judith, the only daughter and heiress of Fred- eric of Luxemburg, duke of Lower Lorraine (as the Netherlands were styled prior to their annexation to the duchy of Burgundy), and his son, Henry IL, being elected duke of Lower Lorraine, the ducal title was conferred to the earldom of Limburg also. In 1280 the male line of the dulces of Limburg became extinct, and now the duchy was inherited by the duke, John I , of Bra- bant. Together with Brabant, Limburg was annexed to the duchy of Burgundy, and came subsequently under the sway of Spain, then under that of Austria. By the terms of the West- phalian treaty of peace in 1648, one part of the duchy was ceded i» the republic of the united provinces of the Netherlands ; it be- longs at present to the district of Koeremonde. while the remain- der of the latter consists of a territory which continued to be annexed to the ancient duchy of Limburg. The named district (whose inhabitants are for the most part Roman Catholics) con- tains : Roeremonde, its capital, on the Meuse at its junction with the Roer, west- ward and 33 miles distant from Diisseldorf, has 5,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactui'es. Weerdt, a town situated amidst bogs and heaths, 368 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Electorate of Hcsae. northward and 3-t miles distant from Mastricbt, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted in history as the birth-place of the famous Austrian general, in the thirty years' war, -who named himself John of Weerdt. Sittard, a town at the frontier of tlie Prussian Rhenish province, with 4,000 inliabitants. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Gennep (with 1,100 inhabitants), Siiste- rcn (with 1,300 inhabitants), Stevens-Waerd (with 1,000 hihabitants), Wessem (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Valkenhurg (in French Fauqucmont, has 1,650 inhabitants). The village of Vaels, situated in the neighborhood of Aix la Chapelle, has 2,600 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth and needle manu- factures. XIII.— THE ELECTORATE OF HESSE. Area : 4,452 square miles. PopuLATiox: 750,000 inhabitants. Tins state, commonly called Electoral Hesse (Kurliessen in German), and formerly known by the name of Hesse-Cassel, is situated between the Wcscr and Mayne rivers, towards the centre of Germany, surrounded by Westphalia, the kingdom of Han- over, the Saxon duchies, and Hesse-Darmstadt. The majority of the population consists of Calvinists, and the remainder of Lutherana and about 100.000 Calholics. The num- ber of Jews amounts to about 8,500. The surface is generally more mountainous (see pages 7 and 8) or hilly than level, and the soil may even be called sterile in some districts. However, sufficient corn is raised for home consump- tion, and the rearing of cattle is considerable ; though the latter is not everywhere of fine breed. The chief natural products are timber, Jlax, iron, and frecsioiie. The manufactures consist of linen, hardware, woollen goods, GERMANY. 369 The Electorate of Hesse— lis History. etc. The inland trade is not inconsiderable. With regard to the means of education, there are, besides the university at Marburg (see page 287), which in 184G was frequented by 264 students, 6 lycea, G gymnasia, 63 Latin schools (see the note, page 65), etc. The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in an elector and one legislative chamber. The public revenue was in the period 1843-45, estimated at 3,892,700, and the expenditure at 3,675,420 Prussian dollars per annum. The public debt amounted in 1840 to 1,642.566 Prussian dollars. The regular «?■?«?/ consists of 8,657 men ; to the confederal army are to be furnished 5.679 men. There are the following orders of honor : 1. ,The order of the Golden Lion^ in 4 classes, and instituted in 1770. 2. The mili- tary order of Merit, instituted in 1769. 3. The order of the Iron Helmet, in 3 classes, and instituted in 1814. History. — Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Hesse-Homburg, have one common origin, and thu3 we are already acquainted with the remoter part of Hessian history (see page 352). The eldest son of Philip the Generous, William IV., obtained the largest share in the partition, viz., the greatest part of the present province of Lower Hesse (with Cassel), the ancient earl- dom of Ziegenhaln, part of Schmalkalden, one half of the ready money, etc. During his reign (1567-1592) he made fresh acquisitions of territories, mostly by inheritance. His son and successor, landgrave Maurice, inlierited Mar- burg, etc., and other territories were annexed during the reign of his grand- son, "William VI. Tlie latter's great-grandson, Frederic I. (1730-1751), was married to Ulrica Eleanor of Sweden, and thus ascended the Swedish throne in 1720; while he, after his father's death (in 1730), succeeded also in Hesse- Cassel, though he continued to reside in Stockholm. He died in 1751, and was succeeded by his brother, landgrave William VIII., whose successor (since 1760) was Frederic II., who died in 1785, and was succeeded by his son, William IX., who in 1 803 was indemnified for the cession of his dominions on the Rhine, by the annexation of the towns of Fritzlar and Amiineburg, etc. (see page 356), while at the same time he was promoted to the dignity of an elector. As such he was now styled Wilham I. In the war Napoleon 16* 370 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT. Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. waged against Prussia in 1 806, the elector of Hesse endeavored to keep neu- trality, but in vain ; for after tlie battle of Jena, Xapoleon declared to him that he was thoroughly acquainted with his secret hostile disposition against him, so that if he had lost the battle, the elector -would forthwith have at- tacked the French army. Thus, the only chance was left to William I., either to leave the country or to defend it against the French. As this latter would have been entirely unsuccessful, he retired to Austria, while in the next year his state became a constituent part of the kingdom of Westphalia (see page 295). In 1813 William I. returned to his dominions, acquired the territory of the ancient independent bishopric of Fulda, and retained the electoral title, though it had since 1806 lost its actual signification. He died in 1821, and was succeeded by liis son William II., who in 1830 appointed his son Fred- eric William (born in 1802, and reigning elector since 1847) co-regent, and died on the 20th November, 1847. The electorate of Hesse is divided into 4 provinces, whicli are subdivided into 21 circles, viz., the province of Lower Hesse into 10, that of Upper Hesse into 4, that of Fulda into 4, and the province of Hanau into 3 circles. The capitals of the prov- inces will be found marked by a cross (4-)- L The province of Lower Hesse contains: -}-Cassel, the capital of the elec- torate, and residence of the elector, on the Fulda (see page 17), south-west- ward and 28 miles distant from Gottingen, with numerous manufactures, con- siderable inland trade, and 32,600 aihabitimts. Cassel is noted for its fine and soUd public and private edifices, some of which are built of freestone ; as, for instance, the electoral palace, and the musemn. At about 5 miles dis- tance is situated, at the foot of the Habichtswald (see page 8), the electoral palace of Wiliiei-mshohe (literally, William's Height), renowned for its gar- dens, foimtains, colossal statue of Hercules, etc. The town of GrossAlme- rode, eastward and 9 miles distant from Cassel, with 2,250 inhabitants, is noted for its crucibles. Allendoiif, a town on the Werra, with 4,400 inhabitants, is akeady, since the 10th century, noted for its salt-springs and works. Carlshafen, a town on the Weser, northward and 20 miles distant from Cas- sel, with ratlier important trade, and 1,700 inliabitants. The town of Hof- 0EI9MAR, northward and 14 miles distant from Cassel, with an electoral GERMANY. 871 The Electorate of Hesse — its Geographical Divisions. palace and 3,500 ioliabitants, is noted and much resorted to as a watering- place. Tlie \-ilIage of Oeismar (near Fritzlar, with mineral waters and 900 in- habitants) was in the days of Paganism noted for a millennial oak-tree kept holy, which in the 8th century was cut down by Bonifiicius. Hombekg, surnamed in Hesse, a town on the little Efze river, southward and 22 miles distant from Cassel, with 3,800 inhabitants, and manufactures of linen, leather, and wool- len goods. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Mehungen (south- ward and 14 miles distant from Cassel, with 4,050 inhabitants), Lichtenau (with 1,500 inhabitants), Spangcnberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Waldkappel (with 1,300 inhabitants), Borken (with 1,400 inhabitants), Grcbenstcin (with 2,500 inhabitants), Immcnhausen (with 1,600 mhabitants), Zierenbcrg (with 1,600 mhabitants), Wolfhagen (with 3,200 inhabitants), Gudensberg (with 2,100 inhabitants), Fehbery (with 1,300 inhabitants), and Niedensteln (with 700 inhabitants). Rotenburg, a to«Ti on the Fulda, 28'miles south-south-east of Cassel, with 3,650 inhabitants, linen and other manufactures, and a rather extensive castle or palace, until 1834 the residence of the landgraves of Hesse-Rotenburg. These landgraves were descendants of Maurice (see above), who having been married twice, bequeathed to his sons from the second matrimony, the fourth part of his dominions. His eldest son and suc- cessor, "William V., ceded for this purpose certain cities, towns, and estates, in Lower Hesse, to his step-brothers, yet reserving his supreme sovereignty. The last descendant of these step-brothers was Victor Amadeus, who died in 1834, and with whom this collateral line became extinct. Thus, the reigning house of Hesse-Cassel came again in full posssesion of the Rotcnburgian Quarter, as this territory was styled. Other towns of it are the following Wanxfried (on the Werra, with considerable trade, and 2,050 inhabitants), EscHWEGE (on the AVerra, witli various manufactures, and 6,050 inhabitants) WiTZEXHAUSEN (on the Werra, eastward and 14 miles distant from Cassel with some vine culture and 3,250 inhabitants), and Sontra (with 1,800 inhab- itants), — The ancient earldom of Schanmburg (which in 1647 was inherited by the house of Hesse-Cassel and Lippe, its native earls having become ex- tinct in 1640), along the Weser, contains: Rinteln, a town on the Weser, north-westward and 72 miles distant from Cassel, and south-westward and 82 miles distant from Hanover, has 3,200 inhabitants, was since 1621 noteu for its university, which was abolished by the transitory Westphalian govern mcnt in 1809. Oldendorf, a town on the Weser, with 1,400 inhabitants. Be- tween here and Rinteln aie, on a steep liill on the Weser, the ruins of tlie S12 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. ancient castle of Schaumburg, where the earls of the same name resided. Obeiinkirchex, a town with 1,900 inhabitants, is notud for its quarries and coal mines. liodcnbcrg and Sachsenhagen, towns with respectively 1,S50 and 800 inhabitants. The village of Nexndorf (with 750 mhabitants) is noted and much resorted to as a wateriug-place. To the electorate of Mentz (see above and page 355) did belong: Fuitzlar, a town on the Eder river, 18 miles south-south-west of Cassel, with some manufactures and 3,050 inhabi- tants. In the middle ages, Fritzlar was by far more noted than at present. NuMDUEG, or Naumburg, a town with 1,800 inhabitants. The town of Volk MARSEN, north-westward and 18 miles distant from Cassel, with 2,850 inhabi- tants, did formerly belong to the duchy of Westphalia (see under the head of Prussia). II. 'Yhe province of Upper Hesse contains : 4"MaRBURG, the capital of the province, on the Lahn, half-way between Cassel and Frankfort, has 8,000 in- habitants, and is noted for its university (see above and page 287) and its highly remarkable Gothic St. Elizabeth's church, whose foundation was laid in the 13th century. Fraxkexberg, a town on the Eder river, with some leather and cloth manufactures, and 3,250 inhabitants. Other towns are: Wetter (with 1,550 inhabitants), Frankenau (with 1,050 inhabitants), Rosen- thal (with 1,600 inhabitants), Gemicnden (with 1,450 inhabitants), Kirchhain (with 1,800 inhabitants), i?aMwAf«6er(7 (with 1,550 inhabitants), and Schiceins- berg (with 1,000 inhabitants). Ziegexhaix, a formerly fortified town, 23 miles east-north-east of Marburg, and southward and 32 miles distant from Cassel, with 1,750 inhabitants and an ancient castle, once the residence of the tarls of Ziegenhain, who became extinct in 1450, upon Avhich ' Hesse-Cassel inlierited the earldom. Trevsa, a town in the neighborhood of Ziegenhain, with some manufactures and 2,550 inhabitant.?. Neukirchex, a town in the vicinity of Ziegenhain, with various manufactures and 2,150 inhabitants. Schwarzenborn, a very ancient town, with 1,000 inhabitants. The town of Amoxebl'rg (on the Ohm, eastward and 9 miles distant from Marburg, with 1,200 inhabitants), and Neusiadt (between Amoneburg and Ziegenhain, with 1,800 inhabitants), did formerly belong, together with Fritzlar, etc., to the electorate of Mentz (see page 355). III. The province of Fulda, comprising chiefly the ancient independent bL<^hopric of Fuld.n, and the dominion of Schmalkalden. 1. The bishopric of Fulda took its origin from an abbey instituted in 744 by the holy Bonifacius, and which in the course of time was endowed with various privileges, and in GERMANY. 373 The Klectorate of Hesse — il3 Geographical Divisions. 1752 raised to the rank of an hidependent bishopric, which in the beginning of the present century had a territory to the extent of 788 square miles, -with 70,000 inhabitants. In 1803 it was secularized, and, by the title of a princi- pality, ceded to the prince of Oravge (subsequently King William I. of the Netherlands). But as this prince was in 1806 general in the Prussian ser- vice, Napoleon deprived him, after the battle of Jena, of the principality of Fulda, and annexed it in 1809 to the grand-duchy of Frankfort (see page 29-1). In 1815 Prussia became possessed of it, but soon ceded it to Hesse-Cassel, with the exception of some districts, which were annexed to Bavaria. It since bears the title of a grand-duchy, and contains : -pFuLD.\, its former capi- tal, and residence of the bishop, on the Fulda river, 62 miles south-south-east of Cassel, with various and numerous manufactures and 9,600 inliabitants, is noted for its magnificent palace and its cathedral containing the sepulchre of the holy Bonifacius. The neighboring village of SahsMierf (with 1,100 in- habitants) is a watering-place. Huenfeld, a town on the high-road between Fulda and Eisenach, with noted Unen manufactures, and 2,150 inhabitants. Burghaun, a market-town, with 1,800 inhabitants. 2. The Jo7ninion of Schnalkalden (144 square miles, and 27,300 inhabitants), which partly was purchased, partly inherited by the house of Hesse-Cassel respectively in 1360 and 1583, contains: ScnM.\LKALDE>f, a town at the Thiiringer- wald Mountains, about half-way between Fulda and Weimar, with 5,500 in- habitants, is renowned for its cutlery, and also noted in the history of the Reformation, especially with reference to the years 1531 and 1537. The neighboring market-town of Klein-Schmalkalden (Little Schmalkalden), part of which belongs to Saxe-Gotha, has 1,050 inhabitants, who carry on a con- siderable trade in those articles fabricated at Schmalkidden. Brotterode, a market-town, with manufactures of hardware and cutlery, and 2,400 inhabi- taftts. The villages Oberschonau (with 960 inhabitants) and Seligenthal (with 1,150 inhabitants), are noted for their iron-works. 3. Tlie market-town of Philippsthal (on the Wcrra, 30 miles north-north-east of Fulda, with 900 inhabitants) is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Hesse-CasseL Other market-towns are Niederaida (with 1,350 inhabitants), and Heringen (with 1,250 inhabitants). Hersfeld, a town on the Fulda river, northward and 24 miles distant from Fulda, with manufiictures of leather and woollen goods, and 7,000 inhabitants. The market-town of Barcufeld, with 1,600 inhabitants, is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Hesse-CasseL Friedewald, a maiket-town, with 1,550 inhabitants. 874 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. IV. The province of Hanau, comprises chiefly the ancient earldom of Hanau-Miinzenberg (which in 1736 was inherited by the house of Ilesse- Cassel), and containing: -(-Hanau, the capital of tlie provmce, on tlie right bank of the Mayne, eastward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, with numerous and various manufactures, considerable trade, and 15,300 inhabi- tants. Hanau is noted for the battle on tlie 30th Oct., 1813, in which the Ba- varian and Austrian troops were defeated by Napoleon, then retreating from Leipsic. Near Hanau is the electoral palace of Ph'dlpparuhe, and the water- ing-place of Wilhelmsbad. On the left bank of the Mayne is situated tire palace of Rumpexheim, until 1837 the residence of the late landgrave Frede- ric, father of the duchess of Cambridge. The market-town of Nauheim (with 1,450 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-springs. Bockenheim, a town on the Mayne and in the neighborhood of Frankfort, with 3,500 inhabitants. In its vicinity is .situated the market-town of Praunhe'nn, with 700 inhabitants. The market-town of Bergex, not fiir from Frankfort, with 2,000 inhabitants, is remarkable for a victory obtained by the French in 1759. Gelnhauses, anciently an imperial city and fiequently the residence of Emperor Frederic I. (see page 300), is situated on the Kinzig, and the high-road between Hanau and Fulda, and has 4,050 mhabitants. Of the ancient imperial residence some remains are stiU extant. Between here and Fulda is to be noticed Schluech- TERX, a town with 2,250 inhabitants. The town of Steinau, on the Kinzig river, has 2,550 inhabitants. To the former bishopric of Fulda (see above) once belonged the towns of Salmuenster (with 1,650 inhabitants) and Soden (with 1,100 inhabitants). The market-town of Birstein (with a palace and 1,100 inhabitants) belongs to the prince of Isenburg-Birstein (see page 355). To other lines of the princely house of Isenburg do belong : Waechtersbach, a town in the neighborhood of Salmiinster, with 1,400 inhabitants, and Meer- HOLz, a market-town, noted for its quarries, has 900 inhabitants. GERMANY. 8t5 The Principality of WulJock— its History. XIV.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK. Area : 458 square miles. Population: 02,000 inhabitants. This principality, situated between Hesse-Cassel and "West- phalia, consists of two detached sections about 30 miles from each other. The larger section (420 square miles, and 55,000 inhabitants) comprises Waldeck proper ; and the by far smaller section (32 square miles, and 7,000 inhabitants) consists of the earldom or principality of Pyrmont, and is situated on the We- ser. The inhabitants, being Evangelicals (see page 291), depend for subsistence chiefly on agriculture and other branches of hus- bandry. The government is a somewhat limited monarchy. The public revenue and expenditure amount to about 250.000 Prussian dollars annually, and the fublic debt to 600,000 Prus- sian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 519 men. History. — Waldeck was primitively an earldom, whose first historically known earl was Wittckiiid (not to be confounded with the f\\mous Saxon duke of this name), who lived in the beginning of the 11th century. His de- scendants formed several lines, most of which became extinct in the course 6f time. In 1625 the reigning house of Waldeck inherited the earldom of P?/n«o»^, and was respectively in 1692 and 1712 promoted to the prince! >/ rank and dignity. In 1807 Waldeck became a member of the Rhenish, and in 1815 of the German confederation. The reigning sovereign is prince George, born in 1831. The principality of Waldeck is divided into 4 bailiwicks, one of which comprises the earldom of Pyrmont. AVe shall first de- scribe "Waldeck proper, and next to it Pyrmont. 37C EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Principality of Waldeck. 1. Waldeck proper (see p. 3*75) contains : Corbach, or Korbach, the capital of the whole principality (the princely residence is in Arolsen), on the Itter river, 30 miles west-south-west of Cassel, with a remarkable church, and 2,500 inliabitanis. Arolsen, residence of the prince and seat of the govern- ment, on the little Aar river, 20 miles west-north-west of Cassel, with, 2,200 inliabitants), various manufactures, and a remarkable and extensive princely palace, founded in 1716. "Wildungen . (or iVtWerwi'WwKj'ew), a town south- eastward and 14 miles distant from Corbach, with a remarkable church, and 1,850 mhabitants, is noted for its mineral waters. In the neighborhood of Corbach are the ruins of the castle of Schwaletiberg, ancestral seat of the reigning princely house. The neighboring town of Sachsenhausen, with 1,200 inhabitants, is noted for its breweries. Waldeck, a town 9 miles east-south- east of Corbach, with the ancient castle of the same name, and 800 inhabi- tants. Other towns are : Mengcrinrjhauscn (with 1,750 inhabitants), Sachsen- berg (with 1,150 inhabitants), Freienhagen (with 800 inhabitants), and Rhoden (with 1,750 inliabitants). The market-town of Bergheim, with 600 inhabi- tants, is the residence of the earl of Waldeck, who belongs to a collateral line of the princely house. 2. The earldom, or at present principaTity of Pyrmont (see above), contains : Pyrmont, a town on the Weser, northward and 52 miles distant from Cassel, has a remarkable princely palace, and 3,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral waters, and annually visited by many strangers. XV.— THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. Area : 5,793 square miles. Population : 1,809,000 inhabit.ints. The former electorate, but since 180G kingdom of Saxony, is situated towards the centre of Germany, between Bavaria and Silesia, and between Bohemia and the Prussian province of Saxony. GERMANY. 877 Tho Kingdom of Saxony — its Natural Products and Manufactures. Most of the inhabitants are Lulherans^ though the royal family is Catholic since the days of Frederic Augustus I. (1691-1733). In 1843 the number of Catholics (chiefly in Lusatia) in the coun- try was 30,375, and that of Calvinists was 2,074, while the num- ber of Jews (who are allowed only to live in Dresden and Leipsic) was restricted to 882. The surface is mostly hilly and mountainous, yet level in the northern part of the country. The principal mountain range here is the Erzgchirge, or Ore Mountains (see page 7). The Highland of Meissen is usually called Saxon Switzerland, on account of its sublime natural scenery. The principal river is the Elbe. The soil is in the level and hilly parts of the country, both fertile and eminently cultivated ; nevertheless corn is not suffi- ciently raised for home consumption. The vine is cultivated to a rather great extent, but the wines which are produced are not fit for being exported. Fruits of various kinds are produced in abundance. The rearing of cattle is very considerable, and vast flocks of sheep are raised, the icool of which, noted for its fine- ness, is largely exported. The greatest part of German wool imported into England in 1828, amounting to more than 230,000 quintals, was Saxon wool. In 1765 Spanish sheep were intro- duced for improving the native breed, and in 1S29 Saxon sheep "sveve introduced in Spain to improve the Spanish breed ! Sax- ony is moreover rich in metals and other minerals. In 1844 the nett produce of the Saxon mines had a value of 2,197,873 Prus- sian dollars, and consisted chiefly of silver (74,272 marks), lead (8,940 quintals), tin (2,409 quintals), iron (at the value of more than 600,000 Prussian dollars), etc. Saxony is noted for its manufactures, which consist chiefly of cotton and xcoollen goods, linen, lace, straw hats, etc., musical in- struments and porcelain. The inland trade is very considerable, 678 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESEN1\ Germany. — Kingdom of Saxony. and for several years the exports have surpassed the imports by about 3 milliou Prussian dollars in value. With regard to the means of education, Saxony ranks among the first countries of Germany in this point. Beside the university at Leipsic (see page 287), which in 184G was frequented by 835 students, there are 2 so-called princely schools (arranged in a similar manner, as for instance, the colleges at Eton and Win- chester in England), 9 gymnasia, 9 seminaries, the renowned mining academy at Freiberg, 2,155 common schools (beside nu- merous private schools), etc. The government is a limited monarchy like that of Wirtem- berg. In the budget for the period 1S4G-48, the public revenue was estimated at 5.798,648 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure at 5,786,059 annually. The actual public debt amounted at the close of the year 1846, to 13,092,600 Prussian dollars. The regular fl.r??i?/ consists of 16,691 men. The troops for the con- federal army, 12.000 men. There are the following orders of honor : 1. T^he order of the Rue Crown, instituted in 1807, in one single class. 2. The military order of St. Henry, instituted in 1736, and renewed respectively in 1796, and 1829, in 4 classes. 3. The civil order of Merit, in 3 classes, instituted in 1815. History. — The first historically known inhabitants of this country were the Hermunduri (a Germanic tribe) ; and at a later period and until the end of the 10th century, Ave find here the Sorbes and other Slavonic tribes predom- inant. Thus, while Slavonic tribes occupied a country which at present is known only by the name of Saxony, the ancient and genuine Germanic tribe of the Saxons, lived at a rather great distance from it in the north-western part of Germany, between the Rhine and Eider rivers (see page 298). In short, the ancient Saxous (whose principal seat is in common life still fre- quently called Lovjrr Saxony) had nothing in common with the fore-mentioned country ; and tlie latter would, but for the political alterations the ancient duchy of Saxony underwent towards the end of the 12th century, perhaps GERMANY. 379 The Kingdom of Saxony — its History. have retained its primitive political name of Meissen until the present day. This name was derived from that of the stronghold of Meissen, which Em- peror Henry I. erected in 930 on the Elbe, to protect the eastern frontier of Germany against the imoads on the part of the neighboring Slavonic tribes. He annexed a territory to that place, appointed a margrave to represent him here, and in this way the margraviate of Meixscn came to exi>tence. In 1046 Emperor Uenry IIL invested with the margraviate the earl Dedo II. of Wettin, who is the ancestor of the present reigning houses in the kingdom, as well as in the graud-duchy and ducliies of Saxony. In the course of time the margraviate was gradually enlarged, especially by the ancient landgra- viate of Thiiringen (see under the head of Saxe-Weimar), which was inher- ited in the 13th century. Meanwhile the powerful duchy of Saxony (L e. the present Hanover, "WestphaUa, etc., see page 299) had been dismembered since the year 1179 (when the Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, was out- lawed on account of his felony), and with its north-eafttern part and the elec- toral privileges (see page 293), the Duke Bernard of Ascania (see under the head of Aiihalt) been invested. In 1422 the electoral line of the Ascanian house became extinct, and Emperor Sigismund now conferred that named part of the ancient duchy of Saxony and the electoral dignity upon the mar- grave Frederic of Meissen, and since that period the name of a margraviate of Meissen became gradually obsolete, and was supplanted by the more illus- trious title of the electorate of Saxony. For the same reason that circle of the German Empire which chiefly embraced this electorate, was stj'led the Upper Saxon circle (see page 293). TJie Margrave Frederic, or Elector Frederic I, died in 1428, and was succeeded by his son Frederic IT., sur- named the Meek, who resided in Altenburg, and died in 1464, leaving be- hind two sons, Ernest and Albert. Ernest succeeded his father as elector, ' and the electoral residence was henceforth usually in "Wittenberg. But he ceded the ancient margraviate of Meissen (comprising among others Dresden and Leipsic) and part of Thuringia, to his younger brother Albert, who took his residence in Dresden, and with whom, and his descendants, we have only to do here. For Ernest's grandson, John Frederic, surnamed the Generous, having taken up arms against the emperor, and for this reason been deposed in 1547, Albert's grandson, Maltiice, was invested with the electorate, how- ever at the same time obliged to cede to the deposed elector and his descen- dants, the districts of Weimar, Jena, Eisenach, Gotha, etc., to which in 1564 \ras added that of Altenburg. In this way the Saxon grand-duchy and 380 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Saxony. duchies, ruled by descendants of Ernest and respectively of John Frederic, came into existence. Elector Maurice died in 1553, and was succeeded by his brother, Augustus L, who died in 1586, and was succeeded by his son, Christian I., etc. The elector Frederic Augustus I. (1694-1733) ascended the Polish throne as King Augustus II. He died in 1733, and was succeeded both in Saxony and Poland by liis son Frederic Augustus II. (Augustus III.), who died in 1763. His grandson, Frederic Augustus (1763-1827), became in 1806, member of the Rhenish confederation (see page 294), as king oi Saxony, and in the following year possessed of the duchy or grand-duchy of Wai'saw, created by Napoleon. He continued to be the ally of Napoleon, even until the battle of Leipsic in 1813, and for this reason he was by the powers allied against the French emperor, treated as prisoner, and in 1815 deprived of the larger half (7,961 square miles, and in 1815, with 845,218 inhabitants) of his kingdom, in favor of Prussia, to which this half was ceded. King Frederic Augustus I. died in 1827, and was succeeded by his brother, Anton, who died in 1836, and was succeeded by his nephew, the at present reigning king, Frederic Augustus II., born in 1797. Until 1835 the kingdom was divided into 5 circles or provinces, which since have been reduced to 4 (of Dresden, Leipsic, Zwickau and Bautzen), styled districts of circle directions (Kreisdirektions- Bezirke). Those of Dresden, Leipsic and Zwickau comprise the ancient margraviate of Meissen and part of Thuringia ; while that of Bautzen comprises the greater part of the Upper Lusatia, an- nexed to Saxony in 1635. For the sake of brevity, we shall use the term oi provinces, whose capitals will be found marked with a cross (+). I. The province of Dresden contains : -[-Dresden, the capital of the king- dom and royal residence, on both sides of the Elbe (crossed here by one of the finest bridges, built of freestone, 1,380 feet long and 42 feet broad), had, at the close of the year 1846, 3,706 houses and 85,707 inhabitants, exclusive of the military and strangers. Dresden is noted for a great many magnifi- cent or at k'iist remarkable public buililings ; as for instance, the Catholic church (reared in tlie period of 1739-1756), the church of Our Lady (with a fine cupola), the royal palace with a steeple of 353 feet in height, the so- GERMANY. 381 The Kingdom of Saxony — its Geographical Divisions. called Japanese palace containing the royal library (see page 288), the new building for the highly renowned gallery of paintings, the former palace of Marcolini (where Napoleon resided in 181.3), etc. Near Dresden is the beauti- ful valley called Plauenscher Grand, after the village of Plauen, where it ends, wliile it begins at the town of Thaeakd, with 1,800 inhabitants and an academy for forest-concerns. The neighboring village of Kcssehdorf is noted for a battle between the Prussians and Austro-Saxons on the 15th Dec, 1745. Meissen, once the capital of the ancient margraviate of Meissen, on the Elbe, 13 miles below Dresden, with 8,200 inhabitants, vine culture, and a college or so-called princely school (see above), instituted in 1543. Meissen is at present chiefly noted for its eminent porcelain-manufactory, which in 1710 was established in the ancient and extensive castle, where the mar- graves had resided. Another remarkable edifice is the ancient Gothic cathe- dral; for Meissen was until 1587 the seat of a Catholic bishop. The neigh- boring town of Lmnmatzsch (with 2,800 inhabitants) is situated in a district of the same name that is highly renowned for the fertility of its well-cultivated soil. Freiberg, a city near the Freibcrger Mulde river, south-westward and 18 miles distant from Dresden, is highly renowned both for its numerous mines and mining academy, which was founded in 1765 and has ever since been much resorted to, even from foreign countries. The mines of Freiberg were for the first time wrought in the 12th century, and have since produced quantities of silver to the value of 240,000,000 Prussian dollars. Ilainichen, a town, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Freiberg, with numerous manu- fa(^ures and 5,600 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of the amiable German poet Gellert. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Wilsdruf (with 2,150 inhabitants), Rlesa (with 2,300 uiliabitants), Brand (with 2,400 inhabitants), Sayda (with 1,250 inhabitants), Frauenstein (with 1,150 inhabi- tants), Altexberg (with important tin mines, and 2,100 inhabitants), Glas- ^^^^^(with 1,100 inhabitants), i)o/ma (with 1,200 inhabitants), Dippoldiswalde (with 2,550 inhabitants), Grofssenliahi (with 6,500 inhabitants), Radehirg (noted for its corn and cattle-markets, has 2,100 inhabitants), and Radeberg (with linen manufactures and 2,300 inhabitants). The town of LtEBSTADT, in tlie neighborhood of Pima, with 800 inhabitants, is noted for its ancient moun- tain-castle of Kuhikstein. In its vicinity is situated the village of Maxen where on the 21st Nov., 1759, the Prussian general Fink capitulated with 15,000 men. Krcischa, a market-town, between Dresden and Pirna, with 900 inliabitants, is noted as a watering-place, and situated in a district that EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Kingdom of Saxony. may be considered as tlie principal seat of the Saxon straw-hat manufactures. MoRiTZBURG, a palace northward and 7 miles distant from Dresden, and reared in 1542 by the elector Maurice, contains more than 220 rooms and apartments, and is noted as a royal hunting-seat. Tlie palace of Pillnitz, in the neighborhood of Dresden, and noted for its gardens and park, is the resi- dence of the king in the summer season. Schandau, a town on the right bank of the Elbe, and near the frontier of Bohemia, with 1,650 inhabitants, may be considered as the principal place of the above-mentioned Saxon Switzerland. Between Schandau and Dresden is situated, on the left bank of the Elbe, the town of PiRNA, witli 6,000 inhabitants, noted for its quarries, and for its ancient castle of Sonnenstein, standing on a high rock and at present arranged for a madhouse. Opposite Pirna, on the right bank of the Elbe, is situated the town of KoxiGSTEix, with 2,050 inhabitants, and the renowned mountain-fort of the same name, wliich is as impregnable, for mstance, as that of Gibraltar. The well of this fort is 1,172 feet deep. II. Tlie province of Leipsic, comprising part of a district anciently well known by the name of Osterland, contains : -|-Leipsic (in German Leipzig), a city on the Pleisse, at its junction with the Elster rirer, 70 miles west-north- west of Dresden, had, at the close of the year 1846, 1,980 houses and 60,103 inhabitants. Leipsic may in some respects be considered as the centre of the inland trade of Germany, and is noted not only for its great fairs, held thrice a year, but also for its highly important book-trade, and its univer- sity (see page 287). The most remarkable public edifices here are: the Pleisscnburg (celebrated as a stronghold in the thirty years' war, and erected in 1549), the so-called Paulinum (with a church inaugurated by Luther on the 12th Aug., 1545), St. Xicholas' church, St. Thomas' church, etc. The en- virons of Leipsic were the scenes of important battles in 1631, 1642, and es- pecially on the 16th and 18th Oct., 1813. Grimma, a town on the Mulde river, south-eastward and 17 miles distant from Leipsic, has 5,200 inhabitants, and is noted ff)r its manufactures and its princely school or college (see above), founded in 154.3. Wurzkn, a town on the rail-road between Leipsic and Dres- den, is noted for its ancient cathedral (whose foundation was laid in 11 14), and has 4,200 inhabitants. Mutzschcn, a town north-eastward and 7 miles dis- tant from Grimma, with 1,650 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated the palace of Unhcrtalnmj, formerly noted as a hunting-seat, and for the treaty of peace concluded here in 1763. The town of CohUtz (south-east- ward and 25 miles distant from Leipsic, with 3,000 inhabitants) is noted for GERMANY. 888 The Kingdom of Saxony— its Geographical Divisions. its hospital, that of Rochlitz (southward and 32 miles distant from Lcipsic, with 4,200 inhabitants), for its manufacture of woollen goods, and tlie town of Waldhcim (between Leipsic and Freiberg, with 3,500 inhabitants), for its house of correction. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Taucha (with 2,100 inhabitants), Markran&tadt (with 1,050 inhabitants), Pegau (with 3,600 inhabitants), Zioenkau (with 2,650 inhabitants), Borna (with 4,200 inhabitants), Germgswalde (with 2,400 iiiliabitants), and Leisnig (with important manufac- tures and 5,200 inhabitants). Pexig, a town on the ilulde river, between Leipsic and Chemnitz, with 4,100 inliabitants, is noted for its cotton manufac- tures, and belongs to a collateral line of the dependent princely house of Schiin- burg (see under the head of the following province), together with the town of Wechsdhurg (with 1,200 inhabitants), and the village of Jtochsburg (with 600 inhabitants, and a remarkable ancient castle or palace). III. The province of Zwickau, comprising among others the ancient Voigt- land (which name is derived from voigt or bailiff, because the district was in the middle ages under the sway of an imperial bailifif or governor), contains: -|-ZwicK.