A S H O R~T
HISTORY OP EDUCATION
BEING A REPRINT OF THE ARTICLE BY OSCAR BROWNING ON
EDUCATION
IN THE NINTH EDITION OF THE
ENCYLOP^EDIA BRITANNICA
Edited, with an Introduction, Notes and References, and some account of
Comenius and his Writings,
BY
W . H . H A Y<NE?v L, L . D .
CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY <>F NASHVILLE. AUTHOR OF *" CHAPTERS
ON SCHOOL SUPERVISION" ". " CONTRIIU' 1'IONS TO THE SCIENCE
OF EDUCATION ", ETC.
SYRACUSE, N. Y.
C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER
1897
Copyright, 1881, by W. II. PAYNE; 1897. by C. W. BARDEEX
JLAY3
PUBLISHER'S NOTE
New plates being required for this little *book, it
has been thought best with the approval of the au-
thor to add illustrations, and accordingly thirty-six
portraits and eleven other pictures have been in-
serted, with a few additional notes, mostly biblio-
graphical.
SYRACUSE, April 16, 1897.
A S HO R~T
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
54
INTRODUCTION
In this country the purpose of normal instruction
seems to be to prepare young men and women in the
shortest and most direct way for doing school-room
work. The equipment needed for this work is a
knowledge of subjects and an empirical knowledge
of methods; and so the normal schools furnish
sound academic training, and pupils are taught
methods of instruction by actual practice in experi-
mental schools. In all this, the mechanical, or em-
pirical, element seems to be held uppermost in
thought. Pupils must be trained for practical ends ;
they must, so to speak, be converted into instru-
ments for doing prescribed work by prescribed
methods; and anything that promises to detract from
their value as machines, must be studiously avoided.
The artisan thus appears to be the ideal product of
the normal school.
I do not presume to say that this conception of
the purpose of normal instruction is wrong. I claim
only the right to think and to say that I hold an es-
sentially different view, and that I am attempting to
give professional instruction to teachers on a totally
different hypothesis. I believe that the great bar to
educational progress is the mechanical teaching that
is so prevalent, and that is so fostered and encour-
(ix)
X SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION
\
aged by normal schools. I believe that an intelli-
gent scholar, furnished with a few clearly defined
principles, and free to throw his own personality
into his methods, is far more likely to grow into an
accomplished teacher than one who goes to his work
with the conviction that he must follow prescribed
patterns, and has not that versatility that comes from
an extension of his intellectual horizon. The value
of a teacher depends upon his worth as a man, rather
than upon his value as an instrument. Man becomes
an instrument only by losing worth as a man. In
normal instruction there is need of greater faith in
the potency of ideas, and less faith in the value of
drill, imitation, and routine.
It is possible that in some grades of school work a
purely mechanical teaching is best; that he is the
best teacher who is most of an artisan, with whom
teaching is most of a handicraft. But I do not be-
lieve this. The rules that are best for working on
wood and stone are not the best when applied to
mind and character. Undoubtedly, there is a me-
chanical element in the teaching art ; but this is sub-
ordinate to that other element that wholly escapes
mechanical measurements, because it has to do with
the manifestations of free spirit. In other words, I
am persuaded that a teacher is poor to the degree in
which he is an artisan, and good to the degree in
which he is an artist ; and that nothing is so much
needed by teachers of every class as an infusion of
that freedom and versatility that are possible only
through an extension of the mental vision by means
of a more liberal culture.
INTRODUCTION XI
While I may be wrong in the general hypothesis,
1 feel that I am right in the following particulars:
There must be some teachers who are more than
mere instruments, more than operatives, more than
artisans ; there must be some who can see processes
.as they are related to law, who, while obedient to
law, can throw their own personality into their
methods and can make such adaptations of them as
varying circumstances may demand. If most teach-
ers are doomed to be the slaves of routine, there
must be some who have the ability to create and to
control. In a word, along with the great multitude
of mere teachers, there must be a growing body of
educators. I cannot but think that in every normal
school there are men and women who would love to
walk upon these heights, to breathe this freer air,
.and who would thus see in teaching a fair field for
the exercise of their best gifts. The attention of
such should be drawn somewhat away from the
merely mechanical aspects of teaching, and fixed on
those professional studies that will broaden the
teacher's vision and give him the consciousness of
some degree of creative power. The studies I mean
.are EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE and EDUCATIONAL HIS-
TORY.
It has been said that a teacher who is wholly ignor-
.ant of the history of education may still do excellent
work in the school-room. This does not admit of
the least doubt. It is also true that men attain
long lives in complete ignorance of the laws of
digestion, and that they become voters and office-
holders while knowing nothing of their country's
Xll SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION
history; but it does not follow that physiology and
history are needless studies. A fair knowledge of
the history of one's own country is now thought to
be an essential element in good citizenship; and I
see no reason why a fair knowledge of the history of
educational systems and doctrines should not form-
a very desirable element in a teacher's education.
He may teach well without this knowledge; but hav-
ing it, he will feel an inspiring sense of the nobility
of his calling, will teach more intelligently, and will
give a richer quality to his work. Intelligent patri-
otism is evoked by a vivid knowledge of Plymouth*
Rock, of the American Revolution, and of Mount f
Vernon ; and no teacher can think meanly of his-
calling who has learned to trace his professional an-
cestry through Plato, Comenius, Locke, Cousin, and
Arnold.
As exhibiting the general grounds on which the
history of education should be made a topic of in-
struction for at least a part of the teaching class, I>
repeat some observations made on another occasion.
" General history is a liberal study in the sense-
that it greatly extends the horizon of our sympa-
thies, widens our field of intellectual vision, and
thus makes us cosmopolitan and catholic, true citi-
zens of the world. Historical study has also a very
great practical value. It gives us the benefit of col-
lective human experience as exhibited under every
variety of circumstances and conditions. It relates
the origin, succession, and termination of all the
marked events in human progress. It thus saves us
from repeating experiments already tried, forewarns-
INTRODUCTION Xlll
us against dangers that ever beset the path of the
inexperienced, and assures to each generation the
results of the real additions made to the stock of
human progress.
" For the most part, the events recorded in history
are the results of the unpremeditated actions of man
Humanity at large seems to be impelled onward by
an irresistible but unconscious impulse, just as a
glacier moves over mountains and through valleys,
with a silent yet irresistible might. This life of
mere impulse is the lower life of nations and peoples,
just as the period of impulse marks the lower and
imperfect life of the individual. But in nations as
well as in individuals, the period of reflection at last
-comes, and this is the period when histories begin to
be written and read. The effect of historical study
is thus to check mere impulse, and to convert uncon-
scious progress into self-conscious and reflective
^efforts towards determinate ends.
" In all nations that have passed beyond the period
of mere barbarism, there has been some degree of con-
scious and intended effort after progress, some pre-
paration for the duties of citizenship, some attempt
to make the future better than the past has been.
This conscious effort to place each generation on a
vantage-ground, through some deliberate training or
preparation, is, in its widest sense, education.
" Now if history in general, as it records the uncon-
scious phases of human progress, is a study of supreme
value, that part of general history which records the
reflective efforts of men to rise superior to their
actual present, must teach lessons of even higher
value. This is emphatically an educating age. The
XIV SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION
minds of the wisest and the best are intent on devis-
ing means whereby progress may be hastened through
the resources of human art. In the world of educa-
tional thought, all is ferment and discussion. We
are passing beyond the period of reckless experiment
and are seeking anchorage in doctrines deduced from
the permanent principles of human nature. Educa-
tional Science is giving us a glimmer of light ahead,
and we do well to shape our course by it. What
ought to be should indeed be our pole-star; but until
this has been defined with more precision, we should
also shape our course by looking back on what has
been. We should think of ourselves as moving
through the darkness or over an unknown region,
with a light before us and a light behind us. Our
two inquiries should be. Whence have we come ?
Whither are we going? Historical progress is tor-
tuous, but its general direction is right. The history
of what has been must therefore contain some
elements of truth. The past at least foreshadows the
future, and we may infer the direction of progress
by comparing what has been with what is. In educa-
tion, therefore, we need to know the past, both as a
means'of taking stock of progress, and also of fore-
shadowing the future. We should give a large place
to the ideal elements in our courses of normal in-
struction'; but we should also make a large use of
the results of experience. All true progress is a
transition. The past has insensibly led up to the
present; let the present merge into the future. Let
history foreshadow philosophy; and let philosophy
introduce its corrections and ameliorations into the
lessons of historv."
INTRODUCTION XV
An obstacle to the study of the history of educa-
tion in this country, has been the lack of suitable
books on this subject. In English we have only
Schmidt's History of Education, and the History and
Progress of Education by Philobiblius (L. P. Brock-
ett). At best, these are mere outlines, and consid-
ered as outlines, they are very imperfect and unsatis-
factory. In seeking |or a text that I might make the
basis of a short course of instruction for students in
this university, I have found the article EDUCATION
in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
admirably adapted to my purpose ; and I have thought
that a reprint of it, under the title of A Short History of
Education might be acceptable to the general reader,
to intelligent and progressive teachers, and to the
members of the profession who are engaged in the
education of teachers. To make this outline more
useful to teachers and students, I have added a select
list of educational works, and have arranged a list of
more important topics suggested by this outline,
with references to these authorities. By this means
the course of study may be extended almost at will.
It may J^ embrac^n merely this admirable outline,
and thus occupy but a few days, or it may be pursued
on the seminary plan, and thus indefinitely extended.
I have considerably multiplied my notes and refer-
ences on Comenius, in the hope of exciting an inter-
est in the study of one of the greatest of the educa-
tional reformers.
W. H. PAYNE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, January 22, 1881.
A Short History of Education
This article is mainly concerned with the history
of educational theories in the chief crises of their
development. It has not been the object of the
writer to give a history of the practical working of
these theories, and still less to sketch the outlines
of the science of teaching, which may be more con-
veniently dealt with under another head.
The earliest education is that of the family. The
child must be trained not to interfere with its par-
ents' convenience, and to acquire those little arts
which will help in maintaining the economy of the
household. It was long before any attempt was
made to improve generations as they succeeded each
other.
The earliest schools were those of the priests. As
soon as an educated priesthood had taken the place
of the diviners and jugglers who abused the credulity
of the earliest races, schools of the prophets became
a necessity. The training required for ceremonials,
the common life apart from the family, the accomp-
lishments of reading and singing, afforded a nucleus
for the organization of culture and an opportunity
for the efforts of a philosopher in advance of his age.
Convenience and gratitude confirmed the monopoly
of the clergy.
The schools of Judea and Egypt were ecclesiasti-
l8 , . ( . ( , t .ANCIENT EDUCATION
cal. The Jews had but little effect on the progress
of science, but our obligations to the priests of the
Nile valley are great indeed. Much of their learn-
ing is obscure to us, but we have reason to conclude
that there is no branch of science in which they did
not progress at least so far as observation and care-
ful registration of facts could carry them. They
were a source of enlightenment to surrounding
nations. Not only the great lawgiver of the Jews,
but those who were most active in stimulating the
nascent energies of Hellas were careful to train
themselves in the wisdom of the Egyptians.
Greece, in giving an undying name to the liter-
ature of Alexander, was
only repaying the debt
which she had incurred
centuries before. Educa-
\ tion became secular in
I countries where the priest-
M hood did not exist as a
m separate body. At Rome,
until Greece took her con-
queror captive, a child was
ARISTOTLE, 384-332, B. c. trained for the duties of
life in the forum and the senate house.
The Greeks were the first to develop a science of
education distinct from ecclesiastical training.
They divided their subjects of study into music and
gymnastics, the one comprising all mental, the other
all physical training. Music was at first little more
than the study of the art of expression.
JUDEA, EGYPT, GREECE 19
But the range of intellectual education which had
been developed by distin-
guished musical teachers
was further widened by the
Sophists, until it received
a new stimulus and direc-
tion from the work of Soc-
rates. Who can forget the
picture left us by Plato of
the Athenian palaestra, in
SOCRATES, 470-399, B. c. which Socrates was sure to
find his most ready listeners and his most ardent
disciples ? In the intervals of running, wrestling,
or the bath, the young Phaedrus or Theaetetus dis-
coursed with the philosophers who had come to watch
them on the good, the beautiful, and the true. The
lowest efforts of their teachers were to fit them to
maintain any view they might adopt with acuteness,
elegance, readiness, and good taste. Their highest
efforts were to stimulate a craving for the knowledge
of the unknowable, to rouse a dissatisfaction with
received opinions, and to excite a curiosity which
grew stronger with the revelation of each successive
mystery.
Plato is the author of the first systematic treatise
on education. He deals with the subject in his earlier
dialogues, he enters into it with great fulness of
detail in the Republic, and it occupies an important
position in the Laws. The views thus expressed dif-
fer considerably in particulars, -and it is therefore
difficult to give concisely the precepts drawn up by
him for our obedience. But the same spirit under
20
ANCIENT EDUCATION
lies his whole teaching. He never forgets that the
beautiful is undistinguishable from the true, and that
the mind is best fitted to solve difficult problems
which has been trained by the enthusiastic contem-
plation of art.
Plato proposes to intrust education to the state.
He lays great stress on the
influence of race and blood.
Strong and worthy children
are likely to spring from
strong and worthy parents.
Music and gymnastics are
to develop the emotions of
young men during their
earliest years the one to
strengthen their character
PLATO, 429-847, B. c. for the contest of life, the
other to excite in them varying feelings of resent-
ment or tenderness. Reverence, the ornament of
youth, is to be called forth by well-chosen fictions;
a long and rigid training in science is to precede dis-
cussion on more important subjects. At length the
goal is reached, and the ripest wisdom is ready to be
applied to the most important practice.
The great work of Quintilian, although mainly a
treatise on oratory, also contains incidentally a com-
plete sketch of a theoretical education. His object
is to show us how to form the man of practice. But
what a high conception of practice is his ! He wrote
for a race of rulers. He inculcates much which has
been attributed to the wisdom of a later age. He
urges the importance of studying individual dispo-
ROME 21
sitions, and of tenderness in discipline and punish-
ment.
The Romans understood no systematic training
except in oratory. In their eyes every citizen was a
born commander, and they knew of no science of
government and political economy. Cicero speaks
slightingly even of jurisprudence. Any one, he says,
can make himself a jurisconsult in a week, but an
orator is the production of a lifetime. No statement
can be less true than that a perfect orator is a perfect,
man. But wisdom and philanthrophy broke even
through that barrier, and the training which Quin-
tilian expounds to us as intended only for the public
speaker would, in the language of Milton, fit a man
to perform justly, wisely, and magnanimously all the
offices, both public and private, of peace and war.
Such are the ideas which the old world has left us.
On one side man, beautiful, active, clever, receptive,
emotional, quick to feel, to show his feeling, to ar-
gue, to refine; greedy of the pleasures of the world,
perhaps a little neglectful of its duties, fearing re-
straint as an unjust stinting of the bounty of nature,
inquiring eagerly into every secret, strongly attached
to the things of this life, but elevated by an unabated
striving after the highest ideal ; setting no value but
upon faultless abstractions, and seeing reality only
in heaven, on earth mere shadows, phantoms, and
copies of the unseen. On the other side, man, prac-
tical, energetic, eloquent, tinged but not imbued with
philosophy, trained to spare neither himself nor
others, reading and thinking only with an apology ;
best engaged in defending a political principle, in
22 CHRISTIAN EDUCATION -
maintaining with gravity and solemnity the conser-
vation of ancient freedom, in leading armies through
unexplored deserts, establishing roads, fortresses,
settlements, the results of conquest, or in ordering
and superintending the slow, certain, and utter anni-
hilation of some enemy of Rome. Has the modern
world ever surpassed their type? Can we in the
present day produce anything by education except
by combining, blending, and modifying the self-
culture of the Greek or the self-sacrifice of the
Roman ?
The literary education of the earliest generation
of Christians was obtained in the pagan schools, in
those great imperial academies which existed even
down to the fifth century, which flourished in Europe,
Asia, and Africa, and attained perhaps their highest
development and efficiency in Gaul.
The first attempt to provide a special education for
Christians was made at Alexandria, and is illustrated
by the names of Clement and Origen. The later
Latin fathers took a bolder stand, and rejected the
suspicious aid of heathenism. Tertullian, Cyprian,
and Jerome wished the antagonism between Christi-
anity and Paganism to be recognized from the earli-
est years, and even Augustine condemned with
harshness the culture to which he owed so much of
his influence.
The education of the Middle Ages was either that
of the cloister or the castle. They stood in sharp
contrast to each other. The object of the one was
to form the young monk, of the other the young
knight. We should indeed be ungrateful if we for-
THE MIDDLE AGES 23
got the services of those illustrious monasteries,
Monte Cassino, Fulda, or Tours, which kept alive
the torch of learning throughout the dark ages, but
it would be equally mistaken to attach an exagger-
ated importance to the teachings which they pro-
vided. Long hours were spent in the duties of the
church and in learning to take a part in elaborate
and useless ceremonies. A most important part of
the monastery was the writing-room, where missals,
psalters, and breviaries were copied and illuminated,
and too often a masterpiece of classic literature was
effaced to make room for a treatise of one of the
fathers or the sermon of an abbot.
The discipline was hard ; the rod ruled all with
indiscriminating and impartial severity. How many
generations have had to suffer for the floggings of
those times ! Hatred of learning, antagonism between
the teacher and the taught, the belief that no training
can be effectual which is not repulsive and distaste-
ful, that no subject is proper for instruction which
is acquired with ease and pleasure all these idols of
false education have their root and origin in monk-
ish cruelty. The joy of human life would have been
in danger of being stamped out if it had not been
for the warmth and color of a young knight's boy-
hood. He was equally well broken in to obedience
and hardship; but the obedience was the willing ser-
vice of a mistress whom he loved, and the hardship
the permission to share the dangers of a leader whom
he emulated.
The seven arts of monkish training were Gram-
mar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic, Geom-
24 THE MIDDLE AGES
etry, Astronomy, which together formed the trivium
and quadrivium, the seven years' course, the divisions
of which have profoundly affected our modern
training.
One of the earliest treatises based on this method
was that of Martianus Capella, who in 470 published
his Satyra, in nine books. The first two were devoted
to the marriage between Philology and Mercury ; the
last seven were each devoted to the consideration of
one of these liberal arts. Cassiodorus, who wrote
De Septcm Disciplinis about 500, was also largely used
as a text-book in the schools. Astronomy was
taught by the Cisio-Janus, a collection of doggrel
hexameters like the Propria qua maribus, which con-
tained the chief festivals in each month, with a
memoria technica for recollecting when they occurred.
The seven knightly accomplishments, as historians
tell us, were to ride, to swim, to shoot with the bow,
to box, to hawk, to play chess, and to make verses.
The verses thus made were not in Latin, bald imita-
tions of Ovid or Horace, whose pagan beauties were
wrested into the service of religion, but sonnets,
ballads, and canzonets in soft Proven9al or melodious
Italian.
In nothing, perhaps, is the difference between these
two forms of education more clearly shown than in
their relations to women. A young monk was
brought up to regard a woman as the worst among
the many temptations of St. Anthony. His life knew
no domestic tenderness or affection. He was sur-
rounded and cared for by celibates, to be himself
a celibate. A page was trained to receive his best
reward and worst punishment from the smile or
CONTRAST BETWEEN MONKS AND KNIGHTS 25
frown of the lady of the castle, and as he grew to
manhood to cherish an absorbing passion as the
strongest stimulus to a noble life, and the contem-
plation of female virtue, as embodied in an Isolde or
a Beatrice, as the truest earnest of future immor-
tality.
Both these forms of education disappeared before
the Renaissance and the Reformation. But we must
not suppose that no efforts were made to improve
upon the narrowness of the schoolmen or the idle-
ness of chivalry. The schools of Charles the Great
have lately been investigated by Mr. Mullinger, but
we do not find that they materially advanced the
science of education. Vincent of Beauvais has left
us a very complete treatise on education, written
about the year 1245. He was the friend and coun-
sellor of St. Louis, and we may discern his influence
in the instructions which were left by that sainted
kingfor theguidanceof his son and daughter through
life.
The end of this period was marked by the rise of
universities. Bologna devoted itself to law, and num-
bered 12,000 students at the end of the i2th century.
Salerno adopted as its special province the study of
medicine, and Paris was thronged with students from
all parts of Europe, who were anxious to devote
themselves to a theology which passed by indefinite
gradations into philosophy. The i4th and i5th cen-
turies witnessed the rise of universities and acade-
mies in almost every portion of Europe.
Perhaps the most interesting among these precur-
sors of a higher culture were the Brethren of the
Common Life, who were domiciled in the rich
26 THE MIDDLE AGES
meadows of the Yssel, in the Northern Netherlands.
The metropolis of their organization was Deventer,
the best known name among them that of Gerhard
Groote. They devoted themselves with all humility
and self-sacrifice to the education of children. Their
schools were crowded. Bois-le-Duc numbered 1200
pupils, Zwolle 1500. For a hundred years no part
of Europe shone with a brighter lustre.
As the divine comedy of Dante represents for us
the learning and piety of the Middle Ages in Italy,
so the Imitation of Thomas a Kempis keeps alive for
us the memory of the purity and sweetness of the
Dutch community. But they had not sufficient
strength to preserve their supremacy among the
necessary developments of the age. They could
not support the glare of the new Italian learning;
they obtained, and it may be feared deserved, the
title of obscurantists. The Epistolce Obscurorum Vir-
orum, the wittiest squib of the Middle Ages, which
was so true and so subtle in its satire that it was
hailed as a blow struck in defence of the ancient
learning, consists in great part of the lamentations
of the brethren of Deventer over the new age, which
they could not either comprehend or withstand.
The education of the Renaissance is best repre-
sented by the name of Erasmus, that of the Reforma-
tion by the names of Luther and Melanchthon. We
have no space to give an account of that marvellous
resurrection of the mind and spirit of Europe when
touched by the dead hand of an extinct civilization.
The history of the revival of letters belongs rather
to the general history of literature than to that of
education. But there are two names whom we ought
not to pass over.
THE RENAISSANCE 27
Vittorino da Feltre was summoned by the Gon-
zagas to Mantua in 1424 ; he was lodged in a spacious
palace, with galleries, halls, and colonnades decorated
with frescoes of playing children. In person he was
small, quick, and lively a born schoolmaster, whose
whole time was spent in devotion to his pupils. We
are told of the children of his patron, how Prince
Gonzaga recited 200 verses of his own composition
at the age of fourteen, and how Prince Cecilia wrote
elegant Greek at the age of ten. Vittorino died in
1477. He seems to have reached the highest point
of excellence as a practical schoolmaster of the
Italian Renaissance.
Castiglione, on the other hand has left us in his
Cortigiano the sketch of a cultivated nobleman in
those most cultivated days. He shows by what pre-
cepts and practice the golden youths of Verona and
Venice were formed, who live for us in the plays of
Shakespeare as models of knightly excellence.
For our instruction, it is better to have recourse
to the pages of Erasmus.
He has written the most
minute account of his
method of teaching. The
i child is to be formed into a
good Greek and Latin
scholar and a pious man.
He fully grasps the truth
that improvement must be
natural and gradual. Let-
ERASMUS, 1467-1536 ters are to be taught play-
ing. The rules of grammar are ^to be few and
28 THE REFORMATION
short. Every means of arousing interest in the
work is to be fully employed. Erasmus is no
Ciceronian. Latin is to be taught so as to be of
use a living language adapted to modern wants.
Children should learn an art painting, sculpture,
or architecture. Idleness is above all things to be
avoided. The education of girls is as necessary
and important as that of boys. Much depends upon
home influence; obedience must be strict, but not
too severe. We must take account of individual
peculiarities, and not force children into cloisters
against their will. We shall obtain the best result
by following nature.
It is easy to see what a contrast this scheme pre-
sented to the monkish training, to the routine of
useless technicalities enforced amidst the shouts of
teachers and the lamentations of the taught.
Still this culture was but for the few. Luther
brought the schoolmaster
into the cottage, and laid the
foundations of the system
which is the chief honor and
strength of modern Ger-
I many, a system by which
the child of the humblest
peasant, by slow but certain
gradations, receives the best
education which the country
MARTIN LUTHER, 1483-1546 can a ff orc ]. The precepts of
Luther found their way into the hearts of his
countrymen in short, pithy sentences, like the say-
ings of Poor Richard. The purification and widen-
ERASMUS, LUTHER, MELANCHTHON
2 9
PHILIPP MELANCHTHON,
1497-1560
ing of education went hand in hand with the puri-
fication of religion, and these claims to affection are
indissolubly united in the minds of his countrymen.
Melanchthon, from his editions of school books
- and his practical labors in
education, earned the title
of Praeceptor Germanae.
Aristotle had been de-
throned from his pre-emin-
ence in the schools, and
Melanchthon attempted to
supply his place. He ap-
preciated the importance of
Greek, the terror of the ob-
scurantists, and is the au-
thor of a Greek grammar.
He wrote elementary books on each department of
the trivium grammar, dialect, and rhetoric. He
made some way with the studies of the quadrivium,
and wrote Inittd doctrines Physiccz, a primer of physi-
cal science. He lectured at the university of Witten-
berg, and for ten years, from 1519 to 1529, kept a
schola privata in his own house.
Horace was his favorite classic. His pupils were
taught to learn the whole of it by heart, ten lines at
a time. The tender refined lines of his well-known
portraits show clearly the character of the painful,
accurate scholar, and contrast with the burly power-
ful form of the genial Luther He died in 1560,
racked with anxiety for the church which he had
helped to found. If he did not carry Protestantism
30 JOHN STURM
into the heart of the peasant, he at least made it
acceptable to the intellect of the man of letters.
We now come to the names of three theoretical and
practical teachers who have exercised and are still
exercising a profound effect over education. The
so-called Latin school, the parent of the gymnasium
and the lycee, had spread all over Europe, and
was especially flourishing in Germany. The pro-
grammes and time tables in use in these establish-
ments have come down to us, and we possess notices
of the lives and labors of many of the earliest teach-
ers. It is not difficult to trace a picture of the edu-
cation which the Reformation offered to the middle
classes of Europe. Ample material exists in Ger-
man histories of education. We must confine our-
selves to those moments which were of vital influence
in the development of the science.
One school stands pre-eminently before the rest,
situated in that border city on the debatable land
between France and Germany, which has known
how to combine and recon-
cile the peculiarities of
French and German cul-
ture. Strasburg, besides a
, school of theology which
I unites the depth of Ger-
many to the clearness and
vivacity of France, educated
the gilded youth of the i6th
century under Sturm, as it
JOHN STURM, 1507-1589 trained the statesmen and
dipliomatists of the i8th under Koch. John Sturm
ROGER ASCHAM AND LADY JANE GREY
32 JOHN STURM
of Strasburg was the friend of Ascham, the author of
the Scholemaster, and the tutor of Queen Elizabeth.
It was Ascham who found Lady Jane Grey alone in
her room at Bradgate bending her neck over the page
of Plato when all the rest of her family were follow-
ing the chase.
Sturm was the first great head-master, the pro-
genitor of Busbys if not of
Arnolds. He lived and
worked till the age of
\ eighty-two. He was a friend
of all the most distinguished
IJ men of his age, the chosen
representative of the Prot-
estant cause in Europe,
the ambassador to foreign
THOMAS ARNOLD, 1795-1842 powers. He was believed
to be better informed than any man of his time of the
complications of foreign politics. Rarely did an
envoy pass from France to Germany without turning
aside to profit by his experience.
But the chief energies of his life were devoted to
teaching. He drew his scholars from the whole of
Europe; Portugal, Poland, England sent their con-
tingent to his halls. In 1578, his school numbered
several thousand students; he supplied at once the
place of the cloister and the castle. What he most
insisted upon was the teaching of Latin, not the
conversational lingua franca of Erasmus, but pure,
elegant Ciceronian Latinity. He may be called the
introducer of scholarship into the schools, a scholar-
ship which as yet took little account of Greek. His
JOHN STURM 33
pupils would write elegant letters, deliver elegant
Latin speeches, be familiar, if not with the thoughts,
at least with the language of the ancients, would be
scholars in order that they might be gentlemen.
Our space will not permit us to trace the whole
course of his influence, but he is in all probability
as much answerable as any one for the euphuistic
refinement which overspread Europe in the i6th
century, and which went far to ruin and corrupt its
literatures. Nowhere perhaps had he more effect
than in England. Our older public schools, on
breaking with the ancient faith, looked to Sturm as
their model of Protestant education. His name and
example became familiar to us by the exertions of
his friend Ascham. Westminster, under the long
reign of Busby, received a form which was gener-
ally accepted as the type of a gentleman's education.
The Public School Commission of 1862 found that
the lines laid down by the great citizen of Stras-
burg, and copied by his admirers, had remained
unchanged until within the memory of the present
generation.
Wolfgang Ratke or Ratichius was born in Hoi-
stein in 1571. He anticipated some of the best im-
provements in the method of teaching which have
been made in modern times. He was like many of
those who have tried to improve existing methods
in advance of his age, and he was rewarded for his
labors at Augsburg, Weimar, and Kothen by perse-
cution and imprisonment. ' Can we wonder that
education has improved so slowly when so much
pains has been taken to silence and extinguish those
who have devoted themselves to its improvement?
34 WOLFGANG RATKE
His chief rules were as follows :
1. Begin everything with prayer.
2. Do everything in order, following the course of
nature.
3. One thing at a time.
4. Often repeat the same thing.
5. Teach everything first in the mother tongue.
6. Proceed from the mother tongue to other lan-
guages.
7. Teach without compulsion. Do not beat chil-
dren to make them learn. Pupils must love their
masters, not hate them. Nothing should be learnt
by heart. Sufficient time should be given to play
and recreation. Learn one thing before going on to
another. Do not teach for two hours consecutively.
8. Uniformity in teaching, also in school-books,
especially grammars, which may with advantage be
made comparative.
9. Teach a thing first, and then the reason of it.
Give no rules before you have given the examples.
Teach no language out of the grammar, but out of
authors.
10. Let everything be taught by induction and
experiment.
Most of these precepts are accepted by all good
teachers in the present day; all of them are full of
wisdom. Unfortunately their author saw the faults
of the teaching of his time more clearly than the
means to remove them, and he was more successful
in forming precepts than in carrying them out.
Notwithstanding these drawbacks, he deserves an
honorable place among the forerunners of a rational
education.
JOHN AMOS COMENIUS 35
John Amos Comenius was the antithesis to Sturm r
and a greater man than
Ratke. Born a Moravian^
he passed a wandering life,
among the troubles of the
I Thirty Years' War, in pov-
erty and obscurity. But
his ideas were accepted by
the most advanced thinkers
of the age, notably in many
respects by our own Mil-
JOHN AMOS COMENIUS, 1592-1671 ton> and by Qxenstiern, the
chancellor of Sweden. His school books were spread
throughout Europe. The J^anua Linguarum Reser-
vata was translated into twelve European and several
Asiatic languages. His works, especially the Dida-
scalia magna, an encyclopaedia of the science of
education, are constantly reprinted at the present
day ; and the system which he sketched will be found
to foreshadow the education of the future.
He was repelled and disgusted by the long delays
and pedantries of the schools. His ardent mind
conceived that if teachers would but follow nature
instead of forcing it against its bent, take full advan-
tage of the innate desire for activity and growth, all
men might be able to learn all things. Languages
should be taught as the mother tongue is taught, by
conversations on ordinary topics; pictures, object
lessons should be freely used; teaching should go
hand in hand with, a cheerful elegant, and happy life.
Comenius included in his course the teaching of the
mother tongue, singing, economy, and politics, the
history of the world, physical geography, and a
knowledge of arts and handicrafts.
f A N U A
LINGUA RUM
RESERATA:
S I VE,
Omnium Scientiarum Si Linguarum
SEMINARIUM:
ID EST,
Cosipendiofa Latinam 8c Anglicam 3 aliafque
Linguas & Artiom euam fund Amenta addifcendi me-
tbodu ; una cum ]anu2C Lacinuatis Veiiihulo.
Antore Cl. Vitro J. A. C o M N I o.
The GATE of LANGUAGES-
UNLOCKED:
Or 3 a SEED-PLOT of all Arts and Tongues 5
containing 2 ready way to learn the Latine
and Englifh Tongue.
Formerly tranflated by T H o. HORN: afterwards much
correSed and amended by } o H. P\ o B o T H A M :
now carefully reviewecf hv W. D. to which is
prcmifcda PORTAL.
As alfo 5 there is now newly added the Foundation to the
Janu& 9 containing all or the chiefe Primitives of the
Latine Tongue,drawn into Sentences, in an Alphabe-
ts tirall order hyG.F.
W
,
Printed by Edw.Grifjin y and Wil. Hunt, for ?hom& Slater, and art ro bs
fold by the Company of Stationers, I 6 $
The Portal to
fenfus,fcx profefti dies-
Septem petitionesin Oratione
Dominica*
Qfto dies /unt feprimana.
Ter tria funt norem*
Deccm precepta Dei.
Undecim Apoftoli, dempto
Judi.
Diiodecim fidci ardculi.
Triginw dies funt mcnfis.
Centum anni funt fcculum.
Ssranas eft milk fraud-am ar-
tifex.
CAP. 4.
Hereto* in fchol*
SCholafticus freqentat
fcholam.
Qu6 in artibus erudiatur.
Initiumeftiliteris-
E fyllabis voces componuntur
E diftionibus ferrno:
Ex libro legimus tacit^.
Aucrecitamus clare^
Involvjmus cum nnembrana
Et ponimus in pulpito.
Atramentum eft in atramenra
rio,in quo tingimus calamum
Scribimus co in charta, in
utraque pagina.
Si perperam, delcmus.
EC fignamus denuo rcdc 5 vel
in margins.
Dpdor doccr
Difcipulus dlfcic non c^inia
fimul, fed per parces.
Praeccptor prxcipic facicnda;
R fftor wgu Acidcmtam r
Four Ev&;geliftt 9 five ftnfetf fix
" Seven petition* In
Thnce th> (tare nine.
Ten Commirndtmtmi ofGtct,
f. , /i/ t i J L crasa
ctpted. Supper
rmh* Artistes of the Faith, divide*
Thin? d&jes *n a mneth.
4 hundred ye&s are &n. >*
Set&n it, the fo>'g$r of at'
deceits.
GHAP. 4.
Of things in a fchool*
A Scholty frcquentttb the
** fchoote.
That he m*\kt infbu&dm tbt
Arts.
wds are compefed of bUMet.
we regdflentfy out of A
0.' recite it <d*ud.
we wrap it ftp i
n% is in the i^&r, in wh.cb
we wilt with It i& paper, on ei-
ther page.
Andtbtn tovlt it in tht linear in
.
# teacher is tcketb,
Afc'mUr kirwih not dtogtttw,
but by pArti.
ThtMtfttr tommeatti tbivgt t*
The G&witsr r*!eft*tbt Acde-
E Th
38 JOHN AMOS COMENIUS
But the principle on which he most insisted, which
forms the special point of his teaching, and in which
he is followed by Milton, is that the teaching of
words and things must go together hand in hand.
When we consider how much time is spent over new
languages, what waste of energy is lavished on mere
preparation, how it takes so long to lay a foundation
that there is no time to rear a building upon it, we
must conclude that it is in theacceptanceand develop-
ment of this principle that the improvement of edu-
cation will in the future consist. Any one who
attempts to inculcate this great reform will find that
its first principles are contained in the writings of
Comenius.
But this is not the whole of his claim upon our
gratitude. He was one of the first advocates of the
teaching of science in schools. His kindness, gentle-
ness, and sympathy make him the forerunner of
Pestalozzi. His general principles of education
would not sound strange in the treatise of Herbert
Spencer.
The Protestant schools were now the best in
Europe, and the monkish
institutions were left to de-
cay. Catholics would have
remained behind in the race
if it had not been for the
Jesuits. Ignatius Loyola
gave this direction to the
order which he founded, and
the programme of studies,
which dates from the end of
IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA, 1491-1556 t he sixteenth century, is in
THE JESUITS 39
use, with certain modifications, in English Jesuit
schools at the present day. x In 1550 the first Jesuit
school was opened in Germany; in 1700 the order
possessed 612 colleges, 157 normal schools, 59 novi-
ciates, 340 residences, 200 missions, 29 professed
homes, and 24 universities. The college of Clermont
had 3000 students in 1695.
Every Jesuit college was divided into two parts,
the one for higher, the other for lower education,
the studio, superiora and the studia inferiora. The
studia inferiora, answering to the modern gymnasium,
was divided into five classes. The first three were
classes of grammar (rudiments), grammar (acci-
dence), and syntax ; the last two humanity and
rhetoric.
The motto of the schools was lege, scribe, loquere,
you must learn not only to read and write a dead
language, but to talk. Purism was even more
exaggerated that by Sturm. No word might be used
which did not rest upon a special authority. The
composition of Latin verses was strongly encouraged,
and the performance of Latin plays. Greek w*as
studied to some extent; mathematics, geography,
music, and the mother tongues were neglected.
The studia superiora began with a philosophical
course of two or three years. In the first year logic
was taught, in the second the books of Aristotle, dc
<r^/<?, the first book de generatione, and the Meteorologica.
In the third year the second book de generatwne, the
books de anima, and the Metaphysics. After the com-
pletion of the philosophical course the pupil studied
theology for four years.
THE JESUITS
The Jesuits used to the full the great engine of
emulation. Their classes were divided into two
parts, Romans and Carthaginians; swords, shields,
and lances hung on the walls, and were carried off
in triumph as either party claimed the victory by a
fortunate answer.
It would be unfair to deny the merits of the educa-
tion of the Jesuits. Bacon
speaks of them in more than
one passage as the revivers
of this most important art.
Quum talis sis utinam noster
\ esses. Descartes approved
of their system ; Chateau-
briand regarded their sup-
pression as a calamity to
civilization and enlighten-
ment. They were probably
the first to bring the teacher
into close connection with
the taught. According to
their ideal the teacher was
neither inclosed in a clois-
ter,secluded from hispupils,
nor did he keep order by
stamping, raving, and flog-
ging. He was encouraged
to apply his mind and soul
to the mind and soul of his
pupil ; to study the nature, the disposition, the par-
ents of his scholars; to follow nature as far as pos-
sible, or rather to lie in wait for it and discover
its weak points, and where it could be most easily
FRANCIS BACON, 1561 1626
RENE DESCARTES, 1596-1650
THEIR FAULTS 4!
attacked. Doubtless the Jesuits have shown a love,
devotion, and self-sacrifice in education, which is
worthy of the highest praise; no teacher who would
compete with them can dare do less.
On the other hand, they are open to grave accusa-
tion. Their watchful care degenerated into surveil-
lance, which lay-schools have borrowed from them ;
their study of nature has led them to confession and
direction. /They have tracked out the soul to its
recesses, that they might slay it there, and generate
another in its place ; they educated each mind accord-
ing to its powers, that it might be a more subservient
tool to their own purposes. s They taught the ac-
complishments which the world loves, but their chief
object was to amuse the mind and stifle inquiry;
they engaged Latin verses, because they were a con-
venient plaything on which powers might be exer-
cised which could have been better employed in
understanding and discussing higher subjects f they
were the patrons of school plays, of public prizes,
declamations, examinations, and other exhibitions,
in which the parents were more considered than the
boys; they regarded the claims of education, not as
a desire to be encouraged, but as a demand to be
played with and propitiated; they gave the best
education of their time in order to acquire confidence,
but they became the chief obstacle to the improve-
ment, of education; they did not care for enlighten-
ment, but only for the influence which they could
derive from a supposed regard for enlightenment.
What may have been the service of Jesuits in past
times, we have little to hope for them in the improve-
ment of education at present. Governments have,
42 MONTAIGNE
on the whole, acted wisely by checking and sup-
pressing their colleges. The ratio studiorum is an-
tiquated and difficult to reform. In 1831 it was
brought more into accordance with modern ideas by
Roothaan, the general of the order. Beckx, his suc-
cessor, has, if anything, pursued a policy of retro-
gression. The Italian Government, in taking pos-
session of Rome, found that the pupils of the Col-
legio Romano were far below the level of modern
requirements.
It may be imagined that, by this organization both
Catholic and Protestant were apt to degenerate into
pedantry, both in name and purpose. The school-
master had a great deal too much the best of it. The
Latin school was tabulated and organized until every
half hour of a boy's time was occupied; the Jesuit
school took possession of the pupil body and soul.
It was, therefore, to be expected that a stand should
be made for common sense in the direction of prac-
tice rather than theory, of wisdom instead of learning.
Montaigne has left us the most delightful utter-
ances about education. He
says that the faults of the
education of his day con-
sist in overestimating the
intellect and rejecting mor-
ality, in exaggerating mem-
ory and depreciating use-
ful knowledge. He recom-
mends a tutor who should
draw out the pupil's own
MICHEL EQUEM DE MON- power and originality, to
TAIGNE, 1533-1592 tea ch how to live well and
to die well, to enforce a lesson by practice, to put
LOCKE 43
the mother tongue before foreign tongues, to teach
all manly exercises, to educate the perfect man.
Away with force and compulsion, with severity and
the rod.
John Locke, more than a hundred years afterwards,
made a more powerful and
systematic attack upon use-
less knowledge. His theory
of the origin of ideas led
him to assign great import-
ance to education, while his
knowledge of the operations
of the human mind lends a
special value to his advice.
His treatise has received in
JOHN LOCKE, 1632-1704 England more attention
than it deserves, partly because we have so few books
written upon the subject on which he treats Part
of his advice is useless at the present day ; part it
would be well to follow, or at any rate to consider
seriously, especially his condemnation of repetition
by heart as a means of strengthening the memory,
and of Latin verses and themes.
He sets before himself the production of the man,
a sound mind in a sound body. His knowledge of
medicine gives great value to his advice on the earl-
iest education, although he probably exaggerates the
benefits of enforced hardships. He recommends
home education without harshness or severity of
discipline. Emulation is to be the chief spring of
action; knowledge is far less valuable than a well-
trained mind. He prizes that knowledge most which
44 MILTON
fits a man for the duties of the world, speaking lan-
guages, accounts, history, law, logic, rhetoric, natural
philosophy. He inculcates the importance of draw-
ing, dancing, riding, fencing, and trades.
The part of his advice which made the most im-
pression upon his contemporaries was the teaching
of reading and arithmetic by well-considered games,
the discouragement of an undue compulsion and
punishment, and the teaching of language without
the drudgery of grammar. In these respects he has
undoubtedly anticipated modern discoveries. He is
a strong advocate for home education under a private
tutor, and his bitterness against public schools is as
vehement as that of Cowper.
Far more important in the literature of this sub-
ject than the treatise of
Locke is the Tractate of
Education* by Milton, "the
few observations," as he
tells us, "which flowered
off, and are, as it were, the
burnishings of many studi-
ous and contemplative
years spent in search for
civil and religious knowl-
JOHN MILTON, 1608-1674 edge." This essay is ad-
dressed to Samuel Hartlib, a great friend of Come-
nius, and probably refers to a project of establishing
a university in London.
" I will point you out," Milton says, " the right path
of a virtuous and noble education, laborious, indeed,
* School Room Classics, vi. A Small Tractate of Education, by John
Milton, 16:26, 15 cts. Syracuse, N. Y., C. W. Bardeen.
MILTON 45
at first ascent^ but else so smooth and green and full
of goodly prospects and melodious sounds on every
side, that the harp of Orpheus is not more charming."
This is to be done between twelve and one-and-twenty,
in an academy containing about a hundred and thirty
scholars, which shall be at once school and univer-
sity, not needing a remove to any other house of
scholarship except it be some peculiar college of
law and physics, where they mean to be practitioners.
The important truth enunciated is quite in the
spirit of Comenius that the learning of things and
words is to go hand in hand. The curriculum is
very large. Latin, Greek, arithmetic, geometry,
agriculture, geography, physiology, physics, trigo-
nometry, fortification, architecture, engineering,
navigation, anatomy, medicine, poetry, Italian, law,
both Roman and English, Hebrew, with Chaldee and
Syriac, history, oratory, poetics.
But the scholars are not to be book-worms. They
are to be trained for war, both on foot and on horse-
back, to be practised u in all the locks and gripes of
wrestling," they are to "recreate and compose their
travailed spirits with the divine harmonies of music
heard or learnt." " In those vernal seasons of the
year when the air is calm and pleasant, it were an
injury and a sullenness against Nature not to go out
and see her riches, and partake in her rejoicing with
heaven and earth. I should not then be a persuader
to them of studying much then, after two or three
years that they have well laid their grounds, but to
ride out in companies with prudent and staid guides
to all the quarters of the land."
46 PORT ROYAL
The whole treatise is full of wisdom, and deserves
to be studied again and again. Visionary as it may
appear to some at first sight, if translated into the
language of our own day, it will be found to abound
with sound, practical advice. " Only," Milton says in
conclusion, " I believe that this is not a bow for every
man to shoot who counts himself a teacher, but will
require sinews almost equal to those which Homer
gave Ulysses; yet I am persuaded that it may prove
much more easy in the essay than it now seems at a
distance, and much more illustrious if God have so
decided and this age have spirit and capacity enough
to apprehend."
Almost while Milton was writing this treatise, he
might have seen an attempt to realize something of
his ideal in Port Royal. What a charm does this
name awaken ! Yet how few of us have made a pil-
grimage to that secluded vallqy ! Here we find for
the first time in the modern world the highest gifts
of the greatest men of a country applied to the busi-
ness of education. Arnauld, Lancelot, Nicole did
not commence by being educational philosophers.
They began with a small school, and developed their
method as they proceeded. Their success has seldom
been surpassed.
But a more lasting memorial than their pupils are
the books which they sent out, which bear the name
of their cloister. The Port Royal Logic, General
Grammar, Greek, Latin, Italian, and Spanish Gram-
mars, the Garden of Greek Roots which taught Greek
to Gibbon, the Port Royal Geometry, and their trans-
lations of the classics held the first place among
school books for more than a century.
FRANCKE
47
The success of the Jansenists was too much for the
jealousy of the Jesuits. Neither piety, nor wit, nor
virtue could save them. A light was quenched which
would have given an entirely different direction to
the education of France and of Europe. No one can
visit without emotion that retired nook which lies
hidden among the forests of Versailles, where the
old brick dove-cot, the pillars of the church, the trees
of the desert alone remain to speak to us of Pascal,
Racine, and the Mere Angelique.
The principles of Port Royal found some sup-
porters in a later time, in
the better days of French
education before monarch-
ism and militarism had
crushed the life out of the
nation. Rollin is never
mentioned without the epi-
thet bori) a testimony to his
wisdom, virtue and sim-
plicity. Fenelon may be
reckoned as belonging to
the same school, but he was
more fitted to mix and grap-
ple with mankind.
No history of education
, would be complete without
the name of August Her-
mann Francke, the founder
of the school of Pietists,
and of a number of institu-
tions which now form al-
AFP. FENELON, 1651-1715 most a su burb in the town
CHARLES ROLLIN, 1661-1741
4 THE PIETISTS
of Halle to which his labors were devoted. The
first scenes of his activity
were Leipzig and Dresden ;
but in 1692, at the age of 29,
he was made pastor of
Glaucha, near Halle, and
professor in the newly es-
tablished university.
Three years later he com-
menced his poor school
AUGUST HERMANN FRANCKE, with a Capital of seven
1663-1727 guelders which he found in
the poor box of his house. At his death in 1727 he
left behind him the following institutions: a paeda-
gogium, or training college, with eighty-two scholars
and seventy teachers receiving education, and attend-
ants ; the Latin school of the orphan asylum, with
three inspectors, thirty-two teachers, four hundred
scholars, and ten servants ; the German town schools,
with four inspectors, ninety-eight teachers, eight
female teachers, and one thousand seven hundred
and twenty-five boys and girls. The establishment
for orphan children contained one hundred boys,
thirty-four girls, and ten attendants. A cheap public
dining-table was attended by two hundred and fifty-
five students and three hundred and sixty poor
scholars, and besides this there was an apothecary's
and a bookseller's shop.
Francke's principles of education were strictly
religious. Hebrew was included in his curriculum,
but the heathen classics were treated with slight re-
spect. The Homilies of Macarius were read in the
ROUSSEAU 49
place of Thucydides. As might be expected, the
rules laid down for discipline and moral training
breathed a spirit of deep affection and sympathy.
Francke's great merit, however, is to have left us
a model of institutions by which children of all
ranks may receive an education to fit them for any
position in life. The Franckesche Stiftungen are
still, next to the university, the centre of the intel-
lectual life of Halle, and the different schools which
they contain give instruction to 3,500 children.
We now come to the book which has had more in-
fluence than any other on the education of later
times. The Emile of Rousseau was published in
1762. It produced an as-
tounding effect throughout
Europe. Those were days
when the whole cultivated
world vibrated to any
touch of new philosophy.
French had superseded
Latin as the general medi-
um of thought. French
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, learning stood in the same
1712-1778 relation to the rest of Eu-
rope as German learning does now : and any dis-
covery of D'Alembert, Rousseau, or Maupertuis
travelled with inconceivable speed from Versailles
to Schonbrunn, from the Spree to the Neva. Kant
in his distant home of Konigsberg broke for one day
through his habits, more regular than the town clock,
and staid at home to study the new revelation.
50 ROUSSEAU
The burthen of Rousseau's message was nature,
such a nature as never did and never will exist, but
still a name for an ideal worthy of our struggles.
He revolted against the false civilization which he
saw around him ; he was penetrated with sorrow at
the shams of government and society, at the misery
of the poor existing side by side with the heartless-
ness of the rich. The child should be the pupil of
nature.
He lays great stress on the earliest education. The
first year of life is in every respect the most impor-
tant. Nature must be closely followed. The child's
tears are petitions which should be granted. The
naughtiness of children comes from weakness ; make
the child strong and he will be good. Children's
destructiveness is a form of activity. Do not be too
anxious to make children talk ; be satisfied with a
small vocabulary. Lay aside all padded caps and
baby jumpers. Let children learn to walk by learn-
ing that it hurts them to fall. Do not insist so much
on the duty of obedience as on the necessity of sub-
mission to natural laws. Do not argue too much
with children ; educate the heart to wish for right
actions ; before all things study nature. The chief
moral principle is do no one harm.
Emile is to be taught by the real things of life, by
observation and experience. At twelve years old he
is scarcely to know what a book is; to be able to
read and write at fifteen is quite enough. We must
first make him a man, and that chiefly by athletic
exercises. Educate his sight to measure, count, and
THE EMILE 51
weight accurately ; teach him to draw; tune his ear
to time and harmony: give him simple food, but let
him eat as much as he likes. 'Thus at twelve years
old Emile is a real child of nature. His carriage and
bearing are fair and confident, his nature open and
candid, his speech simple and to the point ; his ideas
are few but clear; he knows nothing by learning,
much by experience. He has read deeply in the
book of nature. His mind is not on his tongue but
in his head. He speaks only one language, but
knows what he is saying, and can do what he cannot
describe. Routine and custom are unknown to him ;
authority and example affect him not : he does what
he thinks right. He understands nothing of duty
and obedience, but he will do what you ask him, and
will expect a similar service of you in return. His
strength and body are fully developed ; he is first-
rate at running, jumping, and judging distances.
Should he die at this age he w r ill so far have lived
his life.
From twelve to fifteen Emile's practical education
is to continue. He is still to avoid books which
teach not learning itself but to appear learned. He
is to be taught and to practise some handicraft. Half
the value of education is to waste time wisely, to
tide over dangerous years with safety, until the
character is better able to stand temptation.
At fifteen a new epoch commences. The passions
are awakened; the care of the teacher should now
redouble; he should never leave the helm. Emile
having gradually acquired the love of himself and of
52 ROUSSEAU
those immediately about him, will begin to love his
kind. Now is the time to teach him history, and the
machinery of society, the world as it is and as it
might be. Still an encumbrance of useless and bur-
densome knowledge is to be avoided. Between this
age and manhood Emile learns all that it is necessary
for him to know.
It is, perhaps, strange that a book in many respects
so wild and fantastic should have produced so great
a practical effect. In pursuance of its precepts,
children went about naked, were not allowed to read,
and when they grew up wore the simplest clothes,
and cared for little learning except the study of
nature and Plutarch.
The catastrophe of the French Revolution has
made the importance of Emile less apparent to us.
Much of the heroism of that time is doubtless due to
the exaltation produced by the sweeping away of
abuses, and the approach of a brighter age. But we
must not forget that the first generation of Emile
was just thirty years old in 1792; that many of the
Girondins, the Marseillais, the soldiers-and generals
of Carnot and Napoleon had been bred in that hardy
school. There is no more interesting chapter in the
history of education than the tracing back of epochs
of special activity to the obscure source from which
they arose. Thus the Whigs of the Reform Bill
sprang from the wits of Edinburgh, the heroes of the
Rebellion from the divines who translated the Bible,
the martyrs of the Revolution from the philosophers
of the Encyclopaedia.
BASEDOW S3
The teaching of Rousseau found its practical
expression in the philan-
thropin of Dessau, a school
founded by Basedow, the
friend of Goethe and La-
| vater, one of the two
prophets between whom
the world-child sat bodkin
in that memorable post-
chaise journey of which
JOHANN BERNARD BASEDOW, Goethe has left us an ac-
1723-1790 count. The principles of
the teaching given in this establishment were very
much those of Comenius, the combination of words
and things.
An amusing account of the instruction given in
this school, which at this time consisted of only
thirteen pupils, has come down to us, a translation
of which is given in the excellent work of Mr. Quick
on educational reformers*. The little ones have
gone through the oddest performances. They play
at " word of command ". Eight or ten stand in line
like soldiers, and Herr Wolke is officer. He gives
the word in Latin, and they must do whatever he
says. For instance when he says " Claudite ocutos ",
they all shut their eyes; when he says " Circum-
spicite ", they look about them ; " Imitamini sutorem ",
they draw their waxed thread like cobblers. Herr
Wolke gives a thousand different commands in the
drollest fashion.
Another game, "the hiding game", may also be
described. Some one writes a name and hides it
Pp. 193-197 of the Reading Circle edition, Syracuse, X. V.
54 BASEDOW S PHILANTHROPIN
from the children, the name of some part of the body,
or of a plant or animal, or metal, and the children
guess what it is. Whoever guesses right gets an
apple or a piece of cake; one of the visitors wrote
" intestina ", and told the children it was part of the
body. Then the guessing began ; one guessed caput,
another nasus, another os, another manus, pcs, digiti,
pcctus, and so forth for a long time, but one of them
hits it at last.
Next Herr Wolke wrote the name of a beast or
quadruped, then came the guesses, /<?<?, ursus, camelus,
elephas, and so on, till one guessed right it was mus.
Then a town was written, and they guessed Lisbon,
Madrid, Paris, London, till a child won with St.
Petersburg.
They had another game which was this. Herr
Wolke gave the command in Latin, and they imitated
the noises of different animals, and made the visitors
laugh till they were tired. They roared like lions,
crowed like cocks, mewed like cats, just as they
were bid.
Yet Kant found a great deal to praise in this school,
and spoke of its influence
as one of the best hopes of
the future, and as " the only
school where the teachers
had liberty to act according
to their own methods and
schemes, and where they
were in free communication
both among themselves and
IMMANUEL KANT, 1724-1804 with all] , learned men
throughout Germany."
PESTALOZZI 55
A more successful laborer in the same school was
Salzmann, who bought the property of Schnepfenthal,
near Gotha> in 1784, and established a school there,
which still exists as a flourishing institution. He
gave full scope to the doctrines of the philanthropists ;
the limits of learning were enlarged; study became
a pleasure instead of a pain ; scope was given for
healthy exercise ; the school became light, airy, and
cheerful. A charge of superficiality and weakness
was brought against this method of instruction ; but
the gratitude which our generation of teachers owes
to the unbounded love and faith of these devoted
men cannot be denied or refused.
The end of the i8th century saw a great develop-
ment given to classical studies. The names of Cel-
larius, Gesner, Ernesti, and Heyne are perhaps more
celebrated as scholars than as schoolmasters. To
them we owe the- great importance attached to the
study of the classics, both on the Continent^and in
England. They brought into the schools the phil-
ology which F. A. Wolfe had organized for the uni-
versities.
Pestalozzi, on the other hand, was completely and
entirely devoted to education. His greatest merit
is that he set an example of absolute self-abnegation ;
that he lived with his pupils, played, starved, and
suffered with them ; and clung to their minds and
hearts with an affectionate sympathy which revealed
to him every minute difference of character and dis-
position.
Pestalozzi was born at Zurich in 1746. His father
JOHANN HEINKICH PESTALOZZI, 1748-188?
PESTALOZZI
57
RMenplatz, Zurich. The middle house was Pestalozzi's birthplace.
died when he was young, and he was brought up by
his mother. His earliest years were spent in schemes
for improving the condition of the people. The
death of his friend Bluntschli turned him from politi-
cal schemes, and induced him to devote himself to
education. He married at 23, and bought a piece of
waste land in Aargau, where he attempted the culti-
vation of madder. Pestalozzi knew nothing of bus-
iness, and the plan failed. Before this he had opened
his farm-house as a school; but in 1780 he had to
give this up also.
His. first book published at this time was The Even-
ing Hours of a Hermit, a series of aphorisms and
reflections. This was followed by his masterpiece,
Leonard and Gertrude, an account of the gradual
5o PESTALOZZI S SCHOOL AT STANZ
reformation, first of a household, and then of a whole
village, by the efforts of a good arid devoted woman.
It was read with avidity in Germany, and the name
of Pestalozzi was rescued from obscurity. His
attempts to follow up his first literary success were
failures.
The French invasion of Switzerland in 1798 brought
into relief his truly heroic character. A number of
children were left in Canton Unterwalden on the
shores of the Lake of Luzerne without parents, home,
STANZ
food, or shelter. Pestalozzi collected a number of
them into a deserted convent, and spent his energies
in reclaiming them.
"I was," he says, "from morning till evening,
almost alone in their midst. Everything which was
60 PESTALOZZl's SCHOOL AT STANZ
done for their body or soul proceeded from my
hand. Every assistance, every help in time of need,
every teaching which they received came immediatly
from me. My hand lay in their hand, my eye rested
on their eye, my tears flowed with theirs, and my
laughter accompanied theirs. They were out of the
world, they were out of Stanz ; they were with me,
and I was with them. Their soup was mine; their
drink was mine. I had nothing; I had no house-
keeper, no friend, no servants around me; I had
them alone. Were they well I stood in their midst ;
were they ill, I was at their side. I slept in the
middle of them. I was the last who went to bed at
night, the first who rose in the morning. Even in
bed I prayed and taught with them until they were
asleep, they wished it to be so." Thus he passed
the winter; but in June, 1799, the building was
required by the French for a hospital, and the chil-
dren were dispersed.
We have dwelt especially on this episode of Pesta-
lozzi's life, because in this devotion lay his strength.
In 1801 he gave an exposition of his ideas on educa-
tion in the book How Gertrude teaches her Children*.
His method is to proceed from the easier to the more
difficult to begin with observation, to pass from
observation to consciousness, from consciousness to
speech. Then come measuring, drawing, writing,
numbers, and so reckoning.
How Gertrude teaches her Children An attempt to help mothers to
teach their own children, and an account of the method. A report to the
Society of the Friends of Education, Burgdnrf, by Johann Heinrich Pesta-
lozzi. Translated by Lucy E. Holland and Frances E. Turner, and edited,
with introduction and notes, by Ebenezer Cooke. 1:2:308, $1.50. Syracuse,
N. Y., C. W. Bardeen. 1894.
AT BURGDORF AND YVERDUN 6*
In 1799 he had been enabled to establish a school
BURGDORF
at Burgdorf, where he remained till 1804. In 1802,
he went as deputy to Paris, and did his best to inter-
est Napoleon in a scheme of national education ; but
the great conqueror said that he could not trouble
himself about the alphabet.
In 1805 h fi removed to Yverdun on the Lake of
Neufchatel, and for twenty years worked steadily at
his task. He was visited by all who took interest
in education Talleyrand, Capo d'Istria, and Madame
de Stael. He was praised by Wilhelm von Hum-
boldt and by Fichte. His pupils included Ramsauer,
Delbruck, Blochmann, Carl Ritter, Froebel, and
Zeller.
62
PESTALOZZl's SCHOOL AT YVERDUN
V VERDUN
About 1815 dissensensions broke out among the
teachers of the school, and
Pestalozzi's last ten years
were chequered by weari-
ness and sorrow. In 1825
he retired to Neuhof, the
home of his youth; and
after writing the adventures
of his life, and his last work,
the Swan's Song, he died in
1827.
As he said himself, the
real work of his life did not
lie in Burgdorf or in Yverdun, the productsVather
JOHANN GOTTLIEB FICHTE
1762-1814
'O4 PESTALOZZI S WORK
of his weakness than of his strength. It lay in the
principles of education which he practised, the devel-
opment of his observation, the training of the whole
man, the sympathetic application of the teacher
to the taught, of which he left an example in his six
months' labors at Stanz. He showed what truth
there was in the principles of Comenius and Rous-
seau, in the union of training with information, and
the submissive following of nature; he has had the
The Schoolliouse at Birr, with Pestalozzi's Memorial
deepest effect on all branches of education since
his time, and his influence is far from being ex-
hausted. \
Statue In Pestalozzi Square, Yverdun. Inscription : - To Pesta-
lozzi, 1746-1827. This monument was erected by
popular subscription in 1890."
66
GERMAN WRITERS
ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER,
1788-1860
The Emile of Rousseau was the point of departure
for an awakened interest in
educational theories which
has continued unto the
present day. Few thinkers
of eminence during the
last hundred years have
failed to offer their contri-
butions more or less direct-
ly on this subject. Poets
like Richter, Herder and
Goethe, philosophers such
as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schleiermacher and Schopen-
hauer, psychologists such as Herbart and Beneke,
have left directions for our guidance.
Indeed, during this time the science of education,
or paedagogics, as the Ger-
mans call it, may have been
said to have come into ex-
istence. It has attracted
but little attention in Eng-
land ; s but it is an impor-
tant subject of study at all
German universities, and
we may hope that the ex-
JOHANN PEIBDR.CH HERBART am P le S iVCn ^ the CStab -
1776-1841 lishment of chairs of educa-
tion in the Scotch universities may soon be followed
by the other great centres of instruction in Great
Britain.
JEAN PAUL, AND GOETHE
6 7
JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH
RICHTER, 1763-1825
Jean Paul called his book Levana after the Roman
goddess to whom the father
dedicated his new-born
child, in token that he in-
tended to rear it to man-
hood. He lays great stress
on the preservation of indi-
viduality of character, a
merit which he possessed
himself in so high a degree.
The second part of Wil-
helm Meister is in the main
a treatise upon education. The essays of Carlyle
have made us familiar with the mysteries of the
paedagogic province, the solemn gestures of the
three reverences, the long cloisters which contain
the history of God's dealings with the human race.
The most characteristic passage is that which de-
scribes the father's return
to the country of educa-
tion after a year's absence.
As he is riding alone r
wondering in what guise
he will meet his son, a
multitude of horses rush
by at full gallop. "The
BI^X monstrous hurly-burly
whirls past the wanderer;
JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE a ^ T ^ OV amon g tne keep-
1749-1832 ers looks at him in sur-
prise, pulls in, leaps down, and embraces his father."
He then learns that an agricultural life had not suited
his son, that the superiors had discovered that he
68
JACOTOT
was fond of animals, and had set him to that occupa-
tion for which nature had destined him.
The system of Jacotot has aroused great interest
in this country. Its author
was born at Dijon in 1770.
In 1815 he retired to Lou-
vain and became professor
there, and director of the
Belgian military school.
He died in 1840. H i s
method of teaching is based
on three principles :
i. All men have an equal
JOSEPH JACOTOT, 1770-1840 intelligence.
2. Every man has received from God the faculty
of being able to instruct himself.
3. Every thing is in every thing.
The first of these principles is certainly wrong,
although Jacotot tried to explain it by asserting that,
although men had the same intelligence, they differed
widely in the will to make use of it. Still it is im-
portant to assert that nearly all men are capable of
receiving some intellectual education, provided the
studies to which they are directed are wide enough
to engage their faculties, and the means taken to
interest them are sufficiently ingenious. The second
principle lays down that it is more necessary to stim-
ulate the pupil to learn for himself, than to teach
him didactically.
The third principle explains the process which
Jacotot adopted. To one learning a language for
the first time he would give a short passage of a few
lines, and encourage the pupil to study first the
words, then the letters, then the grammar, then the
THE MONITORIAL^SYSTEM 69
full meaning of the expressions, until by iteration
and accretion a single paragraph took the place of
an entire literature. Much^may be effected by this
method in the hands of a skilful teacher, but a char-
latan might make it an excuse for ignorance and
neglect.
Among those who have^improved the methods of
teaching, we must mention
Bell and Lancaster, the
joint discoverers of the
method of mutual instruc-
tion, which, if it has not
effected everything which
its founders expected of it,
has produced the system of
pupil-teachers which is
common in our schools.
ANDREW BELL, 1753-1832 Froebel also deserves an
honorable place as the founder of the Kindergarten, a
means of teaching young
lSi|. children by playing and
Bi- ML amusement. His plans,
H^ which have a far wider sig-
nificance than this limited
development of them, are
likely to be fruitful of re-
sults to future workers.
The last English writers
on education are Mr. Her-
JOSEPH LANCASTER, ms-isss bert Sp encer and Mr. Alex-
ander Bain, the study of whose writings will land us
in those regions of pedagogics which have been most
recently explored.
3 HERBERT SPENCER
We need not follow Mr. Spencer into his defence
of science as the worthiest
object of study, or in his
rules for moral and physi-
cal training, except to say
they are sound and practi-
cal. In writing of intel-
lectual education, he insists
that we shall attain the best
results by closely studying
the development of the
HERBERT SPENCER, 1820- mind> and avai l ing our .
selves of the whole amount of force which nature
puts at our disposal. The mind of every being is
naturally active and vigorous, indeed it is never at
rest. But for its healthy growth it must have some-
thing to work upon, and, therefore, the teacher must
watch its movements with the most sympathetic
care, in order to supply exactly that food which it
requires at any particular time. In this way a much
larger cycle of attainments can be compassed than
by the adoption of any programme or curriculum,
however carefully drawn up.
It is no good to teach what is not remembered;
the strength of memory depends on attention, and
attention depends upon interest. To teach without
interest is to work like Sisyphus and the Danaides.
Arouse interest if you can, rather by high means
than by low means. But it is a saving of power to
make use of interest which you have already exist-
ing, and which, unless dried up or distorted by inju-
dicious violence, will naturally lead the mind into
all the knowledge which it is capable of receiving.
ALEXANDER BAIN Jl
Therefore, never from the first force a child's atten-
tion ; leave off a study the moment it becomes weari-
some, never let a child do what it does not like, only
take care that when its liking is in activity a choice
of good as well as evil shall be given to it.
Mr. Bain's writings on education, which are con-
tained in some articles in the Fortnightly Review, and
in two articles in Afind(Nos. v. and vii.) are extremely
valuable. Perhaps the rqpst interesting part of them
consists in his showing how what may be called the
4 correlation of forces in man " helps us to a right
education. From this we learn that emotion may be
transformed into intellect, that sensation may exhaust
the brain as much as thought, and we may infer that
the chief duty of the schoolmaster is to stimulate the
powers of each brain under his charge to the fullest
activity, and to apportion them in that ratio which
will best conduce to the most complete and harmon-
ious development of the individual.
It seems to follow from this sketch of the history
of education that, in spite of the great advances which
have been made of late years, the science of educa-
tion is still far in advance of the art. Schoolmasters
are still spending their best energies in teaching sub-
jects which have been universally condemned by
educational reformers for the last two hundred years.
The education of every public school is a farrago of
rules, principles, and customs derived from every age
of teaching, from the most modern to the most re-
mote. It is plain that the science and art of teach-
ing will never be established on a firm basis until it
is organized on the model of the sister art of medi-
cine. We must pursue the patient methods of
induction by which other sciences have reached the
72 HISTORIES OF EDUCATION
stature of maturity ; we must discover some means
of registering and tabulating results ; we must invent
a phraseology and nomenclature which will enable
results to be accurately recorded ; we must place
education in its proper position among the sciences
of observation. A philosopher who should succeed
in doing this would be venerated by future ages as
the creator of the art of teaching.
It only remains now to give some account of the
very large literature of the*subject.
The history of education was not investigated till
the beginning of the present century, and since then
little original research has been made' except by
Germans. Whilst acknowledging our great obliga-
tions to the German historians, we cannot but regret
that all the investigations have belonged to the same
nation. For instance, one of the best treatises on
education written in the i6th century is Mulcaster's
Positions, which has never been reprinted, and is now
a literary curiosity.
Mangelsdorf and Ruhkopf attempted histories of
education at the end of the
last century, but the first
work of note was F. H. Ch.
Schwarz's Geschichtc d. Er-
ziehung (1813). A. H. Nie-
meyer, a very influential
writer, was one of the first
to insist on the importance
of making use of all that
has been handed down to
AUGUST HERMANN NiEMEYER, us, and with this practical
1754-1828 object in view he has given
us an Ueberblickderallgemeinen Geschichte der Er ziehung.
VON RAUMER AND SCHMIDT
Other writers followed ; but from the time of its
appearance till within the
last few years, by far the
most readable and the most
read work on the history of
education was that of Karl
von Raumer. Raumer, how-
ever, is too chatty and too
religious to pass for " wis-
senschaftlich ", and the stand-
'^^r< ard history is now that of
KARL GEORG VON RAUMER
1783-1865 Karl Schmidt. The Roman
Catholics have not been content to adopt the works
of Protestants, but have histories of their own.
These are the very pleasing sketches of L. Kellner
and the somewhat larger history by Stoeckl.
When we come to writers who have produced
sketches or shorter histories, we find the list in Ger-
many a very long one. Among the best books of
this kind are Fried. Dittes's Geschichte and Drose's
Padagogischc Characterbildcr. An account of this lit-
erature will be found in J. Chr. G. Schurmann's
paper among the Padagogische Studien, edited by Dr.
Reiss.
For biographies the paedagogic cyclopaedias may be
consulted, of which the first is the Encyclopadie dcs
gcsammten Erzichungswescns of K. A. Schmid, a great
work in ii or 12 vols. not yet completed, although
the second edition of the early vols. is already an-
nounced. The Roman Catholics have also begun a
74 HISTORIES OF EDUCATION
large encyclopaedia edited by Rolfus and Pfister.
No similar work has been published in France, but
a Cyclopedia of Education in one volume has lately
been issued in New York (Steiger, the editors are
Kiddle and Schem), and in this there are articles by
English as well as American writers*. In French the
Esquisse d'un systems complet cT Education, by Th. Fritz
{Strasburg, 1841), has a sketch of the history, which
as a sketch is worth notice. Jules Paroz has written
a useful little Histoire which would have been more
valuable if it had been longer.
In English, though we have no investigators of the
history of education, we have a fairly large literature
on the subject, but it belongs almost exclusively to
the United States. The great work of Henry Bar-
nard, the American Journal
of Education, in 25 vols., has
valuable papers on almost
every part of our subject,
many of them translated
from the German, but there
are also original papers on
our old English educational
writers and extracts from
their works. This is by far
HENRY BARNARD, i8ii- t h e most valuable work in
our language on the history of education.
* A more recent publication is *' Sonnenschein's Cyclopaedia of Educa-
tion : a handbook on all subjects connected with education (its history,
theory, and practice) comprising articles by eminent educational specialists.
The whole arranged and edited by Alfred Ewen Fletcher.' 1 8:560, $3.75.
Syracuse, N. Y., C. W. Bardeen, 1889.
BARNARD, QUICK, PAYNE 75
The small volumes published in America with the
title of "History of Educa-
tion " do not deserve notice.
In England may be men-
tioned the article on educa-
tion by Mr. James Mill, pub-
lished in the early editions of
the Encyclopedia Britannica,
and R. H. Quick's most ex-
cellent Essays on Educational
QUICK, Reformers, published in
1831-1891 1868*. Since then Mr.
Leitch of Glasgow has issued a volume called Prac-
tical Educationists, which deals with English and
Scotch reformers, as well as with Comenius and
Pestalozzi. Now that professorships of education
have been established we may hope for some original
research. The first professor appointed was the late
Joseph Payne, a name well-known to those among
us who have studied the theory of education. The
professorship was started by the College of Precep-
tors. At Edinburgh and at St. Andrews professors
have since been elected by the Bell Trustees.
Valuable reports as to the state of education in
the various countries that possess a national system
were presented to the English schools Inquiry Com-
mission in 1867 and 1868, by inspectors specially
"Essays on Educational Reformers by Robert Hebert Quick. Reading
Circle Edition, with Notes and Illustrations. 16:430, $1.00. Syracuse, N. Y.,
1896. C. W. Bardeen.
7 6
REPORTS ON EDUCATION
appointed to investigate the subject. The reports
on the Common School
System of the United States
and Canada, by the Rev.
James Fraser, on the Burgh
Schools in Scotland by D.
R. Fearon, and on Second-
ary Education in France,
Germany, Switzerland and
Italy, by Matthew Arnold,
are included in Parliament-
MATTHEW ARNOLD, 1822-1895 a ry Papers [3857], 1867,
and [3966 v.], 1868. (o. B.)
NOTES AND REFERENCES
GENERAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Schmidt and Raumer are the great authorities on
the history of education. Copious translations from
Raumer are contained in Barnard's American Jour-
nal of Education, and the portions relating to Ger-
man education are collected in Barnard's German
Teachers and Educators.
Paroz's Histoire Universelle is elegantly written,
and contains, within a moderate compass, an admir-
able summary of educational history.
For the study of special topics, Mr. Quick's Edu-
cational Reformer -j cannot be too highly recommended.
Mr. Leitch writes with much less critical discern-
ment, and some of his subjects are of minor impor-
tance, but his work may be read with great profit.
As a critical history of educational doctrines, the
work of Compayre is of incomparable value. Though
he is occupied chiefly with French pedagogy, he dis-
cusses almost every aspect of the educational prob-
lem, and always with great penetration and clear-
ness.
Williams's History of Modern Education is the most
recent work, and particularly adapted to American
schools.
(77)
78 APPENDIX
THE REFORM IN EDUCATION
The Reformation marks the further limit of the
modern period of educational history; and these be-
ginnings of educational reform deserve very careful
study. The compilation of Souquet, and particular-
ly his introduction, will be found very helpful.
Schmidt, Raumer, Compayre, and Paroz will supply
an abundance of material bearing on this topic. For
a study of the recognized educational reformers, the
works of Mr. Quick and Mr. Barnard are invaluable.
ROUSSEAU AND HIS EMILE
With the progress of educational science, the in-
fluence of Rousseau is perceptibly and steadily
growing, and a careful study of the Emile is becom-
ing imperative. This study may now be conven-
iently prosecuted at first hand through the compila-
tion just made by Souquet. The fairest estimate of
Rousseau that I have yet seen, is contained in the
second volume of Compayre.
JOSEPH PAYNE
By far the most valuable of recent contributions
to educational literature from English sources, is
Joseph Payne's Lectures, edited by his son, and con-
taining an introduction by Mr. Quick. Mr. Payne
was a disciple of Jacotot, and in this volume he
gives an admirable exposition of his master's sys-
tem. Outside of England, the doctrines of Jacotot
enjoy but little consideration; but there are very
few modern writers on education who are more
worthy of serious study. Each of his paradoxes em-
bodies a doctrine worth the knowing.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 79
THE OLD EDUCATION AND THE NEW
In studying the later developments of educational
thought, it is essential to keep in mind the fact that
they embody a reaction against antagonistic doc-
trines; and the further fact that "the suppression of
an error is commonly followed by the temporary as-
cendancy of a contrary one ". There are sharp
points of contrast between the old education and the
new. Each has a measure of truth and a measure of
error; each is right in what it admits and wrong in
what it denies ; and so each is in a great degree the
complement of the other. The truth will be found
to lie somewhere between the two extremes.
PESTALOZZI
No just and adequate estimate of Pestalozzi's in-
fluence can be formed unless his doctrines are con-
trasted with those that he sought to supplant. We
are living in the midst of transformations that have
been wrought through the influence of Pestalozzian-
ism ; and so the present does not furnish the criteria
by which to estimate the importance of this innova-
tion in educational thought.
EVERY NEW PHASE IN EDUCATION EMBODIES
AN IDEA.
No new movement in education can be adequately
interpreted without taking into account the cognate
phases of thought, social, political, philosophical,
and religious, with which it co-existed. Some dom-
inant idea will be found to underlie every system of
educational doctrine. When the principle of AU-
THORITY was dominant in church and state, it was
So APPENDIX
also dominant in the schools, and prescribed its
methods of discipline and of instruction; and the
decline of authority in church and state has induced
a corresponding change in the methods of the school.
The philosophical idea that is dominant in the new
education is that of DEVELOPMENT; and in this
country when the professional teacher must count
with his constituents, there is the concurrent and
modifying idea of UTILITY.
NEED OF A GENERAL HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL
DOCTRINES
The construction of a general history of education,
for the express purpose of tracing the rise and prog-
ress of all the marked phases of educational thought,
and characterized by the critical discernment that
gives such charm and value to the work of Corn-
payre, is a thing greatly to be desired at this time
when questions of school policy are beginning to be
discussed on a scientific basis.
BUISSON'S Dictiannaire de la Pedagogic
Buisson's Dictionnare de la Pedagogic is on all ac-
counts the most valuable book of reference that can
be commended to the professional teacher. Scarcely
any other book will be required to supplement this
SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION, so complete is its treat-
ment of historical and biographical subjects.
In English, the latest general compilation is Son-
nenschein's Cyclopaedia of Education, the American
edition of which is published by C. W. Bardeen,
Syracuse, N. Y.
C O M E N I U S
COMENIUS
COMPARATIVE TABLE OF DATES
Erasmus 1467-1536 Rousseau 1712-1778
Luther 1483-154(5 Diderot 1713-1784
Sturm 1507-1589 Condillac 1715-1780
Ascbam 1515-1568 Basedow 1723-1790
Ramus. 1515-1572 Kant 1724-1804
Montaigne 1533-1592 Pesialozzi 1746-1827
Bacon 1561-1626 Jacotot 1770-1840
Ratke 1571-1635 Fellenberg 1771-1844
COMENIUS ".1592-1671 Froebel 1782-1852
Descartes 1596-1650 Diesterweg 1790-1866
Milton 1608-1674 Cousin 1792-1867
Locke. . . 1632-1704 Beneke 1798-1856
Francke 1663-1727 Spencer 1820
OUTLINE BIOGRAPHY
1592. Born at Nivnitz, a village of Moravia, on the
confines of Hungary ; early an orphan ; began,
his education at the age of 16.
1610. Went to the Universities of Herborn and Hei-
delberg; then travelled for ten years in Hol-
land and perhaps in England.
1614. Returned to Bohemia and became director of
the school in Prerau, where he published his.
first work, Grammaticae Facilioris Pracccpta.
(83)
84 APPENDIX
1618. Became pastor of the Bohemian Brethren in
Fulneck.
1621. By the sack of Fulneck, lost his property,
books, and MS.; and for several years was a
refugee from religious persecution.
1627. By the Edict of July 31, followed the Mora-
vians into permanent banishment and took
refuge in Lissa Poland, where he wrote his
Janua Linguarum Reserata.
1641. Went to London by the invitation of Parlia-
ment, at the. instance of Samuel Hartlib (the
friend of Milton), who, in 1631, had published
at Oxford a part of the Didactica Magna.
1642. Went on an educational mission into Sweden,
and thence to Elbing, Prussia.
1648. Made Bishop of the Moravians and took up
his residence again in Lissa.
1650. Went to Patak, Hungary, to establish a model
school on the principles of his Pansophia.
While in Patak he wrote the most popular of
his works, the Or bis Sensualium P ictus. On
leaving Patak he returned to Lissa.
1656. On the burning of Lissa by the Polish Catho-
lics, took refuge in Amsterdam.
1671. November 15, died at Amsterdam.
APPRECIATION
"The system which he sketched will be found to
foreshadow the education of the future."
COMENIUS 85
u He was one of the first advocates of the teaching
of science in schools."
" His kindness, gentleness, and sympathy, make
him the forerunner of Pestalozzi." EncycL Brit.
" Comenius founded nothing durable and distinc-
tive ; he was but an admirable precursor. His work
had to be again taken up, continued and perfected,
by the educators of the following century, the most
of whom did not know him so soon was he forgot-
ten and who followed in his foot-steps, like Rous-
seau and Pestalozzi, without suspecting it." Buis-
son.
"A Protestant grammarian and theologian; was
a mad-man, but from this mad man we have a book
entitled Janua Linguarum Reserata, which was trans-
lated not only into twelve European languages, but
also into the principal languages of Asia." Enc*
Mvthodiqiie.
" Of boundless generosity and intelligence, he
embraced all knowledge and every nationality.
Through every country Poland, Hungary, Sweden,
England, Holland he went teaching, first Peace,
and then the means of peace Universal Fraternity.
He wrote a hundred works, taught in a hundred
cities. Sooner or later, the scattered members of
this great man, that he left upon every route, will be
reunited. " Michelet.
" As a school reformer he was the forerunner of
Rousseau, Basedow, and Pestalozzi, suggested a
mode of instruction which renders learning attract-
ive to children by pictures and illustrations, and
86 APPENDIX
wrote the first pictorial school-book." New Amer.
Cycl.
" Comenius is a grand and venerable figure of
sorrow. Wandering, persecuted, and homeless,
during the terrible and desolating thirty years' war,
he never despaired ; but with enduring and faithful
truth, labored unweariedly to prepare youth, by a
better education, for a better future. His undes-
pairing aspirations seem to have lifted up, in a large
part of Europe, many good men, prostrated by the
terrors of the times, and to have inspired them with
the hope that by a pious and wise system of educa-
tion, there would be reared up a race of men more
pleasing to God." Raitmcr.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
1. Cyclopaedia of Education. C. W. Bardeen,
Syracuse, 1889.
2. Buisson's Dictionnaire de Pedagogic et d'ln-
struction Primaire. ire Partie. Paris, 1887.
3. Quick's Essays on Educational Reformers,
Chapter VII. Syracuse, 1896.
4. Histoire Critique des Doctrines de L'Education
en France, Par G. Compayre. Paris, 1879. Tome
Premier, pp. 256-263.
;. Michelet. Nos Fils. Paris, 1877.
6. Jules Paroz. Histoire Universelle de la Peda-
gogic. Paris, pp. 203-216.
7. Karl, Schmidt, Geschichte der Piidagogik. Co-
then. 1873-1876. pp. 366-398, Dritter Band.
8. Karl von Raumer, Geschichte der Padagogik,
Stuttgart. 1857. .pp. 48-100, Zweiter Theil.
9. Barnard's American Journal of Education. Vol.
V., pp. 257-298. [A translation of No. 8.] Also
Vol. VI, p. 585. [On the Qrbis Pictus^
10. Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary.
London, 1735.
(87)
88 APPENDIX
11. Carpzov. Religionsuntersuchung der Boh-
mischen und Mahrischen Briider.
12. Gindely. Ueber des J. A. Comenius' Leben
und Wirksamkeit in der Fremde. (In the proceed-
ings of the Vienna Academy of Science. Vienna,
1855.)
13. Leutbecher. Johann Amos Comenius, Lehr-
kunst. Leipzig, 1853.
14. Dr. Eugen Pappenheim. Amos Comenius,
der Begriinder der neuen Padagogik. Berlin, 1871.
15. K. A. Schmid. Padagogisches Handbuch fur
Schule und Haus. Gotha, 1877.
16. Seyfifarth, L. W. J. A. Comenius, nach seinem
Leben und seiner padagogischen Bedeutung. Leip-
zig, 1871.
17. Beitrage zur Padagogik. Ueber die historische
Darstellung der padagogischen Jdeen mit beson-
derer Beziehungauf Rousseau und Comenius. Low-
enberg, 1875.
18. Comenius, Amos, Die Mutterschule. Aufs
Neue hrsg. v. Herm. Schroter. Weissenfels, 1864.
19. Hoffmeister, Herm. Comenius und Pestalozzi
als Begriinder der Volksschule, wissenschaftlich
dargestellt, 8vo. Berlin, 1877.
20. Laurie, S. S John Amos Gomenius, his Life
and Work, i6mo. Syracuse, 1892.
21. Butler, Nicholas Murray. The Place of Com-
enius in the History of Education, i6mo. Syra-
cuse, 1892.
22. Maxwell, W. H. The Text-Books of Comen-
ius, 8vo. Syracuse, 1892.
COMENIUS $9
NOTE. " \Ve are assured that France will soon
have two works upon Comenius, which, we hope, will
be only a prelude 10 important studies relating to
this eminent educator; one by M. Rieder and the
other by M. Diog. Bertrand." Die. de Pedag.
II
WORKS
1. Didactica Opera Omnia ab anno 1627 ad 1657
continuata. Amstelodamus, Chr. Conradus et Gabr.
a Roy, 1657. 4 part, in-fol., avec port., 482, 462,
1064 et 110 col. Brunei.
This edition contains the collected works of Co-
menius, edited by himself, and published by the
munificence of his Patron, Lorenzo de Geer.
2. Comenius, Johann Amos. Ausgewiihlte Schrif-
ten, Mutterschule, Pansophia, Pangnosie, etc. Ue-
bersetzt und mit Erliiuterungen versehen von Ju.
Beeger und Johann Leutbecher, 8vo. Leipzig.
3. Comenius's (John Amos) Visible World ; or a
Nomenclature and Pictures, of all the chief things
that are in the World, etc., illustrated with 150 curi-
ous rude woodcuts, i2mo. 1777. -
4. The Orbis Pictus of John Amos Comenius, 8vo.
Syracuse, 1887.
5. Karl Richter. Padagogische Bibliothek. Eine
Sammlung der wichtigsten padagogischen Schriften
alter und neuerer Zeit. Leipzig.
Volume third contains the Didactica Magna, an
90 APPENDIX
appreciation of it, a Life of Comenius, and notes.
Edited by Julius Beeger and Franz Zoubek.
6. Dr. Th. Lion. Bibliothek padagogischer Clas-
siker. Langensalza, 1875. Contains German tran-
slations of the pedagogical works of Comenius.
7. Johann Amos Comenius. Grosse Unterichts-
lehre (Didacttca Magna), mit einer Einleitung von
Gustav Adolf Linder. Wien, 1877.
The Three Great Pedagogical \Vorks of
Comenius
Comenius was a very prolific writer, being the
author of more than eighty publications, written in
Slavic (Czechic), Latin, and German ; but he owes
his fame to the three following works.
I. DIDACTICA MAGNA, SEU OMNES OMXIA DOCENDI
ARTIFICIUM.
This great work was begun in 1627, \vhile Come-
nius was living in exile at Sloupna. It was finished
in 1632, but remained in manuscript till 1849, when
it was published in the original language (Czechic).
A translation of a part of the Didactica Magna, un-
der the title of Prodromus Pansophiat, was published
in London in 1639, through the mediation of Samuel
Hartlib, by whose influence Parliament invited Co-
menius to England to organize a reform in public
education. Buisson, in his Dictionnaire de Pedagogic,
pronounces the Didactica Magna " one of the most
remarkable treatises that have been written on the
science of education ".
91
II. JANUA LINGUARUM RESERATA
This work, published at Lissa in 1631, was sug-
gested by a book bearing the same title, written by
an -Irish Jesuit named Batty, who was connected with
the Jesuit College at Salamanca. It was translated,
.as Comenius himself tells us, into Greek, Bohemian,
Polish, Swedish, Belgian, English, French, Spanish,
Italian, Hungarian, Turkish, Arabic, Persian, and
even Mongolic. The general plan of the Janua may
be seen from the following quotation : " Comenius
believed that the knowledge of words should serve
at the same time to acquire a knowledge of things.
He therefore resolved to classify in methodical order
all created things, with their Latin names, and a
translation, in parallel columns ; and to make of this
general vocabulary a universal repertory of informa-
tion, where the pupil might at the same time learn
Latin and general science. He collected eight
thousand words, with which he constructed one
thousand sentences, and these he distributed into one
hundred chapters."
HII/ ORBIS SENSUALIUM PICTUS, hoc est, omnium funda-
mentalium in mini-do rerum, ft in vita actionum,
pictura et no men-datura.
The first edition of this famous book was published
at Nuremberg in 1657; and soon after a translation
was made into English by Charles Hoole. The last
English edition appeared in 1777, and this was re-
printed in America in 1812. A fine reprint of the
English edition of 1727, with reproduction of the 151
copper-cut illustrations of the original edition of
92 APPENDIX
1658, was published by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, in
1887.
This was the first illustrated school-book, and was
the first attempt at what now passes under the name
of " object lessons".
" The 'Orbis ' was, in substance, the same as the
i Janua', though abbreviated, but it had this distinc-
tive feature, that each subject was illustrated by a
small engraving, in which everything named in the
letter press below was marked with a number, and
its name was found connected with the same num-
ber in the text." Quick.
Educational Principles of Comenius
(Arranged from Paroz's Historic Universelle de la Pedagogic.)
i. Instruction is easy in proportion as it follows
the course of nature.
z. Instruction ought to be progressive and adapted
to the growing vigor of the intellectual faculties.
3. It is a fundamental error to begin instruction'
with languages and terminate it with things math-
ematics, natural history, etc.; for things are the sub-
stance, the body, while words are the accident, the
dress. These two portions of knowledge should be
united, but we should begin with things, which are
the objects of thought and of speech.
4. It is also an error to begin the study of language
with grammar. We should first present the subject
matter in an author or a well-arranged vocabulary.
The form, /. e. the grammar, does not come till after-
wards.
COMENIUS 93
5. We should first exercise the senses (perception),
then the memory, then the intelligence, and lastly
the judgment (reasoning). For science begins with
the observation; the impressions received are then
imprinted upon the memory and the imagination;
the intelligence next seizes upon the notions held in
store in the memory and from them deduces general
ideas; finally the reason draws conclusions from the
things sufficiently known and co-ordinated in the
intelligence.
6. It is not sufficient, merely to make the pupil
comprehend; he should also learn to express and to
apply what he has comprehended.
7. It is not the shadow of things which impresses
the senses and the imagination, but the things them-
selves. It is then by a real intuition that instruction
should begin, and not by a verbal description of
things.
8. By observation, the pupil should first gain a
general notion of an object, and should then observe
each part by itself and in its relation to the whole.
9. Talent is developed by exercise. We learn to
write by writing, to sing by singing, etc.
10. The study of languages ought to commence
with the mother tongue. A language is learned bet-
ter by use, by the ear, by writing, etc., than by rules,
which should follow use in order to give it greater
exactness.
-THE SCHOOL HULLETIX PUBLICATIONS.-
History of Modern Education,
The History of Modern Education. An account of Educational Opinion
and Practice from the Revival of Learn-
ing to the Present Decade. By SAMUEL
G. WILLIAMS, Ph.D., Professor of the
Science and Art of Teaching in Cornell
University. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 499. With
37 Portraits. $1.50.
This is a revised and enlarged edition
of what was upon its first appearance
altogether the fullest and most com-
plete history of modern education now
available. It is the only adequate prep-
aration for examinations, and a neces-
sary part of every teacher's working
library.
The titles of the chapters will give some idea of its comprehensiveness.
Those in italics appear for the first time in this revised edition.
Introductory. Valuable contributions to pedagogy from ancient days. I.
Preliminaries of modern education. II. The Renaissance, and some inter-
esting phases of education in the 16th century. III. Educational opinions
of the 16th century. IV. Distinguished teachers of the 16th century,
Melanehthon, Sturm, Trotzendorf, Neander, Ascham, Mulcaster, the Jesu-
its. V. Some characteristics of education in the 17th century. VI. Princi-
ples of the educational reformers. VII. The 17th century reformers. VIII.
Female education and Fenelon. IX. The Oratory of Jesus. Beginnings of
American education. X. Characteristics of education in the 18th century.
XI. Important educational treatises of the 18th century: Rollin, Rousseau,
Kant. XII. Basedow and the Philanthropise experiment. XIII. Pesta-
lozzi and his work. XIV. General review of education in the 18th century,
XV. Educational characteristics of the 19th century. XVI. Extension of
popular education. XVII. Froebel and the Idndergarten. XVIII. Professional
training of teachers, and school supervision. XIX. Manual and industrial
training. XX. Improvements in methods of instruction. XXI. Discussion of
relative value of studies.
There are also added an Analytic Appendix, for review ; the Syllabus
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The American Journal of Education says: "It is not too much to say that
for all ordinary purposes Prof. Williams's book is in itself a much more val-
uable pedagogical library than could be formed with it omitted."
C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y.
-777 A* SCHOOL P.I'LLKTIX ITHL/CATlOXti.-
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Jbrary Association recogni/e its liter-
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in their list published by the Bureau
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2. Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia and England.
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-THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.-
Meiklejohn's Life of Andrew Bell.
An old Educational Reformer, Dr.
Andrew Bell. By J. M. D. MEIKLE-
JOHN, professor of the theory, history,
and practice of education in the uni-
versity of St. Andrews. Cloth, 16mo,
pp. 182. $1.00.
Teachers of this generation can
hardly realize what a power the moni-
torial system was in the history of the
first third of this century. It was the
subject most debated when teachers
met together and in the educational
journals of the time. It was supposed
to have revolutionized teaching, and
in this country as well as in England and elsewhere its influence was enor-
mous. Dr. Andrew Bell, its founder is buried in Westminster Abbey, his
tablet being one of the first that meets the eye of the visitor. He left a
fortune of a million dollars to educational uses, and founded the chairs of
education in the universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews.
Hitherto his biography could be obtained only in the three enormous
volumes of 2,000 pages by Robert Southey; but Dr. Meiklejohn, who occu-
pies at St. Andrews the chair Dr. Bell founded, has written this memoir,
which is as sprightly and interesting as the big compilation of Southey's is
dreary and dull. He tells of Dr. Bell's college life, of his going to Virginia
to be a tutor; of his shipwreck on his return voyage; of the duel he fought,
when, being short-sighted and excitable, he fired at the seconds instead of
his opponent; of his being offered $2,500 to vote for one candidate and im-
mediately voting for the other; of his journey to India, where he was put
in charge of an orphan school for boys; of his difficulty in finding teach-
ers, and his discovery of the plan of mutual instruction; of the enormous
success that this plan met with, first in India, and afterward in Great
Britain and throughout the world.
Incidentally Prof. Meiklejohn tells much of the state of education at
the time Dr. Bell began to introduce his system, when in Ireland for in-
stance, the boy who had written the best copy was ordered by the master to
pull the hair of the boy who had written the worst, and so to do until they
arrived at their seats in the school again. It was one of Dr. Bell's corre-
spondents who speaks of the death of a schoolmaster in Swabia who had
superintended a seminary 51 years with severity; had given 91 1,500 callings,
124,000 floggings, 209,000 custodies, 136,000 tips with the ruler, 10,200 boxes on
the ear, 22,700 tasks by heart, 700 stands upon peas, 600 kneels on a sharp
edge, 500 foolscaps, 1,700 holds of rods.
In short the volume is a vivacious and interesting history of the time,
as well as the best biography of one of England's most eminent teachers.
C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y.
-THE SCHOOL BUL7.ETJN PrTtLTCA TIONS.
THOMAS ARNOLD.
Biographies of Great Teachers.
1. A Memoir of Roger Ascham. by SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D. ; and selec-
tions from the Life of Thomas Arnold,
by Dean STANLEY. Edited, with In-
troductions and Notes by JAMES S. CAR-
LISLE. 16mo, pp. 2;V2. Manilla, 50 cts.;
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Besides the biography of Ascham in
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From Stanley's "Life of Arnold''
those chapters have been taken which
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book gives in full compass and at a low price all that is most important in.
the lives of these two great teachers.
" No better reading could be selected for the teacher, none more stimu-
lating, none more softening, than the lives of these two men, so conspicuous
for their achievement as teachers." The Evangelist.
2. John Amos Comenius, Bishop of the Moravians; his Life and Educa*
tioncd Works. By S. S. LAURIE. 16mo, pp. 232. Manilla, 50 cts. ; Cloth, $1 .
?. An Old Educational Reformer. Dr. Andreiv Bett. By J. M. D. MEIKLV-
JOHN. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 182. $1.00.
Dr. Bell was the founder of the Monitorial System that swept over Eng-
land and America in the early part of this century, and was at that time the
most famous teacher in the world. Prof. Meikle John has made his biography
as entertaining as it is important in the history of education.
U. Pestalozzi : his Aim and Work. By Baron DEGUIMPS. Translated by
MARGARET CUTHBERTSON CROMBIE. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 336. $1.50.
5. Autobiography of Frederich Frcebel. Translated and annotated by
EMILIE MICHAELIS and H. KEATLEY MOORE. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 183. $1.50.
" He writes so simply and confidentially that no one can fail to under'
stand everything in this new translation. It would be of great benefit to
American youth for fathers and mothers to read this book for themselves,
instead of leaving it entirely to professional teachers." New York Herald.
6. The Educational Labors of Henry Barnard. By WILL S. MONROE,
Leatherette, 16mo, pp. 35. 50 cts.
7. Essays on Educational Reformers. By R. H. QUICK. Cloth, 16mo, pp.
331. $1.50.
Its vivacious style makes it the most interesting of educational histories.
We publish separately at 15 cts. each these chapters : I. The Jesuits, II. Co
menius, III. Locke, IV. Rousseau, V. Basedow, VI. Jacotot, VII. PestalozzL
C. W. BARDEEX, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y.
.
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY