UC-NRLF $B S3 IDl %^ *ill CHlNGSe THOXJGHT .%^ CHRXIS i;|a ^ 4 wt ^^t^{^ m MEMOmAJA Henry Byron Phillips ^v Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/chinesethoughtexOOcarurich -V r •: ••! .••••• • . . •• ?LT CHINESE THQtiGiT AN EXPOSITION OF THE MAIN CHARACTER ISTIC FEATURES OF THE CHINESE WORLD-CONCEPTION DR. PAUL CARUS BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE AUTHOR'S ESSAY ^V ILLUSTRATEP CHICAGO THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY LONDON AGENTS KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO. , LTD. 1907 • • • • • • • • ••• •••••• • ^ ^1^ Copyright by The Open Court Publishing Co. 1907. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Chinese Script i The Communication of Thought, 2. — Stock Phrases and Staple Thoughts, 12. Chinese Occultism 25 The Yih System, 25. — The Tablet of Destiny, 33. — Divination, 34.— Urim and Thummim, 36. — P'an-Ku, 40. — The Five Elements, 41. — Systems of Enumeration, 50. — Feng-Shui, 55. — Lo-Pan, 58. — The Mariner's Compass a Chinese Invention, 64. — The Personification of Stars, 66. — Prehistoric Connections, 81. Zodiacs of Different Nations 84 Primitive Interrelation of Mankind, 84. — Independent Parallels, 84-86. — Prehistoric Connections, 86-88. — Astrology and Kepler, 88-90. — Spread of the Babylonian Calendar, 90. — Greek and Roman Calendars, 91. — The Common Origin of All Zodiacs, 94. — Sagit- tarius and Asur, 96-97. — Sagittarius, Scorpio and Mithras, 97-98. — Ahura and Asur, 99-100. — Constellations Older Than the Twelve Mansions, 100-103. — Changes in Names and Pictorial Representa- tions, 103-107. — Christ, the Scarab of God, 107. — The Chinese Zodiac, 108. — The Twelve Mansions in China, 110-112. — The Twelve Double Hours, 111-112. A Throneless King AND His Empire 113 Confucius, 113. — Filial Piety, 122. The Chinese Problem 136 Chinese Characteristics, 136.^ — Rev. R. Morrison's Views, 140. — Glimpses of Chinese History, 149. — China's National Novel, 154. — Social Conditions, 164. — The Three Recognised Religions, 166. — Christian Missions, 169. — Western Insolence, 175. — The Tai Ping Rebellion, 178.— The Yellow Peril, 183. Conclusion 187 589253 CHINESE SCRIPT. COMMUNICATION OF THOUGHT. T N China the most ancient mode of recording thought was accom- -■■ pHshed by chieh sheng (|S ^) or "knotted cords," which is alluded to by Lao-Tze in his Tao Teh King, iiS^/ (written in the sixth century before Christ) as the ancient and venerable, though awkward, mode of writing, and also by Confucius in the third appendix to the Yih King.^ All detailed knowledge of the use of knotted cords in China has been entirely lost, but we can easily understand that it was a mnemo-technic method of remembering data of various kinds and communicating ideas. The same practice prevailed in ancient Peru as well as among the islanders of Oceania, and seems to have been common all over the globe among the peoples of a primitive civili- sation. In South America the knotted cords are calfed "quippu" and some that are still preserved in ethnological collections were used to indicate the tribute to be paid to the Incas by the several tribes. They consist of woolen threads, the different colors of which repre- sent different kinds of produce : corn, wheat, fruits, furs, etc., while the number of knots register the amount or measure.^ *See Lao-Tze's Tao Teh King, Chapter 80. ^ Section 23. See James Legge's translation in Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XVI, p. 385. 'What can be done with knotted strings is well illustrated by the fact that a string alphabet has been invented for the use of the blind in which the letters are indicated by form or arrangement. The knots are easily made 2 ' r ^ \ /' i i .C^II^^ESE THOUGHT. Hfei^Hoiisk liifoiTins '; US tha^ King Darius when fighting the Scythians gave his orders to the lonians in the form of a leathern thong with sixty knots in it, thereby indicating the number of days in which they should expect his return. We thus see that the Per- sians employed the same mnemo-technic means that have been dis- covered in several South Sea islands as well as in America, and we may assume that the ancient Chinese knotted cords {chieh sheng) also were in principle the same. Knotted cords were replaced by notched bamboo sticks, and the incised characters may in olden times have been as primitive as are mnemotechnic communications of the American Indians, such as prayer-sticks and such other pictorial writings as are still extant. The invention of writing in the proper sense of the word is credited to Ts'ang Hieh (if 111), also called Shih 'Huang (^ ^), the "Record Sovereign'* because he is the protector and patron saint of history and archival documents. He is said to have lived in the twenty-eighth century B. C, and having ascended a mountain overlooking the river Loh, he saw a divine tortoise rising from the water. It exhibited on its back mysterious tracings of letters which "lay bare the permutations of nature to devise a system of written records,"^ — a report which imputes that he saw the characters of the five elements on the tortoise's back. It is not impossible that Chinese writing has been introduced from ancient Mesopotamia, a theory vigorously advocated by M. Terrien'de Lacouperie, rejected by many, but, after all, sufficiently probable to deserve serious consideration, for we cannot deny that many Chinese symbols exhibit a remarkable similarity to the ideo- gram.s of both ancient Babylonia and ancient Egypt, and remember- ing the fact that Chinese bottles have been discovered in Egyptian tombs and also in Asia minor, we cannot help granting that in prehistoric days there must have been more trade, and more travel, and a -greater exchange of thought than is generally assumed. and sufficiently different to be easily deciphered. The Standard Dictionary, II, p. 1780, contains an illustration of the string alphabet. •Mayers's Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 228, I, No. 756. CHINESE SCRIPT. We here reproduce from Garrick Mallery's work on Picture Writing of the American Indians,'' a table of symbols which shows the cuneiform signs in three forms ; pictorial, hieratic, and cursive, the Chinese and the Egyptian in parallel columns. Chinese, EgfpHan FtOoreal Hieratic Ci£r'.stv€^ o O *;.*!. Stcrte, ■ \ M M s :^ c^ HctncL. ^>« 0< !!< 1 '^ -FCsTi^ >— *< Ss«S *»4 Corpses. =1 fcl =1 ^ s-^*- Tl^odr. cd =r3 t.=T — Cave^ i s iiim fTTn 'h Home^ ^ > G m Bright (Sun and Moon) Bright (Moon /^ shining in window) ? Evening (^) :2 Many(^) Ear (15) /j^ Heart (>i»0 (^ Flesh (0^) y Mouth (U) ^ Muscle ( :)j) V Infant, Feeble (^) Weak (infan muscle) (^) Male (muscle working in field) (^) y Teeth yj Teeth lAAl (later Aj form) j Complete, ten (-f-) Cb Middle (t^) j Above (j^) I Below ( T) y ( Divide, I ^ Eight /^ Tocut(>9.) Gate (n)^ Between ([§]) (A) CHINESE THOUGHT. Crooked (gg) UZZ. Humaneness ({;: ) h— H, Hatred (Crookedness ((K Compare ^^ of heart) (^) \V \ Compare --p- Cow (41) ^ Half (Cow divided) (*) W Invert, change ( t) Y Horns* )] /-■ „, ,^ . >> ff Looking backward, H— Sheep (#.) n\\ To flee before I l' enemy (North) (;||;) % Justice (my sheep) (a) ^)^[| Manyf ^ Beauty (large^^ ^^^ Multitude (f}^ ) Man (A) Most of the symbols of the list explain themselves. A "bound- ary" is a simple line of enclosure. "Revolve'' is a curve. The mean- ing of the signs "to wrap," "mountain," **water," "river," "rain," "horns," "grass," "child," "constellation" or "star," "thread," "wheat," "tree," "fruit," "sun," "moon," is obvious enough. The symbols "elephant," "bird," "heart" require more imagination; but * This character does not exist in modern Chinese. fNot used in modern Chinese. CHINESE SCRIPT. 9 the original picture is still recognisable in them. The word "flesh" is meant as a slice of meat. "Mouth," "teeth," "eye," are also in- tended to depict the objects. The word "muscle" represents the upper arm, and in connection with the word "weak" which origi- nally means also "infant," it denotes "lack of strength." A char- acter consisting of two lines, representing two pieces cut off, means "to divide." Later the character "knife," as the instrument by which the division is to be made, was added. Crooked roads mean "crooked" or "evil," and in combination vC^ith the word "heart" we have the word "hatred." In the symbol "cow" the horns form the most prominent part, the body being reduced to a mere cross. The symbol "cow" combined with the symbol "division" means "half." The picture of a sheep shows the symbol "horns" on the top while the rest is scarcely recognisable. The symbol "sheep" in combi- nation with the symbol "mine" represents the character "justice," because the ancient Chinese were shepherds, and their main quarrels in courts of justice were disputes about the ownership of sheep; and their idea of beauty was expressed by "a sheep" that is "great." The symbol "middle" is easily understood and so are the symbols "below" and "above." The character "gate" is a picture of a double doorway, and the character "between" shows a mark between the two posts of the gate. The character "sun" or "moon" and a picture of a "window" means "bright," for if the moon shines into the window it denotes "brightness," and "sun and moon" in their combination mean the same, viz., the best light there is in the world. The ideogram "moon," if written in a special way, is read ^'evening," and if "moon" is repeated it means "many evenings," or simply "many." The earth is represented by a horizontal line on which a cross stands, implying that the soil of the earth is stable; it is the place on which to take a stand. Two trees mean "wood," three trees "forest." If the tree is cut in two, it originally denotes "one-half," later on it acquired the meaning "part or par- cel," and finally "piece." The outline map of a field means "field" or "farm," and lines limiting two fields mean "frontier" or "boundary." If the character "man," of which only the legs are left, has the lO CHINESE THOUGHT. symbol "two" attached to it, it means the relation which obtains between two or several people, viz., "humanity," "humaneness," or "kindness." One man or two men turned the other way means "to compare." A man upside down means "to invert," "to change." One man in his normal position, and the other upside down ac- quires the sense of "transformation" or "conversion." One man in a normal position and another man looking the other way means "north," for the Chinese determine directions by looking south; hence, to look backward means "north." The symbol consisting of three men means "many." To this symbol is frequently attached the character "eye," and thereby it acquires the meaning "many as a unit," i. e., "a multitude." A pretty instance of Chinese word formation is the word shu iW), which means "book" or "treatise," and is composed of the characters "brush" and "speak," the idea being that it is a thing in which "the brush speaks." There are several styles of Chinese script (shu), and we here reproduce from Professor Williams's Middle Kingdom (Vol. II, p. 594) a table which shows at a glance their similarities and dif- ferences. The most old-fashioned style is called "the seal script," or, after the name of the inventor, Chiien Shu. The second is the official style, or Lieh Shu, used for engrossing documents and com- monly considered the most elegant form of writing. The third is called the pattern or normal style (Kiai Shu) ; because it preserves most clearly the essential character of Chinese writing. The fourth is a shorthand and demotic style called cursive script or Hing^^ Shu, much used in practical life. It is the most difficult for foreigners to read, as many lines are run together, thus obliterating the distinct- ness of the original character. The fifth style is called the grass script or Tsao Shu. It is almost an approach to the easy hand of the Japanese, and its name may be translated "fancy style." Under the Sung dynasty a new style was adopted which is practically the same as the normal style, only showing more regularity, and it is ^^Hing means "to walk," "to run"; and as a noun the same character means "element." CHINESE SCRIPT. II Sung style Fancy Cursive style style Normal Official style style Seal style 1 H H EI -3? -€? ^ io ^ J ^ 1E7 • > J>^ ^ ^ E7 5t El j^ 5? ^'^ Q B a n e Writing has styles, VIZ., seal. official, normal, VIZ., runnmg or cursive, VIZ., grass or fancy VIZ., Sung. SIX DIFFERENT STYLES OF CHINESE WRITING. (Reproduced from Williams's Middle Kingdom.) 12 CHINESE THOUGHT. commonly called Sung Shu which has become the pattern of modem Chinese print. The writing of Chinese requires eight different kinds of dashes, and the word yung (yk), "eternal," contains all of them. This significant character accordingly has become the typical word with which Chinese scholars start their calligraphic lessons. ^^ ' - "t 7 =1 ^ ^' ^< Dot Hori- Perpen- Hook Dash Sweep Spike Curve zontal dicular THE ELEMENTS OF CHINESE SCRIPT. The little mark like a fat upward comma is called dot. Among the lines we have a horizontal and a perpendicular. Further there is a hook, which latter is added to the perpendicular by joining to its lower end a dot line. A dash is a short horizontal line. A taper- ing line downward is called a sweep, upward a spike, and a smaller sweep in the shape of a big downward comma, stroke. A crooked line is called a curve. STOCK PHRASES AND STAPLE THOUGHTS. The Chinese are in the habit of propounding their favorite notions and beliefs in enumerations. They are so accustomed to the mathematical conception of Yang and Yin that they would agree with Pythagoras who finds in number the explanation of the world. The Chinese speak of the Hang i, i. e., the two primary forms representing the positive and negative principles. Further they speak of the two great luminaries, sun and moon ; the two divinities presiding over war and peace, the two emperors of antiquity, the two first dynasties, viz., the Hsia and Yin; and the two venerable men that hailed the advent of the Chow dynasty, etc. The number "three" plays an important part in Chinese enume- rations. There are three systems of religion authorised by the government: Confucianism, or the system of the Literati (j^ ) ; Bud- CHINESE SCRIPT. 13 dhism, or the system of Shakya Muni (H) ; Taoism or the system of Lao Tze (3^). There are three kinds of heavenly light: of the sun, the moon, and the stars. In Chinese ethics there are three forms of obedience: of a subject toward his sovereign, of the son toward his father, of a wife toward her husband. There are three mental qualities (f^ ) of a student: application (S), memory (fg), understanding^ (M)- There are the three gems worshipped by Buddhists, the Buddha, the Dhaima, and the Sangha. There are THE THREE GEMS OF BUDDHISM. three pure ones or precious ones worshipped in the Taoist temples, probably in imitation of the Buddhist trinity. There are three cere- monial rituals ; one in worshipping heavenly spirits, another in wor- shipping spirits of the earth, and the third one in worshipping the spirits of ancestors. There are three sacrificial animals : the ox, the goat, the pig. There are three holy men : Yao, Shun, and Yii. There are three auspicious constellations : the constellation of hap- piness, the constellation of emolument, and the constellation of 14 CHINESE THOUGHT. longevity. There are three kinds of abundance that is desirable: abundance of good fortune, abundance of years, abundance of sons There are three powers (H /f) of nature: heaven (^), earth (^), man (A)- There are three regions of existence, the heavens, the earth and the waters. There are three degrees of kinship. Fur- ther there are three penal sentences: the death penalty, corporeal punishment, and imprisonment. There are three tribunals of jus- tice: the board of punishments, the court of judicature or appellate court, and the censorate or supreme court. There are three forms of taxation : land taxation, a service of twenty days labor each year, and tithes of the produce. There are three great rivers : the Yellow River, the Loh, and the I. There are three great river defiles: Kwang Tung, the Valley of the Yang Tse Kiang, and the defiles of the Si Ling on the Yellow River. There are three primordial sovereigns: Fuh Hi, Shen Nung, and Hwang Ti. In addition there are innumerable sets of three in the literature of the Confu- cianists, the Buddhists, the Taoists, and also in history. The number "four" is not less frequent. We have four quad- rants and four divisions of the heavens ; the East is the division of the azure dragon, the North of the somber warrior, the South of the Vermillion bird, and the West of the white tiger. There are four supernatural creatures considered as endowed with spirituality : tin (t^) or unicorn, feng (H) or phoenix, kwei (^) or tortoise, and lung (||) or dragon. The scholar possesses four treasures (K ) : ink ( g ) , paper ( |j]^) , brush (H ) , and ink slab (;bm) ." There are four figures which originate by combining the two primordial essences in groups of two, the great yang^ the small yang, the great yin and the small yin. There are four cardinal points and four members of the human frame. Instances of the number "five" are above all the five blessings (5 Ji©) • longevity (S), riches (a), peacefulness (J^) and seren- ity (^), the love of virtue (i\X i[fWi)> and a happy consummation of life (^ ^ ^). There are five eternal ideals ( ^') • humaneness " The Chinese have no ink stand but use a slab upon which they rub their ink, taking it as does a painter from a palette. CHINESE SCRIPT. I5 (il), Uprightness (^), propriety (|f ), insight (^), and faith- fulness (]$). There are five elements (£ iff) : water, fire, wood, metal, earth. There are five cardinal relations among mankind: between sovereign and subject (:^ g), between father and son ( 5C ^ ) J between elder brother and younger brother ( 3£ ^ ) , be- tween husband and wife (^fi§), between friend and friend (^ ^). There are five genii : of spring, of summer, of mid-year, of autumn, and of winter. There are five beasts used for offerings : the ox, the goat, the pig, the dog, the fowl. There are five colors: black, red, azure, white, yellow. There are five classes of spiritual beings: THE FIVE IDEALS. THE FIVE BLESSINGS. ghosts or disembodied human spirits, spiritual men, immortalised beings living in this world, deified spirits who have departed from the material world and live in the islands of the blest, and the celes- tial gods who enjoy perpetual life in heaven, There are five planets: Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn. Further the Buddhists enumerate five attributes of existence: form, perception, conscious- ness, action, and knowledge. There are five degrees bf feudal rank, five tastes, five notes of harmony in music, five sacred mountains, five kinds of charioteering, five colors of clouds, five ancient em- perors, five imperial courts, five kinds of mourning, etc., etc. M^ i6 CHINESE THOUGHT. NORMAL STYLE. GRASS STYLE. A NEW YEARS CARD.'