\u, the capital of the province, in a romantic valley on the Zwickauer Mulde river, southward and 40 miles distant from Leipsic, has 9,000 inhabi- tants and several remarkable churches, and is noted for its coal mines. Zwickau carried on a very considerable trade in the middle ages, and was an imperial city until 130S. Tlie towns of Crimmitzschau (with remarkable Gothic church and 5,800 inhabitants) and Werdau (with 6,300 inhabitants), are noted for their woollen manufactures. Schneeberg, a noted mining town in the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, southward and 12 miles distant from Zwickau, with various manufactures, especially of lace, and 7,300 inhabitants. Its silver mines wrought for the first time in 1471, were so productive, that . when in 1477 the margrave Frederic of Meissen dined in one of them, he sat at a table consisting of a piece of ore, 80,000 marks of silver in value. An- NABERG, a likewise noted mming town near the frontier of Bohemia, is more- over noted for its ribbon and lace manufactures, and has 7,850 inhabitants- Other more or less remarkable mining towns are: Scheihenhfrg (with 1.850 inhabitants), Sckwarzenberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Aite (with 1,400 inhabi- tants), Johaiuigcorgcnstadt (John George's town, has 4,000 inhabitants), Eibenstock (with 5,300 inhabitants), Oeyer (with 3,600 inhabitants), Johstadt (with 2,000 inhabitants), Elterlcin {w'xih. 2,150 inhabitants), Wolkenstein (with 1,950 inhabitants), and Mnrienherg (with 4,500 inhabitants). Tlic most im- portant manufacturing town is Chemnitz, south-eastward and 50 miles distant S8-4 EUROrE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Saxony. from Leipsic, with 28,650 inhabitants. Its manufactures consist chiefly of cotton goods. Oederax, a toAvn between Chemnitz and Freiberg, has 4,C50 bhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures of cloth, cassimcrc, flannel, etc. Fraxkexberg, a town on the Zschopau river, north-eastward and 8 miles dis- tant from Chemnitz, has 6,300 inliabitants, and is noted for its cotton manu- factures. Gruenhain, a town between Schneeberg and Annaberg, is noted for its lace, and has 1,550 inhabitants. Tlie above-mentioned Voifjtland contains: Plauen, its ancient capital, on the Elster, westward and 23 miles distant from Zwickau, with important manufactures of muslin, and 11,050 inhabitants. Reichenbach, a town half-way between Plauen and Zwickau, has 6,800 inhab- itants, and is likewise noted for its manufactures of muslin and of cloth, etc. Other more or less important manufacturing towns are : Oelsnitz (with 4,250 inhabitants), Ketzschkau (with 1,900 inhabitants), Mylau (with 2,C00 inliabi- tants), Elstcrberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Lengenfeld (with 4,050 inhabi- tants), Treueji (with 4,500 inhabitants), Miihltroff (with 1,700 inhabitants), and Pausa (with 2,450 inhabitants). Tiie towns of Adorf (with 2,700 inhaV itants) and Markneuliirchen (with 2,750 inhabitants), are noted for their mu- sical instruments. Auerbach, a town on the Golzsch river, with considerable corn-markets, manufactures of black lace and pins, and 3,700 inhabitants, who make much pitch and smoke-black in the neighboring pine forests. Wil- DENFELS, a town between Zwickau and Schneeberg, with 2,400 inliabitants, and a palace, the residence of the earl of Solms-Wildenfels (belonging to the house of Solms, mentioned page 357). The dependent dominions of the princes and earls of Schonburg (241 square miles, and 105,300 inliabitants), contain : Waldenburg, a town romantically situated on the Zwickauer Mulde river, southward and 36 miles distant from Leipsic, has 2,400 inhabitants, and is the residence of the prince of Schonburg-Waldenburg, to whom also do belong the towns of Lichtenstein (with 3,250 inhabitants), Callenberg (with 2,250 inhabitants), Hartenstein (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Lossnitz (with 4,900 inhabitants). Tlie towns of Hoiienstein (with 4,700 inhabitants and con- eiderable manufactures of cotton goods), and Meerane (with woollen manu- factures and 5,550 inhabitants), belong to the earl of Sclionburg-Wechselburg. Glauchau, a town westward and 18 miles distant from Chemnitz, with 8,250 inhabitants, is the residence of the earl of Schiinburg-IIinterglauchau, and at the same time the capital of the above-named dependent dominions. IV. Tlie province of Bautzen consists of ancient Upjier Lusatia. Lusatia, in general, was a margraviate, instituted in 931, and since the year 1370, belong- GERMANY. 385 Kingdom of Saxony — its Geographical Divisions. ing entirely to Bohemia. In 1635, Emperor Ferdinand II. ceded (in his quality as king of Bohemia) Lusatia to the electorate of Saxony, of which it lias since formed a constituent part. Yet in 1815 the king of Saxony was constrained to cede that part known by the name of Lower Lusatia, and also part of Upper Lusatia, to Prussia. The remainder of Upper Lusatia, or the present province of Bautzen (969 square miles, and 282,600 inhabitants), contains: -)-Bautzen (officially styled Budissin), the ancient capital of Upper Lusatia, on the Spree river, eastward and 32 miles distant from Dresden, has 1 1,000 inhabitants and several remarkable public buildings, and is noted for its nuftierous manufactures, especially of linen, paper, and leather. Napoleon's victory on the 20th and 21st May, 1813. Zittau, a highly renowned manufacturing city near the Neisse river and the frontier of Bohemia, south-eastward and 30 miles distant from Bautzen, with numerous manufactures, linen and damask^and 9,350 iiiliabitants. To the city belong 36 villages, both industrious and populous, as, for instance, Seifhennersdorf, or Hcnnersdorf in Seifen (with 5,600 inhabitants, and linen manuf;\cture^), and Gross-Schd7iau, with 4,800 inhabitants, fabricating damask of unparalleled beauty and fineness. A damask table-cloth, which was given to the duke of "Wellington by King Frederic Augustus I., was made in Gross- Schonau. C.\menz, a city on the Black Elster, north-westward and 12 miles distant from Bautzen, has 4,450 inhabitants, and is noted for its gingerbread. LoBAU, a city south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Bautzen, with 2,800 inhabitants, and considerable trade in linen and cloth. Koxigsbrueck, a town on the Pulsnitz river, 14 miles north-north-east of Dresden, with a palace (residence of the count of Hohenthal) and 1,150 inhabitant*!, is noted for its potteries. Hcibersdorf, a market-town in the neighborhood of Zittau, with a magnificent palace of the count of Einsiedeln, and 1,000 inhabitants. Schir- giswaldc, a town on the Spree river, is noted fof its fustian, and has 1,400 in- ha'bitants. The village of Hochkirch, south-eastward and 5 miles distant from Bautzen, is noted in the history of the seven years' war, by the defeat of the Prussians in the night of the 14th Oct., 1758. Heurnhut, a town at the railroad between Lobau and Zittau, with 1,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the original seat of the Moravian Brethren since 1722. Other places in- habited exclusively by Moravian Brethren are, Geosshennersdorf, or Markl- kemiersdorf (witli 2,000 inhabitants), Berthehdorf (with 1,850 inhabitants), and Klcinwdka (with 600 inhabitants). StoLPEX, a town on the Wesenitz, eastward and 14 miles distant from Dresden, with a remarkable ancient mountain castle, and 1,300 inhabitants. 17 8M EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weiraar. XVI.— THE GRAND-DUCIIY OF SAXE-WEIMAR. Area: 1,427 square miles. Population : 254,000 inhabitants. This state, officially styled Saxn- Weimar -Eisenach, is situated in the centre of Germany, surrounded by otber Saxon territories. The majority of the inhabitants consist of Lutherans, and the re- mainder of about 10.200 Catholics. &w^ 1,450 Jeios. The surface of the country is hilly ; timber and wood, iron and manganese, are the chief natural products. The manufactures consist, for the most part, of hardware, woollen goods and linen. Besides the university of Jena (see page 287), in 184G frequented by 419 stu dents, there arc 2 gymnasia. 72 Latin schools, 445 common ■Bchools, etc. The government is a limited monarchy. According ■to the budget for the period of 1845-47, the public revenue was .estimated at 765,282. and the expenditure at 754,705 Prussian dollars annually. The revenues of the grand-ducal domains amount, upon an average, to 680.000 Prussian dollars per annum. The yuhlic debt amounts to about 3,750.000 Prussian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 2,010 men. There is an order of honor, viz., the Falcon order, instituted in 1732 and renewed in 1815, in 3 classes. Hhtorij. — Tliat all Saxon territories and reigning houses have one and the same origin, has already been told, page 379. The electors Maurice and Au- gustus I. ceded to the deposed elector, John Frederic the Generous, the dis- tricts named in the history of Saxony. John Frederic kept them together, but soon after his death, which occurred in 1554, his three sons divided them; which example was frequently followed by tlieir descendants, so that in this way the other Saxon duchies, Gotha, Altonbiirg, etc., came into existence. In Weimar succeeded duke John (grandson of the elector John Frederic), who GERMANY. 387 The Grand-Duchy of Weimar — its History aiid Geographical Divlsiona. died in 1605. In 1090 Jena with its dependencies, and in 1741 the dominion or principality of Eisenach was inherited by the reigning dukes of Weimar. In this way the duchy of Saxe-Weimar enlarged gradually its limits to the extent of 766 square miles, and had in 1806 a population of 109,000 inhabi- tants. In the last-named year, and after the battle of Jena, the then reigning duke Charles Augustus, joined the Rhenish Confederation, but in 1813 the allied powers. According to the stipulations of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, some districts of the kingdom of Saxony, of the electorate of Hesse, etc., (together 6C1 square miles, with 77,000 inhabitants), were annexed to the duchy, which at the same time was raised to the dignity of a grand-duchy. Charles Augustus died in 1828, and was succeeded by his son, the still reign- bg grand-duke Charles Frederic, born in 1783. The grand-ducliy is divided into two provinces, styled princi- palities, viz., the province or principality of Weimar, and the province or principality of Eisenach, and is subdivided into 25 bailiwicks. I. The province of "Weimar contains : Weimar, capital of the grand-duchy and residence of the grand-duke, on the Ilm river, eastward and 14 miles dis- tant from Erfurt and south-westward and 60 miles distant from Leipsio, with a magnificently-furnished grand-ducal palace, an admirably arranged public library of 130,000 volumes, and 12,000 inhabitants. Weimar has frequently been called German Athens on account of its having been the seat of eminent authors and poets, as Gothe, Schiller, Herder, Wieland and Musaus. Jex.\, a town romantically situated on the Saale, 12 miles east-south-east of T^eimar, has 6,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (sec page 2^7), and for the battle gained by Napoleon over the Prussians on the 14th Oct, 1806. Butistddt, a town north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Wei- mar, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse-marts. The town of Apohla, with 4,600 inhabitants, is noted for its hosieries. Blankenha>/n, a town southward and 9 miles distant from Weimar, with various manuHictures, considerable breweries, and 1,800 inhabitants. Stadtsulza, or Suiza, a town near the Saale river, has 1,250 inhabitants, and derived its name from valu- able salt-springs, which were discovered in 966, but are at present the prop- erty of Saxe-Meiningea Berka, a town on the Ilm, with mineral waters, quarries, and 1,300 inhabitants. Re-mda, a town with cotton and woollen 388 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weimar. manufactures, breweries, and 1,050 inhabitants. Allsfcdt, a town northward and 32 miles distant from Weimar, is noted for its eminent grand-ducal stud, and has 2,250 inhabitants. AUstedt is situated in a district tliat anciently was called the Saxon Palatinate. The town of Ilmexau, at the foot of the Kick- elhahn (see page 7), south-westward and 32 miles distant frt)m Weimar, with some manufactures, breweries, and 2,850 inhabitants, is situated on the terri- tory of the ancient earldom of Henxeberg (724 square miles, and in 1803 with 104,000 inhabitants), whose native carls became extinct in 1583, when it was inherited by the different lines of the Saxon houses, but especially by the descendants of the elector John Frederic the Generous. The eastern part of this province, forming at present the circle or district of Neustadt, was in 1815 ceded by the king of Saxony to Saxe-Weimar, and contains : Neustadt an der Orla, a town on the Orla river, south- eastward and 28 miles distant from Weimar, with cloth and other manufactures, and 4,450 inhabitants. Weida, a town with 4,100 inliabitants, is noted for its potteries. Other towns are: Triptis (with 1,500 inhabitants), Auma (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Berrja (with 650 inhabitants). II. The province of Eisenach contains : Eisenach, its capital, on the Nesse and Horsel rivulets, about half-way between Weimar and Cassel, with seve- ral remarkable public edifices, various manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants. At a distance of IJ mile from here is situated, on a high mountain of the Forest of Thuringia (see page 7), the highly renowned ancient castle known by the name of WartbUeg, erected in 1067, and at present completely re- stored. Luther lived here incognito from the 4th May, 1521, to the 6th March, 1522. As this castle was the residence of the landgraves of Thuringia until the beginning of the 15th century, we shall give an historical sketch of Thuringia in general here. The Thuringians themselves have already been mentioned in the History of Germany (see page 298). They were primitively ruled by native kings, the first of whom was nataed Merwig and lived in the beginning of the 5th century. The last king, Hermannfried by name, was murdered by the Franks in 530, and since the kingdom of Thuringia became a prey of the Saxons, Sorbes and Franks. That part the latter took posses- sion of, is until the present day known by the name of Thuringia, and Erfurt (alreatly founded in the 5th century) was considered as its capital. The Car- lovingians in France having been supplanted by the Capetians in 987 (see page 32), the last descendant of the former, Louis, took his refuge to Empe- ror Conrad II. (reigning in the period of 1024-1039), who appointed him GERMANY. 38& The Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weimar.— The Duchy of Saxe-Melningen. earl of Thuringia. Louis was succeeded ty his son, Louis surnamed the Jumper, who was raised to the dignity of a landgrave. The reigning land- grave since the year 1190 was Hermann, whose daughter was given in mar- riage to the margiave Theodoric of Meissen, and who died in 1216, when he was succeeded by his eldest son Louis IV., consort of the holy Elizabeth, and father of the duchess Sophia of Brabant (see Hessian History, page 35.3). With bis brother Henry Raspe, who died in 1247, the male line of the land- graves of Thuringia became extinct, and the greatest part of the landgraviate was now inherited by the house of Saxony (see page 379). Smce the ICth century the descendants of the elector Ernest and respectively of John Frederic the Generous (see page 379) are possessed of Thuringia (and be- side them, since 1815, Prussia). Tliat part belonging to Saxc-Weimar contains, beside Eisenach, the following places: Ruhla, a village with 1,550 inhabitants, is noted for its considerable manufacture of hardware and cutlery. Ceeuzburg or Kreuzburg, a town on the Werra, with 2,230 in- habitants, is noted for its salt-springs. Wilhelmsthal, a gi-aud-ducal palace with a beautiful park. Berka aud Gcrstungen, market-towns with respectively 1,250 and 1,400 inhabitants. To the ancient earldom of Henncberg (see above) belonged tlie towns of Ostheim (southward and 45 miles distant from Eisenach, is noted for its cherries, and has 2,650 inliabitants), Kaltcn- nordhcim (with manufactures of cutlery and linen, and 1,650 inliabitante), and Kaltensundheim (with 900 inhabitants). Vacha, a town south-westward and 16 miles distant from Eisenach, has 2,250 inhabitants, and did untill815 belong to Hesse-Cassel. The town of Geysa, with 1,900 inhabitants, for- merly belonged to the bishopric of Fulda (see page 372). XVn.— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-MEINIKGEN. Area : 980 square miles. Population : 157,000 inhabitants. This duchy, since 182G officially styled Saxe-Meiningni-ITild- burghauscn, is situated at tlie northern frontier of Bavaria, at and 890 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen— its History. on the Thuringerwald (see page 7). separating Coburg from Gotba, and bordering upon Weimar and Altenburg likewise. The in- habitants are Lutherans, with the exception of about 1,000 Cath- olics, and 1.550 Jews. On account of the thoroughly mountain- ous surface of the country, the rearing of cattle is to be con- sidered as rather considerable. There are extensive forests, yielding valuable products for exportation. The manufactures of linen and woollen goods, of hardware and wooden toys, are considerable, as is likewise the inland trade. The university at Jena is considered as possessed in common by Saxe-Weimar and the Saxon duchies. In SaxeMeiningen itself are 2 gymna- sia, 1 seminary, 212 common, and 20 other schools. The govern- ment is a limited monarchy. In the financial year, ending 1844, the public revenue and expenditure amounted to 1,475,746, and the public debt to 4,537,776 florins. To the confederal army are to be furnished 1,150 men. The Saxon dukes have in common the so-called House and Merit Order, in 4 classes, prim- itively instituted in 1690 by the duke Frederic of Gotha, and renewed in 1838. History. — When Duke John, grandson of the elector John Frederic the Generous (see page 386), died in 1605, he left behind 11 sons, of whom John Ernest succeeded in Weimar, -while the other dominions were divided among the remaining 10 brothers. These died however one after the other, within a rather short period, with the exception of Ernest, surnamed the Pi»us, who died in 1615, leaving behind 7 sons, who divided again the dominions, which their father had gradually inherited from his deceased 9 brothers. By tliis arrangement duke Bernard (third son of Ernest) became possessed of Mein- IKGEN, or that part of the ancient carldomo f Henncherg (see back under the head of Jlmenau in Saxe-Weimar), which the ducal line of the Saxon house had become possessed of in 1583. Bernard entailed upon his descend- ants in direct line, the subsequently styled duchy of Meiningen. The present rei"ning duke, like his ancestor named Bernard, and born in 1800, became is 1826 possessed of the former duchy of IlUdhurghausen, the principality of GERMANY. 8»1 The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen — its Geographical Divisions. Saal/cld, and some other territories, in consequence of tlic death of the duke Frederic IV. of Gotha, in 1825 ; for the Saxon line of Gotha having become extinct, this duchy was inherited by the three other ducal lines, represented by the dukes of Coburg, Hildburgliausen, and Meiningen. Tliey agreed that the duke of Coburg should retain Gotha proper, and the duke of Ilildburghau- sen the other half of the inheritance, comprisijig Altenburg ; wliile the duke of Meiningen should be indemnioed by the annexation of Hildburghauseu and Saalfold to his duchy. Thus, the duchy of Saxe-Meiningcn comprises, beside Mein- ingen proper (which, as we have seen, in reality but forms a part of the ancient earldom of Ilenneberg), since 1826 the former duchy of Ilildbv.rghavsen (whose* duke exchanged it at that period for Altenburg), and the former principality of Saalfcld (which until 1S2G belonged to the duke of Coburg). Meiningen (anciently sometimes styled Meinungen), the capital of the duchy, and residence of the duke, on the Werra, southward and 34 miles dis- tant from Eisenach, and eastward and 40 miles distant from Fulda, with a remarkable ducal palace (erected in 1681), various manufactures, and 6,300 inhabitants. Not far from here are the ruins of the castle of Henneberg, once the ancestral seat of the ancient earls of this name. Wasungen, a town on the Werra, with manufactures of cutlery, and 2.600 inh.'xbitants. Steinbach, a market-town noted for its iron mines, has 1,500 inhabitants. Romhild, a town on the Milz river, is noted for its leather manufactures, and has 1,750 inhabitants. Them.ui, a very ancient town on the Werra, south-eastward and 13 miles distant from Meiningen, with paper manufactures and 1,500 inhabi- tants. Salzitngen, a town romantically situated on the Werra, is noted for its salt-springs, and has 3,100 inhabitants. Not for from here, and south- ward and 10 miles distant from Eisenach, is situated the village of Mohka, where Luther's father and mother lived in a house wliich still is extant. Luther, was, it is true, born in Eisleben ; but it was only a short time before that his father had moved from Mohra to Eisleben. Schweina, a market- to-vvn on the rivulet of the same name, has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for manufactures of carded woollen articles in the adjacent Glucksbrunn. The neighboring village of Liebenstein is noted as a watering-place, and romanti- 392 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Duchies of Saxe-Muiningen aiid Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. cally situated in a valley of the Tburingerwald. Soxnenberg, or Sonneberg, on tlie southern declivity of the Thiiringerwald, eastward and 20 miles dis- tant from Hildburghausen, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is renowned for its chil- dren's toys, which are also made in the neighboring villages of Steinach (with 2,100 inhabitants), Judenhach (with 900 iuliabitants), and Steinheide (with 650 inhabitants). Ileinersdorf, a market-town, with breweries, and 800 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade in timber. Hildbuhg- HAUSEN, untQ 1826 the capital of a duchy of the same name (see back), on the Werra, south-eastward and 20 miles distant from Meiningen, with several literary institutions, and 4,400 inhabitants. Eisfdd, a town on the Werra, is noted for its fairs, and has 3,000 inliabitants. Ileldburg, a town with 1,300 inhabitants. Saalfeld, until 1826 the capital of a principality of the same name (see back), on the Saale river, southward and 23 miles distant from Weimar, with a remarkable Gotliic church, various manufactures, and 4,500 inhabitants. Near Saalfeld an action between the French and Prussians took place on the 10th of October, 1806 (four days before the battle of Jena), in which the prince Louis of Prussia was killed. Posneck, a town noted for its manufactures of cloth, leather, and porcelain, lias 3,800 inhabitants. Ernstthaly a little village noted for its glass manufactory. XVIIL— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. Area: 188 square miles. Population: 144,000 inhabitants. This duchy consists of two detached sections, Coburg and Gotha, separated from each other by the duchy of Saxe-Meinin- gen. Coburg, situated on the south side of the Thiiringerwald, and at the northern frontier of Bavaria, is mountainous and rich in valuable forests, with beautiful valleys and well-cultivated soil ; and Goiha, situated on the northern side of the Thuringer- GERMANY. 393 Tho Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Golha— its History. wald, is a fertile hilly country, Tvith likewise well-cultivated soil.* Most of the inhabitants are Lxdhcrans. and the remainder of the population consists of about 2.300 Catholics^ and 1,200 Jews,. Grain, flax, and timber, are chief staples. In the mountainous part of Gotha, great quantities of pitch, tar, and smoke-black, are made. The manufactures consist chiefly of linen, woollen goods, and cutlery. Gotha carries on a considerable trade. Beside the university at Jena (see Introduction of Saxe-Meiningen), there are 3 gymnasia, 2 seminaries, 35 Latin and 300 common schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The amount of the public revenue and of the expenditure fpr several years, has been about 500,000 Prussian dollars. The public debt amounts to nearly 1,750,000 Prussian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 1,116 men. For the order of honor.^ see under the head of Saxe-Meiningen. History. — When the seven sons of Ernest the Pious divided the inherited dominions (see History of Saxe-Meiningen), the second son, Duke Albert, became possessed of Coburg, and the youngest son, Duke Jolm Ernest, be- came possessed of Saalfeld, to which in 1699 (when the line of Albert be- came extinct), the principal part of Coburg was annexed. Jolm ErnCvSt died in 1*729, and was succeeded by his son Francis Josias, who in 1745 transferred his residence from Saalfeld to Coburg, and assumed the title of a duke of Coburg-Saalfeld. Tlie duke Ernest (1806-1844), having been in the active military service of Prussia, was deprived of his duchy by order of Napoleon, who however subsequently restored it to him in 1807. Accord- ing to the stipulations of the congress at Vienna, the principality of Lich- tcnberg, on the left bank of the Rhine, was annexed to the duchy, but iu 1834 ceded to Prussia (see the note below). About his acquisition concern- ing Gotha, in 1826, see History of Saxe-Meiningen. He died in 1844, and * Since 1815 the duchy contained also a small district on the left bank of the Rhine, styled principality of Licldenherg (234 square miles, with 30,000 inliabit.ints). But m 1834, the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ceded it to Prussia, for an annuity of 80.000 florins. 17* 894 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Gennany. — Duchy of Saxe-CubuiB-Goiha. was succeeded by his son, the presently reigning duke Ernest II., born in 1818. (Ilis brother is Prince Albert, consort of the British queen, Victoria.) The duchy is both naturally and politically divided into the above-mentioned two sections, viz., the duchy or province of Coburg^ and the duchy or province of Gotha. 1. The duchy or pro\Tnce of Coburg (192 square miles, and 43,000 inhab- itants), contains : Coburg, or Koburg, its capital, and usual residence of the duke (at least in the summer season), on the Itz river, 44 miles south-south- east of Gotha, with a stately ducal palcce, several other remarkable public edifices, and 10,100 inhabitants. In the vicinity are the ducal palaces of Roaenau and Kallenberg, noted for their parks and gardens. liodach, a town witli a ducal stud, and 1,700 inhabitants. Neustadt an der Heidc, a town on the Rotha river, has 2,250 inhabitants, and is noted for its toys and hops. Konlgsherg, sm'named in Franken, a town in a district which is en- tirely surroimded by Bavarian territory, with vine culture, and 1,100 inhab- itants. 2. The duchy or province of Gotha (596 square miles, and 101,000 inhab- itants), contains : Gotlia, its cajjital, at present frequently the residence of the duke of Coburg-Gotha, half-way between Eisenach and Erfui-t, has 14,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its remarkable public edifices and liter- ary institutions, and for its various manufactures. On the neighboring hill of Seeberg, stands a celebrated observatory. The village of Elgersburg (with 800 inhabitants) is noted as a watering-place, and for its porcelain and manganese, the village of Mancbach for its coal mines, and tlie village of Krawinlcel (with 1,100 inhabitants) for its millstones and musical instru- ments. Walteeshausen, a town on tlie Hcirsel river, south-westward and "7 miles distant from Gotha, with linen and woollen manufactures, numerous breweries, and 3,300 mhabitants. In its vicinity is the noted boarding-school of Schnepfenthal, founded in 1785. Rheinhardsbrunn, anciently a Benedic- tine monastery, at present a ducal palace. Tambach, a market-town on the Tliiiringerwald, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen manufac- tures and iron-works. Blasien-Zclla, or Zella, a town at tlie Tliiiringerwald, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its iron-works and manufactures of fire-arms. The town of Ohrdruf, with 4,400 inhabitants, belongs at present to the house of Hohenlohe (see page 336). GERMANY. 39& The Duchy of Saxe-AIteiiburg— its Statistics and History. XIX.— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-ALTEXBURG. Area : 522 square miles. PoPCLATiox : 127,500 iuhabitants. It is situated between the kingdom of Saxony and the grand- duchy of Saxe- Weimar, and comprises that part of the ancient margraviate of Meissen, which in early times, was more usually called the Osterland (see page 382). The inhabitants are (with the exception of rather few Catholics) Lutherans. The soil is very fertile, and all branches of husbandry are in a highly pros- perous state. Of manufactures there are in general but few ; the trade however is very considerable. Besides the university at Jena, which is considered as possessed in common by the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies, there are 1 lyceum, 1 gymna- sium, 1 seminary, 6 Latin and numerous common schools. The government is a limited monarchy. To the confederal army are to be furnished 982 men. According to the budget for the period of 1845-48, the public rcyc/iap was estimated at 631,940 Prussian dollars annually, and the expenditure at about the same amount. The public debt was at that period 930,687 Prussian dollars. About the order of honor, in common with the other Saxon duchies, see page 390. JUstorij. — In the liistory of the kingdom of Saxony, it has already been told, that to the districts ceded by Maurice to the deposed elector, was iu 1554 added that of Altenhurg. Duke Ernest the Pious (see History of Saxe-Meimngcn) inherited it in 1672, and when his 1 sons divided the do- minions, the eldest, Duke Frederic of Gotha, became possessed of Altenburg. Since, or in the whole period from 1680 to 1825, when the line of Frederic became extinct, Gotha and Altenburg were constantly united. Bj the ar- rangements agreed upon in 1826, on the part of the three reigning Saxon 396 EUROPE, PAST AND. PRESENT, Germany. — Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. dukes (see History of Saxe-Mciningcn), the duke Frederic of Hildbtcrffhaw sen ceded this duchy to Saxe-Meiningen, and acquired instead of it the wealthy duchy of Altcnhurg, whither he now transferred his residence. He died in 1834, and was succeeded by his son, the still reigning duke, Joseph, born in 1789. The duchy of Saxe-Altenburg consists of two detached sec- tions ; the eastern one (with the capital) bordering upon the kingdom of Saxony, and the western section (styled the Kahla- Eisenberg circle) bordering upon the grand-duchy of Saxe- Weiniar. Altenburg, the capital of the duchy and residence of the duke, near the Pleisse river, southward and 28 miles distant fi-om Leipsic, with considera- ble corn trade and 15,300 inliabitants, is noted for its extensive, and in vari- ous other respects, remarkable castle or ducal palace, whence in the night of the 8th July, 1455, the princes Ernest and Albert, sons of Frederic the Meek (see History of the kingdom of Saxony), were kidnapped by the knight Kunz of Kaufimgen. Lucka, a town on the Scluiauder river, north- ward and 10 miles distant from Altenbiu-g, has 1,300 inhabitants, and is his- torically noted for a battle in 1307, between the emperor Albert I., and the margrave Frederic of Meissen. Roxxeburg, a town south-eastward and 13 miles distant from Altenburg, with considerable corn trade, and 5,400 inhab- itants. EisENBEEG, a town westward and 18 miles distant from Altenburg, with 4,900 inhabitants, considerable timber trade, and a ducal castle, in the period of 1680-1707, the residence of Duke Christian of Eisenberg, fifth son of Duke Ernest the Pious (see History of Saxe-Meiningcn). Roda, a town on a river of the same name, with 2,700 inliabitants. Kaiii.a, a town on the Saale, with &• remarkable Gothic chiu-ch, and 2,500 inhabitants. Orlamunde, a town near the Saale, with 1,200 inhabitants. GERMANY. 397 The Principalities of Reuss.— Statistics, etc. XX.-XXL— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF REUSS. Area : 596 square miles. Population: 108,800 inhabitants. They are situated at the north-eastern frontier of Bavaria, and at the Frankenioald (see page 7), and consist of two distinct sec- tions, separated but a short distance from each other, and be- longing the one to an Elder, the other to % Younger line of the princely house of Reuss. The surface is partly mountainous, partly hilly, yet the soil is generally fertile. The chief natural products are like those of the neighboring countries, Altenburg and Meiningen. The manufactures consist in substance of wool- len and cotton goods. There are 1 gymnasium, 3 seminaries, 2 Latin, and numerous common schools. The inhabitants are Lu- therans, with the exception of about 400 Jews. The government is in both principalities a limited monarchy. There are but few states where the fublic finances are so well arranged and settled as in the principalities of Reuss. The taxes are at an extraordi- nary low standard, and in the dominion of Gera (belonging to the younger line) even lower than the above (see page 308) stated rtitio indicates upon an average for the whole. Some years ago the public debt of the principalities amounted to 120,000 Prus- sian dollars, but has since been considerably reduced by paying off. The public expenditure is for a great part covered by the revenues of the princely domains, amounting to respectively 133,400 and 140,000 Prussian dollars (Younger line), and 100,000 Prussian dollars annually (Elder line). To the confede- ral army are to be furnished 223 men by the elder, and 522 by the younger line. 898 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Principalities of Reuss. Hiitory. — The ancestor of the house of Reuss is Earl Henry I. of Glitz- berg or Gleitberg, descending from the house of Luxemburg, ^vho had his estates in the present Hessian territories, and lived towards the end of the 11th century. By his consort, a countess of Schwarzenberg, he became pes- • sessed of considerable estates in the above (under the head of Saxony, page 388) mentioned Voigtland, and liis descendants ^vere appointed imperial governors of it. One of them, Henry, Earl of Plauen (ancient capital of the Voigtland), was surnamed the Rusen, or Ruzzo (an obsolete name), and thus sprung up the family name of Reuss. The domestic dominions of this house were since the 16th century restricted to the present territories. The earls, since respectively 1778 and 1807 princes of Reuss, have for centuries borne the Christian name of Henry. There are at present only two reigning princes, viz., the prince of Reuss-Greiz, representing the Elder lim, and the prince of Reuss-Schleiz representing the Younger line of the house of Reuss. (Prior to 1848 the younger line was represented by two princes.) 1. The principality of Reuss-Greiz (149 square miles, and 33,800 inhabi- tants), since 1836 governed by Henry XX. (born in 1794), contains: Greiz, its capital and princely residence, on the Elster, and near the frontier of Saxony, has 3 princely palaces, and 7,000 inhabitants, and is noted for ita cotton and woollen manufactures. Zeulenroda, a town with a remarkable church, and 5,100 inhabitants, is noted for its hosieries. 2. Tlie territories of the Younger line (447 square miles, and 75,000 in- habitants), wliich latter is represented by tlie prince Henry LXIl. of Reuss- ScuLEiz (born in 1785), comprise the principality of Reuss-Schleiz proper, the former sovereign principality of Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf, and the do- minion of Ger a which was until 1848 possessed in common by both princes of this line. Tliey contain : ScntEiz, the capital and residence of the prince of Reuss-Schleiz, on the little Wiesenthal river, .south-eastward and 42 miles distant from Weimar, with considerable trade, important cotton and wool- len manufactures, and 5,100 inhabitants. Ebersdorf, until 1848 the capital and princely residence of Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf (160 square miles, and 21,600 inhabitant.*), south-westward and 10 miles distant from Schleiz, with a stately palace, various manufactures, and 1,250 iidiabitants. Lobenstein, GERMANY. 399 The Principalities of Reuss and Schwarzburg. a to-WTi not far from Ebersdorf, has considerable manufactiircfl, and 2,500 in- habitants, and -was until 1824 the residence of tlie princes of Reuss-Loben- stein, wliich line then became extinct. The above-mentioned dominion of Oera (149 square miles, and 32,300 inhabitants) contains: Gera, a town ro- mantically situated on the Elster, 38 miles south-south-west of Leipsic, is one of the most industrious towns in this quarter, and has 10,000 inhabi- tants. The tovm of Saalburg, on the Saale, with 1,200 inhabitants, is noted for its iron- works. KosTRiTz,a village on the Elster, with 1,200 inhabitanta, is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Reuss. XXII-XXra.— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF SCHWARZBURG. Area: 660 square miles. PopuLATiox: 128,000 inhabitants. Both of these principalities, Schivarzburg-Sondershausen and Schwarzburg-Riulolstadt^ consist of two detached sections about 25 miles from each other, and situated in the centre of Germany. One section, styled the Lower Dominion^ is encircled by the ter- ritory of the Prussian province of Saxony : and the other sec- tion, styled the Upper Dominion, is surrounded by the Saxon duchies, and situated at the Thuringerwald. The former is situ- ated in and near a district noted for its great fertility, and proba- bly for this reason, called the Guldme Auc (golden plain or field). Both principalities have a generally hilly but fertile soil. The natural productions are chiefly grain, flax, timber, freestone, cattle, sheep of improved breed, etc. In the forests much pitch and smoke-black is made ; moreover there are iron-works, and some woollen manufactures. The inhabitants are (with the ex- ception of about 300 Catholics and 400 Jews) Lutherans. The government is in both principalities a limited monarchy. In the 400 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Priccipnlities of Schwarzburg. principality of Sondcrshausen the public revenue is about 160,000 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure upon an average much less than this amount. (The revenues of the princely do- mains are estimated at 230,000 Prussian dollars.) The public debt was some years ago 114,000 Prussian dollars. To the con- federal army are to be furnished 451 men. — In the principality of Rudolstadt the public revenue amounted to 268,000, and the expenditure to 248,541 florins in the year 1844; the public debt was 100,540 florins. (The revenue of the princely domains are estimated at 180,000 Prussian dollars.) To the confederal army are to be furnished 539 men. History. — Tlie former earls, at present princes of Schwarzbm-g, are de- scendants of Sizzo, earl of Schwarzburg and Kiifernburg. Sizzo died in 1195, and left behind two sons, Henry and Giinther, by whom the earldom was divided. But in the begirming of the 14th century it was under the sway of one single line; and to this belonged earl Gunther, who in 1347 was elected Roman emperor (see History of Germany). Meanwliile tlie earldom had been aggrandized both in the Upper and Lower Dominion Earl Gunther XL., who died in 1552, left behind two sons, John Gunther and Albert Anton, who divided the earldom again, and are the ancestors of the present reigning lines of Sondershausen and Rudolstadt. In 1697 and 1710 the earls of Schwarzburg were raised to the dignity of princes. I SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. This principality has an extent of 330 square miles, with 58,000 inhabitants, and its reigning sovereign is, since 1835, prince GiuUhcr (Frederic Charles), born in 1801. It contains: 1. In the Lower Dominion: Sondeeshadsen, the capital of the principal- ity and princely residence, on the Wipper river, south-eastward and 7 miles distant from Nordhausen, with an extensive palace and 5,000 inhabitants. Oreussen and Ehrig, towns with respectively 2,600 and 1,100 inhabitants GERMANY. 401 The Principalities of Schwarzburg. Clingcn (with 1,100 inhabitants), Ebeleben (with 1,000 inliabitants), Schern- berg (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Keula (with 1,050 inhabitants). 2. Li the Upper Dominion: Aknstadt, a town on the Gera river, south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Gotha, with remarkable public edifices, considerable corn trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Flaue, a little town with 850 inhabitants, is noted for its porcelain manufactory. Gehren, a market-town with 1,800 in- habitants, and the neighboring ruins of the princely ancestral castle of Kafernburg. IL SCIIWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT. This principality is exactly of the same extent as the former, but its population amounts to 70,000 inhabitants. The reigning sovereign since IS 14, is prince Gimther (Frederic), born in 1793. It contains : 1. In the Upper Dominion : Rudolstadt, the capital of the principality and princely residence, on the Saale, southward and 20 miles distant from Weimar, with a celebrated palace, and 5,500 inhabitants. The neighbor- ing town oi Blankenburg,'mih. 1,300 inhabitants, is remarkable for the ruins of an ancient castle, where Earl Gtinther, who was elected German emperor, was born. Paulinzelle, once a Cistercian monastery; its ruins are still notable ; as is also the neighboring and well-preserved ancestral castle of ^Schwarzburg. Konigsee, a to^\ii with 2,100 inhabitants. Stadt Ihn, an indiistrious town on the Ilm river, north-westward and 10 miles distant from Rudolstadt, with 2,300 inhabitants. 2. In the Lower Dominion : FRANKENUArsEN, a town on the Wipper river, eastward and 1 miles distant from Sondershausen, with considerable trade in wool, and 5,000 inhabituuts, is noted for its salt-works. Near Frankenhausen, on the 15th May, 1525, the notorious Thomas Munzer, at the head of 8,000 rebellious peasants, was defeated and taken prisoner. Not far from here are the ruins of the anciently renowned castle of Kyffhausen, where the emperors of the house of Ilohenstaufen, especially Frederic I, frequently resided. 402 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — The Duchies of Anhalt. XXIV.-XXY.— THE DUCHIES OF AXHALT. Area: 1,022 square niiles. Population: 158,000 inhabitants. The duchies (until 1806 principalities) of Anhalt, are situated along the Elbe, between Wittenberg and Magdeburg, and are almost wholly surrounded by the territory of the Prussian prov- ince of Saxony. The inhabitants are (with the exception of about 1,350 Catholics, and 2,4.50 Jews) Protestants, i. e. partly Lutherans (prevailing in Anhalt-Bernburg), and partly Calvinisls (prevailing in Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Cothen). The duchies of Anhalt rank among the most fertile countries of Germany, and are especially noted for their fine breed of cattle and sheep. The dairy produces excellent butter. Linen and woollen goods are the staple manufactures; near the Ilartz are iron-works. The inland trade is very considerable. Beside numerous com- mon schools, there are 4 gymnasia. The government is since 1848 a limited monarchy. Until recently, Anhalt-Dessau had to furnish 529, Bernburg 370, and Cothen 325 men, to the federal army. About the public finances, see below. In 1837 the dukes of Anhalt instituted in common the order of Albert the Bear, in 3 classes. History. — ^The territories of the present duchies of Anhalt were formerly under the sway of the eastern margraves, who so early as in the 10th cen- tury, liad become possessed of considerable dominions along the Saale and Elbe rivers. Esko of Ascania, nearly related with these margraves, and li%iug at the end of the 10th century, is to be considered as tlie ancestor of the house of Anhalt ; which latter name came into vogue towards the end of the 12th century. Esico's grandson Otto, surnamed the Rich, was mar- ried to Eilika, daughter of the duke Magnus of Saxony (i. e. of primitive GERMANY. 403 The Duchies of Anhalt — their History. Saxony, subsequently named Lo-wcr Saxony, see page 378), while her sister "WulfhilJ was married to the duke Henry of Bavaria, grandfather of the renowned Duke Ilenry, surnanied the Lion. Thus, when the latter was outlawed in 1179, his cousin, the earl Bernard of Anhalt, was the nearest heir to the duchy of Saxony, and was indeed invested with it and the elec- toral dignity (see page 379). However his son and successor, Henry I., ceded both to his younger brother Albert (ancestor of the electors of Sax- ony from the house of Ascania, and of the dukes of Lauenburg, who became extinct in 1689), while he himself was contented with his patrimonial domin- ions, and assumed the title of a prince of Anhalt. After his death, which occurred in 1252, tluree lines of his house sprung up, two of which became extinct ; but since the death of the prince Joachim Ernest of Anhalt-Zerbst (reigning from 1570 to 1586), four new lines were formed by his four sons, viz., the lines of Dessau, Bernburg, Cothen, and Zerhst. In 1793 the last- named line (to which belonged the empress Katharine II., of Russia) be- came extinct, and its principality was di^adcd among the three other lines, that respectively in 1806 and 1807, were raised to the ducal dignity. In 1847 the line of Anhalt-Cothcn became extinct, and since that period, its duchy devolved to the remaining two reigning lines, is previously adminis- tered on common account of them. We shall first describe the duchies of Anhalt- Bernburg and All hall- De The manufactures are rather insignificant ; but the more consid- erable is the trade and commerce^ which latter is carried on chiefly by Rostock and Wismar. The principal exports are grain, butter, cattle, horses, timber, and %vool. There are, with regard to the means of education, besides a university at Rostock (see page 287), which in 1S44 v/as fre- quented by 120 students, 5 gymnasiums, 2 seminaries, 43 Latin and 1.04S common schools. The government is a limited mon- archy. The amount of the public revenue and of the expenditure was. according to the budget for 1843-44. estimated at 3,102.751 Prussian dollars. The public debt amounted in 1845 to 6,902,429 Prussian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 3^580 men. History. — Tlie grand-ducal families, both in Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, are descended in direct male line from the last kiiig or prince of tlie Obotrites, Pribislav IL, who died in 11»S1. Tlie capital of the Obotrites was named Mikelenborg (at present a village, and situated in the neighborhood of Wismar), hence the name of Mecklenburg. The Obo- trites belonged to the great tribe of the Slavonians (see pages 18 and 19), and had umnigrated here since about the 5th century. Tliey were subdued by Charlemagne, but became independent in the days of Louis the Pious, 408 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. and were since 820 ruled by a native prince, Ceodrag by name. In 1161 the country was conquered by Henry, surnamed the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, who however retained only a part of it, while he in 1166 restored the remainder to the native prince, the above-mentioned Pribislav II., who embraced the Christian creed, and became in 1170 prince of the German empire. Tlie German language began since to supplant gradually the Slavonic idiom. Pribislav died in 1181, and was succeeded by his son Borowin, whose four sons, by dividmg the country, formed as many reigning lines (of Mecklenburg, Rostock, Parchira, and Werle), which in the course of time became extinct, with the exception of the line of Mecklenburg, that in 13-18 was raised to the ducal dignity by Emperor Charles IV. Subse- quently there spnmg up new lines, but towards the end of the 17th century (in 1695), they were restricted to two, that of MeckUnhurgSchwcrin and Mecklcnhurg-Strelitz. Tlie duke Frederic of Mecklenbiu-g-Schwerin died in 1785, and was succeeded by his nephew, Frederic Francis, who m 1803 bought back at the price of 1,200,000 dollars, from Sweden, the city of Wismar (which Mecklenbm'g had been obliged to cede to that power in 1648), joined in 1807 the Rhenish, and in 1815 the German confederation, as grand duke. He died in 1837, and was succeeded by his grandson, Paul Frederic, wlio died so early as in the year 1842, and was succeeded by his eon, the present reigning grand duke, Frederic Francis, born in 1823. The a7icient constituent parts of tlie present grand-duchy are: the duchies of Schwerin and Giistrow, the principality or former bishopric of Schwerin, and the dominions of Rostock and Wis- mar. The country is still divided into these parts, and subdi- vided into 45 bailiwicks. In the following topography the for- mer will be found separated from each other by dashes. The first period embraces the ancient duchy and earldom of Schwerin (2,598 square miles, and 208,000 inhabitants), containing : Schwerin, the capital of the whole country and grand-ducal residence, on the lake of tlie same name, eastward and 60 miles distant from Hamburg, and south-eastward and 34 miles distant from Lubcc, has several remarkable public edifices (among them the cathedral founded in 1170), and 17,500 inhabitants. Banzkow (with 1,250 inhabitants), Crivitz (with 2,300 inhabi- GERMANY. 409 The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin— its Geoijraphical Divisions. tants), Hagenow (with 2,100 inhabitants), Wittenhurg (with 2,200 inhabi- tants), and Lubthecn (with 2,300 inhabitants), towns. Tlie town of Neustadt (on the Elde, a little tributary of the Elbe), with 1,900 inliabi tants, is remarkable for two palaces, the older of which was the residence of a col- lateral line of the house of Mecklenburg from 172G to 1735. PARcnnr, a privileged city, on the Elde (tributary of the Elbe), south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Schwerin, carries on a rather considerable traf Holstein. and grand-ducal residence, on a lake, soutli-east\rard and 66 miles distant from Scliwenn, and northward and 62 miles distant from Berlin, is well-built, and has 7,500 inhabitants. About 2 miles from here is Old Strelitz (Alt- Strelitz), or simply Strelitz, a town noted for its horse-marts, with 3,800 inhabitants. New Brandenburg (in German Neuhrandenhurg), a privileged city near a lake, 16 miles north-north-east of New Strelitz, is very regularly built, and noted for wool-markets, cloth and linen manufactures, hops, etc., and has 7,000 inhabitants. John I, margrave of Brandenburg, laid the foundation of this city in 1248, hence its name. Stargard, an anciently noted town, eastward and 5 miles distant from Neubrandenburg, with 1,600 inhabitants. Friedland, a town, founded in 1244 by the margraves John and Otto III. of Brandcnbiu-g, with cloth and linen manufactures, and 4,700 inhabitahts. Fuerstenberg, a town on the Havel, is noted for its butter, and has 2,800 inhabitants. The so-called prindpality of Ratzehurg (whicli has but very little, or nearly nothing in common with the town of this name, capital of the duchy of Laueuburg), which primitively was an independent bishopric, instituted in 1058 and secularized in 1648, contains: Schonberg, a town near the Baltic Sea, 12 miles east-south-east of Lubec, with a palace (once the residence of the bishops of Ratzeburg), linen manufactures, and 1 ,550 inhabitants. The so-called Domhof and Pahnberg are to be considered as a suburb of the town of Ratzeburg, with 350 mhabitants, subjected to the grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. XXVIIL— THE DUCHY OF HOLSTEIN, TOGETHER WITH THE DUCHY OF LAUENBURG. Area : 3,738 square miles. Population : 524,000 inhabitants. Holslsm is the most northern state of Germany, on the west washed by the North Sea, and on the east by the Baltic. On the south-west and south it is by the Elbe separated from the kingdom GERMANY. 412 The Duchy of Holstein— its Statistics. of Hanover, and its south-eastern frontier is formed by the duchy of Lauenburg. The latter has an area of 404^ sijuare miles, and a population of 47,000 inhabitants ; while Holstein has an area of 3,333^ square miles, and a population of 477,000 inhabitants. The population in both duchies consists of Lutherans (with the exception of about G50 Calvinists, 850 Catholics, 200 Mennon- ites, and 3,500 Jews). — We shall first describe Holstein, and after this Lauenburg. About the rivers and lakes in Holstein see pages 11, 14 and 17. The surface and soil of the country is much the same as in the neighboring Mecklenburg. The various branches of hus- bandry form the chief source for sustenance in Holstein as well as in Mecklenburg; and previous to the unreasonable war against Denmark so wantonly contrived and prosecuted since 1848, Hol- stein was unrivalled in its wealth and prosperity. There was scarcely a beggar to be found there, and even thefts very seldom occurred. Agriculture was on a high scale of improvement, as the rearing of cattle and horses. The latter are of the first breed, and many of them were annually exported to France, for the French cavalry. The butler of Holstein is renowned for its ex- cellency throughout Germany, England, and other countries. The fisheries, the commerce and the manufactures, all formerly important, have been seriously reduced by the recent war with Denmark. The university at Kiel (see page 288 ; in 1846 it was frequented by 207 students), 6 gymnasiums, (in Altona, Kiel, Gliickstadt, Meldorf, Plon and Rendsburg), 1 seminary for school- teachers, and 1,051 common schools were in the best order. The government since 1834 is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in the king of Denmark as duke of Holstein, and in a provincial assembly. To the German confederal army were to be furnished 3,600 men (i. e. both from Holstein and Laueii- burg). 414 EUROPE, PAST AXD PRESENT Germany. — Duchy of Holstein. History. — Tlie present duchy of Holstein embraces the ancient countries of Holstein proper (containing among others the towns of Rcndsburg, Kiel, Itzehoe, Wilster, etc.), of Stormarn (with Gliickstadt, Krempe, Wandsbcck, etc), of Dithmarschen (with Meldorf, Brunsbiittel, Lmiden), of Wagrien (■with Pliin, Oldesloe, Segeberg, Heiligenliafen, Aldenburg, Neustadt), and the former dominion of Pinncberg (with Altona, Ottensen, Pinneberg). In the early times of the middle ages the whole was known by the name of North Albingia, or Saxony beyond the Elbe, because it was cliiefly inhabited by Saxons (see page 298). Charlemagne conquered it, and since the treaty concluded at Verdun in 843 (see page 31), it formed a constituent part of the ancient duchy of Saxony (see page 299). "With this duchy Emperor Henry V. invested in 1106 the earl Lothar of Supplinbiu-g (subsequently Emperor Lothar IL ; see page 300). The latter now again invested the earl Adolphus of Schaumburg (belonging to that house, mentioned page 371) with Holstein as a fief; according to the general custom in the middle ages (see pages 35 and 36). At a later period Holstein became an actual independent member of the German empire, and the earls of Schaumburg remained in possession of it xmtil 1459, when the last male descendant, Earl Adolphus XII., died childless. His only heiress was his sister, the countess Hedwig of Oldenburg, whose eldest son, Christian, had ascended the throne of Denmark in 1448, and who now, after the death of Earl Adolphus XIL, in 1459, also inherited Holstein. In this way Holstein (in 1474 raised to the dignity of a duchy by Emperor Frederic III.) came into connection with Derunark. Unfortunately, the succeeding Danish kings did not continually exercise the governmental power in Holstein directly, but by vassals (see page 36), i. e. by younger princes of the royal family, who were invested with the duchy as a fief. In the course of time the dukes of Holstein acted almost as independent sovereigns, though their feudal dependency upon the Dani.sh crown remained unaltered Several collateral lines originated, and frequently divisions of the duchy took place, till at length all the parts were reunited as a whole under the duke Frederic IV. of Holstcin-Gottrop, who died in 1702. He was succeeded by his son, Charles Frederic, who in 1725 entered into matrimony with the grand duchess Ann, eldest daughter of Pe- ter I. of Russia. Tlieir eon, Duke Peter, who succeeded his father in 1739, ascended the Russian throne in 1702, and bequeathed his patrimonial duchy of Holstein to his son Paul (subsequently emperor of Russia). Paul, as heir of the most powerful empire in Europe, not liking to be at the same i GERMANY, 416 Holstein — its History. time vassal of a foreign kingdom, loosened the ties of his vassalage by re- storing the duchy of Holstein to its feudal lord, the king of Denmark, in 1773. Since that period the duchy has been again ruled directly by the kings of Denmark, without prejudice to its political connection first with the German Empire, and then with the German Confederation. In short, Hol- stein was in the same political condition as, for instance, Hanover was from 1714 (when George I. ascended the British throne ; see page 233) untQ 1837 (when Ernest Augustus ascended the Hanoverian tlirone), during which pe- riod this Electorate (since 1814 a kingdom) formed part of the German em- pire, although its rulers sat on the British throne and resided in London. Likewise the ruler of Holstein resided, as king of Denmark, in Copenhagen ; but as duke of Holstein, he was a member of the German Empire and Con- federation. No alteration in the political condition of Holstein had been proposed or thought of previous to 1830. Moreover, the people of this duchy did not in the least wish for it ; and indeed the prosperity of Holstein was the most striking evidence of the liberal administration of the Danish government. The natural and intellectual resources of the country had been freely allowed to improve, and no attempt had ever been made to infringe upon the liberties of the people, or to supplant the German lan- guage by the Danish. But there were in Holstein and Sleswick some lawyers, almost clientless, who being unable to subsist by their profession, for this reason had long desired to make a living in some other way. Af- ter the revolution of July, 1830, in France, they became intimate with the revolutionary party in Germany, who received secret instructions from the revolutionary central-union in France ; and now it was resolved upon to transform both Holstein and Sleswick gradually into the head-quarters of revolutionary operations in the northern states of Germany. It would lead us too far, were we to describe all the intrigues and machinations employed by the lawyers and their friends to instigate the quiet and happy people in the duchies to sever the ties connecting them with Denmark. All their exertions, however, would have been frustrated by the sound sense of the people, had not the revolutions in Germany in 1848 come to then- assistance. Of course, they had been in the moral necessity to allege an ostensible mo- tive of their exertions ; and for this purpose they brought upon the tapis the fact, that the presumptive heir of the Danish crown, present (since the 20th of January, 1848) reigning king, Frederic VIL, has hitherto been with- out children, and the possibility that he may die without any. Li this case 416 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Duchy of Holstein. the Danish throne •would be inherited by a female line ; and now those in- etigators pretend that not a female, but a male line of succession, and there- fore especially the grand duke of Oldenburg, is entitled to the inlieritance o£ Holstein. (The claims of the dukes of Sonderburg-Augusteuburg and of Glvicksbm-g hare in substance only reference to Sleswick.) The futility of this pretension is evinced first by the fact that King Christian I., in 1459, in- lierited Holstein not by the right of his father, but by the right of his mother ; and secondly by the fact, that Holstein -was from the years 1481 and 1533 until 1773 not an independent hereditary duchy, but a fee of the Danish crown, and escheated to it in the last-named year. TTie losses "which both Holstein and Sleswick have sustained since the commencement of the insensate -war with Denmark (in 1848), are immense. Tliat all their public resources have been ruined, their trade and commercial intercourse inter- rupted, their ports blockaded, the exjDortation of cattle, horses and other productions reduced to nothing, and their agricultural enterprises in general paralyzed, has already been alluded to above. In the second place, the people in the duchies have sustained incalculable direct losses, by feeding the German troops and a host of adventm-ers, by paying "war -taxes, and by ravages and devastations of foreigners. The resources of the duchies have until the commencement of the war been almost inexhaustible ; but if these disasters continue, there ■will at last remain nothing more to be lost. For what, then, will all these losses have been sustained ? Why has a flourish- ing comitry been transformed into a wilderness ? For what has a happy, industrious, wealthy people been reduced to beggary ? For nothing but to gratify the ambition of some German lawyers, — to realize the idle dreams of some book-learned fancy -mongers, and to furnish the means of temporary existence to sluggards and adventurers. (The historical and other particu- lars about Sleswick will be found under the head of Denmark.) The duchy of Holstein is in substance divided into its ancient above-mentioned constituent parts, which are subdivided into towns, bailiwicks, and various other districts. The duchy of Holstein contains : Glpeckstadt, a commercial town on the Elbe, 30 miles below Hamburg, is the seat of several provincial magistrates, and may for this reason be considered as the capital of Holstein, though it is officially uot styled so ; GERMANY. 411 The Duchy of Holstein— its Topography. hitherto it carried on a considerable commerce and •whale-fi.shery, and has 6,000 inliabitant.s. Wandsbeck, a market-town north-eastward and 2 J milea distant from Hamburg, was, imtil the commencement of the war against Denmark, noted for its cotton and other manufactm-es, and has 3,100 inhabi- tants. Rendsburg, a town on the Eider, and exactly on the frontier of Ger- many and Denmark, 50 miles north-north-west of Hamburg, is noted for its fortifications, and has 10,500 inluibitants. Kiel, a town on the bay of the same name, forming an excellent harbor, northward and 60 miles distant from Hamburg, is noted for its university (see above and page 288) and armual fairs, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Itzchoe, a town on the Stoer, north-westward and 33 miles distant from Hamburg, with various manufac tures, trade in cattle, and 5,800 inhabitants. Wilstcr, a town on a little river of the same name, northward and 12 miles distant from Gluckstadt, is noted for its fine church, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Kcllinghusen, a market- town on the Stoer, north-eastward and 10 miles distant from Itzehoe, with timber trade, and 1,100 mhabitants. Ncumunstcr, a market-town at the Kiel and Altona railroad, 18 miles south-south-west of Kiel, with noted manufactures, and 4,200 inhabitants. Preetz, a market-town on the Schwen- tiiic river, 22 miles south-south-east of Kiel, with manufactures, and 4,700 inhabitants. Ploen, a town romanticallj- situated on the lake of the same name, south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Kiel, with a stately palace, once the residence of a collateral line of the dukes of Holstein, and 3,000 inhabitants. Oldenburg (not to be confounded with the capital of the grand- duchy of Oldenburg), a town near the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 22 miles distant from Ploen, and 33 miles north-north-east of Lubeck, with 2,500 inhabitants. Hcillgenhafcn, a town on the Baltic Sea, opposite the isle of Femcrn, with 2,000 inhabitants. Xeuatadt, a town on the Baltic Sea northward and 12 miles distant from Travemiinde (the sea-port of Lubeck), with considerable corn-trade, and 2,700 inhabitants. Liitjenburg, a town near the Baltic Sea, eastward and 22 miles distant from Kiel, with 2,10& inhabitants. Oldesloe, a town romantically situated on the Trave, south- westward and 14 miles distant from Lubeck, is noted for its salt-springs, and has 2,800 inhabitants. Segeberg, a town near the Trave, northward and 30 miles distant from Hamburg, is noted for its gypsum, and has 3,300 inhabi- tants. Northward and 9 miles distant from here, is situated the village of Bornhovcd, noted in history for three battles, in the years 1227, 1319, and 1813. Bramstedt, a market-town near the head of the Alster river, wost- 18* 418 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Duchies of Holstein aud Lauenburg. ward and 15 miles distant from Segeberg, with 1,600 inhabitants. Tlie pal- ace of Travendahl, on the Travc river, was once frequently the residence of the dukca of Holstein Ploen, and is noted for a treaty of peace concluded here between Sweden and Dcmnark, on the iVth August, 1700. The coun- try or province of Dlthmarschcn (514 square miles, and 62,000 uihabitants), along and towards the mouth of the Elbe, was, in the middle ages, an inde- pendent state, but in 1559 conquered by the dukes of Holstein and Sleswicic It contains: Meldorf, formerly the capital of all Dithmarschen, 26 miles north-north-west of Gliickstadt, with corn trade, and 3,150 inhabitants. Brunshuttel, a market-town on the Elbe, opposite Cuxhafen, with 1,250 in- habitants. Marne, a market-town, with considerable trade in corn and cattle, and 1,250 inhabitants. Heide, the capital of the northern district of Dith- marschen, northward and 7 miles distant from ileldorf, is noted for its hand- Bome market-place, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Lunden, a town with 1,500 inhabitanta. The ancient domhiion of Pinncberg (188 square miles, and 40,000 inhabitants), of wliioh in 1G40 the crown of Denmark became possessed, contains : Pinxeberg, a market- town, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Altona, with 1,100 inhabitants. Ottenscn, a village near Altona, is the burial-place of the German poet, Klopstock, and lias 2,400 inliabi- tants. JBlankenese, a village on the Elbe, is noted for its considerable river- navigation, and has 3,000 inhabitants, among whom are many pilots. Flott- beck, a village between Ottenscn and Blankenese, is noted for its botanic and nursery-gardens. Wedel (with 1,900 inhabitants) and Ueterscn (with 3,400 inhabitants), market-towns. Altona, a very important commercial city, on the Elbe, only 1 mile below Hamburg, is not only noted for its commerce, but also for its manufactures, and has 32,000 inhabitants. Altona was still, in the 16th century a little village, but since the middle of the 17th century, it became gradually an important city. Tlie market-towTis of Barmstcdi (with 1,700 inliabitants) and Elmshorn (with 5,400 inliabitants), belong to the ancient earldom of Ranzau, of wliich the Danish crown became pos- sessed in 1731. The Duchy of Lauenburg (404| square miles, and 47,000 inhabitants) is on the north-west bordering upon Holstein, on the south separated from the kingdom of Hanover by the Elbe^ and for the rest bound by Mecklenburg. Soil, natural produc- tions, etc., are almost the same as in Holstein and ]^Iccklenburg. GERMANY. 419 The Duchy of Lauenburg— its Htstorj-. The country was, together with Mecklenburg (see page 408), conquered by Henry, surnamed the Lion, and annexed to his duchy of Saxony. After he had been outlawed in 1180, and the earl Bernard of Anhalt invested with the duchy (see page 403), Bernard's second son Albert became possessed of this Saxon dominion, which subsequently was styled the duchy of Lauen- burg. Duke Erich, of Saxe-Lauenburg, entered into a heredi- tary alliance with the house of Brunswick, in 1369; and as in 1689 his line became extinct, the Brunswick line, subsequently represented by the electors and kings of Hanover^ inherited the duchy of Lauenburg. It continued to form a constituent part of Hanover for 120 years, when in 1814 it was ceded to Prussia. Meanwhile Denmark had been deprived of Norway (with about 1.000,000 inhabitants), and poorly indemnified for this loss by Swedish Pomcrania (with about 150.000 inhabitants). But Prussia desired to annex this latter country to the remainder of Pomerania, and, of course, Denmark was compelled to yield to this desire, by ceding Swedish Pomerania, and contenting itself with the duchy of Lauenburg (whose population then fell short of 40.000 inhabitants), which Prussia ceded to it in 1815, At present Denmark is about to be deprived of this last poor indem- nification likewise, though the duchy of Lauenburg has never had anything at all in common, either with Holstein or Sleswick. But the German contrivers of the war with Denmark, on account of Holstein and Sleswick, are of the opinion that one act of in- justice, more or less, makes no difference. The duchy of Lau- enburg contains ; Ratzebueg, its capital, on a lake of the same name, northward and 2.5 miles distant from Lauenburg, with considerable inland trade and 2,400 inhabitants. (About the prijicipality of Ratzeburg, see under the head Meckleuburg-Strelitz.) Lauenburg, once the residence of the dukes of Lau- enburg, on the Elbe, 32 miles above Hambiu"g, with considerable trade, and 420 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 3,500 inhabitants. Molhi, a town on the Steckcnltz, with breweries, and 1,800 inhabitants. Buchcn, Schwarzcnbek, and Aumuhlc, are more or less remarkable villages. XXIX.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. Area: 2,471 square miles. Population : 274,050 inhabitants. This grand-duchy consists of three distinct territories, viz. : Oldenburg proper, styled the duchy of Oldenburg (on the North Sea, and surrounded by the kingdom of Hanover), the 'principal- ity of Lubec (which has nothing in common with the city of Lu- bec, though it is situated in its neighborhood), and the princi- pality of Birkenfcld (on the left bank of the Rliine, and in the neighborhood of Treves). They being at rather great distance from each other, they must be described separately. Oldenburg proper forms part of the extensive plain mentioned page 4 : thus its surface is generally level, and the coast as well as the bank along the Weser, is sheltered against inundations by vast dikes, having an aggregate length of 152 miles. The Wcscr separates the country on the east from Hanover, and is joined here by the Huntc (see page 17). The most remarkable of the lakes here is the laJce of Zioischenahn. Some parts of the coun- try, especially along the Weser and towards the North Sea, are noted for their fertility, but in the interior there is generally but a poor soil. Yet, upon the whole, Oldenburg rears both cattle and horses of a very fine breed, and raises amply grain, rape-seed (lamp-oil made of it, is commonly used both in Germany and GERMANY. 421 The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg— its Statistics and History. other European countries, in place of train-oil), ^^ax, and hemp. There are many peat bogs which supply fuel, the more valuable as wood and coal are scarce. In the sandy and heathy parts of the country, the rearing of bees affords a productive source for sustenance. The inland trade is rather considerable, but there are but few manufactures. Most of the inhabitants of the grand-duchy are Lutherans, yet in the southern part of Oldenburg proper, and in the princi- pality of Birkenfeld, there are numerous Roman Catholics (their total number being about 74,800) ; the remainder of the popula- tion consists of somewhat more than 2,300 Calvinixts, and of about 1,400 Jeics. There are beside numerous common schools, 4 gymnasia, 2 seminaries, 1 military, and 3 Latin schools. The government was until the commotions in 1848, an unlim- ited monarchy. The amount of the public revenue and of the expenditure ioT several years, has been about 900.000 Prussian dollars annually. There is no public debt. The troops to be fur- nished to the confederal army : 3,030 men, with 4 pieces of ord- nance. — In 183S nn order of honor was instituted, by the name of " House and Merit order of Duke Peter," etc., in 4 classes. History. — The primitive Jincestor of the reigning house of Oldenburg, -was the celebrated duke or king Wittekind, ■who led the valiant Saxons in the wars with Charlemagne. One of Wittekind's descendants was earl Egilmar II., ef Rustringen and Ammerland, who lived in the period from 1062 to 1110, and whose dominions comprised in substance what at present is called Oldenburg proper. Egilmar's son, Christian I., reared in 1155 the castle of Oldenburg, and since, the earls of Rustringen and Ammerland named them- selves earls of Oldenburg. In 1232 they became actual members of the German empire. In 1247 the dominion of Delmenhorst was acquired, and finally annexed to Oldenburg in 1436, by the earl Thcodork, suruamed the Fortunate. It was this sovereign whose eldest son mounted in 1448 the Danish throne, by the name of Christian I., and inherited the earldom (sub- sequently duchy) of Rolstcin in 1459 (see above under the head of Holstein) ; 422 EUROPE, PAST AND T RESENT. Germany. — Graiul-Dnchy of Oldenburg. •wliile his younger son Gerard, propagated the reigning line of Oldenburg Gerard acquired the districts of Varel and Neuenburg, and his great-grand- Bon, John VI., the dominions ot Jever and Ilniphausen. But in 1667, when Earl Anton Giintlier of Oldenburg died, this line became extinct, and now the collateral line of JJenmark succeeded, and acquired the earldom of Olden- burg by way of inheritance. Anton Giinther's natural son Anton, earl of Aldenburg, became however possessed of the lordship of Kniphausen ; and his nephew, a prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, became possessed of the dominion of Jever. The main body of the earldom of Oldenburg continued to be in pos- session of Denmark until 1773, when this crown ceded the earldom to the Russian grand duke Paul, in exchange for the duchy of Holstein (see His- tory of Holstein). Yet the grand duke ceded it again, in the same year, to his cousin the bishop sovereign of Lubec, Frederic Augustus, belonging to a younger line of the house of Holstein- Gottor p. At the same time the emperor Joseph II. raised the earldom of Oldenburg to the dignity of a duchy. Duke Frederic Augustus died in 1785, and as his only son and legiti- mate heir, Peter Frederic William, was perturbated in mind, his brother Peter (Frederic Louis) took the reins of government with sovereign power. In 1803 the former sovereign bishopric of Lubec was transformed into a principality and annexed to the duchy, which at the same time acquu-ed several districts of the former independent bishopric of Miinster. In Novem- ber, 1806, Oldenburg was occupied by French troops, but in the following year restored to the duke, wlio in 1808 joined the Rhenish Confederation. Napoleon had meanwliile established the continental system, and as Olden- burg appeared to him as affording too many opportunities for smuggling to the English, he incorporated the whole country with the French empire, in February, 1811. He offered the dominion of Erfurt as an indemnification to the duke, who however refused it and went to Russia, where his second son, George, was married to the grand duchess Catharine, in 1 809. Towards the end of the year 1813 he returned to Oldenburg, and entered upon its reign again. By the stipulations of the Congress at Vienna, he acquired a district on the left bank of the Rhine, by the name of a principality of Birkenfeld, and the title of a prand duke, of which title, liowcver, he liimself made no use. He died in 1829, and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning grand duke, Augustus Paul Frederic, born in 1783. For the reason mentioned above, we must describe the three GERMANY. 423 The Orand-Duchy of Oldenburg— ils Geographical Divisions. distinct territories of the grand-duchy separately. We begin with the description of I. THE DUCHY OF OLDENBURG, It has an area of 2,119^ square miles, and a population of 223,000 inhabitants (among whom are G9,300 lloman Catholics and 720 Jews), comprises the ancient earldoms of Oldenburg and Delraenhorst, former districts of the ancient bishopric of Miinster, the dominion of Jever, and the lordship of Kniphau- sen, and contains : Oldenburg, the capital of the grand-duchy and grand-ducal residence, on the Hunte, westwai'd and 2.3 miles distant from Bremen, is well-built and noted for its handsome grand-ducal palace and other remarkable public edi- fices, and has 8,100 inhabitants. Elsjieth, a town on the "Weser, at its jimc- tion with the Hunte, with a landing-place for smaller vessels, and 1,600 in- habitants. In the period from 1628 to 1820 Oldenburg was entitled to levy a toll here, which all ships trading to Bremen were obliged to pay. Some- times it amounted to 50,000 Prussian dollars annually. Neuenhurg, a mar- ket-town anciently noted for its fortress, has at present only 600 inhabitants. The village of Rastede is noted for its grand-ducal palace and gardens. Ovelg'onne, a market-town near the Weser, with 1,000 inhabitants. Brake, a market-town on the Weser, with a landing-place for sea-ships, and 1,300 inliabitants. Blexen or Blexum, a village on the Weser, opposite Bremer- hifven, with 400 inhabitants. Brake and Blexum are sitiiated in a district, styled Butjadingerland, and noted for the fertility of its soil. Delmexhoest, a town on the little Delme river, half-way between Oldenburg and Bremen, with noted horse-marts, and 1,900 inhabitants. — Wildeshausen, a town on the Hunte and near the frontier of Hanover (which ceded it to Oldenburg in 1803), with cutlery manufactures, and 2,100 inhabitants. — KLOPPEXBrRG, a town the Soeste river, westward and 14 miles distant from Wildcshauseu, with 950 inhabitants. This town and the towns of Friesoyte (with 1,100 in- habitants), of Vcchta (with 2,300 inhabitants), of Binklage (with 1,400 in- habitants), and iottijijren (with 1,200 bhabitants), belonged xmtd 1803 to the 424r EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. then secularized bishopric of Miinster. Tlie dominion of Jever (138 square miles, and 20,300 inhabitants), forming the most northerly province of the grand-duchy and situated on the North Sea, is noted both for the fertility of its soil, and the excellent breed of its cattle and horses. In the middle ages it was ruled by native chieftains or Barons, and in 1573 inherited by the reigning house of Oldenburg. In the History of Oldenburg it has already been noticed, that Earl Anton Giinther, who died in 1667, be- queathed tlie dominion of Jever to his nephew. Prince John of Anhalt- Zerbst, who entailed it upon his descendants. When, in 1793, the male line of Anlialt-Zerbst became extinct (see History of Anhalt), the Russian em- press Katharine IL, belonging to this lino, inherited the dominion of Jever and entailed it upon her son and grand-children. But the emperor Alexan- der ceded it in 1818 to Oldenbm-g, which in 1823 took formal 2:)ossession of it. It contains : Jever, formerly its capital, near a bay of the North Sea, north-westward and 34 miles distant from the city of Oldenburg, with some manufactures, considerable trade, and even conmierce, and 4,200 inliabi- tants. The seaport of Jever is at Hooksiel, a village with 750 inhabitants. Near the coast lies the isle of Wangcroog, with 400 inhabitants, and much resorted to for sea-bathing. The Lordship of KNirnAUSEX, belonging to the carl of Bentink under the supremacy of the grand dulie of Oldenburg, has an area of only 21 square miles, and a population of 3,100 inliabitants. In the history of Oldenburg we have seen, that Earl Anton Giinther, who died in 1667, bequeathed this lordship to his natiu-al son, Anton earl of Alden- burg, tog(!ther with the dominion of Varel, politically connected with it. By way of maiTiage the earl Williani of Bentink became possessed of these tw^o dominions in 1738, and entailed them upon his descendants. When in 1806 the German empire was solved, the earl of Bentink attained to politi- cal independency, but in 1807 he was by Napoleon subordinated to tlie kingdom of Holland, and in 1810 to the French empire. In 1814 he re- quired in vain to be admitted as actual and independent member of the German Confederation, and was subordinated to the supremacy of the duke or grand duke of Oldenburg, yet allowed to retain some special privileges. Tlie lonL^hip contains, beside 3 villages (with noted horse-marts), the castle of Kniphausen, seat of the depeudcat government. The above-mentioned dominion of Varel (43 square miles, and 6,000 inhabitants), belonging likewise to the earl of Bentink, contains : Varel, its capital and residence of the earl, northward and 16 miles distant from Oldenburg, with noted horse-marts, GERMANY. 425 Tbe Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg — its Geograpliicul Divisions. and 3,500 inhabitants. Dangast, a village with 250 inhabitants, is resorted to for sea-bathing. II. THE PRINCIPALITY OF LUBEC. It has an area of 170^ square miles, and a population of 21,550 inhabitants, and is situated in the neighborhood of the city of Lu- bec, wholly surrounded by territories of Holstein, north-eastsvard and about 92 miles distant from the main body of the grand- duchy. It consists of an undulated fertile plain, romantically intersected by woods, lakes and ridges of low hills. The inhabi- tants subsist almost entirely on the various branches of hus- bandry. The present principality of Lubec'was formerly an in- dependent or sovereign bishopric^ primitively instituted in 94S. Its seat, at first in the town of Oldenburg in Holstein (see above under the head of Holstein), was in the latter half of the 12th century transferred to the city of Lubec, where a handsome cathe- dral was reared, and in 116-4 consecrated. However, the bishop himself did not reside in this city, but in Eutin. Only the name of Lubec rested with the bishopric, which at the end of the 12th century became independent, or sovereign. The Reformation brought about no alteration in its political condition, yet in 1535 the bishop and the chapter turned Protestants. In 1586 the chapter elected for the first time a prince of the house of Holstein- GiOttSrp their bishop, and continued to do so with other princes of this house until 1756, when a Danish prince was chosen, who, however, in 1773 resigned, in favor of the eldest son of the reign- ing bishop Frederic Augustus, who in the same year became pos- sessed of the duchy of Oldenburg (see above). In 1803 the bishopric was transformed into a principality, as has already been stated above. It contains : EuTix, its capital, romantically situated on a lake of the same name, 30 miles north-north-west of the city of Lubec, with a handsome grand-ducal 426 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. palace and park, and 2,850 bhabitants. Bosau, a village Tvith one of the most ancient churches in the country, and 650 inhabitants. Tlie village of Sielheck is noted for its romantical environs and grand-ducal palace. Schwar- tau, a market-town noted for its cattle-marts, has 1,050 inhabitants. The vil- lage of Rathckau (with 50 inhaSbitants) is remarkable for a capitulation con- cluded here on the 7th Nov., 1806, between the Prussian general, Bliiclier, and the French general, Bernadotte. III. THE PRINCIPALITY OF BIRKENFELD. It lias an area of 181 square miks, and a population of 29,500 inhabitants (5,500 of whom are Roman Catholics), and is situated on the left bank of the llhine in the neighborhood of Treves, southward and about 250 miles distant from the main body of the grand-duchy. Its surface is mountainous, being traversed by branches of the Hwndsruck (see page 8). The Nahe river (see page 16), has its sources here. There are various manufactures here ; besides them iron mines are wrought, and the vine is culti- vated. The present principality of Birkenfeld comprises the an- cient lordship of Oberstein, since 1766 belonging to the electorate of Treves; and the ancient earldom of Sponheim, since the 15th century belonging to the princes of Zweibrucken (see under the head of Bavarian Palatinate). It contains : BrRKENFELD, its Capital, on the Nahe, south-westward and 60 miles dis- tant from Mentz, was anciently the residence of the Palatines of Zwei- briickcn-Birkenfeld, and has 2,100 inhabitants. Oberstein, a market-town on tlic Nahe, is noted for cutting precious and half-precious stones, and has 2,300 inhabitants. Mar, a village with the same branch of industry as in Oberstein, and 1,050 inhabitants. GERMANY. 42*7 The Priucipalily of Lippo-Detmold— its Statistics and History. XXX.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIPPE-DETMOLD. Area : 447 square miles. Population: 108,000 inhabitants. This principality (whose sovereign bears the official title of Prince zur Lippe) is situated on the left bank of the Weser, and almost entirely surrounded by territories of the Prussian province of Westphalia. The inhabitants are (with the exception of 5,100 Lutherans and 1,600 Roman Catholics) Calvinists. The sur- face is partly hilly and woody, intersected by fertile valleys, and partly traversed by the Osning (see page 8). The south-western part of the country consists of an extensive heath, called the Senner- Heath (Senner-rfaide) and noted for the excellent breed of horses reared here. Flax, timber, horses are the chief staples ; cattle and sheep are likewise reared in great numbers, and of good breed. The manufactures consist chiefly of linoi. There are 2 gymnasiums, 1 Latin school, 1 seminary, and a great many common schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The amount of public revenue^ and of the expenditure for several years, has been about 490,000 florins. There is no public debt. Troops to be furnished to the confederal army: 691 men. ' History. — Tlie ancestors of the reigning house of Lippe were wealthy ba- rons or lords of the same name, who long before the 12th century had their estates in the neighborhood of the Osning. One of their descendants, Ber- nard VIII., who died in 1563, bore the title of an earl, and his son, Simon VI., who united all patrimonial dominions under his sway, is to be considered as the nigher ancestor of the reigning houses both of Lippe-Detmold and Schaumburg-Lippe. He died in 1613, and was succeeded in Lippe-Detmold by his eldest son, earl Simon VII., -whose earldom was in 1*720 raised to the dignity of a principality, though not before the year 1789 the father of the present reigning prince, made use of the princely title. This sovereign died 428 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany.— Principalities of Lippe-Detmold and Schaumburg-Lippe. in 1802, and was succeeded by bis son, prince Leopold (Paul Alexander), born in 1796, wbo until 1820 has reigned imder the guardiansliip of hia mother, and since independently. The most remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the principality of Lippe-Dctmold. are the following : Detmold, the capital and princely residence, on the little Werre river (not to be confounded ■n-ith the Werra mentioned page 17), south-westward and 18 miles distant from Pymiont, and 48 miles north-north-west of Cassel, with an extensive princely palace, and 5,000 inhabitants. Near Detmold Charlemagne obtained a victory over the Saxons in 783. Horn, a town with linen manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. Blomberg, a town with various manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Lemgo, a city on the Bega river, northward and 7 miles distant from Detmold, with a noted gymnasium, con- siderable manufactures, especially of linen, and 4,100 inhabitants. In the middle ages Lemgo was both an imperial city afid a member of the Hanse- atic League (see page 54). Lopshorn, a princely palace, south-westward and 5 miles distant from Detmold, with a renowned stud containing more than 100 horses of the above-mentioned breed from the Senner-Haide. Lippstadt, a city on the Lippe river, with 6 churches, various branches of industry, considerable corn trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. One half of this city belongs since the 17th century to the house of Brandenburg or Prussia. XXXL— THE PRINCIPALITY OF SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE. Area: 170 square miles. Population : 30,000 inhabitants. Tins principality (in common life frequently called Lippe- Biickt'burg) is situated on the right bank of the Wcser. between the city of Hanover and the Prussian city of Minden. Its main body formed anciently a constituent part of the earldom of GERMANY. 429 The Principality of Schnumburg-Lippe— its Statistics and History. Scbaumburg (see page 371). and for this reason this latter name is officially prefixed to that of Lippe. The soil is fertile, partly covered with valuable forests, and intersected with ridges of low hills. The chief staples are corii^ Jlax and timber. Cattle of va- rious kinds are raised amply. The manufactures consist chiefly of linen. The inhabitants are (with the exception of about 3,600 Calvinists and 100 Catholics) Lutherans. Besides a noted gym- nasium at Buckeburg, there are several other and many common schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The revenues amount to about 215.000 Prussian dollars, and are principally yielded by the princely domains. The expenditure is by far less : and a public debt does not exist. Troops to be furnished to the confederal army: 240 men. History. — The reigning house of Schaumburg-Lippe has one common ancestor -with that of Lippe-Dctmold (see History of Lippe-Detmold). When Earl Simon VI. of Lippe died in 1613, he bequeathed to his yoimgest son Philip some bailiwicks of the earldom. Pliihp's sister Elizabeth was married to the earl of Schaumburg, inherited this earldom, and bequeathed a considerable part of it to her brother in 1640. Philip, assuming now the title of an earl of Schaumburg-Lippe, died in 1681, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Frederic Christian, -whose male line became extinct in 1777, when Earl Philip of a collateral line succeeded This latter died in 1787, and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning (imtil 1807 under the guardianship of his mother) prince George William, born in 1784. He as- sumed ihc princely title in 1807, when he joined the Rhenish Confederation. In 1815 he became a member of the German Confederation. The most remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the principality of Schaumburg-Lippe are the following : BuECKEBUEG, the capital and princely residence, 24 nailes west-south-west of Hanover, with a stately palace and handsome park, and 4,300 inhabi- tants. Eilsen, a village noted for its mineral waters and much resorted to on account of them. Stadthagcn, a town north-eastward and 9 miles distant 430 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. from Biickeburg, with an ancient remarkable castle, a well-arranged orphan asylum, and 1,850 inhabitants. Steinhude, a market-town on a lake of the same name, with linen manufactures, and 700 inhabitants. On this lake is likewise situated a remarkable Uttle fortress, called Wilhelmstein, and reared in 1765. XXXII.— THE KINGDOM OF HANOVER. Area : 14,803 square miles. Population : 1,790,000 inhabitants. This kingdom, whose main body is situated between the Elbe and Wescr, comprises the largest part of the German North Sea coast, where it encloses the main body of the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, and the territory of the city of Bremen. On the west it is bounded by the kingdom of the Netherlands, on the north-east it is by the Elbe river separated from Holstein and Mecklenburg, and on the south (where it comprises the greatest part of the Harlz mountains, and encloses territories of Bruns- wick) it is chiefly bound by the Prussian province of Saxony and by Hesse-Cassel. Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; yet beside them there are more than 90,000 Calvinists (prevailing in the province of East Friescland), about 230,000 Roman Catholics, 500 Mennon- ites and Moravian Brethren, and more than 12,000 Jews. The northern half of the kingdom, is a part of that extensive plain mentioned page 4. Towards the south the surface is hilly, and rises finally to mountains marked with the name of Harlz (see page 7 and 8), besides which the Sollinger Wald, Deister, Siintel (page 8), are to be noticed. GERMANY. 431 The Kingdom of Hanover — its Geographical Features and Statistics, The tributaries of the Elbe : Ilmcnan, Luhe and .StAicw^chavo their sources in the kingdom as well as those of the Weser, viz., the Allcr with the Leinc, the Wummc^ Lesuvi. and Gcesle (see page 17). In East Frieseland is the Ems river with the Ilaase (see page 17). The most remarkable lakes are the Diimmcr Lake and the lake of Bodenteich. At the western frontier the bay of Dollart (see page 9) is to be noticed. The soil is diversified : along the coasts and the banks of the principal rivers highly fertile, and in other parts rather sterile. In the northern section are partly extensive -peat bogs, which sup- ply immense quantities of fuel, but are useless for other purposes; partly extensive heaths, the most remarkable of which are the heath of Lunehurg (which however in recent times is more and more brought under cultivation) and the Hmimling (in the province of Osnabriick). Nevertheless corn is raised sufficiently, not only for home con- sumption, but even for exportation. Besides agriculture, which is the chief employment, the rearing of cattle of various kinds is very considerable. The black cattle along the banks of the lower AVeser and Elbe, in East Frieseland and in the Ilartz, is of excel- lent breed ; and the horscs'm East Frieseland and some other parts of the kingdom, rival in every respect those of Mecklenburg and Holstein. Sheep of improved breed are reared, especially in the southern sections of the country, in great numbers. In the Wcstphalian districts the rearing of hogs is considerable. In the above-mentioned heaths, numerous hives of bees are kept, and the trade in honey and wax yields a considerable profit annually. It is still to be remarked that the flax raised in the province of Luneburg, is renowned throughout Germany for its fineness. The extensive forests in the mountainous districts, in the prov- ince of Luneburg, etc., produce valuable timber; and a district in the neighborhood of Stade, is noted for its fruits, especially cher- 482 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. ries. The m'mes in the Hartz are important, extensively wrought, and produce on an average, annually, 50,000 marks of silver, 100,000 quintals of lead and litharge, 80,000 quintals oiiron, and between 2.000 and 3,000 quintals of copper. The produce in gold is very insignificant. In Luneburg is one of the most pro- ductive salt springs in Europe. Manufactures are not very flour- ishing, yet linen is an important fabric, and is (inclusive flax yarn) exported annually at the value of 2,.500,000 Prussian dol- lars. The inland trade, and even the commerce, is upon the whole considerable. The means of education are well arranged, and managed in conformity with sound principles. Among them ranks first, the univcrsitij at Gottlngen (see page 288), liberally endowed, and in 1846 frequented by 649 students. Besides it, there are at Grot- tingen a royal society of sciences, and a philological seminary. Colleges similar to that of Eton in England, are in Luneburg and Ilefeld. The number of gymnasiums amounts to 15, and that of common schools to 3,561 ; beside which there are rather numerous other schools, as for instance, 7 seminaries, 13 Latin schools, etc. The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. According to the budget of 1845-1846, the public revenue amounted to 3,996.606. and the expenditure to 3,961,058 Prussian dollars, thus yielding a, surplus of 35,548 Prussian dollars, beside which there was still a surplus of 1,227,725 Prussian dollars extant from preceding years. On the first October, 1843, ihe public debt was at the amount of 13,496,489 Prussian dollars. The regular army consists of 22,176 men, and the troops which hitherto were to be furnished to the confederal army, amounted to 13,054 men. There are two orders of honor : 1. The order of St. George, in GERMANY. 433 The Kingdom of Hanover— its History. 1 class, and instituted in 1839. 2. The Gudph order^ instituted in 1815, and since 1841 in 5 classes. History. — The present kingdom of Hanover and the duchy of Brunswick have one and the same origin, because both formed anciently a constituent part of the once so renowned duchy of Saxony (see pages 29S and 299). A duchy of Saxony, in the political meaning of this word, did not yet exist in the days of Charlemagne ; as the celebrated Wittekind was to be considered rather as the leader, than as the actual duke or king of the Saxons. Yet hia great-grandson Ludolph was raised to this dignity. He died about the year 8*70, and was succeeded as duke of Saxony by his son Otto, the father of the great German emperor or king Henry I. (see History of Germany). Hemy retained his Saxon duchy, yet his son, Emperor 'Otta I. (936-972), invested with it a valiant Saxon noble, Hermann Billung, who moreover was already possessed of wealthy estates in the southern and eastern parts of the duchy. In respectively 1101 and 1106, the male line of his house became extinct, and the last Billung, Duke Magnus, who died in 1106, left behind two daugh- ters, Wulfhild and Eilike, as the only heiresses of the family estates. Eilike was married to the earl Otto of Ballenstedt and Anhalt; and "Wulfhild was married to the duke Henry of Bavaria, surnamed the Black, descended from the renowned liouse of the Gudphs. The latter had large estates in Swabia and Franconia, and were again descendants of the mighty house of Este in Italy (see page 118). Henry the Black was succeeded by his son, Henry surnamed the Proud, who, by Emperor Lothar II. (1125-11-37), was invested with the duchy of Saxony, and became in this manner the ruler of two pow- erful duchies, Bavaria and Saxony. His son and successor in both duchies, was the celebrated duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, ■who, as has aheady been mentioned fiequently (see pages 379 and 403), was, on account of liia felony, outlawed in 1180, and deprived of liis duchies as fiefs, while he was allowed toretaui the above-mentioned /awu'Zy estates (in the present province of Luneburg, in Brunswick, etc.). Tlie duchy of Saxony (as a fief of the empire) was divided and annexed to several other states of the Germaa empire ; and how the name of Saxony was subsequently transferred to the margraviate of Meissen, is explained in the history of the kingdom of Saxon}' and of Anhalt (see pages 379 and 403). Henry surnamed the Lion, died in 1195, and bequeathed his family estates to his son William, who bequeathed iiiem again to his son Otto, surnamed the Child, who in 1235 surrendered 19 434 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. them to Emperor Frederic II., and received them as a duchy of Brunswick, and as a hereditary fief of the empire. Otto acquired moreover the cities of Hanover, Gottingen, Miinden, the earldom of Stadc, and bequeathed when he died (in 1252), his duchy considerably enlarged to his two sons, Albert and John, who divided it in 1267, and from Tvliich act sprung up different lines of the reigning house, until, in 1546, two principal lines were formed by the two sons of Ernest, smnamed the Confessor, who died in the just-named year, 15*<5. His eldest son, or properly his grandson, duke Augustus, became the ancestor of the ducal house of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel (or Brunswick proper), and his youngest son William, surnamed the Younger, became the ancestor of the reigning house of Brunswick-Liineburg, i. e. of Hanover. William the Younger died in 1589, and left behind 8 daughters and 7 sons. The latter succeeded him one after the other. Meanwhile sev- eral collateral lines liad sprung up, but they became gradually extinct, and all their dominions were in the beginning of the 18th century reunited by the principal line of Brunswick-Liineburg, or Hanover. Here reigned in the period from 1679 to 1698, the duke Ernest Augustiis, who married the prin- cess Sophia (daughter of the unfortunate elector Frederic V. of the Palati- ate, who was the son-in-law of King James I., of Great Britain), and was in 1692 raised to the dignity of an elector. He died in 1698, and was succeeded by his son George William, who in 1714 mounted the British throne as George I. (see page 233). The remaining part of the history of Hanover, is in substance connected with that of the reigning British royal family; and it may only be added here, that George I. and his successors continued ever to be the actual electors or (since 1814) kings of Hanover, though this country was ruled in their name, by a special government established in the city of Hanover. How it was aggrandized in the period from 1715 to 1813, shall be noticed below in the topography. When in 1837, King William IV. died, his niece Victoria, who succeeded him in Great Britain, could not also suc- ceed him in Hanover, because the so-called Salic law prevails here, which excludes all females from the throne. Thus liis brother, the duke of Cumber- land, Ernest Augustus, born in 1771, succeeded him as king of Hanover. The kingdom is since 1823 divided into G provinces, styled Landdrosteien (or properly Landdrostei-Bczirke, because Land- drostei means a provincial governraeut), which are subdivided into GERMANY. 488 The Kingdom of Hanover — Ita Geograjiliical Divisions. bailiwicks with different special names. As a seventh province maybe considered the mining district (Bersrhauptmannschaft) of Clavsthal, with a special government, superintending the mines, etc., of the Hartz. The term of Landdrostci being rather unu- sual, especially to an English reader, we shall substitute for it the term of province; but as the historically settled condition of the different constituent parts of the kingdom is in substance left untouched, and moreover as their names still frequently occur both in writings and common life, we shall follow here a similar plan, as for instance in France, and combine the ancient names with the modern provincial names. 1. THE PROVINCE OF HANOVER. It comprises the ancient principality of Calcnberg and the ancient earldoms of Hoya and Diepholz. 1. The ancient prijicipalit;/ of CaJenhcrg contains: H.vnover, the capital of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the Lcine, south-eastward and CO miles distant from Bremen, with yarious manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 40,500 inhabitants (exclusive of the garrison). Hanover is noted for its roj'al stables, containing among other horses of the finest breed, sev- eral teams of white-born (without the least gray or black spot) and Isabella- colored horses. The royal j^alace is a handsome building. The neighboring village of Limmer (with 600 inhabitants) is noted for its mineral waters, as is likewise the town of Relthurg (23 miles west-north-west of Hanover, with 1,600 inhabitants). The village of Loccum (with 1,500 inhabitants) is remark- able for its ancient Cistercian monastery, in 1593 secularized, and at present transformed into a seminary for ministers. Hameln, a city on the Weser, 26 miles south-south-west of Hanover, has 6,500 inhabitants, and was until 1 806 noted for its fortress. Not far from here is the village of Hastenbeck, noted for a battle between the French and the Hanoverians, on tlie 26th July, 1757. Wnnstorf, a town near the Lcine, north-westward aud 12 miles distant from Hanover, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its establishment for ladies 4Sr, EUROPE, PAST AND PRESEM". Germany.— Kingdom of Hanover. of rank. Sahhcmmendorf, a market-to'wn, noted for its salt-works, has 2,050 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable market-towns are: Lauenan (with 900 inhabitants), Grohnde (with 850 inhabitants), Polle (with 1,200 inhabitants), Coppenhrugge (with 1,400 inhabitants), Aerzen (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Lauenstcin (with 1,100 inhabitants). More or less remark able towns are: Springe (with 1,950 inhabitants), J/iiwcfcr (with 2,000 inhabi- tants), Pattensen (with 1,700 inhabitants), Bodcnwerder (with 1,600 inhabi tants), Eldagsen (with 2,300 inhabitants), and Neustadt am Ruhenherge (with 1,600 inhabitants). 2. The ancient earldom of Hoya, whicli in 1543 was inherited by Bruns- wick- Luneburg or Hanover, contains : Niexburg, a city on the Weser, about half-way between Hanover and Bremen, has some manufactures, and 4,700 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its fortress. Hoijay a market-town on the "Weser, 14 miles below Nienburg, with linen manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Mcmsen is noted for its royal stud. Vilsen, a market-town on the Weser, at 5 miles distance from Hoya, is noted for its considerable trade, and has 1,050 inliabitants. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Liebenau (vrith. 2 fiOO mhahitants), AH-Bruchhausen (with 1,100 inhabitants), Stohenau (with 1,800 inhabitants), Diepenau (with 550 inhabitants), Suhlingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Syke (with 950 inhabi- tants), Uchte (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Bassum (with 1,700 inhabitants). 3. The ancient earldom of Diepholz, wliich in 1585 was inherited, contains : DiEPuoLz, a market-town on the Hunte river, about half-way between Osna- briick and Bremen, with linen and woollen manufactures, and 2,600 inhabi- tants. Lemforde, a market-town with several branches of industry, and 950 uihabitants. 2. THE PROVINCE OF LUNEBURG. It comprises in substance only the ancient principality of the same name, and besides it two bailiwicks of the duchy of Laucn- burg (see page 418). 1. The ancient principaliti/ of Luneburg (which formed part of the family estates of the above-mentioned house of Billung) contains : Luenebueg, its ancient capital, and at present the seat of the provincial government, on the GERMANY. 4 St The Kingdom of Hanovei^-its Geographical Divisions. Ilmenau river, south-eastward and 28 miles distant from Hamburg, has 12,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its highly valuable salt-ppring and salt- works (producing annually about 800,000 quintals of salt), its hme-stone quar- ries, its college (sec back), and gymnasium. Bardewik, a market-town on the Ilmenau river, below Luneburg, is noted for its greens and stately Gothic church, and has 1,400 inhabitants. In the middle ages, Bardewik was an emporium and considerable city, but was in 1189 barbarously devastated by Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion. Harburg, a tovm on the Elbe, opposite Hamburg, with an ancient castle, manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,200 inhabitants. Winsen an der Luhe, a town on the Luhe river, with consider- able trade, and 2,200 inhabitants. Soltau, an industrious town in the above- mentioned heath of Luneburg, south-westward and 28 miles distant from the city of Luneburg, with 1,200 iiiliabitants. Walsrode, a town on the Bohme river, with an estabUshment for ladies of rank (anciently a nunnery instituted in 986), and 2,100 inhabitants. Ahlden, a market-town on the Allcr, with 800 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and an ancient castle, where in tlie years 1694-1726, Sophia Dorothea, the divorced consort of King George I., of Great Britain, resided. Celle or Zelle, a city on the AUer, with various manu- factures, a remarkable royal stud, and 12,200 inhabitants, is noted as the seat of the supreme tribunal of the kingdom, and for its royal palace, reared in 1485, and until 1705 the residence of the dukes of Luneburg. Uelzcn, a town on the Ilmenau, 22 miles north of Luneburg, is noted for its flax, and has 3,100 inhabitants. Other towns are: Burgdorf {vsiih. 2,400 inliabitants), Gif- hom (with 2,500 inhabitants), Dannenhcrg (with 1,500 inhabitants), Hitzacker (with 1,050 inhabitants), Luchow (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Wustrow (with considerable linen manufactures, and 800 inhabitants). % The bailiwicks of Artlenburg and Neuliaus, formerly (imtil 1814) be- longing to tlie duchy of Lauenburg, contain the villages of Artlenburg (on the left bank of the Elbe, with 600 inliabitants), and Keuhaus (on the right bank of the Elbe, with an ancient castle, and 450 inliabitants). 3. THE PROVINCE OF STADK It comprises the ancient duchies of Bremen and Verden^ and the territory of Hadela. 488 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 1. Tlie ancient duchy of Bremen, which has at present notliing in common with the city of this name, but was once chief part of the sovereign arch- bishopric of Bremen, which w.as instituted as a bisliopric by Charlemagne in •788. The renowned converter of pagans, Ansgarius, was the first arch- bishop of Bremen. He died in 865, and among liis successors, who resided in this city, were se^•eral of great political authority. Since the Reforma- tion, the city of Bremen and even the archbishop embraced the doctrines of Protestantism, the former became independent, and the territory of the arch- bishopric was secularized, and in 1648 with the title of a duchj ceded to Sweden. In the northern war (1700-1702) the duchy was conquered by the Danes, and, together with the duchy of Verden, sold to the electorate of Hanover. In the peace concluded at Stockholm in 1720, this arrangement was ratified. The duchy of Bremen contains: Stade, the capital of the provmce, on the Schwinge, neai- its junction with the Elbe, about 20 miles below Hambiu-g, with some inland trade, and 5,900 inhabitants. At the mouth of the Schwinge is situated the village of JBrunsJiausen, where Hano- ver is entitled to levy a toll from the vessels passing here on their way up to Hamburg. It is conamonly called the toU of Stade, and yields a revenue of about 40,000 Prussian dollars annually. BuxteJnide, a town on the Este, between Stade and Harburg, with some manufactures and trade, and 2,300 inhabitants. Harsefeld (with 950 inhabitants), Hornehurg (with 1,300 inhabi- tants), Dorum (with 750 inhabitants), Bederkesa (with 1,100 inhabitants), Bremerlehe (with 1,650 inhabitants), Osterholz (with 850 inhabitants), Scharmbeck (with 1,750 inliabitants), Ottersbcrg (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Zeven (with 900 inhabitants), all market-towns. 2. The ancient principality or duchy of Verden, which originated from a bishopric of the same name, instituted in 786 by Charlemagne, and since 1648 underwent the same political vicissitudes as the duchy of Bremen, contains : Vebden, atown on the AUcr, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Bre- men, is noted for its ancient Gothic cathedral, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Rotcnhnrg, a market-town on the Wumme river, at the high-road between Bremen and Hamburg, Avith 1,600 inhabitants. 8. Tlie territory of 7/ac?eZw, which until 1689 formed a constituent part of the duchy of Lauenburg (see page 418), contains: Otterxdoef, a towp near the mouth of the Elbe, with several branches of industry, and 1,800 inhabi- tants. Altenbruch and Ludingworth, market-towns, with respectively 2,500 and 2,000 inhabitants. GERMANY. 439 The Kingdom of Hanover— Ita Geographical Divisions. 4. THE PROVINCE OF HILDESHEIM. It comprises the ancient independent or sovereign bixhopric of Hildesheim, the ancient principalities of Gottingeii and Grubcnha- gen, the so-called Lower Eichsfeldy etc. 1. The former sovereign bishopric (at present styled principality) of Hildesheim was in 812 instituted by Charlemagne, and in 822 transferred from its primitive seat Elze to the neighboring tovm of Hildesheim by Em- peror Louis the Pious. The bi.shops acquired in the com-se of time a con- siderable territory, which at the beginning of the present century had an extent of 682 square miles. The two last bishops were at the same time possessed of the sovereign bishopric of Paderbom. Both were secularized in 1803 and ceded to Prussia, In 1807 they were incorporated with tho kingdom of WestphaUa (see page 294), but restored in 1813 to Prussia, which retained only Padcrborn, while it ceded Hildesheim to Hanover. It contains: Hildesheim, its former capital, at present the capital of the prov- ince, on the Innerste river, 23 miles west-south-west of Brunswick, and south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Hanover, with various manufac- tures, a cathedral, and other Gothic churches, and 15,500 inhabitants. £lze, a town near the Leine river, westward and 9 miles distant from Hildesheim, with 2,050 inhabitants. The first Christian church in Saxony (i. e. in ancient Saxony) was built here; in T86 Charlemagne resided here for a while. Pcina, an industrious town on the Fuse river, north-eastward and TO miles distant from Hildesheim, with considerable inland trade, and 4,000 inhabi- tants. Other more or less remarkable towns are: G^ronaw (with 1,900 in- habitants), Sarstedt (with 1,500 inhabitants), ^//eW(with 2,700 inhabitants), and Bockenem (with 2,200 inhabitants). The market-town of Salzdetfurt (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-springs and works. Though it did not belong to the former bishopric of Hildesheim, we shall here mention also the ancient imperial city of Goslae, in the Hartz, south-eastward and 24 miles distant from Hildesheim, with noted breweries, numerous manu- factures, and 7,500 inhabitants. Goslar was founded by Emperor Henry I. in 922, and in the middle ages frequently the residence of the German em- perors. In 1803 it lost its independence and came under the sway of 440 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. Hanover; in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of "Westphalia (see page 294), and in 1813 restored to Hanover. 2. The ancient principality of Gottingen contains : Gottingen, its ancient capital, on a branch of the Leine river, southward and 66 miles distant from Hanover, has 11,500 inhabitants, various and partly important manufactures, and is noted for its university (see above and page 288), its celebrated pub- lic library (see page 288), observatory, botanic gardens, etc. Bovendcn, a market-town, with hnen manufactures, anelong: Saarbrueck, until 1801 the capital of an earldom belong- ing to the princely house of Nassau, on the Saar, sputh-westward and SO miles distant from Treves, has 8,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its manu- factures and coal mines. Ottweiler, a town on the Blies river, with some manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Pruem, a town at the foot of the Eifel, north-eastward, and 34 miles distant from Treves, with important leather m 497 The Province of Prussia. miles distant from Warsaw, is well built, carries on a considerable corn trade, and has 6,800 inhabitants. Insterbnrg, a city on the Inster river, westward and 16 miles distant from Gumbinnen, with notable stud, corn trade, and 9,700 inhabitants. Stallupbhncn,a town near the Russian frontier, eastward and 17 miles distant from Gumbinnen, with cattle trade, and 3,150 inhabi- tants. South-eastward and 7 miles from here is the highly noted royal stud of Trakehnen. Southward and 72 miles distant from Insterbnrg is situ- ated the town of Johannishurg (with a historically remarkable castle, and 2,100 inhabitants), near the extensive forest of the same name, and 30 miles in length. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Angerburg (with 3,600 inliabitants), Goldapp (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lyck (with 3,550 in- habitants), Oletzko (with 3,100 inhabitants), Sensburg (with 2,400 inhabi- tants), Nikolaiken (with 2,000 inliabitants), Lotzen (with 2,000 inliabitants), Ragnit (with 2,900 inhabitants), Bialla (with 1,300 inhabitants), Schiruiind (with 1,500 inhabitants), Pi///.;aWc« (with 1,900 inliabitants), and Darkehmen (with 2,400 inhabitants). Tilsit, a city on the Memel river, north-eastward and 74 miles distant from Konigsberg, with noted horse-marts, considerable trade, and 13,900 inhabitants. Historically remarkable is this city for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 9tli of July, 1807. -j-Dantzick (in German Danzig), the capital of a governmental district of the same name, on a branch of the Vistula, 5 miles from the Baltic Sea, 120 miles west-south-west of Konigsberg, is one of the first maritime and commercial cities of the kingdom, engaged in numerous branches of indus- try, and strongly fortified, has 66,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for several of its Gothic churches and other arcliitectural monuments. Dant- zick is of very ancient origin, and was already in the 6th century a very nota- ble place; m 1310it came under the sway of the Teutonic order, and in 1454 under that of Poland, until in 1793 Prussia became possessed of it. The actual seaport of Dantzick is at Neufahrwasser and Weichsclmunde, on the Baltic Sea. Oliva, a market-town in the neighborhood of Dantzick, with 1,400 inliabitants, and an ancient Cistercian abbey, noted in history for a treaty of peace concluded here on the 3d of May, 1660, between Prussia and Polimd. Elbing, a city in a fertile district near the Fresh Haff, 40 miles east-south-east of Dantzick, has 20,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its char- ities for the poor, its commerce and manufactures. Maeienburg, a city on the Nogat, south-eastward and 34 miles distant from Dantzick, has 6,600 in- habitants, and is famed for its having been anciently the chief seat of the 49S EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia. — Its Governmental Districts. Teutonic Order, whose master resided here in an extensive and admirable Gothic castle, -which in recent times is completely restored. Tolkemit, a town on the Fresh Haff, is noted for its fishing and fowling, and has 2,300 inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are: Futzig (with 2,300 in- habitants), Berent (with 2,300 inhabitants), Schoneck (with 2,200 inhabi iant*), Dirschau (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Carthaus (with 600 inhabi- tants). -i-Marienwerdeu, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, in a fertile plain near the Vistula, 64 miles south-south-east of Dantzick, -with an extensive ancient castle, a remarkable Gothic clmrch, corn trade, and 6;250 inhabitants. Culm, a city near the Vistula, southward and 76 miles distant from Dantzick, with a military academy, some woollen manufactures, and 6,800 inhabitants. In the middle ages Culm was an important member of the Hanseatic League, and famed for its cloth manufactures. Graudenz, a city on the Vistula (crossed here by a bridge of boats, 2,700 feet long), 18 miles south-south-west of Marienwerder, has 8,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its strong fortress. Thorn, a strongly fortified city, on the Vistula, north- westward and 125 miles distant from Warsaw, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated astronomer Nicholas Copernicus (born in 1473), and noted for its gingerbread, corn, and timber trade. Christhurg, a town on the Sorge river, with cloth and linen manu- factures, and 2,700 inliabitants. The neighboring village of Stuhnsdorf is remarkable in history for a convention concluded here on the 9th September, 1635, between Sweden and Poland. Lobau, a town south-eastward and 43 miles distant from Marienwerder, has 3,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen and flax. Other more or less notable towns are : Stuhm (with 1,300 inhabitants), Rosenberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Riesenhurg (with 3,600 in- habitants), Gallup (with 2,300 inhabitants), C'ulmsee (with 1,700 inhabitants), Bricsen (with 2,100 iiiliabit.ints), Schwetz (with 3,200 inhabitants), Co7iitz (with 4,100 inhabitants), Schlochau (with 2,100 inhabitants), Deutsch- Crone (with 3,900 inhabitants), Hammerstein (with 2,000 inhabitants), Jasirow (with 3,750 inhabitants), Flatow (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Zcmpelburg (with 3,500 inliabitants). PRUSSIA. 499 The Province of Pusen. VUL— THE PROVINCE OF POSEN. Area: 11,417 square miles. Population : 1,364,000 inhabitants. This province was until 1795, when Prussia took possession of it, a constituent part of the ancient kingdom of Poland ; it was in 1807 annexed to the then created grand-duchy of AYarsaw, and in 1814 restored to Prussia. {About its other historical particu- lars see history of Poland under the head of Russia.) The title of a grand-duchy conferred upon this province, is but seldom used. It is subdivided into the two governmental districts of PoscJi and Bromberg, and contains: -j-PosF.N, the capital of the province, on the Warthe river, about lialf-M'ay between Berlin and Warsaw, is at present strongly fortified, has 40,500 in- habitants (of whom 18,500 are Roman Catholics, 12,000 Protestants, and 10,000 Jews), and is noted for its handsome cathedral and several other churches, its remarkable city-hall, its literary in.«titutions, manufactures, and considerable trade. Posen was in the middle ages for a long wliile the residence of the Polish sovereigns. Fraustadt (in Polish Wsckaca), a city near the fi-ontier of Silesia, with noted cloth and linen manufactures, consid- erable corn trade, and 6,100 inhabitants. Other cities and towns noted for their manufactures of various articles are : Lissa (with 9,300 inhabitants), kawicz (with 10,'20() inhabitants), Krotoizin (with 7,600 inhabitants), J/eae- ritz (with 4,800 iiiliabitants), Tirschtiegel (with 2,500 inhabitants), Zduny (with 3,600 inhabitants), Bratz (with 1,600 inhabitants), iZo^rasen (with 4,900 inhabitants), and Pleszcw (witli 5,150 inhabitants). Still may be noticed the towns of Sainter (with 2,850 inhabitants), Reisen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Storchnest or O&ieczno (with 1,550 inhabitants), Bojanowo (with 3,000 inhab- itants), Schrinim (with 3,850 iuliabitants), and Kurnik (with 2,850 inhab- itants). -i-Buo3.iBERG, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, on 500 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Prussia. — Province of Posen. the Biahe river, north-eastward and 72 miles distant from the city of Posen, with several high schools, nianufactm'es, considerable trade, and 9,800 inliab- itauts. GxEsiiN, a very ancient and once renowned city, 45 miles south- south-west of Bromberg, with a higlily remarkable cathedral, considerable manufactures, noted cattle- and horse-marts, and 7,350 iiahabitants. In the earlier period of the middle ages the Polish kings were crowned here. Inowraclaw (in German Jung-Breslau), a town in a fertile plain, with con- siderable trade, and 5,800 inhabitants, llie town of Kruschwitz has at present only 450 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages an important city Other more or less remaikable towns are : Fordon (with 2,250 inhabitants), Czarnikow (with 3,700 inhabitants), Schonlanke (with 4,000 inhabitants), Filehne (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Schneidemilhl or Plla (with 4,400 in- habitants). THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. Area : 258,262 square miles. Population: 37,850,000 inhabitants. " The Austrian Empire is situated between Germany and Tur- key, and between Italy and Russia, and embraces four principal constituent parts, wliicli with reference to the nationality of their inhabitants are styled German, Polish. Hungarian and Italian Provinces, and whose common sovereign is the Emperor of Austria. The above-stated area and population is distributed as fol- lows : German provinces (see p. 309) 76,147 sq. m. and 12,700,000 ink ^0^^^^ " |SS.^;cl?;^S;i ^^'^««" " -^ ^.^^0,000 " Hungarian^' {^r^'^^S^^l^^^Hi [ 129,696 « « and 14,900,000 " ^^«^'« " 1 and"S~^''^'^ [ l^'^ll " " ^°^ ^,^OmO " . In point of religion the Roman Catholic is prevailing, and the particulars may be learned from the official statements of the year 1842, when the total population of the empire was 35,804,152 in- habitants. Of these were 24.874,139 Roman Catholics (with 12 archbishops and 61 bishops), more than 3^ million conformed (i. e. to the Eoman Catholic church) and nearly 3 million nonconformed Greek Christians ; 1,207.309 Lutherans, and 2,037,479 Calvinists; the remainder consisting (beside 668,906 Jews) of Unitarians, etc. In point of origin, there are somewhat more than 7 million 602 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria — its Mouotains, Rivers, Soil, etc. inhabitants belonging to the Germanic tribe, about 18 millions belonging to the Slavonic tribe (as Poles, Bohemians proper, Slowacks, Slavonians, etc.), nearly 5^ millions belonging to the Romanic tribe, and about 5 million Magyars (see pages 18 and 19), besides about 700,000 Jews^ etc. With regard to the surface, it may generally be said that in the western section of the empire high mountaiiis, and in the east- ern section level plains prevail ; with the exception, however, of a level plain in Lombardy, and mountain ranges in Transylvania. The chief mountain ranges within the limits of the Austrian empire are : eastern branches of the Alps (see page 4) ; the Car- pathian Mountains (see page 5), the Buhmerwald, Erzgebirge, and part of the Sudctic Mountains (see pages 6 and 7). The shores of the south-western section of the empire are washed by the Adriatic Sea (see page 10). — The most notable lakes are the Maggiore and Garda lakes in Lombardy, the Ba- laton and Neusiedl lakes in Hungary, and the Gmu7iden, Ossiach, Clagenfurt and Cirknitz lakes in the German provinces (see page 11). — The chief rivers and tributaries are: the Danube (with the Inn, Ens, March, Trasen, TVaag, Neitra, Gran, Theiss, Leilha, Raab, Drave and Save (see page 16) ; the Elbe (with the Mol- dau and Egcr (see page 16) ; the Po (with the Adda, Oglio, Mincio, Tagliamento, Piave and Brcnla (see page 15) ; the Adige (see page 15), and the sources of the Vistula (see page 13). The soil is generally very fertile, especially most of the plains in Hungary and Siavonia. Yet not only the most fertile, but at the same time best-cultivated districts of the empire, are the valley of the Danube, in the Austrian arch-duchy, and the plain along the Po, in Lombardy and Venice. Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia, are likewise favored with a fertile soil ; while the exten- sive heaths of Ketskemet and Debreczin in Hungary, are sterile wastes. AUSTRIA. 608 The Natural Products of Austria. Of the total area above stated, 218,431 square miles are com- puted to be arable la)id, distributed as follows : 82.090 square miles, appropriated to agriculture, 3,855 square miles to viite cul- ture, 234 square miles to rice culture (in Lombardy), 25,8 IG square miles, consisting of meadoivs and gardens, and 27,945 square miles of common pastures; the remainder being covered with forests, and partly appropriated to the cultivation of various fruits. From this it may easily be inferred, that grain is raised far more than what is required for home consumption. The same may be said with reference to the rearing of cattle. In 1842, the whole empire had an aggregate number of more than 14,000.000 heads of black cattle (the most valuable breed is reared in the dis- tricts of the Alps, in the German provinces in general, and iu Hungary and Galicia), about 2,800,000 horses (the finest breed in Hungary, Transylvania, but also in the northern German prov- inces), nearly 34.000 mules (reared in Lombardy and Venice and in Dalmatia), 32,000,000 sheep (three fifths of them of improved breed), and 5,345.000 hogs (especially in Hungary, but also in other provinces of the empire). The produce of the silkicorm (for which Lombardy and Venice, the southern part of Tyrol, Istria. etc., are noted) amounted in 1841 to about 4 million pounds of raw silk. Game of various kinds is to be found abun- dantly in most of the provinces. The viining products in 1841, tad a value of 26,058,802 florins (more than $9,827,000), and consisted of gold (6,213 marks: Transylvania and Hungary proper), silver (97,329 marks : Hungary proper, Bohemia, Tran- sylvania, etc.), quicksilver (2,973 quintals, chiefly from the mines of Istria), tin (877 quintals, only in Bohemia), copper (49,157 quintals, chiefly in Hungary), /<^afZ for the marts (72,028 quintals: Carinthia and Carniola, moreover in Hungary, etc.), lead ore (20,629 quintals, only in Bohemia), zinc (4,000 quintals, in Hun- 604 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. .^ y Austria— its Natural Products, Manufocttures and Ck)minerce. gary aud Tyrol), iron of every description (2.649,632 quintals, chiefly in Styria, but also in Illyria, Hungary, Bohemia, etc.), and coal (9,353,939 quintals, chiefly in Bohemia, but also in Moravia, Lower Austria, etc.). Austria abounds in sail of every description, and in 1841 the rock-salt mines in Galicia, Transyl- vania, Hungary proper. Upper Austria, and Styria, produced 3,031,079 quintals, the salt-springs (in Upper Austria, Salzburg, Galicia, etc.) 2,011,616 quintals, and in the seaports 733,942 quintals of salt were made. The Austrian empire has the most valuable, and next to Russia, the most extensive /orpich,a, market-to^vn, with 1,100 inhabitants. Other more or less notable market-towns are : Ogulin (with 2,300 inhabitants), Glina (with 1,600 inhabi- tants), Dubitza (with 3,200 inhabitants), Jassenovacz (with 2,600 inhabitants), and St. Georgen (with 3,600 inhabitants). The maritime town of Zengg, on the Adi'iatic, with 3,100 inhabitants, is noted for its handsome cathedral. Pctrinia and Kosstainicza towns with respectively 4,200 and 3,200 inhabitants. 2. The Slavonian Military Frontier contains : Peterwaudein, a city noted as one of the strongest fortresses of the Austrian empire, on the Danube (right bank), 212 mUes east-south-east of Agram, with remarkable arsenal, and 6,500 inhabitants. Carlowitz, a city on the Danube, 5 miles below Peter- wardein, is noted for its wines, fisheries, and inland trade, and has 6,400 in- luxbitants. In 1699 a treaty of peace with Turkey was concluded here. Semlin, a city on the Danube, at its junction with the Save, opposite the 634 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Austria.— The Military Frontier and Kingdom of Dalmatia. Turkish city of Belgrad, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Petcrwai dein, is the chief seat of the trade of Austria with Turkey, and has 10,500 inliabitants. Mitrovicz, a market-town on tlie Save, with Roman antiquities, and 3,500 inhabitants. Old Pazna, a village noted for its agricultural pur- suits, has 4,000 inliabitants. Brood, a town on the Save, is noted for its for- tress, and has 2,400 inhabitants. New Gradisca, a market-town, with 1,600 inhabitants. Old Gradhca, gi fortified town on tlie Save, with 2,200 inhabi ■ tants. Tittel, a market-town on the Theiss, uear its junction with the Danube, with 2,300 inhabitants. 3. The Hungarian Military Frontier contains : Pancsova, a town near the Danube, and in the neighborhood of Semlin, with considerable trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Karansehes, a market-town, with vine culture, and 3,500 inhabitants. Mehadia, a market-town in a beautiful valley, is from old liiglJy famed as a watering place, and has 1,700 inhabitants. Old Orsova, a fortiiied market-town on the Danube, with 1,000 inhabitants. Fejer Templom (in Ger- man Weissklrchen), a town eastward and 40 miles distant from Pancsova, with vine culture, considerable trade, and 5,600 inhabitants. 4. The Transylvanian Military Frontier contains : Kezdi Vasarhely, a mar- ket-town noted for its numerous branches of national industry, has 4,900 in- habitants. Gijerc^yo Sxent Mildos, a market-town with considerable trade, and 5,100 inhabitants. Hatzeg, a market-town westward and 60 miles distant from Hermannstadt, with vine culture. Still is to be noticed the mountain pass known by the name of Bother Thurm (red tower), southward and 9 miles distant from Hermannstadt. VI.— THE KINGDOM OF DALMATIA. Area : 4,952 square miles. Poi'UL.^Tiox : 421,300 inhabitants. Dalmatia is a strip of country, in some places only 2 or 3 miles wide, extending along the Adriatic, ou the north bordering AUSTRIA. 636 History and Geographical Description or Dalmatia. upon the Croatian Military Frontier, and for the rest surrounded by Turkish territories. The inhabitants, mostly belonging to the Slavonic tribe, speak a peculiar idiom known by the name of lllyrian or Serbian language. In the days of the ancient Romans Dalmatia formed a constituent part of Illyricum, subsequently of the Eastern, or Greek Empire. In the 7th century Slavonian tribes settled here, ruled by native chieftains, -who, in the 10th century acknowledged the sovereignty of the Republic of Venice, though in the period from 1357 to 1420 the country was under the sway of Hungary. Since the last-named period Venice was (with the exception of two short intervals) continually possessed of Dalmatia until 1797, when, in conformity to the treaty of Campo Formio, it was ceded to Austria^ that, in 1805, ceded it to Napoleon, and became possessed of it again in 1814. — Dalmatia is divided into 4 counties, styled circles, which are subdivided into 26 districts. Z.\R.\, the fortified capital of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic, opposite the city of Ancona (in the States of the Church), 136 miles south-south-east of Trieste, is noted for its cathedral (reared in the 13th century), its literary institutions, and its cordials (known by the name of Rosoglio), and has 7,400 inhabitants. Pago, a town on an isle of the same name, with salt-works, vine culture, and 2,000 inhabitants. Sehenico, a maritime town, with the finest cathedral in Dalmatia, is moreover noted for its wines and cordials, and has 5,200 inhabi- tants. Knin, a market-town with a mountain castle, and TOO inhabitants. I^alato, or Spalatro, a city on the Adriatic, south-eastward and 70 miles distant frorti Zara, is noted for its remarkable Roman antiquities, mineral baths, commerce, etc., and has 9,000 inhabitants. Fort Opus, a market-town with 800 inhabitants, who are widely engaged in the exportation of leeches. Brazza, Lenina, and Lissa, islands near the coast, noted for their wines, figs, oranges, and other similar fruits. Cattaro, a fortified town at the south-east- ern extremity of Diilmatia, and on the Adriatic, with remarkable cathedral, noted leather manufactures, and 2,300 inhabitants. Ragusa, until 1807 the capital of a republic of the same name, on the Adriatic, north-westward and 28 miles distant from Cattaro, is fortified, and noted for its cathedral and 636 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT, Austria. — Dalmatia and Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. Other churches, its literary institutions, manufactures, sliip-building, etc., and 6,000 inliabitants. The republic of Ragusa originated in the 13th century, was since 1357 under the protection of Hungary, subsequently under that of Turkey, was in 1807 subjected by the French, and kept by them until 1814, when Austria became possessed of it. Vn— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. Area: 17,594 square miles. Population': 5,068,000 inhabitants. It comprises nearly the whole eastern half of Upper Italy (see page 103), on the west separated by the Ticino river from the continental part of Sardinia, and on the south separated by the Po river from Parma, Modena, and the States of the Church. The name of Lombardy^ derived from the Lombards (see page 28), has at present no actual political meaning, but is a general name adapted to the ancient duchies of Milan and Mantua^ etc. Referring to the history of Europe, ^^ 6, 7, 9 and 14, and to the history of Italy, page 102, with regard to historical particulars of Lombardy in general, we shall simply premise here, that the duchies of Milan and Mantua, and the principality of Castig- lione have already since respectively 1706, 1707 and 1773 be- longed to Austria, while former territories of Orisons (in Swit- zerland), and those of the ancient republic of Venice, have not before the year 1814 been permanently annexed to the Austrian empire. (About the historical particulars see below.) — The kingdom is divided into 2 governments, styled gubernia, those of AUSTRIA. 537 Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. J\Hlan and Venice, and subdivided into 17 provinces, styled dele- gations. (a.) The government (guberniiim) of ;Milan or of Lombardy comprises, be- side the above-mentioned duchios and principality of Milan, ilantua and Castiglione, former territories of the present Swiss canton of Orisons, viz., tlic dominions of Veltlin, Bormio, and Chiavenna, and part of the former territo- ries of the republic of Venice. — 1. Tlic ancient ditcJit/ of Milan took existence in the beginning of the 1-lth century. The city of Milan had until then been formally under the sway of the German emperors, but actually been inde- pendent. A native nobleman, Matthew Visconti, in 1313 usurped authority in the city and its territory, was acknowledged as its ruler by Emperor Henry VII., and his gi-andson, John Galeazzo Visconti, was in 1395 by Empe- ror "Wenceslaus raised to the dignity of duke. His daughter was married to the duke Louis of Orleans, hence the subsequent claims of France upon the duchy. About the middle of the 15th century the male line of the ducal house became extinct, and now the son-in-law of the last duke, Francis Sforza, was elected duke of Milan. But in the beginning of the IGth cen- tury King Francis I. of France raised claims upon the duchy, while Emperor Charles V. reclaimed it as an escheated fief of the German empire. After a long contest the emperor prevailed against Francis I., and in 1540 he in- vested his son Philip (subsequently king of Spain) with the duchy of Milan, which since formed a constituent part of Spain untd I'iOG, when Austria took possession of it, whUe in ITl-t it was formally ceded to this power (see page 85). In 1*797 Austria renounced it, after it having been transformed into a Cis- alpinian republic; since 1805 it formed the principal constituent part of the kingdom of Italy, and in 1815 it was restored to Austria. It contains: Mi- lan (in German J/ ^ ^^^J ^^^^ ^^^^ Oka, south-eastward and 300 miles distant from Moscow, is noted for its cloth and canvass manufactures, and has 21,000 inhabitants. Jelatma, a town on the Oka, with trade in corn and hemp, and 6,500 uihabitants. In its neighbor- hood are considerable iron-works, especially at Ujensk. -|-Rjaesan, a city on the Trubesh, south-eastward and 113 miles distant from Moscow, with cloth, canvass, linen, and other manufactures, and 20,000 inhabitants. Kasi- mov, a city on the Oka, is noted for its considerable fur trade, and has 10,000 inhabitants, among whom arc many Mohammedan Tartars. -j-Nishnei-Nov- GOROD, a city on the Volga, at its junction with the Oka, and at the high- road between Moscow and Siberia, is highly famed for its annual fair (at all events, the most important throughout Europe), and has 28,000 inhabitants. It lies 580 miles east-south-east of Novgorod, noticed above in History, with whicli it is not to be confounded. Liscowo, a market-town on the Volga, is famed for its linens and horse-marts, and has 4,000 inhabitants. -j-Wladimir, a city on the Kljasma, eastward and 116 miles distant from Moscow, with a noted theological semi:iary and gymnasium, considerable culture of garden and other fruits, with silk manufactures, and 12,000 inhabitants. Wladimir was, m the period from 1157 to 1328, the capital of a Russian grand-duchy (see above, in History). Ivanovo, an extensive village, noted for its consider- able manufacttires, especially of cotton goods, with 6,000 inhabitants. -f-Kos- TEOMA, a city on the Volga, north-eastward and 180 miles distant from Moscow, with considerable leather and other manufactures, and 14,000 inhabi- tants. -|-Jaroslav, a city on the Volga, 170 miles north-north-east of Moscow, is noted for its academy, and considerable manufactures, and has 33,200 in- habitants. Rostov), a very ancient city, on a lake of the same name, with a remarkable ancient cathedral, considerable inland trade, noted fairs, and 7,800 inhabitants. Ryiunsk, a town on the Volga, 46 miles above Jaroslav, is an emporium of the Russian inland trade, and the centre for the inland RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 69S Geographical Description of Great Russia. navigation, is moreover noted for its liuen manufactures, and has 7,500 in- liabitants. -j-Twer, a city on the Volga, north--wcstward and 94 miles dis- tant from Moscow, with considerable trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. -j-Ples- Kow, or Fskow, a city near the Peipus lake, south-westward and 156 miles distant from St. Petersburg, was, in the middle ages, an emporium (see page 50), is at present noted for its Russian leather manufactures and annual fair, and has 12,000 inhabitants. -[-Novgorod, a city on the Ilmen lake, south- ward and about 100 miles distant from St. Petersburg, lias at present only 15,000 inliabitants, but was, in the middle ages, a renowned commercial city and republic (see above, in Histor}^, and page 50). -{-Petrosawodsk, a city on the lake Onega, north-eastward and 190 miles distant from St. Peters- burg, is noted for its cannon-foundry, copper and iron-works, and has 7,000 inhabitants. Oloncfz, a to^vn on the Ladoga lake, with iron and copper mines, and 3,000 inhabitants. -f-WoLOGDA, a city on a river of the same name, eastward and 360 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with numerous manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 16,400 inhabitants. Ustjug- Weliki, a city at the high-road between Archangel and Siberia, with numerous and noted manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 14,000 inhabitants. 4- Arch- angel, an important commercial city, on the Dwina, 38 miles from the White Sea, north-eastward and nearly 300 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with numerous manufactures, docks, etc., and 22,000 inhabitants. Archangel was founded in 1584. , Kola, the most northern to\\Ti in European Russia, near the Arctic Ocean, 380 miles north-north-west of Archangel, with considerable fisheries, and 1,500 inhabitants. The island of Nova Zembl.a, the largest in the Arctic Ocean, having nearly 95,000 square miles in extent, is situated near the northern extremity of European Russia, yet northward of the Arctic circle, in about 72° north latitude. Being dreary and mostly covered with mas^ses of snow and ice, it has no permanent inhabitants, yet is in the sum- mer*scason resorted to by a great many Russian hunters and fishermen, for the island abounds with white bears, white foxes, reindeer, seals, etc. Tlie group of the Spitzbeuge.v islands belongs likewise to Russia, lies in the Arctic Ocean, between 76° 30' and 80° 40' north latitude, and between 70° and 24° longitude east from Greenwich, is resorted to by whalers and Rus- sian hunters, and has in recent times become the seat of a hunting and fish- ing settlement, consisting of about 25 Norwegians and Laplanders. 594 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Russia in Europe. — Geottraphical Description of Little Russia. II.— LITTLE RUSSIA. Area: 76,680 square miles. Population : 6,500,000 inhabitants. It is situated on the south-west side of Great Russia, and both in history and common life usually named Ukraine ; is, in some respect, to be considered as the basis of the Russian empire (as may be derived from the History above), and was until 1G74 the chief scat of those warlike Russians, who since have, by way of eminence, been called Cossacks (see the note back). It con- tains : -]-KiEW,or Kiev, its former capital, and in the period of 880-1157 the resi- dence of the Russian grand dukes (see History, above), on the Dnieper, south- ward and 330 miles distant from Smolensk, and south-eastward and 450 miles distant from Warsaw, with 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Lutheran, and 25 Greek cliurches (among the latter are the cathedral and St. Andrew's church highly remarkable), 9 convents (among which that of Petscheri is noted for its ex- tensive vaults and sepulchres), a university (see above), important annual fairs, and 48,000 inhabitants. Uman, a city on the Umanka, with consider- able trade in cattle, and 10,000 inhabitants. The neighboring estate of Sofi- ovka is famed for its extensive and handsome gardens and park. Lisianka, a town noted as a watering-place, has 3,000 inhabitants. -|-Czernigow, a city on the Desna, with various branches of industry, and 11,100 inhabitants. Krolewetz, a town noted for its important annual fairs, has 6,200 inhabitants. -f-PuLTAWA, or Pollawa, a city on the Pultawka, south-eastward and 200 miles distant from Kiew, has 15,600 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive in- land trade, and remarkable in history for the battle in 1709, in which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by the Russians. The neighboring former village of EclskitUova is at present a city, with 11,000 inhabitants, -|-CuARK0W, a city on the Donetz, 80 miles east-north-east of Pultawa, is noted for its university (see back), its important annual fairs, and consider- able inland trade, and has 34,000 inhabitants. Achtijrka, a city on a river of the same name, is noted for its fruits, and has 1 6,000 inlmbitants. RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 605 Geographical Description of the Bultic Provinces. III.— THE BALTIC PROVINCES. Area : 55,380 square miles. PopUL.\TioN : 3,000,000 inhabitants. They comprise the four provinces of Ingria^ Esihnia, Livonia^ and CurlaniJ, the three first-named of which were conquered and wrested from Sweden in the so-called Northern war (1700-17-21), while Curland was not before the year 1795 annexed to the Rus- sian empire. The majority of the population are Germans, or of German origin, beside aboriginal tribes, while but rather few Russians proper are to be met with here. 1. IxGRiA (18,531 square miles, and 1,350,000 inhabitants), situated at the head of the Gulf of Finland, and on the Ladoga lake, already in the 13 th century belonged to Russia, but ^va3 in 1617 ceded to Sweden, and occupied again in 1703, contains: -}-St. Peteesbueg, imperial residence, and officially second capital of the Russian empire, at the mouth of the Newa (which river is 1.200 feet wide here), north-westward and 500 miles distant from Moscow, with (in 1843) 8,956, and (in 18-16) 473,000 inhabitants. St. Peter.sburg ia the most regularly-built and splendid city in the world, and is highly famed for its vast number of magnificent palaces and public edifices. It is at the same tims the principal place of commerce for the empire, and the seat of its learning and science. (Concerning its university, see back.) The imperial public library contains 450,000, and that of the university 100,000 volumes. The imperial winter p.alace has 721 feet in front, and contains in its first floor alone about 100 saloons and apartments. St. Isaac's cathedral is one of the finest chmches in the world, and with its handsome cupola, 317 feet in height. The annual traffic of the principal mercantile houses of St. Petersburg (Stieg- litz (t Co., I. Tliomas it Co., G. Loder tians of different denominations. EUROPEAN TURKEY. 625 Natural Products, Manufactures, nnd Commerce. For description of the mountains and rivers in European Turkey, sec pages 6, 15 and IG. The climate is generally very mild and pleasant, and the soil, with the exception of some mountainous districts, very fertile, and produces, though badly and negligently cultivated, far more than what is required for home consumption. The products are Indian corn, wheat, barley, and rice, cotton (in ^Macedonia are an- nually about 70.000 bales produced), tobacco (of fine quality, es- pecially in Macedonia, where the annual produce is at the value of more than 8250,000), and madder, poppt/ (very much in de- mand to make opium of it), saffron, wine (in Wallachia and Mol- davia, but also in other provinces), olives, and immense quantities of timber, the northern and western provinces being covered with extensive forests, among which the forest of Belgrad, beginning in the neighborhood of Constantinople, has a length of 115 miles. ■ The horses are generally of very fine breed ; the same may be said of the cattle, but less of the sheep, whose wool is, for the most part, rather coarse ; hogs are only reared in the northern provinces, as pork is prohibited by the Koran. Though the mountains contain valuable ores, they are of no avail, as the min- ing pursuits are neglected. Only in Servia the mines are wrought. Salt is made in great quantities, especially in Moldavia and "\Val- lachia. The manvfadures are in some branches distinguished, especially those of leather, carpets, and cotton goods. Ambelakia, Larissa, etc., are noted for their dyeries in Turkish red. The commerce is oonsiderable, as well as the inland trade, but the former is chiefly carried on by foreigners, and mostly confined to "the port of Constantinople, and the latter is in the hands of Greeks, Armenians, Jews, etc. The principal articles of export are cotton, grain, tobacco, silk, wines, mastich, galls, horses, and cattle. The imports consist chiefly of manufactured goods. The 27 626 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. European Turkey— its Schools, Government, Army, etc. cliief commercial intercourse is entertained with Austria, Rus- sia, Italy, England, France, and the United States. Among the Turks common school education is more widely ex- tended than among the other nations in European Turkey. Some years ago there were in Constantinople alone. 1,G53 Mohammedan elementary schools, beside 515 colleges, etc. On the 1st Sep- tember, 1 846, the sultan has founded a university on the plan of other European institutions of the kind. Many Turks of the better class have, in recent times, made their studies in Vienna, Berlin, and Paris. The government is absolutely despotic in form, but at present, in consequence of the political reforms introduced by the late sultan, as well as by the present, actually limited. The sovereign is commonly called Sultan, or Grand Signior, sometimes also, Turkish emperor. The prime minister is (or, properly said, was) called the Grand Vizier, and the court of the sultan, the Porte, or Sublime Porte. The Mufti is the chief interpreter of the law, and ranks next in dignity to the sultan, as is also the case with the Grand Vizier. Governors of provinces are called Pachas or Bashaws, and are of three different ranks, denoted by the num- ber of horses' tails on their standard. The revenues of the whole Turkish empire are estimated at $10,000,000 to 815,000,000; and the public debt to about $36,000,000. The regular army consists of 124,000 men, but it can, by the ir- regular troops, be increased to 218.000 men. The navy consists of 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, and a certain number of other vessels. There are two Orders of honor, viz., 1. The order of Fame, in- stituted in 1831, and in 4 classes; and 2. The order of the Cres- cent, instituted in 1 799, but at present seldom conferred upon anjT one. EUROPEAN TURKEY. 627 History of Turkey. Hixtory. — Most of the Turkish provinces in Europe were anciently inhab- ited by people, whom the Greeks comprised under the common term of Bar- barians. Thcssalia was frequently considered as belonging to ancient Greece ; Macedonia had with the latter nothing in common, until the reign of King Philip and of Alexander the Great. At an earlier period Greek culture had been introduced in Epirus (Albania). All the other provinces were civilized chiefly by the Romans, who since respectively 196 and 146 B.C., gradually extended their sway over the whole peninsula that since the year 390 A. D., formed the basis of the Eastern or Greek empire. The history, if not of this empire iii general, but of its court, is almost a continual succession of the most horrible cruelties. Blinding, cutting off nose?, cutting out tongues, and similar barbarities followed the frequent revolutions of the state. Meanwhile the Arabs wrested gradually all African and Asiatic provinces from the empire. Tlie Turks having, under their sultan, Osman (1299- 1326) and his son and successor, Orchan, conquered Asia Minor, passed over the Dardanelles, and took possession of Gallipoli, and subsequently of other places and districts on the European side. Sultan Murad I. (1360- 1389) made Adrianople his residence, and in 14.53 (on the 2Gth May) Con- stantinople, the liist remnant of the Eastern or Greek empire, was con- quered by Sultan Mohammed II. Henceforth the Turks were the terror of Christian Europe, and in the 16th century they were at the height of their power. But since they have been more and more declining, and but for the jealousy between the European powers, they would have long since been driven out from Europe. The presently reigning sultan is Abdul Meshid, born on the 19th April, 1823, and on the throne since the 1st July, 1839. . European Turkey is divided into 4 provinces, styled Ejalets, which are subdivided into districts, styled Livas, or Sandjaks. But a more natural and historical division, adopted by most of the European geographers, is the following : I. Roumclia ; II. Bulgaria; III. Macedonia; IV. Thessalia ; V. The Islands; Yl. Albania ; Y 11. Bosnia ; and V III Tributary Provinces. 628 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. European Turkey. — The Province of Roumelia. I —ROUMELIA. It Tvas anciently called Thracia, came in 71 B. C. under tho sway of the .Uomans, and contains : Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman empire, and residence of the sultan, is built on seven hills, and beautifully situated on the Bosphorua, ■which here forms a fine liarbor, -with 88,000 houses and (according to the census takon in 184-t) 900,000 inhabitants, more than one half of -whom are Turks. The city appears magnificently at a distance, the gilded domes and elegant minarets of its 485 mosques rising everywhere from the bosom of beautiful groves; but on entering the narrow, crooked, and ill-paved streets, bordered by low and gloomy houses, the delusion soon vanishes. Some of the mosques are superb structures, as those of Sultan Suleyman (reared in the years 1550-55) and of Sultan Achmet (founded in 1610) ; but the most remarkable is the mosque of St. Sophia, until the Turkish sway a Greek cathedral, reared in the years 532-38 by Emperor Justinan I. Its cupola is 165 feet high, and rests on 170 pillars. The seraglio is an assemblage of palaces, inhabited by the sultan and his court. Constantinople often suffers from desolating fires, and from the plague. More than 2,000 merchant ves- sels are annually visiting this port. The city is about 14 miles in circuit, and Las 18 suburbs, two of which (Scutari, one of them, has 60,000 inhabitants) are situated on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus. Galltpoli, a city on the Dardanelles, and near the Sea of Marmora, is noted for its morocco leather, carries on a considerable commerce, and has 40,000 inhabitants. Jiodosto, a city on the Marmora Sea, with vine culture, considerable commerce, and 16,000 inhabitants. Other cities or towns on this sea are Silivri (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Erckli, anciently Heraclea (with 3,000 inhabitants). Tlie Prince Isles in the Marmora Sea, 9 in number, are noted for their fertility and beautiful sceneries, and have a total population of 5,0C0 inhabitants. JSnos and Knmurdshina, maritime towns, with respectively 8,000 and 12,000 inhabitants. Adeianople, the second city in European Turkey, on the Ma- rissa, north-westward and 140 miles distant from Constantinople, with 10 churches, 40 mosques (among whicli are the superb mosques of Sultan Selim II. and Murad II.), noted leather and other manufactures, considerable in- land trade, 30,000 houses, and 140,000 mhabitants. In the period from 1360 EUROPEAN TURKEY. 629 Geographical Dcscriptiun of Roumulia and Bulgaria. to 1453 Adrianople was the residence of the Turkish Sultans, and on the Hth September, 1829, a peace was concluded licre between Russia and the Otto- man Porte. Philippople, a city on the Marissa, with leather, silk, and other manufactures, important inland trade, and 40,000 inhabitants. Other more or less notable cities .inl towns are: Deinotica (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tatar Basardshik (wiiii 10,000 inhabitants), Fskisagra (with 20,000 inhabi- tants), SeUmnia (with 20,000 inhabitants), Kirkilma (with 10,000 inhabi tants), Sizeholi (with 8,000 inhabitants), Eikihaba (with 8,000 inhabitants) and Burgas (on the Black Sea, with 5,000 inhabitants). II.— BULGARIA. It was by the ancient Romans called Lower Moesia,is situated between the lialkan and the Danube, has derived its name from the Bulgarians, who, having their primitive seat between the Volga and the Ural, immigrated here in the beginning of the 5th century, and contains : Sopni.\ (anciently Sardica), its capital, at the foot of a pass in the Balkan Mountains, on the road from Constantinople to Belgrade, with 23 mosques, noted leather and other manufactures, important inland trade, mineral baths, and 50,000 inhabitants. Ternova, formerly the cupital of Bulgaria, at present the centre of its trade, is moreover noted for its rose oil and rose water, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Widdin, a city and strong fortress, on the Danube, at about 54 miles distance from the Hungarian Military Frontier (see above, under the head of Austria), with 25,000 inhabitants. Nicopoli, a city on the Efcmube, carries on a considerable trade with "Wallachia and Moldavia, is much engaged in vine culture, and has 10,000 inhabitants. In 1396 Sultan Bajazet obtained here a victory over King Sigismund of Hungary. Sistova, a city on the Danube, with considerable vine culture and wine trade, and 21,000 inhabitants. Rustschuk, a city and fortress on the Danube, with noted leather, linen, cotton, and other manufactures, considerable trade, and 30,000 inhabitants. SUistria, or Bristra, a city and fortress, on the Danube, with considerable trade, and 20,000 inhabitants. Eassova, a fortified town on the Danube, 40 miles below Silistria, with 8,000 inhabitants. Shuinla, a 6S0, EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. Kurojieuu Turkey. — The Pioviiices ol' Uulguria and Macedonia. fortified city at the foot of tlie principal pass into the Balkan Mountains, 200 miles nortli-north-west of Constantinople, and 220 miles east-south-east of "Widdia, with various branches of industry, silk manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 30,000 inhabitants. Ratzgrad, or Hcsargrad, a fortified city on the Loni river, with 16,000 inhabitants. Varna, a fortified city on the Black Sea, 180 miles north-north-west of Constantinople, with a very commodious harbor, highly important commerce, and 16,000 inhabitants. Mangalia (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Kostandshi (with 4,000 inhabitants), maritime towns on the Black Sea. Basardshik and Bahadagh, cities Avith respectively 12,000 and 10,000 inhabitants. Ilirsova, or Kersova, a town on the Danube, with 4,000 inhabitants. m.— MACEDONIA. Between Roumelia aud Thessalia, is the finest province of European Turkey, surpassing in fertility of the soil even the island of Sicily, aud contains : Salonica, anciently llicssalonica, its capital, on the gulf of the same name, is next to Constantinople the most important seaport in European Turkey, with many Roman aud Greek antiquities, noted dyeries and manufactures, extensive commerce, and 70,000 inhabitants. The primitive name of the city was Halia, or Therma, and its subsequent name is derived from that of Alexander the Great's sister, Thessalonica. Philip and Alexander of Mace- donia did not, however, reside here, but in Fella, at present called Jenidshe. Vardar, a town north-westward and 30 miles distant from Salonica, is noted for its tobacco, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Vodina, anciently Edcssa, a city cm the Vistritza, north-westward and 42 miles distant from Salonica, with 12,000 inhabitants. Near the frontier of Roumelia is situated the fortified town of Drama, noted for its tobacco, with 8,000 inhabitants. The neigh- boring village of Filihe was anciently noted by the name of PhiUppi, where in 42 B. C. Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antonius and Octavianus, and where at a later period St. Paul preached the gospel (Acts xvi. 12, 13, etc.). Near the frontier of Roumelia is also situated Kavala, a town with 3,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of Mehemet Ali, the late pacha of Egypt, and is noted for its tobacco. Seres, a city on the Strymon, EUROPEAN TURKEY. 631 Geographical Description of Macedonia, Thossalia, and the Lslunds. and in a district noted for its cotton plantations, with cotton nianuructurcs, considerable commerce, and 30,000 inliabitant,-?. Or/an, a maritime town on the Gulf of Contessa, with important trade in cotton, and 3,000 iuhabitimts. BetAveen here and Salonica is the remarkable mount Athos, with numerous Greek convents, churches, and chapels. Karaverif, or Veria (anciently Be- roca), a. city on (he Ferina, with 8,000 inhabitants. Kuatcndll, a city at the southern foot of the Balkan, wiih warm sulphur baths, and 8,000 inhabitants. lY.— THESSALIA. It is situated between Macedonia and the kingdom of Greece, has an area of 3.514 square miles, and more than 300,000 Greek inhabitants, who arc distinguished for their industry, and con- tains : Larissa, its capital, on the Peneus, or Salambria river, 30 miles from the Gulf of Salonica, with noted dyeries and manufactures, vine cultiu-e, con- siderable commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Ambclakia, a town at the en- trance into the romantic valley of Tempe, with dyeries in Turkish red, trade in cotton, and 4,000 inhabitants. 2'urnovo, a town on the Salambria, and in the valley of Tempe, with cotton and silk manufoctures, and 4,000 inhabi- tants. Trlkala, a city on the Salambria, with dyeries in Turkish rod, and 12,000 inliabitants. Farsa, anciently Pharsalus, a town in a well-cultivated plain, southward and 24 miles distant from Larissa, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted in history for the victory C;csar obtained here over Pompejus in 48 B. C. Volo, a maritime town on the Gulf of Volo, with corn and silk trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. ft v.— THE ISLAIfDS. The islands in the Archipelago and in the Mediterranean, which are considered as belonging to European Turkey, are the following : 1. The island of Candia, anciently known by the name of Creta, is situated in the Mediterranean, near the entrance into the Archipelago, and haa an ex- 682 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. European Turkey.— The Turkish Islands and Albania. tent of 4,008 square miles, and a population of 140,000 inhabitants, one half of whutn consists of Turks, and the remainder of Greeks (among them about 8,000 Sphakiotcs), Armenians, Jews, and G,000 Abadiotcs (of Arabian origin). The island is very productive, especially in cotton, olive oil, wine, fruits, grain, etc. The island came in 68 B. C. under the sway of the Romans, and in 823 A. D. under that of the Arabs. Subsequently it often changed hands, until in 1 669 the Turks became possessed of it. Its fortified capital, Caudia. is situated on the northern coast, and has 12,000 inhabitants. The ancient re- nowned city of Kydonia bears at present the name of Canea, carries on a considerable commerce, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Rcttimo, anciently Rhitymna, a maritime town, with 6,000 inhabitants. Sphakla, a town noted for its vine culture, has 1,800 inhabitant.:. — 2. The island of Lemnos (160 square miles, and 8,000 inhabitants) is situated in tlie Archipelago, opposite the coast of Macedonia, is also called Stalimene, and is noted for the Lemnian earth. — 3. Tlie island of Thasos, or Taso (85 square miles, and 6,000 iiiliab- itants), near the coasts of Macedonia and Roumelia, is noted for its wines and marble. — 1. The island of Samotheaki, anciently Samothracia (36 square miles, and 1,500 inhabitants), has fertile valleys and an industrious popula- tion. — 5. The island of Imbko, or Jmbros (85 square miles, and 4,000 inhab- itants), is wooded, with fertile valleys. VI.— ALBANIA. It was anciently called Epirus, and is situated along the Ionian and Adriatic Seas. Having been ruled for several centuries by native kings, Epirus was, in 148 B. C, annexed to the Roman empire, and in the latter half of the 15th century it was con- quered by the Turks. Concerning the Albanians, see back. Alba- nia contains : SccTAnr, its capital, on a lake of the same name, at 14 miles distance from the Adriatic, south-eastward and 270 miles distant from Zara (in Dalmatia), is the centre of the inland trade of Albania and Bosnia, and has 20,000 in- habitants. Durazzo, anciently Di/rracJiinm, a maritime town on the Adriatic, with considerable commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other more or less nota ble maritime towns on the Adriatic are: Dulcigno, or Olgun (with 6,000 in- EUROPEAN TURKEY. C33 Geographical Description of Albania and Bosnia. habitants), Antivari (with 6,000 inhabitants), Croja (with 6,000 inliabitants), Alexsio (with 3,000 inhabitants), Avloiia or Valona (with 5,000 inhabitants), Butr'mto (witli 1,800 inhabitants), Ddvind (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Parga (with a strong fortress, and 4,000 inhabitants). Prcvcsa, a fortified town on the Gulf of Arta, with provision trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Arta, a maritime town near the Gulf of the same name, with commerce and inland trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Joanina, a fortified town in the interior, and on a lake, north-eastward and 48 miles distant from the Gulf of Arta, has at present only 5,000 inhabitants, but had, in the time when Ali Pacha (who was executed in 1822) resided here, a population of 40,000 inhabitants. Ochrida, a town near the frontier of Macedonia, with 6^500 inhabitants. Per- serin, a town at the foot of a mountain pass, is noted for its strong fortress, and lias 5,000 inhabitants. Herat, or Arnaut BcUgrad, a city in a fertile plain, with 11,000 inhabitants. Arrfijrokastro, or Ergi Kasiri, a town noted for its snufF, has 4,000 inhabitants. The most northern part of Albania is known by the name of Montenegro, and inhabited by a people that belong to the Slavonic tribe, and enjoy several substantial political privileges. VII.— BOSNIA. It comprises the Dorth-westem part of European Turkey, did, in the days of the ancient Romans, form a constituent part of Pan- noTiia, is for the most part inhabited by the Bosniacs, who belong to the Slavonic tribe, and who already, in the 9th century, were settled here. Many of them are Mohammedans, but the majority consists of Greek Christians. In the 12th century Bosnia came under the sway of Hungary, but since the year 1376 it was an independent kingdom, until in 1523, the Turks conquered it. It contains : BosNA Serai, its capital, situated in the centre of the province, south- westward and 1 30 miles distant from Belgrade, is the emporium of Bosnia, and has 68,000 inhabitants. The neighboring villages of Visoko and Varesh are noted for their iron-works and mines. Travnik, a city on the Lasliva,45 miles west-north-west of Bosna Serai, with 12,000 inhabitants. Banjaluka, 27* 634 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. European Turkey.— Geographical Description of Bosnia and Servia. a strongly fortified city on the Verbas, witli mineral springs, considerable trade, and 15,000 inhabitants. Zwornik, or Swornik, a strongly fortified city on the Drina, with considerable inland trade, and 14,000 inliabitants. Ja'itza, a town with 2,000 inhabitants. Bihacz (with 3,000 inhabitants), Biograd, or Beligrad (with 2,500 inhabitants), Duhitza (with 6,000 inhabitants), Berbir, or Turkish Gradhca (with 1,000 inhabitants), Stari Maidar (with 4,000 in- habitants), and Kamcngrad (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less notable towns in that part of the province; which is sometimes called Turkish Croatia. The cities and towns of Mostar (with 10,000 inliabitants), Fotshi- tatz (with 12,000 inhabitants), Gabcla (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nevcsigna (with 3,000 inliabitants), Livno (with 4,000 inhabitants), and TrcUgno (with 10,000 inhabitants), are situated in that part of the province, which frequently is called Herzegovina, or Turkish Dalmatia. VIII.— TRIBUTARY PROVINCES. They consist of the three mediate principalities of Servia, WaUachia, and Moldavia, forming the north-western and north- ern section of European Turkey. They are governed by their own princes, who are, as nearly all inhabitants, Greek Christians, and are independent in local affairs, except that they, as nominal vassals of the Porte, pay an annual fixed tribute to the sultan. - 1. Servia (12,'7SO .square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants), situated along the right bank of the Danube, between Bulgaria and Bosnia, was, by the an- cient Romans, named Upper Moesia, and its population consists mostly of Servians proper, who belong to the Slavonian tribe, and to the Greek church. Servia was since the 10th century an iiidependent kingdom, but respectively in 1389 and 1449, the Turks took possession of it. The Servians were long since tired of the Turkish sway, when, in 1801, one of them, named Czcrny Georg, incited tliem to open revolt, in wliich they for the present failed ; yet finally they succeeded in so ftir, that foreign powers interfered in their favor, especiiiUy Russia, that induced the Porte, in 1815, to grant to Servia the privileges it enjoys now (see above). The annual tribute it has to pay to the Bultan is fixed at about $18,600 annually. The reigning mediate prince since EUROPEAN TURKEY. 685 Geogru|ihical Description of Servia and Wullachia. 1843, is Alexander Kara GeorgewHch, a relation of the above-mentioned Czerny Oeorg Servia Ls a very fertile country, and carries oti an extensive and considerable inlautl trade, especially with Austria. It contains : Bel- grade, strongly fortifieil cajiital, on the Danube, at its junction with the Save, opposite the Austrian city of Semlin, is the Turkish emporium in this quarter, is at the same time noted for its numerous manufactures, and has 30,000 in- habitants. KiiAGUJEWATz, fortified town and residence of the rcijL,aiing prince, on a branch of the Morava river, 120 miles south-southeast of Belgrade, witli 2,500 inliabitants. Topola, a village remarkable as the birth and burial- place of the above-mentioned Czerny Georg, -who was born in 1770, and in 1817 seized by the Turks and beheaded. Schabacz, a fortified towTi on the Save, -westward and 60 miles distant from Belgrade, with vine culture, con- siderable inland trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Semexdeia, a fortified city on the Danube, 18 miles below Belgrade, was anciently the residence of the kings of Servia, is noted for its excellent wines and considerable trade, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Eastward and 14 miles distant from here, is situated near the Danube, the fortified town of Fassarovitz (with 2,0u0 inhabitants), noted in histoi7 for the treaty concluded here in 1718, between Austria and Turkey. Poretsh, a fortified town on an island of the Danube, with vine cul- ture, and 3,000 inhabitants. Usicza, a fortified town in a mountainous dis- trict, with a gymnasium, a public library, considerable trade, and 14,000 in- habitants. Other fortified to^vns are : Waljewo (with 4,500 inhabitants), Novibasar, or Jenibazar (with 15,000 inhabitants), Jar/odina (with 3,000 in- habitants), and Nissa (with 10,000 inhabitants). Pristina, a fortified town, near the frontier of Albania and Macedonia, 170 miles soutli-south-ea<;t of Belgrade, is noted in history as the birth-place of the Greek emperor, Justinian L (who reigned from 527 to 565), and has 10,000 uihabitants. Northward from here extends a fertile plain, by European historians commonly called BlaSkbird Field, being remarkable in history for two decisive battles won by he Turks in 1389 and 1449. Orsova, or New Orsova (to distinguish it from .i-ustrian Orsova, see page 534), a fortress on an island of the Danube, oppo- ^te the just-mentioned Austrum market- town. 2. Wallachia (27,690 square miles, and 2,188,000 inhabitants), situated along the left bank of the Danube, between Transylvania and Bulgaria, did, in the days of the ancient Romans, form a constituent part of Dacia (see History of Hungary), and k cliiefly inhabited by Wallachians proper, a pecu- liar mixed people, that, however, in substance belong to the Slavonic tribe, 636 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. European Turkey. — Geographical Description of Walloctiia and Moldavia. and to the Greek church. Wallachia havinj; chansred hands in tlie earlier period of the middle ages, was since the 13th century ruled by native princes, but in 1380, subjected to the sovereignty of Poland, and in 1529, to that of tlie Porte. The Poles tried frequently to re-conquer Wallachia, and finally they renounced their claims upon it, by the treaty concluded at Carlowitz in 1699. The sultan allowed, however, the country to be ruled by native princes, as formerly, though he appointed them arbitrarily. By the media- tion of Russia, however, the political condition of Wallachia is settled on similar terms and principles as in Servia, moreover, with the prerogative that no Turk is permitted to settle in Wallacliia. The reigning princes, styled Hospodars, are appointed for lifetime, and the tribute which they pay to the sultan is fixed at about $15,000 annually. In 1843 George Demetrius Blbesco was appointed prince, or hospodar. Wallachia caiTies on a very con- siderable trade and commerce, and its public revenues are estimated at nearly $1,000,000. It contains : Bukaeest, ito capital and princely residence, on the Dumbowitza, 300 miles north-north-weet of Constantinople, has 100,000 inhabitants, and many stately public edifices and palaces, but is upon the whole a dirty city, built in a swamp, and its streets, instead of being paved in the usual way, are covered with planks and trunks. Yet its commerce and trade, especially in corn, wool, tallow, wax, etc., is very extensive. Tir- govist (with 5,000 inhabitants), Khnpolung (with 4,000 inhabitants), Buseo with 4,500 inhabitants), Pitest (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Rhnnik (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Foksu-^n, a town on the frontier of Moldavia (to which belongs one half of it), with noted vine cul- ture, considerable cattle and com trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Braila, or Ihro.hil, a fortified commercial city on the Danube, north-eastward and 96 miles distant from Bukarest, with considerable commerce, and 30,000 inhabi- tants. Giurrjewo, a fortified city on the Danube, southward and 38 miles dis- tant from Bukarest, with considerable inland and transit trade, and 18,000 in- habitants. Krajova, a city on the Shy 11 river, westward and 125 miles distant from Bukarest, has 10,000 inhabitants, who carry on a rather ex- tensive inland trade, and is the chief place of the so-callod Little Wallachia. 3. Moldavia (12,780 square miles, and 1,500,000 inhabitants), situated on the north side of Wallachia, separated by the Pruth river from Rassia, in the days of the ancient Romans formed a constituent part of Dacia (see Wal- lachia), and is chiefly inhabited by MoldavLnns proper (of nearly the same origin .is the Wallacliians), but beside them by many Jews, Gypsies, Ilunga- EUROPEAN TURKEY. 687 Geograpliical Dcscriplion of Muldavio. rians, Servians, Bulgarians, Armenians, Poles, Russians, and Germans. Most of the inhabitants arc Greek Christians. The soil is very fertile, but negli- gently cultivated. The rearing of black cattle and horses, together with vine culture, is, however, carried on to a rather great extent. The inland trade is almost as considerable as in Wallachia. With regard to history, Jloldavia underwent nearly the same vicissitudes as Wallachia ; and its political condi- tion is likewise similar to that of the latter. Li 183-i Prince Michael Stourdza was appointed Ilospodar. Moldavia contains: Jassy, its capital and princely residence, about 200 miles north-north-east of Bukarest, with a stately princely palace, 2 Lutheran and Catholic, and 43 Greek churches and chapels, dirty and unpaved streets, considerable inland trade, however, and noted annual fairs, and 00,000 inhabitants. Galacz, a commercial city on the Danube, at its junction with the Truth, is in some respects to be considered as the emporium of Moldavia and Wallachia, and has 36,000 inhabitants. Roman, a town on the Sereth, with 1,500 inhabitants. BoxusnAx, or Bot- toshani, a town on a river of the same name, with considerable inland trade, noted annual fairs, and 4,000 iuliabitants. Okna, a town noted for its rock- Bait mines. Dorohoe, a town, 76 miles north-north-west of Jassy, with 8,000 inhabitants. INDEX. Aach, Aaclien, Anhiuis, Aakirke, Aalborg, PAGR 338 489 483 550 552 Aalburghuu3, 55,! Aalen, 33!) Aalst, 280 Aarau, ]5(> Aarbercf, 159 Aarburg, 156 Aardenburg, 271 Aarsau, J5G Aarhuiis, 552 Aaioe, 557 Aarwangen, 158 Abadioles, 632 Abbano, 541 Abbeville, 183 Abenbeig, 322 Abciisburtr, 316 Aberbrothik, 252 Aberconway, 246 Aberdeen, 252 Aberdeenshire, 352 Abergavenny, 240 Abeinethv, 253 AberystwUh, 2 16 Abo, 593 Aboiidance, 109 Abrantes, 72 Abrndbanya, 531 Abruzzi, 5, 143 Abriizzo, 143 Abtsgenilind, 335 Aciiriiaiiia, 621 Ac«-enza, 145 Acerra, 142 Achaia, 622 Acher, 338 Achern, 341 Achtvrka, 594 Aci Keale. 148 Acquapendente 133 Acqiiaria, 119 Acqiiaviva, 136 Acqui, 110 Acliuin, 621 Adda, 15 Addiscombe, 235 Adelsberg, 511 Adelsheim, 344 Adolphseck, Adolzl'urth, Adort", Adour, Adria, Adrianopio, Adriatic Sea, Aegades, PAGE 302 337 3-^4 16 541 628 10 14 Adige, 15 Aegadiaa Islands, 147 Aegeri, 16S Aegion, 622 Aeien, 168 Aeolian Islands, 148 Aerbe, 557 Aeroeskjobing, 557 Aerschul, " 278 Aerzen, 436 Aetolia, 621 Alfeiithal, 341 Affolterii, 169 Agde, 220 Agen, 215 Agenois, 215 Aggerhuus, 576 Agincourl, 1H9 Agile, 108 Agno, 165 Agnone, 145 Agordo, 542 Agosta, 148 Agrapha Mis., 6 Agrigent, 147 A gram, 529 AhldcM, 437 Ahrweiler, 483 Ahun, 212 Ai, 192 Aichacli, 315 Aiclistellen, 334 Aigle, 11)8 Aigueperse, 213 Aigtiesbelles, lOJ Aiguns Mortes, 2il Aiguillon, 215 Aillon, 109 Aillv, 185 Ailsa, 252 Aime, 110 JAIn Department, 201 I Aire, 189,217 iAirolo, 105 ; Aisiie Department,185 lAix, 2-23 PAOE PAOK Aix (in Savoy), 109 Alexnndrowsk, 612 Aix-la-Chapelle, 4f!i Alcxisbad, 404 Ajaccio, 225 Aira(|iies, 95 Ajuda, 71 A Held, 439 Aken, ,478 Alfred the Great , 32 Akjorinan, Gil ,612 Alifarve, 73 Alagna, 111 Algesheim, 3.56 Alais, 221 Algeziras, 92 Aland, 599 Alghcro, 114 Aland Isles, 593 Alghieri, 114 Alans, 23,24 Alhama, 93 Alaric king of Alhainbra, 93 the Visigoths, 24 Alicante, 96 Alassio, 113 Alicata, 147 Alava, 98 Alkm;iar, 209 Alba, 108 Allemaniil, 298 Albacpte, 94 Allernont, 222 .\lba de Tonnes, 90 Allendorf, 370 Albania, 632 Alleiidorf ao der Albanians, 624 Liinido, .357 Albaiio, 132 AUenstein, 496 Albarracin, 94 Aller, 17 Albenga, 113 All.stedt, 388 Albert the Bear, 462 Allier, 15 Albertville, 109 AllicrDepartment,204 Albigenses, 220 .\llingsos. .572 Albigoois, 220 Alloa, 251 Albizulo, 113 Allobrogi, 161 Alboin, 28 .'Vllodiuin, 35 Albret, 216 217 Alloway, 251 Albut'eira, 74 Alniada, 72 Alby, 220 Almaden, 88 Alcala de Henares, 87 .A.lmagro, 88 Alcala la Real, 93 Alinansa, 94 Alcarao, 146 Almaraz, 91 Alcaiiiz, 94 Almeida, 72 Alcantara, 91 Almelo, 272 Alcaraz, 88 Almeri.i, 94 Alcaudete, 93 Almvick, 244 Alcira, 96 A lost. 280 Alcobaca, 72 Alp, 7 .Alcoy, ' 9Q , Franconian 7 Alcudin, 96 , Rauhe, 7 Alderney, 247 , lioiigh. 7 Alegriu, 97 , Swabian, 7 .\lemtejo. 73 Alpirspach, 333 Alencon, 187 Alpnach, 166 Aleri'a, 225 Alps, 4 Ales, 114 Alpiijarras, 5 Aleshki, 611 Alsace, 196 Alessio, 633 Alsen. 557 A let. 220 Alsfeld, 357 Alessandria, 111 Alsheim, 356 640 INDEX. PAOE 1 PAOK PAOEl PAGE Alstahaug, 578 Androssa, 622 Arc en Barrois, 202 Arpadians, 522 Alsler, 17 i Androssan, 250 Arcliangi'l, 593 Ar|)ino, 142 Alia Comba, 109 Andiijar, 93 1 Arch-duchy of Arran, 252 Alianuini, 144 Anduze, 221 Austria, .'iO'^IArrus, 189 AU-Ilreisach, 345 Anel, 185 Archettes, l'15'Anoo, 557 Alt-Biiicbliuusen 4:ili Angerbnrg, 497 Archipelago, 10|Arroux, IS AltUorf, 3'Jl|AnKfrmniiland, 574 Arcis sur Aube, lOIIArta, 633 Altona, 4851 Angermiinde, 460 Arcona, 471|Arth, 104 Altenati, 444 Anders, 207 Arcos de la Fron JArtlenburg, 437 Altfiiberg, 381 Auulcs, 25 tera, 92 Artois, 189 Allfiibruch, 438 An«hiari, 124 Ardeche, 15|Ascania, 402 Altciiburg, 396 Anglesea, 240 Ardeche Depart- 1 Ascanianova, 406 Allt'iiiyf, 159 Angouleme, 211 ment, 221jAscha(renburg, 323 Altdisa'ig, 333 Angoumais, 211 Ardee, 257 Ascherslebeu, 478 Althaldeiisleben, 477 Angra, 75! Ardennes, 6 Ascoli, 134 Allhorp, 241 Angus, 252] Ardennes Depart Ascoli di Satriani ,144 AU-Katzenellnbo- Anhalt, ancestral ment. 192 Ascona, 165 gen, 364 castle of, 404 Ardres, 189 Astle, 575 AUkiich, 19!1 Anhalt, duchies of, 402 Arelatian king- Ashton nnder Line,243 Allkonifr. 8 Anhalt-Bernburg, 403 dom, 200 Askersuiid, 569 Alt-Laiidsberg, 405 Anhalt-Cothen, 405 Aremberg, 442 Asmaimsbausen, 363 Altmaik, 477 ,478 Auhalt-Dessau, 404 Areraberg-Mep- Asperg, 331 Altmiihl, 10 Anholt, 483 pen, 442 Aspcren, 270 AUnacht, 160 Anholt (isle of). 553 Au'iidal, 577 Aspern, 509 Altomonte, 145 Anjou, 206 Arendonk, 279 Assen, 273 Altona, 418 Ankum, 441 Arendsee, 478 Assenheim, 357 Altoi-r, 166 Annaberg, 383 Arensburg, 597 Assens, 551 Alt-Sti-elitz, 412 Annan, 250 Arens de Mar, 95 Assisi, 133 Altvater, Ail an a. 98 Arenzano, 112 Astakos, 021 Aluta, 16 Annecy, 109 Arovalo, 89 Asti, 108 Alzey, 356 Annonay, 221 Arezzo, 124 Astorga, 89 Amakuki, 016 Annweiler, 328 Argeles, 217 Astrachan, 608 ,609 Anialfi, 142 Ansbach, 320 Argentan, 187 Asturias, 90 Amalti(Hi8t.of),39,48 Ansgarius, 438 Argenteuil, 184 Atalante, 621 Amantra, 145 Anspach, 320 Argonnes, 6 Ath, 281 Amarante, 73 Antequera, 94 Argos, 622 Athens, 620 Amaxicbi, 610 Antibcs, 224 Argostoli, 616 Athlune, 257 , 259 Ambelakia, 631 Antipaxo, 616 Argylesbiro, 253 Athos, 631 Anibcig, 317 Antlvari, 633 Argyrokastro, 633 Athy, 257 Ambert, 213 Antrim, 257 258 Arvillcrs, 109 Atri, 143 Ambleteuse, 190 Antwerp, 279 Ariano, 142 Atribaldo, 143 Amboise, 266 Auxur, 133 Ariege Depart- Atripalda, 143 Ameland, 272 Anzin, 190 ment, 218 Atiila, king of the Amerslbort, 271 Aosta, 108 Aritzu, 114 Huns, 25 Ainiens, 188 Apennines, 5 Arklow, 256 Au, 314 Amoal, 573 Apenrade, 556 Arlaut, 213 Aub, 323 Anioiiebufg, 372 Apingadatn, 273 Aries, 223 Aubagne, 224 Amorbach, 323 Apolda, 387 Arlcsbeim, I57 Aube, 15 Amphissa, 621 Appenzell, 150 157 A Hon, 283 Aube Departracn ,191 Arnrura, 553 Appin, 253 Armagh, 258 Aubenas, 221 Amsterdam, 268 Appleby, 244 Armagnac, 216 Aubenton, 188 Amuiani, 021 Apt, 2ii4 Armenierstadt, .■531 Aubeterrc, 212 Anceiiis, 210 Apulia, 143 Arnientieres, 190 Anbin. 216 Anclam, 470 Aquila, 143 Armorica, 208 Aubonne, 163 Ancona, 134 Aquileja, 512 Armoricans, 20 Aubusson, 212 Andahisia, 91 Aquino, 142 Arnaut lleligrad. 033 Auch, 216 AiidelfiiiKen, 109 Aquitania, 214 Arnay le Due, 201 Aude, 15 Andelys, Ics, 186 Arabs, 28 Arne'burg, 478 Aude Departmcn .220 Atideniic, 2H-i Arad, 528 Arnemuyden, 270 Aue, 383 Andcrmalt, 167 Aragon, 94 Arnheim, 271 Auerbach, 384 Aiidcrnach, 487 Aragon River, 14 Arnlicm, £71 A\ierstadt, 480 Anderno, 148 Aragona(inSicily) ,147 Arno, 15;Augsburg, 324 Andorno, 108 Araiida dc 0uero, 88 Arnsberg, 485!y\uKUstenburg, .557 Andorra, 218 Aranjuez, 87 Arnstadl, 401 1 Augustuvo, 606 Andorre, 218 Arboga, 569 Arnstein, 323lAulla, 119 Andorre la vieille 219;Arbois, 203 Arnswalde, 467]AMlt, 188 Andrcaaburg, 444; Arbon, 160 Arolsen, 376 Auma, 388 Andriciiau, 518 Arljroath, 252 Arona, 11 1 Aumule, 180 Andros, 623. Arcadia, 622 Arpad, 522. Aumiible, 420 INDEX. 641 FADE 311 442, 44:J 247 Aunis, Auray, Aurich, Aurii,'!!)-, Aurilliic, Aiiriol, Auroiizn, Auschwitz, Ausoiiians, AusstT-llliuden, Austerlilz, Ausliixsia, Auslriu, Austria, arch-du- thy of, Austrian circle, Austrian empire, Austrian Nether- lands, Austrian Silesia, Autun, Auvergne, Auver^no Mts., Auxerre, Auxonne, Avalanches, Avallon, Avarcs, Avariau mark, Aveiro, Avellino, Avenclies, Aversa, Avesnes, Avesta, Avcyron Depart- ment, Ave/.zano, Avigliaua, Avignon, Avila, Avilcs, Avlona, Avola, Avranches, Ax, Axel, Axius, Ayainonte, Aylesbury, Ayr, Ayrshire, Az(tf Sea, Aidte Islands, Azores, Azov, Azpeytia, 2i:i 2-J4 54-21 518, 102, 157 5m| 26 501 ! 503; 202 501 277 517 201 212 U 201 201 152 201 9, 521 31 72 142 108 142 101 570 216 143 107 224 89 90 633 143 187 218 271 15 92 235 2.i0 250 10 74 74 612 97 Baar (Switzerland) I6S Baasdorf, 40fi Babada?h, 630 Babenberg, 319 Babenhausen, 320,35! Babia Gura, 5 Baccanello, 117 Baccarat, 195 Bacharach, 4S8 BacUiniit, 612 Backuaag, 331 FAOE Bacs, 520 Uadajiiz, 91 Baden (city in the graiiJ-(luchy o( Baden), 341 Baden, graiid-du- chy of, 337 Baden (in Austria) 5i)9 Baden (in Swit- zerland), Baden-lladen, Badcn-Uurlach, Badeiiweiler, Badia, Bacna, Baetica, Baeza, Bagne, valley of, Bagneres de Bi- gorre, Bagneres de Lu- chon, Bagni, Bagno alia Villa, B;ignol3, Bagolino, Baiersdorf, Bagnols, Bailleul, Bajoarians. Balionya Forest, Baktshisarai, Bala, Balaguer, Balaklava, Bulasfalva, Balaton Lake, Balearic Islands, Balerno, Balingen, Balkan, Ballenberg, Ballenstedt, Balleynia, Ballina, Ballinasloe, Ballinrobe, Ballon d'Alsace, Ballon de Sulz, Ballstall, Ballycastle, Ballyshannon, Baline, La, Baltic Provinces of Russia, Baltic Sea, Balzcrs, Bamberg, Banagher, Banat, Banbury, Ban de la Uoche, Bandon, Banff, Banffshire, Bangor, Banjaluka, Baiinockburn. Bauos de Ebro, 15f> 340 340 345 541 93 84 93 167 217 219 120 120 221 540 321 221 19ili 29.-'' 5-20 1 610 24li 95 6101 531 ! 11' 91) 165 333 li 344 404 255 259 259 259 Oi 104 258 1 253 222 595 9 351 319 257 528 237 197 259 253 253 246, 253 633 251 93 Banzkow, Bapuume, Bur, Bar (Lorraine), Bur snr Aube, Bar le Due, Bar sur !Seme, Barb!L-*tr(), Burbezieux, Bar by, Barci'llona (in Si- cily), Barcellos, Barcclonelta, Barcelonette, Barcelona, Burchfeld, Bard, Bardewik, Bardo, Bareges, Barga, Barge, Bari, Barletta, Barmbeck, Barmen, Barrasledt, Barnstable, Uarolo, Baron Hill, Barr, Barrow, Barsac, Bartenstein, Bartr..-ld, Barth, Baruth, Barwalde. Basardshik, B:ischkirs, Bashaw, Basle, , Little, Basques PAOtl PAOB 4118 Bavay, lUl inj Bavi, 114 6112 Bay of Biscay, 10 ll'S llav.^rn, 311 191 Bayeux, 187 195 Bayonne, 217 2ih2 Baylen, 93 91 Bavrcuth, 318, 319 211 Bayreulh, Iligli- 479 j land of, 319 iBayreutli, Low- 148 land of, 320, 321 7.1 Baza, 93 95 Bazadois, 215 224 Baz;i.^, 215 95 Beam, 218 373 Beaucaire, 221 llr.i Beaucourt, 199 437 Beaufort, 207 ]0:t Beauge, 207 217 Beaugency, 2U5 1,2,1 Bcaujeu, 214 i07 Beaujolais, 211 144 Beaumaris, 247 144 BeanmoDi, 281 4.10 Beaune, 201 492 Beauprfeau, 207 418 Beauvais, 184 2;}-< Beauvoirsur Mer,210 108 Bechtheim, 247;Beckum, 197 Bedarieui, 14 Bedburg, 215 Bederkesa, 337, 49li Bedford, 527 Bedfordshire, 470 Beerberg, 467 Beeskow, 407 Befort, 630 Bcierberg, 580 Beilngries, 626 Beira, 157 Bc-ja, 157|Bejar, 19, 76|Belchen, Basques, country iBelem, of the, 2161 Belfast, Basque Provinces, 97JBelfort, Bassano, Bassum, Bastia, Bastidc de Clar- ence, Bastogne, Batalha, Batavians, Bath, 542|Belgard, 436 Belgians, 225 1 Belgium, Belgorod, 218 Belgrade, 283JBeligrad, 72 Bellac, 263' Belle Isle, 239 Belleville, Bath (Dutch fort), 270! Belley, Balhorate, 249'Bellinzona, Batsch. 526'Bcllowerth, Battagli.i, 541 ' Bedrock, Ballenberg, 357|Belluiio, Bauerwitz, 4761 Belt, (JreMl. Baumannshohle, 447| . Lilile, Baume les Dames, 203lBelturbet, Bauske, 597jGelvoir, Bautzen, 3S5|Belzi, Bavaria, 311, 314! Bembibrc, Bavarian circle, 292| Bempoata, 357 483 220 492 4:J8 237 237 7 466 199 322 72 73 90 7 71 257 199 472 263 275 592 635 634 212 209 214 201 165 164 252 512 9 9 258 242 613 89 71 642 INDEX. PAOK PAGE PAOKt Bender, 012 Bcskides, 5 Bjorko, 38, 5(>8 Bcnderon, 3.1 1 Bessarabia, 611 Bjiirneborg, 598 Bene, 10f< Uesse, 213 Blackbird Fi^d, 635 Benetutli, lUIBessestad, 560! Blackburn, 243 Beiievenlo, 13.-) Hetanzos, 90 Black Hlsier, 16 Bcniduime, 96 BOlhune, 189 Black Forest, 7 Ben l.iiwers, 8 Betlingen, 157 Black l-'orest circle 332 Ben Xevis, 8 Belzenstein, 320 Black Uu3sia, 601 Benneckensteiii, 481 Beulelsbach, 336 Black .Sea, l"i Bennl'elden, 19-, Beuthen, 475 , 47()i Blankeiiberghe, 281 BensberR, 49-:! Beveren, 2801 Blankenburg, 401, 447 Benlheim, 44-.; Beverley, 243 Blankeue^e, 418 Beiitink, earl of, 404;Bevern, 447|Blankeiiliayn, 387 Berat, 633 Be.t, 168[Blasenaorl." 531 Beraun, SI.'iiBeziers, 20O Blasien-Zella, 394 Berbir, 634 Biala, 518 Blanbeuren, 335 Berchinjr, 3'>2 Bialla, 497 Blaye, 215 Berchtesnaden, 315lBialowieza, 601 iBlei berg. 512 Berdjaiisk, eiliBialvslock, 602 Bleicherode, 481 BerilyczeW, 6(i'2 Hiancavilla, 148 Blekni!.', 571 Bereiit, 498 Bibbiena, 124:Bleii(llieim, 321) Beresina, 12 Biberach, 334 Blexon, 4J3 Berg, duchy of, 492,Bidderord, 2.18 Blexuin, 423 Bertc, granJ-du- jBlhacz, 634 Blleskastel, «32H cliy of, 294>Biebrich, 362 Blindheira, 326 Berya, 38S Biedenkopf, 3.")7jBlocksberg, 8 Bergamo, 540iBiel, 1.59 Blois, 206 Bergara, 97 Biel, Lake of. 11 Blombcrg, 428 Bergedorf, 450; Bielefeld, 484;Blun)reUI, 347 Bergen, 577 Biella, 108 Bobbio, 111 Bergen (in Bel- Bielsk, 602 Bober, )3 gium). 281 BielileinhiJhle, 447 Bobliiigen, 331 Bergen (in Hesse- Bienne, 159 Bobruisk, 601 Cassel), 374 Bieligheim, 331 Bochiiia, 519 Bergen (on the Biervliet, 271 Bocholt, 483 island of lyigen) ,471 Bilbao, 97 Bockenem, 439 Bergen op Zoom, 274 Bill of Portland, 238 Bockenheim, 374 Bergerac, 215 Billerbeck, 483'Bockiim, 485 Bergheitn, 376 Billingfors, 573 Bodenteich Lake , 431 Bergstrasse, 7 Billora, 213 Bi)denwerdcr, 436 Bergiies, 190 Billung, Hermann, 433 Bodoe, 577 Bergzaljern, 328 Billwerder, 450 1 Bod rog-Keresstur, 527 Berka, 337, 389 Bilsen, 283; Bog, 12 Berkeley, 240|Bilston, 241;Bogen8e, 551 Bcrkshij'e, 235|Binche, 281; Bohemia, 514 Berleburg, 486 Bingen, 3.56 BoehmerwaldM s., V Berlin, 464 Binic, 209 Boh us. 573 Berlinchen, 467iBiograd, 634 Boisbelle, 205 Bermeo, 97 Birkenfeld, 426 Bois le Due, 273 Bernalda, 145| Birmingham, 241 Boitzenburg, 466 Bernaldo, 145 Birr, 257 Bojano, 145 Bernau, 465lBirstein, 374 Bojanowo, 499 Bernay, 186 Bisanz, 202 Boll)ec, 186 Bernljurg, 404 Biacari, 148:i5olkeiihain, 475 Berne, 153 1 Biscay, 97 Bolleiiz, 16.5 Berneck, 319 Bisceglia, 14 4 Boliigna, 135 Berner Oberland, l.i>^|Bischofsheim,342 ,344 Bologuese, 131 Bernkastel, 489 Bischofsheim vor iBolsena, 133 Bernatadt, 474 der Rhon, 323lBolsward, 272 Bernstein, 467 Bischofszell, 1601 Bolton, 243 Beroea, 631 1 Bischweilor, 198, Bolzano, 513 Berre, 223 Bisinark, 478!Bomini'l, 272 Beiry, 204 Bistrilz, .532iBonanii-s, 4.56 Berthelsdorf, 3H5 Bitbnrg, 489 1 Bondage, 36 Bervie, 252 Bitonto, 144 Biiness, 249 Berwick, 244 Bitsch, 196 Boniface VJII., 41 Berwickshire, 249 Billerfeld, 48U Bonifacio, 2-.'5 Besan^on, 202'Biv()na, 147 Bcviu 491 Besiglieim, 331 iBjelew, 591 h. *^^ville, 109, 159 PAOC Bunnighcim, 331 Buotia, 621 Boptincren, 336 Boppard, 487 Bora Mis., 6 Borchloen, 283 Bordeaux, 215 Borgholni, 571 , Bori^holzhausen, 484 I Borgloh, 441 Borgo, 126, 599 Borgomanero, HI Borgomasino, 108 Borgo ftindoimino 117 Borgo San Sepol- cro, 124 iBorgosesia, 111 Borgo 'I'aro, 117 Borja, 94 Borkelo, 272 Borken, 371, 483 Borinio, 539 ; Borna, 383 iBornheim, 456 jBornholm, 550 iBoros, 572 JBorowsk, 591 j Borromean Tsles, HI j Borrowstownuess, 249 jBorysthencs, 12 Borzonasca, 113 iBosa, 114 j Bosau, 426 Bosco, 111 ] Bosna Serai, 633 Bosnia, 633 |Bosniacs, 633 Bosphorus, 10 Bossormeiiv, 529 Boston, " 237 Bothnia Culf, 9 Boltoshaiii, 637 Botiishan, 637 Botzen, 513 Bouchain, 190 Boudrv, 163 Bouillon, 283 Bouin, 210 Boulogne, 189 Bonlonnais, 189 Bourbon, 203 , Bourbon TArcham- bault, 204 Botu'bonne les Bains, 192 ■Bourbon I.ancy, 201 {Bourbunnais, 203 Bourbon Vendee, 2)0 Bourdelois, 215 Boiirg, 215 Bourgain, 222 Bourgar.euf, 212 Bourg en Bressc, 201 Bourges, 204 Bourgi'S les Bains, 204 Bourg la Kt ine, 183 Bourgiieuf, 210 Bourgoctie, 199 Bourg tit. And6ol,221 INDEX. QiZ PAOE BourmoDt, lUH Boussjic, 212 Boiivi:^iius, '-y- Bouviiie^, 190 BovL'iidoii, 410 Boves, 108 Boviiio, 144 Boviiiea, 190 Boxbur^, 344 Boyle, 250 Bra, I'W Bral):vnt, 2Tf< BriicktMihoim, 'SM BrackwL'de, 4H4 Braclaw, fi»J Bradlord, 233, 244 BniUley, 241 Bragii, 73 Brnsjaiiza, 73 Brahostiid, 50:) Braila, 03() Braine-Lallcu, 270 Braiiie Id Comtc, 281 Brake, 423 Brakfl, 4,-«4 Bramsche, 441 BramslL'dt, 417 Brand, 'iil Brandenburg, city of, Brandenburg, pro- vince of, 4ni Braslaw, OiU) Briitz, 400 Bran bach, 3<)4: Braunaii, 510 Braimf<;U, 488 Brauiiiin,'en, 347| Braunsberar, 40t) Braunschweig, 4 Hi' Bray, 2')(i: Bray sur Seine, 193j Brazza, 535 Bre, 540 j Brechin, 252' Brecknock, 246 Brecknockshire, 24(» Brecon, 246 Breda, 273 Brej^enz, 514 Breisach, 345 Breis'^jau, 344 Breniel, 4.)3, 454 Bremen, ducliy of, 438 PAOEl Biiancon, 'J22 Briare', 205 Brid^'cnorlh, 21-J Bii(U'ewaler, i>30 Bridlin,'ton, 243 Bridport, 2H Hrie, 101. 103 Brie Champenoise 103 Brio Compte Ro- bert. Brie l''rancoise, Hrie sur l/eres, Uries, Briel, Brienne, Hriesen, Ilriey, Bri;,', Biiija, Bri^bton, Brihneira, Itri^iiolles, Brilon, Brindisi, Brioudo, Bristol, Hristol Channel, Ib'itinniu, BriUiiny, 184 IH4 184 473 270 192 408 196 167 110 23t) 88 2241 485 1 144 213' 230 : 10, 24 208 Buchanan, Bnch^iu, Itiicben, liii 'lien, B icliliolz, Hiichhorn, Itticb", Uiichsweilnr, Bucinn, BuKki^l)urK, Hiirkin!;biiin, PAOEl F 251 Biitzow, 334'Biilzl.a(h, 341 Biill^t:ill, 420JBiUrinto, 4(>6|Bnxteliudo, .33 1 1 Buxton, lor. 198 Cabras, 114, Cabrera (isle of), 429'Cact!res, 235^0 iduiinrs, liuckini(lianialiire, 235 Cider Idris, 465 Brive la Gaillardo, 212 Bremerhaven, Bremerlehe, Bremgarlen, Bre no, Brenla River, Brescello, Brescia, Breslau, Bressanono, Bresse, Bressuire, Brest, Bretagne, La, Bretten, Breyzards, 454 438] 1561 5401 15! 119' 539. 473 1 513 201 1 210 2001 908 j 34-2' 17ll Hriviesca, Hrixen, Hrjiinsk, Brecada, Hrocken, Brody, Broek in't Water lanil, Brnmbercr, Bromsebro, Bronte, Brood, Broos, Broseley, Brotterode, Brouacte, Brouwershaven, Brozzi, Bruchsal, Bruck, Briickenau, IJruijes, Brni;'^, Biubl, Brundusiuin, Brun^lta, Briinti, Bruiislnittel, Brunsbausen, nrunswick, city, Brunswick, dnchv of, Brnnswick-Oels, Brussels, Brzesk Cnjavski, Brzesc liilewski, Bublilz, Buccari, Buch, 88 513; 591 117 8: 510, 21)8' 490' 570 1 148 534 53-J 242 373 j 211 270 123 341 150,511 3331 280 1 15i> 4!ll 144 107 516 418 438 446 Biickow, 467 Cadiz, Bucks, 235 Cidore, Bn.la, ~ Budrsheim, BiidinLfen, Budissin, Biidweis, Biielach, Buen Iletiro, Bueren, Bu,', Bu,'ev, BUnl,' Bujaiance, Biikarest, Bukowina, Bnlach, Bultfaria, Btil'^arians, Hilnde, Biinzlau, Biiri-n, Burs;, Bursas, Bur,'au, Birri;di,rf, Bnrijdorf (Switzer- ICalne, 525 Caen, 356 Caerinarthcn, 35- Caermartbenshire 385 Caernarvon. 516 Caernarvonshire, l(iiliCai;liari, SijCaiiors, IS^jCairijorm, 13 Caithness, 202 Cajazzo, 341 Calabria, 93lCalaliorra, 636iCalais, .520^C;ilatalimi, 333 Calatavud, 620;Calntrava, 20, 629'Calcar, 484'Caldan(), 474 'Caledonians, 484 Calenberij, 177, 557 Callalu bellata. 629,Callenberg, 325'Callies, 437 Calinar, lam Burifbiislach, Buru'liaun, l!ur'jfba\isen, Ruru'Iitz, Biirijo-', Bur!,'raviate of Nu- rem bore. J58|Callaccirone, 322|Callanisetta, 373iC;duso, 315 Calvados Depart- 515! ment, 88lCalvi, jCalvorde, 31S|Calw, Biir^'undian circle, 292!Cafn:ijore, Bnrijundians, 24, lOOjCimaUloli, Buritnndy, 27, 199 Cainarniie, Bmnnndy, earl- Cambray, dcim of, 202 Cambresis, Burken, 344!Carabrid[,'e, Burkhciin, 345[l''ambrid!,'eshire, Burliidinijen, • 350 Cambusueath, Burnt island, 252JCamenz, Burscbeid, 403 Camerino, Burslem, 241jCaraeryk, Burton upon Trent 241 Cammin, Bnrlscbeid, 400 i;'anioi,'li, Biirv, 243 Campaijna, BnrySt. Edmund3,236,Campa3na di Ro Busiiclii, 114 1 ma, Busacbiuo, 146 Campan, Busca, 107[Carapanians, Busco, 636,Campbelltown, Bute, 252 Campen. 444 445 278! 605 1 liOl 472 520 Buteshire, 252 Campobasso, 215i Buijadingerland, 423, Campo Formic, Aor 409 357 3rr7 033 4:« 242 114 07 91 95 8 92 5)2 1811 245 ,245 246 246 114 215 8 2.54 142 143 88 1H9 146 94 88 404 126 248 435 5 .384 472 570 239 143 147 108 186 2-2.5 447 333 126 124 15 100 100 2.37 237 251 335 134 100 470 112 112 132 217 102 253 272 144 542 644 INDEX. PAOEj Cam pi) Mayor, 73 Carlstein, Campo ili Soil Pie- |Cai'lsti'ii, tro, 514 Cariniignuhi, Campreilon, 9.3 Caj-moiia, Cancule, 008 Oarniula, Cancalc, bay oT, 208 Carolalh, Candia, C3I, l)3!2 Carolina, Canea, 03.i Carnutre, Canvas de Ouis, 90;CarpatliL's, rAOEl PAOE i SlSCasllo Riishen, ii47 Charaouiiy, 573 Casllotoii, 'Jli, 'J47 ClKiiiipaane, J07 Caslres _ ai5, 2-iO Cliantilly, 9J Caslro del Rio, SlllCastro Glovauiil, 475|Caslroiniovo, 93 Castrorcale, l()i ('aatrovillari. 93 ChareiiU", 147 Cliareiile Depart- 14ti nient, 148 Cliareiiton, 14.') Cliarile, La, Caiiiirou, Caninu, Canna, Cannae, Oanne, Cannes, Cannicatti, Canobbio, Canosa, Canossa, Cans tat t, Cuntabria Mts., Canliil Ucpai't- ment, Cantavieja, Canterbury, Canty re, Capaccio, Cape Lizard, Capo Trafalgar, Cape St. Vincent, Capctians, Capetincrlans, Capodlstria, Caponnori, Cappel, Capraja, Capreia, Capri, Capua, Carcarente, Carcassonne, Cardltr, Cardigan, Cardiganshire, Cardona, Carelia, Carhai.x, Cariijnan, Carignano, Carini, C'arinthia, Carleby, Gamla, — > Ny, Carlingford, Carlisle, Carldfortc, Carlopago, CarlDviiigians, Carlow, Carlowitz, Carlsljad, Carlsborg, Carlsburg, Carlshafen, Carlsliamn, Carlskrona, Carlsruhe, Carlstad, Carlatadt, 5 Carpathes proper, 133[Carpentras, 25.3|Carpi, 144 1 Carrara, 144iCarricktergU3, 2-24 [ CarricU macross, 147;Uarrick on Shau- 111 1 nun, a.Catalauniaii Fields ];iJ Charkow, 5 Calalaiinum, 2-35 Catalonia, lli)|Catanea, 119 Catania, -")7|Catanzaro, 258|Catltarinburg, Calhcrlagli, 259|Cailieta, 144[Carrick on Suire, SiiO'Catholic Nether- 119 Carron, 331 Carthagena, 213 94 23f) 2.J3 142 239 92 74 3-2 179 512 J-ir, 169 113 114 141 142 98 220 245 246 24G 95 593 309 107 107 140 511 599 599 257 244 114 533 27 Carthageniensis, Cartliaus, Casale, 251 1 lands, 94 Catolica, 84;Cattaro, 498,Cattcgat, 110 Goul), Casale dc Grecclii, 147 Caudebec, 533 51.3 370 571 571 340 Casal Maggiore, Caselle, Casentino, Caserta, Caserta Nuova, Cashel, Cassano, Cassel, 192 Charlemagne, 94 Charlemont, 148 Charleroi, 148 Charles Martell, 145 Charleville, 3 Charulles, 2.57 Charlottenburg, 75 Chartres, Chartreuse, 277 Grande, 147 Chasseron, 535 Chatam, 9 Chateaubriand, 304 Chateau Cambre- 180 sis. 538'Caudinian Passes, 142 Clialeau-Chinon, Txat 110 191 185 10 211 183 204 594 30 191 281 27 193 201 4C5 305 222 236 210 190 204 107!Cauterets, 124; Cava, 141|CavailloD, 141jCavan, 260 145 370 Cavoux, Cefalu, Celano, Cassel (in France) 190 Celle, Cassis, Cassiterides, Cassonay, Cassubcii, Castel (in Bava- ria), Castellranco, Castel Gandolfo, Castelguelfo, Castell, 224 1 Celts, 239jCeneda, 217 Chateau du IJourg, 211 142 Chilteaudun, 205 225 Chaieaii-Gouthier,207 258 Chiitcaulin, 209 107 Chateau dn Loir, 207 146 Chateauncur, 207 143 Chiiteauiieuf de 4371 Random, 221 19 Chateau Rot;iiaiid, I'.'S 542 Chilleau-Renard, 224 168|Central Franconia,320 Chilteauroux, 317 542 132 117 323 Castellamare, 141,146 Castellamoute, Castellane, Castellina Marit- tima, Castello, Ampu- Castello de rias, Castel lobranco, Castellon de la Plana, Castelnaudary, Castelnuovo, Castelnuovo di Garfagna, Castel Sardo, Castel Sarrazin, Castelvelrano, .573!<,"astened()lo, 531 Caslislionc, (-astilc, Castilians, Caslillon, Ca.sllebar, 573|Castle Corner, 323, 529lCa3tlcrea{;h, 108 224 125 123 95 72 471 1 Central Italy, Cento, Cejihalonia, Cerdagne, Ceret, Cerigo, Cerigotto, Cerlier, Cernay, Cers, " Cortaldo, Cervera, Cervia, Cesana, Cescna, Cette, Ceva, Cevio, Ceziinbra, Chabeiiil, Chiibliiis, Chablis, Chalkis, Chalonnes, 103 Chateau Salins, 135 Chateau Tliieirv, 616 ChatelKraiit, 219 Cliatillon sur 219 Marne, 016 Cliatillon sur C16I Seine, LIS Chalillonlcs 199J Dombes, 247 Chatillon(in Italy) 109 205 195 193 210 192 201 202 96 220 125 119 114 221 146 540 539 87 70 215 259 257 259 123 Chatts, 95, 06 Chatsworlli, 135 Chaudes-Aigues, 107 Chaud font ainc, 135 Chaumont, 220[Cliauny, lOSChaux de Fonds, 105 Chaves, 72;Chelm, 222'CheImford, 100 Chelsea, 193 Cheltenham, 623 Chemillfc, 207 1 Chemnitz, Chalons sur Marne ]92jCheiicony, 297 242 213 282 192 185 103 73 007 236 2:15 240 207 383 000 Chaionssur Sa6ue 201 ChCiie le populeux 193 Chains, Cham, Cham (Switzer- land), Chaniliery, Chanibord, Cliambru, 212 Chepstow, 240 317:Cher, 15 Cher Department, 204 168 Chera.sco, 108 109 Cherbourg, 187 20fi|Cheronoa, 021 ISO.Cherson, fill INDEX. 645 PAOE PACK 1 PAOK Cherusks, 'J'J7 Civita Ducalc, 143 Com area di Romii , 1.32 Cheshire, '24-2 Civita (li Penne, 143|(Jk)mino, 150 Chester, 242 Civita Vecdiia, 133 (Jominotto, 1.50 Chesterlleld, 242 Civitella del ("omiso. 148 Cheviot Hills, 8 Tronto, 143|Commercy, 195 Chiaramontc, 148 Civray, 2IO:Commines, 190 ,280 Chiarl, 540 Clackmannan, 251 Como, 538 Chiusso, l(i5 Clackmannanshire 25 li(^'omi) Lake, H Chiavurl, 113 Claui-nl'iit Lake, 11 Comorn, 526 Chiavi'iina, 53i» Cl!urv:uix, 192 , 367 <'(mipi Deinach, 333 Dingle, 26j Doullens, 188 Culinbacli, 31!) Deister, 8i Dingwall, 254 Doiu'o, 14 Culiii^i'i', 491? DelbriJck, 481 IJinkelsbiihl, 321 nover. 236 Cunibi'iland, 'J44 Dclcmont, 159 Dinklago, 423 Dovre-fjeld, 5 Cumbiays, i>5-2:Dell't, 26st Dinogetia, 612 Down, 258 Cuuibre (It; Mulha- i Uellzyl, 273 DinslaUen, 494 Downham, 237 cen, SiDolitzch, 480 Dippoldiswakle, 381 Downpatrick, 258 Cumianu, JOTiDelmenhorst, 423 Dirschau, 498 1 Dragomestre, 621 Cuueo, JUTiDi'los, 623 Uisentis, 162jr)ragonera, 97 Cuns, 4W) Delphi, 621 Dissen, 441 Draguignan, 224 Cuiirgne, lOH Delsberg, 159 Dithmarschcn 414,418 Drama, 630 Cupar, 251 Del vino, 633 Divenow, 13 Dramburg, 472 Curishe Ilaff, 9;Deramin, 470 Dixmnyden, 281 Drammen, 576 Cuiland, 597jDemonte, 108 Dnieper, 12[Drave, 16 Ciisel, 328 Dcinotica, 629 D'lieater, 12 Dreieicherhain, 355 Cuxliafen, 45():Denain, ]9l!Dobbertin, 410 Drenthe, 273 Cyclades, 623'Denbigh, 246 Doheran, 4091 Dresden, 380 Cytheia, ClGlDenbighshire, 246 Dobriluck, 4G8 Dreux, 185 Czar, 589iDender, 16 Docsburg, 272iDrevsam, 338 Czariiikow, 5U0 1 Dendermonde, 280 Doge (of Venice) , 540' Dri burg. 484 Czech, 514|Deuia, 96 Dohna, 38|.Driesen, 467 Czerislocliau, COojDeiunark, 543 Dokkura, 272 Drin, 15 Czernigow, 594|De|)tlurd, 236 Dole, 6 ,203 Dristra, 629 Czeriiowitz, 52U Derby, 242 Dolgelly, 246 Drogheda, 257 Czeriiy Georg, 634 Derbysliire, 242 Dollart, 9 Drohyczyn, 602 Derenburg, 478 Dombes, 202 Droitwich, 240 Dacia,5il,53n,G35,638 Deiry, 258'Domburg, 270 Drome, 15 l)as?ii, 596 Des, 531 DomlVont, 187 Drfime Depart- Daiilen, 493 Desenzano, 53u:Domliof, 412 ment, 222 Dal Kiver, 13 Desna, 12 Domino, 141 Dronero, 108 Dalunie, 569 Dessau, 405 Domitz, 4o;i Drottniiigholm, 5()8 Dalukarlien, 569 Dctmokl, 428 Domodossola, 111 I#onlheini, 577 Dallicm, 283 Deilelbach, 323 Domo d'Ossola, 111 Diiben, 4H0 Ualkfilli, 249 Dettingen, 323 Domremy, 193 Dubienka, 607 Daliiiiilia, 534 Deutichem, 272, Don, 12 Dubitza, 533 ,634 DalslaiiQ, 573 Deutsch-Crone, 498 Donaghadce, 2.58 Dublin, 256 Dalya, 530 Deutsch-Warteu- Donaueschingen, 347 Dutlerstadt, 440 Dam, 273 berg. 475'Donaustauf, 3]7lDudley, 240 Dam bach, 197 Deulz, 491 Donauworlh, 325iDuero, 14 Dam 111, 469 Deux-Ponts, 328 Donegal, 258 Uuisburg, 494 Damrat-rsfeld, 7 Deva, 531 Donez, 12 Dukeries, 242 Daiiimf,'arlen, 470 Deventer, 272 Doiigio, 165 Dukla, 519 Damvillicrs, 195 Devil's Bridge, 166 Doornik, 281 Dulcigno, 632 Danasliis, 12 Devil's Ladder, 363 Dora IJaltea, 15 Dijlken, 493 Daii'^ast, 435 Devoiiport, 238 Dora Riparia, ]5iDiilmen, 483 Daiu^h Islands, 549 Devonshire, 238 Dorat, 212 Dumbarton, 251 Daimemura, 568 Deynse, 280 Dorchester, 2381 Dumbartonshire, 251 Daiiiiciilit'rg, 437 Diakovar, 530 Doidogne, 15 Dumfries, 250 Daiilzick, 497 Diano, 142 Dordogne Depar I- Dumfriesshire, 2.50 Danube, 16 Die, 222 ment. 215 Dijmmer Lake, 431 Danube circle, 333 Diedcnhofen, 196 Dorgali, HI Uuiia, 13 Danzig, 497 Dieburg, 35.) Dornburg, 406 Dunaburg, 601 Dardanelles, 10 Diekirch, 3ii7 Dornhan, 333 Dunbar, 249 Darkehmen, 497 Diepenau, 436 Dornholzhausen, 359 Dundalk, 2.J7 Darlington, 244 Dienholz, 436 Dornoch, 2.54 Dundee, 252 Darmstadl, 354 Dieppe, 186 Dornstetten, 3331 Dunfermline, 2.52 Daioca, 04'Diessenliofen, 166 Dorohoe, 037ll)ungaiinon, 2.58 Dartm(julh, 238 Diesl, 278 Dorpat, 597 Dungarvan, 259 Dauphins of V len- iDietl'urt, 317 Dorsetshire, 238:Dunkeld, 2,')3 nois. 222>Dietz, 31)2 Dorsten, 483; Dunkirk, 191 Dauphiny, 222 Dieu (island;, 210 Dort, 269 Dunse, 249 INDEX. 647 Punsinan, Duiancc, Diiniii<;o, Diira/zo, Diii'i'ii, Diiiiiam. D irhiiiii-iliire, iXirklii-iiii, Diirlucli, I>iirt:il, Diisemond, I)ii-<.-53 J 5 97 03i 4U1) 244 244 340 207 489 49-2 492 2li5 270 12 210 032 Ehnin'jcn, Kliroiibreilslein, Kliiiif, EiliLMistnck, Eiclisfeld, FADE 333 4H7 41)0 383 481 Eichsfeld, Lower, 440 Eiiglesham. Ea-tl Flanders, East Fiiselund, East (;iilli)way, Ea.st Ijiitliian, Eiisl Meal I), Eastphaliaiis, East Prussia, East Pyrenees D& 251 279 442 2.')0 249 257 29H 495 partmeiit, 219 Eiist Riding, 243 Eaiize, 216 Ebelehen, 401 Eheltoft, 533 Eberbach, 344 Ebermauustadt, 319 Ebern, 323 Ebersdorf, 398 Ebingen, 333 Eboli, 142 Ebro, • 14 Ec hill lens, 108 Echellca, 109 Echternach, 307 Eciji, 92 Eckar-dtsber?a, 481) Eckernfordc, 55r, Eckmuhl, 3ir. EclU30, 270 Eoouen, 184 Edam, 209 Edderachyllis, 254 EcUlystone, 233 Ettenkoben, 327 Edesheira, 327 Edessa, 030 Edinburgh, 249 Edinburghshire, 249 Eecloo, 280 Eijer (city), 515 Eater (in Hungary) 527 Earer River, 16 E'jp?lofstein, 320 E'j;idstadt, 531 Es;ina, 020 Egisheim, 198 E<,'lisau, 109 Ei»rib()3, 023 Ehenheim, 197 EhiugcD, 335 EicliatiiJl, 322 Eider, 14 Eitel, 8 Kilenburg, 4:-l() fiilsen, 429 Einibeck, 440 Eindhoven, 274 Einsiedein, 104 Eisenach, 38-^ Kisenbi^ri;, 390 Kisenbuii?, 521) Eiscnstadt, 527 Eisfeld, 392 Kisi^rub, 517 Kisleben, 479 Ekeniis, 599 Ekesjij, 570 Elba, 12i; Elbe, 10 Elberfeld,. 492 Elbeuf, 18!) Elbing, 497 Elbinc;erode, 440 Klburg, 272 Elche, 90 Eldau'sen, 436 Eldena, 471 Electoral Hesse, 368 Electoral Palat- inate, 327 . 312 Electors of the an cient German empire. 293 Elfsbor-, 572 Ell'snabben, 509 Eltfersburg, 394 Eluin, 2.53 Elijinshire, 253 El is. 022 I'.lisabelhgrad, Oil Ellteld, 303 Ellbo?en, 515 Kll?, 109 Kllinsen, 321 EUrich, 481 Bllwani;en, 335 Elmshorn, 418 l-ilseniir. 549 Elsfleth, 421 Klsterbers, 3^4 Rlsterwerda, 480 P.lterU>in, 383 Eltmann, 323 EltviUe, 303 Klvas, 73 Ely, 237 Elysians, 472 Glzach, 345 t:iza. 439 Einbrun, 222 Emden, 443 Emniendingen, 345 Emmerich, 494 Emme-valley, Knis Tin .N'assau), r.ins River, Enoartationes, Kndini;en, KuKadln, Eir/ell)i;n;, FCji:;elllollD, Eni^er, Kn;{ers, EiiKhien, ICn'.'land, Eri'^lish Channel, Eiikhuyzen, Enkuping, Einiis, Ermisoorthy, EnniskiUeu, Euontekis, Enos, Ens, Enschede, Eu;-i'_'ns armorial, EiHisheim, Enirc Minho e Douro, Entrevaux, Eperies, Epernay, PAOKI 158, 3(>4 17' !)-S Favura, 14 Faverifes, 1U9 Faviere, 100 Favi;;iiaiia, 147 Fayal, 75 Fecamp, 180 Feder Lake, 329 Foes, 30 Fcglio, 130 Fehrbellin, 405 Fejer Teuiplora, 534 Fi-ldbcrg, 7 Fold berg. Great, 8 Feldkirch, 514 Felegjhaza, 5-2'J Feliciuli, 149 Folleliii, 21-J Fellin, 597 Felsburg, 371 Feltre, 54-2 Felvincz, 532 Femern, 557 Fuuestrellc, 107 Feodosia, 610 Fcrrara, 135 Fere Champenoise, La, 192 Fermanagh, 25^ Fermo, 134 Fermoselle, "JO Fermoy, 259 Feruey, 202 Ferrol, 90 Ferle Bernard, La 207 Fcrte sousJouarre, 193 Feuchlwaiig, 320 Feudal System, 35 Fichtelljer:;, Great, 7 Little, 7 Fichtol-Gebirge, 7 Fiesole, 123 Fife, 251 Fifeshire, 251 Flgeac, 210 Figline 123 Figueira do Mon- dego, 72 Figueras, 95 Filehne, 500 Filibe, 630 Finale, 113 Finale (iu Mode- na), 119 Findhorn, 253 Fiiigal's Cave, 254 Finisterre Depart- ment, 209 Finland, 598 Finland Gulf, '.) Finnan, 252 Finnish tribe, 504 Finnmarken, 578 Finspong, 570 Finsteraarhorn, 4 Finsterwalde, 40S Fiorenzuola, 117 Fiurae, 529 Fiumicino, 133 PAGE Fivizzano, 125 iFladslranfl, 552 Fladungen, 323 Flanders, 279,280 Flatow, 498 Flemings, 19, 275 Flensburg, 556 Fleuru9, 281 Flint, 240 Flintshire, 240 Florae,* 221 Florence, 123 Flores, 75 Floridia, 148 Flottbeck, 418 Fliielen, ItiG Flushing, 270 Fochabers, 253 Foehn, 152 Foggia, 144 Folir, 557 Foix, 218 Fokshan, 030 Koldvar, 532 Foligno, 134 Foiidi, 142 Fonni, 114 'Fontcnay, 281 Fontenay le Comte 1 10 Fontainebleau, 184 Fontaine rKv&que281 Fontaine Fran- caise, 201 Foiadada, 97 Forcalquier, 224 Forchheim, 320 Forehtenberg, 337 Forchtenstein, 527 Fordon, 500 Forest of Thurin- gia, 7 Forez, 214 Forfax, 232 Forfaxshire, 252 Forii, 135 Formentera, 97 Fornovo, 1 17 Forres, 253 Forst, 327 Forsle, 468 Fort Louis, 198 Fort Opus, 535 Fort Vauban, 198 Forth, 14 Fosdinovo, 119 Fossano, 108 Fossigny, 109 Fossombrone, 134 Fotheringay, 241 Fougeres, 208 Fraga, 94 Francavilla, 145 France, 170 Franchc Gomt6, 200, 202 Franconia, 3^, :i20, 322 Franconian Alps, 7 'Fraueker, 272 PAOK Frankonau, 372 Frankenberg, 372, 384 Frankenhausen, 401 Frankenslein, 474 Frankenlhal, 327 Frankenwald, 7 Frankl'ort, grand- I ducliy of, 294 Franklorl on the ' Mayne, 454, 455 Frankfort on the Oiler, 467 Frankish circle, 292 Friiukiscli-Krum- bach, 355 Franks (German tribe), 20 Franks (in Tur- key), 624 Franks, Ripuarian 298 , Salic, 298 Franzensbrunn, 515 Fraacati, 132 Frasersburgh, 252 Frauenburg, 496 Frauenfeld, 165 Frauenstein, 381 Franstadt, 499 Fredeiisborg, 549 Frederic the Great 463 Frederiksborg, 549 Frederikshald, 570 Frederislianin, 599 Frederikshavn, 552 Frederiksoort, 273 Fredcriksort, 5.50 Frederiksstad, 570 Frederikstad, 556 Frederikssteen, 570 Frcderikssund, .550 Frederiksviirn, 570 Frederikswerk, 549 Free Cities, 51 Freiberg, 381 Freiburg in Breis- gau, 344, 345 Freiburg (in Swit- zerland), 159 Freiburg unterm Fiirslenstcin, 473 Freienhagen, 376 Freienwalde, 406 Freihan, 474 Freising, 315 Freiwaldau, 475,517 Fr6jus, 224 French Flanders, 190 French Nether- lands, 190 French Switzer- land, 167 Fresh llaff, 9 Freudenstadt, 333 Freudenberg, 344 Frevstadt, 318 Friaul, 31,512 PAOE Fridericia, 553 Friesoyto, 423 Fried berg, 358 Friedberg (in Ba- varia), 315 Triedeberg, 467, 475 Friedewald, 373 Friedingen, 332 Friedland, 490,516 Friedrichshafeu, 334 Friedrichshof, .359 Friedrichstadt, 597 Friesack, 400 Friescs, 263 Friesland, 272 Frieslanders, 2S)8 Frignano, 1 19 Fritzlar, 372 Frontignan, 220 Frooine, 239 Frosinone, 133 Frutingen, 158 Fuente Ovejuna, 93 Fuenterabia, 97 Fugger, princes and earls of, 326 Fulda (city), 373 Fulda (Hessian province), 372 Fulda River, 17 Fulnek, 517 Funiay, 19 1 Funen, 551 FUnfkirchen, 52B Furnas, 75 Furnes, 281 Fiirstenau, 441 Fiirstenberg, 412, 447 Fiirstenberg, prin- ces of, 340, 347 Fiirstenberg, town of, 347 FiJrstenstein, 473 Fiirstenwaldc, 467 Fiirlh, 320 FUssen, 325 551 Friaul, Venetian I'Yibnrg, Frick, 542 l.W 150 Fyen, Gadebusch, 409 Gabela, 634 Gaeta, 142 Gaels, 19 Gaibach, 323 Gaillac, 220 Gailuripi, 5 Gainsborough, 2.37 Gais, 1.57 Galacz, 637 (Jalantha, 524 Galaxidi, 621 Galenstock, 166 (iaiicia (Austrian) 518 (Jalicia (in Spain), 90 tiallaecia, 84 Gallego. 14, 77 Gallipoli, 144,623 Galloway, East, 250 [ , New, S50 I , West, S50 INDEX. 640 Galium, Galosliiolds, Galwiiy, GamertinKen, Gamla Carleby Gandersheim, Gaiuliii, Gaii!jc.s, Ganiint, Guj,, GanI, Gard DL-partment, 2iJ0 PAGE 114 2.'>0 2oy 34'.l 599 417 06 2-JO 204 o>) "l5 Gerabi'onn, Geraco, (Jeiardiner, (Serdaufii, Geriii'^swalde, (Jeilachsheiin, German Empire, the ancifiit. PAnKj pageI 33r>,Glatz, 474|Gournay, 1 1.J I (.'lalz, earldom of, 474,G()vone, Garda I^akp, Gardanne, Gardelegen, Carding, Gardorie, Garfa!{na, Garfa'^na Grandu- cale, Gargnano, Garigliano, Garmisch, Garmoulh, Garonne, Garter, the, Garz, 11 224 478 550 540 119 125 540 15 315 253 15 232 4i3j(;ieiwitz, 383|Glen-Coe, 344 Glina, iGlogaii, 291 jGlu?nmen, PAQE IHf. lOf? 150 325 322 400 Garz (on the island of Riigen), 471 Gascony, 21f) Gastein', 510 Gatsliina, 590 Gaualgesbeim, 35(i Ga\il, 26 Gebesee, 4S1 Gobweiler, 198 Gedern, 357 Geertsberghen, 280 Geeste, 17 Geeslbacht, 450 Gene, 573 Gehren, 401 Geilnau, 365 Geisenheim, 363 Geiser, 559 Geisingen, 347 Geislingen, 331 Geismar, 371 Gelderland, 271 Geldern, 271 Geldern (in Prus- sia), 494 GeWea, 471 Gellbeim, 328 Gelnhausen, 374 Gembloux, 232 Gemiindim, 323, 372! General ife, 93 Geneva, 160 Geneva Lake, 11 Genevese, 109 Genevoi?, 109 Gengenbach, 34 1 Geiinargentu, 5 Gennep, 368 Genoa, 111,112 Genthin, 478 Gepides, 24 Gera, 399 5 Gers Department, 216 " Gersaii, Gorstungen, Gertriiidenberg, Gest'cke, Gessenay, iGestrikliind, Gevio, Gex, Geyer, Geysa, Ghocl, Ghent, 18, 19 Glnns, 297 Glott. (Jlouccater, 295 Glounesterahirc, 281 Gliicksbrunn, 327 Gliicksburg, 404 Gluckstadt, 341 GmUnd, 351 Giniindcn Lake, 323 Gnadaii, 95 Gnadenfeld, 492 Gnesen, 15 Goch, Goes, Goeschonen, Goetzenbruck, Giikshnlm, 485 Goldapp, 158 Goldau, 573|Goldborg, 410, 165|Goldcn Hull, 164 389 274 3-14 Co/./. 476|<;rabcn, 253 Grabfeld, 533 (Jrabow, 474k;raciosa, 14 (Jrailisca, 512 282[Gradi.sr!i,New, 534 3261 , Old, 534 241) GratVnau, 316 240j(;rarenberg, 518 39l[f;rarenberg fin Ba- 557 varia), 320 415 fJriifenliainchen, 4^0 336 (;rafrath, 493 UIGrammnnt, 280 479 Grampian Hills, 8 476 (Jran, 525 500,(;ranada, 93 4y4|Granard, 257 270 Grand Colombier, 6 l(i6 (Jrand Donnon, 6 195 (Jrand Chartreuse, 222 569 (Irandprf, 497 j Grand Signior, ]01 Grandson, 474 [Grand Vizier, 301 Grangemouth, 202|Golden Fleece, 83,506 Gran Iliver, 193 026 168 026 251 16 383 Goldingen, 339 Goldkronach, 279 Gollheim, 279lGollnow, Giant's Causeway, 258,Gollup, Giants' Mts., " 6iGondreville, 125;Gonten, riSlGonzaga, ]07]Goole, 3, 93;Gopping9n, 480'Goree, 598 Gran 8a«sod'Italia, 5 Gianuti, Glare, Giaveno, Gibraltar, Giebichenstein, Gieboldehausen, Gicn, Gicngen, Giossen, Gifhorn, Gic;anliuu, Giglio, Gljon, Gilgenberg, Gingst, Giornico, Giovenazzo, Girgenti, Gironde, Gironde Depart- ment, Gisborough, Gi urge wo, Givet, Givors. Glaciers, Gladbach, Glammis, Glamorganshire, Glarus, Glasgow, Glashiitte, Glastonbury, 44U;Gorgi'ny, 205 Gorgenv-Szent- 3361 Imreh, 357!Gorgona, 437 Gorizia, 5lGorkum, 125!G6rlitz, 90 Gortz-Schlitz, 164|G6rz, 47liGoslar, 165 Gospich, 144 Gosport, 147 Gossan, 15 Gota-Canal, Gotha, 215 Gotha River, 243 Gothurike, 630 GOthebovg, 191 Gothic style in ar 214 chitecture, 152 Goths, 493 Gotlenburg, 253 Gottingcn, 245 Gottland, 161 Gottliebcn, 250 Gottorp, 381 Gouda, 239 Gourdon, 28 319 Gransec, 328 Granville, 470 Grao, 498 Grasbrook, 195 (Jrasse, ]57|Grasse, La, 539'Gratz, 213 Gratz, 335 'G rand enz, 270 Graidhct, 531 Grave, jG ravel ines, 531 GraveliiiLren, 125 s'Gravenbaag, 512'Gravenstein, 270JGravcsand, 475 Gray, 358 Gray Alps, 512 Gray le Pr*, 439| Great Belt, 533 Great Britain, 238 Great Feldborg, 169 Great Greece, 562 Great IlatT, 394 Great-Island, 13 Great Rumania, 570 Great Poland, 572 Great Rnd, I Great Russia, 44'Great Schnetberg, 18, 23!Grebenslein, 572JGrecian Archipel' 440 1 ago, 57l|Greding, 165!Grccce, 556i Greek Church, rOi Greeks, Sicl Greenlaw, 168 187 96 450 224 220 510 510 498 220 274 190 190 269 556 238 203 4 205 9 227 "a 102 9 259 5-28 605 7 590 6 371 10 322 on 20 19 249 650 INDEX. Greenock, Greenwich, Greetsiel, Gregory VII., Greitreiiberjr, Greiffenberg (ia Silesia), GreifTenliauen, Greifswuld, Greiz, Greiiaa, Grencheii, Grentia, Grenoble, Gretna Green, Greiissen, Grevemachern, Grevenbroioli, Grevlsmiihiea, Grejerz, Grigoriopol, Grimby, Grimtna, Griramen, Gripshohn, Grisons, Grodno, Groenio, Grohnde, Groix, Grol, Gronau, Gronenbacli, Groningen, Gross- Al merode, Grossboltwar, GrosseKingen, Grosseiihain, Grossetlo, Grossperau, PAOK , paoe| HiHalifax, '.M3, 371 Hall, 335,513 4:t3 Halland, 57i aiO Halle, 4801 20-IIalle (in Belgium) 278 "■ 510 PAOE I 251 Giiden, 2:i(i Gudensberg, 4-13 Giielplis, 41 Guerande, 470 (Jnerche, La, jCiucret, 475 Gnernsey, 470 Gnetaria, 471 Ciii-'iflingen, 398 (Juibray, 553 (;iiildrurd, IC4 Guildhall in Lon- 571 1 don (History oQ 22-.' Guilds, 52, 53iHanini, 250 (;uillotiere. La, 214 Hatnrai . 400 (iuiniaraes, 73 llanimelburg, 3(W-Guitigamp, 2091 Hum merfest, 4(13 Guiole, SlfijIIammerstein, 40il Guipuzcoa, 97lHampshire, 159 Guldene Aue,399,458 Hampton Court, 611 Gull" or Genoa, 10 Hanau, 237, Gulf ol' Lyons, 10{Hanau-Lichten- 382,Gulf of Riua, 9 berg, 470|Gulf of Taranto, lOJIIanoVer, city. PAOE Hanptweil, lOfi Haiisacb, 3»2 Hausberge, 484 Hansen, 342, 345, 34(> 212;Hallein, 247 Hallii;en, y7|llalmslad, 33jlHam, I87|Hambach, 235 1 Hamburg, Hanieln, 54J Hamilton, 509 Gumbinnen, ICllGundelfingen, COO Gundelsheim, 272'Giins, 4Ht) Guntersblum, 209 (iunthorsberge, 272jGiinzbur2, 439 , Gunzenhauseu, 325JGurau, 273 Gnspini, 370,Giistrow, 331;Guyeniic, 350lGvergyo Szeiit 381 Miklos, 1241 354 1 Haarlem, 557 572 188 327 448, 4,50 435 251 450, 48.5 280 323 578 498 238 235 373 328 435 GrossJiennersdorf, 385 Haarlem Lake, Gross-Linden, Gross-Saize, Gross-!AOC I PA OKI PAOK' PAOK Henry the Lioil, AM llillebrnnn. 573 Hol^tein, 412 Humbor, 14 Ueppi'iilu'lrii, 351 'IlilleioJ, 549 Holslcln-tJotlorp, 414 Hiiuiinluig, 431 Hepliirchy, 'J.5 llillselii'id, 3i)3 lloliim. 500 Hundliolin, 57M Heraclea, 02rf llilpollsiein, 317 Holy Causeway, 407 Hundsruck, 8 Heriiult, 1.5 IliUbach, 341 ilidyliead, 217 niin(lw>l. 157 Horiiiill Dopart- niinniel.-.l)erg, 514 Holy Kri'uzberg, 7 Hiiulcld', 373 mciit, 221) llindelopen. 27.' Holy lliver. 12 Hungary, .520 llcrhol/.lu'iin, 31'. llirschau, 317 , 333 Holy Kjinan Em Huii^'en, 357 Herborn, 311-2 llirscliborg, 474 pi re. 291 IlUaingen, lO".! Hurciilatium, 141 llirschlioru, 355 Ilolyrood, 249 Huns, 25 Herefuiil, 240 llirsovu. C30 Holywell, 240 Hunsiiicken, H llorefiudshire. 241) llibingen, 572 Holzappcl, 304 Hunte, 17 llereiitals, 27!) llispaniu citorior, 84 Holzminden, 447 HuMtiii'.'don, 237 Herlbid, 481 Hitpania ulterior , S4 lloinberu In Hesse ,371 Huntini,'diui.shire 2.17 Horicourt, 203 llil/.acker. 437 Honiberg an dur Hiisavlk, 500 Heriiig, 3.-).-) lljelinar Lake, 11 Ohiu, 357 Hu'8 Herisau, ].')? lljci. 573 ria). 328 Hulwyl, 1.18 Herjedalcn, 574 lljijrring. 552 Hombiirg vor der Huv, 2^2 Hcrli9 Hven, 572 Hermaniistadl, 532 llochberg. 345 Honiel, GOl Hydra, 622 HermopDlis, 023 Hochheitn, 303 Honfleur, 180 Ilyiires, 224 Heriniindiu'i, 378 Ildclikirch, 385 Hoogstralin, 279 Ilyerian Islands, 224 Herniisunil, 574 Hijcbst, 3li3 Hooksiel, 424 Hvpanis, 12 Herreiibert,', 333 HOchsladt, 319 320 Honrn, 209 Ilythe, 230 Horriudeii, 322 Hodiinoiit, 283 Hdpital, 109 Herrnluit, 385 Hoegaerden, 279 Horb, 332 Ibbenbiircn, 483 Hersbniclc, 321 Hof, 319 Horde, 485 Iberian .Mountains, 5 Hersleld, 373 ilofgeismar, 370 Hordic, 209 Iberians, 19 Horstall, 282 Ilonieim, 303 Hur^en, 109 Ibrahil, 636 HertCord, 237 Hofwyl, 158 Horn, 428 , 450 Iceland, 559 Herll'ji-dshirp, 237 HogiiiN La, 187 Horn here, 340 Icolrakill, 254 Hertoi^fnbosch, 273 Hohf Eule, 7 Horneburg, 438 Idar, 420 Henili, 25 Hohegfiss, llohr, 448 Horsens, 5.53 Idarkopf, 8 Herve, 28:> 303 Horslmar, 483 Idriii, 512 Herzberc:, 440 Holisclu'id, 493 Horta, 75 [dstcin, 362 Herzegovina, 634 lldlieiiasperg. 331 Hospodars, 630 Ifferten, 108 Herzogenralh, 490 llolu'iiberg. 332 Hostalrlch, 95 K'lau. 517 Herzo'j;enaui-ach, 320 Ilolioneinbs, 514 llonat. 209 Iglesias, 114 Hesariirad, 030 llohenfriedberg. 475 House of Bourbon , 180 Igualada, 95 Hesdin, 189 llohenheben, 317 House of Bragau- llanz. 162 Hesse- (y'assel, 308 Hohenklingen, 104 za, 69 IllVld, 440 Hesse-Dannstadt, 351 Hohenkriihen, 347 House iif Este, 118 llleandVilaineDe- Hosse,eloctoratoof3G8 Hiihenlinden, 314 House of Hanover , 233 partinent, 203 Hesse, giaiid-duc ly Hohenldhf, 330 House of ."Medici, 122 Iller, 16 or, 351 Uohenlohe-Schil- House of Stuart, 233 lllertissen, 325 Hesse-Hornbursr, 358 lirigsfiirsl. 322 House (i|"l lulor. 233 lllok, 530 Hesse, land^'ravi- Hohensalzburg, 510 House of Wittels- Jllyria, 511 ale of, 353 Ilohensclnvangau ,314 bacli. 313 lllyrians. 102 Hesse and at Hoheustaufen. Howden, 243 rime n Lake, 11 Rhine, 351 324 335 Hoxter. 434'llmcnau, 388 Het Loo, 271 Ilohenstein, 384 Hoya, 430 llinenau River, 17 1 Ietlin!?en, lleubaoh, Klein, 349 MuhenstofTeln, 347 Hoyerswerda, 475 llsinburir. 479 323 Hohenlwiel, 333 Hoyni. 401 Imbro, 632 Heusctieuer Ge- Ilohen/.dlii'rn, an- Hradschin, 514 Inibros, 632 birge, 7 cestral caslle of, 349 Hrau!idalur, 500 lingenliroich. 490 Heusden, 274 llohenzullern, the Hrubieszow, 607 linnu'diateness (in Hexliain, 244 principalities of, 347 Hubertsburg, 382 Germany), 51 Highlantl of Bay- Hohenzollern-He- Hiickeswaireu, 493 Iminonhausen, 371 reiith, 319 chingen. 349 HuddersfielJ, 243 Immeustadt, 3-2.5 Highlands of Ilohenzollern-Sig Hudikswall, 574 Imola, 135 Borne, 158 maringen. 349 Huelva, 92 Indre. 15 Highland of Meis- flohnstein. 440 H\iesca, 94 Indre Department 205 sen, 3TB Hohnslcin, ancient Hiilingen, 347 Indre and Loire Highlands of Scot- earldom of, 4«1 Huissen, 272 Department, 20G land, 253 Holbek, 550 Hull, 243 Ingellingen, 336 Hilchenbach, 480 Holland, 208 Hulonesus, 623 Ingelheim, 356 Hildburghausen, 392 llollfeld, 320 Hulst, 271 In.,'leboniugh, 8 Uildesheim, 439 Holstebro, 553 Ilultschin, 476 ingolsladt, 314 652 INDEX. PAOE PAOE PAGE Ins^rande, 'Jl)7 llzehoe. 417 Judonbach, 392 Ingria, 5!»o IviUlOVO, 592 Judenbuig, 511 Inn River, 16 Iverdun, 163 Jngria, 52 1 Innerleithen, 2.'i0 Ivica, 97 Jiilich, 490 Inner-Uliodeii, 1.57 Ivrea, 108 Juliers, 4110 Innocenlus 111., 41 Ivry, 186 Jiilin, 4r,9 Inn-ipruck, 513 Jung-Breslau, 500 Inowracliiw, 500 Jaca, 94 Jungfrau, 4 hisiini. 608 Jacobstad, 599 Jniig-Stilling, 486 Inselsberor, 7 Jacobstadt, 598 Jura Department , 203 Inslerbiirg, 497 Jaen. 93 Jura (island), 254 Inleraitinia, 143 Jagello, 600 Jura Mis., « Interlaclion, 158 Jagerndorf, 517 Jurburg, fini In'.erlaken, 158 Jagodina, 635 Jnssey, 203 Intra, 111 Jaik, 609 Justinian, ■ 26 Inverbervie, 25-2 .laitza. 634 Jiiterbock, 407 Inverary, 253 Jalta, 611 Jutland, 552 Invorlochy Castle ,253 Janepol, 602 Inverness, 253 .lankau, 515 Kadolzburg, 321 Inverness-shire, 253 ■liuikowitz, 515 Kaierloh, 314 lona, 254 Jaonina, 633 Kiifornburg, 401 Ionian Islands, C14 Jar Is berg. 57() Kaffa, 010 Ionian Sea, 10 Jarinen, 470 Kahla, 39li Iperia, 1.5(1 .larnac. 211 Kaisersberg, 198 Ipswich, 23fi Jaroslav, 519 , .592 Kaiserslautern, 327 Irbit, 608 Jass-Bereny, 529 Kaisersrenth, 336 Ireland, 256 .lassenovacz. .533 Kaiserswerth, 493 Irnis, 165 Jassy, 637 Kalau, 468 Irwin, 250 .Tastrow, 498 Kalauria, 622 Isar, 16 .lauer, 474 Kalavrita, 622 Ischia, 141 Jaxt, 329 Kalbe, 477 Ischl, 510 Jaxtberg, 337,Kulish, 605 Iseljord, 544 •laxt circle. 335 Kallenberg, 394 Isegliem, 281 .lazyges, 521 , 529 Kalliniiiiz, 317 Isenburg, 355 Jazygia, 529 Kallunuborg, 5.50 Isenburg-Biidin- Jebaluga, 608 Kalmucks, .580 gen. 357 .ledburgh, 24!) Ivallennordlicim, .3^9 Iseo, 540 .lekaterinador, 613 Kalteiisuudheim 389 Isere Department ,22-2 •Jekatcriiiburir, 607 Kaluga, .591 Iserlohn, 485 Jekaterinoslav, 612 Kama, 12 Iseruia, 144 .Jelatnia, 592 Kauicngrad, 634 Ish, 608 Jeinappes, 281 Kamiiiiec Podol - Ishevski-Zavod, 1508 ■leintland. 574 8ki, 602 Isigny, 187 .lena, 387 Kammin, 470 Isili, 114 .leiii bazar. 635 Kamyshin, 609 Isia, 254 .Jeiiidshe, 630 Kandern, 345 Isla de Leon, 92 Jersey, 247 Kapiiik Banya, 531 Islay, 25 1 Jeschken, 7 Kaprena, 021 Isle de France, 182 Jesi, 134 Kapsali, 616 Ismail, 611 Jessnitz, 405 Kaptshak, 588 Isny, 334 Jever, 4-24 Karansebes, 534 Isola, 512 Jewpatoria, 61J Karasu, 15, 610 Lsola bella. 111 Joachimsthal, 46( ,515 Karaveria, 631 Isola ni afire, 111 Jockmock, 575 Kardsschag-Uj- Isola dci Pesciitori 111 Johanngoorgen- Szallap, 52.8 Isole de Tremiti, 144 stadt, 383 Kilrnthen, 511 Isselburg, 404 Johannisberg, 363 Karystos, 623 Isselhorst, 484 Joliannisbiirg, 497 Kai'ytone, 62-2 Issengeaux, 221 John O'Croal's Knsan, 607 Issoire, 213 house. 254 Kiischau, 527 Issoudun, 205 •Tdhiistown, 251 Kaaimov, 592 Islres, 223 Jiihstadt, 383 Kiismark, 527 Istria, 512 Joigny, 193 Kaslcl, 3.56 IssurtiUe, 201 Joiiiville, 192 Kantri, 621 Italian Switzer- Junhuping, 571 Kvtarinburg, 607 land, 165 Jonzac,. 211 Kalscher, 476 Italy, 99 JolLX, 203 Katz, 364 Ithaca, 616 Joiij<, valley of, 168 Kalzbach, 13 Itter, 357 Jucka'jirwi, 575 Katzeiibuckel, 7 PAOIC Katz#nel!nbogen, 354, 364 Katzenelliibogen (town), 364 Kaub, 364 Kaiifbeuren, 334 Kavala, 630 Kecskemet, 525 Kedrich, 363 Kchl, 341 Keighley, 244 Ke.lheim, 316 Kellinghusen, 417 Kells, 257 Kelso, 240 Kemi, 13 Kemilrttsk, 599 Kemnalh, 317 Keinpen, 493 Kempten, 324 Kendal, 245 Kensris, .575 Kenilworth, 240 Kent, 2.36 Kensington, 235 Kenzingen, 345 Keraes, 200 Korcnsk, 608 Kerns, 166 Kcrnwakl, 166 Keriy, 260 Kersova, 630 Kertsh, 611 Kesraark, 527 Kesselsdorf, 381 Keswick, 244 Ketskemet, 525 Ketskcmet Heath, 503 Kettwig, 494 Keula, - 401 Kczdi Vasarhely, 534 Kickelhahn, 7 Kiddonniiister, 240 Kidwelly, 245 Kiel, 417 Kielco, 606 Kiev, 594 Kiew, 594 Kieydani, 601 Kilbarchan, 251 Kildare, 257 Kilia, 611 Killala, 2.59 Killalvo, 260 Killarnev, 260 Kilikenny, 2.56 Kilmarnock, 2.50 Kimpolunsr, 636 Kimlelbriick, 481 King's County, 257 Kingston, 23.5,250 Kinkardine, 2.52 Kinnaird's Head, 252 Kinross, 2.52 Kinross-shire, 252 Kirisale, 2.59 Kiicbbere, 336 Kirchhain, 372 Kirchheim, 326 INDEX. 658 PAOB Kirchhcim untor Teck, 3:ir> Kir.li.rf, 3')7 Kiikaldy, eno Kirkciidhriehf, 2o0 Kirkciulbright- shiro, 2.50 Kikilissa, 6-2!) Kirkwall, 2.5.5 Kirn, 4^8 Ki.shenev, 611 KisiincTfii, 320 Kliiiicnliirt. 511 Kliiii.-ii'iiljurjT, 5'tl Klciii-IIoubach, 323 Kleinliiieninijfn, 1.57 Klein-Schlatten, 531 Kli>iti-Sclitnalkal- den, 373 Kleinwulka, 385 Klettcraii, 340 Klinsenherp, 323 Klinijenlhal, 197 Klinarnaii, 15r> Klodiiitz, 13 Kloppoiiburg, 423 Khimlert, 274 KlUiz, 409 Knarcsboroiish, 244 KnichtsofSt.John, 40 Knii,'ht'< of the Or- ! denifthe Sword 596 Knii,'tit3 Templars. 40 PAOK Konieslililtc, 441 Kdiiicf-ijiilli'r, 447 K(ini!?*tcin, 304, 3-< Knii . Kiiiphausen, Kiiy^zyn, Kdbryii, Kobu'rg, Koclier, Kochheim, Kock, Kopnitrsfeldcn, Koesfidd, Koevocrdcn, Kola, Kolborg, Kolding, Kiilen, KoUero, Kollin, KotOC!!!*, Kolosvar, Koliiri, W)tnorn, Konwlf, Kongsbacka, Kong'^berp;, Konif^bavri, Konistriatz, Koniiihcim, KoniRsbersT, Konigsber^ in Franken, Konii^sherg in der Neumark, Konigsbroiin, Ktijiiu'shriick, Koni!;5=e<' 535 424 602 601 394 329 487 607 1.50 483 273 593 471 553 5 573 515 525 531 621 526 573 572 57li 558 510 344 498 394 407 337 385 401 Konigihofen, 322, 344 Koni;,'sstiihl, 48-1 K 310,355 l,aml)e-c 223 499 l.aini'i,'.), 72 5'>2 Lamia, 021 599 Lamla!.li, 252 6(19 Lnmolh.--Fonelon,2l5 407 Lampi^rtiisa. 510 Lnmpione, 272 Lanark, 109 r^aiiark-'lilre, 632 Lanc.vliiro, 401 [,anca5*lcr, 6'22 l>anriano, 400 Lantlau, 551 Lanidnriki, 621 Lisieux, 187 Liebau, 475 LMsle, 2-25 Licbenau, 436 Lismore, 259 Liebonstein, 391 Lipsa, 499 535 Liebenwalde, 465 Lithuania, 60O Liebenwerda, 480 Little Belt, 9 Liebenzell, 333 T,ittle Brillany, 208 Lieberose, 468 Little Ensland, 253 Liebsladl, 381 Little Hair, 9 Lierbstall, 157 Little Poland, 602, 605 Liechtenstein, 350, 351 Little Russia, 594 Liege, 282 Little Schult, 524 , 525 Liegnilz, 474 Little Wallachia, 636 I,ier, 279 Tiittorale, 512 Liestall, 157 Livadia, 620 62! Lifford, 258 Livato, 616 Ligne, 281 Liverpool, 243 Ligny, 282 Livno, 634 Ligny (Lorraine) 195 Livonia, 596 Lignrian Apen- Livorno, 125 nines, 5 Lixuri, 616 Lisfiirian Repub- Lizard Point, 239 lic, 112 Ljusnedal, 574 Lili, 126 Llandaff, 245 Lille, 190 Llanelly, 245 Lillebonne, 186 Llanydioes, 246 Lilyba'uni, 147 Llerena, 91 Tjmagne, 213 Loano, 113 Li man Gulf. 12 LObau, 385 ,498 Limburg (town in Lobenstein, 398 Belgium), 283 Locana, 108 liimburg (in Nas- Locarno, 165 sau), 362 Loccum, 435 Limbing, duchy Loch Awe, 12 of, 27 (, 365 367 Lochcm, 272 rjmerick. 260 Lnches, 206 Liramer, 435 Loch Kalerine, 253 Limofes, 212 Loch Lomond, 11 Limousin, 212 Loch Ness, 12 Limoux, 220 Locle, 163 Linares, 93 LOcse, 527 Lincoln, 237 Lodeve, 220 Lincolnshire, 237 Lodi, 538 Lindau, 324 440 Lodomeria, 518 Lindenfels, 355 Loflinson, 347 Lindesberg, 569 Lol'oden, 577 INDEX. 65S PAOC L»rsta, 5'58 Logrono, 88 Lohr, 3-23 Loir imd Cher De partiiifiil, Loire, Loire Depart- ment, Loiret Depart- ment, Loka, Liikcren, Lokris, Lombards, Lombardy, 205 5i>!t 2311 6-21 28 53fi, 537 LornbiirJy and Ve- nice, 536 Lombez, 210 Loinmalz'ch, 381 Lomnitzer Spitze, 5 Loniza, 606 Lonato, 540 Londari, 022 London, 234 London (History), S-" Londonderry, 25P Loii-rford, 239, 257 Loii;,'obuco, 145 Lonifwy, 196 Loni;y, 247 LiJninaren, 423 Lons le Saulnier, 203 271 2-13 42S 94! 363 134 134 209 345 193 354 53:; 97 384 15 215 337 Loo, het, Looz, Lopshorn, Lorca, Lorch, Loreto, Loretto, Lorient, Lojrach, Lorraine, Lorsch, liiischkirch, Los Passages, Lujsnitz, Lot, Lot Department, Lot and (Jaronne Department, Lnlhian3, Lolzeii, L(4iideac, Lmidiin. Loueche, Loughborough, Lough Neagh, Ijoughrea, Louhans, Lourdes, Loulh, Louvain, Louven, Louviers, Louvre, Lovere, Lovisa. Lowenbersr, Loweustelu, I'AOB Lovv'oMstcin-Wer- thciin, 324 Lower Alps De- partment, 224 200 Louver Al:artinent, ]97j Lower Saxon cir- : cle, 2931 Lower Saxony, 378 1 Lower Seine be- j partinent, 1S5| Lower Seltera, 363' Lower Silesia, 474 Lower Stainm- heim, 109 Lower Valais, 167 Low<:stofr, 236 Lowicz, 605 Lowlands of Scot- land, 249 Loxa, 93 Lozere, 6 Lozere Depart- ment, 221 Lijbbecke, 4-'4 l-iJbbcn, 4u.^ [jiibbenau, 46^; Lubec, 451, 452 Liibec, principality of, "425 liiibeck, 452 Lublin, 60S Lublinitz, 478 i,iihtheon, 400 Lucania, 145 Lucca, 12i Lucena, 93 Lucera, 144 PAUI 210 4H4 4h:. 4S3 43^! 242! 33 1 1 400 31!) 165 i "l 4S4 91 17 2fi2| 607 574 1 Hi; 571' 4)8 436 Liiiieburg Heath, 431 1 Lunel, 220! LuneviUe, 194' Lunitriana, 119, 125! Lncon, l.ii'ii-, l.ii Irn-rheid, lAiliii^'haU'ien, Lii liniTWorth, I^udlow, I.udwiL'sbiirg, Ludwiu'slusl, Lndwigsladt, Lui.'ani>, li'ig '.no Lake, I-iigde, Fjinfo, Lnhe, Luik, Liikow, Lul.-a, Lnmcllo, Lund, I. linden, T>iiiiebuig, 215 249 497 2J9 210 167 242 12 259 291 217 257 278 14 186 182 540 599 474 332 Lucerna, valley of, 10 Liichow, 437 Lucka, 3:»6 Luckau, 467 Luckeuwalde, 466! I.upodaiuim, 343 Lupoduin, 343 Lure, 2.)3 Lurgan, 2.58 Lurley, 364 Lus, 217 Lusatia, ■.iSi Lu«alia, liOwer, 407 Lusatia, Upper, 47.1 Lnisatian Mis., 7 Lusalian Neisse, 13 Lusignan, 210 Lusiiania, 84 Luso, 127 Lussin Piccolo, 512 Lustri, 168 Lutetia, 183 Lii'etsburg, 443 Liiljenburg, 417 Lutry, 168 Luttenberg:, 511 Lutter ain Baren- berge. 447 Lutterworth, 241 Liillringhausen, 493 T-uizelburg, 365 ,.36ii! Liitzen, 479, I.uxenil, 203 Luxemburg (Bel- gian), 283 rjuxeml)urg(city) .306 Luxeinl)urg, gran 1- duchy of. 365 Luzerne, 162, [lUzerne, Lake of. 11 Liizk, 002 Lvchen, 406 r,yck. 497 [jygians. 472 r/varunikloster, 557 Lymfjord, 5)4 [.ynn Regis, 2:»7l Lyons, 214 Lyonuais, 2131 FAOB Lys, IS .Mand, 527 .Manwyk, 283 .M:iaH,»lui», 270 .M.icil.'.dild, 242 Maci'<|iinia, 630 .Macerala, 134 .Macon, 201 .Maddidi-na, 114 .Maddaloiii, 142 .M.'Klrld, bJ .Madue Lake, 11 .Maelar Lake, 11 MaenzingiMi, loa M.iestricht, 274 Mafra, 71 .M.igd.ilena, 75 .MnijdeburL', 477 .Maitrk'spruiig, 404 Miurgiora, 111 .Masgmre Lake, 11 .Ma'.;liano, 133 .Mau'iia <;raecia, 10-2 M;u(iiac Laval, 212 .Miiifvars, 19, 520 521 Mahlberg, :m6 -Mahlslioin, 577 .Mahon, 96 Maidslime, 2:i6 Mailaiid, 537 JIaine, 207 .Maine anheim, 197 litz, 410 Mergentheim, 336 Mindcn, 483 Markranstiidt, 383 Medelpad, 574 Mcrida, 91 Mineo, 148 Markt-Kiiiersheim 3-22 Mcdemblik, 269 Merionelshire, 246 Minho, 14 Miirkt-Erlbach, 321 Medewi, 570 Merkondorf, 320 Minnesingers, 56 Markthennersdorf, 385 Mediasch, 532 Merovingians, 26 Minorca, 96 Marly, 183 Medici, House of, 122 Mcrse, 219 .Minsk, GO] Marmande, 215 Medicina, 135 Merseburg, 479 Miranda de Douro, 73 Marmora Sea, 10 Medina Cell, 88 Merthyr Tydvil, 245 .Vlirande, 216 Marne, 15 ,418 Medina Sidonia, 92 Merwe, 16 .Vllrandella, 73 Marne Depart- Medina del Hio Merxheim, 360 .Mirandola, 119 ment, 192 eeco, 89 Merzich, 489 Mirecotnt, 195 Maros Ujvar, 531 Mediterranean Sea, 10 Mcschedo, 485 Missolonghi, 621 Maros Vasarhely, 532 Medoc, 215 Mes-erilz, 499 Mistrettn, 148 Marrac, 217 Medwisch, 532 Messeiiia, 622 Mitrovicz, 534 Marsac, 213 iVleeiien, 281 Messina, 14X Milleliiiaik, 464 ,467 Marsala, 147 Meerane, 384 Meslo, 15 Miltelwalde, 474 Marsan, 2l() Meerliolz, 374 Me.'^lre, 541 Milli iiwald. 315 Marsberg, itij Muursburg, 340 Mclhone, C2'2 iMitlciiwalde, 465 INDEX. 657 PAOKl Mitterhiire:, 51:2' Muckiniiht, 3'M . Modanc, 110| Moilcjiires, '<>;.' MoilLMia, 117,118 Modica, 148 Moili'^'liano, I'-Jl' Mudlin, I'vOli Modon, 62,! Moen, 550 Moers, 494 Mdfsia, Lowor, 6i0 Moesia, Upper, O'.U Moffat, 250 Moijiier, Oi Motiacz, Sifi Moliainmedans, 1!) Mohilow, COl! Moliilow, 002 Mohia, 3!)|1 Mohrlnsen, 347 Mohrungeu, 411(5 Moissac, 2IG Moksliaiisfc, Onrf WoladiBari, 144 Mold, 246 Moldaii River, Ki Moldavia, fiHG Molfutta, 144 Molina, 88 Molk, SOS) MoUe, 577 Mollis, ini MoUn, 4-20 Mologa, 12 Molsheim, 107 MoinmcUiano, 109 Mompelsard, 203 Monaco, 1 10 Moiiai;han, 258 Moiicalieri, lOG Monchiqiie, 74 Moiidofiedo, 01 Mondovi, 103 Mond raa;on, 07 Moneins, 218 Monheiin, 3\!G Monistrol, 221 Monmouth, 240 Monmoulhshiro, 240 Monnikcndain, 2Gl) Monopoli, 144 Mo^reale, 14G Mons, 281 Monst-lice, 511 Moiisheim, 357 Monstiors, 1 10 Monlabaiir, 303 Montairnana, 541 Monta'iKU, 278 Montalban, 94 Montiilcino, 124 MoMiallo, 133, l:)4 Montariiis, 2,)5 Moiil.iuban, 21G Montbard, 201 MoMtbeliard, 203 Mont Blanc, 4 MontbrisoD, 214 Mont-Cassol, 190 Moosburi,', 315 Mont Dauphin, 22' Moral. l.-)9 Moiildidior, 1H8 Moravia, 510 Alonl Doru, G Moravian Mts., 7 Montucidieri, 100 Miirawa, Ifi Muuto Cassino, 142 Moray, 253 Monti'diiaro, .'>40 Morbruno. 539 Monlf Christd, 125 Morbihan Depart Moiitc Ciinone, 5! meni, 209 Monlt'farcliio, 142 Mordwines, no7 Munlt'fliisconL', 133;Moren, 021 Moiilul'usco, 142 Morella, 9ti MontL- Gibello, 5;.Morez, 203 Moiitu Giuliano, 14fi;Mor,'arton, 108 iMonlclfotie, 145|Mort;('?, lG-< MotitOlitnart, 22> .Morin-on, 440 Monlo Nu(,'ro (near JMoritzburg, 38J Lt'!,'lioriil, 125 .\lorlaix. 209 Montenegro (in Morpeth, 244 Turkey), C33 Mors, 552 Montenolte, ' 112lMorsburg, 340 Moiitepeloso, 145 Morsee, 166 Montepulciano, 124 .Mortasne, 100 ,208 Monteicau fault Mortain, 187 Yonne, 103lMortaia, 111 Monterosso, ll3iMorwanMts., 6 Monte Rotondo, 5 Mosaisk, 591 Monte Sunt' Au- Mosbach, 344 Mirclo, 144 Moscow, 590 Alonlesanto, 114 Moselle, IG Monte di Sibylla, 5 Moselle Depart- Montferrand, 213 ment. 195 Moutlerrat, 110 Mosken, 577 Monlfort, 203 ,271 .Moskeniis-Strora- Montgomery, 24G men. 577 Mont^omerysliire ,24G Mojkirch, 347 Montherhausen, 195 Mosony, 527 Monthey, 1G7 Moss, 570 Montiers, 110 Mostar, 634 Moutilla, m .Motala, 570 Monti vlllicrs, 18G Motrll, 93 Montjoie, 400 Motllau, 13 Mont-[.ouis, 219 Moudon, IG'' Montlucon, 204 Moulins, 204 MontUiel, 202 Mount Edge- MontdeMarsan, 217 combe, 238 Montmedy, 195 .Mount Hecla, 8 Montmolian, 109 Mount Mellick, 257 Montinirail, 193 Mountrath, 257 Montmorency, 184 Mount Rosa, 4 Montmorillon, 210 Moura, 73 MoiitpcUier, 220 .Mouzon, 193 Montpensier, 213 Moyenvic, 105 Mont Perdu, 4 Mucidan, 215 Montreale, 14') Mufflou, 113 Montreuil, 189 Mufti, 026 Montrose, 252 .Muatsendorf, 319 Mont St. Michel, 187 Miililbertc, 480 Montserrat, 95 Miihldorf, 315 Mont Tendre, 6 Miihlenbach. 532 Mont do Tonncre, 6 .Miihlhausen, 431 Monts de Faucille, 6 Miihihausen (Al- MoMza, 538 sace), 109 Monzon, 94 Miihlheim am Moolc, heath of, 271 Rhein, 492 Moors, 28. 33iMiihlhcim an der Moorslede, 281 Ruhr, 493 Moorzele, 281 MUhlingen, 404 Moorwerder, 4.50 Muhltroff, 3d4, 28 * PAOri I>AO« Mulden, 258 Mulde, 18 Mull, 2.54 Mullhelm, .345 Mulliii-ar, 2.57 Miillr(i:1r, 4G7 .Murnmel Lake, 338 Muiichber.', 310 MiiiicheberfC, 407 MiiiK-lien, 314 .\liinclieni;ralz, 515 .Miiiidun, 440 .Miinder, 43(1 Munilerkingen, Xi^ Munich, 314 Muiikacs, 528 .MiiiMiiTAtadI, 323 Miinsingcn, 3X5 •Munster, 2.59 ■Miinster, 4cl2 .MunsterimGrcgo- rienlhal, 103 Munslc^rberif, 474 Munslereilel, 492 Miinzenberg, 3.57 -Miinzlhal, 195 Murano, 541 Murat, 213 Mnrcia, 94 Mures, 00 Muret, 217 .Mursr, 3.18 Muri, 156 Muriiz Lake, 11 Murrhard, 331 .Murten, 1.59 Murviedro, 96 Muskau, 475 Musselburgh, 249 Mutlcna, 1.58 Mutzi?, 197 Mutzschen, 3+2 Muyden, 268 Mylau, 334 Naarden, 260 Naas, 257 Nab, 16 Nabburff, 317 Nachitschevan, 612 Naefels, IGl Nagold, 3:« Nasy-Banya, 528 Nagy Enyed, 531 Nagy Falu, 531 Nagy-Karoly, 528 Nagy-Szent-Mik- los, .528 Naey Varad, 528 Nahe, 16 Naila, 310 Nairn, 253 Nairnshire, 2.53 Nakskbp, .551 NarniMi, 281 Namslau, 473 Vamur, 231 Vancy, 194 Nuug'is, 184 658 INDEX. FAnR| PAOEl Nanles, 200, Nethorl.iiid.s king- Neustndtl, Niiiitiia, £0-2! dom <>l' Hie, 2GJ Neiislcttin, Nautwich, 24i NelherluiiUui-s, 2()5 Nini-Shrlilz, Nnpli'S, ]41|Netzf, 13 Nell^urg, NauinUurg aai Bo bur, Naiiinbiirg (;in Ilesse Cassel), Naumburg am Qiifis, Naiipaktos, Naiiplia, Navia, Navaii, Navarino, Navarre (in Franco), Navarre (in Spain), Navarre (palace of), Naxia, Naxos, Neapolitan Apen nines. Neath, ' Neaii, Nebel, Necessidades, 6-22, 623 Neiibrandenburi,', 4J2:NeuvevilU', Neiibiiri,' on 621 1 Danube, 22U Neuchalel, 15|Nench!llel (in 133 France), 147|Neudainni, 5!)6 Neudenau, 30(l'Neuenhur:r, 302 Neueiibiiivr, 48r)jNeuenhaiis, IGTiNeuensladt, 470|Neuenstein, 3T4JNeuerburjc, 4Ty Neufahrwassor, Uie jiN'euwied. 326 Never,", 162, 103 Nevesigna, iNeviKes, ]86|Newa, 467 j Newark, 344 New liranden- 423i burt', 333 New Breisach, 442 Newbury, ].")!) New Castile, 337|Newc;jstlc under 489 lAue, 497 Newcsistle upon INeulchflteau, 195, 2fe3| Tyne, 475iNeuf'cliatel Lake, lllNew Calloway, Neuffen, 333;N«w Gradisca, 372.Neidialdcnslobcn, 47"JNew Kalzenellubo- Neuhaus, 475iNeuliiiiisel, 62llNeuilly, 62liNeukirch, 4371 Rt''i> 525 New Lanark, lh3 Newlandf, 164 Newmarket, 911 Neiikirchen. 372, 493:Ncw drsuva, 257 N.'uklosler, 4lf)!New Patrae, <522 Neuinark, 464, 467 Newport, Neuinarkt, 317, 473|New Radnor, 218 Neumiinster. Kiy, 417 N(nv Ross, Neunburff vordem [Newry, Walde, 3l7iNewstcad Abbey, 242 Neusatz, 525 1 New Strelitz, 411 I86|Neusiedl liake, II iNewlon upon Ayr,25U Neckar, 623 Neiisa, 168, 493. Newton Stuart, 623 Neustadt (in Hoi- [Nex6e, etein), 417 Nibe, 5 Neiisladt (in Meek- iNicastro, 24,-)| lenbur^'), 409'Nice, 490 Neugtadt an der Nicolas de Port, nj Aiseh, 321 Nicolosi, I'Neustadt am Culm 318, Nicopoli, PAOKI PAOK 511 Nicnwport, 280 472 Nic^vre, 15 411 Nievre Dnpart- 27| metit, 204 517 Nikolaiken, 497 159 Nikolajew, 611 4H8 Nikolsijurif, 517 204 Nimeiruen, 271 634 Niines, 220 493 Nimptsch, 473 13 Ninove, 280 242 Niorl, 210 JNishnci-Novgo- 412i rod, 592 19,s Ni.shnoi-Tasilsk, 603 235 Nishnij Lumov, 608 b7iNi,sida, 141 Nissa, 635 Nivelles, 278 Niveriiais, 304 NizzadellaPaiilia, 111 Nobility (history), 46 Nocera, 134, 142 Not;at, 13 Nogayzg, 611 Noijavan Steppe, 611 Nosent le R.ii, 192 Notjent le Ritrou, 208 NoLcent sur Seine, 192 Noirmoutier, 210 Nola, 142 Noli, 113 Nonnenmattwei- her, 338 Nonlron, 215 Noord-Beveland, 270 Nora, 5(59 Norburc, 557 241 244 2511 534 364 250 250 23 635 621 240 246 256 258 250 551. 552 145 iVord Deiiarlment, 100 Norden, Nordernin', llOlNordhausiai, 195 Nordheini, Neckar-Bisehof- sheim, Neckar Circle, Neckarcremiind, Neckarsteinach, Neckarsuirn, Negropont, Neheini, Neideiiau, Ncidenburg, Neinse, Neisse River, Neilra, Nemours, Nenndorf, Nerac, Nerike, Nervi, Nestved, Netherlands, , Austrian, , Catholic, — , Spanish, 16, 329|Neustadt an der Do3se, 344lNeuptadt-Ebers- 331 1 walde, 343jNeustadt an der 355 1 Ilaardt, 332'NeustHdt an der 623! Heide, Nicosia, 466 Nidan, .. iNidda, , 4G6 Nidwalden, Niebia, 327 Niedeiistein, INiederaula, 394 Niederbronn, 485 Neustadt (in Hesse- Niedernball, 34 4 1 Caoser, 406lNeustadt unterm 4761 Hohnstein, 13,Neugtadt an der I6i Linde, 184|Neustadt an der 3721 Oria, 217 Neustadt in der .569' Uvsenau, J 12 Neustiidt am Uii- 550' beiil)erue, 261 Neustadt an der 277 ■ yjuile, 277 Neustadt an der 2771 Waldnub, 372 Niederrad, Nieder-Sellers, 441 Niederstelten, 148 629 148 15^ 357 166 92 371 373 198 337 456 ! Nordhorn, .N'ordland, Nordlinfren, Norfolk, Noricum, Norma, Noriuandy, Norman Islands, Normans, NorrkOping, Norrland, Norrlrltfe, 36:) North All.insia, 337 Xoiih Altiiuyians, Nied(!rwilduiigen, 376;Nortliiiinpli.n, 443 443 481 440 442 577 324 236 297 133 185 247 30 570 573 5(i8 414 298 241 331 Niemen, Niemirow, 3S8 Nienhurg, Nieuburg an der 355 Saale, Nierstein, 436 Niisky, Nieuporl, 323 Nieuwe Dicp, Nieuwkerk, 318 Niuuwpoort, 13 Norlliainpton 602, shire, 436 North Brabant, North Cape, 406 North Ulumiiel, 356 North Coasts De- 475 partment, 280 Norlhgan, 269 North Holland, 272 Northumberland, 270 North Jutland, 241 273 3,578 10 •206 197 268 244 552 INDEX. 059 PAOK PAOE PAOK PAOK North Riding, 243 Obprwcsel, 487 Old Orsova, 534 Orlciiau, 341 Norlh Sea, y Obidos, 72 01.1 Pa/na, 534 OrliMiberg, 357 North Hhifld?, 244 Oliutrltes, 497 Old Uliine, 16 Orlenbiirg, 316 North IJisi, 255 Obwaldin, 166 0:d tJirelilz, 412 Orlbez, 218 Norlh Walw, 24l> Oeaaa, 87 Oleirgio, 111 Ortlis 4 Northwich, 24> Occhieppo 8upe- Oleron, 21 ,2|H Ortona a Marc, 143 Norwjiy, 575 riore. lfl8 Olet/.ko, 497 Orvii'lo, 133 Norweiiiaii Lap- Ochsenfiirt, 323,01gan, 632 Orzi Nuovl, 540 land, 578 Oclisenkopf, 7loiile, 97 Ojtfhersleben, 478 Norwicli, 23G Ochsenweider, 45«(t|iva, 497 0)3 Oileiist!, 551 Oloneiz, 513 Oimanlis, 624 Novdhira, IlO.Odenwald, 7iOlorou, 218 Osnabriick, 411 Novgorod, 593; Oder, 13 OIpe, 485 Osning, 8 Novi, 112.0derbriich, 45-<01s.-h 13 Ossa, - 13 Novibasar, 635 Oderiilicun, 35ii Ott.-n, 164 Ossiach Lake, 11 Novo Gcorsievsk , 61ll> Odessa, ,, 611;oiviopol, Oil O-ssuiiii, W Novojforod, 51); Odin, 517i()m:igh, 2.V Ostende, 2'^0 Novo Mirijiirod, fill Odoacer, 45.0mbrone, IJO f)-ter1)ur!r, 478 Nowo.Lfrodfk, 6(11 Oedenburg, 526[Oinmen, 272 Osterburken, 344 Nowoi-Tshcrkask , 612'Oederan, 384 1 Onalp, 98 Oslerliofen, 316 Nozay, 210 Oobriniccn, 330 Onega Lake, 10 Osterliolz, 438 NiickiJ, 5116 Oeland, 571 Onega Uiver, 13 Osterhout, 274 N.iits, 20l|Oels, 445 , 474 Oneglia, 110 Oslerland, 3?2 , 395 Niiinantia, 89 Oelsnitz, 384 Onolzbach, 326 Osterode, 440 NumliurR, 372|Oeraea-.JoekuI," 8 Oostburg, 271 Osterwiek, 478 Niiinmeiialen, 576 Oorebro, 509 OiJatow, OOfi Osllieiin, 383 Niircinbuig, 321 Oeregrund, 568 (ipladen, 493 Oslholen, 356 Niiriibcig, 321 Oerc.-ound, 9 Oporto, 72 Ostra, 132 Nuoro, 114 Oesel, 597 Oppa, 13 Oslrach, 349 Nurri, i 14 Oi-steiby, 568 Oppein, 475 Ostrog, 002 Niirtinsren, 333 Oestei-Oiiihland, 57U Oppenau, 341 Ostrnu'oths, 2:1 Nuslocii, 343 Oesterii-oer, 577 Oppeiiheim, 356 Ostrolenk;i, 606 Nya Ellsborg, 572 Oeslor-.Ioekul, 8 Oppidolo, 147 Oswe>lry, 212 Nyborc, 55l:Oesterdo. 5o8,Oranw, 223 Otranto, 143 Ny Carlfby, 599()estersmid, 574 Oranienbaum, 405 Otiensen, 418 Nykiiibing 550.!Oetting,Old, 315 Orauienburg, 465 Olterbera, 327 551 552 Oeltingen, 326 Orb, 323 Ollerndorr, 43S Nykoping, 568 OCcn, 525 Orbach, ms Ollersberg, 438 Nymplieiiburg, Nyon, 314 Offenbach, 355 Orbe, 168 Oltinacban, 476 lli.S OffenburL', 341 Orbitcllo, 125 Ottobenren, 325 Nyonr;, 223,()gi,'erslieini, 327!Ordnria, 97 Ottweiler, 360 ,489 Nysiad, 598 0:cliastra, 114 Ore Mountains, 7 Oudenaardc, 279 ,280 Nysted, 551 Oglio, lolOrel, 591 Ondewaler, 270 Nyvel, 278 Ogiilin, 5331 Orenburg, C09 Oiiessaul, 209 Oi^ygia, 150|Orense, 91 Oula, 6119 Oakham, 241 Ohlau, 13|Orran, 631 Oiilx, 107 Ober-Aargau, 158 Ohrdriif, 394'Ori;hei, 612 Ourem, 72 Obwbiideii, Ijli Ohrnbau, 322 ()rgon, 224 Ouriipie, 73 Obet-CJIoarau, 476 Oise. l.i'OrircisciIa, 114 Onrtlie, 16 Oberitiiiizbiirir, 325 Oise Department, 134:Orihuela, 96 <)\ise, 14 Ober-Holienberg, 7 Oka, 12 Orisiano, 114 Ovar, 72 Oberkirch, 341 OUna, 637 Orkney Islands, 255 Ovelijoime, 4-2:1 Ohur-Kulm, 15S Olaii, 473 Orkneys, 255 Over^l-'lakke, 270 Oborlahii>tcii\, 36! Oldenburg, city of, 423 Orlamiiiide, 396 Overyssel. 272 Ohermoschcl, 328 Oldenburg, Grand- Orleanais, 2U5 Ovidiopol, 611 Oberiiay, 197 dncliy of. 420 Orleans, 205 Oviedo, 90 01)L'rnbni-g, 323 Oldenburg (in Ornan!<, 203 Owl Mountains, 7 Oberndorr, 332 Hol>lciM), 417 Orne, 15 Oxford, 237 Obernkircben, 372 Old C.i-tile, 8S Orne Department ,187 OxfoinUhire, 237 Oberrad, 456 Oldendorf, 371 Oropa, 108 Oyoiniar, 202 Obcrrainstadt, 354 Oldenzaal, 272 Orosei, 114 Ozieri, 114 Ober-Roinneberg, 414 418 PaiiHiac, 215 Petrovbk, 609 Pinsk, 601 Paiisa, 384 Petschenegri, 5211 Pinto, 150 Pavia, 538 Petschnra, 12 Piombino, 125 Pavnilo, 119 Pczenas, 22i)|Pirauo, 512 Pawlovsk, 592 Pl'afrenbofeii, 315 Piriius, 620 Pa.vo, 615 Pfalz, die, 304 Pirmasenz, 32S Payerne, 168 Pf'alzburg, 198 Pirna, 382 Pecs, 526 Plalzel, 489 Pisa, 124 Peebles, 250 Pleddersheim, 35() Pisino, 512 Peeblesshire, 250 proffers. 100 Pistoja, 123 Peeiie, 13 PI'efflkon, 11)9 Pi tea. 574 Peoraii, 383 Piinz, 338,Pilest, 030 Pegli, 112 Pforta, 480 Pithiviers, 205 Peina, 439 Pforzheim, 340 Pithyusian Island S 97 Pelagio, 29 Pfreinidl, 318 Pitii:liano, 124 Pelasj;ia"i*» 102 Pfullendorf, 340 Pizzighettone, 538 Pella, 630 PfnlJingen, 333 Pizzo, 145 Peloponncsu?, 019, 021 Phiiakia, 015 Plaisancc, 117 Pelvoux de Val- Phanagoria, OI3:Plantagenct, 232 louise. 4 Phanari, 022 Plascncia, 91, 97 Pembroke, 245 Pharsalus, 03l'pialtenberg, 7 Pembrokeshire, 245 Pheasant Island, 217 pialten See, 11 Pempelfort, 492 Phigalia, 022 Plan, 409 Poniff, 383 Philippeville, 28-2 Plane, 401 Peniscola, 90 Philipiii, 630 piauen, 381 ,384 Penkun, 470 Philippine, 271 Plauenscher Penne, 143 Pliilippople, 629 Grund, 381 Pennine Alps, 4 Pliilippsburg, 344'Ploissenburg, 332 Penrith, 244 Philipseich, 355 Pleskow, 50 ,593 Penryn, 239 Philippsrnhe, 374 Pless, 405 , 476 Pensa, 608 Philijistad, 573 piessis les Tours, 200 Penthievre, 209 Pliilippsthal, 373jPleszew, 499 Pentlaiid Prith, 255 Philipstown, 257!piinlenburg, 525 Penzance, 239 Phokis, 021;Plnek, 606 Penzlin, 409 Phthiotis, 62llPloen Lake, 11 Pepin of Ilerstall , 27 Piaccnza, 117|Ploermel, 209 Pepin the Little, 27 Piana, 147tPlomb de Canlal, 6 Percbe, 207 Piano de'Greci, 140 Plombicres, 195 Peri;?ord, 215 Pianosa, Isle of, 125lplon, 417 Periicneux, 215 PiasI, 003 Plolzkau, 404 Perilia, 615 Piave, 15 Piiir?, 539 Perleberg, 4(>0 Piazza, 147 Plymouth, 238 Perm, 007 Picacho de Veleta , 5 Po, 15 Pernau, 597 Picardy, 187 Podensac, 215 Peronne, 188 Piclong, 5 Podestas, 51 Peroso, valloy »f. 107 Pico, 75 Podgorzp, 519 Perpiijuan, 219 Pico las Posets, 4 Podliichia, (;02 Persante, 13 Pict?, 248:po(lolia, 002 Perserin, 633 Piedimonte, 142 Pogu'io a Cnjano, 1-23 Perth, 253 Piedmont, 100 Poggio Imperiale, 123 Pertlixhire, 253 Piedrahita, 89 Poissy, 184 Perugia, 133 Pienza, 124 Poitiers, 210 Perugia Lake, 11 Picsporf, 489 Poilou, 210 Pesaro, 134 Pielrasanta, 125 P. .la. 512 Pescara, 143 Piifnerol, 107 Poland, 603 Pescia, 123 Pi la, 500 Polangen, 001 Pesci) Pagano, 142 Pilat, t) Polenzo, 108 Peso da Kcgoa, 73 Pilica, 13 OOli PolesP, 165 Pest, 525 Pi Her, 210 Polosia, 601 Pttterborough, 241 Pillau, 40S Polignac, 221 INDEX. CGI PAOE Poliunv, iM3 P.ili:
  • Pomona, 2.J5 Pompadour, 21-2 Pompeii, 141 Politac. 218 Pont d'Ain, 202 PontarliLT, 201 Pont Aiidemor, 180 Pont Heauvoisie, 222 Pont Beaiivoisin, 109 Pont .eisdorf, >r, RlidiK'-mouths De- iRnde le Due, 490 Quarter, 371 Rficlieiiaii, 34') partiiient, 223,Rodelheiin, 357 Rotheiiburg an Reiclienbiich, :184 ,473 Ribiideo, 91 Rodenbertr, 372 der Tauber, 321 ReichfiibiTu-, 3l>4 , 511) Ribe, 553,Rodenstein, 355 Rother Thurm, .534 Reicheiihall, 314 Ribeauviller, lOSjRodez, 210 Rolhsay, 252 Ri'icbeiislciii, 474 Ribeiia (inmde, 75 Rodin^, 317 Rottenburg, 332 Rficlisladt, riir.Riberac, 215 Rodolph of Haps- Rotterdam, 209 Reikiavik, 5!U) RIbiiilz, 410 burg. 301 Rottum, 271 ,550 Reiiieiz, 474 Rieeys, 19-.':Rodi)sto, 628 Rottweil, 332 Reiiiheini, 354 Richelieu, 207;Roer, 10 Roubai.x, 190 Reifcn, 49!) Richmond, 243 Roeraas, 577 Rouen, 185 Remapren, 4^H Riclitenschweil, 169 Roereraonde, 307 Rouergue, 215 Rcmda, 3.S- Ried, 510 Roeskilde, 38 549 Rouffac, 198 Kemicb, 307 Riedrnbnrg, 317 Rogasen, 499 Rough Alp, 7 Ruiiiiiemont, 19.) Ri('dliii;rei)7 335 Roegenburg, 325 Roulers, 280 Eemoiilins, 2-JI Rielien, 1.57 Rohan, 209 Roul.x, 281 Rem^cheid, 493 Ries, 325 Rolduc, 490 Roumclia, 628 Reiiaix, 28(1 Riesa, 381 Romagna, 131 Rensselaer, 280 Reiichcii, 341 Rlesciiburpr, 498 Romainmoustiers 108 Roussillon, 219 Roiidsbuig, 417 Rie.-5en;;ebirge, C Roman, 037 Rove redo. 513 Kuiifrew, 251 Riesenk(ji)pe, CjRoman Apennines J 5 Rovereith, 513 Reiilruwshire, 251 Rietberg, 484. Roman German Rovigno, 512 Reiines, 208 Rieli, 133 Empire, 291 Rovigo, 541 Reiiy, 61-2 Riez, 221 Romanians, 18, 19 Roxunt, Cape, 3 R^ole, La, 215' Riija, 590: Romans, 222 Roxburghshire, 249 Reps, 53-3 Riita Gulf, Romano, 540 Royan, 211 Roqiiena, P8 Rii;i, 104 Romanow, House Rubicon, 127 Res ill a, 141 Rimini, 135 of. 589 Riidesheim, 303 Rethfl. 193 Riiiiriik, fi3(i Rome. 132 Rudkjobing, 551 Rnt^hililova, 594 Ringkjobing, 5.53 ROinhild, 391 Rudolstadt, 401 Reltimo, fi3;! Ringsted, 550 Romney, 230 Rue, 188 Reus, 95 Rinieln, 37 1 Roniont, 159 Rueil, 184 Reuss, principali- Rioja, 88|Roini>raiiliu, 200 Rufacli, 198 ties of, 397 Rioin. 213 Roncevalles, 97 Ruffec, 212 Reuss-(;i-eiz, 393 Ripa Transonc, 134 Ronciglione, 133 Rugby, 241 Reiiss-Lobenstein - Ripen, .55:! Ronda, 93 Riigen, 40S ,471 Ebersdoi-f, 398 Ripuaiian Franks ,298 Ronne, 550 Riiijenwalde, 471 Reiiss-Schleiz, 398 Ritzebiiltel, 450 Ronneburg, 390 Ku'gles, 180 Reiillingeii, 332 Riv.ara, 107 Riinneby, 571 Ruhla, 389 Reval, 590 Rivarolo, 107 Ronsdorf, 493 Ruhr, 16 Reviii, 191 Rive de Gier, 214 Ronse, 280 Ruhrort, 494 R1ia(-Ua, 297 Rive?, 222 Roquefoit de Jlitf - Rum, 255 Rheda, 4^*4 Rivesaltes, 219 san, 217 Itumilly, 109 RheidI, 493 Riviera, 105 Roquemaure, 221 Riimmelsburg, 472 Rheims, 192 Rivoli, 107 Rorschach, 100 Kunii)enhuira, 374 Rheina, 4!:'3 Rjiisan, 592 Rosa.«, 95 Ruukcl, 365 Rhein-Bischofi- Roaniie, 214 Roscommon, 2.V.) llupel, 16 lieim. 342 Rocca briina. 110 Rosenau, 394 532 Rupelmonde, 280 Rheineck, ]IU) Rdccaliimera, 148 Rosenberg, 470 498 Rup|iin, 4G6 Rheinfelden, 1.50 Rocaniadonr, 210 Roscndal, 508, .571 Kuril;, 588 Rheini^aii, 31)3 Rocca !San Felice 143 Rn.'^cnthal, 372 Ku.^kaPoyana, 5 Rhi'inhardsbiunn ,394 Rochdale, 243 Ro.sersbcrg, .508 Kussberg, 104 RheiiisberK, 400 Roche siir Von, 210 Roses, war of the, 233 Russia, 579 Rbeinzaberrii 327 Rochechouurt, 211 Roshelm, 197 Russia, Great, 590 RhoncQ, 271 Rochefort, 211 Rosieuie, 601 , Little, 594 INDEX. 058 PAOC Russian Lapland, 5110 KiissI, 527 K'isschuk, (J-2J Uiiililii, 24(> lllllhUKl, 'J4I Kiivo, 144 Uvbiii^k, 5;l-2 live, y:iii Uy>3L'l, lOJ Uyswick, 2GJ SiiIvaliiTra, Siilzliriinii, S;ilzlMiii;, Sil/.duliluin, S'alzcl.ilii'Ulcn, Siilzik'Hiiit, Salzhiiiiniendorf, 4:)i'i S.ilzkaninicT^ut, 510 Siilzkutt.M), Salzschlierf, Salzunifcn, PAORl 47:i 510 44l> 4411 4:t;i PAnc 144 Baui bill-;,', 195, 48i) Saardani, '2i')f< Haai^eiiiuiiil, 195 PaailouiH, 4t!!l Baar-l'nion, 198 Suhints, 102 Sal)le, 'Jfi" Sables d'Oloune, 210 ?iiby. 55-2 SaeUsa, 481 Sucliseln, Kit) Sachsenber;;, 370 Saclisenliiigiii, 37-J Sachscnbaiistii, 370 Sacbsensladt, 5:i-2 Sacile, 54-2 Siickiiigen, 345 Sagan, 475 Saijard, 471 SaiJ0 032 G32 550 499 13 204 (iOfi 230 48(1 97 250 405 88 88 Saalburg, 399 Salzwedel, Siiale, 10 Samara, Saallcid, 392 Sambie, Saanen, 158 Samniles, 6:iaralbe, 19ti Samoirilia, Baar;)riick, 489 Sainoji-derJ, Samolliriicia, Sainulhiaki, Samsije, n Saniler, San, Saiicerre, Sanilomir, Sandwich, Sanserliaiisen, San;,'uesa, Saniiuhar, Sunssouci, San tana, Santander, Santareni, Santhia, Sanlillana, jSanlorin, San Ambrogio, San Carlo, I San Casciano, ,San Cipriaiio, jSan Damiano, San Felipe, ,San Fernando, San Fllippo, San Filippo d'Ar- San Fiorenzo, San Gerniano, San Gerouimo de Juste, San Gervasio, San Giorgio, 108, 117 San Giovanni, 1 10 San Udefonso, 89 San Jorge, 75 San Lucar de Bar- 108 88 C23 10 95 124 112 108 90 92, 95 124 148 225 142 91 110 rameda, 91 San Marino, 130 San Marti no, 140 San Martino, val- ley of, 107 San Maurizio, 107 San Michael, 74 San Miguel, 74 San Miiiiiito, 123 San Nicola, 144 San Nikolo, 015 San Pedro de Car- dena, 88 Saa Piar d'Ai'ena, 112 Sin Pietro (i«le), San I'ietro d'Are ni, San Komo, San Itocco, San Kmi'ic, San U'ls-^iire, San Scbasiian, San Severo, San Siel'ano, St. AtTrique, Si. Aii^nan, St. Albans, Si. Aniarid, S|. .\niand, MoU' Irond, St. Ainarin, St. Amour, Si. Andrews, Si. Asaph, St. Anbin, St. Avoid, Sl. Barjuls, St. H^al, St. Bernard, Great, 16' St. Bertraiid de Comniinges, St. lilasien, St. Brieuc, SI. Bjieux, SI. Calais, St. ("llamas. Si. CIr.inioiid, SI. Claude, jSl. Cloud, St. Cyr, Sl. David's, Sl. Denis, St. Die, Sl. Dizier, St. Dmitria Ros tovskaja, St. Elien'ne, St. Fergus, St. FlorenI, St. Florenlin, Sl. Florian, St. Flour, St. Gall, Sl. Galniier, St. Gaudens, St. Geniez, St. Geniez de Rive- i dolt, 216 SI. Genis-Laval, 214 St. George. 75 St. George's Chan- nel, 10 St. Georgen, 533 St. Germain en Laye, St. (Jervais, St. Gilles, St. G irons, St. Goar, St. Goar.shausen, St. Gobain, St. Gothard, St. [leleu's. 112 113 117 92 12"> 97 144 125 210 205 237 190, 2U4 204 199 203 251 240 247 190 221 217 217 3J5 208 208 2071 223 214 2o:i 183 183 24; 183; 1951 192: 612 2141 253 225! 193 510 213 159, 100 214 217 210' 183 110 221 218! 488, 304; 188 166 2431 PAOI Scandinavian Mts , 5 Schoenenwerth, 104iScylla, 145 Santa Severiiia, 145 Scandinavian Pen Sehongau, 315 Scythian Desert, 611 Saone, 15 insula. 502 Schonintten, 447 Scythians, 588 Saone and Loire Scarborough, 243 Sclionlanke, .WO Sea of Azof, 10 Department, 201 Scarlino, 120 Schonsee, 318:Seaford, 236 Saratcossa, 94 Scarpe, 16 Sciioonbdven, 270 Sebenico, 535 Saransk, COB Sceaux, 183 Scbopt'heini, 345 Sftdan, 193 Sarapul, 608,Scliaafstadt, 479 Schoppcnstedt, 440 Seeberg, 394 Saratiiw, 60y Schabacz, 635 Schoriidorf, 337 Seeland (Switzer- Sardara, 114 Schacchenthal, 106 Schotten, 3.57 1 land). 158 Saruica, 620 Schatberg, 7 Schouwen, 270 Seelburg, 597 Sardini;i, island, 113 Schalhausen, 163 164 Schramberg, 332|Seelovv, 467 , kiiisdoin. 103 Schandau, 382 Scbreckhorn, 4 Seesen, 447 Sarepta, (iOO Schapen, 442 Schrimm, 499 S6ez, 187 Sargans, ICO Scharmbeck, 438 Sclirobenhausen, 315 Segeberg, 417 Sark, 247 Schassbuvg, 532 Schrock, 310 Segorbe, 96 Sarlat, 215 Schanmburg, 371 372 Schulplbrta, 480 Segovia, 89 Sarmates, 19 Schaumburg- SchiitI, 524 Segre, 207 Sarijuitians, 588 Lippe, 428 Schiittorf, 442 Pegro, 14 Sarnen, ICt) i, 032 Storcbnest, 409 Siintel, 8 Tain bow. .593 Slallupohnen, 497 Storkow, 466 Superga, La, 107 Taniina Valley, 160 Slamford, C37 , 241 Slor Lake, 11 Supplingcnburg, 447 Tarn wo rill. 241 Slammluim, ICi) t?lormarn, 414 Sura, 12 Tanais, 12 Sluiisstadt, Ifif) Slori.oway, 255 Surrev, 235 Tanaro, 15 Btanz, 166 Stourbridge, 240,Sursee, 162 Tangermiinde, 478 Stanzstad, IfiO Pirabane, 253 Susa, 107 Taniiinges, 110 Stareiiberg Lake, 11 Strait of Bonifacio, lOiSussex, 236 Tiinzenberg, 511 Slarirard, 470 Strait of Dover, 9,Sijsteren, 368 Tatirmina, 148 Slari,':ird (in Meek- IPtrait of Cibialtar, lOPullioi-laud, 254 Tapiau, 496 liMiliurc-StiX'litz ) 412 Strait of Jenikale , 10 Suwaiki, 606 Taranto, 144 Ptari Muidar, 034 Strait of Messina in Svanike, 550 Tarare, ,214 Starkuiilturur, 3r,4 Strait of Otranto, in Sveaborg, 599 Tarascon, 218 , 223 Staroi-Tshcrkask 612 Stralsund. 470 Svearike, 567 Tarbes, 216 Stassfurth, 478 Slran!,'ford, 258 Svendborg, .551 Tarczaj, 527 Staszov, COG Stranraer, 250 Swabi:*, 324 Tarentaise, 110 States of the Slranrawer, 25(1 Swabian Alps, J Tai'sowicz, 602 Churcli, 127 StrasburK, 197 Swabian Austria, 334 Tarifa, 92 Stato dt'iili Pre- IStrassberg, 349 Sn'abian Circle, 292 Tarn, 15 sidii. 12.i Stratford, 240 Swabian League, 54 Tarn Department, 220 Statlholder, 267 Stranbing, 316 SwalTham, 237 Tarn and Garonne Staubbacli, im Strehleu, 473 Swansea, 245 Department, 216 Staiifeii, 345 Strelilz, 412 Sweden, 567 Tarnopol, 519 Staiifeiiberg, 357:Strengniis. 5t;9 Sweden and Nor- Tarnow, 519 Slavaiiser, 577:Striegau, ' 473 way, 562 Tarnowilz, 476 Stavciihagen, 400,Strivali Isles, 616 Swedish Lapland , 574 Tarraconensis, 84 Stavi-ren, 272 Strobeck, 478 Swiiisk, 007 Tarragona, 95 Stcckl)oin, 166;Stroinboli, 149 Swine, 13 Tarrasa, 95 Ptcckcnitz, 17 Stroinni'ss, 255 Bwineniiinde, 469 Tarrazona, 94 Stecnbercen, 274 Striinioe, 558 Switzerland, 151 Tarslilsh, 84 Steenwik, 272 Stromstad, 573 Sword-law (his- Tasnad, 531 Steuo, 550 Stromza, 15 tory). 54 Taso, 6.32 Pteit'rmaik, 510 Strophadcs, 616 Swornik, 634 Tata, .526 Steii^orwald, 7 Stroud, 240 Svbcroua, 145 Tatar Basardshik, 629 Stein, 164, Struma, 15 S'vkc, 436 Tatarians, 580 Stein am Rhoin, 164 Strymon, 13|Svra, 023 Talra Mountains, 5 S'cinaii, :t74 473 Stu'art. House of, 233 Syracuse, 147 Taubcr-Bischofs- Stcinbacli, 'Ml 3!)l Slulibekjobiiig, 551 Sysraii, 608 lieim. 344 Stciiifiiit, 483 Sliihlingon, 347 Szamos Ujvar, 531 Taiicha, 383 Steinlieide, 392 Stuhlweissenburg ,526 Szassvaros, 532 Taunton, 239 Steinbeim, 355;Stuhm. 498 Szathmar-Xeniet, 528 Taunus, 8 Steinbude, 430'stuhnisdorr, 498 Szcgedin, 528 Tauric Chersone^f 610 Steiiithal, 197;Stupii)igi, 106 Szekcly Keresslur ,532 Tauric Mts., 8 Sleiidal, 478 |Sturmhaube. Great 6 Szekely Vasarhely 532 Tauris, 010 Stejipes inUussia ,582 ,hitlle,' 6,7 Szekes-rejcrvar, 526 Taiiroi-'gon, 601 Sternberg, 409|Stuttgart, 331 Szekler, 531 532 Tavaslebus, 591) Stellen, 349 Styria. 510 Szenlcs, 528 Tavira, 74 Stettin, 4nO;Subiaco, 132 Szepes-Var, 527 Tavistock, 238 Stevens- Waerd, 3fi8 Sublime Porte, C26 Szigelh, 528 Tavolara, 114 Steyer, 510 Suczawa, 520 Szigethvar, 526 Tay, 14 Stia, 124 Sudbury, 236 Szissek, 529 Teate, 143 Plilo, 145 Sudetic Mt3., 6 Szolnok, 527 Teck, 335 Rlirlinp:, 251 Sueones, 56() Szydlowiec, C0(> Tecklenburg, 483 Stirlincrshire, 251 Sueves, 24 Tegern Lake, 11 Stober, 13 Suffolk, 236 Taasingp, .551 Tegernsee, 315 8t5 INDEX. 667 y PAOKI PAOtj PAGE ' PAOB Tpinesvur, 5-iS,Tliifn(?en, 34i; Tondern, 5.'>6 Trpiien, 384 Tetiipi'lljiirg, 47J Thiers, 213 Toiigern, 2M3 Treuenbriclznn, 460 Teiiipio, in Tiiiuiivillp, IJIi T.iiinay-Cliarente , 211 Trevi-, anrient Tein|)liii, 4()ii;Tiiirty years' T<, 215 arclibicliopric Teiice, 2.MI war, 5?, 302 Toiiiieie, 1931 of, 487 Teiidn, 111) Thisled, 552 Tiiniiintr, 556 , city of, 488 Teiiii3laJt, 481 Tliiva, 621 Tiiiisberg, 576 Tri'vi','lio, S3S TcllDS, GS-l TliHhMi, 270 Tiiplilz, 515 Tri-visd, 542 Tanremoiule, i*t Thomar, 72 T.iiio, 75 Ticvoiix, 202 TepI, 51.) Tiiomnsa Kempis 49) TDpoln, 615 Treys 1. 372 Teplitz, 51.1 Thonon, 109 Tordesillas, 8:1 Triaiicin, 18;} Ternino, 14:J Tliord;), 531 T.ir:,'a(i, 4r'0 Tribb.-see, 470 Tcrceini, 7.1 Tnorii, 4!))i Toniea, 13 Tribere, 3t5 Terek, 1'2 Tliorout, 2«1 T.iriiea (town). 599 Trib.-'ees, 470 Tera;loii, 4 Tli(irsfii'.,'e, 551 Tiro, !H) Trichoiiium, 021 TerJizzH 144 Thorshiilt;i, SCit Tori|ut'mada, Hi) TrienI, 513 Termi^'iioti, 111) Thiprshavn, 55^ Torre ile Moncorvo 73 Trier, 4-*8 Termini, 140 Tlioiuiis, 210 Torre dell' Aniiun- Triesi-n, 351 Terinoiide, 28:j Thracia, 628 ziata. 141 Triest, 512 Ter Neuse, 271 Thuiii, 281 Torres V'edras, 71 Trieste, 512 Terni, 13:t Thule, 560 Torriglia, 112 Trifeis, 32S Teniova, 6-2;) Tiiiin, 158 Tortoli, 111 Tiikala, 031 Terraciiia, 133 Til nil, Lake of, 11 Tortona, 111 Trim. 257 .Terra Ui Lavoro, 141 Thurt,Mii, 165 Tortosa, 95 Trimmbach, 104 Terranov.i, 114 , 147 Ttmrin^'ia, ancient Toscolano, 540 Trim., IDS Terscliclliiij, 2t)9 laiid-Tiaviate of 3^8 Touraine, 20fi Tripolizza, 022 Teruul, 94 Thuringiaiis, 293 Toul, 196 Triplis, 383 Tesclien, 517 Ttiuriiiicerwald, 7 Toulon, 224 Triveiito, 144 Tesiiio, 1G4 Thurles, 2()0 Toulouse, 219 Trivieren Dombes202 Teste fie Rnch. 215 Thiirriau, 320 Tourcoiiig, 190 Trivier sur Mog- Tfele de Flanlres 28J Thurii and Taxis, 317 Tournaments, 46 nand. 302 Tfited'Oiirs, Thnrsii, 2.^4 Tourniy, 231 Trochtelfingen, 349 Tfile de Uaii?, Thusis. 162 Touriion, 221 Troense, 551 Teterow, 4(19 Tiber River, 15 Tournns, 201 Trogen, 157 Tetiiischi, 607 Tlbur, 132 Tours, 2(16 Troizkoi Sergiev, 591 Telsclieii, 515 Ticino, 15 Trachetiberg, 474 Troki, 000 Tetti-an^', 335 Tienen, 278 Trafalijar, 92 Trollhiilla, 572 TeulTen, 157 Tllbui!;, 274 'rraiikelinen, 497 Troinsoe, 578 Teiischnitz, 3>0 Tillicoultry, 251 Tralee, 2li0 Trondhieni, 577 TeutobuigerWald, 8 Tilsit, 497 Tramiri, 513 Tropea. 145 Teutoiies, 297 Tinchebray, 1S7 Trani, 144,Tronpau, 517 Teutonic Order 46, 3:)f) Tiiiello, 113 Tian^juranian Bur- iTrosii, 569 Teviotdale, 249 Tin-Islands, 239 puiiily, 200 Troubadours, 56 Tewkesbury, 240 Tiao, 113 Transylvania, 530 Troves. 191 Toxol, 209Tinos, 623 Trapaiii, 146 Trnro. 239 TUal-Ehrenbreit- Tintern Abbey, 240 Trappc, La, 2:)8 Trnxillo. 91 stein. 487 Tipperary, 260 Traseii, lOlTrvber-, 345 Thalitler, 337 Tirano, 539 Trauii, 16 Tseliailvidagh, 8 Thames, 14 Tiraspol, 611 Trauii.-tein, SlfT^cherliiz, 168 Tlianii, 199 Tiii;ovisl, 636 Tiausuitz, 316 Tsheboksar, 007 Tharand, 38l|Tiriemont, 278 Trave, 17 Tiuorsk Cos- OllVTirschlLeLjel, 499 Travendahl, 418] sacks. 612 Theate, 143Tittel, 534 Travers, 163Tuam. 259 Thebes, 621 ' Tilt moning. 3J5 Tiavnik, 633,Tubincjen, 332 Thediii'^hausen, 447 Tiverton, 238 Traz OS Moutes, 73:Tnbize, 279 Theiss, 16 Tivoli, 132 Trebi'jjno, 634 Tndela, 89,97 Themar, 39IiTmiilarakan, 613 Trebnilz, 474 Tudor, house of, 233 TUeodoric, kin? of iTodtnaii, 315 Trebnr, 354 Tnileries, 182 the Ostrogoths, 25 Tosgenburg, 160 Treffurt, 431 Tiikura, 593 Thera, 623 Toissey, 202 Tre^Miier, 203 Tula, 591 Theresienstadt, 525 Tokav, 527 Treisen, 351 Tulczin, 002 Therma, 630 Toledo, 87 Tremiti, 144 Tullamore, 257 Therumpylae, 621 Tolentiiio, 134 Tremiiian Isles, 144,Tnlle. 212 Thessalia, 631iTolla, 133 Tremouille, 210 Tullijarn, 56!) Thessalouica, 63;j Tolkemit, 498 Trencsin, 5-25 Tallow, 257 Theux, 282 Tolmezzo, 542 Trent, 14 513iTunl)rid'ze. 236 Thiel, 271 Tolosa, 97iTreport, 18ii.Tunbrid;ie Wells, 236 Thielt, 281 Tomaszor, 6051 Trestenburg, 531 Tarbia, m 668 INDEX. PAGE Tiirenne, 21-2 Turin, lOG Turkey, 6.24 TUrkheiml9?,325,3*< Turkish Croatia, 634 Turkish Dalina- tia, 634 Turkish Gradis- ca. 634 Turks, 19 Turnovo, 631 Tuisi, 145 Tuscany, 130 Tuscia, 102 Tusculuro, Ui Tulliingon, 333 Tuy, 91 Tweeddale, 250 Twer, 503 Two Sicilies, 137 Two Sevres De- parlment, 210 Tjnemouth, 244 Tjras, 12 Tyrconel, 258 Tyree, 255 Tyrnau, 524 Tyrol, 513 Tyrone, 25S LTbedo, 93 Uchte, 43G Uckermark, 46ti IJckeriniinde, 470 Uddewalla, 573 Udine, 542 Udvarhely, 532 Ueberlin^en, 346 Ueberlingen Lake, 11 Uelzen, 437 Uerdingen, 493 Uetersen, 418 UexkUll, 597 Uffetiheim, 320 Ugbrook, 238 U^'ine, 109 Uist, North, 255 , South, 255 Ujensk, 592 Ijjest, 470 Ukraine, 594 L'leaborg, 599 rim. 333 Ulricehamn, 572 Ulriclistein, 357 IJIriksdal, 5G8 Ulster, 257 Uman, 594 Knibrians, 102 Uinea, 574 Uiustadt, 355 Unf,'stein, 327 Universities, found- ed in Europe, 42 Unkel, 488 Unna, 485 Unst, 255 Unter-Hallau, 164 Unter-Kulin, 156 219 357 372 527 221 194 I FADE lUntcrseen, 158 jl'ulerwalden, 1C6 I Upland, 5G8 I Upper Alps Depart- I inent, 222 Upper Alsace, 197, 198 Upper Andalu- sia, 93 Upper Austria, 509 Upper Bavaria, 314 Upper Franconia, 318 Upper (Jaronne Deparlmoiit, Upper Hesse, Upper Ilesse (of I llesse-Cassel), Upper Hungary, .Upper Ingelheiiu, 356 i Upper Haiy, 103 Upper Loire De- partment, Upper Lorraine, Upper Lusa- tia, 385, 475 Upper Marne De.- partment, 192, 203 Upper Moesia, 634 Upper Palatin- ate, 316, 317 Upper Pyrenees Department, Up])er Rhenish circle. Upper Rhine cir- cle (of Baden), Upper Rhine De- partment, Ujjper Saxon cir- cle, I'pper Silesia, 472, 475 Ujiper Staram- heim. Upper Valais, Uj)per Vienna De partment, Uppingham, Upsala, 216 344 198 293 169 167 Uracil, Uralsk, Urbino, Urgel, Uri, Urnaesch, Ursbers, Urscren, Usedoin, Usicza, Usiiigen, Usiar, Uso, Usseglio, Ussel, Ustcr, Ustica, UstjuR-Weliki, 1 Utrecht, Utrera, jUxijar, iUzea, Vacha, Vaez, Vado, Vadutz, Vaels, Vaihin^en, Vaison, PAOE 3Hy 525 113 ' 351 3n8 331 225 212 24T 51)8 333 609 134 95 160 157 325 i 167 469 635 362 4-10 127 107 212 169 146 593 271 91 93 221 Vajda Hunyad, 531 Valais, Iff? Valangin, 163 Valdepeuas, 88 Valdieri, 108 Valencai, 205 Valence, 222 Valencia, 95, 96 Valenciennes, ^90 Valenza, 111 Valkcnburg, 368 Valladolid, 89 Vallcndar, 487 Valli di C'omao-* chio, 127 Val!9, 95 Valogne, 187 \'alona, 633 Valpo, 530 Vals, 221 Vandals, 24 Vannes, 209 Var, 15 Var Department, 224 Varallo, 111 Varazze, 113 Vardanes, 12 Vardar, 15, 630 Varel, 424 Varennes, 195 Varese, 113, 538 Varesh, 633 Varigotli, 113 Varna, 630 Vasarhely, 528 Vassals, 36 Vassy, 192 Vasvar, 526 Valhi, 616 Vaucluse Depart- ment, 224 Vaucouleurs, 193 Vaud, 167 Vechta, 423 Veerc, 270 Vegesack, 454 Veliis, 75 Veldenz, 489 Velez Malaga, 93 Velez el Rubio, 94 Vellelri, 133 Velllin, 539 Venaissin, 224,225 VenasquP, 225 Vendee Depart- ment, 210 Vendee River, 16 Venddme, 206 Venedig, 541 Veneria, La, 107 Venetes, 102, 540 Venetian Friaul, 542 FAOB Venezia, 541 Venice, city of. 541 , ancient Re- public of, 540 Venloo, 274 Venosa, 145 Ventimiglia, 113 VerceTli, 108 Verilen, 438 Veidun, 196 Vciia, 631 Verneiiil, 186 Vernon, 186 Vernoux, 221 Verocze, 530 VerolaXuova, 540 Verona, 542 Versailles, 183 Versmold, 484 Versoix, 161 Versoy, 161 Verviers, 282 Vcrvins, 188 Vf'soul, 203 Vesprim, 526 Vesuvius, 5 Veurne, 281 Vevay, 16S Vezelay, 201 Viadana, 539 Vialas, 221 Viana, 73, 97 Vianden, 366 Vianen, 270 Viareggio, 126 Vic, 195 Vic sur Cere, 213 Vicenza, 542 Vich, 95 Viel Salra, 283 Vienna, 508 Vienne, 222 Vien le Chateau, 192 Vienne Depart- ment, 210 Vienne River, 15 Vierlande, 451 Vierraden, 466 Viersen, 494 Vierzon, 205 Viesti, 144 Vif, 222 Vigan, Le, 221 Vigevano, 111 Vignemale, 5 Vigo, 91 Vigone, 107 Vilaine, 16 Ville Hois sous Bel ley. 202 Villena, 94 Villedieu Its Pdftles, 387 Villefort, 2>1 VillefranchP, 214,216,219 Villeneuve, 168 Villeneuve d'Agen, 215 INDEX. 669 PAQEI PAoe PAnK| rtat Villoneiive I'Ar- V'oheiiWraiiss, 318 VValdkirch, 345 VViikershcim, 337 chevfefiue, 193 Viilironbuch, 347 Waldiuiinclicn, 317 Weil bach, 363 Villene.uve d'Avig . Vijliriii^oii, 319 VVuldsas-t-n, 317 Wrilburg, 3ri2 nun. 221 Voi«tUmd383,384 30S Wal.N.c, 335 W.il, 332 Villuiieuve de Voiron, 22i WuM^liut, 345 W.ile, 533 BerK. 221 Volcanello, 140 Wahs 245 W.Mlheim, 315 VilleiieiiveleRoy I9:i Volcano, MO Walhalla, 317 Wiilinijii.-iler, 362 VilliiiKc'ii, 347 Vok'iiay, 201 Waljowo, 635 Weilnau, 36i Villmfigcn, 156 Volga, 12 Wallachia, 635 Weitnar, 3^ Vilsfii, 4:tli Volliynia, C()2 VVullachitt, Little, 636 VV'tinf-lilen, 166 Vilshdlon, 316 Volkach, 323 Walldiirn, 344 VV'eiiigarlen, 334 VilvorUen, 278; Volkniars"n, 372 Wallt-nsladl, UK) Weiiiliciin, 343 Villach, 512 Vollunliuveii, 272 Wullersteiu, 326 VWiii-'b.rg, 331 Villucidro, 111 Volo, 031 Walloon?, 275 Weissbad, 157 Villa do Goii'Ie, 7:i Volsci, J02 Walsall, 241 Weisaonbiirg, 19^ 531 Villa UemiJot', 123 Vollcrra, 123 Wahiode, 437 Weissenburg iia Villa d'Esle, 538! V(jltii, 112 Wallenberg, 531 Nordpau, 321 Villiifniiiciv, IIU VoUuriio, 15 Waltershansen, 394 VVelssenlel*, 4-0 Villiifrancade Pa- Volvic, • 213 Wandsbeck, 4171 Weissenhorn, 326 nades, 95 Vonitza, C2I Wangcii, 158 ,334 VVei«sense<', 4-1 Villafrauca di Pie • Voon»e, 270 Wangeroog, 4-24 Weis^<''n^omov, 008 Viiitiinlglia, 113 Wiicluersbucli, 374 Warsaw, 0)5 Wercholurie, 607 Viquc, 95 Wadowice, 518 Wartburg, 388 Werdau, 383 Vire, 187 Wadsteiia, 570 Warloiiberg, 474 Werden, 491 Viscouti, 537 Waedenschwyl, 169 Warlha, 474 Werdenberg, 160 Vis6, 283 Waedeiisweil, 169 Warlhe, 13 Werder, 466 Vi8 VValcl, 169 , 493 Wavre, 278 Wessera, 368 Vizeu, 72 Waklbach, 193 Waxholm, 568 Wesserling, 199 Vizille, 010 Waldbroel, 492 VVearmouth, 244 West Flanders, 280 Vizziiii, m Waldburg, 334 W^echselburg, 383 West rriuslaml, 272 Vlaainsch-Hoofd, 280 VValdeck, Princi- VVeJel, 418 West Galloway, 250 Vlaaidiiigen, 270 1 i>ality ol'. 375 VV^ednesbury, 241 Weslholen, 356 Vliela.iJ, 209 VValdeck (town), 376 Wuerdt, 367 Westkapellen, 270 Vodable, 213 1 VValdcnburg, 157 , 337, Weesp, 269 West Lothian, 249 Vodina, 630 1 384, 473 VVegeleben, 478 VV'estmanland, 569 Vogtlsbcrg, 7 VValdenses. lUJ , 107 Weichseliniiade, 497 /West Meath, 257 Vogtiera, 111 VValdlieim.' 383 VVeida, 388 Westmiiisler, 2;m Vogogaa, Ill iWaldkappcl. 371.VVcideu, 317 Westmoreland, 244 670 IN^DEX. PAGE Westphalia, duchy of, 485 Westphnlia, king- dom oi; 294 Westplialiii, Piu?- siiiii province of, 48"2 Wf Yvetot, 180 Woodstock, 237 Woolstborpe, 237 Zaardam, 268 Woolwich, 236 Zabern, 197 Worlds, 481 Zafra, 91 Worcester. 240 Zahara, 92 Worcestershire, 240 Zahna, 479 Wordineborg, 550 Zahringen, castle Workington, 244 of. 345 Worksop, 242 Zdhringians, 339 Worksop Manor, 242 Zalathiia, 531 Workutn, 272 ,-74 Zamora, 90 Worlilz, 4115 Zamosk, 606 Wormditt, 496 Zanle, 616 Wo.-ins, 356 Zara, 535 Worms (Russian Zaritzin, 609 isle). 596 Zarki, 600 Woronesh, 5J2 Zarskoje-Selo, 595 Worth, 317 Zator, 518 Wosnosensk, 611 Zawichost, 606 Wreden, 483 Zealand, 270 ,549 Wrexham, 246 ZebUiT, 150 Wriezen, 466 Zdunska Wola, 606 Wschowa, 499 Zduny, 499 Wulfrath, 493 Zehdenik, 46G Wumme, 17 Zeiden, 53? Wunsiedel, 319 Zeitun, 621 Wiinstorl', 435 Zeitz, 479 Wuppcr, 16 Zele, 280 Wuritembcrg, 329 Zell, 345 ,487 Wurzach, 334 Zell am Hammers- WiiiZburg, 322 bach, 34( Wiirzl)urg, grand- Zella, 39< duchy of. 294 Zelle, 43'i Wurzen, 382 Zeller Lake, 11 Wusterhausen an Zellerfeld, 444 der Dusse, 466 Zempelburg, 498 Wustrow, 437 Zengi;, 533 Wvk, 557 Zentba, 526 W) k te Duurstedo 271 Zerbst, 405 Wyl, 160 Zeulenroda, 398 Wytschegda, 12 Zeven, Zevenuer, 438 272 Xanten, 494 Zeyst, Ziogenhain, Zicgenhals, 271 Xativa, 'JO Xeresde los Caval- _ 372 476 leros, Xeres de la Fron 92 ZiegeEUiii'k, 4i)l Ziereiilu rg. 482 371 tera. /jei'iks^n', 270 Xucar, 14 Zi'^eth, 526 Yarmouth, 237 /ilah. 531 Yell, 255 Zinna, 46f. Yeline, 109 Zipserhaus, 527 Ynglingar, 566 Zittau, 385 Yonne, 15 Zizers, 162 Yoiine Depart- Znayni, 517 ment, 201 Zobten, 473 York, 243 Zobtenberg, 7 Vork shire. 243 Zolingen, 156 Voughall, 259 Zoml)or, 525 Ypern, 230 Zorbig, 481) IXDEX. 671 Zorge, Zorrica, Ziickiuantel, Ziiid-Uevcland, Ziillicbau, PAQB) 44-! ZUIpich, I'll) Zum Sic'in, 51" Ziiricli, ItW'Ziiricli, Loku of, 270|Ziirz!i(;ti, 407|Zutphuii, PAOCr PAOC I PAOB 49llZnvder Zee, !) Zwischenahn ISTlZiivd-VoMrne, 270 I.iikc, 420 lf.-<,Zw.Ml)iu<-,keu,3a7,:t2-' Zwoll, 272 111 Zw.Mik.iu, :JH3 Zwoiiiik, 034 IjiijZwickiia, 3.H:{|Zwyii.Jri-clit, 280 271 1 Zwingtiiibcrg, 334 1 Z> tumierz, COi THE EWD. i THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. 1 I Series 9482 .^■^v-::^:'yi-. UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY ^ AA 000 281 020 8 \