* THE CHARACTER ^"BLESSING."" Sis THE FIVE BATS. (After a Tibetan picture.) * The deity Wen Ch'ang points upward, indicating that all blessings come from heaven. CHINESE SCRIPT. 1'] The characters which stand for the five blessings, and also the five eternal ideals, are naturally the most popular symbols all over China. They are used for congratulations and are inscribed upon wall pendants as ornaments. Among them the characters "longev- ity" and "blessing" are most used of all. They appear upon the decanters of convivial meetings; they are written on the bottom of tea cups; they are wrought into artistic forms of furniture; they CHINESE SAUCER WITH PHOENIX AND DRAGON. The centre contains the character fu "blessing." are used for buckles, on pins, on dresses, and as ornaments of every description. Blessing is called fu in Chinese, which is an exact homophone of fu meaning "bat," and so the five blessings, wu fu, are frequently represented by five bats. The word "longevity" is commonly transcribed by sheu/^ and * The diphthong eu in sheu is to be pronounced separately and in conti- nental pronunciation, as English ay and with following u. Giles transcribes i8 CHINESE THOUGHT. means "old age, years, a long and prosperous life, birthday, to en- dure, forever," etc., and is also euphemistically used for ''death." The popularity of the word exceeds every other perhaps in any language, and the character is conspicuous in China everywhere and in innumerable variations. . . As an instance of this tend- ency we reproduce the adjoined illustration, which is a photo- graph of the upper part of one of three tablets containing speci- mens of ornamental characters meaning sheii, ''long life-" The characters are over two inches in height, and are made of mother of pearl, in high relief, on a red background. On the three tablets there are altogether i8o different characters. The tab- lets belonged to the leader of the T'ai Ping, the Christian Chinese sect who rebelled against the present Manchu dynasty and were subdued with the assist- ance of General Gordon. They passed into the hands of Julius Saur, who was at that time a resident of Shanghai, when he went to Nanking, in company with Captain Fishborn, to treat for peace. The meaning of the symbol "longevity" is not limited to the secular meaning of long life in this world, but is endowed with religious signification verging on the idea of immortality among Western peoples. the word shou. The character consists of radical 33 (pronounced see, i. e., "scholar") and eleven additional strokes made up of the words "old," "to speak" and "word." CHINESE SCRIPT. 19 The star of longevity is Canopus, which is a of Argo. Ancient traditions tell us that Si Wang Mu, the Royal Mother of the West, who lives in the Kwun Lun Mountains, possesses a peach-tree bearing fruit but once in three thousand years. From the Sis THE LONGEVITY SYMBOL IN DIFFERENT STYLES. peaches of this tree the elixir of life can be distilled, and this is the reason why the peach symbolises longevity. Other symbols of longevity are the pine-tree, the crane, and the tortoise.* *For special reference see De Groot's Religious Systems of China, pp. 56-57- 20 CHINESE THOUGHT. Of enumerations in sets of six we will only mention the six accomplishments: intelligence, humanity, holiness, sincerity, mod- eration (keeping the middle path), and benignity; further the six forms of writing: the seal character, the ancient official style, the normal style, the cursive style, the grass style, and the printer's style. There are fewer enumerations of seven than might be ex- pected. We mention the seven sages in the bamboo grove, the seven precious things (Sapta Ratna) of the Buddhists, the seven primary THE CHARACTER ON CUFF BUTTON. LONGEVITY PIN. notes of music, the seven stars of Ursa Major commonly called "the dipper," the seven apertures of the head : ears, eyes, nostrils, and mouth; the seven luminaries: sun, moon, and the five planets; the seven emotions: joy, anger, grief, fear, love, hatred, desire. The most important set of eight is the eight kwa or trigrams. The figure "nine" is represented as the nine heavens, situated, one in the center, and the eight remaining ones in the eight divi- sions of the compass. There are further nine degrees of official CHINESE SCRIPT. 21 rank, and nine divisions of the Great Plan, an ancient Chinese state document. LONGEVITY DECANTER. CANDELABRUM WITH LONGEVITY AND ''happiness'' SYMBOLS. LONGEVITY CHOPSTICK HOLDER. There are ten canonical books : the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Odes, the Record of Rites, the Ritual of the 2.2 CHINESE THOUGHT. Chow Dynasty, the Decorum Ritual, the Annals of Confucius, the Three Commentaries, the Conversations of Confucius {^Lun Fi7), and the Book of Filial Piety. There are ten commandments and ten heinous offences. Of twelve we have the twelve animals of the duodenary cycle called rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, goat, monkey, cock, dog, and pig. They preside, each one over a special hour of the day and the night and are supposed to exercise an influence peculiar to the character of the several animals. There are further BUCKLE WITH CHARACTERS LONGEVITY AND BLESSING. twelve months, corresponding to the twelve divisions of the ecliptic, and the Buddhists speak of the twelve Nidanas or links in the chain of causation. The figure ''twenty-eight" is important as the number of days of a lunar month. Accordingly, the heavens are divided into twenty- eight constellations or stellar mansions, and it is noteworthy that four days in the twenty-eight, corresponding to the Christian Sun- day, have been signified as resting-days and are denoted by the character mi (^ Q) which has been traced to the Persian Mithra CHINESE SCRIPT. 23 and proves that, in remote antiquity, Mithraism must have exercised an influence upon Chinese habits. ^^ CRANE AND TORTOISE.* Symbols of long life. (Bronze candlestick.) These enumerations are not accidental and indifferent notions, but form the staple thoughts of Chinese ethics. They have become " See Mr. A. Wylie's article on the subject in the Chinese Recorder, Foo Chow, June and July numbers, 1871. * The tortoise drags along the moss that has grown on its back. 24 CHINESE THOUGHT. fundamental principles of Chinese morality and constitute the back- bone of the convictions of every half-way educated inhabitant of China. Whatever their station in life may be, all Chinese people know these ideas, they bear them in mind and allow their lives to be determined by the conception of the five eternal ideals, the five virtues, the five blessings, etc. They recognise in nature the funda- THE LONGEVITY GARMENT.* mental contrast of Yang and Yin as having originated from the great origin and believe that the moral world of social conditions is governed by the same law. Their highest ambition is to fulfil all the demands of hsiao, i. e., "filial piety." Scholarship is highly respected, and even the lower classes are punctilious in the obser- vance of all rules of propriety. * Reproduced from Professor De Groot's Religious Systems of China, page 60. CHINESE OCCULTISM. TIELIEF in mysterious agencies characterises a certain period ^ in the rehgious development of every nation. Even the Jews, distinguished among the Semites by their soberness, consulted Yah- veh through the Urim and Thummim, an oracle the nature of which is no longer definitely known. Kindred institutions among most nations are based upon primitive animism, or a belief in spirits, but in China we have a very peculiar mixture of logical clearness with fanciful superstitions. Chinese occultism is based upon a rational, nay a philosophical, or even mathematical, conception of existence. An original rationalism has here engendered a most luxurious growth of mysticism, and so the influence of occultism upon the people of the Middle Kingdom has been prolonged beyond measure. THE YIH SYSTEM. Among the ancient traditions of China there is a unique system of symbols called the yih (^ ) , i. e., "permutations" or "changes," THE TWO PRIMARY FORMS* ( LIANG l). THE YANG THE YIH Old form O • Modern form — — * It is difficult to translate the term Liang 1. One might call the two / "elements," if that word were not used in another sense. The two / are commonly referred to as "Elementary Forms" or "Primary Forms." De Groot speaks of them as "Regulators." 26 CHINESE THOUGHT. which consists of all possible combinations of two elements, called Hang «' (^ ^), i. e., the two elementary forms, which are the nega- tive principle, yin (I^), and the positive principle, yang (^). The four possible configurations of yang and yin in groups of two are called ssu shiang (pg ^), i. e., "the four [secondary] figures"; all further combinations of the elementary forms into groups of three or more are called kzva ( JJ'). In English, groups of three elementary forms are commonly called trigrams, and groups of six, hexagrams. The book in which the permutations of yang and yin are re- corded, was raised in ancient times to the dignity of a canonical writing, a class of literature briefly called king in Chinese. Hence the book is known under the title of Yih King. The Yih King is one of the most ancient, most curious, and most mysterious documents in the world. It is more mysterious than the pyramids of Egypt, more ancient than the Vedas of India, more curious than the cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon. In the earliest writings, the yang is generally represented as a white disk and the yin as a black one ; but later on the former is replaced by one long dash denoting strength, the latter by two short dashes considered as a broken line to represent weakness. Disks are still used for diagrams, as in the Map of Ho and the Table of Loh, but the later method was usually employed, even before Con- fucius, for picturing kwa combinations. The trigrams are endowed with symbolical meaning according to the way in which yin and yang lines are combined. They apply to all possible relations of life and so their significance varies. Since olden times, the yih system has been considered a phil- osophical and religious panacea ; it is believed to solve all problems, to answer all questions, to heal all ills. He who understands the yih is supposed to possess the key to the riddle of the universe. The yih is capable of representing all combinations of existence. The elements of the yih, yang the positive principle and yin the negative principle, stand for the elements of being. Yang means "bright," and yin, "dark." Yang is the principle of heaven; yin, the principle of the earth. Yang is the sun, yin is the moon. Yang is masculine and active ; yin is feminine and passive. The CHINESE CCCIJLTISM. 27 5§ 1 (U peror Q s s w K (U X! w (U w 3 ll >, c3 W ^ W w ,,^ ^ "m bo <+;^ (U bfl j3 u j3 gS S >> IS 5^ ^3 !S fl H, ^ c :3 ii It a a 3 § ^ ■4-) ■4-> u < ^ u ■§5 "A c < fl u ^H ,0 Q c ^ 'm .>, s >. 03 0) u oj tt 3 p t/5 l:^ ^ cc a u ^ rt^-N (U •r): (U p 'O TJ tj .2 CJ ^ a ^ X3 rt CO nj ^_^ a >. .^- .^ 21 TO J-. 'c3 15 a, So 11 a (11 § s cc 0) 2 ffi Q-^ g fl 'S ^ i2 g p >^ iS a W £m rt s S < .s§ i-i 1 1 li >< to 1 1 II 1% c3 o Sa; c (u 4) a; X c c b« *^ "* • .2§ c be t- «-i :^£§ 0)-" o to > iH c s 0^0-5 •s =« .s ^ -§6.2 "3 h.C c o -i N OT "d 28 CHINESE THOUGHT. former is motion ; the latter is rest. Yang is strong, rigid, lordlike ; yin is mild, pliable, submissive, wifelike. The struggle between, and the different mixture of, these two elementary contrasts, con- dition all the differences that prevail, the state of the elements, the nature of things, and also the character of the various personalities as well as the destinies of human beings. The Yih King (^ ^) is very old, for we find it mentioned as early as the year 1122 B. C, in the official records of the Chou dynasty, where we read that three different recensions of the work THE EIGHT KWA FIGURES AND THE BINARY SYSTEM. NAME TRANSCRIP- TION MEA^TNGS OF THE CHINESE WORD* KWA P ^ CO n « < H

w.^ T ill s. ARRANGEMENT OF TRIGRAMS ACCORDING TO FUH-HI. the father and the unalloyed yin, the mother. The three sons are represented by the trigrams containing only one yang; the eldest son having yang in the lowest place, the second in the middle, and the third on top. The corresponding trigrams with only one yin line represent in the same way the three daughters. The trigrams are also arranged both by Fuh-Hi and Wen Wang in the form of a mariner's compass. In the system of Fuh-Hi the ' Mayers, Chinese Reader's Manual, p. 177. 32 CHINESE THOUGHT. unalloyed yin stands at the north, the unalloyed yang at the south. The others are so arranged that those which correspond to i, 2, 3, of Leibnitz' Binary System proceed from north through west to south in regular order, while 4, 5, 6, start from south taking the corresponding places in the east. In this mathematical arrange- ment we always have the opposed configurations in opposite quarters, so as to have for each place in every opposite kwa a yang line cor- respond with a yin line and vice versa; while if they are expressed ^. Winter A^ ^'-^ ^ Summer ^* S. ARRANGEMENT OF TRIGRAMS ACCORDING TO WEN WANG. in numbers of the binary system, their sums are always equal to seven. Wen Wang rearranged the trigrams and abandoned entirely the mathematical order attributed to Fuh-Hi. The following quo- tation from the Yih King evinces the occultism which influenced his thoughts: "All things endowed with life have their origin in chan, as chan corre- sponds to the east. They are in harmonious existence in siuen because siuen corresponds to the southeast. Li is brightness and renders all things visible CHINESE OCCULTISM. 33 to one another, being the kwa which represents the south. Kw'un is the earth from which all things endowed with life receive food. Tui corresponds to mid-autumn. Ch'ien is the kwa of the northwest. K'an is water, the kwa of of the exact north representing distress, and unto it everything endowed with life reverts. Kan is the kwa of the northeast where living things both rise and terminate." Since this new arrangement is absolutely dependent on occult considerations, the grouping must appear quite arbitrary from the standpoint of pure mathematics. It is natural that with the growth of mysticism this arbitrariness increases and the original system is lost sight of. The yin and yang elements are supposed to be the product of a differentiation from the fai chih, "the grand limit," i. e., the ab- solute or ultimate reality of all existence, which, containing both yang and yin in potential efficiency, existed in the beginning. The grand limit evolved the pure yang as ether or air, which precipi- tated the Milky Way, shaping the visible heaven or firmament; while the yin coagulated and sank down to form the earth. But the earth contained enough of the yang to produce heat and life. Some unalloyed yang particles rose to form the sun, while correspondingly other unalloyed yin particles produced the moon, the two great lumi- naries, which in their turn begot the fixed stars. THE TABLET OF DESTINY. At the beginning of Chinese history stands a tablet which in some mysterious way is supposed to be connected with an explana- tion of the universe. It has been reconstructed by later Chinese thinkers and is pictured in the hands of Fuh-Hi as an arrangement of the kwa figures preserved in the Yih King. Considering the several traces of Babylonian traditions in ancient Chinese literature and folklore^ would it not be justifiable to identify the tablet of Fuh-Hi with the ancient Babylonian "Tablet of Destiny" mentioned in the Enmeduranki Text, a copy of which was discovered in the archives of AsurbanipaP^ and was said to contain the "Mystery of Heaven and Earth?" *K2486 and K4364; cf. Zimmern, KAT' 533. ^ CHINESE THOUGHT. Enmeduranki, king of Sippar, is the seventh of the aboriginal kings, and he declares that he received the divine tablet "from Anu, [Bel, and Ea]."^^ Chinese sages have their own interpretation of the phrase "the mystery of heaven and earth." They would at once associate the words "heaven" and "earth" with the two opposing principles yang and yin, and the question is whether among the ancient Sumerians there was not a similar tendency prevalent. It seems to be not im- possible that the Chinese tablet in the hands of Fuh-Hi is the same as the "Tablet of Destiny" of the Sumerians, and when some Assy- riologist has informed himself of the primitive Chinese conception of this mysterious tablet, he may be able to throw some additional light on the subject. DIVINATION. An explanation of the universe which derives all distinctions between things, conditions, relations, etc., from differences of mix- ture, must have appeared very plausible to the ancient sages of China, and we appreciate their acumen when we consider that even to-day advanced Western scientists of reputation attempt to explain the universe as a congeries of force-centers, acting either by attrac- tion or repulsion in analogy to positive and negative electricity. On the ground of this fact the educated Chinese insist with more than a mere semblance of truth, that the underlying idea of the Chinese world-conception is fully borne out and justified by the results of Western science. While it is obvious that the leading idea of the yih is quite scientific, we observe that as soon as the Chinese thinkers tried to apply it a priori without a proper investigation of cause and effect, they abandoned more and more the abstract (and we may say, the purely mathematical) conception of the yang and yin, fell victims to occultism, and used the yih for divination purposes. When we compare the vagaries of the occultism of the yih with the accom- " Anu, Bel, and Ea are the Sumerian trinity. The words Bel and Ea are illegible on the tablet and have been restored by an unequivocal emendation. A doubtful word of the tablet has been translated by "omen" which pre- supposes that the translator regards the tablet as a means of divination. CHINESE OCCULTISM. 35' plishments of Western science, we may feel very wise and superior, but we should not forget that it was the same fallacious argument of wrong analogy which produced in China the many superstitious practices of the yih, and in the history of our civilisation, astrology, alchemy, and magic. These pseudo-sciences were taken seriously in the world of thought throughout the Middle Ages and began to be abolished only after the Reformation with the rise of genuine astronomy, genuine chemistry, and genuine nature science. If the A DIVINATION OUTFIT. ^^ Chinese are wrong we must remember that there was a time when we made the same mistake. The Chinese outfit for divination consists of fifty stalks called "divining-sticks" and six small oblong blocks to represent the hexa- grams. These blocks are not unlike children's building-blocks, but they bear on two adjoining sides incisions dividing the oblong faces into equal sections, so as to give the surface the appearance of a yin figure. The sticks are made of stalks of the milfoil plant {ptar- mica sihirica) which is cultivated on the tomb of Confucius and re- garded as sacred. 36 CHINESE THOUGHT. Pious people consult the oracle on all important occasions. They are first careful to make themselves clean, and then assume a calm and reverential attitude of mind. The diviner then takes out one stick and places it in a holder on the center of the table. This single stalk is called "the grand limit" (fai chih), the ultimate cause of existence. He next lifts the forty-nine remaining sticks above his forehead with his right hand, and divides them at random into two parts, at the same time holding his breath and concentrating his thoughts on the question to be answered. The sticks in the right hand are then placed on the table, and one is taken out from them and placed between the fourth and fifth fingers of the left hand. The three groups are now called heaven, earth and man. The left- hand group is then counted with the right hand in cycles of eight, and the number of the last group yields the lower trigram of the answer, called the inner complement. This number is counted after the oldest order of the eight trigrams, viz., that of Fuh-Hi corre- sponding to the inverted binary arrangement. The upper trigram, called the outer complement, is determined in the same way. After the hexagram is determined, one special line is selected by the aid of the divining-sticks in the same way as before, except that instead of counting in cycles of eight, the diviner now counts in cycles of six. Having thus established the hexagram and a special line in it, he next consults the Yih King which contains a definite meaning for each hexagram as a whole, and also for each single line ; and this meaning is made the basis of the divine answer. It is obvious that this complicated process presupposes a sim- pler one which, however, must have been in use in pre-historic times, for as far as Chinese history dates back the divining stalks and the kwa system are referred to in the oldest documents. URIM AND THUMMIM. The Chinese method of divination may help us to understand the Urim and Thummim of the Hebrews which are so ancient that details of their method are practically forgotten. We notice first that the Urim and Thummim are two sets of symbols apparently forming a contrast similar to that of yin and CHINESE OCCULTISM. 37 yang. It is not probable that they were a set of twelve gems repre- senting the twelve tribes of Israel. Secondly, like the yin and yang, the two sets must have been a plurality of elements and not only two symbols as is sometimes assumed ; and thirdly, they served the purpose of divination, for they are referred to in connection with the ephod which must have had something to do with the determin- ing oracle. The Urim and Thummim* are translated in the Septuagintf by "manifestation and truth," or, as it has been rendered in Eng- lish, "light and perfection." It appears that the vowel in the first word is wrong, and we ought to read Orim, which is the plural form of Or, "light," and might be translated by "the shining things." If Thummim is to be derived from the root THAMAM, its vocali- sation ought to be thamim (not thummim) and would mean "the completed things." We cannot doubt that the Urim and Thummim form a con- trast, and if the Urim represent "light" or yang, the Thummim would represent "darkness" or yin, the former being compared to the rise of the sun, the latter to the consummation of the day. Sometimes the answer of the Urim and Thummim is between two alternatives (as in i Sam. xiv. 36 ff), some times a definite reply is given which would presuppose a more or less complicated system similar to the answers recorded in the Yih King. In the history of Saul (i Sam. X. 22) the answer comes out, "Behold, he hath hid himself among the stuff," and in the time of the Judges (Judges XX. 28) the question is asked about the advisability of a raid against the tribe of Benjamin, and the oracle declares, "Go up ; for to-morrow I will deliver them into thine hand." On other occa- sions the oracle does not answer at all,t and its silence is interpreted as due to the wrath of God. The answer received by consulting the Urim and Thummim was regarded as the decision of God, and was actually called the voice of God. This view seems to have led in later times, when the process of divination was no longer understood, to the assump- *?-(•> X See Sam. xiv. yj and xxviii. 6. 38 CHINESE THOUGHT. tion that Yahveh's voice could be heard in the Holy of Holies, a misinterpretation which is plainly recognisable in the story of the high priest Eleazar (Num. vii. 89). The Urim and Thummim are frequently mentioned in close con- nection with the ephod which has been the subject of much dis- cussion. It is commonly assumed that the word is used in two senses, first as an article of apparel and secondly as a receptacle for Urim and Thummim. Unless we can find an interpretation which shows a connection between the two, we can be sure not to have rightly understood the original significance of this mysterious article. The description of the ephod in Exodus ii. 28, (an unques- tionably postexilic passage) is irreconcilable with the appearance, use or function which this curious object must have possessed ac- cording to our historical sources, and the latter alone can be re- garded as reliable. After considering all the passages in which the ephod is mentioned we have come to the conclusion that it was a pouch worn by the diviner who hung it around his loins using the string as a girdle. The original meaning of ephod is "girdle" and the verb aphad means "to put on, to gird." David, a strong believer in the Urim and Thummim, danced before the Lord "girded with an ephod," and we must assume that according to the primitive fashion the diviner was otherwise naked. Hence he incurred the contempt of his wife Michal whose piety did not go so far as the king's in wor- shiping Yahveh in this antiquated manner. The main significance of the ephod in connection with the Urim and Thummim was to serve as a receptacle for the lots, and so it may very well have become customary to make it of a more costly and enduring material in the form of a vase. This will explain those passages in which the ephod is spoken of as being made of gold and standing on the altar, as where we are informed that the sword of Goliath had been deposited as a trophy wrapped in a mantle "behind the ephod." There are other passages in which "ephod" seems to be iden- tical with an idol, but if our interpretation be accepted there is no CHINESE OCCULTISM. 39 difficulty in this, for the receptacle of the Urim and Thummim may very well have come to be regarded as an object of worship. It is difficult to say whether the ephod is identical with the khoshen, the breastplate of the high priest, which in later postexilic usage was ornamented with twelve precious stones representing the twelve tribes of Israel. It is sure, however, that the Urim and Thummim cannot be identified with the twelve jewels, and the Hebrew words plainly indicate that they were placed inside as into a pouch. In Lev. xiii. 8 the verb nathan el, "to put into," is used and not ncthan 'al, "to put upon." The breastplate of the high priest seems to be the same as what is called in Babylonian history the "tables of judgment," which also were worn on the breast. But the identification does not seem convincing. We would have to assume that the ephod was first worn around the loins after the fashion of a loin cloth and that later in a more civilised age when the priests were dressed in sacerdotal robes, it was suspended from the shoulders and hung upon the breast. After Solomon's time there is no longer any historical record of the use of the Urim and Thummim. It seems certain that in the post-exilic age the rabbis knew no more about it than we do to-day and regretted the loss of this special evidence of grace. They sup- posed their high priests must be no longer fit to consult the oracle (Esdras ii. 63; Neh. vii. 65) and Josephus states (Antiq. iii. 8-9) that two hundred years before his time, it had ceased. According to common tradition, however, it was never reintroduced into the temple service after the exile. While Josephus identified the Urim and Thummim with the twelve jewels in the breastplate of the high priest, Philo* claims that they were pictures exhibited in the embroidery of the breast- plate representing the symbols of light and truth. His conception is untenable, but it is noteworthy because his view seems to be in- fluenced by his knowledge of the sacerdotal vestments of Egypt. We are told that the high priert in his capacity as judge used to wear a breastplate bearing the image of truth or justice. One such * De vita Mosis, p. 670 C; 671, D. E. ; De Monarchia, p. 824, A. 40 CHINESE THOUGHT. shield has been found, upon which were two figures recognisable by the emblems on their heads: one with a solar disk as Ra, the sun-god or light, the other with a feather, as Maat or truth. If the Urim and Thummim were not plural and were not contrasts, and if we did not know too well that they were placed in an ephod, Philo's interpretation would have much to recommend itself. Perhaps he and also the Septuagint were under Egyptian influence. While we do not believe that the Urim and Thummim were exactly like the yang and yin we are fully convinced that the Chinese method of divination throws some light upon the analogous Hebrew practice and will help us to understand the meaning of the terms. If the two systems are historically connected, which is not quite impossible, we must assume that they were differentiated while yet in their most primitive forms. P'AN-KU. The basic idea of the yih philosophy was so convincing that it al- most obliterated the Taoist cosmogony of P'an-Ku who is said to have chiseled the world out of the rocks of eternity. Though the legend is not held in high honor by the literati, it contains some features of interest which have not as yet been pointed out and deserve at least an incidental comment. P'an-Ku is written in two ways: one® means in literal trans- lations, *'basin ancient," the other "basin solid."® Both are homo- phones, i. e., they are pronounced the same way ; and the former may be preferred as the original and correct spelling. Obviously the name means "aboriginal abyss," or in the terser German, Urgrund, and we have reason to believe it to be a translation of the Babylonian Tiamat, "the Deep." The Chinese legend tells us that P*an-Ku's bones changed to rocks ; his flesh to earth ; his marrow, teeth and nails to metals ; his hair to herbs and trees ; his veins to rivers ; his breath to wind ; and his four limbs became pillars marking the four corners of the world, ■ — which is a Chinese version not only of the Norse myth of the Giant Ymir, but also of the Babylonian story of Tiamat. CHINESE OCCULTISM. {^^ Illustrations of P'an-Ku represent him in the company of super- natural animals that symbolise old age or immortality, viz., the tortoise and the crane; sometimes also the dragon, the emblem of power, and the phenix, the emblem of bliss. When the earth had thus been shaped from the body of P'an- Ku, we are told that three great rulers successively governed the world : first the celestial, then the terrestrial, and finally the human sovereign. They were followed by Yung-Ch'eng and Sui-Jen (i. e., fire-man) the latter being the Chinese Prometheus, who brought the fire down from heaven and taught man its various uses. The Prometheus myth is not indigenous to Greece, where it received the artistically classical form under which it is best known to us. The name, which by an ingenious afterthought is explained as "the fore thinker," is originally the Sanskrit pramantha^^ and means "twirler" or "fire-stick," being the rod of hard wood which produced fire by rapid rotation in a piece of soft wood. We cannot deny that the myth must have been known also in Mesopotamia, the main center of civilisation between India and Greece, and it becomes probable that the figure Sui-Jen has been derived from the same prototype as the Greek Prometheus. THE FIVE ELEMENTS. Occultism dominated the development of thought during the Middle Ages of China not less than in Europe, and here again in the conception of the elements we find traces of a common origin in both the East and West. The Chinese speak of five elements: water, fire, wood, metal, and earth ; while, according to the ancient sages of Hellas and India, there are but four : water, fire, earth, and air. This latter view also " See Steinthal's "The original Form of the Legend of Prometheus" which forms and appendix to Goldziher's Mythology Among the Hebrews, translated by Russell Martineau, London. 1877. Mantha is derived from the same root as the German word mangeln, "to torture," and one who forces (viz. Agni, the god of fire) is called prama- thyu-s "the fire-robber." The Sanskrit name in its Greek form is Prometheus, whose nature of fire-god is still recognisable in the legend. 42 CHINESE THOUGHT. (although in a later age) has migrated to China, where it is com- monly accepted among the Buddhists, but has been modified in so far as ether has been superadded so as to make the elements of the Buddhist-Chinese conception equal in number to the older enumera- tion which we may call the Taoist view. CHINESE. EUROPEAN. STUPA FORM, MEMORIAL POLE. DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS OF THE ELEMENTS. [The proportions of the several heights are deemed important, and are as follows: the square, lo; the circle, 9; the triangle, 7; the crescent, 2; the gem, 6. When built in the form of a stupa, the square changes into a cube, the circle into a globe, the triangle into a four-sided pyramid, and the crescent and gem also into solid bodies. The globe retains its proper dimensions but is, as it were, pressed into the cube and the pyramid; the pyramid is frequently changed into an artistically carved roof. The Mediaeval European conception is obviously not original.] That the Buddhist conception of the five elements has been im- ^ported to China from India, is proved beyond question by the fact CHINESE OCCULTISM. 43 TIBETAN STUPA. [This illustration is reproduced from The East of Asia, (June 1905), an illustrated magazine printed in Shanghai, China. The monument represents the five elements, but its shape is no longer exact. The upper part of the cube shows a formation of steps, not unlike the Babylonian zikkurat or staged tower. The globe is no longer a true sphere, and the pyramid has been changed into a pointed cone, so slender as to be almost a pole. The monument is probably used as a mausoleum.] 44 CHINESE THOUGHT. that the Chinese diagrams are frequently marked with their San- skrit terms. It is strange that the symboHc diagrams are more nearly identical than their interpretations. Earth is represented by a square, water by a sphere, fire by a triangle, air by a crescent, GATEWAY TO BUDDHIST MONASTERY^ PEKIN. A further development of the Stupa of the five elements. [The cube has been changed into a roofed house; the sphere has assumed the shape of a Chinese cap, the pyramid is adorned with a peculiar ornament imitative of a cover, and the crescent has been changed into a flower-like knob, as has also the gem which surmounts the whole.] CHINESE OCCULTISM. 45 and ether by a gem surmounting the whole. The two upper symbols are conceived as one in the treatises of the mediaeval alchemy of Europe, and serve there as the common symbol of air. The symbol ether is commonly called by its Sanskrit term mani, which literally means "gem," and in popular imagination is endowed with magic power. The five elements are also represented by memorial poles which on the Chinese All Souls' Day are erected at the tombs of the dead, on which occasion the grave is ornamented with lanterns, and a torch is lit at evening. All over the interior of Asia so far as it is dominated by Chi- nese civilisation, we find stupas built in the shape of the symbols of the five elements, and their meaning is interpreted in the sense that the body of the dead has been reduced to its original elements. We must not, however, interpret this idea in a materialistic sense, for it is meant to denote an absorption into the All and a return to the origin and source of life. It is noticeable that this reverence of the elements as divine is a well-known feature of ancient Mazdaism, the faith of the Persians, and is frequently alluded to by Herodotus in his description of Persian customs. The desire not to desecrate the elements causes the Persians to regard burial and cremation as offensive. They deposit their dead in the Tower of Silence, leaving them there to the vultures, whereby the pollution by the corpse either of earth or of fire is avoided. The Taoist view of the elements is different from the Buddhist conception, and we may regard it as originally and typically Chi- nese. At any rate it is full of occultism and constitutes an impor- tant chapter in the mystic lore of China. According to this view, the five elements are water, fire, wood, metal, and earth.* The knowl- edge of these elements, legend tells us, is somehow connected with the marks on the shell of the sacred tortoise which, having risen from the river Loh, appeared to Ts'ang-Hieh (Mayers, Ch. R. M., I, 756). Tsou-Yen, a philosopher who lived in the fourth century B. C, *?K A ;1^ ^ ± 46 CHINESE THOUGHT. wrote a treatise on cosmogony in which the five elements play an important part (Mayers, Ch. R. M., 1, 746). The five elements also figure prominently in "The Great Plan,"" which is an ancient imperial manifesto on the art of good govern- ment. There it is stated that like everything else they are produced by the y?ng and yin, being the natural results of that twofold breath which will operate favorably or unfavorably upon the living or the dead according to the combination in which they are mixed. All misfortunes are said to arise from a disturbance of the five elements in a given situation, and thus the Chinese are very careful not to interfere with nature or cause any disturbance of natural conditions. We are told in "The Great Plan"^^ that "in olden times K'wan dammed up the inundating waters and so disarranged the five ele- ments. The Emperor of Heaven was aroused to anger and would not give him the nine divisions of the Great Plan. In this way the several relations of society were disturbed, and [for punishment] he was kept in prison until he died." K'wan's misfortune has re- mained a warning example to the Chinese. In their anxiety not to disturb the proper mixture in which the five elements should be combined they pay great attention to those pseudo-scientific pro- fessors who determine the prevalence of the several elements, not by studying facts but by interpreting some of the most unessential features, for instance, the external shape of rocks and plants. Pointed crags mean "fire" ; gently rounded mountains, "metal" ; cones and sugar-loaf rocks represent trees, and mean "wood" ; and square plateaus denote "earth" ; but if the plateau be irregular in shape so as to remind one of the outlines of a lake, it stands for "water." It would lead us too far to enter into further details ; at the same time it would be difficult to lay down definite rules, as there is much scope left to the play of the imagination, and it is certain that, while doctors may disagree in the Western world, the geomancers of China have still more opportunity for a great divergence of opinion. The elements are supposed to conquer one another according "A chapter in the Shu King, translated into English by James Legge. S. B. E., vol. Ill, 137. " See 5". B. E„ III, 139. CHINESE OCCULTISM. 47 to a definite law. We are told that wood conquers earth, earth conquers water, water conquers fire, fire conquers metal, and metal conquers wood. This rule which is preserved by Liu An of the second century B. C. is justified by Pan Ku, a historian of the second century A. D., compiler of the books of the era of the Han dynasty, as follows: "By wood can be produced fire, by fire can be produced earth [in other words, wood through fire is changed to ashes] ; from earth can be produced metal [i. e., by mining] ; from metal can be produced water [they can be changed through heat to a liquid state] ; from water can be produced wood [plants]. When fire heats metal, it makes it liquid [i. e., it changes it into THE FIVE ELEMENTS AND THEIR INTERRELATION. ELEMENTS PARENT CHILD ENEMY FRIEND PLANET water's metal wood earth fire Mercury fire's wood earth water metal Mars wood's water fire metal earth Jupiter metal's earth water fire wood Venus earth's fire metal wood water Saturn the state of the element water]. When water destroys fire it operates ad- versely upon the very element by which it is produced. Fire produces earth, yet earth counteracts water. No one can do anything against these phenom- ena, for the power which causes the five elements to counteract each other is according to the natural dispensation of heaven and earth. Large quanti- ties prevail over small quantities, hence water conquers fire. Spirituality prevails over materiality, the non-substance over substance, thus fire conquers metal; hardness conquers softness, hence metal conquers wood; density is superior to incoherence, therefore, wood conquers earth ; solidity conquers insolidity, therefore earth conquers water." Besides being interrelated as parent and ofiFspring, or as friend and enemy, the five elements are represented by the five planets, so that water corresponds to Mercury, fire to IVCars, wood to Jupiter, metal to Venus, and earth to Saturn. 48 CHINESE THOUGHT. The yih system being cosmic in its nature, has been used by the Chinese sages to represent the universe. The first attempt in this direction is Fuh-Hi's diagram in compass form representing the four quarters and four intermediary directions. The system was changed by Wen Wang who rearranged the eight trigrams but retained the fundamental idea. It was supposed to have been revealed to Fuh-Hi on the back of a tortoise, but later sages superadded to the fundamental idea further characteristics THE MYSTIC TABLET.^^ of the universe, according to their more complicated knowledge of science and occultism. We reproduce here a mystic tablet of Tibetan workmanship, which, however, reflects the notions prevailing over the whole Chi- nese empire. The kwa tablet lies on the back of the tortoise, pre- sumably the same as was supposed to have been present when P'an- Ku chiseled the world from out of the rocks of eternity — and " The table has been reproduced from Waddell's Buddhism of Tibet, p. 453. Students who take the trouble to enter into further details are warned that in Waddell's table, by some strange mistake, the position of the trigrams tui and chan, in the east and in the west, has been reversed, a mistake which we have corrected in our reproduction. CHINESE OCCULTISM. 49 certainly the same tortoise which made its appearance in the Loh river to reveal the secret of the kwa to Fuh-Hi. In the center of our kwa tablet is the magic square written in Tibetan characters, which is the same as that represented in dots in the so-called "Writing of Loh."^* It is also depicted as resting in its turn on the carapace of a smaller tortoise. This magic square is surrounded by the twelve animals of the duodenary cycle, representing both the twelve double-hours of the day, and the twelve months of the year. In the left lower center is represented the rat which, in passing around to the left, is followed in order by the ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, goat, monkey, A TYPICAL CHINESE GRAVE. [The dead are protected against the evil influence of unfavorably mixed elements in the surroundings of the grave by a horseshoe-shaped wall. Cf. pp. 56-57-] cock, dog, and boar. The symbols of the days are : a sun for Sunday, a crescent for Monday; a red eye for Tuesday (red light of the planet Mars) ; a hand holding a coin for Wednesday (indicating the function of the god Mercury); a . thunderbolt for Thursday (sacred to Marduk, Jupiter, Thor, the thunder-god) ; a buckle for Friday (day of Frigga or Venus) ; and a bundle for Saturday. The duodenary cycle of animals is surrounded by various em- blems indicating lucky and unlucky days. Among these we can discover gems, buckles, thunderbolts, various limbs of the body, triangles, five-spots, links of a chain, luck symbols, and swastikas. " See the author's pamphlet, Chinese Philosophy, p. 19. 50 CHINESE THOUGHT. -They surround the eight trigrams which are placed according to the arrangement of Wen Wang. The kwa in the lower part repre- sents north and winter; in the upper part, the south and summer; toward the right, west and autumn; and toward the left, east and spring. The kwa in the lower right hand corner represents heaven ; in the lower left, mountain; the upper left, air or wind; and in the right upper corner, earth. SYSTEMS OF ENUMERATION. The twelve animals which are pictured on our Tibetan tablet are a curious relic of prehistoric civilisation. They represent at once the twelve months, the twelve divisions of the zodiac, and the twelve double hours of the day. Kindred systems of designating duodeci- mal divisions of the cosmos, both in time and space, by a cycle of animals can be traced in Babylon, Egypt, primitive America, and modern Europe, where to the present day the constellations along the ecliptic are divided into twelve groups, called the Zodiac, or ThierkreiSj i. e., the animal cycle. The duodenary cycle is an ancient method of counting, ex- pressed by animal names, a custom which has only been abolished in Japan since the Great Reform under the influence of Western civilisation. Up to tliat time people spoke there of "the rat hour," "the ox hour," "the tiger hour," etc., and these terms had no other significance than in Western countries, one o'clock, two o'clock, or three o'clock. The twelve animals are affiliated with the twelve branches, so- called, which practically possess the same significance, being also a duodenary cycle. The twelve branches may be summarily charac- terised as the twelve months, beginning with the eleventh in which the yang principle begins to prepare for its appearance in the new year, and ending in the tenth month of the ensuing year. The twelve branches are correlated not only to the twelve animals, but also to the five elements as indicated in our diagram. The fifth element "earth" is missing because it represents the center around which the twelve branches are grouped. CHINESE OCCULTISM. 51 1 ^ y w sis > water Vwood Vfire > metal water Yang stirring underground Hand half-opened Wriggling earthworm Opening a gate Thunderstorm Snake Female principle in hidden growth Tree in full bloom Clasped hands Cider or wine-press Yang withdrawing undergfround Yang in touch with Yin >> fi < u a p a w » ^ Little Snow. y^ § Heavy Snow. ^ ^ Winter Solstice. /J> ^Little Cold. y^ ^ Severe Cold. 62 . CHINESE THOUGHT. The thirteenth row is divided into seventy-two equal parts, which are left blank. The fifteenth row is divided into three hundred and sixty equal blanks representing the degrees of a circle which method of division the Chinese as well as we of the Occident have inherited from the Babylonians. The sixteenth row contains the names of the twenty-eight con- stellations together with the number of degrees whi^h each covers. These degrees are specifically marked in the fourteenth circle in which the odd numbers only are expressed. The series starting in the southeast and turning toward the right, is as follows: 1. The horn, ii° ; in Virgo. 2. The neck, ii°; in Virgo. 3. The bottom, 18° ; in Libra, 4. The room, 5° ; in Scorpio. 5. The heart, 8° ; in Scorpio. 6. The tail, 15° ; in Scorpio. 7. The sieve, 9° ; in Sagittarius. 8. The measure, 24° ; in Sagittarius. 9. The ox, 8° ; in Aries and Sagittarius. 10. The damsel, 11°; in Aquarius. 11. The void, 10°; in Aquarius and Equuleus. 12. Danger, 20° ; in Aquarius and Pegasus. 13. The house, 16° ; in Pegasus. 14. The wall, 13° ; in Pegasus and Andromeda. 15. Astride, 11°; in Andromeda and Pisces. 16. The hump, 13° ; in Aries. 17. The stomach, 12° ; in Musca Borealis. 18. The Pleiades, 9°. (In Chinese wtao.)" 19. The end, 15° ; in Hyades and Taurus. 20. The bill or beak, 1° ; in Orion. 21. Crossing, or mixture, 11°; in Orion. 22. The well or pond, 31°; in Gemini. 23. The ghost, 5° ; in Cancer. 24. The willow, 17° ; in Hydra. "The Chinese term mao does not possess any other significance except the name of this constellation. This character is unfortunately misprinted in Mayers, Chinese Reader's Manual. It is correct in the enumeration of Pro- fessor De Groot, loc. cit., p. 972. CHINESE OCCULTISM. 25. The Star, 8° ; in Hydra. 26. The drawn bow, 18° ; in Hydra. 27. The wing, 17° ; in Crater and Hydra. 28. The back of a carriage seat, 13° ; in Corvus. 63 EUROPEAN COMPASS. (Presunjably Italian.) The two plates are hinged together and fold upon one another in the same way as the European compasses shown in the following pages. (64 CHINESE THOUGHT. THE MARINER'S COMPASS A CHINESE INVENTION. The lo-pan or net tablet unquestionably serves superstitious pur- poses, but we must bear in mind that much genuine science is in- corporated in many of its details, and the latter no doubt has given countenance to the former. This again is according to the general law of the evolution of mankind and finds its parallel in the history of European civilisation. We must bear in mind that the great occultists of the Middle Ages, Paracelsus. Albertus Magnus, and CHINESE POCKET COMPASS. men like them down to Agrippa of Nettesheim, were the most powerful intellects of their day; and though they were deeply en- tangled in mysticism, much of their life's work was devoted to the furtherance of genuine scientific enquiry. In the Chinese Middle Ages the leading thinkers were of the same stamp, and so it is natural that much of genuine astronomy and the results of accurate observation of the stars are incorporated in the lo-pan. The most obvious part of it which must have ap- CHINESE OCCULTISM. 65 EUROPEAN COMPASS. (Presumably Nuremberg.) 66 CHINESE THOUGHT. peared extremely mystifying in former centuries was, as the Chi- nese call it, the south-pointing needle — the mariner's compass — situ- ated in the center of the lo-pan. The south-pointing needle is an ancient Chinese invention which for some time seems to have been forgotten. Professor Friedrich Hirth of Columbia University has privately communicated to me facts which prove that it was employed in ancient times by travelers through the desert, that the invention was lost and had to be re- discovered. We would add, too, that the Chinese invention became known in Europe after the time of Marco Polo where it was soon used as a mariner's compass. The incident is well known and can easily be established on the testimony of literary sources, but while sauntering through the National Museum at Washington, the writer discovered a palpable evidence in the show cases there ex- hibited, which displayed the Chinese pocket instruments containing south-pointing needles presumably a few centuries old, side by side with European compasses. They are of the same oblong shape and consist of two tablets hinged in the same manner. The European instruments have sun-dials in addition and are decidedly more ser- viceable for practical use but we can not doubt that for the original idea our ancestors are indebted to our Mongol fellow-men.* THE PERSONIFICATION OF STARS. To the Chinese (as also in some respects to the Babylonians) the stars are actual presences who sway the destinies of mankind, and we reproduce here a series of illustrations from a Buddhist picture-book printed in Japan. They are based upon ancient traditions ultimately derived from Sumer and Accad, but we have at present no means to determine the question of their history, especially as to their fate in China. One thing, however, may be regarded as certain, viz., that their traditional forms are prior to the calendar reform of the Jesuits. Hence we must assume that they have been imported by the way on * We wish to express here our indebtedness to the National Museum and its officers, and especially to Prof. Otis T. Mason and Mr. George C. Maynard. for the reproduction of characteristic specimens of this interesting collection. CHINESE OCCULTISM. 67 land either by the Buddhists from India, or through some earHer civiHsing influences perhaps from ancient Babylon, or may be in later times from Greece by way of Bactria and Tibet. An historical mti^l 4^^t^\ o] ^mK ^:& V VI VII VMl vmi X XI XII XIII XllU XV XXVII« XXv/iit XXvnili XXX • ROMAN CALENDAR STONE IN THE MUSEUM AT WURZBURG. From Weltall und Menschheit, Vol. Ill, p. 19. [The deities presiding over the seven days of the week are pic- tured on the top : Saturn for Saturday with sickle in hand ; Mithra the sun-god, for Sunday; Diana, the moon-goddess, for Monday; Mars, (the Teutonic Tiu) for Tuesday; Mercury (the Teutonic Wodan) for Wednesday; Jupiter (the Teutonic Thor) for Thursday; Venus (Teutonic Frigga or Freya) for Friday. The circle represents the crude picture of the zodiac beginning at the top with Aries, and run- ning around to the left, each sign being accompanied by the initial of its name.] made a specialty of this interesting branch of human lore, we can say positively that the Babylonian origin of the division and names of the zodiac has been firmly established. Prof. Franz Boll has col- lected all pertinent material of Greek texts and also illustrations of several ancient representations of the starry heavens in his book, 92 CHINESE THOUGHT. Sphaera, neue griechische Texte und Untersuchungen cur Geschichte der Sternbildcr (Leipsic, Teubner, 1903). He also refers to the method prevalent in Eastern Asia, of counting hours, months, and 2038 KUDURRU OF NAZI MARADAH, KING OF BABYLON, SON OF ^°39 KURIGALZAR II. [Most of the emblems are the same as in the preceding illustra- tion except that the goddess Gula is here represented in full figure in a typical attitude with both hands raised.] years by the duodenary system of animals and points out its simi- larities to the Babylonian system (pp. 326 f?.). Our own investi- ZODIACS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 93 STAR EMBLEMS REPRESENTING BABYLONIAN DEITIES. CAP OF A KUDURRU. 2031 [We see on the top sun, moon, and planet Venus, representing the Babylonian trinity of Shamash, Sin, and Istar. These three symbols are surrounded to the right of the moon by the lamp of the god Nusku, a goose-like bird, the scorpion, a double-headed symbol of un- known significance, a loop-like emblem and a stake bearing a tablet. The outer margin shows on the top the emblem of the ancient god Ea, a goat ending in a fish, a throne and a ram-headed mace; then turning to the right, we have the emblem of Marduk, a lance on a throne and the dragon Tiamat; further down an eagle (or a falcon) perched on a forked pole, a dog (or lion), two thrones with tiaras resting on them, and another throne, beside it lying an unknown scaled monster. The forked tree is the symbol of the goddess Nidaba, a form of Istar as the harvest goddess. The same deity is sometimes represented by an ear of wheat, in Hebrew shibboleth (from shabal, "to go forth, to sprout, to grow") ; and judging from the pictures on the monuments, worshipers carried ears of wheat in their hands on the festival of the goddess. It is the same word which was used by Jeph- tha of Gilead to recognise the members of the tribe of Ephraim who pronounced it sibboleth, because they were unaccustomed to the sibi- lant sh (Judges xii. 6). From shibboleth the Latin word Sybilla, the name of the prophetess, the author of the Sybilline oracles, is derived. Nidaba's star is Spica (i. e., "ear of wheat,") the brightest star in the constellation Virgo, i. e., the virgin goddess Istar.] 94 CHINESE THOUGHT. gations corroborate Professor Boll's theory, and we owe to him a number of the illustrations here reproduced. We complete the circle of evidences as to early prehistoric con- nections, by furnishing additional instances of pictures of the zodiac among other nations, that have been isolated for thousands of years. The names of our own zodiac are commemorated in a couplet of two Latin hexameters as follows: "Sunt Aries Taurus Gemini Cancer Leo Virgo Lihraque Scorpius^ Arcitenus^ Caper^ Amphora* Pisces, or in English: (i) the Ram, (2) the Bull, (3) the Twins, (4) the Crab, (5) the Lion, (6) the Virgin, (7) the Balance, (8) the Scor- pion, (9) the Archer, (10) the Goat, (11) the Vase or Water-man, and (12) the Fishes. All the zodiacs, together with their divisions into constellations, must have one common origin which can only have been in Babylon, the home of ancient astronomy. We possess among the cuneiform inscriptions of the first or second century B. C. some astronomical tablets which contain an enumeration of the Babylonian zodiac in abbreviations. They read as follows:^ I. Hf (ku(sarikku)) = aries. 2. -^y {te(mennu)) =r taurus. 3- + + (^'^M = gemini. 4. tH< (Julukku) = cancer. 5' n (^^) = leo. 6. m- (ser^) = virgo. 7. ^J {zibanitu) = libra. 8. »♦ JEl (agrabu) = Scorpio. 9. * if^) = arcitenens. «o- 141 (. be W 4) X! ^ ^ (u ^ Jis s l-l •l§ < £i 3 C T3 w t'^ ^^ '; . neously with the division of the ecHptIc,«iiitO;>,wblve',Hiknd6ti'^/&r many constellations of the ancient ecliptic are very irregular and LATE ROMAN EGYPTIAN MARBLE PLAQUE.* 4243 [The center represents Apollo and Phoebe, the former with a solar halo, the latter crowned with a crescent. Surrounding this are two circles of twelve mansions each, the outer circle containing the signs of the Greek zodiac, and the inner the corresponding signs of the Egyptian zodiac. Beginning at the top the pictures run to the left as follows: Aries, cat (inner circle); Taurus, jackal; Gemini, serpent; Cancer, scarab ; Leo, ass ; Virgo, lion ; Libra, goat ; Scorpio, cow ; Sagittarius, falcon; Capricorn, baboon; Aquarius, ibis; Pisces, croco- dile.] reach in their bulk either above or below the exact path of the sun. In fact, Eudoxus, Aratus, and Hipparchus do not enumerate twelve, * Described by J. Daressy, Recueil de travaux rel. a la philol, et a I'arch Egypt, et Assyr., XXIII, 126 f. ZODIACS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. IO3 but only eleven constellations of the zodiac, and it seems that Libra, the Balance, is a later addition ; and yet this change also is commonly supposed to have come from Babylon. We must conclude therefore that the constellations among the starry heavens were mapped out without special reference to the ecliptic, and are older. The irregu- larity of the Chinese constellations along the ecliptic, accordingly, would go far to prove that their names must have been imported into China before the ecliptic had finally been regulated into twelve equal mansions, each of 30 degrees. Babylonian wisdom migrated in both directions, toward the east to China, and toward the west to Europe. It must have reached China at an early date in prehistoric times, and it has come down to us from the Greeks who in their turn received their information second hand through the Egyptians. At every stage in this continuous transfer of ideas, the mytho- logical names were translated into those that would best correspond to them. Istar changed to Venus, or Virgo; Bel Marduk to Zeus and Jupiter, and among the Teutons to Thor or Donar, etc. During the Napoleonic expedition some interesting represen- tations of the zodiac were discovered in the temple of the great Hathor at Dendera. They are not as old as was supposed in the first enthusiasm of their discovery for they were finished only under the first years of Nero; but they well represent the astronomical knowledge in Egypt which looks back upon a slow development for many centuries. We notice in the transition of the zodiac from Babylon to Egypt, and from Egypt to Greece, several changes of names which are still unexplained. Sirius is identified with Orion, and the Great Bear with Typhon, etc. The Hindu'*' and the Arabian zodiacs are practically the same as ours, but the Chinese zodiac shows some deyiations which, how- ever, are too inconsiderable not to show plainly a common origin of the whole nomenclature. The Arabian magic mirror, here reproduced, exhibits the twelve symbols of the zodiac in the outer circle, and the angels of the seven planets which preside also over the seven days of the week, appear *For an illustration and description of the Hindu zodiacs see page 75. I04 CHINESE THOUGHT. in the inner circle. The center where we would expect some emblem of the sun shows the picture of an owl. It is interesting to see how sometimes the external shape of a figure is preserved, sometimes the name. We find for instance the Archer (called Sagittarius or Arcitenus) represented as a double- ANCIENT ARABIAN ZODIAC (13th CENT.) ^^^^ [Engraved on a magic mirror. Dedicated as the inscription reads "To the Sovereign Prince Abulfald, Victorious Sultan, Light of the World."] headed centaur drawing a bow in almost the same outlines on an ancient Babylonian kudurru, as in modern charts of the heavens. And it is noteworthy that in Greece, too, this centaur, in a note of Teukros, is spoken of a two-faced (StTrpoo-wTros). In the same way the scorpion-man holds the bow, and he again resembles the out- ZODIACS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. IO5 lines of the scorpion, so as to indicate that the bow has taken the place of the claws. Notice further that the ancient picture of the Babylonian Sagittarius possesses two tails, one like that of a horse, the other of the same form as that of both the scorpion-man and the scorpion. All this suggests that the two emblems, Sagittarius and Scorpio which are neighbors in the zodiac, may originally have been one and were differentiated in the course of time, in order to make the mansions of equal length. In this connection we would also remind our readers of the obvious similarity between the picture of the god Asur and Sagit- tarius. But even differences are instructive and there can be no doubt that they suggest prehistoric connections between the far East and the West. The symbol of the ancient god Ea is a goat terminating in a THE EMBLEM OF EA. 4i98 [Babylonian Symbol of Capricorn.] fish. The corresponding sign of the zodiac which in Europe is re- garded as a goat and called Caper or Capricorn, is considered a fish in China and called "the Dolphin." In a similar way the division of the zodiac that was originally connected with the annual inun- dation in Babylonia, is called either Aquarius or Amphora and is represented in the Chinese zodiac as a vase ; in Western charts as a man holding an urn pouring forth water. The astronomical knowledge of Babylon migrated west by way of Egypt and Greece, to modern Europe, and on its way east it must have reached China at a very early date. It is not our intention to follow here all the changes which the zodiac underwent in different countries. It is sufficient to call atten- tion to the undeniable similarity of all of them. It would take io6 CHINESE THOUGHT. the concentration of a specialist for every change to point otit the modifications which the several signs underwent in their transference SAGITTARIUS AND SCORPIO ON A BABYLONIAN KUBURRU. SCORPION-MAN AND SCORPION. 4241 from place to place and from nation to nation. One instance will be sufficient to show how the names with their peculiar associations ZODIACS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. IO7 affected the interpretation of the several constellations among the different nations. Cancer was called "the scarab" by the Egyptians, and was en- dowed with special sanctity for the deep religious significance of the scarab in Egypt is well known. The scarab (ateuchus sacer) is an Egyptian bug which belongs to the same family as our June bug, the cockchafer, and the tumble- bug. In habits it is most like the latter, for like her the female scarab deposits her eggs in a lump of mud which she reduces to the shape of a ball. The ancient Egyptians did not distinguish between the male and the female scarab, and had not watched how they deposited and laid their eggs, so it happened that when they wit- nessed the mysterious bug rolling a mud ball along the road, they were under the impression that the scarab renewed his existence by some mysterious means, and possessed the divine power of resur- rection from the dust of the earth. Accordingly the scarab became in Egyptian mythology the symbol of creation and immortality. The sacredness of the symbol was for a long time preserved in the ancient Christian churches, for Christ is repeatedly called "the Scarab." The passages on the subject have been collected by Mr. Isaac Myer, who says:® "After the Christian era the influence of the cult of the scarab was still felt. St. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, calls, Jesus, The good Scarabseus, who rolled up before him the hitherto unshapen mud of our bodies.'^^ St. Epiphanius has been quoted as saying of Christ: 'He is the Scarabseus of God,' and indeed it appears likely that what may be called Christian forms of the scarab, yet exist. One has been described as representing the crucifixion of Jesus. It is white and the engraving is green, and on the back are two palm branches. Many others have been found apparently en- graved with the Latin cross."^^ While the Babylonian, or rather Akkadian, origin of the Chi- " Scarabs. London : D. Nntt. ^^ Works, Paris, 1686. Vol. I, c-»l. 1528, No. 113. Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity. By Samuel Sharpe, London, 1863, p. 3. "/4n Essay on Scarabs, by W. J. Loftie, B.A., F.SA., pp. 58, 59. io8 CHINESE THOUGHT. nese zodiac must be regarded as an established fact, we can not deny that it possesses some peculiarities of its own. The Chinese begin the enumeration of their zodiac with a t A^*f?J tm^n tiafti tuo 2 I to a CO 3 a 1 JtO 'rt cn s s rt -1 a; CO Q -a B Q o <: 3 X H O H O H < _! M OS < O CO 9 3 cr <3 a, U CO en .2 a. u 8 en 2 o go > J *5 6 O CO 3 rt H 1 < s Cd u 8^ > .9 Q o § a. 1 2 M a H a o ^ i B rt CO 0) fa ANIMAL NAME _ PQ (U ffi i 2 Q o J3 rt a o m < O 2 '5 u ■ t & JMM P^^BHMlfe'' -&"^" iJWBiii'-b^.^.. ll9P!V*PiOi i ^^^pi*^^ • ^^ i—^% ^mA pHJ^^^ '".iiiii .Tw^ 6^ M^^^Bii^'' ^^^Hl 178 CHINESE THOUGHT. complaints to the Consul, who might impose the fine of a dollar for misdemeanor, but I could always prove that I had just cause to beat him." The Chinese are possessed of extraordinary patience, but if their patience is exhausted, their rage knows no limits. The in- dignation of the Chinese against foreigners has been smouldering for a long time and the ambassadors at Peking received many warn- ings, but they could not believe that the meek Pekingese would ever dare to attack them. Under such conditions it is all but impossible that the Chinese people should have any respect, let alone love or admiration, for Western civilisation ; and yet on the other hand it is quite natural that a great rebellion should break out which was at the same time a national Chinese reaction against the Tartar tyrants and a Chris- tian movement such as was the Tai Ping rebellion. THE TAI PING REBELLION. The rebellion in China, which broke out in 1850 and was finally suppressed in 1864 by General Gordon, was the product of all the factors that oppose the present Chinese Government. It was national Chinese as opposed to the Tartar usurpers; it was Christian, but it was a Chinese Christianity after the fashion of Gutzlaff, not dressed in European broadcloth, and using the terms of the Protestant trans- lation of the New Testament. There were several leaders at the head of the movement, but two were of special prominence, Tien Teh (Heavenly Virtue), a person who claimed to be a descendant of the ancient Ming dynasty, and Hung Hsiu Chilian, a Christian who called himself Tien Wang, or Heavenly King. The former was nominally the emperor-elect of the rebels, but he seems to have been a mere figure-head, and after his death the latter, the real soul of the rebellion, became the acknowledged head of all. The Tai Ping rebellion might have succeeded had not the Eng- lish Government, trying to ingratiate itself with the Chinese author- ities, offered their best general to help them to suppress the Tai Ping. The fact seems strange at first sight that a Christian nation should suppress a Christian movement in China with bayonets and THE CHINESE PROBLEM. 179 guns; but we must bear in mind that the Christianity of the Tai Ping rebels, not being the Europeanised Christianity of the Enghsh missionaries, was regarded as spurious, and thus the EngHsh gov- ernment cherished grave doubts as to the advantages which she would reap if in the place of the hated Tartar dynasty the Chinese would be governed by a Christian, but none the less a Chinese ruler. An indigenous dynasty would probably pursue a policy that would be more hostile to foreign traders than the Tartar dynasty was, who i''^ Js^ -^ TIEN TEH, THE PRETENDER OF THE TAI PING REBELLION. on this occasion might be taught how useful to them an English alliance would be. On the other hand. Christian China would have a claim to considerations such as no one thinks of granting the old pagan China. Sir George Bonham visited the rebels and gave an account of their character which seems to have had much weight with the British Government. He says: i8o CHINESE THOUGHT. "I found the insurgents had established a kind of government at Nankin, consisting, in the first place, of Taeping, the Sovereign Ruler, who is supposed by the believers of the new sect (if such do really exist) to hold the position or rank, either spiritually or in a corporeal sense, of younger brother of Our Saviour. There was little attempt at mystery as to Taeping's origin on the part of the insurgents, — it was admitted by several parties that he was a literary graduate of Canton province, who, being disappointed in his literary r ■ - 4 ^- ,.A^ ^^g^^ >^ / bI.^ ■^ ^, .-.M ■ hW' i^Y,;-.v-,, ... ; :-. iMM^-^d r^--' BP*^ PORCELAIN TOWER AT NANKING.* honors, took to what the Chinese are in the habit of calling 'strange doctrine,' that is, he studied the missionary tracts, copies of which were procured, there can be little doubt, from the late Dr. Gutzlaff's Union. Taeping and his small nucleus of adherents then embarked in this insurrection, and, after three years' perseverance and general success, they ended by capturing Nankin and Chin-Keang, where we found them now in full force. Under this Sovereign Ruler are the five princes above alluded to, first and second ministers, and a * The famous tower, commonly counted among the seven wonders of the world, was destroyed by the Tai Ping Rebels who saw in it a monument of idolatry and regarded it as an abomination in the eyes of God. THE CHINESE PROBLEM. i8i host of so-called mandarins — most of whom are Cantonese. I should not estimate their force of real fighting men at less than 25,000 ; though I believe that of the original number who started from Kouang-Si, not more than 7000 are now with Taeping." Sir George Bonham translates also the answer which the leader of the Tai Ping rebels gives to the English embassy sent to him, and this answer, though full of benevolence for the English, leaves no doubt that according to the ancient Chinese tradition he, the Tai Ping Emperor, regards all nations as his subjects. PUNISHMENT OF SYMPATHISERS WITH THE TAI PING. "The Heavenly Father, the Supreme Lord, the Great God, in the beginning created heaven and earth, land and sea, men and things, in six days ; from that time to this the whole world has been one family, and all within the four seas brethren ; how can there exist, then, any difference between man and man ; or how any dis- tinction between principal and secondary birth? But from the time that the human race has been influenced by the demoniacal agency which has entered into the heart of man, they have ceased to acknowl- edge the great benevolence of God the Heavenly Father in giving and l82 CHINESE THOUGHT. sustaining life, and ceased to appreciate the infinite merit of the ex- piatory sacrifice made by Jesus, our Celestial Elder Brother, and have, with lumps of clay, wood, and stone, practised perversity in the world. Hence it is that the Tartar hordes and Elfin Huns so fraudulently robbed us of our Celestial territory (China). But, happily, our Heavenly Father and Celestial Elder Brother have from an early date displayed their miraculous power amongst you Eng- lish, and you have long acknowledged the duty of worshiping God the Heavenly Father and Jesus our Celestial Brother, so that the truth has been preserved entire, and the Gospel maintained. "But now that you distant English 'have not deemed myriads of miles too far to come,' and acknowledge our sovereignty, not only are the soldiers and officers of our Celestial dynasty delighted and gratified thereby, but even in high heaven itself our Celestial Father and Elder Brother will also admire this manifestation of your fidel- ity and truth. We therefore issue this special decree, permitting you, the English chief, to lead your brethren out or in, backwards or forwards, in full accordance with your own will or wish, whether to aid us in exterminating our impish foes, or to carry on your com- mercial operations as usual ; and it is our earnest hope that you will, wath us, earn the merit of diligently serving our royal master, and, with us, recompense the goodness of the Father of Spirits. "Wherefore we promulgate this new decree of (our Sovereign) Taeping for the information of you English, so that all the human race may learn to worship our Heavenly Father and Celestial Elder Brother, and that all may know that, wherever our royal master is, there men unite in congratulating him on having obtained the de- cree to rule. "A special decree, for the information of all men, given (under our seals) this 26th day of the 3d month of the year Kweihaou ( ist May, 1853), under the reign of the Celestial dynasty of Taeping." The friendship of the Chinese authorities with the British Gov- ernment soon began to subvert the confidence of the Chinese in their rulers, and the secret societies again increased in power, finding supporters even among the highest mandarins and princes of im- THE CHINESE PROBLEM. / l8 perial blood. Emperor Kwang Hsii^ was suspected of being a friend of Western civilisation, and the late Empress Dowager Hsi Tai Hou favored the partisans of national traditions. According to the rules of filial piety so deeply engraved on the hearts of the Chinese people, the highest virtue is obedience to parents. Thus it happens that the Emperor's first duty is respect for the wishes of his mother, or of her who stands in the relation of mother to him. This is the reason why the Empress Dowager so long as she lived, was de facto ruler of China. The Empress knew that the dangers which threaten the throne of the Tartar dynasty through the secret societies-at home were more serious than the threats and attacks of the Western powers. She seems to have saved the throne by allying herself with the secret societies against the Powers and thus demonstrating to her subjects that the Tartars are solid with the Chinese against the foreign devils. An alliance with the Powers, or merely a friendly entente with them, might have roused the slumbering lion and made an end of the Tai Tsing dynasty. THE YELLOW PERIL. China possesses a peculiar attraction which is not so much a problem of the past as of the future. Western civilisation in its constant expansion has taken possession of five continents. It not only retains Europe, but it has found a new home in both Americas. It has settled Australia and sways the fate of Africa. In its spread over the world it has finally invaded Asia. Siberia is in Russian hands. Hither India is British, and Further India is practically divided between the English and the French. The Aryan race is now coming into contact with China and we are for the first time aware that we are here confronted with an old, respectable, albeit stagnant civilisation which will not so easily be assimilated as others, and the inhabitants are both industrious and docile ; hence the yellow race might refuse to be swallowed up and might even in its turn exercise an influence upon the white man's civilisation — a very un- * The private name of the Emperor, which however would be deemed im- proper to use, is Tsai T'ien. 184 CHINESE THOUGHT. pleasant prospect for all those who believe that their own souls alone have been anointed by the grace of God, — a prospect which has been called "the yellow peril." If we were just we would grant that the white peril to the yellow race is much greater than the "yellow peril" to the white race. A study of China is of practical importance. The laws that guide mankind are everywhere the same. All men are everywhere confronted with the same problems and they try to solve them by similar methods. We have the same instincts and even the successive phases of our mental growth are everywhere analogous, tending constantly upward and onward. The heart of man is at bottom the same everywhere. There are sages and heroes in every country. There are high-spirited teachers, and at the same time there are powers of evil at work that darken the light and impede the way of progress. Though we may be the strongest race and be in possession of the most accurate methods of science and also be blessed with the most liberal institutions, religious as well as political, we ought to recognise that other and weaker nations are flesh of our flesh and bone of our bone. They are our brothers and their social, political and religious life has developed according to the same laws and is bringing forth similar blossoms and similar fruits, and in spite of our boasted superiority we may still learn from them in many details and if we want to teach them, we must not be too proud first lo know them and appreciate the good qualities they have. The yellow peril is not so much a fear of the Asiatic civili- sation as of the Asiatic race. Our pessimists see in the distant future the world colonised by Chinamen, and an excited imagination repre- sents them in the shape of coolies and haggard-looking laundrymen, who are expected to pour in to take the place of Western laborers. This fear is in so far justified, as Chinese workmen are more frugal, more trusty, more industrious, more intelligent than Western labor- ers ; and if that be so, the Western laborer will not be able to com- pete with the coolie. But is not the truth here rather a warning and a lesson than a real danger to the interests of humanity? Our fear is based not THE CHINESE PROBLEM. 185 Upon a recognition of any fearful quality of the yellow race but upon a recognition of their many virtues, and so we believe that the future will take care of itself. Perhaps we Western races will find it wise if the yellow races have learned from us, to learn in our turn also from them. Perhaps we may deem it best, instead of having a con- tempt for other races, to understand what gives them their strength, and by appreciating their good qualities we may be in a condition to prevent future defeats by adopting their virtues. It is true that the destinies of mankind are not entrusted to any one family or to any one race of any one state or to the representatives of one special type of civilisation. We have seen how the lead of mankind has changed since the dawn of civilisation. There was a time when the black-heads of Akkad and Sumer in lower Mesopota- mia developed the foundation of civilised life. Of what race they were we know not ; we are only sure that they were neither Semites nor Aryans, and may have been Turanians or members of the great Mongolian family. These primitive people who had settled in the valley of the two rivers were not so numerous as the Sernitic tribes, born of the Arabian desert, and they must have recognised the threatening danger when Babylonians crowded them out of their homes, when they supplanted their language by a Semitic dialect and finally inherited their country and civilisation. It may be that the Semitic Babylonians saw the threatening clouds of a yellow peril when the yellow-haired race of Aryans took possession first of Iran, then Elam, and finally acquired dominion over Mesopotamia. They became acclimatised in Babylonia and became soon like them in ap- pearance and habits of life. They again saw a yellow peril in the purely Aryan Greeks. The Greeks again were defeated by the Ro- mans upon whom they looked as barbarians, and Tacitus is very pessimistic when pointing out the yellow peril of the North, where the yellow-haired Teutons lived beyond the Rhine. However, when Rome was at the mercy of the barbarians of the North, they took hold of the Roman civilisation and carried it to a higher plane, de- veloping what is now called European civilisation. American civilisation is considered as a purely European devel- opment, and yet Europe is afraid of "the American danger" that l86 CHINESE THOUGHT. threatens their holy institutions and may in time Americanise their business and also their public and private life. All these several fears are blind alarms, and whenever they were well founded, the change that came was for the better. The god of history gives the lead to those nations which in the general struggle for life prove to be the best, the most energetic, the ablest. If the leading nation ceases to be progressive, if she refuses to learn, he calls another one to take her place. There is no nation that ever fell from its dominant position but deserved its fate. Changes in history (at least when we consider all the conditions that lead to them) were always for the better in the general interest of mankind, and the evils of the transitional periods were small if compared to the progress that was finally attained. Now the Western world looks with fear upon the yellow peril that might threaten the world from East Asia. The West need not be alarmed, for China is too conservative to be transformed so suddenly, and then one other thing is sure, that there is danger only if the yellow nations possess sufficient virtues to make themselves formidable, and if they should in the future really become the pre- dominant race, they can take the lead only by excelling and sur- passing the representative nations of the West. We believe that this assumption lies at such a distance that the cry of alarm seems unwar- ranted, but even if there were an actual danger, a possible change in the present balance of power, there is no need of fear, since the sole condition for the yellow race to rise into prominence would consist in the great task (which is by no means an easy one) of outdoing all other nations, not only in military accomplishments, but also, and mainly, in the industrial pursuits of peace. CONCLUSION. THE Chinese way of thinking, especially where it still clings to occultism and mysticism, has serious faults, yet it is based upon a world conception which is not only rational but even in close agree- ment with some leading principles of Western science; and there is scarcely a superstition in Cathay which has not at one time or another prevailed in European countries, if not in the same, at least in an analogous form. We, too, had the measles in our childhood ; so we have no reason to ridicule the Chinese because they (or at least large classes of the population) have them still. The history of the relations between Europe and China exhibits a series of blunders both on the side of the Chinese and the Euro- pean governments ; and the root of the evil on either side is haughti- ness. It is reported that Emperor Charles V in his old days used to say: "Quantula sapientia mundus regitur!" [With what little wisdom the world is governed!! How true that is ! If the men that fill the leading positions of the world would only use a little discretion, if it were merely the common sense of a pious farmer or peasant who has religion enough to be afraid to do wrong, how much better would the world fare than now when diplomats claim that nations are not bound by the moral maxims which individuals are obliged to respect. Think what wrongdoing might have been avoided by a little dose of prudence in modern history ! Think only of the War of Secession in our own country ; the money it cost would have sufficed to buy off all the slaves several times over. But the real trouble is that both parties l88 CHINESE THOUGHT. as a rule are impervious to reason, and their conflict becomes in- evitable, each side having the advantage to declare that though they themselves be wrong in many respects, their adversaries are not less blameworthy. So far, the best argument of a belligerent party has commonly been the street-boy's answer to his antagonist : ''You are another !" The Chinese are in possession of a very ancient civilisation ; they know it and are proud of it. But Chinese pride is outdone by European insolence, and thus resulted a lamentable state of affairs which led to many misunderstandings, disturbances and wars. The distrust, hatred, and contempt which are mutual are not a recent affair but the product of centuries. Some blame the missionaries as being the cause of all trouble, others the greediness of the powers, still others would condemn the Chinese for their haughtiness and stupidity. Perhaps there is some fault all around. Neither the Chinese nor the Western people are angels, the latter especially can not easily be whitewashed, as, for instance, no one would dare to defend or even find an excuse for the Opium War. Yet, if we claim to be the superior race let us prove it by superiority of behavior — not merely by a superiority of our guns but first of all by a superiority of conduct. It is certain that had our diplomats taken the trouble to study the Chinese char- acter, many severe clashes and the spilling of innocent blood as well as the expenditure of enormous sums of money in several bitter wars that far from redressing wrongs only served to make matters worse, might have been avoided. It will be easier to conquer China than to subdue it, and should a foreign power succeed in taking it (which is by no means an easy task), the conquerors will find out that the easiest way of holding the country would be by becoming Chinese themselves. From the standpoint of comparative ethnology and especially ethnic psychology, a knowledge of the Chinese mode of thinking is of great importance ; for the Chinese are so different from all other existing nations in their world conception, and in their ways of arguing, as well as living, that they seem to have developed a type of humanity of their own. Yet the differences are only in ex- CONCLUSION. 189 ternals and their main logical as well as moral notions are practic- ally the same as those which prevail among the nations of Europe. Those traits, however, which are different are deeply rooted in the aboriginal character of the Chinese nation and pervade their entire history. These strange people have developed on different lines, and though they started with great promise, having made rapid strides at the very beginning of their civilisation, they exhibited a most devout reverence toward the past which resulted in an un- paralleled conservatism in their national institutions that worked as a brake upon progress, and rendered their further evolution almost stagnant. Because of this they have been easily overtaken by the younger nations of the West who were still barbarians, nay, savages, when China had attained a high grade of civilisation. We should not forget that we owe to China all the inventions which in their entirety produced the latest phase of our civilisation, viz., the invention of printing, the manufacture of paper, the use of the mariner's compass, and last but not least, the invention of gun- powder. Reports of these inventions, not to mention others of less significance, such as the manufacture of porcelain, silk culture, etc., had reached Europe through travelers who at first were scarcely believed, but the result was a rediscovery of these ancient Chinese inventions and their more systematic application in practical life. While the Chinese, almost since the days of Confucius, have made little advance in the arts and sciences, Europe grew rapidly in knowledge, wealth, and power, having now reached a stage which might be called "the age of science." It is difficult for us to-day to understand how the Chinese can be so impervious to progress, how they can be so proud of their own civilisation, the imperfections of which appear obvious to us. We find an answer to these problems when we become acquainted with the Chinese mode of speaking, writing, and thinking. If we want to comprehend their errors we must know that these are but the reverse aspect of their proficiencies, and their faults are fre- quently misapplied virtues. We shall be better able to deal with the Chinese when we study their character as a whole by contem- plating the dark aspects of the picture as the shades that are pro- IQO CHINESE THOUGHT. duced by the light that falls upon things. In this sense and for the purpose of furnishing the necessary material for a psychological appreciation of the Chinese, we have sketched the main characteristic features of the ideas which dominate Chinese thought and inspire Chinese morality. We hope that we have helped thereby to contribute a little toward the realisation of the great ideal of peace on earth and good will among men. INDEX. Agrippa of Nettesheim, 64. Ahura Mazda and Asur, 95, 98. Ai, Duke of Lu, 119. Albertus Magnus, 64. All Souls' Day, 45. Ambrose, St., 107. Analects, (Lun Yu), 115, 116, 118. Ancestral Hall, 172. Ancient forms of Chinese writing, 5-8. Aquila, The star, 77. Arabian zodiac, 103-104. Assyrian standard, 96. Astrology, and astronomy, 89, 112; Babylonian, 88. Asur, and Ahura Mazda, 95, 98; and Sagittarius, 96, 97. Attributes, Five, 15. Babylon, 67, 90. Babylonian zodiac, 94. Bamboo sticks, notched, 2. Bats', Five, 16, 17. Beauty, ("great sheep"), 9. "Blessing," The character, 16; Orna- mental use of, 21, 22. Blessings, The Five, 14, 17. Boll, Franz, 91 ff. Bonham, Sir George, 181 ; on the Tai Ping, 179-180. Breastplate of high priest, 39. Brightness, 9. Brush, Invention of, 4, 5, 151. Buddha, 166. Buddhist monastery. Gateway to, 44. Buddhists, Elements of, 42. Bushel, The. See Ursa Major. Calendar comes from Babylon, 90; reform, 52, 53. Gallery and Yvan, 171. Cancer and the scarab, 107. Candlin, Geo. T., i6o n. Canopus, 19. Capricorn, emblem of Ea, 105. Chang Fei, 155, 158. Charles V, Emperor, 187. Cheng Tsai, Mother of Confucius, 115, 116. Chieh sheng, i, 2. Chih Nil, 131 ; daughter of sun-god, 77- Children, The twelve, 53. Chinese pocket compass, 64, 66. Chinese zodiac, 108-109. Ch'iu, ("hill"), 115. Chou, Duke of, 116, 149. Chou dynasty, 149. Chou Hsin, the tyrant, 30, 149. Chou Kung, (the Duke of Chou), 149. Chou-Sin, See Chou Hsin. Chou T'ze, philosopher, 154. Chou, The Yih of, 28. Christ, "the Scarab,"" 107. Chu Hsi, Biographer of Confucius, 113 n., 154. Chu Ko Liang, 158. Chuang Tze, 117. Chung Yung, 120. Colors, Five, 15. Commission of Examinations, 165. Compass, 63, 64 ff. Confucius, I, 35, 113 ff., 168; Homage to, 120, 121 ; Temple of, at Peking, 192 CHINESE THOUGHT. 114; a transmitter, 115; Travels of, 118. Constellations, Three, 13; Twenty- eight, 62. Councilor spirits, The three, 73. Court scene, 176. Cowherd, 77. Crab, Taurus and the, 98. Cuniform writings, 81 ; Zodiac in, 94.' Daressy, J., loi n. Darius, 2. David, 38. Decimal system of numbers, 85. De Groot. See Groot, F. J. de. Dendera, Egyptian zodiac of, 98, 99, 103. Destiny, Tablet of, 33-34- Dipper, The. See Ursa Major. Disk-norm, 58. Divination, 34fif., Outfit for, 35. Diviners, Professional, 55. Doketism, 85. DuBose, Rev. Hampden C, 172. Duodenary cycle, 50, 51. Ea, Symbol of, 105. Eight kwa, 20. Elamites, The, 100. Elements, Five, 15, 41 ff. ; of the Bud- dhists, 42; of Chinese script, 12. Enmeduranki, 33, 34. Ephod, 37, 38, 39. Epiphanius, St., 107. "Eternal," typical word, 12. European compass, 63, 65, 66. Examinations, Court of, 153. Exchange of thought in prehistoric days, 2. Fa, 149. Family relations in the trigrams, 30, 31. Father of Confucius, K'ung Shu, 115. Feng-Shui, 55 ff. Figures, The four, 27. Filial piety, 24; hsiao, 122 ff. Filials, Twenty- four, 124 ff. Fishborn, Captain, 18. Five, elements, 41 ff. ; The number, 14 ff. ; rulers, 149. Foreign embassies at Peking, 177. "Four," The number, 14; quarters, no. Fuh-Hi, 28 n., 29, 31, 33, 36, 48, 59, 149. Geoghegan, Richard H., 86 f. Geomancer's compass, 58. Giles, Herbert A., 17 n., 163, God, shih, 4. Goldziher, 41 n. Gordon, General, 18. Great Plan, 46. Great Wall, The 153. Groot, F. J. M. de, 19 n., 24 n., 25 n., 57. Grube, Wilhelm, 154. Gutzlaff, 169, 171. Hairdress of the Manchu, 153. Han dynasty, 119, 152, 154. Heaven and earth. Mystery of, 33-34. Herodotus, 2, 45. Hexagram, 36. Hindu zodiac, 75. Hirth, Friedrich, 66. Hoary characters. The ten, 53. Hokusai, 129. Homage to Confucius, 120, 121. Hommel, 98. Hsia dynasty, 149. Hsiao, Character, 122 f. Hsiian Teh, 155, 156. Hsiian T'sung, Emperor, 120. Hua T'o, the famous surgeon, 160, 161. Huang Ti, the "Yellow Emperor," 28, 53, 149- Hwang Ti. See Huang Ti. Ideals, Five eternal, 14 f., 17. Interconnection, 84. Interrelation of elements, 47. Invention of brush and paper, 4. "It is finished." 119. Japan, 168. Jesuit fathers, 79, 81. Justice, ("my sheep"), 9. INDEX. 193 Kan Ying P'ien, 72,. Kang Hi, 79, 81. Kao Tsou, the first Han emperor, 119. Keng Niu, the herdsman, yy. Kepler, 88; on astrology, 89. Knotted cords, i, 2. Ko Chow King, astronomer royal, 81. Krause, Ernst (Cams Sterne), 90 n. Kudurru, Cap of a, 93; of Nazi Ma- radah, 92. K'ung Shu, father of Confucius, 115. K'ung-tze, 1 13 ff. Kwa, 26; The eight, 20, 28. K'wan, 46. Kwan Yiin Ch'ang, 155, 156. Kwang Hsii, Present emperor, 183. Kwei Ts'ang, 28. Lao Tze, i, 117, 168. Lacouperie, Terrien de, 2, 3, 4. Legge, 113 n., 120. Leibnitz, 32. Li, son of Confucius, 115. Liang i, 25, 26. Lien shan, 28. Li Ki, Book of Ritual, 119. Lin, marvelous animal, 115, 119 Liu An, 47. Liu Pang, 152. Loh, River, 2. Lo-king, 58. Lo Kwan Chung, the author of the "Three Kingdoms," 162 ,163. Lo-pan, 58 ff . Longevity, Star of, 19; symbol in different styles, 19; symbol. Orna- mental use of, 21, 22, 24; tablet, 18. Louis XIV, 81. Lu, The state, 113. Lun Yii, (''Analects"), 115, 116, 118. Magic Square, 49. Mallery, Garrick, 3, "Man," The character, 9 f. Manchu, The, 153. Mandarin's banquet, 164; estate, En- trance to 165; household, 163. Marco Polo, 66. Mariner's Compass, 64. Mason, Otis T., 66 n. Maspero, 100. Mayan calendar, 86, 90. Mayers, W. F., 45, 46, 62, no, 127. Maynard, George C, 66 n. Meng T'ien, inventor of the brush, 5, 151. Mexican calendar wheel, 89. Middle Ages, Pseudo-sciences of the, 35- Milfoil plant, 35. Missionary Problem, 174. Missions, 169. Mithra, 22; slaying the bull, 97, 98. Mithraic monument, 85. Moor, Edward, 75. Morrison, Rev. R., 138 ff. Mother of Confucius, Cheng Tsai, 115, 116. Mothers, The ten, 53. Mystic tablet, 48. Nao the Great, 53. National Museum at Washington, 66. Net-tablet, 58 ff. Net-standard, 58. Nine, the number, 20 f. Notched bamboo sticks, 2. Notes, Five, 15. Novel, China's national, 154 ff. Obedience, Three forms of, 13. Occultism, Chinese, 25 ff. Occultism, The truth of, 112. Oceania, i. Outfit for divipation, 35. Pagoda at Peking, 137 ; of palace, 140. Pailoo gate, 142. P'an-Ku, 40 f., 47, 48. Pan-shih, 58. Paper, Invention of, 4. Paracelsus, 64. Parallelism, 84. Pavilion at Peking, 139. Peh Tao, 72. Peking observatory, 76-82; Pagoda at, 137; Pavilion at, 139; Street scene in, 146; Temple of Confu- cius at, 114; Tombs near, 143. Pendants, 122, 125. 194 CHINESE THOUGHT. Persian reverence of the elements, 45. Philo, 39. P'ing Ti, Emperor, 120. Planets, Five, 15. Plunket, E. M. 97 n., 98. Population, poor, 165. Porcelain tower of Nanking, 180. Powers, Three, 14. Prehistoric days. The Exchange of thought in, 2. Primary forms, The two, 25. Prometheus, 41, 83. Pseudo-sciences in the Middle Ages, 35. Pure ones. Three, 13. Quippu, I. Rationalism of Chinese occultism, 25. Recensions of Yih King, 28. Relations, Five Cardinal, 15. Reliable, The Chinese are, 175. Religions of China, 166 ff. Resurrection, Scarab symbol of, 107. Roman, calendar stone, 91 ; -Egyp- tian zodiac, loi ; globe of ecliptic, 102. Sages, The seven, 20. Sagittarius, and Asur, 96, 97; and Scorpio, 105, 106. Sapta Ratna, 20. Saur, Julius, 18. Scarab, symbol of resurrection, 107. Scorpio and Sagittarius, 105, 106. Scorpion-man and scorpion, 106. Script, Ancient forms of, 5-8; Ele- ments of, 12; Styles of, lo-ii. Seasons, The four, 61. Septuagint, 37. Seven, Enumerations of, 20. Sexagenary cycle, 59, 60, 81. Shantung, 113. Shi Huang Ti. See Shih Hwang Ti. Shih (God), 4. Shih Hwang Ti, hater of literature, 5, 150 f. Shintoism, 168. Shu King, 46. Shun, 116. Shun Shih, 153. Si Peh, "Chief of the West," 149. Six, Enumerations of, 20. South-pointing needle, 66. Spinning damself, 7. Spring and Autumn, 118. Sse Ma T'sien. See Ssu Ma Hsien. Ssu Ma Hsien, 59, 113 n., 117. Ssu Shiang, 27. Stalks, 35. Stars, Personification of, 66 ff. Steinthal, H., 41 n. Sterne, Carus, pseud. See Krause, Ernst. Street scene in Peking, 146. String alphabet, i n. Sui-Jen, 41. Sun Chien, 159. Sunday, 22. Sung dynasty, 154. Sze-Ma Ch'ien. See Ssu Ma Hsien. Tablet of destiny, 33-34. Tablet, Mystic, 48. Ta Hsiao, 120. T'ai chih ("grand limit"), 33, 36, 59. T'ai Ping, 18, 171; rebellion, 178 ff. T'ang dynasty, 154. Taoism, 168. Tartar tunic. The, 153. Taurus and the crab, 98. Temple of Confucius, 114; of Heaven, 145- Ten, canonical books, 21 ; stems, The, 52, 59. "Three," in enumerations, 12-14; kingdoms. The Story of the, 154 ff. Throneless king, 113^-', 120-121. Tiamat, 40, 83. Tiao Ch'an, the slave girl, 161-162. Tien Teh, of the Tai Ping, 179. Tiger Mountains, Palace in the, 138. Ting, Duke of Lu, 117. Tombs near Peking, 143. Transmitter, Confucius a, 115. Traveling cart, 148. Travels of Confucius, 118. Treasures, Four, 14. Trigrams, Arrangements of, 31, 32; Family relations in the, 30, 31. INDEX. 195 Ts'ang Hieh, inventor of writing, 2. Ts'ao Ts'ao, 159. Ts'eng, 59. Ts'in dynasty, 150. Tsou-Yen, 45. Tsung Ching, the last Ming, 153. Twenty-eight constellations, 62. Two-faced centaur on kudurru, 104. Two primary forms, 12. Twelve animals, 22, 49, 50, 51, no; branches, 50, 51, 59, no; hours, Table of, in; mansions, in Chi- nese characters, no; The number, 22. Tze Kung, most devoted admirer of Confucius, 119. Urim and Thummim, 25, 36 ff., 83. Ursa Major, 20, 60, 70 ff. Vega, The star, 'j'j. Waddell, 480. Wallenstein's horoscope, 88. Wan, King, 116. See also Wu Wang. Wen Ch'ang, 16 n. Wen Wang, 32, 48, 50, 149. Williams, S. Wells, 153 n. Writing, Ancient forms of Chinese, 5-8; Invention of, 2; of Loh, 49; Six forms of, 20. Wu Wang, 149. Yahveh, 38. Yang and Yin, 12, 26 ff., 34, 37, 40. Yangtze River, Island in the, 136. Yao, Emperor, 116, 127, 130. Yellow peril, 181 ff. Yih, The, 25 ff., 34, 48. Yih King, Book of Changes, 26, 31, 32, 36, 37, 55» 116, 117- 149; Recen- sions of, 28. Yin. See Yang. Ymir, 40. Zimmern, S3 ^' Zodiac, 50; Names of the, 95. Zodiacs of different Nations, 84 ff. Plant Breeding Comments on the experiments of BURBANK & NILSSON. By Hugo DeVries, Professor of Botany in the University of Amsterdam. Pages, XIII + 351. 114 Illustrations. Printed on fine enamel paper. Cloth, gilt top, $1.50 net; $1.70 postpaid. (7s. 6d. net.) Under the influence of the work of Nilsson, Burbank, and others, the principle of selection has, of late, changed its meaning in practice in the same sense in which it is changing its significance in science by the adoption of the theory of an origin of species by means of sudden mutations. The method of slow improvement of agricultural varie- ties by repeated selection is losing its reliability and is being supplanted by the discovery of the high practical value of the elementary species, which may be isolated by a single choice. The appreciation of this principle will, no doubt, soon change the whole aspect of agricultural plant breeding. Hybridization is the scientific and arbitrary combination of definite characters. It does not produce new unit-characters; it is only the combination of such that are new. From this point of view the results of Burbank and others wholly agree with the theory of mutation, which is founded on the principle of the unit-characters. This far-reaching agreement between science and practice is to become a basis for the further development of practical breeding as well as of the doctrine of evolution. To give proof of this assertion is the main aim of these Essays. The results of Nilsson have been published only in the Swedish language; those of Burbank have not been described by himself. Prof. DeVries's arguments for the theory of mutation have been embodied in a German book, "Die Mutationstheorie" (2 vols. Leipsic, Vat & Co.), and in lectures given at the University of California in the summer of 1904, published under the title of "Species and Varieties; their Origin by Mutation." A short review of them will be found in the first chapter of these Essays. Some of them have been made use of in the delivering of lectures at the Universities of California and of Chicago during the summer of 1906 and of addresses before various audiences during my visit to the United States on that occasion. In one of them (II. D.), the main contents have been incorporated of a paper read before the American Philo- sophical Society at their meeting in honor of the bicentennary of the birth of their founder, Benjamin Franklin, April, 1906. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.. 1322 Wabash Ave.. Chicago Space and Geometry in the Liglit of Pliysiolog- Ical, Psy etiological and Ptiysical Inquiry. By Dr. Ernst Mach, Emeritus Pro- fessor in the University of Vienna. From the German by Thomas J. McCormack, Principal of the LaSalle-Peru Township High School. 1906. Cloth, gilt top. Pp.143. $1.00 net. (5s.net.) In these essays Professor Mach dis- cusses the questions of the nature,origin,and development of our concepts of space from the three points of view of the physiology and psychology of the senses, history, and physics, in all which departments his pro- found researches have gained for him an authoritative and commanding position. "While in most works on the foundations of geometry one point of view only is empha- sized — be it that of logic, epistemology, psy- chology, history, or the formal technology of the science — here light is shed upon the subject from all points of view combined, and the different sources from which the many divergent forms that the science of space has historically assumed, are thus shown forth with a distinctness and precision that in suggestiveness at least leave little to be desired. Any reader who possesses a slight knowledge of mathematics may derive from these essays a very adequate idea of the abstruse yet important researches of meta- geometry. The Vocation Ol Man. By Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Translated by William Smith, LL. D. Reprint Edition. With biographical intro- duction by E. Ritchie, Ph. D. 1906. Pp. 185. Cloth, 75c net. Paper, 25c; mailed, 31c. (Is. 6d.) Everyone familiar with the history of German Philosophy recognizes the im- portance of Fichte's position in its development. His idealism was the best exposition of the logical outcome of Kant's system in one of its principal aspects, while it was also the natural precurs r of Hegel's philosophy. But the intrinsic value of Fichte's writings have too often been overlooked. His lofty ethical tone, the keenness of his men- tal vision and the purity of his style render his works a stimulus and a source of satisfac- tion to every intelligent reader. Of all his many books, that best adapted to excite an interest in his philosophic thought is the Vocation of Man, which contains many of his most fruitful ideas and is an excellent example of the spirit and method of his teaching. Tlie Rise of Man* a sketch of the Origin of the Human Race. By Paul Cams. Illustrated. 1906. Pp.100. Boards, cloth back, 75c net. (3s.6d.net.) Paul Carus, the author of The Rise of Man, a new book along anthropological lines, upholds the divinity of man from the standpoint of evolution. He discusses the anthropoid apes, the relics of primitive man, especially the Neanderthal man and the ape-man of DuBois, and concludes with a protest against Huxley, claiming that man has risen to a higher level not by cunning and ferocity, but on the contrary by virtue of his nobler qualities. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 1322 Wabash Ave., Chicago The Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot, some Addresses on Religious Subjects by the Rt. Rev. Soyen Shaku, Abbot of Engakuji and Kenchoji, Kamakura, Japan. Translated by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki. Pp.218. Cloth. $1.00 net. (4s.6d.net.) The Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot, which were delivered by the Rt. Rev. Soyen Shaku, during the author's visit to this country in 1905-1906, and have been collected and translated and edited by his interpreter and friend, Mr. Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, will prove fascinating to those who are interested in the comparative study of religion as well as in the development of Eastern Asia. Here we have a Buddhist Abbot holding a high position in one of the most orthodox sects of Japan, discoursing on problems of ethics and philosophy with an intelligence and grasp of the subject which would be rare even in a Christian prelate. The Praise Ol Hypocrisy. An Essay in Casuistry. By G. T. Knight, D. D., Professor of Christian Theology in Tufts College Divinity School. 1906. Pp. 86. 50c net. "The Praise of Hypocrisy" is an essay based on the public confessions of hypocrisy that many champions of religion have made in these days, and on the defenses they have put forth in support of the practice of deceit. Not that the sects now accuse each other of insincerity, nor that the scoffer vents his disgust for all religion, but that good men (as all must regard them) in high standing as church members have accused them- selves. By exhibiting the implications and tendencies of the ethics thus professed and defended, and by sharp comment on the same, the author of this essay designs to arouse the conscience of the church, to sting it into activity in a region of life where its proper functions have ceased. This is not an attack on the church, nor even a mere criticism; it is the language of righteous indignation hopefully summoning the church to be honest with itself, to be loyal and faithful to its master. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.. 1522 Wabash Av©.. Chicago Essay on the Creattve Imagination. By Prof. Th. Ribot. Translated from the French by A. H.N. Baron, Fel- low in Clark University. 1906. Cloth, gilt top. Pp. 357. $1.75 net. (7s. 6d. net.) Imagination is not the possession only of the inspired few, but is a func- tion of the mind common to all men in some degree ; and mankind has displayed as much imagination in practical life as in its more emotional phases — in mech- anical, military, industrial, and commer- cialmventions, in religious, and political institutions as well as in the sculpture, painting, poetry and song. This is the central thought in the new book of Th. Ribot, the well-known psychologist, modestly entitled An Essay on the Creative Imagination. It is a classical exposition of a branch of psychology which has often been dis- cussed, but perhaps never before in a thoroughly scientific manner. Although the purely reproductive imagination has been time to time, the creative or constructive va popularly supposed to be confined within the studied with considerable enthusiasm from riety has been generally neglected and is limits of esthetic creation. Our Children. Hints from Practical Experience for Parents and Teachers. By Paul Carus. Pp. 207. ^1.00 net. (4s. 6d. net.) In the little book Our Children, Paul Carus offers a unique contribution to peda- gogical literature. Without any theoretical pretensions it is a strong defense for the rights of the. child, dealing with the responsibilities of parenthood, and with the first inculcation of fundamental ethics in the child mind and the true principles of correc- tion and guidance. Each detail is forcefully illustrated by informal incidents from the author's experience with his own children, and his suggestions will prove of the greatest possible value to young mothers and kindergartners. Hints as to the first acquaintance with all branches of knowledge are touched upon — mathematics, natural sciences, for- eign languages, etc. — and practical wisdom in regard to the treatment of money, hygiene, and similar problems. Yin Chih Wen, The Tract of the Quiet Way. With Extracts from the Chinese commentary. Translated by Teitaro Suzuki and Dr. Paul Carus. 1906. Pp. 48. 25c net. This is a collection of moral injunctions which, among the Chinese is second perhaps only to the Kan-Ying P'ien in popularity, and yet so far as is known to the publishers this is the first translation that has been made into any Occidental language. It is now issued as a companion to the T'ai-Shang Kan-Ying P'ien, although it does not contain either a facsimile of the text or its verbatim translation. The original consists of the short tract itself which is here presented, of glosses added by cornmen- tators, which form a larger part of the book, and finally a number of stories similar to those appended to the Kan-Ying P'ien, which last, however, it has not seemed worth while to include in this version. The translator's notes are of value in justifymg cer- tain readings and explaining allusions, and the book is provided with an index^ The frontispiece, an artistic outline drawing by Shen Chin-Ching, represents Wen Ch ang, one of the highest divinities of China, revealing himself to the author of the tract. ^ The motive of the tract is that of practical morality. The maxims give definite instructions in regard to details of man's relation to society, besides more general pom- mands of universal ethical significance, such as "Live in concord," "Forgive malice, and "Do not assert with your mouth what your heart denies." THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.. 1322 Wabash Ave.. Chicago T*ai-Shang Kan-Ylng P'icn, Treatise of the Exalted One on Re- sponse and Retribution. Translated from the Chinese by Teitaro Suzuki and Dr. Paul Carus. Containing Chinese Text, Verbatim Translation, Explanatory Notes and Moral Tales. Edited by Dr. Paul Carus. 16 plates. Pp. 135. 1906. Boards, 75c net. The book contains a critical and descriptive introduction, and the entire Chinese text in large and distinct characters with the verbatim translation of each page ar- ranged on the opposite page in corresponding vertical columns. This feature makes the book a valuable addition to the number of Chinese-EngHsh text-books already avail- able. The text is a facsimile reproduction from a collection of Chinese texts made in Japan by Chinese scribes. After the Chinese text follows the English translation giving references to the corresponding characters in the Chinese original, as well as to the explanatory notes immediately following the English version. These are very full and explain the sig- nificance of allusions in the Treatise and compare different translations of disputed passages. This is the first translation into English directly from the Chinese original, though it was rendered into French by Stanislas Julien, and from his French edition into English by Douglas. A number of illustrative stories are appended in all the editions of the original, but the selection of these stories seems to vary in the different editions. They are very inferior in intrinsic value to the Treatise itself, and so are represented here only by extracts translated in part directly from the Chinese edition and in part through the French of Julien, but many are illustrated by reproductions of the Chinese pictures from the original edition. The frontispiece is a modern interpretation by Keichyu Yamada of Lao Tze, the great Oriental philosopher, "The Exalted One" to whom the authorship of this Treatise is ascribed. Spinoza and Religion, a study of Spinoza's Metaphysics and of his particular utterances in regard to religion, with a view to determining the significance of his thought for religion and incidentally his personal attitude toward it. By Elmer Ellsworth Powell, A, M., Ph. P., Professor of Philosophy in Miami University. 1906. Pp. xi, 344. $1.50 net. (7s. 6d.) Spinoza has been regarded for centuries as the most radical philosopher, yet he had a reverential attitude toward religion and prom- inent thinkers such as Goethe looked up to him as their teacher in both metaphysics and religion. Professor E. E. Powell, of Miami University, feels that there has been great need to have Spinoza's philosophy and attitude toward re- ligion set forth by a competent hand, and, ac- cordingly, he has undertaken the task with a real love of his subject, and has indeed ac- complished it with success. THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO., 1522 Wabash Ave.. Chicago Aristotle on His Prede- cessors* Being the first book of his metaph5^sics. Translated from the text of Christ, with intro- duction and notes. By A. E. Taylor, M. A., Fellow of Merton College, Oxford; Frothingham Professor of Philosophy in Mc- Gill University, Montreal. Pp. 160. Cloth, 75c net. Paper, 35c postpaid. This book will be welcome to all teachers of philosophy, for it is a transla- tion made by a competent hand of the most important essay on the history of Greek thought down to Aristotle, written by Aristotle himself. The original served this great master with his unprecedented encyclopedic knowledge as an introduc- tion to his Metaphysics; but it is quite apart from the rest of that work, forming an independent essay in itself, and will re- main forever the main source ofourinfor- . . mation on the predecessors of Aristotle. Considering the importance of the book, it is strange that no translation of it appears to have been made since the publication of that by Bekker in 1831. The present translation has been made from the latest and most critical Greek text available, the second edition of W. Christ, and pains have been taken not only to repro- duce it in readable English, but also to indicate the exact way in which the translator understands every word and clause of the Greek. He has further noted all the im- portant divergencies between the readings of Christ's text and the editions of Zellar and Bonitz, the two chief modern German exponents of Aristotelianism. Not the least advantage of the present translation is the incorporation of the trans- lator's own work and thought. He has done his best, within the limited space he has allowed himself for explanations, to provide the student with ample means of judging for himself in the light of the most recent researches in Greek philosophical literature, the value of Aristotle's account of previous thought as a piece of historical criticism. Zarathushtra, Phllo, the Achaemeiilds and Israel. A Treatise Upon the Antiquity and Influence of the Avesta. By Dr. Lawrence H. Mills, Professor of Zend Philology in the University of Oxford. 1906. Pp. 460. Cloth, gilt top. $4.00 net. Professor Lawrence H. Mills, the great Zendavesta scholar of Oxford, England, has devoted his special attention to an investigation and comparison of the relations that obtain between our own religion, Christianity — including its sources in the Old Testa- ment scriptures^and the Zendavesta, offering the results of his labors in a new book that is now being published by The Open Court Publishing Company, under the title, "Zarathushtra, Philo, the Achaemenids and Israel, a Treatise upon the Antiquity and Influence of the Avesta." We need scarcely add that this subject is of vital importance in theology, for the influence of Persia on Israel and also on the foundation of the Christian faith has been paramount, and a proper knowledge of its significance is in- dispensable for a comprehension of the origin of our faith. Babel and Bible* Three Lectures on the Significance of Assyrio- logical Research for Religion, Embodying the most important Criticisms and the Author's Replies. By Dr. Friedrich Delitzsch, Professor of Assyr- iology in the University of Berlin. Translated from the German. Pro- fusely illustrated. 1906. Pp. XV, 240. $1.00 net. . A new edition of "Babel and Bible," comprising the first, second and third lectures by Dr. Friedrich Delitzsch, complete with discussions and the author's replies, has been published by The Open Court Publishing Company, making a stately volume of 255 paggs - -- -' ' THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.. 1522 Wabash Ave.. Chicago The Story of Samson ^""^^'^ ^'«^« '° "^^ ^^''^ •^ 40US Development of Mankind. By Paul Carus. 80 illustrations. Pp. 183. Comprehensive index. Boards, $1.00 net. (4s. 6d. net.) Dr. Carus contends that Samson's prototype is to be found in those traditions of all prim- itive historical peoples which relate to a solar deity. He believes that genuine tradition, no matter how mythological, is more conservative than is at first apparent. Though the bibli- cal account of Samson's deeds, like the twelve labors of Heracles, is the echo of an ancient solar epic which glorifies the deeds of Shamash in his migration through the twelve signs of the zodiac, there may have been a Hebrew hero whose deeds reminded the Israelites of Sha- mash, and so his adventures were told with modifications which naturally made the solar legends cluster about his personality. References are fully given, authorities quoted and comparisons are carefully drawn be- tween Samson on the one hand, and Heracles, Shamash, Melkarth and Siegfried on the other. The appendix contains a controversy between Mr. Geo. W. Shaw and the author in which is discussed at some length the relation between myth and history. ^'kin^^^ TllOl1f¥llt ^^ Exposition of the Main Character- ** istic Features of the Chinese World- Conception. By Paul Carus. Being a continuation of the author's essay, Chinese Philosophy. Illustrated. Index. Pp.195. $1.00 net. (4s. 6d.) This book contains much that is of very great interest in the development of Chinese culture. Beginning in the first chapter with a study of the earliest modes of thought-com- munication among primitive people of different parts of the world, and tracing the growth of the present system of Chinese caligraphy. In "Chinese Occultism" some interesting Oriental mystical ideas are explained as well as the popular methods of divination by means of tri- grams and the geomancer's compass. In a special chapter the zodiacs of different nations are compared with reference to the Chinese zodiac and also to a possible common Babylon- ian origin. This chapter contains many rare and valuable illustrations representing almost all known zodiacs from those of Egypt to the natives of the Western hemisphere. The in- fluence of Confucius is discussed, and a hurried recapitulation of the most important points in Chinese history is given together with a review of the long novel which stands in the place of a national epic. Chinese characteristics and social conditions have their place in this volume as well as the part played in China by Christian missions, and the introduction of Western commercialism. The author's object is to furnish the necessary material for a psy- chological appreciation of the Chinese by sketching the main characteristic features of the ideas which dominate Chinese thought and inspire Chinese morality, hoping thereby to con- tribute a little toward the realization of peace and good will upon earth. Chinese Life and Customs ^/r,tt,r- by Chinese artists. Pp. 114. T5c. net. (3s, 6d. net.) This book is little more than a compilation of Chinese illustrations accompanied with only as much text as will suffice to explain them, and what further material has been added is merely in the way of quotations from Chinese literature. The intention is to make the Chinese people characterize themselves by word and picture. Child rhymes, love lyrics and songs of revelry are introduced in translation from Chinese poetry which is recognized as classical. The illustrations which form the great body of the book are from the most authen- tic Chinese source of information concerning modern life in China unaffected by the aggres- sive Occidental foreigners. The book is divided into chapters on "Annual Festivals," "Industries and Foreign Relations, " "Confucianism and Ancestor Worship," "Taoism and Buddhism," "Childhood and Education," "Betrothal and Marriage," "Social Customs and Travels," "Sickness and Death." THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.. 1322 Wabash Ave.. Chicago Our Children Hints from Practical Experience for Parents and Teachers. By Paul Carus Pp. 207, $1,00 net. {4s. 6d. net) In the little book Our Children, Paul Carus offers a unique contribution to peda- gogical literature. Without any theoretical pretensions it is a strong defense for the rights of the child, dealing with the responsibilities of parenthood, and with the first inculcation of fundamental ethics in the child mind and the true prmciples of correction and guidance. Each detail is forcefully illustrated by informal incidents Trom the author's experience with his own children, and his suggestions will prove of the greatest possible value to young mothers and kindergartners. Hints as to the first acquaintance with all branches of knowledge are touched upon — mathematics, natural sciences, foreign languages, etc. — and practical wisdom in regard to the treatment of money, hygiene and similar problems. PRESS NOTICES "Brightly written, broad-minded, instructive, this book deserves serious perusal and praise." —CHICAGO RECORD-HERALD. " 'Our Children' has a value which it is difficult to exaggerate. The strong common sense of the book as a whole can better be judged from an extract than from any praise of it, however particularized. "It is difficult to conceive of anything coming up in relation of parent or teacher to a child which does not find discussion or suggestion in this compact and helpful little book. It will be an aid to parents and teachers everywhere— an education for them no less than for the child." —THE CHICAGO DAILY NEWS. "From my own personal point of view I can only welcome this volume in our pedagogical literature and express the hope that it may become a household book in the library of every parent and teacher." M. P. E. GROSZMANN. Pd. D., Director Groszmann School for Nervous Children "Mr. Carus writes in a most practical manner upon his subject, setting before the reader the various problems common to all parents in dealing with their offspring. This book is admirable throughout in the author's treatment of his subjects, as the book is built from the experiences of parents and teachers and, therefore, cannot fail to be practicable." -THE BOSTON HERALD. "For the training of children I know of no book in which there is so much value in a small compass as in this.'* -THE TYLER PUBLISHING CO. "Little things are recommended that will appeal to the child's understanding and add to his interest in his work." —CLEVELAND PLAIN DEALER. "Its author has given to the world a careful, loving, thoughtful set of rules which may be used with profit in the bringing up of the young." —THE MANTLE, TILE AND GRATE MONTHLY. "We feel certain that any parent who thoughtfully reads and studies this book will be richly paid; and if the readers be parents with growing children they will keep the book by them for frequent consultation; not for iron rules but for sympathetic suggestion." —THE COMMERCIAL NEWS (Danville, 111.) "At once the reader knows that he is in touch with a mind that is accustomed to sincere and deep thinking. The whole book is a plea for a serious notion of parenthood. The author touches one topic after another with a fine sense of feeling for the 'warm spot' in it. "The use of money, square dealing, worldly prudence, sympathy with animals, treatment of a naughty child, self criticism, and punishment, are some of the more important themes of the book." -TilE SUBURBAN. The Open Court Publishing Co. , 1322 Wabash Ave. , Chicago -^ 1 4 DAY USE 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, ' or on the date to which renewed. Renewals only: Tel. No. 642-3405 Renewals may be made 4 days ^rior to date due. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. Due end of WINTER Quarter ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ 72<3S%>. ' subject to recall attar — ^ ^"^t | RECPLP M A R2 072-1ZANI8T km 7 '^/A"^"- "^^ ""^^ "^ '^^ " ■^ &iC. m-^ DEC 29 1979 4^ '/m. UM. -^ ^^iiS^SW98^p^ VC 4244C GENERAL UBRM^UC- «"'''''' I Boooaaboaii UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY