UC-NRLF 
 
 U DENTS' 
 
 ON SPINNING 
 
 'EENTH THOUSAND. 
 
 NASMITH. 
 

THE 
 
 STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH NASMITH, 
 t / 
 
 MEMBER INSTITUTION MECHANICAL ENGINEERS; PAST-PRESIDHNT MANCHESTER 
 
 ASSOCIATION ENGINEERS ; EXAMINER IN COTTON SPINNING FOR THE CITY AND 
 
 GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE J EDITOR OF THE "TEXTILE RECORDER ; " 
 
 AI'THOR.'QF "MODERN COTTON SPINNING MACHINERY," ",RECENT 
 
 COTTON MILL CONSTRUCTION." 
 
 MANCHESTER : 
 JOSEPH NASMITH, 33 , BARTON ARCADE. 
 
 JOHN HEY WOOD LTD., DEANSGATE. 
 
 LONDON: JOHN HEYWOOD LTD., 20, 22, 24, & 26, LAMB'S CONDUIT STREET. 
 NEW YORK : D. VAN NOSTRAND CO., 27, WARREN & 23, MURRAY STREETS. 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 
 
ioo/fc 15 5<?/rf at its published price, "which is not subject to 
 discount.] 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 THE present edition has been in great part rewritten, and has been 
 entirely reset from new type, the number of illustrations having also 
 been doubled. Owing to the great length of the book, that portion of 
 it which appeared in the preceding editions and dealt with the con- 
 struction and engineering of mills has been omitted. The subject has, 
 however, been much more fully treated in the author's " Recent Cotton 
 Mill Construction and Engineering." 
 
 Among the new features will be found a complete series of illustra- 
 tions of the growth and structure of the cotton fibre; a treatment of 
 the hopper feeding machine; a section dealing with card clothing, in 
 which, for the first time, the constructive details are fully discussed; a 
 complete description of the Heilmann combing machine with full illus- 
 trations; and a long demonstration of the principle of winding on the 
 roving frame and mule, the treatment of the latter portion of the subject 
 being, in parts, quite new. In addition to these features the commerce 
 of cotton is fully dealt with, the aim being to make the book a reliable 
 reference on all points comprised within its title. In order to aid the 
 object named a synopsis is given at the head of each chapter, and the 
 index is also enlarged. 
 
 The drawings, showing the structure of the Cotton Fibre, Figs. 6 to 34 
 inclusive, are the work of Mr. ABRAHAM FLATTERS, 16, Church Road, 
 Longsight, Manchester, and are copyrighted by him. 
 
 The two preceding editions each consisting of 2,000 copies have 
 been very favourably received, and the author has confidence that the 
 efforts made to render the present one even more complete will meet 
 with equal encouragement. His thanks are tendered to all those who 
 by suggestion and criticism have aided him in making clear any points 
 which were doubtful in the previous issues 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER I. THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING 5 
 
 II. THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON 26 
 III. MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING 87 
 
 IV. 'CARDING 141 
 
 }) V. CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING 148 
 
 VI. COMBING AND DRAWING 226 
 
 )t VII. SLUBBING AND ROVING 296 
 
 n VIII. THE THEORY OF SPINNING 371 
 
 IX. MULE SPINNING 388 
 
 X. RING SPINNING 500 
 
 n XI. REELING, WINDING, AND THE MANUFACTURE 
 
 OF THREAD 551 
 
 XII. WASTE SPINNING .... 573 
 
 ,, XIII. ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION ... 584 
 
 INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 607 
 
 GENERAL INDEX . , 61 ? 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 NOTE. The reference numbers in the synopsis of each chapter refer 
 to the paragraphs and not to pages. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Distaff and spindle, 2 Spinning-wheel, 4 Primitive 
 cleaning machines, 6 Carding, 8 Invention of drawing rollers, 
 9 Carding machine developed, n Arkwright and Hargreaves 1 
 spinning machines, 12 Crompton's mule, 13 The throstle, 14 
 Opening machines, 15 Drawing and roving frames, 16 Effect of 
 inventions, 17. 
 
 (i) THE theory of evolution is made to account more than 
 plausibly for the existence of things both great and small, 
 animate and inanimate. On the one hand by means of the 
 nebular hypothesis, the origin of the sun and its planets, 
 including our earth, as well as that of numerous other galaxies, is 
 accounted for; and on the other, the genesis of the minutest 
 speck of animal life. It has often occurred to us that the 
 original progress and subsequent development in not only- 
 cotton spinning but in the working of all textiles does not 
 apparently accord with the current doctrine of development. 
 For this reason. The votaries of evolution assert that all 
 progress takes place in order of time in gradual changes, but 
 this is certainly not the case with textile industries. As regards 
 minor inventions, it is, of course, perfectly true, but it does not 
 satisfactorily explain the fact that the art of spinning with the 
 distaff and spindle remained the same for thousands of years and 
 
'* . *.* i** \* 
 
 6 .** : / t] ,*fiiEJsa:ui)E&Ts' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 was entirely revolutionised and rendered obsolete by a few inven- 
 tions brought out practically within the last century. To be con- 
 sistent, believers in the theory of evolution must accept as an 
 explanation of this very striking fact the hypothesis that still 
 more wonderful development will take place at some time in the 
 machinery used in these industries, not minor improvements in 
 detail merely, but radical improvements in principle. That 
 such will take place at some time or other is firmly believed, 
 and also, that after working on the newly discovered lines for 
 some time another radical improvement will occur. Many will 
 probably smile at a suggestion that any great improvement in 
 the present method of, say cotton spinning, is possible, without 
 considering how vast and extensive an improvement the present 
 system is over the mode that preceded it. Suppose, however, 
 that radical improvements do occur, even if at intervals of 
 thousands of years, the case stands on all fours- with the theory 
 of evolution. The greatest step that was ever made in advance 
 in the whole art of cotton spinning was when some untutored 
 savage invented twist, or thought of what to us is the very 
 elementary idea of twisting two or more fibres or filaments 
 together to make (perhaps not yarn) but thread or string, the 
 latter more correctly describing it. It is not possible to discover 
 his name or country, but whoever he was he certainly deserves 
 a niche in the temple of fame. Before his time probably liga- 
 tures of some kind were in use, made, most likely, by knotting 
 or plaiting together the strands of bark. Whether the first 
 efforts of making string were with wool as a material, as many 
 believe, or were confined to vegetable fibres, filaments, or strips 
 of bark, cannot be ascertained with exactitude, but our opinion 
 inclines to the latter view. The fact remains, however, that the 
 greatest discovery in spinning was the invention of " twist," and 
 with so much accomplished we have the whole basis of spinning. 
 Commencing with the twisting together of a few filaments of 
 approximately the same length, the discovery would not be long 
 delayed that by overlapping one set of fibres by another the 
 twist would be successively introduced into each set. This 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 7 
 
 is modern spinning, which differs from the primitive system 
 only by this fact of continuous twisting of fibres round each 
 other. 
 
 (2) With the knowledge available, it must be understood that 
 only the probabilities of the order in which things would 
 naturally occur are spoken of. When the art of spinning had 
 been followed for some ages, most likely in the above way, 
 it is easy to imagine that from making very coarse cords or 
 bands from vegetable fibres, it became possible, with an increase 
 of skill, to produce them tolerably fine, and to spin wool on this 
 system also with a much better and finer result. The product 
 would then be not a rough cord, or even a string ; it would 
 approach more nearly what we call yarn, the fineness of which 
 would, of course, depend on the skill of the spinners, for by this 
 method it would always require two to make a yarn. It was, 
 however, observed that to require the services of two persons to 
 produce a single end of yarn was to expend much labour upon 
 a small result. Consequently, the first great improvement is 
 reached, which consisted in the invention of the distaff and 
 spindle, although, at first, the former was not absolutely 
 necessary. The material was held by a slit or cleft in the 
 end of the spindle in which it was placed. With this 
 simple apparatus yarn was made in the following way. Some 
 of the fibre was taken in one hand and some was also placed 
 in the slit. With the other hand the spindle, which was allowed 
 to hang freely and vertically, was revolved by the spinner 
 twirling or twisting the material with her fingers. As the 
 yarn was spun the spindle approached the ground, when, a suffi- 
 cient length having been made, the spindle was taken up and 
 the yarn wrapped upon it, after which another and succeeding 
 part of the material was fixed in the slit and the operation pro- 
 ceeded with as before. In this case the spindle was perfectly free, 
 and it was, doubtless, soon observed that it was easier to twirl 
 and that it could be revolved for a longer period when its weight 
 was increased by that of the yarn coiled upon it. This led to 
 weighting the spindle with a ball of clay or a lump of metal- 
 
8 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 The distaff is not an absolutely essential part of the apparatus, 
 being merely a staff upon which some of the raw material is 
 placed, but was commonly employed. The process, as carried 
 out by a Greek spinster, has been described by several classic 
 historians. It seems to have been preferred in Europe to the 
 wheel and spindle as a means of spinning until about 200 years 
 ago, so remarkable was its persistence. It is stated in an 
 interesting little book published in 1819, that there were persons 
 using it in North Britain (Scotland) so late as 1817. 
 
 (3) The distaff consists of a rod of wood shaped with a taper 
 blade to hold the material, which is placed upon the longer part, 
 and is fastened by a garter or string. The lower portion was fixed 
 in the spinner's belt by means of which the distaff is kept steady. 
 The spindle was turned quickly by the spinner's right hand, and 
 upon it was twined the fibrous material drawn from the distaff 
 by the other hand. The twisted material was wound upon the 
 spindle at its upper end, and below the latter point a small 
 wheel, or whorl, generally made of stone, was fixed. This acted 
 as a fly, and the revolution of the spindle on its lower point, 
 which rested on the floor, completed the operation. 
 
 (4) The next most important step in advance, was when some 
 one invented the means of multiplying speed by the aid of a 
 small and large pulley, round which a band was wrapped, the 
 large one being driven. The great utility of this invention as 
 a means of revolving the spindle is easily recognised. An im- 
 provement almost as great, in fact as great, for without it 
 the means of multiplying the speed would not be available, was 
 the discovery that any hook could be dispensed with by slitting 
 the point of the spindle. The yarn when spun was wound on 
 the spindle in an elongated ball, now termed a cop. Another 
 remarkable invention consisted in dispensing with the slit 
 previously used. As the process has been so far described, 
 it will be observed that the axis of the thread being operated 
 upon and the axis of the spindle are approximately in a straight 
 line. It was, however, discovered that by holding the yarn at 
 a considerable angle with the spindle, not quite a right angle, 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 9 
 
 it would pass over its point, and for every revolution made by 
 it one twist would then be transferred to the yarn. It is this 
 system which is used in mule spinning, this invention being 
 really the precursor of it. 
 
 (5) The earliest machines used for spinning, so far as can be 
 ascertained, were of the rudest construction, having a wooden 
 spindle driven by a heavy wheel, and at first were used only for 
 producing coarse yarn from a bundle of unprepared fibrous 
 material. But as skill in the art increased and knowledge 
 respecting textile fibres extended, it is easy to see how cotton 
 came to be employed as the raw material. At first the cotton 
 was probably brought to the spindle as ' it was picked, without 
 any preparation whatever. To spin cotton, a finer spindle, 
 without being absolutely necessary, would be very advantageous, 
 and consequently the wheel was fitted with a metallic spindle, 
 and eventually spinning was done sometimes with and some- 
 times without the distaff. The following was the mode of 
 operation : Some cotton being attached to the spindle, the 
 wheel was turned with the left hand. A further quantity of 
 cotton was supplied by the right hand, the fingers of which, 
 according to Baines, were kept dry by the use of a chalky 
 powder. When a piece of yarn had been spun of the required 
 degree of tenuity, which was accomplished by the spinster 
 holding it between the finger and thumb and withdrawing 
 her hand to the extent demanded, twist being meantime put in 
 by the revolution of the spindle, the yarn so produced is wound 
 on the spindle by turning the latter the reverse way to what it 
 ran when spinning. ; With apparatus of this rude character 
 yarns of an extraordinary fineness have been for generations 
 produced in India. It has lately been pointed out that Indian 
 cotton as spun in the organised factories now 'existing cannot be 
 drawn into yarn of any degree of fineness. It is tolerably 
 certain that the materials which the earliest Indian weavers of 
 whom we have records had at their disposal were substantially 
 those existing to-day. It speaks volumes for the cultivated 
 skill of the progenitors of the present Indian operatives that 
 
io THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 yarns so fine as to produce muslins of the exquisite character of 
 those obtained from India could be spun from cotton which is 
 not now looked upon as a tractable material. A wheel which 
 was extensively used was known as the flax or Saxony wheel. 
 It consisted of a strong frame, which carried a wheel from which 
 by a band the spindle and flyer was driven. The spindle had a 
 bobbin loosely placed upon it, but driven so as to cause it to lag 
 behind the flyer, and so wind the yarn. The spindle was 
 sustained by a post fixed into the frame, and the wheel was 
 driven by the treadle. The material was placed upon the 
 equivalent to the distaff, and was withdrawn thence by the 
 hand of the spinner. 
 
 (6) So far the fibre treated had undergone no previous 
 manipulation in the spinning process, when it was doubtless 
 discovered that the operation would be facilitated and a better 
 product be obtained if the cotton was brought to the spinner in 
 a more open and fleecy condition. In all probability, therefore, 
 the next improvement was the introduction of a preparatory 
 process. This consists of bowing the cotton, a description of 
 which operation is given. This process of bowing has been in 
 use by some hat makers until quite recently. The bow em- 
 ployed in India was rather different to the hatters' bow, being 
 simpler. It consists of two stretched strings attached to one 
 of the extremities of a crescent-shaped crosspiece fixed on the 
 staff, and tightened by some means at its other extremity. The 
 cotton being spread on a table, the staff is held with one hand, 
 and with the other, by means of a mallet or a rough piece of 
 wood, the workman strikes the stretched cord nearest to him, 
 thereby causing it to vibrate. This causes the other cord to 
 oscillate also, and the latter, being in contact with the heap of 
 cotton, jerks up the fibres to another part of the table almost 
 separately, and effectually clears the mass of dirt and knots. 
 All who are acquainted with the modern cotton trade will 
 recognise that the operations of willowing and opening are used 
 mainly for the same purpose. The seeds in the cotton pod 
 were got rid of by another rude form of machine called a 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. II 
 
 " Churka," which consisted of two horizontal rollers with a few 
 longitudinal flutes. The rollers are revolved by a handle 
 attached to the axis of the upper one. The cotton is drawn 
 through the rollers, the space between which is insufficient to 
 allow the seeds to pass, so that the fibre is separated from them. 
 The cleaned cotton, therefore, is delivered at the far side of the 
 rollers, while the seeds remain on the feed side. An illustration 
 of this machine and the bow is given in Baines' " History of the 
 Cotton Manufacture," to which the student can refer. 
 
 (7) A still more primitive process is that still pursued in some 
 parts of India, by which a bundle of cotton is placed upon a 
 flat stone, and a roller is passed over it by the foot of the 
 operator a woman generally. The roller receives a short 
 reciprocal movement, and the seeds are removed by the hand, 
 a sitting stooping posture being adopted for the purpose. The 
 account thus given is on all grounds of probability the order in 
 which the successive stages in cotton spinning, as it is practised 
 in the East, and till comparatively recently in Europe, were 
 developed. But within a comparatively short period of the intro- 
 duction of the art into England, of which our earliest records 
 fix the year 1538 as the date, very considerable improvements 
 occurred. The process of carding, however slow and laborious, 
 was making progress towards its present perfection, and was, as 
 far as can be discovered, an entirely English invention. Its 
 origin, however, was due to the workers in wool, from which it 
 was transferred to the cotton trade, to improve the working in 
 which it was subsequently developed. 
 
 (8) The employment of cards such as were used for wool 
 to straighten out and make a fleece of cotton marked another 
 epoch in the spinning of cotton. It was a further stage in that 
 development of the art which has found its culmination in the 
 splendid series of inventions of the present century. The 
 preparation of the cotton into a fleece, however short, enabled 
 a greater length of yarn to be spun than was possible when the 
 cotton was taken from the mass, and an approximation to con- 
 tinuous spinning became possible. But the action of any human 
 
12 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 being in drawing out the fibres by an extension of one arm 
 during the time a spinning wheel was being manually rotated by 
 the other, necessarily is more or less uncertain. Great as the 
 advance thus made was upon the previously crude method of 
 spinning from a distaff, even when by the addition of a treadle 
 the spinning wheel was revolved, and both hands left at liberty, 
 the element of manual treatment remained. It is true that the 
 Hindoo workers had demonstrated the possibility of overcoming 
 to a large extent the natural defects of such a system, and had 
 produced yarn of the delicate character previously described. 
 The extraordinary skill thus attained was, however, the property 
 of a comparatively limited circle, and it became necessary, as 
 the demand for cotton goods grew, to depend for its supply 
 upon spinners less reliable and skilful. Thus the need arose for 
 some method of drawing out the carded fleece at a regular rate 
 which was independent of human skill. Hence was originated 
 the system of drawing by rollers, with which the name of 
 Arkwright is ordinarily associated, but which undoubtedly, found 
 its originator in John Wyatt, of Birmingham, about the year 
 1738. Immediately following this was the invention of a 
 method of carding cotton by a revolving cylinder, by Lewis 
 Paul, of Birmingham, in 1748. At this point the modern period 
 of invention is reached, about which a little time may be 
 profitably spent. 
 
 (9) If thought is given to the modern system of spinning, it 
 will become abundantly clear that the use of rollers by which 
 the requisite degree of tenuity in the yarn is obtained forms the 
 key to it. It is quite clear that if the element of continuous 
 drawing is removed the essence of modern spinning machines is 
 destroyed. Therefore the contrivance of a machine by which 
 the fleece or sliver of cotton could be drawn out while being 
 continuously delivered, at once revolutionised the whole process, 
 and introduced possibilities never before dreamed of. With this 
 system of spinning the name of Arkwright is commonly coupled, 
 but, as has been observed, it is more than doubtful whether he 
 ought to have the credit. The history of Arkwright up to the. 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 13 
 
 time when he was supposed to have invented a spinning frame 
 in which drawing rollers were used is all against the presumption 
 that he had the necessary skill to invent and construct a 
 machine. It is well known and established that he was 
 acquainted with a man named Thomas Highs or Hays, of 
 Leigh, and also with one John Kay of the same place. Now it 
 is alleged that Highs, or Hays, was the real inventor of the use 
 of drawing rollers, and that Arkwright, who afterwards employed 
 Kay, who was also extremely intimate with Hays, perfected the 
 machine by appropriating the ideas of the latter. This at least 
 was alleged at a trial of an action which Arkwright brought 
 against Colonel Mordaunt for an infringement of his patent. 
 That action failed, and it is therefore on record that in the 
 opinion of the jury trying it Mr. Arkwright was not the real 
 inventor. But there is conclusive proof that John Wyatt, of 
 Birmingham, was the real inventor, and in 1738 his partner, 
 Lewis Paul, obtained Letters Patent for his invention. Ark- 
 wright did not obtain a patent until 1769, and if it can be 
 shown, as it undoubtedly can, that the mode of operation, if not 
 the precise details, of the two inventions is similar, there can be 
 little doubt of the falsity of the Arkwright claim. Now Lewis 
 Paul in his specification uses these remarkable words : " The 
 wool or cotton being thus prepared one end of the mass, rope, 
 thread, or sliver, is put betwixt a pair of rollers, cylinders, or 
 cones, or some such movements, which being twined round by 
 their motion draws in the raw mass of wool or cotton to be spun 
 in proportion to the velocity given. to such rollers, cylinders, or 
 cones ; as the prepared mass passes regularly through or betwixt 
 these rollers, cylinders, or cones, a succession of other rollers,, 
 cylinders, or cones, moving propcrtionably faster than the first, 
 draw the rope, thread, or sliver, into any* degree of fineness 
 which may be required." Although this document, which is a 
 very remarkable one, is signed by Lewis Paul, there is little 
 doubt that Wyatt was the true inventor. The evidence on this 
 point is conclusive; the establishment of the fact that in 1738, 
 31 years prior to Arkwright's patent, the principle of using 
 
14 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 rollers had been not only described but applied, entirely destroys 
 any claim on the part of Arkwright to novelty. There is further 
 evidence that the latter knew of the existence of Wyatt's in- 
 vention, and being a man who did not stick at trifles he was 
 quite prepared to accept the results accruing from the successful 
 use of a prior invention. 
 
 (10) The specification of Lewis Paul, or of Wyatt, has been 
 described as a remarkable document. Let us just look, for a 
 little, at what it describes. There is first the idea of drawing 
 in the sliver by means of a pair of revolving rollers ; next there 
 is the idea of placing in front of these a second pair, rotating at 
 a superior speed, thus ensuring the attenuation of the sliver to a 
 degree corresponding to the variation in the speed of the two 
 pairs. Now, what is there in the modern system which differs 
 in principle from this? True, the details are altered, but the 
 continuous drawing of a sliver by rollers rotated at defined but 
 different speeds remains to-day the recognised method of pro- 
 cedure. What is necessary to make a special note of, however, 
 is that this invention is really the commencement of the modern 
 era of spinning, and that without it, so far as cotton is concerned, 
 at any rate, the present perfection is impossible. The wide 
 difference between delivering a roving to a spindle in short 
 lengths drawn by the spinner's hand from the mass of prepared 
 fibre, and delivering the same roving at a steady and continuous 
 speed for an indefinite time, is easily recognisable, and placed 
 within the reach of the spinner a mode of working much 
 superior to that previously possible. A little later on the appli- 
 cation of this device to various spinning machines will be dealt 
 with, but before doing so it is advisable to say a little upon the 
 development of machines for preparing the material for drawing. 
 
 (n) In 1847 Lewis Paul invented a carding machine which 
 consisted of a small cylinder, on the surface of which a number 
 of narrow cards were fastened, and beneath which was a corres- 
 pondingly curved surface also fitted with cards. The cotton 
 being passed between these two surfaces was carded and after- 
 wards stripped by a needle, stick, or comb; and by an ingenious 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 15 
 
 contrivance the strips of carded cotton, which had a length equal 
 to the width of the cylinder, were joined into one strand or 
 ^sliver. The chief points to notice in this machine are the use 
 of a cylinder covered with carding points, the employment of a 
 stripping comb, and the possibility of a continuous operation 
 involved in the easy rotation of the cylinder. In the same year 
 Daniel Bourne invented a machine for the same purpose, and 
 o< much the same construction. A few years after the invention 
 bj Paul, a machine constructed on this principle was introduced 
 into Lancashire, and was adopted by Mr. Peel, the grandfather 
 of Sir Robert Peel. He, however, employed Hargreaves to 
 construct a machine in which more than one cylinder was used, 
 and the rotation of these in contact carded the cotton. Up to 
 this period the only vital constructive principle adopted was 
 that of the wire-covered cylinder. The operations of feeding 
 the uncarded and removing the carded cotton were both manual, 
 and the next step was the provision of mechanical means for 
 this purpose. The apron feed was invented in 1772 by one 
 John Lees, of Manchester, and shortly after Arkwright devised 
 a method of forming the cotton into a lap to feed it, and the 
 doffer to remove it. Therefore, at this early date, 1774, we 
 have got evidence of the existence of a machine which possessed 
 the essentials of to-day a continuous feed, a continuous carding 
 surface, and a continuous stripper. The next step was the 
 adoption of a method by which the fleece deposited on the 
 doffer could be taken from it, and about the same time the 
 doffer comb was invented. The web, in its removal, was, as 
 to-day, collected by a trumpet compressed by rollers and col- 
 lected into a can for further treatment. The carding was done 
 by flats placed above the cylinder and easily removable for 
 cleaning. Before leaving this subject it 'might be said that 
 the use of rollers and clearers belong to a little later stage in the 
 process, with which there is no present intention to deal. The 
 revolving can, however, was used by Arkwright to put twist into 
 the rovings, but it was not until the early part of this century 
 that the idea of the coiler was originated. It has been generally 
 
1 6 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 asserted that this was the invention of Mr. David Cheetham, of 
 Rochdale, but there is reason to believe that the perfecting of 
 the coiler was the work of his employer, Mr. Tatham. Be that 
 as it may, the point it is desired to emphasise is that before the 
 end of the last century the carding engine possessed all its main 
 features. 
 
 (12) It was time for further invention to take place, because 
 the introduction in 1738 of the fly shuttle, by John Kay, of 
 Bury, enormously increased the power of the weaver, and there 
 was hardly yarn enough to be got from all the existent hand 
 wheels. In 1769 Arkwright's spinning machine saw the light, 
 and, in addition to the rollers, it consisted of spindles driven by 
 bands and having flyers upon their upper ends by which the yarn 
 was twisted. The spindles had bobbins mounted upon them in 
 short, this machine was the progenitor and predecessor of the 
 throstle or fly spinning frame which was so long in extensive 
 employment. Arkwright's machines were gradually improved, 
 but in their main features were unchanged, and owing to the 
 fact that they were usually driven by water power, received the 
 name water frames, whence the phrase water twist. But con- 
 temporaneously with the evolution of the water frame was that 
 of the spinning jenny, which was the work of James Hargreaves, 
 of Blackburn, and was invented by him in the period between 
 1764 and 1767. The jenny consisted of an arrangement of 
 framework which carried a series of spindles to which rotation 
 was given by means of a hand wheel. A band or cord passing 
 over this drove a light cylinder, and a series of cords from these 
 drove the spindles. The spindles were vertical in position, and 
 the rovings were attached to them at one end, and at a distance 
 of a few inches were clasped by a holder forming part of a frame 
 sliding on the main framework. The rovings were held in a 
 creel within the framework, and being secured, the sliding frame 
 was drawn back, thus stretching them, the twist being put in by 
 turning the wheel during the drawing out. A wire guide 
 pressing upon the twisted yarn was worked by the foot of the 
 attendant during the time the winding was taking place, so as 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 17 
 
 to place the yarn properly on the spindle in the form of a cop. 
 With this crude machine as many as 120 threads at a time were 
 spun, but the process was necessarily a slow one. It is well to 
 observe here that this machine of Hargreaves' touches both the 
 period before and after its production. In this machine the old 
 principle of drawing out the yarn in short lengths and twisting 
 as an operation prior to winding it into a cop, was found, the 
 only difference being in the number of threads dealt with. On 
 the other hand, we find here the principle of drawing the roving 
 by its recession from the spindle which, in its reverse form, is 
 the action of the mule in spinning wool to-day ; the method of 
 twisting the yarn by the rotation of a vertical spindle, and of 
 winding it on the spindle while guiding it by means of a 
 depressed wire. 
 
 (13) Thus we have arrived at a period when machines had 
 been invented by which yarn could be spun in several lengths 
 at once by one person in either of two ways by a flyer or by a 
 spindle. It has been shown that neither of these methods were 
 novel, hand wheels having been made both with the plain 
 spindle and the flyer, but the idea of utilising these old parts 
 in such a way that several of them could be actuated at once 
 was novel. It will be noticed that the spinning machines of 
 Arkwright and Hargreaves possessed respectively features which 
 were peculiar to them. Arkwright's machine had the power of 
 continuously delivering and twisting the yarn by means of 
 rollers, while that of Hargreaves was constructed to draw and 
 twist a number of rovings of a definite length. Both these are 
 elements of value, and the next step accordingly was taken 
 when Samuel Crompton about the year 1779 produced the 
 machine which from its hybrid nature has been called the mule. 
 The mule as made by Crompton was a crude machine, as an 
 inspection cf the original modei shows, but it contained within 
 it several of the elements of the modern mule. There was 
 found the delivery by rollers, and the sustainment of the spindles 
 in a carriage to which an alternate motion in a horizontal direc- 
 Although in a very incomplete state, the 
 
1 8 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 invention speedily became largely employed. In about the 
 year 1790 the Crompton mule was driven by water power, and 
 it was immediately afterwards made into a double machine 
 with the headstock in the centre, a form which it has retained 
 since that period. The increase in its dimensions speedily led 
 to the adoption of improved methods of drawing out the carriage, 
 and of the adoption of bands by which it was drawn out equally 
 throughout its length. The counter-faller wire, as it is now 
 called, appears to have been Invented in a rude and imperfect 
 form about the year 1790, as was also the use of an inclined 
 plate for the guidance of the faller and the shaping of the cop. 
 After this the most important improvement was made by Kennedy, 
 of Manchester, who invented a method of actuating the rollers 
 and spindles by three pulleys, two fast and one loose. Up to this 
 point, however, three of the most essential features of the mule 
 remained manual operations. The actuation of the faller in its 
 guiding of the yarn was done by the spinner, and partook of all 
 the irregularity of hand work. The reversal of the direction 
 of rotation of the spindles, which is necessary to uncoil the 
 yarn between the nose of the cop and the point of the spindle, 
 and to which the name " backing-off" is given, was also done by 
 the spinner. Upon the latter also was thrown the duty of 
 regulating the speed of the spindles during winding so as to 
 ensure a regular rate of taking up the yarn. Mechanicians speedily 
 recognised the fact that although a machine of great complexity 
 it was not beyond their power to make it self-acting, and patent 
 after patent was taken out for various improvements. Of these the 
 most important was an invention of a self-acting copping motion, 
 by Mr. William Eaton, in 1818, by which the three operations 
 just detailed were made purely automatic. We may pass over 
 the intermediate attempts made, and come to the time of 
 Richard Roberts, a mechanician to whom, hitherto, scant justice 
 has been done, but who was undoubtedly one of the giants of 
 an age distinguished for clever mechanics. As we have seen, 
 Eaton had demonstrated the possibility of mechanically operating 
 all the motions of a mule, which was one step in advance, but 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 19 
 
 there were several features in his invention which were imperfect. 
 The differential motion of the spindles was got by mechanism 
 of some complication, and the whole of the arrangements 
 connected with the formation of the cop were faulty. Roberts 
 went into the matter at the request of a number of spinners, 
 and in a period of five years produced a machine which was 
 undoubtedly an enormous advance, and which contains motions 
 which remain to the present day those in common use. Space 
 will not permit us to deal with the Roberts' mule in detail, but 
 it may be pointed out that in this machine the first use is made 
 of the winding quadrant with a traversing nut by which the 
 variation of the velocity of the spindles is so easily regulated. 
 The employment of a, cam shaft was also to be found for the first 
 time in this mule, and 'the faller and counter-faller wires were also 
 actuated in a thoroughly efficient manner. The backing-off 
 friction clutch was also a novelty in this machine. The Roberts' 
 mule soon became recognised as a perfect spinner, and it 
 possessed every essential feature of the present day machine, 
 although it is not, of course, comparable with it in detail. 
 Thus, the development of the mule may be classified. First 
 came the invention of continuous drawing by rollers, followed 
 by the employment of several vertical spindles actuated at the 
 same time. The combination of these two produced the first 
 mule, which had within it the intermittent delivery of roving by 
 the rollers, the rotation of the spindles during the delivery, and 
 their recession from the rollers, the reversal of the direction of 
 the motion of the spindle to unwind the top coils, the depression 
 of a wire to guide the yarn as the spindles were being revolved 
 to wind it, and the drawing in of, the carriage during the latter 
 operation. The next step was the^ application of power, which 
 was accompanied by a change in the position of the headstock. 
 Then came the adoption of the counter faller, and of an inclined 
 plate to guide the faller wires. Following these was the appli- 
 cation of the self-acting principle by Eaton to several of the 
 motions, and then the enormous advance of the Roberts' mule, 
 which was automatic in the whole of its movements. Since 
 
r 
 
 20 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 that day, although there have been improvements in details, 
 there has been no real improvement in principle, and the era of 
 construction rather than invention was reached. 
 
 (14) The water frame of Arkwright, being much more simple 
 in its operation than the mule of Crompton, speedily took shape. 
 At first the guiding of the yarn upon the bobbin was effected by 
 hecks upon the flyers, but it was not long before the traverse rail 
 was adopted, and the heart-shaped cam (in common employment 
 to-day) applied to this object. From the first, the retardation of 
 the bobbins sufficiently to wind on the yarn was effected by the 
 use of flannel washers placed beneath them, so that at that early 
 day the throstle was practically developed. The Danforth cup 
 throstle had for a time considerable popularity, but practically, 
 until the advent of the ring frame the throstle was not endangered. 
 Ring spinning is of modern origin, its inception not having an 
 earlier date than 1828, so that it is not necessary to deal with it 
 in a sketch of this kind. It has had, however, three stages : (i) 
 The employment of spindles of the throstle type, but without 
 flyers ; (2) the employment of spindles self-contained, but with 
 a bearing within the bobbin ; and (3) the employment of spindles 
 with self-adjusting bearings which compensate for any irregularity 
 in the balance of the bobbins. 
 
 (15) While the principal spinning machines were being de- 
 veloped, a like process was going on with those which were 
 employed to prepare the cotton for twisting. In 1793 Mr. 
 Whitney invented the saw gin, by means of which not only was 
 the separation of the seed from the lint much better performed 
 than it had been previously, but the amount produced in a given 
 time was largely increased. This was the first application of 
 machinery to this important object, and to Whitney belongs the 
 honour. In cleaning the cotton from dirt and sticks, the first 
 machine used was called the " willow," and there is little doubt 
 that the machine was so called because the earliest form employed 
 was a cylindrical cage, angularly disposed, constructed of willows. 
 After the success of the cylindrical carding machine, it was not 
 a great step to adopt a cylinder surrounded by a grid or cage for 
 
 ' 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 21 
 
 the purpose of beating the cotton, and as the lineal successor of 
 the machine just mentioned, it acquired its name. Although the 
 purely cylindrical form had the greatest employment, a conical 
 willow was soon devised, and was extensively adopted. The idea 
 here is that underlying the method of mounting the old willow 
 cage, the axis of which was arranged diagonally. The removal 
 of the dirt and dust speedily became a difficulty, but was solved 
 by the application of a fan which created such a current of air 
 as to draw the dirt away and discharge it. Thus the room in 
 which this operation is carried on became known as the blowing- 
 room. It ought to be pointed out that the shaking of the cot- 
 ton by the cylinder, and the dropping of the dirt in consequence, 
 is in all essentials the same as the process of bowing previously 
 named. The scutching machine was invented in 1797, by Mr. 
 Snodgrass, of Johnstone, near Glasgow. The name of this 
 machine is evidently derived from the use of scutches or rods to 
 beat the mass of cotton and knock out the dirt, which was 
 another method of procedure. For the same reason the pro- 
 cess was called " batting," a name which still lingers in the 
 Southern States of America, and which is incorporated in the 
 French name of the machine, " batteur." The lap machine was 
 the invention of Mr. Crighton, of Manchester, and its use as 
 an attachment to the scutching machine was common early in 
 this century. The employment of perforated cages on which to 
 form the sheet or web was a development of the dust fan, and it 
 is certain that very early in the history of the machine these 
 were applied, only one cage being used, however, in combination 
 with a delivery apron. In 18301 they were in regular employ- 
 ment, and the machine was in (most respects of similar con- 
 struction to that at present adopted. The addition of the feed 
 roller and piano motion by Mr. E. Lord, of Todmorden, about 
 1862, however, further improved it. Although in many of its 
 details this motion has been materially changed, in its substance 
 it remains practically as it was when it was patented by Mr. Lord. 
 The changes made have largely increased the sensitiveness of 
 the motion. 
 
22 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (16) The drawing frame was a natural growth from the inven- 
 tion of drawing rollers, and was very early employed by 
 Arkwright as a distinct machine in a series. The twisting of 
 the slivers into roving was at first carried out by Arkwright by 
 means of a machine approximating to the drawing frame in 
 construction. The combined slivers were delivered into a can 
 to which a rapid rotary movement was given, so that as the 
 sliver was delivered it received a certain amount of twist. The 
 roving so produced was drawn from the can and wound on 
 bobbins by a separate operation, and the bobbins thus obtained 
 were placed in the creel of the mule preparatory to spinning. 
 A modification of Hargreaves' jenny was employed for some 
 time for the same purpose, but both of thess methods were 
 superseded by the bobbin and fly frame. A contrivance known 
 as the " Jack-in-the-box " was devised to effect the same object, 
 and consisted of a cylinder revolving within a box and carrying 
 a bobbin. By the rotation of the cylinder the sliver was twisted, 
 and was wound upon the bobbin by means of a wire guide eye 
 to which a reciprocating motion was given. It was not long, 
 however, before Arkwright endeavoured to employ the principle 
 of the ordinary flax hand-spinning wheel to the production of 
 roving. The wheel referred to was constructed with a flyer 
 fixed upon the spindle, upon which and within the flyer a bobbin 
 was placed. The twist was put in by the rotation of the flyer and 
 the winding effected by the frictional retardation of the bobbin, 
 the roving being traversed along the bobbin by hand. In Ark- 
 wright's fly-frame the bobbin was positively driven at a speed 
 sufficient to take up the yarn delivered by the rollers, and the 
 twist given by the rotation of the forked flyer. The difficulty 
 always remained of regulating the velocity of the bobbin, so that 
 it would just take up the right quantity of roving whatever its 
 diameter might be, and this involved the giving of a differential 
 speed, as is now well understood. Several inventors made 
 attempts to solve this problem, and in 1823 a Mr. Green, of 
 Mansfield, devised a method of driving the bobbin from the 
 rollers, thus ensuring that the alteration of the velocity of the 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 23 
 
 latter necessarily involved a similar variation in the other. He 
 also thought of such a train of gearing as would vary the speed 
 of the bobbins as they filled ; but his mechanism was complex, 
 each spindle being actuated independently, and it never came 
 into general use. In 1826 Mr. Henry Holdsworth, of Man- 
 chester, patented the present differential motion, by which an 
 accurate variation was obtained. The principle of Holdsworth's 
 motion is practically that of the old sun and planet motion, 
 which, prior to the invention of the crank, had been employed 
 in steam engines. In E. J. Donnell's " History of Cotton " it is 
 stated that the application of this mechanism was the work of 
 Mr. Asa Arnold, a native of Rhode Island, and that he did so 
 in 1822. Mr. Donnell also states that a model of the apparatus 
 was taken to Manchester in 1825, so that there are some 
 doubts whether the patent taken out by Holdsworth in the 
 next year was not the result of an inspection of Arnold's model. 
 Holdsworth had invented a combination of wheels for coupling 
 the movements of the spindle and bobbin in 1825, but it was 
 not until the next year that the differential motion was patented. 
 The cone which had been previously used to differentiate the 
 speed of the bobbin was retained, but the difficulties of adjust- 
 ment previously existing when a different amount of twist was 
 required were entirely obviated by the employment of the 
 differential or " equating " motion. At first one cone only was 
 used, and the necessary unequal movement of the strap was 
 obtained by the use of a parabolic rack. This was found to 
 be very difficult to make and regulate, and it was not long 
 before a second cone was employed, by which means the same 
 object was attained. In the early stages the roving was wound 
 upon double-ended bobbins of the type employed on the flax 
 wheel, but it was found to be better, on account of the adhesion 
 of the yarn, to use plain tubes, and by coupling the building 
 motion to the lifter a gradual shortening of the traverse of the 
 bobbin rail was obtained, thus producing roving bobbins of the 
 shape now familiar. 
 
 (17) The joint effect of these improvements was very great, 
 
24 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 especially when they were aided by the comparatively enormous 
 driving power given by the steam engine. Prior to the per- 
 fecting of the latter, cotton mills were located on the banks of 
 running streams, and many were found in Derbyshire, Notting- 
 hamshire, and even so far afield as Birmingham. The steam 
 engine, however, changed all that. Lancashire became the 
 centre of the industry, and although cotton mills like those of 
 Messrs. Strutt of Belper, Messrs. Evans of Derby, and a few 
 others, are still found in Derbyshire and Nottingham, in the 
 main cotton spinning is confined in England to this county. It 
 is somewhat interesting to note that in 1679 1,976,359103. 
 represented the weight of cotton imported into England. This 
 remained practically stationary for some years, but after the 
 invention of Hargreaves' jenny and Arkwright's spinning 
 machine it rapidly increased. In 1764, 3,870,392^3. were im- 
 ported; in 1774,4,764,589103.; in 1784, 11,482,083^3.; while 
 in 1795 the amount exported from the United States alone 
 exceeded the whole importation into England in 1774, only 20 
 years before. In 1815, 82,998,747033. of cotton were exported 
 from the United States, shewing the enormous increase which 
 had taken place in the use of this material. In 1825, the 
 year of Richard Roberts' first patent for a self-acting mule, 
 199,272,665103. of cotton were imported into this country, ar 
 increase in 30 years of about 1,500 per cent. The first import 
 of cotton from the East Indies was made in 1798. In 1835, 
 five years after the perfecting of the self-acting mule by 
 Roberts, the importation of cotton into Great Britain was 
 364,000,000103., or nearly double that of 1825. It may also be 
 of interest to know that in 1789 the steam engine was first 
 used to drive a cotton mill in Manchester, and the parish of 
 Oldham had a population of 13,916 only. In 1790 the 
 production by a spinner of 4o's yarn was only one hank per 
 spindle per day; in 1812 it reached two hanks, and in 1830 
 2\ hanks. Nothing can be more convincing of the enormous 
 advances made in this art than these figures, which refer to 
 periods of such recent date, within the lifetime of many persons 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF COTTON SPINNING. 25 
 
 now living. The remark made in the early part of this chapter 
 as to the possibilities of future developments will not, when 
 viewed in the light of those of the past, appear to be so wild 
 or far-reaching as at first sight. 
 
 (18) It will be noticed that this brief review shows that the 
 sequence of the development of the art of spinning is as follows : 
 In the first place the fibre was obtained and utilised by plaiting 
 or knotting it, this method of employing it being prior to the 
 discovery of the advantages to be gained by twisting two or 
 more fibres together. When the art of twisting or twining was 
 discovered, the invention of implements by which it co^ild be 
 effected followed as a matter of course. These began with the 
 simplest form of tool and terminated with the best type of hand 
 spinning wheel. Simultaneously with the application of the art 
 of spinning or twisting came the knowledge that with most 
 fibres a drawing process was advantageous, and accordingly the 
 attenuation of the material while it was being twisted became 
 recognised as an essential part of the process. In India the 
 purification of cotton by roughly ginning it and opening it in the 
 manner described is the precursor of the modern system of 
 cleaning, while the application of the hand card to the formation 
 of a fleece of cotton, in a similar manner to the production of a 
 woollen fleece, still further developed the series of processes which 
 make up the art of cotton-spinning to-day. The brilliant series 
 of inventions of the latter 'part of the last half century and the 
 beginning of this transformed what had been a slow manual 
 operation into a speedy mechanical one, and completely revo- 
 lutionised the industrial system hitherto prevailing. It is, how- 
 ever, worth emphasising, in conclusion, that the germ of every 
 modern practice is to be found in the primitive manipulation of 
 cotton, and that modern systems are the mere developments of 
 ancestral treatments. 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Extent of cotton-growing area, 19 American cotton field, 
 20 Indian statistics, 21 Miscellaneous cotton fields, 22 
 Temperature in cotton growing countries, 23 Chemical compo- 
 sition of plant and seed, 24, 25, 26, 27 Character of cotton growing 
 lands, 28, 29 Rainfall, 30, 31 Humidity, 32 Boll - worm and 
 caterpillar, 33 Essentials of cotton growing soils, 34 Cost of 
 growing, 34 Period of cultivation in various countries, 35, 36 
 Method of cultivation, 37 Varieties of cotton, 38 Characteristics 
 of fibres, 40 Sea Island cotton, 41 Egyptian cotton, 42 Peruvian 
 cotton, 43 Brazilian cotton, 44 Orleans, Texas, Uplands and 
 Mobile cotton, 46 Hingunghat and Broach cotton, 47 Oomra, 
 Dhollera, Coomptah, Bengal, Scinde, Tinnevelly, and Westerns 
 cotton, 48 Chinese and African cotton, 49 Comparative qualities, 
 50 Oven for testing amount of moisture, 51, 52 Table of charac- 
 teristics, 53 Defects in cotton, 54 Picking and ginning, 55 
 Baling, 56 Classification of cotton and terms of purchase, 
 57 C.I.F. 6 per cent terms, 58 Contracts for future delivery, 
 59 Foreign weights of cotton, 59 Acreage of cotton lands, 
 60 Processes of spinning, 61. 
 
 (19) COTTON is grown from a plant of the natural order of 
 Malvaceae, and of the genus Gossypium, and at the present day 
 is widely distributed throughout the world within the latitudes of 
 40 N. and 30 S. There is abundant evidence to prove that 
 from the earliest historical periods this fibre has been known, 
 cultivated, and worked in India. The earliest writer of history, 
 in its modern sense Herodotus mentions the existence of 
 " wild trees bearing fleeces as- their fruit," and the making of 
 cloth by the Indians from these trees. The same writer states 
 that a cuirass sent to Sparta from Amasis, King of Egypt, was 
 adorned with gold ana with fleeces from trees. It is interesting, 
 in passing, to note that the German word " Baumwoll " tree 
 wool which is used to denote cotton, is evidently founded on 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 27 
 
 the idea of the fibre being fleecy like wool. There are, there- 
 fore, two districts in which the cultivation of cotton is extensively 
 practised to-day, where it has existed from the earliest historic 
 times. But there is the further significant fact, that when the 
 Spaniards obtained a footing on the continent of America, they 
 found cotton being used and cloth made of it. Magellan, in 
 1519, found the Brazilians using cotton in making beds; and in 
 1536 De Vica found the cotton plant in Texas and Louisiana. 
 In 1519 cotton was also cultivated on the coast of Guinea. Now 
 as America had been a terra incognita prior to its discovery by 
 Columbus, there is an extreme probability that the plant had 
 existed there for an indefinite period, and thus we arrive at the 
 fact, that over a belt of the earth's surface, practically coincident 
 with the cotton-growing zone of to-day, the plant was found in 
 the earliest ages of which there are records. 
 
 (20) At the present day the cotton-growing zone includes the 
 whole of India, part of China and Central Asia, the Nile Valley 
 and Delta in Egypt, Syria, certain of the Southern States or 
 North America, Brazil, Peru, and several of the Islands in the 
 Pacific Ocean. With the exception of Egypt there is little culti 
 vation of cotton in any part of Africa, although there is a vast 
 tract of country which is admirably adapted for it. According 
 to the latest statistics available to us, which relate to the-. 
 season 1894-95, the whole of the cotton-growing lands in the 
 United States are included rrrtke boundaries of ten states, the 
 number of acres in each being as follows : North Carolina,, 
 1,296,522; South Carolina, 2,160,391; Georgia, 3,610,968; 
 Florida, 201,621 ; Alabama, 2,664,861; Mississippi, 2,826,272; 
 Louisiana, 1,313,296 ; Texas, 6,854,621 ; Arkansas, 1,483,319 ; 
 Tennessee, 879,954. The total acreage in the United States 
 was in 1894-95, 23,687,950. In 1870, the'total acreage in the 
 same states was only 8,666,217, so that the production has 
 enormously increased. The quality of the cotton produced in 
 each of these states will be dealt with at a later stage. 
 
 (21) After the "Qnited States, India is the greatest cotton- 
 growing country, and from a statistical treatise published 
 
28 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 in Bombay in 1889, the following figures of acreage are 
 extracted : 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Bombay 5,350,0 
 
 Scinde , 75,o 
 
 Berar 1,960,000 
 
 Central Provinces 610,000 
 
 Central India 290,000 
 
 Rajputana 550,000 
 
 North-West Provinces 1,550,000 
 
 Oudh 80,000 
 
 Punjab .. 860,000 
 
 Nizam's Territory 970,000 
 
 Bengal 162,000 
 
 Madras 1,675.000 
 
 Mysore and Coorg 42,000 
 
 Assam 40,000 
 
 Burmab (Lower) 8,080 
 
 Total acreage 14,222,000 
 
 This acreage does not vary much year by year, and in the 
 season 1895-6 was 14,617,000. 
 
 (22) As a matter of fact, almost the whole area of India is 
 more or less a cotton-growing area ; but the proportion which the 
 lands devoted to its culture form of the whole varies consider- 
 ably in different districts. In many of the provinces the 
 percentage is less than ten, and only in a small proportion does 
 it reach more than thirty. Still, the fact remains that there is a 
 large and increasing area in India in which cotton is cultivated. 
 In Egypt the cotton-growing district lies in the Delta and along 
 the banks of the Nile, and the area under cultivation is about 
 890,000 acres. The Brazilian acreage is not accurately known, 
 and that of Peru is also not accessible. Great efforts have been 
 recently made by the Russian Government to extend the growth 
 of cotton in Central Asia, all sorts of facilities having been 
 created to encourage it. In the provinces of Erivan, Merv, 
 Bokhara, and Turkestan, along the slopes of the Arab-Caspian 
 mountains, the chief cotton-growing area is found. The country 
 is somewhat sterile, but several good strearrr flow through it, 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 29 
 
 rendering irrigation comparatively easy. The area within which 
 the cultivation of cotton is possible, if irrigation works are 
 properly carried out, is watered by several large streams like the 
 Amu Daria and Murghab. The flow of the former is only sur- 
 passed by the Volga and Danube in Europe, and is equal to that 
 of the Nile, so that there is ample scope for the irrigating 
 engineer. It is not known what is the exact area under 
 cultivation, but it is probably about 700,000 acres. 
 
 (23) Thus the area over which cotton is cultivated is very 
 extensive, and embraces a great variety of soil. There are well- 
 defined climatic conditions which are essential to the successful 
 production of cotton. The mean temperature in degrees 
 Fahrenheit, for a period of five years, from 1886 to 1890, in the 
 ten cotton-growing states of America, are for the month of May 
 71-9, June 7776, July 80-96, and August 79*14. In the winter 
 months the temperature falls below zero in many of these states 
 but the summer temperature is high enough and lasts sufficiently 
 long to ripen and mature the plant, and to enable it to be well 
 harvested. In India the mean annual temperatures range from 
 73-3 in the Dharwar district to 81-9 in Madras. The mean 
 annual temperature in Brazil is about 79F. ; that of Egypt is 
 not accessible to us, but probably approximates to that of India. 
 In Central Asia the mean temperature is lower from 55 to 58 
 but rises during the cotton-growing months to a much higher 
 point. Observations taken shew^ that at Samarcand the mean 
 temperature in the three years 1889-90-91 ranged from 23*2F. 
 to 28'2F. in January ; from 6i'7F. to 65-7^ in May; 747F. 
 to 76'3F. in June; 75'9F. to 777F. in July; 7i'6F. to 
 73'8F. in August ; and from 64-9^ to 65'8F. in September. 
 The temperature in Tashkend was about 3 higher. 
 
 (24) The cotton plant, as will hereafter be shown, produces a 
 better fibre in some situations than in others, and there is no 
 doubt that other conditions such as the character of the soil 
 and the humidity of the atmosphere have much to do with the 
 character of the fibre. There is a well-known analysis of the 
 ash produced when Sea Island cotton is carefully burned and 
 
30 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the residuum incinerated, which was made by Dr. Ure. The 
 
 composition of the ash was as follows : 
 
 MATTERS SOLUBLE IN WATER. Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of potash 44-8 
 
 Muriate of potash 9-9 
 
 Sulphate of potash 9-3 
 
 MATTERS INSOLUBLE IN WATER. 
 
 Phosphate of lime 90 
 
 Carbonate of lime io - 6 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia 8-4 
 
 Peroxide of iron 3'O 
 
 Alumina, water, and loss 50 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 (25) In Dr. Royle's work on the " Culture of Cotton in India," 
 two analyses of ash obtained by the combustion and subsequent 
 incineration of Orleans cotton fibre and seed made in 1843 are 
 interesting. The analysis of the ash obtained by burning the 
 fibre is : Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of potash 44'29 
 
 Phosphate of lime 25-34 
 
 Carbonate of lime 8 '97 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 675 
 
 Silica 4'i2 
 
 Sulphate of potash 2-90 
 
 Alumina i'4 
 
 Chloride of potassium \ 
 
 Chloride of magnesium I 
 
 Sulphate of lime V and loss 6-23 
 
 Phosphate of potash I 
 
 G;ideof iron (a trace) -.. ) 
 
 10000 
 
 (26) From this it. is deduced that in io,ooolbs. of cotton the 
 following amounts of the substances named are abstracted from 
 the ground : Lbs - 
 
 Potash 3* 
 
 Lime I2 
 
 Magnesia 3 
 
 Phosphoric acid I2 
 
 Sulphuric acid x 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 31 
 
 (27) The analysis of the cotton seed removed from the same 
 :otton showed that the proportion of phosphoric acid and lime 
 was much in excess of that existing in the cotton. Thus, 45*35 
 per cent of phosphoric acid existed in the ash of the seed against 
 12*32 in the cotton ash, the percentage of lime being 29*79 and 
 17-09 respectively. The fibre of the cotton is pure cellulose, 
 with a chemical composition of C 6 H 10 O 5 , while the wax which 
 coats the fibres of American cotton is composed according 
 to Dr. Bowman as follows : P er cent . 
 
 Carbon 80*38 
 
 Hydrogen 14-51 
 
 Oxygen 5'ii 
 
 (28) The particulars thus briefly collated throw some light 
 upon the situations in which the plant may be expected to 
 flourish. From the analysis of Sea Island cotton ash, given by 
 Dr. Ure, it would appear that a situation near the sea is most 
 advantageous to the growth of the plant. Many of the salts 
 evidently present in the fibres are such as would be extracted 
 from a saline or marshy soil, and accordingly we find that the 
 land on which Sea Island cotton is grown does contain a pro- 
 portion of saline matter. In Georgia, the land, which is a sandy 
 loam mixed with much vegetable matter, contains less saline 
 substances, but a fair percentage of lime. In the plains of the 
 states of Mississippi and Alabama, which are unmistakably 
 alluvial in their origin, the soiMs-pf a loamy character. It is 
 stated by Dr. Mallet, in a book referred to presently, that the 
 soil of good lands in Alabama is so tenacious as to polish when 
 a wheel passes over it in dry weather. It is universally remarked 
 that the nearer the cotton-growing lands are to the sea, the better 
 the staple of the cotton grown, even if it be of one of the inferior 
 varieties. In an extremely interesting book, \vritten by Dr. J. 
 W. Mallet, who was Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
 Alabama, a very exhaustive statement is given of a long series of 
 investigations into the composition of the soil in that State. Dr. 
 Mallet selected a sample from a plantation in the cane-brake 
 region, where the number of streams is small In conducting 
 
32 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the tests, he was able to analyse several specimens of Indian 
 soils and compare the results. The samples were all air- 
 dried, and were treated with water, and hydrochloric and 
 sulphuric acids, in order to extract all the soluble salts. It 
 was found that in the surface soil there was 16 per cent 
 of alumina, and in the sub-soil 20 per cent. In this respect 
 the Alabama soil resembled the Indian, and the presence 
 of so much alumina involves the free absorption of moisture by 
 the soil, which, in an ill-watered country, is important. Of the 
 sequioxide of iron there was about 8 per cent, and about '1863 
 per cent of phosphoric acid in the surface, and '2376 per cent 
 in the sub-soil. Lime is found in Indian cotton soils on an 
 average of about 7 per cent ; while in the case of Alabama the 
 surface soil contained 3*39 per cent, and the sub-soil -83 per 
 cent. Magnesia is found in Indian soils to the extent of from 
 '2 to 2 per cent, and in Alabama '66 in the surface and "74 per 
 cent in the sub-soil. Potash in the Indian soils varies from '193 
 to 2*24 per cent, and in the American '31 in the surface and "36 
 in the sub-soil. It is a notable fact, which is confirmed by the 
 analysis quoted from Dr. Ure, that the earth, from the districts 
 where Sea Island cotton is grown, contains much more potash than 
 soda. The latter substance is found in Indian soil and Alabama 
 surface and sub-soil in the following percentages respectively r 
 5 to i ; '25 ; and '25. The organic matter is easily soluble in 
 A-ater, and consists largely of humus derived from the leaves or 
 stalks which drop on and are ploughed into the land. In 
 Turkestan the soil is evidently of an alluvial character, and is a 
 conglomerate of lime and clay. When it contains a fair per- 
 centage of sand it is admirably fitted for this purpose, otherwise 
 it tends to clog. The Indian black cotton soil is described as a 
 highly argillaceous, somewhat calcareous clay, very adhesive 
 when wet, and contracting so as to form large fissures during the 
 hot weather. In Egypt there are two main classes of soil, one 
 of a blackish colour and another which is light coloured and 
 sandy. Of these the black soil is the most suitable, but it varies 
 in its fertility. The best cotton lands in Brazil have a loamy 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 33 
 
 character, and extend to a great depth below the surface. They 
 produce cotton for many years without the aid or use of any 
 kind of fertiliser. Dr. Mallet sums up his examination of the 
 soil of Alabama by saying: "It is shown to be a stiff, aluminous 
 clay, containing moderate amounts of organic matter and of the 
 mineral substances required by the plant as food of great 
 uniformity, and in an exceedingly fine state of division ; above 
 all, possessing a very high capacity for absorbing and retaining 
 heat, moisture, gases, and soluble mineral matter." 
 
 (29) Dr. Ure long ago came to the conclusion that the best 
 soil was one which was a compost or loam, and in which there 
 was " neutro-saline matter with alkaline, calcareous, and mag- 
 nesian bases." It will be noticed that nothing is said by Dr. 
 Ure about the presence of phosphoric acid, but there is no 
 doubt as to this being required. In one case there were used 
 as fertilisers 3^ tons of phosphate of lime and 3^ tons of cotton 
 seed meal on a farm of 70 acres extent. Now, remembering 
 that the soil of Alabama is a rich dark alluvial soil containing 
 much organic matter, and also remembering what a large 
 percentage of phosphoric acid existed in the analysis ot 
 the seed, it is not too strong an inference to draw that in 
 addition to the saline, alkaline, calcareous, and magnesian 
 substances the presence of phosphorus is absolutely imperative. 
 This is confirmed by the analysis of the cotton fibre made by 
 Dr. Ure. The condition of the soil is thus seen to be one of 
 extreme interest, and has a determinate effect upon the plant. 
 A loamy soil easily penetrable by the roots of the plant is pre- 
 ferable to a heavy one, and its sustenance will be much affected 
 by the character of the soil, especially as the plant is one of 
 those possessing tap roots. Dr. Mallet states that the average 
 depth of the root is 2ft. iin., and the lateral spread about 2 ft. gin.,, 
 so that about 5 cubic feet of soil was penetrated. The tap root r 
 however, sometimes descends five feet. In like manner tht 
 process of irrigation is aided by a porous surface or sub-soil, and' 
 as there are many places in which cotton can be grown, but im 
 which the atmospheric conditions are fatal to its complete 
 
34 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 success, irrigation is absolutely essential, and can be made a 
 great help to extended cultivation. The experience gained in 
 Turkestan is especially valuable in this respect. The climate 
 there being dry and hot, the application of water by irrigating 
 channels is absolutely necessary ; but care must be taken to 
 apply the water at the right time. Being sown in April, the 
 plants appear in from 10 to 15 days, and the first watering takes 
 place about the end of May. The period of watering during 
 the subsequent growth depends on the evaporation, which varies 
 with the season. Careful observation enables the period of 
 application to be determined. In Egypt the land is well soaked 
 by admitting water to the intermediate trenches prior to sowing, 
 and after the plants are thinned it is watered every 12 to 15 
 days. 
 
 (30) This brings us to consider the question of the rainfall, 
 with which that of humidity is closely connected. In the United 
 States of America the rainfall is considerable, and the plant is 
 rarely left without a sufficiency of moisture. The mean annual 
 rainfall for a period of five years, 1886 1890, in the ten cotton- 
 growing States was 375 inches in the month of May, ranging 
 from 2'2i inches in 1889, to 5*57 inches in 1890. In June the 
 mean rainfall was 5-19 inches, ranging from 3-97 in 1887, to 
 7 '5 9 in 1886. In July, 4*99 inches was the mean, with a rain- 
 fall in 1888 of 3*02, and in 1889 of 6*06. In August the mean 
 was 4*67 inches, the lowest fall in 1889 4*02 inches, and the 
 highest, in 1888, 6*24 inches. The four months given are 
 those during which the plant is growing, and there is thus a con- 
 siderable rainfall during that period, sufficient to feed and nourish 
 it. During the year 1880 the rainfall of the Southern States 
 ranged from 50 to 60 inches, so that it is evident the cotton 
 plant in the United States is amply watered. In India there is 
 a completely different condition of things. There the rainfall 
 occurs in one season of the year only, which varies in different 
 parts of the country. The western coast receives the rain during 
 the continuance of the south-west monsoon, which strikes the 
 coast near the end of May, the rains reaching Bombay between 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 35 
 
 the 5th and i5th of June. The Madras district is watered by 
 the north-east monsoon, and receives its rain from the end of 
 September to the middle of October. Thus there is a great differ- 
 ence existing between the rainfalls at different periods of the year. 
 For instance, in the Broach district, the mean rainfall during the 
 months of January, February, March, April, and May amounted 
 only to o'22 inches; in June 6*67 inches fell; in July, 15*33 
 inches ; in August, 8-87 ; in September, 7'i8 ; in October, 1-72 ; 
 in November, 0*13, and in December, 0-5. Thus, 3977 inches 
 fell in the five months June to October, and 0*4 inch during the 
 remaining seven. Now Broach is a province which lies near 
 the sea coast on the Gulf of Cambay, and the conditions with 
 regard to rainfall are much more favourable there than in many 
 parts of India. The following table is given, which shows the 
 mean rainfalls in the five months June to October, and in the 
 other seven months of the year. 
 
 
 RAINFALL 
 
 [N INCHES. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Growths. 
 
 Five Months, 
 June to October. 
 
 Seven Months, 
 October to June. 
 
 Observing 
 Stations. 
 
 Dholleras 
 
 27*84 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 Broach -^^ 
 
 3977 
 
 40 
 
 i 
 
 Khandeish . .. .. 
 
 28-87 
 
 1-38 
 
 2 
 
 Barsee 
 
 25'OT 
 
 2 '62 
 
 2 
 
 Coomptasand Dharwars... 
 Westerns 
 
 27-22 
 24 "U 
 
 582 
 3'8l 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Tinnevelly 
 
 I I '6O 
 
 I6-28 
 
 3 
 
 Sind 
 
 ^40 
 
 I'28 
 
 3 
 
 Oomras 
 
 28*2', 
 
 2 '28 
 
 
 
 4 1 '6 5 
 
 4-2S 
 
 T 
 
 
 2 8 'QO 
 
 3-85 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 (31) In Central Asia the rainfall in Tashkend, Samarkhand 
 and Bokhara from 1885 to 1891 inclusive, was respectively 
 137, 12-5 and 4-5 inches, and the result is that except by art 
 
36 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 extensive use of irrigation works the growth of cotton is not 
 possible. In Egypt the rainfall is small, but the cotton being 
 grown on the lands which are annually flooded by the Nile, the 
 growth depends more upon the moisture thus derived than upon 
 the rainfall. In addition to this there are extensive irrigation 
 works which aid in the provision of the necessary moisture, irri- 
 gation taking place eight times during the growth of the plant. 
 The Brazilian rainfall is considerable, as much as 25 inches 
 falling in a month and 109 inches in the year, the average on the 
 sea coast being stated to be about 78 inches. Darwin in " The 
 Voyage of a Naturalist" states that i'6 inch of rain fell in the 
 course of one morning. In addition to this, cotton is grown 
 on the lands along the coast, and this fact has a considerable 
 influence upon its condition. In Peru the rains only fall once 
 in seven years in the cotton growing districts, and irrigation 
 although practicable has not been resorted to, but, as in Egypt, 
 the rivers overflow their banks and so render cultivation possible. 
 (3 2 ) We now come to consider the question of humidity^ 
 which is distinguished from that of rainfall. There is in every 
 district along the sea or pierced by rivers a certain quantity 
 of moisture in the air, and although this naturally differs with the 
 season it is an item which requires taking into consideration. It 
 is quite clear that if the air in which the cotton fibre is ripened 
 possesses a high degree of humidity the lack of rainfall is com- 
 pensated for, and even where rain falls abundantly the contained 
 moisture is readily absorbed by the leaves and flowers of the 
 plant and by the soil. Thus in situations where the plantations 
 adjoin the sea there is not only the moisture percolating through 
 the soil, which acts advantageously, but there is also a vast 
 amount of aqueous vapour in the air which plays its part in th? 
 development of the plant. Thus a warm, moist or steamy atmos- 
 phere is the ideal one for cotton growing, and wherever it is found 
 a good grade of cotton is produced. Where it does not exist 
 constant and skilful irrigation goes far to take its place, especially 
 where the soil is of an alluvial nature. In short, it may be stated 
 as an axiom that the possession of an insular that is a humid 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 37 
 
 atmosphere is the most favourable atmospheric condition for the 
 growth of cotton. It does not necessarily follow that the plan- 
 tation must be in the vicinity of the sea, although this for the 
 other reasons detailed is preferable, only that it shall be in such 
 a situation as to be acted upon by an atmosphere charged with 
 watery vapour, which is the case when a plantation is situated 
 on rising grounds along which the vapour-charged winds can 
 blow. Thus the relative percentage of humidity on June 8th, 
 1880, was 85 at Atlanta in Georgia; 82 at Cape Hatteras, 
 N.C. ; 77 at Charleston, S.C. ; 71 at Galveston, Texas; 78 at 
 Mobile and 92 at Montgomery, Alabama (south wind blowing) ; 
 86 at Vicksburg, Miss. ; and 86 at Wilmington, N.C. The 
 average humidity during the months of July and August for 
 three years in succession was for the South Atlantic States, 74 ; 
 for the Eastern Gulf States, 76 ; and for the Western Gulf States, 
 72. Dr. Mallet puts the conditions as follows : The atmosphere 
 may contain water in a vaporous state up to the point of satura- 
 tion. It may be super-saturated so that rain falls from it. The 
 soil may contain a greater or less quantity of water, which can 
 be readily absorbed until the point of saturation is reduced. 
 If the soil is so far saturated as to be muddy, cotton will not 
 thrive. He further says : Aqueous vapour in the air and 
 abundant hygroscopic moisture in the soil itself are the sources 
 from which the moisture necessary for growth is to be obtained. 
 (33) The cotton plant is liable to the attacks of a caterpillar, 
 which is regularly developed like all other moths, and is most 
 prolific during a moist season, which is not too hot or too cold. 
 When in the worm form it feeds upon the leaves, bulbs, and 
 bark of the plants, and does an immense amount of damage. 
 The moth is not so destructive, but as it is migratory, the eggs 
 are laid over large areas. The loss of crop' has, in some cases, 
 been total, but there may be very little damage done. The 
 most favourite ground for the development of the moth are the 
 low-lying, alluvial Iands 5 in which the plant rapidly attains 
 maturity. There is also a moth which is developed from a 
 worm called the boll-worm, which is hatched from eggs in the 
 
38 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 usual way. It hibernates in the chrysalis form in the ground, 
 and many of the species are killed by the exposure caused by 
 ploughing. The boll-worm feeds upon the flowers and bolls of 
 the plant, and by penetration into the latter often completely 
 destroys them. 
 
 (34) This very brief survey enables a clear conception to be 
 obtained of the conditions under which cotton can be best culti- 
 vated. These are, ist, a soil of a loamy character, containing 
 saline, alkaline, and calcareous substances ; 2nd, a temperature 
 ranging from 68 F. to 82 F. during the months in which the 
 plant is growing and maturing ; 3rd, an ample rainfall ; and 4th, 
 a humid atmosphere. When these four conditions are found 
 existing together the best results may be confidently expected. 
 It is possible in the absence of some of these features to substi- 
 tute them by artificial aids, producing the same result. For 
 instance, a light siliceous soil can, by the aid of abundant fer- 
 tilisers and skilful irrigation, be made to produce a better quality 
 of cotton than is possible in its natural state, but the conditions 
 under which these artificial aids can be profitably applied are, 
 of course, limited. In order to give some idea of the commer- 
 cial position of cotton growing, a statement is appended on page 
 
 39 which is one of the latest authenticated, and gives the cost 
 of production from 26 farms in various states. The cost is 
 obtained after making allowances for rent, labour, fertilisers, 
 sale of surplus seed, interest, and all legitimate items. 
 
 The most successful cultivators work the crop at regular 
 intervals, but never while the land is wet. They, however, work 
 all through the dry weather, plough deep, and run the plough 
 through the cultivated crops every ten days. An extensive 
 use of fertilisers is made, and where they are used a more 
 profitable result follows. The fertilisers are mainly acid phos- 
 phates and natural phosphoric rocks which exist in large 
 quantities in the Southern States. The cost of growing 
 cotton in Turkestan varies from 3|d. to 4d. per Ib. of 
 lint cotton, a price which is much increased before shipment by 
 various charges. The cost in India is difficult to get, but is 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 COST OF PRODUCTION. 
 
 39 
 
 No. 
 
 State. 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Total Yield. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Net Cost 
 Total. 
 Dollars. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Season. 
 
 I 
 
 North Carolina... 
 
 I O6 
 
 30,150 
 
 2,260-5I 
 
 74 
 
 1891-92 
 
 2 
 
 do. 
 
 32 
 
 11,500 
 
 688-40 
 
 6 
 
 do. 
 
 3 
 
 do. 
 
 4 
 
 9,OOO 
 
 839-00 
 
 9i 
 
 do. 
 
 4 
 
 do. 
 
 4 
 
 15,980 
 
 1,119-20 
 
 7 
 
 dor 
 
 5 
 
 do. 
 
 25 
 
 13,400 
 
 7I6-00 
 
 5i 
 
 1892-93 
 
 6 
 
 South Carolina... 
 
 36 
 
 9,526 
 
 60597 
 
 6 i 
 
 1891-92 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 do. ;-.;, 
 
 Georgia 
 
 50 
 
 soo 
 
 2O,OOO 
 I OO OOO 
 
 I,4OI-8o 
 7 O6=TOO 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1892-93 
 do. 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 do 
 do 
 
 20 
 
 65 
 
 10,000 
 
 II OOO 
 
 416*05 
 826-30 
 
 7i 
 
 1891-92 
 do. 
 
 1 1 
 
 do 
 
 1 80 
 
 21 5OO 
 
 I 489*00 
 
 692 
 
 do. 
 
 12 
 
 do .. 
 
 35 
 
 6 ooo 
 
 4OI "O1 
 
 6* 
 
 do. 
 
 13 
 
 do 
 
 150 
 
 28,520 
 
 1,778-70 
 
 
 do. 
 
 14 
 
 Alabama 
 
 75 
 
 12 500 
 
 960 'oo 
 
 75 
 
 do. 
 
 15 
 
 do. 
 
 25 
 
 4 OOO 
 
 3i6'oo 
 
 8 
 
 do. 
 
 
 do. 
 
 
 7 ^OO 
 
 OCJ2-7S 
 
 
 do 
 
 17 
 
 do 
 
 50 
 
 25 ooo 
 
 1,263-00 
 
 c 
 
 do. 
 
 18 
 
 do 
 
 150 
 
 32,000 
 
 2,575 oo 
 
 8 
 
 do. 
 
 19 
 
 do 
 
 360 
 
 118,000 
 
 8,537 'oo 
 
 74 
 
 do. 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 Mississippi 
 do 
 
 45 
 7S 
 
 11,500 
 1 8 ooo 
 
 699-50 
 i 674*00 
 
 Ql 
 
 do. 
 
 22 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 500 
 
 2OO OOO 
 
 Q 6QO 'OO 
 
 
 I So r 02 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 do 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 2,OOO 
 IOO 
 
 1,000,000 
 1 6 500 
 
 52,OOO*OO 
 QO4'OO 
 
 5 j- 
 
 do. 
 do 
 
 25 
 
 do. 
 
 
 6 ooo 
 
 42 V^O 
 
 7 i 
 
 do 
 
 26 
 
 do 
 
 121 
 
 45 500 
 
 I 816*85 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 stated to be from i^d. to ifd. per lb. of lint cotton in the 
 Punjaub. In Egypt the cost of production is from i|d. to 
 2|d. per lb. 
 
 (35) Having thus ascertained the conditions under which the 
 growth of cotton can be best conducted, a few words may be 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 said about the method of cultivation. What is aimed at is the 
 production of the largest possible quantity of good stapled 
 cotton, of good colour, and in a clean condition. In sowing it, 
 therefore, all danger of frost is, as far as possible, avoided, and 
 the time of planting is arranged to be after the date at which 
 frosts are expected. A damp condition of the soil when plant- 
 ing, or a good fall of rain subsequently, are advantageous. Two 
 tabulated statements are now given which furnish a number of 
 particulars relating to the cultivation of cotton in the United 
 States and in India. The first is extracted from Shepperson's 
 " Cotton Facts," and in the shape givfen, the tables are con- 
 venient for reference. 
 
 COTTON CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 'So 
 
 j 
 
 c 
 
 9 
 
 | 
 
 t> 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 u *2 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 c 
 
 
 < 
 
 *o 
 
 ^"l'S'2: 
 
 
 5~ 
 
 2 fci 
 
 ti 
 
 ti 
 
 ti 
 
 x^ 
 
 V5 S 
 
 STATES. 
 
 V ff 
 
 *>.S 
 
 v t. 
 
 4J.5 
 
 S 
 
 M " 
 
 
 
 
 rt ^ 
 
 rt'jt 
 
 ^C (J 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 0. 
 
 " 8 
 
 ^l 
 
 
 "* 'S. 
 
 t> c 
 
 M /' = ^ 
 
 
 It 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 & 
 
 
 n 
 
 g^S? 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 13 
 
 D 
 
 5 
 
 p 
 
 E 
 
 <l 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 Feb. 25 
 
 April 15 
 
 May 10 
 
 Sept. i 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 itoj 
 
 157 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Mar. 5 
 
 n 15 
 
 ii 7 
 
 Aug. 15 to 
 
 ,, i 
 
 1 toi 
 
 142 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ept. i 
 
 
 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Feb. i 
 
 10 
 
 
 Au '. 15 to 20 
 
 
 Jtoi 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 Jan. 20 
 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 
 4 *- w 8 
 
 s 
 
 105 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Feb. i 
 
 i> 5 
 
 n 1C 
 
 Aug. IOt020 
 
 15 
 
 i 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 Louisiana 
 
 x 
 
 i 5 
 
 10 
 IO 
 
 Aug. 10 to 20 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 165 
 
 223 
 
 Texas (South of 30' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50" N.) 
 
 Jan. 15 
 
 Mar. 15 
 
 IO 
 
 Aug. i 
 
 2O 
 
 J 
 
 182 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Feb. 15 
 
 April 15 
 
 i. J 5 
 
 Aug. 15 to 20 
 
 Jan. 15 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Mar. i 
 
 n 15 
 
 ^5 
 
 Sept. i to 10 
 
 ^5 
 
 | to i 
 
 155 
 
 Long Staple or Sea 
 Island Cotton in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 South Carolina . . 
 
 Feb. i 
 
 i 
 
 i, i 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 If 
 
 "5 
 
 Note. In the northern part of Texas the date for preparing 
 the ground for sowing is about four weeks later than that given 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 above. Sea Island is sowed a little later than that given in 
 Georgia and Florida. The average yield of the cotton-growing 
 districts of the United States during the season 1890-1891 was, 
 according to Ellison, 195105. of lint cotton per acre. The ter- 
 mination of the picking season is, to a large extent, determined 
 by the frosts which are prevalent in the early winter. If these 
 are severe enough they rapidly kill the crop. The earliest 
 period at which killing frosts have taken place recently 
 are October 2nd at Memphis, October 26th at Mobile, 
 December 5th at Galveston, November i8th at Pensacola, and 
 November 8th at Charleston. 
 
 COTTON CULTURE IN INDIA. 
 
 DISTRICTS. 
 
 Usual Date 
 to prepare 
 Land. 
 
 Usual Date 
 of 
 Sowing. 
 
 Usual Date 
 to begin 
 Picking. 
 
 Usual Date 
 to finish 
 Picking. 
 
 Usual 
 Length 
 of 
 Staple. 
 
 Yield of 
 Lint 
 Cotton 
 per acre. 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. Nov. 
 
 Dec Jan 
 
 Inches. 
 4 to 3 
 
 06 
 
 Oomrawuttee . . 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Nov. Jan. 
 
 Mar. Apr. 
 
 | to i 
 
 5* 
 
 Broach 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 February 
 
 April 
 
 ftoi 
 
 9SJ 
 
 Dhollera 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Feb. Apr. 
 
 Apr. May 
 
 H 
 
 74 
 
 Coompta and \ 
 Dhharwar . . j" 
 
 July <fe Aug. 
 
 August 
 
 March 
 
 May 
 
 | to i 
 
 50 
 
 Tinneveily 
 
 Aug. <fe Sep. 
 
 Oct. & Nov. 
 
 Feb. -Mar. 
 
 Mar. Apr. 
 
 ifctoiT 1 , 
 
 54 
 
 Westerns 
 
 July & Aug. 
 
 Aug. & Sep. 
 
 Mar. Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 } to i 
 
 4 1 
 
 Hingunghat 
 
 May <fc June 
 
 June 
 
 Nov. Dec. 
 
 Feb. -Mar. 
 
 3 to if\ 
 
 4 2 
 
 In India cotton is not often sown in the same field in succes- 
 sive years, the rule being to sow it only once every three or five 
 years, growing other crops, such as wheat or millet, in the 
 interim. 
 
 (36) In Egypt, in preparing for the crop, the land is usually 
 ploughed in December, this extending to the end of February, 
 and planting takes place in March and April. Picking begins 
 in September, and lasts at times until the ist January. The 
 staple of Egyptian cotton varies from iin. to ijin., and the 
 yield is about 34olbs. per acre. In Brazil, planting takes place 
 
4 2 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 from December i5th to June ist, according to the position of 
 the plantation, and picking extends from July to February. 
 About Pernambuco the plants have open bolls during the 
 entire year. The length of Brazilian cotton is lin. to i Jin. In 
 Turkestan the sowing takes place in April, the land being 
 ploughed as soon as the weather permits. Picking begins about 
 the middle of July and extends for a short time only, as about 
 the end of August the nights get chilly, and this prevents the 
 bolls from ripening. The yield is from igolbs. to 24olbs. of 
 lint cotton per acre. 
 
 (37) The system of cultivation in the United States is to 
 plough deep furrows in the land and make a free application of 
 fertilisers, which are ploughed in thoroughly. A considerable 
 space from five to six feet is left between the furrows or 
 ridges, so that when the plants have grown, a clear passage 
 between them is left. The seed is sown by drills or dibbles, the 
 former plan being adopted in the United States, a groove of ij 
 to 2 inchef deep being made along the crest of the ridge. The 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 43 
 
 seeds are dropped into this groove by the sower in fair numbers, 
 and are immediately covered either by a harrow running along 
 the ridge, or by means of hoes. In dibbling, holes are formed 
 in the ridges, into which four or five seeds are dropped, and 
 immediately covered. In a few days the plant appears, if the 
 weather is favourable (its appearance being as in Fig. i), and 
 after it has grown a little, a few are thinned out, leaving two to 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 four together. Subsequently, these are reduced to one (the plant 
 then being as in Fig. 2), and the plants are periodically banked 
 up by passing a plough between the ridges. The three illustra- 
 tions given in Figs. 3, 4, and 5 show the development of the 
 plant, Fig. 5 showing the plant at full maturity. Weeds 
 are kept cleai by ploughing and hoeing, and constant 
 
44 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 FIG. 3 . 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 45 
 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
46 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 attention to this point greatly improves the crop. Careful 
 cultivation has a wonderful effect upon the character of the 
 cotton obtained, and even on poor soils the quality can be 
 greatly improved in this way. In India the land is cultivated 
 by hand, and the seeds sown either by a drill or broadcast. 
 Substantially the same procedure as described is followed, but 
 more work is done by hand. In Central Asia the seed is sown 
 by dibbles, and as the season is short, the plants during growth 
 are often cropped to lessen the rapidity of their growth. In 
 Egypt ploughing is resorted to, furrows about 2ft. apart being 
 made. A space of from 12 inches to 18 inches is left 
 between each group of seeds. 
 
 (38) As was said at the beginning of cms chapter, the cotton 
 plant is of the order Malvaceae or mallows, and of the genus 
 Gossypium. It was pointed out that the earliest historic records 
 spoke of wool growing on trees, and it is still found in this shape 
 in India, Arabia, Senegal, and Brazil. For many reasons the 
 tree form, which is known as Gossypium Arboreum, has given 
 way to the shrub and herbaceous varieties, which are most 
 extensively cultivated. There are a large number of apparently 
 distinct varieties of the plant existing in different parts of the 
 world, but it is now generally conceded that most of these are 
 variations of a few well known types. Dr. Forbes Royle, on 
 p. 132 of " The Culture of Cotton in India," and again on p. 151, 
 expresses the opinion that all the existing varieties can be classed 
 under the following four heads : (i) Gossypium Peruvianum ; 
 (2) Gossypium Indicum; (3) Gossypium Barbadense; (4) 
 Gossypium Arboreum. The first class includes most of the 
 cotton grown in Pernambuco, Brazil x and Peru ; the 
 second, the several varieties indigenous to India; the third 
 includes Bourbon, West Indian, Sea Island, Uplands, New 
 Orleans, Mexican; and the fourth all the varieties of the 
 tree cotton. There is a more detailed classification made by 
 Professor Parlatore, which is quoted in the works on the 
 " Cotton Fibre," by Dr. Bowman and Mr. Hugh Monie. There 
 is one distinctive feature in connection with the Peruvian species 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 47 
 
 which is worth noting, namely, that it is a perennial plant 
 whereas all other varieties of cultivated cotton plants are annuals. 
 Further, it does not fully bear fruit until the second year of its 
 growth. The most fruitful and most generally cultivated variety 
 is the herbaceous, and from this the greatest weight of supply 
 is obtained. 
 
 (39) It is intended to give a somewhat complete description 
 of the cotton plant and the varieties of products obtained from 
 it, and to illustrate it by means of special micro-drawings. 
 These are the work of a careful microscopist, Mr. Abraham 
 FlatterSj^arid are made to a uniform scale, the general views 
 being enlarged 200 and the cross sections 280 diameters, 
 each of the vertical lines representing T ^Vtf inch. It may 
 be pointed out that between the leaf of the cotton plant and 
 that of the black mulberry there is a considerable likeness, 
 and the same remark applies to the leaf of the vine. Theophrastus 
 noted these likenesses when accompanying the expedition of 
 Alexander the Great into India. The leaves of the Indian 
 varieties have five lobes, that of the Barbadoes variety usually 
 three, and the Peruvian variety sometimes three, sometimes five, 
 lobes. When the plant attains maturity, the blossoms form, 
 and, as they mature, burst open. The blossom exists for about 
 a day, and is immediately followed by the seed pod, which 
 develops until the growth of the fibres within it causes it to 
 burst. As soon as this happens, the fruit should be gathered 
 along with the seed ; and it is a peculiarity of this plant that the 
 fruit pods do not all burst at one time, but successively, so that 
 it is not uncommon to see ripe and fully developed cotton on 
 the same plant as pods only just begun to develop. This is 
 clearly shown in Figs. 4 and 5. In some cases, in India, 
 the pods do not fully but only partially open, and this is also 
 the case with cotton grown in Central Asia. All native Asiatic 
 cotton appears to possess this characteristic, the cause of which 
 is probably a defective method of cultivation. 
 
 ^40) The process of growth commences with the formation 
 of the seed from which the hairs of cotton are gradually built 
 
THE STUDENTS COTTCN SPINNING 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 49 
 
 up and developed. The latter absorb in their growth the 
 viscous substance filling the seed, and are gradually developed 
 until the full length of the fibre is obtained. When it is so 
 formed, a fully ripe fibre is an elongated, hollow, slightly 
 flattened tube, a little oval in section. During growth the 
 hollow space acts as a conduit for the circulating fluid of the 
 plant, but as maturity is approached this is withdrawn into the 
 centre of the seed, so that the previously cylindrical fibre is 
 flattened^ While this absorption is going on the fibre turns on 
 its axis and becomes a sort of spiral, the regularity of the turns 
 depending on the resistance of the walls and the rate of absorp- 
 tion. The better the quality of the fibre the more pronounced 
 is the convulute structure, this giving a corrugated appearance 
 to the edges, which is of immense value from a manufacturing 
 point of view. The fibre is covered with a coating or sheath of 
 wax, the composition of which has been previously noted, and 
 which plays a very important part in the subsequent manipula- 
 tion of the cotton. It is generally assumed that the cotton 
 fibre is cellular in structure and many observers allege this to be 
 the case. It has been recently stated that this theory is incorrect, 
 and that it is a continuous tube of a fibrous nature. So far as 
 its influence upon spinning is concerned it does not matter 
 which theory is correct, because the fibre is in either case 
 admirably adapted for spinning. The convolute structure is 
 also of great importance, and in most varieties the number of 
 convolutions is great. Thus, in Egyptian cotton they reach 180 
 to the inch. There is, however, a good deal of variation, as will 
 be clearly shown by the illustrations of the different growths 
 which are subsequently given. Mr. Midgely, of Bolton, a very 
 capable microscopist, has found fibres in which the twists ran in 
 opposite directions in different parts. From this fact he has 
 drawn the deduction that the fibre twists along the thinnest part 
 of its wall, a very probable cause. This subject, however, is one 
 for the microscopist and only bears partially upon the subject of 
 spinning. The length of the fibre in any particular growth of 
 cotton is known as its " staple." In Figs. 6 and 7, photographic 
 
THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 views are reproduced of 40 kinds of cotton, showing the length 
 of staples, the views being half the actual size. The reference 
 
 numbers are only given for the first and last of each series, but 
 the intermediate references can be readily made. The varieties 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 5 
 
 photographed are as follows: No. 1, Sea Islands, extra fine; 
 2, Georgia; 3, Florida; 4, Tahiti; 5, Gallini ; 6, Brown 
 
 Egyptian; 7, White Egyptian; 8, Ashmouni; 9, Smyrna; 10, 
 Peruvian Smooth ; n, Rough ; 12, Rios ;i3, Ceara; 14, Maceio; 
 
52 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 15, Pernam ; 16, Maranham ; 17, Paraiba; 18, Peruvian Red; 
 19, Allanseed; 20, Peelers ; 21, Benders; 22, Nashville; 23, 
 Orleans; 24, Memphis; 25, U.S. Ordinary; 26, Uplands; 27, 
 Texas; 28, Hingunghat; 29, Oomrawuttee; 30, Broach; 31, 
 Rangoon; 32, Tinnivelly; 33, Dharwar ; 34, Coomptah ; 35, 
 Dhollera; 36, Scinde; 37, China; 38, Lagos; 39, Bengal; 
 40, Assam. The lengths and diameters given subsequently are 
 approximate only, but are sufficiently near for practical purposes. 
 (41) Remembering what has been said as to the essential 
 characteristics of successful cultivation, we will now proceed to 
 
 give a brief account of the different varieties of cotton used com- 
 mercially. The best cotton produced is grown in the plantations 
 along the coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and in 
 some of the islands contiguous to them. Here the soil contains 
 the saline and other substances previously referred to ; the tem- 
 perature is moderately high from 70 to 80 degrees during the 
 growth of the plant ; there is a fair volume of rainfall, about 
 5 to 6 inches, in each of the four months of growth ; and last, 
 but not least, there is a humid atmosphere arising from the 
 contiguity of the sea and the prevailing breezes. Thus the 
 whole of -the conditions are favourable, and as a result, the 
 cotton is fine and silky, with a light creamy tint ; the length 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 53 
 
 occasionally reaches 2 inches, but a mean length is 1*7. Its 
 mean diameter is about "000635 of an inch. As with all 
 vegetable fibres, the length of individual ones vary considerably, 
 and the mean length can only be approximate. The same remark 
 applies to the diameter, but with this reservation the dimensions 
 given may be accepted as fairly accurate. The Sea Island 
 variety grown in South Carolina is the finest, but there are 
 several other varieties, such as Florida, Fiji, Tahiti, and Peruvian, 
 which are shorter in the fibre, and not so good in other respects. 
 The mean lengths of the three varieties named are, respectively, 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 1-58, 17, 1-5, and 1-56 inch. In Figs. 8, 9, and 10, illustrations 
 drawn to scale are given of extra fine and Georgia fibres, and the 
 cross section of various growths of Sea Islands, including extra 
 fine Tahiti, Florida, and Georgia. It will be seen that the con- 
 volute form is regular and that the walls of the fibres are thin. 
 
 (42) Cotton grown in Egypt is divided into two classes which 
 vary very considerably in quality and length. What was formerly 
 the best variety, Gallini, was grown on lands adjoining the Nile, 
 which are alluvial in character, and are irrigated to a greater or 
 less degree by water obtained or stored from that river. Gall'ni 
 
54 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 cotton has, it is stated, practically disappeared, in consequence 
 of the deterioration of its quality. Gallini was of the same 
 variety as Sea Island Gossypium Barbadense and had a mean 
 length of 1*35 inch. Its diameter was '000675 inch, and it was 
 light golden in colour. Its convolute form was very perfect ; it 
 was very strong, and although considerably coarser than Sea 
 Island, was a very useful cotton. Ashmouni cotton is of a light 
 brown colour, with a staple of i inch. Brown Egyptian is of the 
 herbaceous variety, and is grown in the Delta of the Nile and at 
 other points further south. Mit-Afifi is the most common of 
 
 a 
 
 &ffUfd4_a.-n. 
 
 FIG. ii 
 
 FIG. 12 
 
 this variety. The colour of this cotton is, as indicated, darker 
 than Gallini, to which it is inferior in many respects, although 
 grown on land of a similar character and under similar conditions 
 of irrigation. The difference is probably a natural one, and 
 could not be cured by cultivation. The fibres are strong and 
 tough but coarser than Gallini, being shown in Fig. n, the 
 convolute form being less regular and the wall of the fibre 
 denser. In this illustration the peculiar appearance of unripe 
 or immature fibres is clearly shown. The cross sections of (i) 
 Brown, (2) White, (3) Gallini, (4) Ashmouni, (5) Smyrna 
 cottons are shown in Fisr. 12. It will be seen how fine 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 55 
 
 the walls are. The mean length of Brown Egyptian cotton 
 is i '3 inch and its diameter '000738. White Egyptian 
 cotton is grown also in the Nile Delta, and is of two 
 distinct species the native Hirsutum, the cotton from which is 
 called Abiad, and exotic Peruvianum, the growth of which is 
 called Bamieh. This cotton is of a light gold colour with strong 
 and fairly pliable fibres, but the convolute form is not so marked 
 as in the other varieties. The mean length is i ^ inch, and the 
 diameter '000769. 
 
 (43) The cotton grown in Peru is of three qualities, the best 
 grade of which is of the Sea Island variety, being grown from 
 
 7ic. 13. 
 
 seed obtained from the United States. It is cultivated princi- 
 pally in the vicinity of the sea coast, and the colour is slightly 
 golden. It is inferior both in fineness and cleanliness to Sea 
 Island cotton, being about '000675 mcn diameter and having a 
 mean length of 1*56 inch. The two principal varieties of cotton 
 grown in Peru are, however, indigenous to the country 
 Gossypium Peruvianum and are known respectively as rough 
 and smooth. Between these two varieties so many differences 
 exist that they almost form distinct species. Rough Peruvian, 
 so called on account of a hairy feel, is harsh ; the fibres vary 
 
56 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 considerably in length, and are also more nearly straight than 
 Sea Island cotton. The appearance of the fibres of this variety 
 are shown in Fig. 13, and their cross section in No. i of Fig. 14. 
 
 <|* 
 
 Ha* 
 
 Si) 
 
 "^ v 
 
 ' 
 
 ; 
 
 FIG. 74. 
 
 FlG. 15. 
 
 It will be seen that the convolute form is fairly good, but that 
 the walls of the fibres are thicker than preceding examples. The 
 mean length is 1*28 inches, and the diameter '000781 inches. 
 Smooth Peruvian is soft, and is not so strong as the rough 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 57 
 
 variety. This is shown in Fig. 15, and its cross section in No. 2 
 of Fig. 1 4. The lengths of the two varieties are about equal, as 
 are also the diameters. Peruvian cotton is sometimes used in 
 the United States to mix with wool. There is a variety known 
 as Red Peruvian, from its colour, and this is shown in cross 
 section in Fig. 14 at 3. 
 
 (44) It has been previously noted that the species Gossypium 
 Peruvianum grows throughout South America, and there are 
 several other growths, three of which, Pernambuco (shortly 
 Pernams), Maranhams, and Cearas, are largely used. Of these 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 the former (Fig. 16) is the best in quality, but is harsh in the fibre, 
 which is about i^ inch long. The convolutions of this cotton 
 are regular, and this fact makes it a good commercial product. 
 Maranhams are structurally inferior to Pernams, and are nearly 
 ^ inch shorter in average length. This variety is shown in Fig. 
 17, its cross section at 3 in Fig. 18. Ceara cotton is largely 
 grown, and about the same length as Pernams. The colour of 
 these three varieties differs considerably, the first named being 
 light gold, Maranhams much the same shade but dull, and Ceara 
 a dull white. There are several smaller growths of Brazilian 
 cotton which possess the general characteristics of those named 
 
5 8 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 but are slightly inferior. The cross sections of Ceara and 
 Maceio are shown at 4 and 5 ; another variety, Paraiba, at No. 
 2, and a sixth, Rio-Grande, at No. i in Fig. 18. It will be seen 
 that although the walls are thick, the tubular formation is fairly 
 maintained. The culture of cotton in Brazil is mostly confined 
 to the vicinity of the sea, but could be largely extended, owing 
 to the enormous number of streams piercing the country in 
 many parts. 
 
 (45) In addition to Sea Island, the United States produces a 
 large crop of cotton which is, perhaps, the most reliable product 
 
 FlG. 17. 
 
 in the world. The length of the staple is more regular and it is 
 marketed in a much better condition than most varieties. Most 
 of the American cottons are of the species Gossypium Hirsutum, 
 but they are divisible into a few varieties, the quality of which 
 differs considerably with the geographical position of the plant- 
 ation. Thus, Orleans cotton, which is grown in the States of 
 Mississippi and Louisiana, is the best of the ordinary varieties of 
 American. This fact can be accounted for by the character of the 
 soil, the uniformity of the temperature, the fairly abundant rainfall, 
 and above all, the humidity of the atmosphere, owing to the 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 59 
 
 immense volume of water in the immediate vicinity of the plant- 
 ations. Texas cotton, which is obtained from the state of that 
 name, is not grown under such favourable climatic conditions. 
 The temperature in the southern part of the state, at any rate, is 
 higher, but there is an abundant rainfall, and by careful culti- 
 vation the staple of cotton produced has been much improved. 
 Uplands cotton, as its name implies, is grown on the rising lands 
 of the states of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, and in 
 the southern part of Tennessee and Arkansas. Here the soil is 
 of a light loamy character, but the temperature is regular and the 
 
 FIG. 18. 
 
 winds from the south and east carry with them a brge amount 
 of moisture. The fourth variety, known as Mobile, from the 
 port whence it is shipped, is generally inferior, and is grown in 
 the States of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. It has 
 already been pointed out, more than once, that the position of a 
 plantation has a determining effect upon the quality of the 
 cotton grown. No better instance of this can be found than in 
 the various grades of American cotton. Thus, that grown on 
 the Uplands of Alabama and the other states is inferior to 
 cotton grown on the swamp lands in the same states. 
 
6o 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (46) Orleans cotton has a mean length of i'iin. and a diameter 
 of '0007 5 7 in. It is white in colour, with soft, pliable, but fairly 
 strong fibres. It is, as shown in Fig. 19, moderately convolute 
 
 FIG. 19. 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 in form, and its pure colour renders it a favourite grade. It, like 
 most American cottons, is carefully cultivated and is, therefore, 
 very uniform in quality. Texas cotton, shown in Fig. 20, is an 
 instance of how much can be done by care in cultivation. 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 6l 
 
 Although the natural advantages of the district are inferior to 
 those of the plantations in Louisiana the attention given to its 
 proper cultivation has made Texas a very fine cotton, with a 
 length of i in. and a thickness practically equal to that of Orleans. 
 Its colour is tinged with brown and its strength is inferior to 
 Orleans. Uplands cotton, see Fig. 21, consists of fibres which are 
 very pliable and elastic, and of a white or slightly creamy colour. 
 Its mean length is a little under an inch, and its diameter equal 
 to that of Orleans. As it is very soft, however, it is not so strong 
 as the other varieties grown in the United States. Mobile cotton is 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 short in the staple, being only about %in. long. It is a curious 
 fact and worth noting that all the varieties of ordinary cottons 
 grown in the United States are, practically, of the same mean 
 diameter, although they vary greatly in their other characteristics. 
 There are a number of special cottons produced in the United 
 States to. which specific names are given. These are grown in 
 Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, in the better 
 lands, from special seeds. They have a staple of 1^6 to 1^6 
 inch, and are known as " Benders," " Peelers," " Allen," and 
 other names. The illustration of Benders given in Fig. 22 shows 
 
62 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 how good they are in quality. In Fig. 14 the cross sections 
 numbered 4, 5, and 6 are respectively those of ordinary Mobile, 
 Uplands, and Texas cotton, while in Fig. 23 the cross sections 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 FIG. 23. 
 
 of (i) Orleans, (2) Benders, (3) Memphis, (4) Peelers, (5) Nash- 
 ville, and (6) Allenseed are given. It will be seen how com- 
 pletely the tubular form is kept, and how comparatively fine are 
 the fibres. 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 63 
 
 (47) After America, the chief source of supply is India, where 
 there are a number of cottons grown of more or less value and 
 merit, all from the herbaceous variety of plant. Generally the 
 cotton is much inferior to that grown in America, which is 
 accounted for by the high temperature prevailing in the greater 
 part of India, and the lack of sufficient moisture. The confor- 
 mation of India also detracts frum it as a cotton-growing country, 
 because there are many districts in which the moisture obtain- 
 able is too little to sustain growth properly. Where the plantations 
 are located either on uplands, so that the temperature is modified, 
 
 FlG. 24. 
 
 or adjoining the rivers or sea, especially the latter, the best 
 results are got. The best quality produced in India is found in 
 the Hingunghat cottons, which are grown on the uplands in the 
 Central Provinces of India, comprising Berar and Nagpur. The 
 rainfall in these provinces is, during the monsoon, very heavy, 
 being from- 27^ to 29^ inches in the months of June to 
 October. Hingunghat cotton (which is shown in Fig. 24) is a 
 little dark in colour, but is strong, and the length of its fibre is 
 equal to Orleans. It is, however, slightly thicker than any 
 American cotton, being '000833 diameter. The convolute form 
 
6 4 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 of the fibre is much less marked than in cottons grown in a 
 humid atmosphere, or a well-watered district. Broach cotton, 
 see Fig. 25, which shows also the appearance of the unripe fibres 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 is obtained from the Bombay Presidency, principally from the 
 districts of Broach and Surat. In these there is a rainfall of 40 
 and 43 inches respectively during the monsoon, and they are 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 65. 
 
 moreover, not far from the sea. This variety of cotton is much 
 esteemed, although it is of a darkish colour, and the fibres are 
 short, being only about ^jin. long. They are, however, regular 
 but not convolute, and the diameter is nearly equal to that of 
 Hingunghat. 
 
 (48) Dharwar cottons are grown in the Bombay Presidency,, 
 and are of the same character, but inferior in length, being only 
 about '8 inch long. Oomrawuttee or Oomra cotton (see Fig. 26) 
 is grown principally in the Provinces of Bombay, Berar, and 
 Hyderabad. It is a fairly good quality when cleaned, and the. 1 
 
 \irnr 
 
 FIG. 27. 
 
 fibres have a mean length of about -9 inch. It is a little thicker 
 than Broach, but is not so good in many respects. Dhollera. 
 cotton (see Fig. 27), which is perhaps the most widely known of. 
 Indian cottons, is also the product of the Bombay Presidency 
 from the districts of Rathrawai, Ahmedabad, Baroda, and Cutch. 
 This variety has a whitish colour, and the fibres are about ^ 
 inch long, and of the same diameter as Dharwar. The strength 
 of Dhollera is less than of some other varieties of Indian cotton, 
 but in structure it resembles them. Coomptah cotton is grown 
 in the Central Provinces of India, and has a weak fibre of about. 
 
<j6 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 xj-f inch long. The fibres are weak and brittle, and are generally 
 inferior, although in diameter equal to Dharwar and Dhollera. 
 The variety produced in Bengal is the most inferior of all Indian 
 cottons, although it has a length of a little over an inch. It is 
 very harsh and wiry, and generally of an inferior character. This 
 is probably due to the conditions under which it is cultivated 
 and to the character of the soil. The fibres are very thick, but 
 are fairly strong. The cotton grown in Scinde (see Fig. 28) is 
 cultivated under the worst possible conditions, the^rainfall in 
 this district being only from four to eight inches annually. 
 
 FIG. 28. 
 
 Irrigation is therefore largely depended on, but the character of 
 the soil does not compensate for the small rainfall and dry 
 atmosphere. In consequence the fibres are short and only 
 about '65 inch, but are comparatively strong. All the varieties 
 of Indian cotton just described are obtained from the Northern 
 and Central Provinces, but there are two varieties which are 
 obtained from the Madras Presidency. The best of these is 
 Tinnevelly, which is grown in a district in the south of the 
 Presidency, opposite the Island of Ceylon. A certain proportion 
 is also grown in Trichinopoly. Owing to the fact that these 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 6 7 
 
 provinces lie near the southernmost point of India the influence 
 of the sea is apparent. The heat in all parts of the Madras 
 Presidency is, however, very great. For all that, Tinnevelly 
 cotton is a fairly good variety, the fibres being moderately strong 
 and fa inch long. In their natural structure they show the 
 influence of their native climate very perceptibly, as the walls are 
 much thicker than is the case with cotton grown in a milder 
 climate, this being also indicated by the absence of the convolute 
 form. The second variety of Madras cotton is known as 
 Westerns, which are very inferior to Tinnevelly, especially in 
 
 & 
 
 / J 
 
 \ 
 
 <3 
 
 3 
 
 
 FIG. 29. FIG. 30. 
 
 uniformity. Being strong, however, they can be mixed with 
 other varieties. The cross sections of Indian cotton given in 
 Figs. 29 and 30, show them to be generally inferior to the 
 American varieties. In these figures the cross sections are given 
 of (i) Rangoon, (2) Assam, (3) Broach, (4) Bengal, (5) Tinne- 
 velly, (6) Dharwar, (7) Coomptah, (8) Oomrawuttee, (9) Hingun- 
 ghat, do) Scinde, and (u) Dhollera. It will be seen that in 
 some cases the flattened oval and tubular appearance is nearly 
 absent. 
 
 (49) In addition to the foregoing varieties of cotton there is a 
 small supply drawn from the West Indies, of cotton of the> 
 
1)8 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 Peruvian type. The West Indian cotton, according to Mr. Monie, 
 has the spiral or convolute formation more perfectly developed 
 than any other variety, and as it is of a good length, i y$ inch, 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 ^-s 
 
 Q 
 
 FIG. 32. 
 
 it is valuable in many respects. There is also a small supply 
 obtained from Asia Minor, Queensland, South and West Africa, 
 and the Islands of the P. cine, but the details given nearly cover 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 69 
 
 the ground, so far as chief commercial qualities are concerned. 
 A good deal of white cotton of fair quality is grown in China, 
 being shown in Fig. 31, but it is entirely utilised in that country. 
 
 W*iMjLCia,'n. 
 
 FIG. 33. 
 
 FIG. 34. 
 
 The cross section given in Fig. 32 shows the fibre to be very 
 like the Indian cotton in structure. The measurements given 
 are all approximate, and as different observers give differen/ 
 
70 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 lengths for the same staple, it is difficult to determine the accurate 
 figures. On the whole, the lengths given in the table on pages 
 74 and 75 are approximately accurate. Some cotton is grown in 
 Africa, and its general character will be gathered from the view 
 given in Fig. 33, and the cross sections in Fig. 34. 
 
 (50) The description thus given of the various qualities of 
 cotton will enable the following remarks to be more readily 
 comprehended and their significance understood. The com- 
 mercial value of a cotton is determined by several features, viz., 
 its length, fineness, strength, pliability, smoothness, uniformity, 
 colour, and cleanliness. As a rule, the cotton which is the 
 longest is the finest, but it is by no means the strongest. Thus 
 Sea Island cotton has the longest fibre with the least diameter, 
 and Hingunghat is much inferior to it in both respects. The 
 strength of the latter, however, is 50 per cent greater than that 
 of the former. As in every other essential, however, Sea Island 
 is in advance of Hingunghat, it is the most valuable, especially 
 for the production of fine yarns. The most regular cotton is 
 Orleans, in which the length of the staple only varies a small 
 fraction of an inch. In consequence a certain loss is experienced 
 in some of the processes through which it has passed, but this 
 loss is much less than is the case with other cotton, the fibres of 
 which vary considerably in length. When the carding and 
 drawing processes come to be dealt with the importance of 
 regularity or uniformity will be seen. Cleanliness is a cardinal 
 point in the commercial creed, because the impurities found in 
 cotton add so much to its weight, as purchased, that their 
 removal involves a serious charge upon the millowner. This 
 defect is a very serious one in most Indian cottons, and many even 
 of the better qualities are deteriorated in value on this account. 
 The waste at the opener and scutcher becomes largely increased 
 if through carelessness or wilful negligence the amount of sand 
 and dirt is increased. There is always in cotton a certain portion 
 of unripe and short fibre which it is impossible to avoid alto- 
 gether, as they are found in a pod which is to all appearances 
 quite ripe and ready for picking. At a later stage the presence 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 7 1 
 
 of broken fibre and its cause will be explained. The question 
 of moisture has also been one over which a good deal of angry 
 controversy has raged. The natural moisture in the cotton fibre 
 varies, as might be expected, from year to year, according to the 
 character of the season and of the weather during picking. 
 Making due allowance for this, however, there is more than a 
 suspicion that the amount is added to wilfully, and this, of 
 course, means a considerable loss to the spinner. In order to 
 set the matter at rest the Cotton Spinners' Association have 
 taken the matter up and have determined upon a certain 
 standard. 
 
 (51) A special oven has been designed by Messrs. Hall and 
 Kay, of Ashton-under-Lyne, to deal with this question, it being 
 so constructed that the cotton is subjected to a radiated but not 
 direct heat. In testing cotton, a sample is taken from the 
 ecntre of several bales, and smaller portions of each of these 
 as nearly equal in weight as possible are taken, until their total 
 weight is 1,000 grains. This sample is then opened by hand, 
 care being taken to receive any sand shaken out, and placed on 
 the tray in the oven. The temperature of the air within the 
 latter should be 170 to 180 F., and it should be kept at that 
 heat for the one and a half hour it takes to make the test. At 
 the expiration of that time the cotton is taken out and re-weighed, 
 the difference in its weight before and after drying being noted. 
 Inasmuch as 1,000 is easily divisible by ten, the percentage of 
 loss is arrived at without calculation. Suppose the cotton has 
 lost no grains, or n per cent, from this must be deducted 80 
 grains, or 8 per cent (it being found, by a large number of 
 experiments, that cotton so dried will recover 8 per cent on 
 exposure to the atmosphere for 24 hours); this leaves 3 per 
 cent of moisture in the cotton in excess of the assumed standard. 
 This is not a very excessive loss, some lots having been found 
 to contain 5 per cent and over, whereas in a dry season most 
 cotton shows not more than i to 2 per cent of moisture over the 
 standard. Texas cotton not unfrequently shows "3 to '5 per 
 cent, and Surat -5 to i -3 per cent dryer than the standard 
 
?2 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (52) A somewhat similar treatment with cops helps to solve 
 another vexed question where manufacturers buy their yarn. 
 In this case it is better to take a larger weight, say, 10,000 
 grains. This must remain in the oven five hours, and an 
 allowance of 5 per cent requires to be made from the gross loss, 
 experiments having conclusively shown that yarn taken direct 
 from the spinning room will lose 5 per cent at 170 to 180 F., 
 therefore any loss more than this shows what is the moisture 
 gained over the weight when fresh from the spindle. Example : 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Weight put in oven 10,000 
 
 Weight from the oven when dry M .. 9ji5O 
 
 850 
 Deduct 5 per cent to bring up to spinning room standard. 500 
 
 350 
 
 showing 350 grains, or 3*5 per cent of moisture gained over the 
 weight when fresh from the spindle. 
 
 (53) It has been indicated that the character of the different 
 growths of cotton fibre varies considerably. Some are strong and 
 others are weak, some harsh and wiry, others soft and pliable. 
 Accordingly it is possible to divide them into. cottons suitable 
 for twist, where a hard strong fibre is wanted, and others for 
 weft, where a softer and more pliable thread is desired. When 
 the fibres are of such a character that when arranged side by 
 side they lie closely together and twist into a perfectly even 
 cylindrical thread, the best results are obtained. Generally 
 speaking, the best yarn is that in which the greatest number of 
 fibres are found in the cross section. There are, of course, 
 exceptions to every rule, but the rule may be a good one, in 
 spite of the exceptions. A table (on pp. 74, 75) gives the 
 characteristics of the cottons respectively suitable for making 
 twist or warp and weft yarns. 
 
 (54) It is not an uncommon thing to hear complaints of the 
 quality of the cotton as imported, not only on the ground of 
 dampness, but also on many others. The brief review given of 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 73 
 
 the method of growth shows that there must always be a certain 
 proportion of short and immature fibre present. The amount of 
 this however, varies from year to year, and there is every reason 
 to believe that with some kinds of Indian cotton especially it is 
 the practice to mix a certain amount of short staple with the 
 better grades before exporting it. The presence of short stapled 
 cotton is not only detrimental to its value, but it is alike a source 
 of annoyance and a cause of considerable expense in subsequent 
 stages. There are two classes of natural adherent impurities 
 which will always be more or less present, viz., broken leaf and 
 sand or dirt. The latter are present in varying quantities which 
 depend largely upon the character of the season, and are found 
 in the greatest weight in the various Indian grades, reaching as 
 much as five per cent. The presence of broken leaf and seed 
 is mainly caused by lack of care in ginning, and is the result of 
 a forced production at the ginning factories. The former espe- 
 cially is bad to eliminate, and does not always finally disappear 
 until the cotton has been considerably treated. To the same 
 cause may be attributed broken fibre and stringy cotton, and 
 there is also caused in the ginning process a good deal of "nep." 
 The latter is the name given to little knots which are composed 
 mainly of dried-up fibres, and are always formed by the rubbing 
 together of the fibres. These are very hard to remove, and 
 appear in the sliver even though it may be well carded, only the 
 specially thorough treatment by combing removing them. It is 
 a very rare thing to see a carded web entirely free from the little 
 white specks or "neps,"and until methods are improved they are 
 not likely to disappear. There is, however, a good deal of nep 
 which is artificially caused during the whole series of cleaning 
 processess. The cotton fibres are most brittle at their ends, and 
 if they are heavily scutched these points get broken off and are 
 rubbed up into nep. That this action takes place is certain, 
 and a series of careful measurements of fibres before and after 
 scutching show that in many cases the breakage of fibre is very 
 great. This will be referred to at greater length in the next 
 chapter, but it is worth specially noting at this point. 
 
74 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 Characteristics. 
 
 1 
 1 
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 i 
 
 .2 
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THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 75 
 
 2-g 
 
 t> 
 
 *^ Sr 
 P. 
 
 milar to above generally, light gold 
 colour. 
 
 a 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 J8J2 
 
 ot so clean as preceding, weaker in 
 fibre. 
 
 arsh, irregular twist in fibre, 
 medium strength, dull white colour. 
 
 arsh, rather dry, moderate strength, 
 varies in colour. 
 
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 3 
 
 il 
 
 c a 
 
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 11? 
 
 rong, regular, cream colour, rather 
 dirty. 
 
 oderately strong, dull white 
 dirty. 
 
 rong, dark coloured, dirty, un- 
 economical. 
 
 eak, brown tint, dirty, 
 rong, harsh, golden tint, dirty. 
 
 )or, fairly clean, dull white tint. 
 
 02 
 
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76 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (55) Cotton is picked by hand no really successful machine 
 having hitherto been applied to this purpose and the proportion 
 of leaf extracted with the ripe boll is dependent on the dexterity 
 of the picker. The pickers are able to collect a considerable 
 quantity prior to delivering it at the end of the row or furrow in 
 which they work. The cotton thus obtained is collected 
 in bulk and is treated by a gin usually driven by power. 
 The early methods of freeing the cotton from seed were very 
 primitive, and were afterwards displaced by a double roller 
 machine. Subsequently to this, Eli Whitney introduced his 
 saw gin, which has been successfully worked. Its chief feature 
 is the employment of a number of saws in the form of a roller, 
 which seize the cotton and draw it between the interstices of a 
 grid suitably arranged so as to strip off the seed. The cotton 
 is beaten off by a revolving brush. The action of this machine 
 is harsh and severe, and results in a good deal of damage to the 
 cotton. At the same time it is still extensively used in the 
 United States, although the bending of the fibres nearly double 
 in the process of ginning is very deleterious. If the saw gin is 
 overfed it speedily breaks the cotton. The machine which is 
 probably in all respects the most satisfactory is the roller and 
 double knife gin, an illustration of which, as made by Messrs. 
 Platt, is given in Fig. 35. This machine consists of a hopper, 
 into which the cotton is fed. At the bottom of the hopper is 
 the roller G covered with walrus leather, which has a rough 
 surface so that it readily seizes the fibres. Against the face 
 of this roller a fixed knife I is pressed, so that, as the roller 
 revolves, it draws the fibres between its surface and this knife. 
 In doing so the seed, which adheres to the cotton, is drawn to 
 to the point where the knife I presses against the roller G. 
 While the seed is so held the two blades F 1 and F 2 strike it 
 alternately, so pushing it away from the point where it is held. 
 These are fixed at the upper ends of vertical rods which receive 
 a reciprocal motion from a crank shaft. The seed is thus 
 gently removed from the cotton without damage to the fibre, 
 which is carried onward by the continued rotation of the roller 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 77 
 
 G. In order to avoid any danger to the attendant, a self- 
 feeder C, actuated by a crank, is fitted, which always keeps the 
 roller well supplied with cotton. ,The seed grid, used is arranged 
 so as to be movable, and thus considerably aids the delivery 
 of the seed, which, when a stationary grid is used, tend to 
 choke it. The choking of the gin is practically avoided, even 
 when^cotton containing a large quantity of seed is used. The 
 advantage of a double knife machine is that the number of 
 
 blows given per minute being more numerous, the machine can> 
 be driven at a slower speed without reducing its capacity, and,, 
 as a matter of fact, the output of a double knife machine is, at 
 the speed of 600 revolutions per minute of the crank shaft, 
 greater than that of the single machine at 900 or 1,000. The 
 objects desired in ginning, viz., the removal of the seed without 
 breaking or crushing the fibre or seed and without the produc- 
 tion of nep, are well attained by this machine. Its production 
 
78 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 ranges from 25103. per hour of the inferior Indian cottons in 
 which there is a maximum of seed to a minimum of cotton, to 
 45lbs. of the better qualities of Indian staples and proportionate 
 yields of American. It is not desirable to overload the gin at 
 any time, and this should be remembered. A form of gin which 
 is used in Egypt is shown in Figs. 36 and 37, in this case there 
 being only. one oscillating knife H, operated from the crank 
 shown by the connecting arm I. The peculiar method or 
 
 FIG. 36. 
 
 grooving the leather roller is shown in the partial front view 
 given in Fig. 37. The knife H is given a peculiar movement 
 by means of the radial arm J, and the cotton is placed as in the 
 gin just described on a feed table F with a grid G near the 
 knife. There is a fixed upper blade C kept in position by the 
 spring clamps D and E. It may be mentioned that the method 
 of operating the arms H and H 1 in Fig. 35 is similar to that 
 shown in Fig 36. 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 
 
 79 
 
 (56) After the cotton has been ginned, and the lint obtained, 
 it is packed into bales for transport. It is the custom in the 
 United States to give it a light compress prior to sending it to 
 some convenient centre for final compression. In the United 
 States almost the whole of the cotton is baled by steam presses, 
 which exert a comparatively light pressure upon it, while in 
 Egypt and India the use of powerful hydraulic ' presses is 
 customary. The cotton is wrapped in a coarse jute bagging, 
 
 FIG. 37. 
 
 which should be of sufficient strength to ensure the bale reach- 
 ing its destination with its cover intact. The bale, after com- 
 pression, is secured by iron bands wrapped round it and riveted, 
 or otherwise fastened at the ends. American cotton has suffered 
 hitherto from bad packing, which has caused it to reach its 
 destination in a dilapidated state. The size of the bales made in 
 different countries varies. The Indian bale is about 48in. long 
 by 2oin. wide and iSin thick, with a cubic capacity of ioft... 
 
00 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 its weight being about 3961bs. The Egyptian bale is about 
 5 1 in. long by 31 in. wide and 22in. thick, having a cubic capacity 
 of 2oft., and a mean weight of 72olbs., although this varies 
 somewhat. The American bales vary considerably in size, 
 ibeing from 54in. to 8oin. long, from 24in. to 4oin. wide, and 
 from i Sin. to 2 7 in. thick. With such a variation it is impossible 
 to give any mean weight which is more than approximately 
 accurate, but it is about 48olbs. . The Brazilian bales have a size 
 of about 49in. long by 2oin. wide and i8in. thick, with a cubic 
 capacity of about loft, and *a mean weight of 22olbs. This 
 matter is one of some importance in view of the stowage of the 
 'bales on board ship, or on railway trucks during transportation. 
 A tightly-packed bale is less liable to damage from fire or other 
 causes, but the extent of pressure must be strictly graded in 
 accordance with the character of the cotton used. Thus the 
 pressure put upon Egyptian and American cotton ought not to 
 be more than will give a density of about 35lbs. per cubic foot, 
 while Indian cotton has been pressed up to 6olbs. per cubic 
 foot without damage. In consequence of the insufficient pack- 
 ing of American cotton, a system has been introduced in which 
 the cotton is rolled up into a sheet as it leaves the gin, being 
 subjected to compression during the process. In this way a roll 
 or cylinder of cotton, with a density of about 4olbs. per cubic 
 foot, and easily handled, is produced. 
 
 (57) The various growths of cotton are, according to their 
 qualities, graded in values, and are classified roughly as 
 follows : 
 
 American. 
 
 Brazilian. 
 
 Egyptian. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Good Ordinary. 
 
 Middling Fair. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Low Middling. 
 
 Fair. 
 
 Good Fair. 
 
 Good Fair. 
 
 Middling. 
 
 Good Fair. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Good Middling. 
 
 
 
 
 Fine. 
 
 Middling Fair. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...... 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. bl 
 
 Of these, the first-named is always the poorest quality. It may, 
 however, be remarked that between each grade there are sub- 
 grades which are always taken into account in purchasing 
 cotton. For instance, American is classified as fair, barely fair, 
 strict middling fair, and so on with each grade. In New York 
 these distinctions are adhered to. The full grades are those 
 stated above; the half grades have the prefix "strict"; 
 the quarter grades, the prefix "barely," indicating the point 
 midway between the half grade and the next full grade above ; 
 or " fully," meaning the point midway between the half grade 
 and the next full grade below. When cotton is bought by the 
 spinner in this country, it is purchased from a broker, samples 
 being furnished to the seller at the time of purchase. The 
 terms of purchase are i ^ per cent discount in ten days from 
 date of purchase, with an allowance from the gross weight of 4 
 per cent for tares. That is, a bale of 400 Ibs. would be re- 
 garded as one of 384103. only. Owing to the heavy tares which 
 have become habitual with American cotton the buyer has now 
 the option of claiming the actual tare, which is ascertained by 
 stripping 10 bales and weighing the covering and hoops. This 
 is a. troublesome matter, and it is not resorted to unless there is 
 reason to believe that the tare is excessive. In paying for a 
 purchase the buyer can pay cash, receiving a discount at the 
 rate of 5 per cent per annum, or if the term of payment is 
 extended the same rate is charged as interest. 
 
 (58) The following are the details of what is known as C.I.F. 
 6 per cent terms, on which a good deal of American cotton is 
 sold : 
 
 Grade, Colour and Siaple are specified as agreed upon. 
 Also whether the cotton is " Orleans," " Texas," " Gulf," 
 " Memphis," or simply " Uplands." 
 
 Weights. The invoice to be for American actual grosv* 
 weight, less an allowance of six [6] per cent to cover 
 bands and tare. The gross landing weight guaranteed 
 to be within one per cent of gross invoice weight. Gross 
 
82 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 landing weight to be ascertained by weighing the cotton 
 in Liverpool on arrival, before sampling (or if already 
 sampled an allowance to be made for the samples drawn), 
 due notice of weighing having been given in writing by 
 the buyer to the seller. Any excess in weight of bands 
 over poolbs. for each 100 bales to be deducted from the 
 " landing weight." Allowances to be made for missing 
 bands and ship's pickings. Should weight of bagging 
 exceed 4lbs. per ii2lbs. the buyer shall have the right to 
 claim for such excess at invoice price, but the claim 
 must be made and properly substantiated within two 
 months from the last day of landing. 
 
 Route Of Shipment. To be fully stated (as "by Rail 
 and Steamer from Memphis to Liverpool, via any 
 Atlantic port"), etc., etc., or as the case may be. 
 
 Date Of Shipment. To be specified as "during October," 
 or " prompt shipment," or " immediate Shipment," or 
 " shipping or shipped," as stipulated. " Prompt " or 
 *' immediate " shipment means to be shipped not earlier 
 than the date of the contract nor later than 14 days 
 after. " Shipping or shipped " means the shipment shall 
 be within 14 days either before or after the date of 
 contract. 
 
 Declaration of Marks and Vessel's name, or particulars con- 
 tained in through bill of lading, to be declared within 
 four weeks of the date of bill of lading. 
 
 _Marine Insurance. To be provided by the seller, with a 
 first-class company, covering particular average and five 
 per cent in excess of invoice cost. 
 
 Samples. When sold to equal an American drawn sample 
 of the identical cotton, an allowance of ^ of a penny 
 per pound is made between it and the Liverpool re- 
 drawn samples. 
 
 Arbitrations and Rejections. No allowance to seller. 
 Should arbitration be demanded by the buyer, the cotton 
 shall be subject to mutual allowances except in the case 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 83 
 
 of average shipment. Should any lot prove not in 
 accordance with the contract the buyer to have the 
 option of rejecting it. 
 
 Reimbursement is specified in Contract Drafts usually at 
 60 days' sight with shipping documents attached. Pay- 
 ment is usually made in exchange for shipping documents 
 on or before arrival of vessel (at buyer's option). 
 (59) In some cases cotton is bought under contracts for 
 future delivery, which have been made the medium of many 
 gambling transactions. These contracts may, however, be 
 used in a legitimate manner, for there are many cases where 
 a spinner, having 'sold his production, may desire to cover 
 himself by purchasing cotton to cover the transaction. In this 
 case cotton will be tendered at the due date in satisfaction of 
 the contract, and it is not to transactions of this nature that 
 any condemnatory terms can be applied. It is only when the 
 contract is entered into without there being any intention or 
 accepting cotton at any time in satisfaction of it, but merely to 
 realise any profit which may accrue by reason of the higher 
 selling price at the time of its completion, that the transaction 
 becomes a harmful one. The following are the terms of the 
 Liverpool Contract: It is for 47,2oolbs. net weight in about 100 
 bales of cotton, of United States growth, to be delivered from 
 warehouse. The price is to be upon the basis of Middling, 
 Liverpool classification ; nothing below Low Middling to be 
 delivered, and the additions or deductions to be settled by 
 arbitration. The delivery is at the seller's option within the 
 time specified, which is usually during two months, but the 
 seller must intimate to the buyer his readiness to deliver; and 
 the buyer has a like option as to time, but must take the cotton 
 within ten days after the date of the seller's declaration. The 
 declaration must contain particulars of the marks of the bales, 
 and the cotton must be ready for immediate delivery. If the 
 cotton is purchased as a speculative venture, weekly settlements 
 are made, and the differences are paid to the party requiring- 
 them. It is often the case that these differences will go through 
 
54 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 many hands before the contract is finally worked off; and a 
 clearing-house system is in operation for this purpose. The 
 following allowances are made in determining the net weight 
 of cotton tendered : 2lbs. per bale for draft ; actual weight of 
 iron bands, 4lbs. for each 1 1 2lbs. for tare ; the remainder being 
 the net weight. Payment is to be made before delivery, and a 
 transfer order is given which gives the buyer the control of the 
 cotton. A discount of i^ per cent for cash is allowed. The 
 Liverpool classification for Strict Low Middling to Middling is 
 about half a grade lower than the New York classification; whilst 
 for the grades below that named, it is a quarter to half a grade 
 higher. The New York contract differs from the Liverpool one 
 in a few particulars, more especially as to the grade which is 
 tenderable. Any grade will be taken from Good Ordinary to 
 Fair; but if the cotton is stained, nothing less than Low Middling. 
 The price is based on Middling, and the necessary additions or 
 deductions are settled by an Inspector appointed by the New 
 York Cotton Exchange authorities. The option is for some 
 specified month, and a deposit or margin can be demanded by 
 either party to the contract up to $5 per bale. The sum 
 deposited is lodged with a Trust Company until the settlement 
 of the contract, but must be demanded within 24 hours of the 
 transaction, when both parties must deposit an equal amount. 
 It may be of interest to give the various weights used in 
 different cotton growing countries, as prices are often quoted 
 in these terms. These are given below and the equivalents 
 in Ibs. avoirdupois are appended. 
 Bengal i maund (82'281bs.) = 4O seers (seer = 2'O57lbs.) 
 Madras i candy (49371^5.) = 20 maunds (maunds = 24'6Slbs.) = 800 seers. 
 
 For convenience a candy is taken at 5oolbs. 
 Bombay i candy (56olbs.) = 2O maunds = 80 seers. 
 Egypt i cantar = g8-0461bs. 
 Brazil i quintal= iori86lbs. 
 China and Japan i picul = i33'33lbs. = 100 katties. 
 
 (60) According to the most recently published statistics, the 
 acreage under cotton in the United States was for the season 
 1894-5, 23,687,950. From this there was produced a commer- 
 
THE DISTRIBUTION AND VARIETIES OF COTTON. 85 
 
 cial crop, that is, one including all deliveries, whether grown 
 in that season or not, amounting to 10,533,000 bales of 45olbs. 
 each. The average weight per bale is said to have been in the 
 season 1894-95, 509105. The acreage in India for the season 
 of 1895 was 16,450,000, and the production was 2,688,000 
 bales of 4oolbs. The Egyptian acreage in 1894-95 was 
 1,050,000, and the yield 638,957 bales. The Brazilian crop in 
 the season 1892-93 was 438,000 bales. The production of cotton 
 in Turkestan from American seed was in 1893, 300,000 bales oi 
 4oolbs. each. The disposition of the American cotton crop for 
 the season 1894-95 was as follows : To Great Britain, 2,938,000 
 bales ; to the Continent of Europe, 3,261,000 bales ; the United 
 States of America, 3,148,000 bales. The Indian crop was 
 disposed of as follows : To the United Kingdom, 86,283 bales; 
 the Continent of Europe, 681,635; consumed in the Indian 
 Mills, 1,375,000; to China and Japan, 132,628; consumed 
 locally, 413,000. The estimated number of spindles existing in 
 the United Kingdom according to the latest statistics are 
 45,400,000 in Great Britain. The number of spindles at work 
 in India in 1895 was 3,810,000; in Japan, 513,926; in the 
 United States, Northern Mills, 13,700,000; Southern Mills, 
 2,240,000. These figures are the latest that are available at the 
 time of writing. 
 
 (61) The cotton fibre, from its nature, requires different 
 treatment to others, and necessitates the employment of an 
 entirely distinctive set of machines. The number of processes 
 through which it is passed is greater than that needed for any 
 other fibre, this arising from its shorter staple and its peculiarly 
 good spinning qualities. When the various stages are analysed, 
 however, they may be easily grouped, but it will be seen that 
 many of the groups overlap that is, some of the objects of one 
 are also those of another. The following is a fairly accurate 
 tabulation of the various processes commencing immediately 
 after the cotton is received at the mill It may, of course, be 
 objected that the earlier of these do not strictly come within 
 the meaning of the phrase " spinning," but they are absolutely 
 
86 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 necessary, and have such an influence upon the staple that it is 
 difficult to avoid including them : 
 ist STAGE. 
 
 (A) Mixing or blending. 
 2nd STAGE. Operation for cleaning fibres. 
 
 (B) Opening. 
 
 (C) Scutching. 
 
 (E) Carding. 
 
 3rd STAGE. Operation of parallelising and attenuating collected strand. 
 
 (F) Drawing. 
 
 4th STAGE. Operation of further attenuating and twisting strand. 
 
 (G) Slubbing. 
 
 (H) Second slubbing or intermediate. 
 
 (I) Roving. 
 
 ((a) Mule. 
 (J) Spinning 4 (b) Flyer. 
 
 [ (c) Ring frame. 
 5th STAGE. Operation of twisting threads together. 
 
 < K > Doubling^') T ubliag . 
 
 In addition to the above, there is an additional stage, when fine 
 yarns are spun, which may be called 3A stage. The operation 
 is one of parallelisation and cleaning, which occurs before 
 drawing, and consists of three manipulations : 
 
 STAGE 3A. 
 
 ( Formation of lap for sliver. 
 (L) < Doubling and attenuation of laps. 
 ( Combing. 
 
 And in addition also a process by which the partially twisted 
 strand is further reduced and twisted prior to spinning, which 
 
 may be called 
 
 (I I ) Second roving or jacking. 
 
 The above form a practical subdivision of the whole process, 
 which is not without some value as a guide to the method of 
 procedure. The object of all the various manipulations is to 
 produce a thread perfectly cylindrical in form without variation 
 in its thickness, and with as many fibres as possible in its cross 
 section. To obtain these results with the minimum of loss ot 
 available fibre is the desideratum of the cotton spinners, and 
 the whole of the machines are designed with this object. 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 87 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Bale breaker, 62 Draft of bale breaker, 63 Advantages of 
 breaking, 64 Principles of mixing, 65, 66 Rules for mixing, 66 
 Mechanical methods of mixing, 67 Hopper feeding machine, 68 
 Supply of cotton in hopper, 69 Action of ascending apron, 70 
 Action of stripper, 70 Evenly weighted laps, 71 Construction of 
 dust trunks, 72 Classification of opening machines, 73 Taylor, 
 Lang and Dobson and Barlow's machines, 74 Porcupine beaters, 
 75 Crighton opener, 76 Position of exhaust fan, 77 Shape of 
 beater blades, 78 Setting of dirt grids, 79 Crighton improved 
 grid, 80 Scutching machine, 82, 83 Scutching machine feed 
 motion, 84 Pedal and roller feed, 85 Anti-friction pedal bowls, 
 86 Asa Lees' regulator, 87 Two and three winged beaters, 88 
 Setting of dirt grid, 90 Regulation of air currents, 91 Size of air 
 flues, 93 Uneven edges of lap, 94 Split laps, 95 Calender and 
 lap rolls, 96 Calculation of speeds, 97, 98, 99 Variation of 
 speeds, 100 Draft of machine, 101 Combination of machines, 103 
 Doubling of laps, 103. > 
 
 (62) WHEN cotton is presented to the spinner it is, owing to 
 the pressure to which it is subjected during packing, in a matted 
 state, and the first operation which is necessary is that of 
 opening out the bale. This is sometimes done by hand, 
 especially m mills which are of small size, but it is becoming 
 the usual practice to effect it by machine. There are many 
 incidental advantages to be derived from the latter procedure, 
 to which subsequent allusion will be made. The bale breaker, 
 of which an illustration is given in Fig. 38, consists of a feed 
 table of the lattice type. This is constructed of a number of 
 slats or laths of wood, which are attached to two endless chains 
 passing over rollers placed at any desired distance apart. One 
 of the rollers is driven, and the lattice apron shortly, lattice 
 
88 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 is moved at a regular rate, and from its construction forms a 
 flexible feed table, admirably adapted for its purpose. The 
 cotton is taken from the bale in moderate sized pieces, and is 
 placed upon the lattice, by which it is carried forward and 
 delivered into the range of the first pair of rollers. Of these, 
 there are either two or four pairs," but in either case they are 
 driven by spur gearing at different speeds. The rollers are 
 differently constructed, the first pair being always made with 
 coarsely pitched blunt teeth, by which the cotton is readily 
 seized and drawn into the machine. The next pair immediately 
 ;rip it, and as they revolve at a considerably higher velocity, the 
 
 FIG. 38. 
 
 lumps are effectively drawn out The third pair has finer 
 teeth, and the fourth are, as a rule, formed with longitudinal 
 grooves of coarse pitch. It is customary to make the first 
 three rollers of a number of discs threaded on the shaft and 
 bolted together, so that in the event of a breakage of the teeth 
 one can be easily broken off and a new one added at the end. 
 The top rollers are weighted by spiral springs, so that when an 
 extra large piece of cotton, or any very hard substance passes, 
 the roller can yield, and so avoid damage. The speed of the 
 various pairs, as has been said, increases rapidly, and the effect 
 is that, if four rollers are used, the cotton is well pulled before 
 being delivered. In some cases, in addition to the difference in 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 89 
 
 the velocities of each pair of rollers, there is a differential speed 
 given to each roller in a pair, the idea being to exercise a draft 
 between them. The extent to which the length of the cotton 
 is increased is known as the " draft " of the machine, and this 
 phrase is applied to all the processes of attenuation occurring in 
 the whole series of machines. 
 
 (63) As has been indicated, there is a divergence of opinion 
 as to the correct draft of a bale breaker, but th,e balance or 
 advantage lies with the adoption of a large one. It is desired 
 to get the cotton into the best possible condition for opening, 
 and this can be best done by putting it into a free, loose con- 
 dition, at the earliest stage. There are limitations to this 
 procedure, and different cottons require different treatment ; but 
 a draft of from i in 20 to i in 30 is, in the author's opinion, the 
 best for practical purposes. There is an advantage gained, when 
 very short stapled cotton is used, in partially opening by the bale 
 breaker and completing the operation by a small porcupine 
 cylinder ; but for most classes the bale breaker will be found 
 sufficient. There cannot be in this, as in many other operations 
 in cotton spinning, any hard and fast rule laid down, but the 
 advantages of a large draft are greater than those of a small 
 one. Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, Limited, apply the principle 
 of the pedal motion used in a scutcher, as afterwards described, 
 by which the cotton is held in sections, so to speak, across the 
 face of the rollers, and thus any danger of large pieces slipping 
 through unopened is obviated. 
 
 (64) It has been pointed out that there is in cotton as 
 received a large amount of dirt and sand; and 'when the bale 
 breaker is constructed so as to open the cotton well much 01 
 this is shaken out of it at this stage. It will be shown how 
 important it is to cleanse the material as well as possible at the 
 earliest moment, and anything which removes even a small 
 percentage of dirt prior to the first recognised cleaning process 
 is of considerable value. That such is the result of the breaking 
 up of the closely packed cotton into smaller pieces by the bale 
 breaker no one who will watch its action will deny, and this fact 
 
90 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 forms an additional reason for the system recommended. It is, 
 of course, necessary to observe every precaution against damage 
 to the fibres, but this is hardly likely to happen if the machine 
 be kept in good condition, and if the top rollers are not unduly 
 weighted. 
 
 (65) The bale breaker is now almost invariably used in 
 connection with the arrangements for mixing. Before pro- 
 ceeding to deal with its employment in this manner, it will be 
 preferable to describe the methods and principles of mixing 
 cottons. It was shown in the preceding chapters that some of 
 the various grades of cotton possess characteristics which are 
 the complements of those possessed by others. It is therefore 
 possible, instead of using one class of cotton only for spinning, 
 to use two or three, by combining them in a judicious manner. 
 The purpose of this practice is to enable a material to be finally 
 obtained which will be more economical than if any single 
 variety be used, and the object of mixing is a purely commercial 
 one. Thus certain grades of Orleans and Surat cottons can 
 be employed in combination, which will provide a cheaper raw 
 material than if Orleans cotton only were used, and the 
 resultant yarn, while maintaining its strength and commercial 
 value, will be more cheaply produced. In the hands of a man 
 who can skilfully blend various qualities, the economical results 
 obtained are surprising. To be successful, however, a thorough 
 knowledge of the different kinds of cotton available is abso- 
 lutely necessary, and any one who neglects, or is ignorant of, 
 this side of the subject will make a woeful failure. There are a 
 large number of points to be considered in making a mixing, 
 of which the following are the principal : Length of staple, 
 spinning qualities, colour, and price. 
 
 (66) Of these the first-named is the most important, although 
 the others are also worthy of attention. When the process of 
 drawing is treated of it will be seen how necessary it is to have 
 the fibres in a given sliver as nearly as possible one length. 
 Unless this is the case the setting of the rollers becomes a diffi- 
 cult task, and much damage may arise. In twisting, also, the 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 91 
 
 short fibres, not having the same grip of the adjoining ones as 
 those of greater length, are not properly twisted in, and the 
 result is that a hairy " oozy " yarn is produced. The tendency 
 in carding and combing, also, is to separate the short and long 
 fibres and to eliminate the former. Thus a mixture of different 
 varieties which are not of equal length is a practice which is 
 prejudicial to good and economical work. It is absolutely 
 necessary, if full economy is to be obtained, that care should 
 be taken to mix only such staples as work well together, 
 and this is the cardinal principle of mixing. Thus Orleans 
 cotton and Hingunghat cotton mix very well, both having 
 the same mean length. Mobile and Broach will also mix 
 well, so far as length of staple is concerned, but the yarn 
 produced is apt to be high coloured. But if, in addition to the 
 length of the staple, other desirable properties are taken into 
 consideration, it will be seen that cottons which would other- 
 wise mix well are not usable on account of the difference in 
 their spinning qualities or colour. Thus a harsh, wiry fibre like 
 rough Peruvian and a soft, pliable one like Uplands, however 
 well their length might agree, would make an unsuitable mix- 
 ture, because the treatment which is absolutely essential in one 
 case would be quite fatal in the other. It is therefore necessary 
 to remember that the character of the fibre, as well as its length, 
 is an essential item in mixing, and that the facility with which 
 fibres will twist has an important bearing upon the subject. I' 
 is quite possible to strengthen a weak cotton by an admixture 
 of a stronger one, and thus obtain a yarn which it would be 
 impossible to produce cheaply enough in a'ny other way. The 
 colour of the cottons mixed is also important, as upon it depends 
 the appearance of the finished yarn. Some cottons, like brown 
 Egyptian and Broach, for instance, are deep coloured ; others, 
 like Orleans, of a light shade. It is therefore undesirable, if a 
 white thread is wanted, to use the higher coloured cottons, 
 "but if by judicious blending a shade can be obtained which 
 is that desired, there can be no harm in using the higher 
 coloured material. There is another point in which the colour 
 
92 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 of the material is important, viz., whether it is to be used for 
 twist or weft. A mixing which is to be spun into twist will be 
 several shades darker than if it is spun into weft. The former, 
 it may be explained, is spun with more turns per inch than 
 the latter, and is technically " harder twisted." It is a singular 
 fact that owing to this increase the colour of warp yarn is 
 deeper. The reason for this is not far to seek, and is found 
 in the varying reflection of the light from the surface of the 
 yarn owing to the different disposition of the fibres. It is 
 well known that the difference in shade depends on the 
 number of rays reflected, and there is no doubt of this 
 being the correct solution of the apparent puzzle just stated. 
 It is therefore essential in mixing different brands of cotton 
 to remember the purpose to which it is to be put. The 
 element of price is, of course, an important one, and must 
 not be neglected. Suppose, for instance, that 2,ooolbs. of 
 cotton is being prepared for spinning, and consists entirely of 
 middling Orleans cotton at, say, 4^d. per Ib. This will give 
 a cost for the quantity named of ^37 ios. Now let the yarn 
 be spun from a mixture of middling Orleans and good Broach 
 at, say, 3^6 d. per Ib., in equal proportions. The mixing then 
 will cost ^34 iys. nd., a net saving of 2 125. id., or -3 id. 
 per Ib. Now, suppose this is applied to the case of a mill using 
 2o,ooolbs. per week, there is a weekly saving of 26 os. iod., 
 which is a very considerable sum. There is, therefore, a great 
 advantage to be gained from proper mixing, and nothing will 
 be lost by a very careful study of the qualities and values of 
 different grades of cotton. To ascertain the average length of 
 staple, a good plan is to detach a tuft, reduce it to a manageable 
 size, and then hold it down upon a rule divided into sixty-fourths 
 of an inch. A knife or chisel is a good thing to hold the cotton 
 by, and by removing the fibres gradually from each side the 
 average length of the staple can be easily got. This method 
 requires a little practice, but is soon mastered, and it is very 
 valuable in enabling a judgment to be formed as to the propriety 
 of mixing two fibres. By practice the staple can be ascertained 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 93 
 
 by gradually reducing a tuft of cotton by pulling it with one 
 hand while held with the other until the length of individual 
 fibres can be seen, and this is the most common course. The 
 four rules for successful mixing are 
 
 First. Choose cottons of practically equal staple. 
 
 Second. Mix strong harsh fibres with others a little weaker 
 and softer for warp yarn, but only soft pliable ones for weft. 
 
 Third. Select cottons of colours which, blended, produce 
 the right shade when spun into twist or weft. 
 
 Fourth. Take into account the price of the cottons mixed 
 so 'as to arrive at an average value. 
 
 (67) Having determined the character of the mixing, the 
 next thing is to produce it. It is customary to stack the mixed 
 cottons in bins, and for this purpose a special room is generally 
 provided. If the cotton is mixed by hand, a layer of about a 
 foot thick is laid all over the ^floor of the bin or stack from one 
 lot of bales. Upon this a second layer of the cotton to be 
 mixed is laid, and this procedure is carried out until the stack 
 is completed. In mixing by the aid of a bale breaker, the bales 
 containing the various qualities to be mixed are opened and 
 placed near the machine. A layer from each bale is taken in 
 succession and placed upon the lattice feed apron of the 
 machine, and is thus opened out at once. The machine 
 delivers it on to a lattice, by which it is carried to an ascending 
 double lattice, which in turn delivers it to other lattices running 
 over the mixing bins. This arrangement is shown in Figs. 39 
 and 40, where A is the bale breaker, B the ^ascending lattice, 
 and C the horizontal conveyer to the bins E. It will be seen 
 that the cotton can be delivered at any point which may be 
 desired. It is obvious that by a procedure of this kind a much 
 more intimate mixture can be made of the various grades than 
 is otherwise possible, and this is a matter of great moment. It 
 is clear that, if any advantage is to be gained from mixing, the 
 earlier the fibres are thoroughly diffused from the mass the 
 better ; and much of the work of the earlier machines is removed 
 if this object is attained at this stage. It is very desirable that 
 
94 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 a mixing should be made large enough to last several weeks, as 
 in this way more regular spinning is obtained. To test the 
 working qualities, a small stack of a few pounds should be made 
 from the mixture proposed, be passed through the machines, 
 and spun into yarn. In this way it can be ascertained whether 
 any change is required before finally proceeding with the larger 
 mixture. It is only necessary to say, in conclusion, that by 
 means of the lattices used the cotton can be conveyed from 
 place to place without handling, and these useful appliances can 
 be made to run in any desired direction. It is often the custom 
 to feed the cotton from the stack directly into some form 01 
 
 x> 
 
 i 
 
 -^E--" 
 
 c 
 
 <c i^r 
 
 r-.^Efl-,,"^.' 
 
 ~=3lij 
 
 " ^ ^^"^ -^" ~^!r 
 
 (22 
 
 
 
 
 J. ^_ 
 
 
 f 
 
 ! 
 
 I 
 
 "T*T 
 
 FIG. 39. 
 
 J. N. 
 
 opening machine, but the trend of modern practice is in the 
 opposite direction. There can be no doubt that the less the 
 work of beating out lumps of cotton is thrown upon the 
 opening machine, the more effectually it will perform its 
 function of cleansing. If there is any virtue in the restora- 
 tion of the cotton to an open fleecy condition, there can be 
 little room to doubt that the earlier this happens the better. 
 Now })% in this respect, the use of a feed roller or table is or 
 service, especially when combined with dust trunks. It is not 
 desirable to use a bale breaker for this purpose, as the draft 
 of the rollers is such that the cotton is merely broken up or 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 95 
 
 ffl 
 
 pulled into comparatively large lumps, and the full effect of the 
 operation is not obtained. A porcupine roller of 15 or iSin. 
 
 diameter is much preferable 
 when revolving at a speed of 
 from 800 to 1,000 revolutions 
 per minute, and receiving the 
 mixed cotton through the 
 agency of a pair of feed rollers 
 suitably speeded. The treat- 
 ment thus given opens the cot- 
 ton fairly well, and delivers it 
 into the dust truck, or on to a 
 lattice, in a moderately open 
 or fleecy condition. Thus, even . 
 assuming that no further action 
 takes place between the feed 
 table and the opening machine, 
 the material is in a much 
 better condition than it would 
 otherwise be, and the work 
 thrown upon the opener is 
 considerably reduced. This 
 arrangement is shown in Fig. 
 39, where the cotton is taken 
 from the bins and conveyed by 
 the. lattice F to the porcupine 
 feed roller G, by which it is 
 effectually opened. An arrange- 
 ment of this kind actually car- 
 ried out is shown in plan in 
 Fig. 41. The bale breaker B 
 delivers on to the lattice J, 
 which in turn is arranged to 
 deliver on to the three trans- 
 verse lattices K, which convey the cotton to the mixing bins 
 M. From these it is taken and placed on the feed lattices of 
 
96 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the porcupine feeds F, which deliver it into the dust trunks T 
 by means of which it is conveyed to the opening machines 
 placed in the room below. 
 
 (68) Another form of feeding machine has of late years 
 come into extensive use, and bids fair to supersede all others. 
 This is what is known as the Automatic Hopper Feeder. 
 It is an adaptation of a machine which has been long 
 
 FIG. 41. 
 
 in use in the woollen trade, where it has been instrumental 
 in abolishing the practice of weighing the wool. It is well 
 known in that connection in this country, but its adoption as 
 an instrument for feeding cotton is the work of the machinists 
 of the United States, from whence it was reintroduced into this 
 country, by Messrs. John Hetherington and Sons. It may 
 be said that all the various forms of this machine which 
 are now made possess the same general characteristics, but that 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 97 
 
 which is illustrated in Fig. 42 has some additional points 01 
 interest. As there illustrated, it is made by Messrs. Howard 
 and Bullough. It consists of a large hopper or receiver R, at 
 the lower end of which is a travelling lattice apron A moving 
 from right to left. At one side of the hopper, placed at an 
 angle, is the apron B, which is formed of an endless canvas 
 band, to which is secured transverse laths with spikes fixed in 
 them. The cotton is fed into the hopper R, and the lattice A 
 aids in bringing it up to the apron B, and within the range of 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 
 the pins, but as the hopper is usually kept well filled, the cotton 
 is in contact with a large area of B. At the upper corner of 
 the hopper a revolving drum is placed, consisting of a cylinder 
 smoothly turned on its periphery, and having a number of holes 
 bored in transverse rows parallel to its axis. Through these the 
 points of pins can project, these being fixed in slides which 
 terminate in a frame surrounding an eccentric C mounted on 
 the shaft. Thus, as the drum revolves, the pins are alternately 
 pushed out of and drawn into the cylinder. As the function. 
 
98 THE STUDENTS' con ON SPINNING. 
 
 of the pins is to strip from the lattice B the surplus cotton, it 
 may happen that some of it adheres to them. If this occurs 
 their withdrawal in the manner described strips them of this 
 cotton, which falls back into the hopper. The relative distance 
 of the centre of the drum and the lattice is capable of adjust- 
 ment, so as to permit a greater or lesser quantity of cotton to 
 pass. Immediately behind the bend of the lattice B is a 
 revolving spiked roller H, which is so placed that it receives 
 any large pieces of cotton, and carries them round so 
 that they can be acted on by the pins in the stripper E. In this 
 way the lumps are drawn out, and the delivered fleece is evened. 
 At the back of the apron B is a stripper E, which- in this case 
 is six-armed, the alternate arms being usually fitted with pins F 
 and leather strips G. As its name indicates, this is employed to 
 strip off the cotton from B and deliver it. In this specific 
 instance the procedure ii substantially that of scutching. The 
 cotton is flung on to the grid K, thence ov^r the longitudinal 
 grid and dirt box L, on to cages coupled to an exhaust fan in the 
 usual way. After this it is passed through the calender rollers 
 shown, by which it is compressed and delivered, either on to a 
 lattice apron or into an air trunk, as desired. In most cases, 
 the cotton, when beaten off by the stripper, is simply passed 
 through a pair of rollers, and is then delivered. 
 
 (69) There are many modifications of the details of the 
 machine as thus described. Thus, in place of the evener C, 
 Messrs. Taylor, Lang and Co. employ a second spiked lattice 
 revolving at a slow rate, and having its teeth opposing those of 
 the apron B. It is so set that from a wide space as the cotton 
 enters, the distance between the teeth of the apron and those in B 
 gradually diminishes until they nearly touch. It being essential 
 that the rate of feed by B shall be as far as possible constant, it 
 is desirable to keep the hopper constantly and uniformly charged 
 with cotton, or failing this, to regulate the supply. Messrs. 
 Dobson and Barlow use a patented arrangement by which an 
 alteration in the height of the cotton is met by the regulation of 
 the area of the inlet, thus ensuring a uniform delivery. By 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 99 
 
 Corrigan's patent, made by Messrs. Lord Bros., the machine is- 
 made so that the cotton is delivered when struck off by the 
 stripper E into a box or reservoir, from which it is drawn by 
 feed-rollers at the bottom and delivered on to a lattice. If the- 
 box is overfilled, a special lattice removes the overplus and 
 returns it to the hopper, thus ensuring a regular delivery. 
 In other cases, a piano feed regulator is fitted to the 
 delivery end of the machine, and this is employed to regulate 
 the velocity of the ascending apron B whenever a thin place 
 occurs in the fleece as it is delivered. Most of these devices 
 are intended to give an even fleece when delivered that 
 is, one in which the weight of successive yards is the same,, 
 and this has been the chief point round which controversy has 
 raged. Although this is, in the opinion of the author, of sub- 
 sidiary importance, yet it has a certain value, and may be 
 discussed shortly. From what has been said, it will be seen that 
 means are provided to even the delivery so as to ensure the 
 production of a fleece of equal substance. There is one set o 
 conditions under which it is contended it fails to do this. If the 
 hopper is kept well filled with cotton it is generally agreed that 
 the quantity carried forward is greater than when the hopper is 
 partially empty, but this is a matter the importance of which 
 may be greatly exaggerated. In saying this, care must be taken to 
 avoid misunderstanding. It is not intended to convey the idea 
 that it does not matter whether the hopper is at one time quite 
 full and at another nearly empty. Any such procedure would 
 inevitably entail a difference in the quantity of cotton taken up 
 during the ascent of the apron. In addition to this, the density 
 of the cotton as it is delivered is a factor which cannot be neg- 
 lected. It is well known that this varies considerably according 
 to the character of the bale or mixing, the compression being 
 greater in some cases than in others. In other words, the volume 
 of the cotton and its weight are not necessarily proportionate. 
 So important is this matter that all makers lay stress upon the 
 uniformity of the filling of the hopper, and, as previously said, in- 
 some cases special mechanism has been provided for the purpose,. 
 
too THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 It is, of course, highly desirable that at the earliest stage possible 
 the sheet or body of cotton presented to the action of the 
 opening beaters shall be as even as can be obtained, but it 
 must be remembered that at the worst the feed is as regular as 
 that obtained by any of the previously existing types of machines. 
 Owing to the character of the machine, it is obviously nearly 
 impossible to regulate the velocities of the three essential parts 
 which operate prior to or during the time in which the cotton is 
 being taken up, while on the other hand, a regulation subsequent 
 to its passage through the machine is attended with the difficulty 
 that a certain time must elapse between the formation of the 
 irregularity and its detection. Regulation should precede 
 fleecing, and if this cannot be done, then it appears^ to be a pre- 
 ferable course to apply a regulator to the feed roller of the next 
 machine in which the beating of the cotton is conducted. This 
 matter may be somewhat elaborated. Suppose that it is desired 
 to obtain the necessary regulation of the velocity of the feed 
 lattice. It is clear on a casual inspection that this cannot be 
 done until the sheet is fully formed, and it is equally clear that at 
 the time the thick or thin place is dealt with, exactly the reverse 
 formation of cotton may be occurring in the hopper. Instead 
 therefore, of evening, the operation would be one of unevening. 
 This remark is, of course, subject to the limitation made by the 
 special contrivances previously described. If, however, the 
 regulation be applied to the resultant fleece prior to subjecting it 
 to the action of the beater in the next machine, by varying the 
 velocity of the feed roller which is delivering it, then the same 
 result is substantially obtained. This is the course adopted in 
 more than one case, and it is on the whole a satisfactory one. 
 
 (70) The feed apron ought to be so driven that any chance 
 of slip is entirely avoided, and to ensure this, the largest sized 
 pulleys which can be conveniently arranged should be employed. 
 It is not desirable that the angle which the face of the apron 
 forms with the horizontal should be too obtuse, as otherwise the 
 tendency is to carry up too much cotton, and not to exercise 
 that tearing effect which is desired. It will be easily under- 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND/ SCUTCHING^ , J . ^ . JQI 
 
 stood that the nearer the approach to a horizontal line the more 
 readily is the cotton removed from the bin, while, if a vertical 
 line were followed, the cotton would be torn away more slowly, 
 and in less quantity than is desirable. If the face of the apron 
 is disposed at an angle of 120 degrees relatively to the lattice 
 forming the bottom of the bin, or, say, 30 degrees to a vertical 
 line drawn from the front of the bottom pulley, good results 
 both as to quantity and quality of work are obtained. The 
 apron should be strong enough to avoid bagging, and, if 
 necessary, should be sustained between the pulleys. All these 
 points have an effect upon its carrying capacity, and the quantity 
 of cotton which it will remove is to a large extent influenced by 
 the shape and disposition of the needles fixed in the slats. The 
 function of the evener is primarily, of course, to reduce the 
 size of the lumps which are being carried over by the apron, 
 and, in addition, to throw back such of them as are too large. 
 It is clear that where pieces are firmly held by the spikes, the 
 teeth of the evener will tend to tear them apart, and will 
 inevitably have that result if they are of undue size. It is true 
 that the pitch of the teeth of the evener is not such as it would 
 be if it were intended at this point to effect an absolute reduc- 
 tion to small-sized pieces ; but, at the same time, the operation 
 is an important one, and should be duly considered. One of 
 the essential features of the evener is that it shall deal with the 
 cotton at a point where the apron is well supported, as otherwise 
 the latter may yield and larger pieces pass than should. The 
 importance of this factor will be recognised when the function 
 of this particular part is considered. In the final stripping of 
 the cotton, the work is done by the rapid revolution of a spiked 
 drum or stripper, which beats off the cotton from the feed apron 
 and delivers it. Here, also, it is necessary to note the desira- 
 bility of removing the cotton at a point where there can be no 
 yielding of the apron, so that the stripping shall be evenly 
 effected. It is also worth noting that the rapidity of the 
 rotation of the stripper reaching 800 revolutions per minute 
 causes it to act as a beater, and leads to considerable dis- 
 
rO3 THE 'STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 integration of the pieces. For this reason it is desirable at this 
 point to use bars and grids through which the dirt loosened by 
 the blow can readily fall. The net result of the various devices 
 thus detailed is that the cotton is broken up effectually, and is 
 delivered in a fleecy or semi-fleecy condition in the form of a 
 tmck sheet. It is a subsidiary consequence of this treatment 
 that a large portion of the dirt is deposited at this point, and 
 that not alone in respect of the fleecing is the work of the 
 opener lessened, but it has less dirt to remove during the 
 operation. It is obvious that the pins of a stripper having a 
 'circumferential speed of 2,932 feet per minute will knock out 
 a good deal of dirt, especially when bars are provided to receive 
 and arrest the cotton. The most important lesson to be derived 
 from a consideration of the hopper feeder is, however, that it is 
 possible to open cotton by means of a gentle combing action 
 as effectually as by the brutal treatment usually accorded to it. 
 It is not surprising to learn that one consequence of the 
 adoption of this machine, especially in its employment for 
 American cotton, is the reduction of the number of processes 
 of scutching by one, the intermediate scutcher having been 
 abolished where hopper feeders are used. 
 
 (71) It may, however, be pointed out that the establishment 
 of a fleece which is of even substance for its entire length is of 
 little value unless the distribution of the fleece in the width also 
 takes place. The object of the piano feed in the scutcher, for 
 instance, is mainly to even the sheet of cotton so far as its 
 longitudinal substance is concerned. When the sheet is formed 
 into a roll, as afterwards described, it is technically known 
 as a " lap." But a lap should, when finally produced, be 
 even not only longitudinally but also transversely, and the 
 same thickness should exist at the edges as in the middle. 
 In short, there are two problems involved one affecting 
 the feeding of a definite weight and substance in a definite 
 time, and the other the proper distribution of the cotton trans- 
 versely when fed. In this respect, the arrangement of a hopper 
 feeder with cages beyond the stripper is likely to improve the 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 103 
 
 result, because, with perfectly working fans, the lateral distribu- 
 tion of the cotton is improved. Although it is now admitted 
 that the use of the hopper feeder is attended by a saving of 
 labour, and that the cotton is, on the whole, better prepared 
 for subsequent treatment, there are many cases in which very 
 effective results are obtained by the employment of other com- 
 binations. For instance, by such an arrangement as that 
 illustrated in Fig. 43, the whole requirements of the case are 
 met. In this arrangement the cotton is fed to a porcupine 
 beater by a lattice apron, the velocity of which is controlled by 
 a piano regulator, and is thence discharged into a dust trunk, 
 then passing over a travelling dirt lattice, being finally discharged 
 into the opener. The arrangement of exhaust fans is such that 
 in addition to being well fed so far as the weight per yard is 
 concerned, the lateral distribution also takes place properly. 
 The test of an evenly-formed lap is the maintenance of the 
 weight over its whole area, so that a square foot cut from it at 
 any part, either in the centre or at the sides, will be of the same 
 weight. This is the thing to be aimed at in scutching; and 
 experience shows that it is not unattainable. If a lap, when 
 finally presented to a carding engine, is of uneven substance 
 across its width, it will follow that, as the feed in that machine 
 is constant, more fibres will be presented to the carding surface 
 at one point in its width than at another. This is as fatal to 
 the best work as inequalities in the weight of successive yards 
 of lap. Now it is obvious, that where laps of this character are 
 desired the application of an automatic feeding machine can, in 
 most cases, only partially produce the result. It must never be 
 forgotten that the appliances for evening the cotton are far in 
 excess of any used in wool spinning, and that the characters of 
 the two fibres are widely different. Probably there has never 
 been a machine which has been so widely accepted as inevitable 
 as the hopper feed. Cost is an important matter now-a-days, 
 and a machine which will deal with 35,ooolbs. of cotton weekly 
 without any specific attention plays an important part in that 
 respect. It ought to be premised that the full advantage of a 
 
JO4 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 hopper feed is only obtained when it is used in combination and 
 the combination is a purely mechanical one. An installation 
 
 inspected by the author was one in which the cotton was taken 
 from the bale, passed through a bale breaker, taken by a lattice 
 to the hopper of the machine, from which it was delivered by a 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 '05 
 
 lattice to a porcupine feed, thence through a dust-trunk to the 
 opener, finally emerging as a lap. Only one person was required 
 for the whole of that service, although over 3o,ooolbs. of cotton 
 were opened weekly. The economy of such a procedure is mani- 
 fest, and this is only one instance of many equally serviceable 
 combinations. 
 
 (72) The full benefit of the plan of stacking cotton and using 
 a feeder is not derived, unless the feeder is combined with the 
 opening machinery. It is well known that it is customary to 
 place the opening and scutching machines in a different room to 
 that in which mixing takes place, and that by the action of a fan 
 the cotton can be conveyed within a tube or trunk B, Fig. 43, from 
 one room to another. The dust trunk is Q shaped, with the 
 
 FIG. 44 
 
 flat side down, for a part of its length, as at K, Fig. 41, and is 
 not merely employed as a conduit, but fitted in the lower part 
 of the Q with fins or plates, against which the cotton strikes in 
 its onward course and is temporarily retained. The effect of 
 this arrestment is that the fibres receive a sudden check or shake, 
 by means of which the intermingled dirt is shaken out to a 
 certain extent and falls into the spaces below, from which it is 
 periodically removed. In dealing with dust trunks it is essential 
 to remember that they require regular cleaning, for if the dirt is 
 allowed to accumulate until the spaces are full, it is drawr 
 onward by the air current, and part of the object of the trunk is 
 destroyed. In this respect the travelling self-cleaning lattice made 
 by Messrs. Platt Brothers and Co., shown in Fig. 44 and in Fig. 
 43 at B, is of service. It consists of the employment of an endless 
 
io6 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 band K fitted with a number of blades or teeth, so as to form 
 chambers or receptacles for the dirt or dust. The band is 
 driven in the direction of the arrow Q by suitable gearing, thus 
 delivering the collected dirt on to a flap P, which is balanced 
 by the weighted lever shown. It will be seen that the direction 
 of the traverse of the band K is in opposition to the air current, 
 as indicated by the top arrow. It is essential that the whole of 
 the joints of a trunk shall be smoothly made and air-tight. In 
 the event of any projection occurring at the joints, cotton is apt 
 to accumulate, more especially if there is an opening between 
 the lengths, and the trunk becomes choked ; while, if air finds 
 entrance, the effect of the fan is partially destroyed, and the 
 cotton travels too slowly and collects. It is indeed often found 
 that after the covers have been opened for the removal of the 
 droppings the pneumatic action is not perfectly restored until 
 enough dirt has again fallen and sealed up the joints made by 
 the cover and the edges of the trunk. The dust trunk, properly 
 used, plays an important part in the economy of a cotton mill, 
 and it is obvious that this early removal of a large proportion of 
 the dirt reduces the work required in subsequent stages, and 
 materially enhances the possibility of adequate cleaning in the 
 opener and scutcher. 
 
 (73) Having got the cotton into the dust trunk, it is in 
 modern practice delivered into the opening machine. There 
 are three principal forms of this machine in general use a 
 modified willow, the porcupine, and the Crighton which may be 
 distinguished from each other by the construction and position 
 of the beater cylinder. In all of these the cotton is treated by 
 rapid blows from revolving beater arms which fling it against 
 specially prepared surfaces. The blow given should be quick 
 and clean, so as to detach the fibres from each other without 
 rupturing them, and the grids against which they are flung must 
 be constructed so as to give the best results by permitting the 
 easy fall of dirt, etc., during the period of arrest of the fiLres. 
 Many elements go to make up a successful opening machine. 
 The manner in which the cotton is introduced, the construction, 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 107 
 
 size, and speed of the beaters, are all essential features construc- 
 tively. The cleansing power of a machine depends mainly on 
 two points, viz., the quantity of cotton passed into it in a given 
 time and the shape and position of the projections on the dirt 
 grid. Upon these depends the commercial success of the 
 machine that is, whether it can be used so as to restore the 
 material to its natural open fleecy condition without damaging 
 it, and at the same time enable the various impurities to be 
 easily dropped. 
 
 (74) The machine illustrated in Fig. 45 is a modification ot 
 the willow as made by Messrs. Taylor, Lang and Co. It consists 
 of a feed apron Q which conveys the cotton into the sphere 01 
 two rollers which thrust it into the path of teeth on the surface 
 
 J.N 
 
 FIG. 45. 
 
 of the cylinder O. This revolves in the direction shown by the 
 arrowf striking the cotton upwards and flinging it. against the 
 projecting teeth on the inside of the case P. As shown at H, a 
 grid is fixed through which the dirt is ejected by the rapid 
 revolution of the cylinder O. The cotton is caused to strike 
 against the bars of the grid H and is thus scraped or cleaned. 
 By the influence of an air current created by a fan placed below 
 the two dust cages S S 1 the cotton is drawn over the two grids 
 R and M, and when it reaches the cages is formed into a sheet 
 in a way which will be more particularly described at a little 
 later stage. It is taken from the dust cages through the two 
 small rollers shown, thence through the calender rollers T, and is 
 rolled up into a lap like V at the point L. There is a large 
 
io8 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 cleaning area in this machine, and it is very suitable for cottons 
 of good staple. A machine somewhat similar in principle is 
 illustrated in Fig. 46, being 
 made by Messrs. Dobson and 
 Barlow. It consists of a cylin- 
 der, the surface of which is 
 fitted with a number of teeth 
 placed in rows a few inches 
 apart. The cotton is fed along 
 the lattice table L, and is 
 delivered to the cylinder by 
 means of a feed roller disposed 
 above a pedal nose by which 
 the rate of feed is regulated as 
 afterwards described in dealing 
 with the scutcher. As the 
 cotton is thrust past the feed 
 roller the teeth on the cylinder 
 strike it and pitch it against 
 a circular grid K nearly sur- 
 rounding the cylinder. This 
 type of machine, as previously 
 remarked, is constructed so as 
 to strike the cotton upwards 
 and not downwards, it being 
 urged for this practice that less 
 damage is caused to it than 
 when it is struck in the ordinary 
 way. The data for this claim 
 appear to the author to be 
 somewhat unconvincing, but 
 there is no doubt that with 
 certain varieties of cotton the 
 work is as well done as by any 
 other type. The area of the 
 grid K is large, and provides 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 I0 9 
 
 an ample cleaning service, and to this feature may be attributed 
 the good cleaning property of the machine. After leaving the grid 
 K the material passes on to a grid U, which is disposed at such 
 an angle that the material passes readily over it while a great part 
 of the dirt is deposited at this point. After leaving the grid U 
 the cotton passes to the scutching machine, of which a description 
 will be given later. 
 
 J. N 
 
 FIG. 47. 
 
 (75) The porcupine beating cylinder is usually placed just 
 beyond the exit of the dust trunks, and is made in one of two 
 forms. That shown in Fig. 47 is used for long-stapled cotton, 
 and consists of a number of beater blades secured to discs, which 
 
 J.N 
 
 FIG. 48. 
 
 in turn are fixed on a central shaft with which they revolve. 
 The blades are constructed so as to be easily reversed when worn. 
 The form shown in Fig. 48 is used for short-stapled cotton, like 
 Indian, and is made in a similar manner to the bale-breaker 
 rollers, of a number of discs securely bolted and fitted together 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 so that they can be easily replaced. Porcupine beaters are made 
 from 1 8 to 24 inches diameter, and revolve from 800 to 1,200 
 times per minute. They are enclosed within a suitable case, and 
 a dirt grid is fitted below the cylinder, so as to clean the cotton 
 iby the checks given to its onward progress. 
 
 (76) The Crighton opener is of different construction to 
 either of the two just described. It is shown in section in 
 
 r 
 
 J.N. 
 
 FIG. 49. 
 
 Fig. 49, and consists of a conical beater constructed either with a 
 number of strong discs secured to the shaft or in lieu of discs, 
 two arms in one piece with, and radiating from, a central boss 
 are used, but in either case blades D are secured to them. The 
 length across the points of the blades increases from 18 to 
 33 inches, the smallest diameter being at the bottom. The beater 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. IJ1 
 
 arms are surrounded by a case or grid, which is also conical, 
 in exact accordance with the increase in the diameter of the 
 beaters. The grids rest upon a truncated conical dish into 
 which the cotton is fed by the tube C. The latter at its exit 
 into the dish is given a slightly upward direction so as to guide 
 the cotton upwards, and the dish is corrugated on its inner 
 surface. The shaft of the beater is sustained by a footstep E, 
 which is constructed so that the foot of the shaft constantly 
 revolves in some lubricant. The upper end is kept in position 
 by a long bearing A, and the driving pulley is placed above this 
 point. Immediately below the orifice of the tube C a fan is 
 placed, when the opener is combined with a feed-table and 
 dust trunk, so that the suction of the cotton to that point is 
 independent of that which carries it through and out of the 
 machine. The blades D are now usually made reversible, so 
 that they can be easily turned round when worn at one end. 
 
 (77) Before passing on to say anything of the action of the 
 beater, it is worth while specially noting that in most cases it 
 is now the custom to provide a fan at the very commencement of 
 the machine, the function of which is to draw the cotton onward 
 to that point and deliver it within the range of action of the 
 beater. From this action of exhaustion or suction the machine 
 has been sometimes called the " exhaust opener," a name which 
 is now applied to many types in which this action occurs. 
 The reason for this procedure is obvious. The exhaust 
 fan placed at this point brings the cotton gently within the 
 action of the beater, which is thus enabled to strike it with 
 considerable force. Assuming the fan to be placed beyond the 
 beater, it is clear that to convey the cotton into the sphere of 
 its influence, the air current must be also strong enough to draw 
 the cotton past the beater and place it upon the cage, if a lap is 
 to be formed, or to eject it, if not. A little reflection will show 
 that in this case there will be a chance of the material being, 
 drawn over and past the beater without receiving that amount 
 of treatment which is essential to proper cleaning. Both theory 
 and practice justify the fan being placed in the position named, 
 
112 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 and it is, as was remarked, practically universal. Referring 
 to Fig. 50, which is a view of a combined porcupine feed and 
 exhaust opener as arranged by Messrs. Lord Bros., two views 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 113 
 
 are given, one a sectional elevation of the combined machine, 
 and the other a plan of it in combination with a porcupine 
 feeding machine. The lattice feed A delivers the cotton to the 
 porcupine roller C by which it is passed into the dust trunks D. 
 These terminate in the tube H leading into the opener F. At 
 the entrance to the delivery tube of F two flap valves Q are 
 placed. The opener is of the Crighton type, the beating blades 
 E being fixed to malleable iron arms L fastened to the shaft. 
 At the foot of the vertical shaft within the bearing O a loose 
 washer P is placed, this being free to rotate with the pressure of 
 the shaft, thus reducing the friction. At each side of the exit 
 of the tube fans N are placed, which can be given a side- 
 ward adjustment in order to lay the opened cotton evenly upon 
 the dust cages T. Before it reaches the latter it passes over 
 grids R, and after leaving T the fleece is beaten by means of the 
 scutching beater W which flings the cotton upon a second grid, 
 after which it is formed again into a sheet by the cages S, being 
 afterwards rolled into a lap. The course of the cotton is clearly 
 indicated throughout by the arrows. The arrangement forms a 
 good combination, and it will be noticed that by means ot a stop 
 rod M, actuated from the setting-on handle of the lap machine 
 when the latter is stopped for any purpose, the supply of cotton 
 to the opener is checked. This arrangement can be extended 
 so as to shut off the supply of cotton to the dust trunks by 
 stopping the porcupine roller, and where this is done it is 
 necessary to time the operations so that no blank places shall 
 occur in the feed, or too great an accumulation of cotton take 
 place in the trunks. 
 
 (78) The cotton when brought within the range of action of 
 the beaters, is struck by the arms or blades and flung against 
 the grids, through the interstices in which much of the dirt is 
 ejected. In connection with this part of the subject there are 
 two or three of the mechanical details which may be noted. 
 These are the shape of the beater blades, the setting of the 
 grids, and the construction of the latter. For most varieties of 
 cotton indeed, almost without exception when it is struck 
 
ii4 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 loosely, the flat beater blade, such as is shown in Fig. 47, is 
 preferable. It strikes the cotton fully and with considerable 
 force, and it can, moreover, be easily reversed when worn. It 
 should always be remembered that it is bad practice to strike 
 cotton with a blade that is too dull to give it a sharp blow, and 
 that the risk of damage is much increased if the blade is shaped 
 so as to crush the fibres. For very short stapled cotton, more 
 especially if it is previously formed into a sheet, the porcupine 
 beater shown in Fig. 48 can be advantageously employed. 
 
 (79) With reference to the setting of the dirt grids, there is 
 necessarily a different procedure with the various types of 
 machines. The Crighton beater, being placed vertically and 
 being conical in shape, has similarly shaped dirt grids surround- 
 ing it. These grids are made with raised surfaces, against the 
 face of which the cotton strikes, and between each pair of these 
 an opening is made through which the dirt can be easily ejected. 
 The distance from the points of the blades and the inner surface 
 of the grids should not be too great, as, in that case, much of 
 the cotton will be drawn upwards by the air current without 
 being beaten. On the other hand, if the space be too far 
 reduced, the cotton is likely to be crushed and damaged, thus 
 producing considerable waste. A space of about fin. is, in 
 most cases, ample, and this should be preserved. The dirt bars 
 behind a porcupine beater do not require setting specially, 
 otherwise than to fix them so as to subject the cotton to checks, 
 and thus permit the dirt to fall freely without running the risk 
 of fibre being passed. 
 
 (80) The construction of the Crighton grid has been much 
 improved recently, and the form latterly adopted by Messrs. 
 Crighton and Sons (sections of which are given in Figs. 5 1 and 
 52) possesses many advantages. It is so shaped that pockets 
 are formed in which the cotton periodically rests until the beater 
 arm has passed, after which it is drawn out by the air suction 
 thus induced. The brief periods of rest thus given allow the 
 dirt to fall freely, and the cleaning is more effective. The 
 velocity of the air-current should be regulated so as to provide 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 115 
 
 sufficient power to carry the cotton through the beater chamber 
 in the Crighton, and if a combined machine is used, place it on 
 the cages. This part of the subject will be again reverted to at 
 
 FIG. 51. 
 
 a later stage. The velocity of the beater in a Crighton machine 
 varies from 520 revolutions per minute when used for American 
 cotton to about 720 revolutions for Indian. All other things 
 
 FIG. 52. 
 
 being equal, the longer the staple cleaned the slower the revolu- 
 tion of the beater. The porcupine cylinder can be run at a 
 velocity of about 800 revolutions per minute with advantage 
 with most lengths of staple when 18 inches diameter. 
 
Il6 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (81) It is the custom to form the opened cotton into a "lap" 
 at as early a stage as possible, instead of ejecting it loosely into 
 the room. There are a number of advantages in this course, 
 especially when the machine is combined with a scutching 
 machine. Whether this course be followed or not there is much 
 to be gained by forming a lap, because however uneven in 
 weight that may be, it is not likely to be so variable as a mass 
 of loose cotton placed on a lattice. As will be shown hereafter, 
 the earlier an evenly weighted feed is obtained the better the 
 chances of obtaining laps which are equal in substance. In 
 addition to this there are all the advantages arising from easier 
 handling, which reduces the cost for labour to a considerable 
 extent. 
 
 (82) The scutching machine is designed to provide means by 
 which the removal of the dirt and sand is still further facilitated, 
 and if properly constructed and worked there should practically 
 be nothing left for the carding engine to remove but nep, short 
 fibre, and motes. A sectional elevation of the Lord machine is 
 given in Fig. 53, and some detailed drawings will be afterwards 
 referred to. It is constructed with a revolving beater A, which 
 is enclosed within a case, and is driven from a counter shaft at 
 a speed of about 1,200 revolutions. The beater consists of solid 
 arms, forged with a central boss, which is bored to fit the shaft 
 and is secured fixed thereon. There may be either two or three 
 arms, but whatever may be the construction in this respect they 
 are accurately made and smoothly finished. Upon feet formed 
 on the ends of the arms blades of a special section shaped so 
 as to present a comparatively sharp beating edge to the fibre- 
 are secured. The beater is most carefully balanced both before 
 and after the attachment of the blades, and it is highly important 
 that this should be so, as otherwise the velocity given to the 
 beater would set up considerable vibration, which is detrimental 
 to good work. 
 
 (83) The cotton is fed, in all cases in which laps have been 
 previously formed, from two to four laps F, which rest upon a 
 lattice apron G, by which they are unrolled. The lap end is 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 117 
 
 ""1 
 
n8 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING, 
 
 passed between a feed roller suitably weighted and the nose of 
 a pedal lever B, to which reference will be made a little later. 
 The cotton is thus thrust into the range of action of the beater, 
 and is struck by it, so that tufts of the fibres are flung upon the 
 grid H, which surrounds the beater for a certain portion of its 
 path. After leaving the bars or grid H, the cotton passes over 
 a grid consisting of a number of longitudinal bars with spaces 
 between them, and is conveyed to the dust cages J J 1 . These 
 are drums, the surfaces of which are formed either of wire 
 netting or perforated sheet zinc, and the ends of which open 
 into vertical dust trunks, from which the air is exhausted by a 
 
 J.N 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 fan I, placed in the position shown. Care is taken in con- 
 structing and fixing the cages that no air can be drawn out 
 between their ends and the framing, and one method is well 
 arranged for this purpose. The frame-work is recessed and the 
 cage fitted into it, a guard ring being fixed so as to make a perfect 
 joint. The cages J revolve loosely upon fixed shafts, being driven 
 by sleeves on which the wheels are fixed, and segmental damper 
 plates N are sometimes fitted within them, as shown in Fig. 54. 
 These dampers can be fastened in position on the shaft for the pur- 
 pose afterwards referred to. The cotton is laid upon the cages in 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 119 
 
 such a way that when taken off it is in the form of a fleece or sheet, 
 which is then passed between two smooth "calender" rollers K, 
 by which it is somewhat compressed. After undergoing this 
 treatment it is rolled up into a " lap " M, as shown, being wound 
 on to a round bar or " lap rod." The ends of this are fitted 
 under a bracket formed at the upper end of a vertical bar T, 
 on which is a rack with which the pinion S engages. The latter 
 forms part of a train of gearing shown in the drawing, and as 
 
 FIG. 55. 
 
 soon as the right size of lap is made that is, when a definite 
 number of yards is wound -a catch is released and the handle 
 U falls, thus transferring the belt from the fast to the loose 
 pulley and stopping the machine. 
 
 (84) The feed motion is shown in side elevation, plan, and 
 end view in Fig. 55. The feed roller D is placed so as to 
 rotate above the nose of the " pedal " lever B. The latter is 
 loosely pivoted on a shaft, or, as is much better, upon a knife- 
 edged fulcrum, and has at its tail end a pendant lever C hung 
 
120 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 upon it. The pedal noses extend across the whole width of the 
 machine, as shown in the end view in Fig. 56, and partially in 
 the plan view in Fig. 55. The lower ends of the pendant levers 
 pass through a box or frame F, and are slightly swelled as shown 
 at H. Between each pair a friction roller G is placed, the 
 axle of each roller being borne by and revolving in bars 
 
 FIG. 56. 
 
 The last of 
 slot to which 
 
 sliding in grooves formed in the box F. 
 
 the series of pendants C 1 is formed with a 
 
 is coupled, as shown in Fig. 56, a lever O forming the first of a 
 
 series which are coupled to sectors E (Fig. 55), which control 
 
 the movement of a strap N upon the cones D, D 1 . When a 
 
 pendant lever rises, which it does when the nose B of the pedal 
 
 is depressed owing to the passage of a thick piece of cotton 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 121 
 
 between the feed roller and pedal, the swelled portion H of the 
 pendant being unable to pass through the space between the 
 two adjoining bowls, sets up a pressure which causes the bars 
 holding the bowls to move and the whole series of pendants to 
 swing in one direction. This movement is communicated to 
 the strap N in the way described, and it is thus moved on the 
 cones D, D 1 . When the pendant falls, which it does as soon as 
 the pressure is relieved, the pedal nose again rises, and the weight 
 of the various parts again restores the strap to its normal position. 
 In the event of a thin place occurring the action is the reverse 
 of that described. The cone D 1 is driven as afterwards shown, 
 and drives D by the strap N. Upon the upper end of the shaft 
 of D is a worm P which engages with a worm wheel R on the 
 axis of the feed roller. Thus any variation in the position of the 
 strap caused as described, reduces or accelerates the velocity of 
 D, and rotates the feed roller at a proportionately slower or 
 quicker speed. It is not enough that the speed shall be varied, 
 it is also necessary that it shall be proportionate to the difference 
 in the substance of the material ; that is to say, that the length of 
 lap delivered by the feed rollers must be in inverse proportion 
 to its thickness. This substantially results, if graphically de- 
 scribed, in a curve which is purely hyperbolic in outline. The 
 same problem arises in connection with the roving frame, and is 
 there fully treated. The governing factor in the case of a scutching 
 frame is the constant diameter of the feed roller, one revolution 
 of which delivers at any given speed a definite length of lap. 
 The starting point is therefore the normal thickness of the lap, 
 and the lap, when thicker or thinner, bears a certain ratio to it. 
 Thus, if the lap be normally a half-inch thick a variation of one- 
 sixteenth will be equivalent to establishing a ratio of 9:8, so thai- 
 the roller requires to travel | of its former speed, which is the 
 same as saying that the driven cone must move at that relative 
 velocity. As the effect of any movement of the pedal lever, 
 whether up or down, on the strap guide can be calculated, it 
 follows that the range of velocities can be easily arrived at. If 
 the calculation be made in this way, it will be seen mat the form- 
 
122 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 of cone required to give accurate results is one with a hyperbolic 
 profile, but it is not necessary to give here a demonstration 
 which is practically that given at greater length in connection 
 with the roving frame. 
 
 (85) There are two chief methods of construction adopted m 
 arranging the pedal levers and feed roller. The one is to use a 
 single roller, which rotates above the nose of the pedal and feeds 
 
 FIG. 57. 
 
 the cotton by the pressure exerted on it as it passes between them. 
 The other plan is to feed the cotton by a combination of a roller 
 arranged as described and a second pair of rollers rotating between 
 the nose of the pedal and the beater. These different methods 
 are shown respectively in Figs. 57 and 58. It is the practice for 
 short stapled cotton to use the former, and with longer staples 
 the latter, the theory being that the cotton being struck round a 
 
 J.N. 
 
 FIG. 58. 
 
 less acute surface is less liable to damage* There is ample 
 justification for the theory, but not so much for the practice. 
 The whole thing resolves itself into a question of expediency; 
 and it must be remembered that this is not a case where, as in 
 the carding engine, the fibres are removed in groups by the 
 action of a combing tooth, but one where they are struck off 
 across the whole face by a transverse bar. It is, therefore, 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 123 
 
 necessary that the blow of the beater blade shall be able to 
 strike off the cotton without breaking it, and the question of 
 the distance from the point at which the lap is held and that 
 at which it is struck becomes of importance. If the distance 
 between these points is too great, the blow of the beater first 
 bends down the lap end and then strikes off the fibres. It is 
 obvious that unless the cotton is removed regularly in this way 
 there exists a danger in the second blow of some bruising of 
 the material. It is the practice of many makers to shape the 
 nose of the pedal in such a way that the necessary rounded 
 surface for the deflection of the fibres, which must take place in 
 any event, is provided without using the three-roller principle. 
 Accordingly in Fig. 55 two forms of pedal nose are shown 
 which possess the characteristics necessary for different staples 
 of cotton. A careful examination of the profiles of the two 
 types will show that the staple of the cotton being in each 
 case equal it will be bent round the bottom roller when struck 
 from a pair, as in Fig.* 58. When, as in Fig. 55, it is struck 
 from a pedal nose, it is quite clear that the end of the lap, 
 although projecting from the nip of the roller as far as in the 
 other case, is sustained by the pedal in a nearly horizontal 
 position, and consequently receives the blow of the beater blade 
 more squarely. There is thus no possibility of the crushing 
 action which has been mentioned, and, on the whole, the 
 arrangement shown in Fig. 55 meets all the requirements of 
 the case. It will be easily understood that the distance between 
 the path of the beater blade and the edge of the roller or pedal 
 nose is comparatively small, so that if a beater is not well 
 balanced, and vibrates at all, it will tend to crush the fibres 
 between the beater blade and roller or pedal. This furnishes 
 another reason for care in the construction of the beater, and 
 for careful attention to the condition of the bearings. It is also 
 essential that the setting of the pedal nose or the feed rollers 
 relatively to the beater shall be accurately made. Unless this 
 is attended to, the cotton is sure to be damaged. If the dis- 
 tance is too great the fibres are struck off in pieces, which form 
 
124 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 into stringy lumps, or " cat tails," as they are sometimes called. 
 If it is too small, the fibres will be crushed and broken. 
 
 (86) There is now an almost universal practice in connection 
 with the bowls used in the pedal motion, which consists in the 
 use of two or three bowls between each pair of pendants 
 instead of one. The reason for this practice is to take off the 
 
 FIG. 59. 
 
 friction which naturally arises when one bowl only is used, and 
 adjoining pendants are moving in opposite directions simulta- 
 neously. In Figs. 59 and 60 two alternative methods are illus- 
 trated, the three-bowl system used being simple and effective, 
 and it will be noticed that one of the pendants has a 
 
 FIG. 60. 
 
 special rib cast on it to engage with the small bowls. The use 
 of three bowls, U, V, U, as in Fig. 61, fixed so as not to rub 
 against each other, has the same effect 
 
 (87) It is absolutely imperative to keep the whole of the parts 
 of the regulator quite clean. The custom of using knife-edged 
 fulcrums renders it necessary to see that no fly collects on or 
 about them, and every joint wants the most careful attention to 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 I2 5 
 
 ensure that it is kept free and unclogged. The bowls should 
 be removed frequently, as often as once a week, and well treated 
 with black lead, being at the same time freed from everything 
 
 FIG. 61. 
 
 likely to impede their rotation, the boxes being cleaned at the 
 same time. A modification of the piano regulator, as made by 
 Messrs. Asa Lees and Co., Limited, is shown in Figs. 62 and 63. 
 The pedals E are hinged at one end, and rest upon vertical 
 
 rods J, the lower ends of which rest on the extremities of the 
 balanced plates B. Each of these is suspended on a larger plate 
 C, of similar construction, which in turn rests on the extremity 
 of a plate D. The latter is suspended by its centre from a 
 
126 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 lever F, which is fulcrumed on a knife edge at H. The lever F 
 is coupled in the manner shown to the stiap guide lever I, which 
 is moved by means of the horizontal bar shown, sliding upon 
 guide runners. The cones A A 1 are placed horizontally, the 
 advantage claimed for this position being that the strap has a 
 much easier motion along the cones than is the case when the 
 latter are vertical. It will be observed that the whole of the 
 balanced plates are in equilibrium, and are suspended on the end 
 of the lever F, the arrangement being of the same character 
 mechanically as the steelyard. Thus a slight movement of one 
 
 FIG. 63. 
 
 of the smaller plates B is multiplied before it acts upon the 
 lever F, and the regulation of the strap is thus rendered more 
 sensitive. 
 
 (88) There is some difference of opinion with regard to the 
 employment of two or three winged beaters. The former is 
 more easily made and balanced, and is ordinarily about 14111. 
 diameter. The three-winged beater is made i6in. to i8in. 
 diameter 3 and is revolved at a slower rate than the two- 
 winged. The respective velocities are 900 to 1,000 revolutions, 
 and 1,200 to 1,500 revolutions. Thus the two-winged beater 
 gives a sharper blow, leaves the cotton more quickly, and is not 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 127 
 
 so liable to vibrate. For these, among other reasons, it is 
 preferable, and gives quite as regular a blow as the three-winged 
 type. It has been argued with some plausibility that the con- 
 struction of the three-bladed beater is such that its centre of 
 gyration is further from the centre of the shaft, and that a 
 heavier blow is thus given ; but it is admitted that it is necessary 
 to minimise this blow by a reduction of the speed of the beater. 
 These propositions are contradictory, and are founded on a 
 misapprehension of the necessary conditions. It is eminently 
 desirable that the blow given should be sharp and light rather 
 than slow and heavy, and that beater which best meets this 
 requirement is the best. It is a question not only of the 
 character of the blow, but of the number of times the cotton is 
 struck in every inch delivered. This is a matter of some 
 importance, and immense variations exist in practice. Usually 
 cotton of average staple is struck about 50 blows in each inch 
 delivered, but records exist of double that number being given in 
 finisher machines. No empirical rule can be stated, but as this 
 is a point which is often lost sight of, it behoves every one 
 practically engaged in spinning to bear it in mind and closely 
 observe the result on the cotton. 
 
 (89) When a two-winged beater is revolved at a velocity from 
 1,200 to 1,500 per minute, the blow given to the cotton is 
 sharp, regular, and clean. It is essential that the bearings of 
 the beater shaft be kept in good condition, and the Beater 
 blades, which are sometimes made so as to be readily reversed, 
 should be kept with a good edge, for the reasons given in deal 
 with the opening machine. As the blow given by the scutching 
 machine beater is transversely of the fibres, it is essential thai 
 it should neither be given by a blade which will cut the fibres 1 
 nor by one which will crush them, and care must therefore be 
 taken to avoid either of these defects. The setting of the feed 
 rollers and the construction of the pedal nose both bear upon 
 this subject, and care should be taken to see that these are set 
 correctly. The same rule holds good as in the case of the dish 
 feed plate in a carding engine, and the correct setting depends 
 
128 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 practically upon the length of staple being scutched. In every 
 case the avoidance of a sharp angular surface over which the 
 cotton can be bent is desirable, but it is possible to use a much 
 more abrupt surface in dealing with a cotton with such a short 
 staple as Indian than it would be if Egyptian or American 
 of the better qualities were being used. 
 
 (90) The setting of the dirt bars below the beater is a matter 
 of importance. The earlier of the series, as shown in Fig. 64 
 at C, should approach the path of the beater more closely than 
 those further round, as at D. The arrangement shown in 
 Fig. 64 is that adopted by Messrs. Howard and Bullough, the 
 position of the bars and of the spaces between them, being regu- 
 lated by the handle E. At first the cotton requires to be 
 arrested quickly, so that it receives a shock which frees the dirt 
 and sand. The bars should subsequently subject the cotton to 
 a scraping action, for which reason the angle presented to the 
 cotton by the face of the bar should become less acute, so that 
 the cotton can roll over the bars. In this way many of the 
 motes and a good deal of leaf are removed. The space between 
 each pair of bars should in a similar manner be graduated, as 
 there is less dirt to fall at the last than at the first of the series. 
 The exact setting of the bars cannot be empirically stated, as 
 this is a matter of practice ; but if the earlier bars are set with 
 their upper forward edge rather in advance of a radial line 
 drawn from the centre of the beater to the lower edge, and this 
 angle gradually reduced until the last of the set has this edge a 
 little behind the radial line, an approximately correct setting is 
 obtained. When dirty cotton is being scutched, an opening of 
 one-eighth inch is permissible between the bars. It is perhaps 
 needful to say that the edges of the bars should be kept sharp 
 and clean. 
 
 (91) It is now necessary to deal with the question of the air 
 current and its proper regulation, and in connection with this 
 question will come a series of others of more or less importance. 
 The problem of the regulation of the current of air in a scutching 
 room is a most important one, and its proper solution depends 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 I2 9 
 
 upon such a number of points that constant watchfulness is 
 wanted both in laying down and working the machines. Broadly 
 stated, the principle underlying this subject is that such a 
 balance of pressure must be established that only sufficient 
 
 FIG. 64. 
 
 suction is set up to draw the cotton evenly upon the cages. 
 For this purpose, large fans running slowly are better than small 
 fans running at a high velocity. The propulsion given by the 
 beater is sufficient to throw the cotton forward to the cages, and 
 
130 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 all that the fan is required to do is tp attach it to the surface of 
 the cage. The efficiency of a large fan for the removal of a 
 given volume of air is much greater than that of a small fan. 
 The importance of this element is found in the fact that an 
 excessive current of air would prevent the falling of the dirt 
 through the grids, the air, which is confined in the chamber 
 below the grids, being quiescent, and therefore in a good 
 condition to permit the easy fall of the dirt. It is therefore 
 advisable to leave an inlet for the air below the feed rollers, so 
 that a current can be created by the rotation of the beater. 
 The American custom of admitting air by the beater shaft 
 which is made hollow for the purpose does not appear to the 
 author to possess many advantages, as the air is liable to enter 
 at a point and in a manner which is not calculated to attain the 
 object aimed at. 
 
 (92) There are a number of important considerations to be 
 borne in mind in arranging the air passages leading from the 
 blowing-room to the open air. It is not unusual to find the air 
 discharged into a passage or flue in which there are several 
 sharp turns, each of which offers an obstruction to the passage 
 of the air and increases the friction. An instance coming under 
 the personal observation of the author may be cited. The 
 scutching machines were placed longitudinally of the room and 
 the air was discharged into flues running in that direction. 
 These flues terminated in a flue at a right angle to them, the 
 second flue being carried a short distance in fact, the width of 
 the room afterwards discharging into a third one at right 
 angles to it but parallel to the first. The third flue ran the whole 
 length of one side of the room and terminated in the upcast 
 flue, by which the air was discharged into the atmosphere. 
 Although there are worse schemes in existence than this, there 
 are not many. It is quite evident that for some reason or other 
 the machines are wrongly placed, because it would have been 
 quite easy by reversing them to have avoided two of the bends, 
 and to have carried the flues from the scutching machine into 
 the side flue by a curved passage. 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 131 
 
 (93) This case has been cited because it is by no means 
 uncommon. Each of the corners formed is, in plain terms, a 
 trap for the accumulation of dirt and fly, and a cause of 
 obstruction to the air. It is often a source of annoyance and 
 complaint that laps are uneven in substance, although the 
 mechanism is in perfect order. In the majority of cases the 
 cause will be found in the construction and condition of the 
 flues. Great care should be taken to keep these clean, and in 
 building them easy curves and ample areas should be substituted 
 for sharp angles and contracted sections. This is of the more 
 importance if the plan is adopted of having a slow velocity of 
 air current, as the effect of an obstruction is proportionately 
 greater. The area of the dust flues should always be a little in 
 excess of the combined areas of the fan outlets. Thus, if the 
 latter have an area of 300 square inches, an area of 310 square 
 inches is about the right one for the dust flue. 
 
 (94) Sometimes a lap has a ragged, uneven, or thin edge, the 
 cause of which is difficult to discover. It may be fairly pre- 
 sumed either that one of the fans is not working properly, 
 which may arise from an obstruction such as that named, or 
 that the dampers which are fitted to the cages are not 
 properly set. In either case the effect is that the cotton is 
 drawn on to one side of the cage only. This fault may also 
 arise from a back pressure set up when the wind is blowing in a 
 certain direction if the outlet is not perfectly free to discharge, 
 or is subjected to down draughts. It is absolutely imperative 
 that the closest attention be given to this point, and instances 
 are not rare where a slight alteration of the* size, construction, or 
 direction of the flues has resulted in making a scutching machine 
 work admirably where previously it had been impossible to get 
 good work. The system of gradually diminishing the width of 
 the machines is not without its advantages. Thus, if a lap 
 45 inches is formed at the opener, it will be fed to a machine, 
 say 42 inches wide on the cage, and the laps then made to a 
 40 inch machine. In this way good " selvedges " are obtained, 
 but these can be got if the draught is arranged so as to draw the 
 cotton equally across the whole face of the cage. 
 
132 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (95) Sometimes laps lick on the cages and afterwards split. 
 When one cage only was used this fault was most rare, the 
 reason being that there was only one surface on which it was 
 drawn. At present the cotton is drawn on both the upper cage 
 J and the lower cage J 1 , and as a result the laps sometimes 
 divide when unrolled. The cause of this is undoubtedly that 
 the air current is strong enough to cause the attachment of the 
 cotton to both cages equally. The remedy is obvious, viz., to 
 ensure that the draught is so regulated that the suction is princi- 
 pally through the top cage, or, at any rate, that the prepon- 
 derance is there found. This is very often a structural defect, 
 and machines are made in which the tendency to split appears 
 to be inherent, while there are others where it is practically 
 absent. As shown in Fig. 53, the top cage J is of larger 
 diameter than the bottom one, and naturally presents a larger 
 area than the latter, through which the air is drawn. This 
 results in the deposition of the cotton on the top cage as a 
 single sheet, the function of the lower cage being thus reduced 
 to aiding in the removal of any dust which might be loose upon 
 the surface of the cotton. The top cages are often fitted with 
 dampers N (Fig. 54), which can be 'utilised to close the holes on 
 one side or over a portion of their surface, so that the point where 
 the draught exercises its influence can be accurately regulated. 
 This is a matter of great importance and requires attending to. 
 This formation of a divided sheet is aided by any irregularity in 
 the proper relative speed of the beater and feed roller, and the 
 latter is a fruitful source of uneven laps that is, laps in which the 
 weight of a yard varies in different portions. The scutching-room 
 should be kept dry and at a temperature of about 75 F., as any 
 excessive moisture in the cotton will cause licking, and so pro- 
 duce a faulty or split lap. 
 
 (96) In the general description of the machine which was 
 given at an earlier stage, it was said that the lap was formed 
 after the fleece left the cages J, and it is desirable that the exact 
 action should be followed. In Fig. 65, the method of weighting 
 the calender rolls is shown. On the axle, and at each side of the 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 
 
 '33 
 
 upper roller K, a saddle is fitted, and upon a projecting nipple 
 of this the lever K 2 presses. This lever is connected by a link 
 V 1 with a weighted lever V which is fulcrumed at V 2 , the 
 arrangement being clearly shown in the drawing. If, as is 
 sometimes the case, four calender rollers are used, a similar 
 arrangement is adopted, except that the weight is applied by saddles 
 coupled by two rods to a corresponding cross bar below. From 
 the cross bar the link connecting it to the weighted lever is 
 suspended. When four rollers are used the fleece is taken 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 lilst through the nip of the two top rollers, round the second, 
 between the second and third, thence round the latter, between 
 it and the bottom roller, from whence it passes on to the lap 
 rod. In this way there is a considerable pressure put upon the 
 lap, which is thus consolidated sufficiently to enable it^to resist 
 rupture when being unrolled. After passing the calender rolls, 
 the sheet is wound on the lap rod, which may either be solid of 
 
134 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 a tube mounted on a solid rod, the latter being preferable, as it 
 can be left in the lap and thus facilitates its being moved about, 
 or stored till needed. The lap tube is the width of the lap, and 
 when the latter is put upon" the carding engine a fresh rod can 
 be put in, the lap rods always projecting sufficiently to enable 
 them to come into contact with the brackets on the scutching 
 machine or carding engine at the feed end. The lap rod rests 
 on the two rollers L L\ the rotation of which winds on the fleece. 
 
 FIG. 66. 
 
 Referring now to Fig. 66, the lap rod M 1 has at each end a 
 roller T 1 held in the head of the bar T pressing on it. T is 
 formed with a rack on its inner edge, with which the pinion S 
 engages. By means of the gearing shown in dotted lines, S is 
 connected with the brake pulley S 1 , against which the brake block 
 S 2 presses. In some cases a strap has been used instead of the 
 block, but the action is the same. The block S 2 is kept con- 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING. 135 
 
 tinually pressed against the pulley S 1 by the weighted lever W 
 fulcrumed at W 1 . A foot lever X fulcrumed at X 1 is so arranged 
 that by pressing on it with the foot it raises the weighted end of W, 
 and so relieves the brake. It is evident that as the bar T has to 
 rise against the pressure of the brake, it will do so with difficulty, 
 and will put a considerable pressure on the lap. The resistance 
 offered depends upon the total friction of the brake pulley, the 
 weight exerted on the brake block, and the leverage of the gear- 
 ing. By means of a stop pin fixed in one of the wheels, a catch 
 which supports the setting-on lever U (Fig. 53) is released, 
 and the latter falls, thus transferring the strap to the loose pulley 
 and stopping the machine. This trip pin can be adjusted to 
 knock off at any point, thus giving any length of lap. When 
 the machine has stopped, the attendant relieves the weight on 
 the brake, so permitting the bar T to be quite free. Owing to 
 the pressure which has been exerted on the lap, it expands a 
 little at first. After the full lap is removed, the lap rod is placed 
 in position to form a new lap, the bar T falls on to it, the lap is 
 drawn under the rod, and the setting-on lever U raised, thus 
 restoring all the parts to position and restarting the machine. 
 
 (97) In dealing with the scutching machine, it is desirable tc 
 say a few words about the speeds of the various parts, and for 
 this reason the diagram given in Fig. 67 has been prepared. 
 By its aid it will be possible to show how the relative velocities 
 of the various parts of the machine are obtained, and the trains 
 of gearing, employed for the purpose, can be clearly followed. 
 It is also useful to enable the changes, which it is necessary to 
 make when it is desired to vary the weight or substance of the 
 lap, to be clearly comprehended. The sketch given is a repre- 
 sentation of the gearing of a single scutching machine, as made 
 by Messrs. Lord Brothers. In this, as in most others, the feed 
 and lap parts of the machine are, to all intents and purposes, 
 independent, although the necessary driving for each is obtained 
 from the same point. It is, however, as will be shown, quite 
 possible to obtain the necessary regulation of one part without 
 interfering with the train of gearing driving the other; or, if 
 
i 3 6 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SP1NNIM' 
 
 desired, both can be regulated simultaneously. The pulley 
 A is fixed on the beater shaft, as is also the pulley F, 
 which is the key to all the movements of the machine, 
 and drives by means of a strap the pulley F 1 fastened on an 
 intermediate shaft. From this shaft the two portions of 
 the machine are driven, the feed part by the strap driving the 
 feed cone D 1 and the lap part by the strap driving the pulley H, 
 from which all the rest of the gearing of the lap end obtains its 
 motion, The spindle of the cone D 1 has fixed on it a pulley G 1 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 which is driven from the pulley G on the intermediate shaft. 
 The cone D 1 drives the cone D by the usual strap, and at the 
 upper end the spindle of D has a worm P fixed which drives 
 the worm wheel R fastened on the feed roller spindle. By 
 means of the wheels E and E 1 the lattice roller is driven. In 
 order to ascertain the velocity of the feed roller it is only 
 necessary to multiply the diameters or number of teeth of the 
 driving wheels or pulleys and divide that product by the product 
 of the driven wheels, afterwards multiplying the quotient thus 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING 137 
 
 obtained by the velocity of the beater shaft. Putting this into 
 the shape of a formula, and assuming the beater to revolve at a 
 speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute, the calculation is as 
 
 Tf f~* ~r\l "p 
 
 follows : -pi Xp^x::yx--x 1500. To ascertain the velocity of 
 the lattice the product of the above formula must be multiplied 
 
 Tj> 
 
 by pi. It is only necessary to substitute for the letters given 
 
 above the diameters of the pulleys and the diameters or number 
 of teeth in the wheels to ascertain the requisite velocity of the 
 feed roller or lattice. 
 
 (98) The lap machine includes three distinct parts which 
 require driving, viz., the cages, the calender rolls, and the lap 
 rolls. The whole of these are driven by trains of wheels from 
 the pulley H 1 driven from a pulley H. The cages are driven by 
 the train consisting of the pinion I which drives the wheel I 1 
 which is compounded with the pinion M driving the wheel M 1 . 
 M 1 has a pinion Q on its axis which engages with a wheel Q l 
 engaging with a wheel J 1 on the spindle of the lower cage. 
 The upper cage is driven also from J 1 by a wheel on the spindle 
 of the lower cage. The formula for the two can be thus 
 stated, beginning as before at the beater shaft. For the lower 
 
 . F HI M Q 
 
 cage (i) p x jji x p x jyp x j- x 1500, and for the upper cage 
 
 J 1 
 
 the same formula with the addition of the factor j-. (2) Let 
 
 x and y represent the results, then the upper cage being 19 
 inches diameter or 59*69 inches circumference its delivery is 
 equal to ^x 59-69, and the lower cage being n^ inches 
 diameter with a circumference of 36-92 inches its surface 
 velocity is y x 36-92. These two products should as nearly as 
 possible correspond, but it is of course difficult to get them to 
 do so absolutely. 
 
 (99) The calender rolls are driven by a train of gearing which 
 consists of the same factors to the pinion Q, which is fixed on 
 the axis of the lower calender roll. The formula for this train 
 
138 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 is (3) ^ x Tji x YI x T-p x 1500. The lap rolls are driven by 
 
 the same train up to the pinion M, which in this case is 
 substituted by a second pinion O, which gears with a wheel OS 
 fixed on the axis of One of the lap rolls. The second lap roll is 
 driven by a carrier wheel from the first at the same speed. (4) If 
 
 the factor -^ be substituted for ^- in the formula given, 
 
 the velocity of the lap rolls can be obtained. (5) The calender 
 rolls are 5 inch diameter and 157 inch circumference, so that 
 if the product of formula (3) be multiplied by the latter figure 
 the delivery in inches of the calender rolls will be got. The lap 
 rolls are 9^ inch diameter and 29*84 inch circumference, and 
 the product of formula (4) and the latter gives the length 
 delivered by them. 
 
 (100) The foregoing brief description will have made it clear 
 that the controlling element in the speeding of this machine is 
 the velocity of the beater shaft. By changing the pulley F on 
 that shaft the velocity of both the feed and lap portions of 
 the machine are altered, although that of the beater is unaltered. 
 This is the method of obtaining the variation when it is desired 
 to produce a greater or less weight of laps without altering their 
 individual weight. If it is required to produce laps varying in 
 weight from those for which the machine is set the pulley H is 
 changed for one of the necessary diameter, the size of which can 
 be easily calculated. This procedure gives a longer or shorter 
 lap for the same length of feed, which, of course, gives a corres- 
 ponding variation in the weight. As a rule this is all that is 
 required to make the changes, but if it is found desirable to alter 
 the speed of the feed and so produce a heavier or lighter lap for 
 the same length of rollers the pulley G is changed. 
 
 (101) The drafts in a scutching machine are of importance. 
 There is a slight draft between the lattice and the feed roller, a 
 larger one between the feed roller and the cages, and a draft 
 between the cages and the calender rolls, and between the 
 calender and lap rolls. A good draft for ordinary cotton is 
 
MIXING, OPENING, AND SCUTCHING, 
 
 139 
 
 three, for Egyptian four, and generally the draft should be equal 
 to the number of laps fed. The draft of the machine is obtained 
 by dividing the number of inches of cotton formed into a lap 
 per minute that is, the surface velocity of the lap rollers by 
 the inches of cotton fed, or the surface velocity of the feed 
 roller. These are obtained, as shown, by calculating the value 
 of the wheel trains which drive the various parts. 
 
 (102) Sometimes scutching machines are made with the cones 
 driven from the gearing at the lap end of the machine by means 
 of a side shaft. In this case it is convenient to change one of 
 
 the bevel pinions on the shaft so as to give the required variation 
 in the speed of the driving cone. In Messrs. Asa Lees and 
 Co.'s machines, the beater, cones, and cages are driven, as 
 shown in Fig. 68, by an endless band. The direction of 
 driving is shown by the arrows v and it will be seen that any 
 failure of the rope will cause a stoppage of all the parts and 
 avoid accumulations of cotton. There is a friction clutch on 
 the beater shaft, which permits of it being stopped independently. 
 (103) It is a very common practice to combine the opening 
 and first scutching machines, as shown in Fig. 50. There is 
 the advantage in this procedure that the cotton is very early 
 made to assume the lap form, in which it is much more easily 
 
140 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 treated than when in a loose condition. In doing this it is 
 after leaving the opener, passed over pedal noses in some cases, 
 as in Fig. 46, and the regulation of the feed at once commences 
 to take place. The cotton when rolled into a lap is so much 
 more easily handled, and it lends itself, also, to the process 
 known as doubling. The latter is the plan of feeding the 
 finishing scutcher from two to four laps, and is a very convenient 
 method of obtaining a lap in which the inequalities existing in 
 those first made are reduced. This is the theory of doubling, 
 and it is to a certain extent true, but not wholly so. The 
 pedal motion is much more to be relied on for this purpose 
 than the mere feeding from two or three laps. The most im. 
 portant feature of the practice is that it greatly aids the 
 incorporation of the cotton, and still further mixes the various 
 constituents of a bin. This is a matter of some moment. It is 
 often the practice to mix various cottons at this point by putting 
 up two or three laps of one variety and one of another, or othei 
 variations which are thought advisable. As only a small portion 
 of the lap is struck off at once, and as the fibres are flung into 
 the machine, the incorporation of the various constituent 
 portions is very thorough. This is naturally aided by the 
 attenuation of the lap, because if four laps of a given weight 
 each are fed to the machine the finished lap is only the same 
 weight as one of those fed. Thus any irregularity in weight is 
 diminished, while at the same time the fibres are thoroughly in 
 corporated. After cotton has been scutched a second time, the 
 machine being fed from laps, the mixture of the cotton is very 
 complete. This appears to us to be the chief advantage of 
 doubling. Before leaving the question of combined machines, 
 such an arrangement as that shown in Fig. 43 enables the 
 finished laps for carding to be obtained with a minimum of 
 handling, while, at the same time, the weight of the laps does 
 not vary more than five per cent. The finished lap should be 
 straight on the edges and even in substance, and no other 
 should satisfy the manager of a mill. 
 
CARDING. 141 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CARDING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Object of carding, 104 Construction of cylinder. 105 
 Licker-in, 106 Doffer and calenders, 107 Coiler, 108 Velocity 
 of parts, 109 Aciion of parts, iio-J-Types of machines, in 
 Roller and clearer machine, 112 Action of roller and clearer 
 machine, ii3-*-Principle of revolving flat machine, 115 Construc- 
 tion of revolving flat machine, 116 Number of flats, 117 Types 
 of flexible bends, 118 Setting arrangements for pedestals, 119 
 ^Character of yarn, 120 Condition of laps, 121, 122 Licker-in, 123 
 Dish feed, 124 Action of licker-in tooth, 125 ^Treatment of fibres 
 *>y cylinder, 126, 127, 128 Arrangement of fibres on doffer, 129 
 Action of air currents, 130 Production of neps, 131 Adjustment 
 of cover plates, 132 Action of rollers and flats, 134, 135 Under- 
 casings, 136 Setting flats and other parts, 137 Action of coiler, 
 138-^Driving of revolving flat machine, 139 Rules for draft, 140 
 Rules for changes, 141, 142, 143 Constant dividend, 144 Example 
 of calculations, 145 Length of fillet, 146 Table of weight and 
 hank, 147. 
 
 (104) WHEN cotton is presented to the action of the carding 
 machine, it has been, as stated, cleaned and opened, although it 
 has not been thoroughly freed from all impurities. The pro- 
 portion of the latter, however, speaking comparatively, is not 
 large, and with the improvements gradualty taking place in the 
 scutching machine is yearly growing less. Owing to the method 
 in which the material has been dealt with in the earlier stages, 
 it is not in a fit condition to be sent to the machines for drawing 
 and spinning, there being in the lap a good many short fibres 
 and " nep" or knotted pieces, the effective removal of which is 
 absolutely essential to the production of a good yarn. Thus 
 the operation resolves itself into one of cleansing, alike by the 
 removal of any remaining " motes," short fibre, or " nep." That 
 
14* THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 machine best fulfils the object of the spinner which removes the 
 whole of the impurities referred to, with the least admixture of 
 fibres which could be advantageously used in spinning. It is 
 often assumed that the fibres are laid in parallel order in the 
 web produced in the carding machine, but this is only effected 
 to a very limited extent, as will be subsequently shown. 
 
 (105) A reference to Fig. 69 will enable the essential parts of 
 a carding engine to be understood. The main operating instru- 
 ment is a cylinder marked A, which is from 40 to 50 inches 
 diameter, and from 37 to 50 inches wide. It is now invariably 
 made of cast iron, and is built up. Its periphery (see Fig. 74) is 
 a light, cylindrical shell A, with an internal flange at each end at 
 right angles to the shell, and strengthened between^the ends by 
 light longitudinal and cylindrical ribs. The ends are bored out, 
 and a spider B, which is turned to correspond, is fitted in and 
 secured by bolts The spider consists of a number of arms 
 attached to a central boss, which is bored previously to the end 
 of the arms being turned to fit the shell. The cylinder so 
 constructed is accurately and carefully turned on its periphery, 
 and is afterwards drilled with several rows of small holes, into 
 which plugs of wood are inserted for the purpose of attaching 
 the wire fillets. After completion the cylinder is carefully 
 balanced, and is finally tested for its accuracy in this respect. 
 
 (106) The cotton is fed from the finished lap Q, resting 
 on a roller B, and delivered over a specially-shaped feed- 
 plate C to which further reference will be made by means of 
 a feed roller D. The feed roller revolves in the curved part of the 
 feed-plate C, and is from 2 to 3 inches diameter, having its 
 peripheral surface covered with longitudinal and circumferential 
 flutes on that part of it between its bearings. The end of the 
 lap is brought by the feed roller into the range of a number of 
 teeth fixed to a small roller E, which is called the " taker " or 
 "licker-in." This is usually from 8 to 9 inches diameter, 
 and is the same width as the cylinder. Like the latter, it is 
 made of cast iron, and is equally carefully constructed, being 
 mounted on a wrouejht-iron shaft on which it revolves. The 
 
CARDING. 
 
 143 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 
i44 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 direction of the rotation of the licker-in is shown by the arrow. 
 Its function is to strike off the fibres from the end of the lap 
 in detail, and present them to the action of the wire points on 
 the cylinder. 
 
 (107) At the other side of the cylinder is a smaller cylinder 
 J, called the " doffer," constructed in a similar manner, and of 
 the same materials; its diameter being from 22 to 26 inches, 
 usually 24. It is prepared with equal care to the cylinder, 
 and is also covered with a similar material, as will be afterwards 
 described. The doffer rotates in the direction indicated by the 
 arrow. In front of the doffer is a thin bar of steel, slightly 
 serrated on its under edge, which is fastened on the end of short 
 arms affixed to a rocking shaft, to which a rapid- oscillating 
 movement, through an arc of about an inch, is given by means 
 of an eccentric suitably driven. A short distance past the 
 "doffer comb" K, as the blade is called, a trumpet-shaped 
 guide is placed, by means ot which the carded web is collected 
 into a sort of rope, the collection being aided by a special 
 V-shaped plate. A short reciprocal horizontal traverse is given 
 to the trumpet guide in front of a pair of steel calender rollers 
 L L 1 , by which the cotton is slightly compressed. The cotton 
 is then passed to the coiler, of which an illustration is given in 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 (108) The coiler consists of a light framework I, within 
 which is a vertical shaft B, driven by means of the wheel C 
 from the calender rolls. The coiler plate L is annular, having 
 an angularly disposed tube M formed in it, the centre of the 
 upper opening of the tube being directly below the trumpet T, 
 through which the cotton enters the coiler. Between this 
 opening and the upper end of the tube a pair of calender roils O 
 are fixed (one of these being removed in the view). The lower 
 opening of the tube is almost at the edge of the plate M, and 
 the latter has an annular rack L on its edge, with which a wheel 
 KL engages and by which it is driven. At the lower end of the 
 frame a light circular disc J, with a toothed edge, and carrying 
 the can in which the cotton is received, rotates, being driven by 
 
CARDING. 
 
 T 45 
 
 a train of gearing from the shaft B in a direction contrary to 
 that of the coiler plate M, the direction of motion of all the 
 parts being shown by the arrows. The disc J is eccentric to the 
 trumpet, as shown. 
 
 J.N. 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 
 (109) The parts just described are common to most carding 
 machines whatever may be their remaining constructive details. 
 The cylinder, doffer, licker-in, feed-plate, and roller, and the 
 
146 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 calender rolls, are sustained by a strong frame securely fastened 
 together by transverse stay beams. The cylinder revolves in 
 long bearings bolted to the framing and lined with phosphor 
 bronze bushes, the diameter of the cylinder shaft being usually 
 about 3^ inches. The velocity of the cylinder ranges from 
 1 60 to 200 revolutions per minute, according to the variety of 
 cotton being treated, a long staple necessitating a slower speed 
 than is permissible with a short staple. The licker-in revolves 
 at a speed of from 350 to 400 revolutions per minute, the 
 velocity being carefully adapted to suit the length of fibres in 
 the cotton being treated. The doffer revolves at a slow speed, 
 from 10 to 25 times per minute, and the doffer comb makes 
 about 1,100 beats per minute. 
 
 (no) The action of the parts just described is simple. The 
 scutched lap is carried on a rod and placed upon the top of a 
 "oiler to which a slow rotatory movement is given at a definite 
 speed equal to or a little slower than that of the feed roller. 
 The lap rod projects beyond its end, and takes into vertical 
 slots in brackets attached to the framing, shown at Q in 
 Fig. 72, so that the lap rotates but does not roll forward. 
 The lap is thus unrolled, and is gradually drawn forward 
 by the feed roller along the dish feed plate, over the front 
 lip of which it is pushed. If two feed rollers are used the 
 action is identical except that the lap end is projected beyond 
 their nip. The lap is thus thrust into the range of action of the 
 licker-in teeth, by which it is struck, and the fibres beaten off. 
 The latter are carried round and brought into the path of the 
 teeth upon the cylinder, by which they are seized and held until 
 they are deposited as a thin fleece upon the wire-covered surface 
 of the doffer. This fleece or web is beaten off the doffer by the 
 doffer comb, and is collected by the plate and trumpet into a 
 sort of rope, which, after passing the calender rolls, is laid in 
 coils in the can by the action of the coiler. 
 
 (in) This is the action of the machine as it would be if 
 there were no other treatment of the fibres by any additional 
 mechanism. But the treatment thus accorded to the cotton 
 
CARDING. 147 
 
 would result in nothing more than an attenuation of the lap to 
 an extent depending upon the difference of the velocities of the 
 parts, and the cleaning effect would be very small. It is there- 
 fore necessary to provide between the point where the fibres are 
 received by the cylinder and that where they are removed from 
 it, some means whereby they are subjected to a cleaning and 
 straightening process, so that the impurities and imperfections 
 named will be effectually removed. This can only be done by 
 providing a special surface, by which the cotton fibres as they 
 lie upon, and are carried round with, the cylinder are combed 
 -and carded. There are two main methods of effecting this 
 object ; first to surmount the cylinder between the points named 
 with a number of revolving wire-covered rollers ; or second, to sur- 
 mount it with a series of bars with their under surfaces covered 
 with wire. The second class may be subdivided into systems 
 in which (a) the flats move simultaneously with the cylinder, or 
 (b) they remain stationary. Of these the latter system is now 
 rapidly becoming obsolete, although it still lingers in the United 
 States and on the Continent, and need not be treated m detail. 
 (112) The first of the two main divisions of mechanism is 
 employed when what is called the roller and clearer carding 
 machine is used. This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 69, 
 already referred to. It consists of a series of small rollers 
 disposed above the cylinder surface, between the taker-in and 
 the doffer. The first of these, F, is usually called the " dirt " 
 roller, and is from 5 to 6 inches diameter, being covered 
 with a wire fillet, the teeth in which are set in the direction 
 shown. The direction of the rotation of the dirt roller is shown 
 by the arrow, and its object is to remove from the surface of the 
 cylinder wire the heavy impurities, such as motes and sticks. 
 After passing the dirt roller (of which there may be two), the 
 cotton is treated by a series of rollers H, known as " worker " 
 rollers, which are from 5 to 6 inches diameter, and have their 
 wire teeth set at such an angle that they receive the fibres 
 from the cylinder and draw them bodily away. The surface 
 velocity of the worker rollers is only about 20 feet per minute, 
 
148 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 so that the cotton is easily deposited on them and stripped from 
 the cylinder. They carry the fibres with them in the direction 
 indicated by the arrows until the material is caught by the teeth 
 on a small roller G, called a " clearer," which is about 3 
 to 3^ inches diameter, and has a surface velocity of about 400 
 feet per minute. The teeth of the .clearer roller are set in the 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 
 reverse direction to those of the worker, so that the cotton is 
 easily transferred to the cylinder. The whole of the rollers are 
 borne in brackets fixed to a semicircular frame bolted on the 
 lower f.ame P, and known as the " bend," the brackets having 
 open bearings formed at their heads, and being set, as shown in 
 Fig. 71, by screws of fine pitch. In this way an easy and 
 accurate adjustment is obtained, which enables the various wire 
 
CARDING. 149 
 
 surfaces to be brought into close proximity to each other. The 
 worker rollers are driven by means of small, double flanged 
 pulleys fixed on their spindles at one end, over which an endless 
 band, passing over, and driven by, a pulley on the driving shaft, 
 is stretched. In some cases toothed chain-wheels are used instead 
 of pulleys, and the driving is obtained from the doffer shaft, or 
 ropes may be employed. The clearers are driven in a similar 
 manner at the other side of the machine, this arrangement 
 enabling the driving gear to be compactly arranged. The whole 
 of the worker and clearer rollers are encased in a cover M, so 
 as to avoid, as far as possible, a discharge of short fibre into 
 the air. 
 
 (113) The action of this type of machine is as follows : The 
 lap being fed by the feed roll, say at a speed of seven inches per 
 minute, is struck by the teeth of the licker-in, and those fibres 
 which are held loosely enough are beaten down by them. As 
 the licker-in, if 8 inches in diameter, and with a velocity of 350 
 revolutions per minute, has a surface speed of 8,796 inches per 
 minute, it is obvious that the substance of the cotton will be 
 reduced 1,256 times at this point. The cylinder which, if 50 
 inches diameter and revolving 180 times a minute, has a surface 
 velocity of 28,273 inches, thus travelling 3*21 times as fast as the 
 licker-in, the lap being, therefore, attenuated up to this point 
 4,039 times. Now, as the worker roller is only revolving at a 
 surface speed of 20 feet, it follows that the difference between this 
 and that of the rapidly revolving cylinder will cause the fibres 
 to be laid upon the worker, and that, in short, a condensation 
 of the layer of cotton will occur. As this 'fleece, which is 471 
 times as thick as the layer on the cylinder, is carried round, it 
 is caught by the more rapidly revolving and contrary set teeth 
 of the clearer, and is again attenuated 20 times, thus being 
 practically restored to its original thickness prior to being taken 
 off the clearer by the cylinder. These alternate condensations 
 and attenuations of the fleece continue throughout the whole 
 passage of the fibres, from the licker-in to the doffer. The 
 result of this undoubtedly severe treatment is that the short 
 
150 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 fibres and nep are removed, and are capable of periodic strip- 
 ping from the worker rollers, in which they become embedded. 
 When the cotton reaches the doffer, the surface velocity of 
 which is 904 inches per minute, it is deposited upon this slower 
 moving surface, and is again condensed into a web 31 times as 
 thick as that on the cylinder. Thus the lap has in its passage 
 become attenuated 130 times, and is finally produced as a 
 sliver, thinner in that ratio than the lap from which it is pro- 
 duced. In other words, the " draft " of the card worked under 
 these assumed conditions is 130. These calculations are made 
 without regarding the length of the wires on the various parts, 
 which will slightly vary the results without affecting the 
 principle. 
 
 (114) When double carding is resorted to that is, when the 
 cotton is passed over two carding cylinders the latter are 
 usually placed one behind the other on the same framing, the 
 cotton being transferred from the first to the second cylinder by 
 a small drum similar to the doffer, which is called a " tummer." 
 In some cases, however, a number of slivers produced on the 
 carding engines are combined in a special machine called a 
 " Derby doubler," and are formed into a lap, which is fed to the 
 finisher carding engine. So far as this country is concerned 
 this practice may be fairly described as obsolete, and need not 
 be dealt with at length. At a later stage something will be 
 said of the principle of this system of treating cotton. 
 
 (115) The first (a) of the second division of machines is 
 what is known as the " revolving flat " card. This name is given 
 to it because the carding surface is fixed to an endless chain of 
 narrow bars or flats, sustained and sliding upon a curved surface 
 or plate, attached to the framing of the machine. This plate is 
 called, like the frame itself in the roller and clearer machine, the 
 "bend," a name which, though carelessly used, should be 
 confined to the surface bearing the carding organs. In the 
 roller machine these are the various rollers and clearers, which 
 are capable of individual adjustment, while in the revolving 
 flat machine they are the chain of flats, which, being coupled 
 
CARDING. 151 
 
 together, must be simultaneously adjusted. The bend sustaining 
 the flats must therefore be capable of adjustment, and the 
 principle which underlies this procedure can now be dealt with. 
 It is sufficient to say at this point that the construction of the 
 flats is such as to ensure the faces upon which they rest on the 
 bend and their wire faces being in parallel planes. Therefore, 
 if the flats are borne upon a surface which is concentric with the 
 surface of the cylinder, but so far from the centre of the latter 
 as to compensate for the length of wire on both and provided 
 that the two wire surfaces are accurately and evenly ground it 
 will be clear that over the whole of the surface there will be the 
 same distance between the points of the wires. That is the 
 condition which is absolutely the best for carding ; but its 
 constant maintenance is the problem. If it be assumed that 
 the machine is starting after being clothed with wire, that the 
 cylinder is 50 inches diameter, the surface of the wire on the flat 
 projects half an inch beyond the surface on which the flat rests, 
 and that the points of the wire on the cylinders are half an inch 
 from its surface, the ends of the flats must be sustained by a 
 surface which has a raolius of a fraction more than 26 inches. 
 What the excess over 26 inches will be depends entirely upon 
 the distance which is maintained between the points of the teeth 
 on the cylinder and flats respectively. It is obvious that it 
 would be quite easy, if the conditions named were maintained, 
 to provide a sustaining surface of the required radius. It is r 
 however, necessary to provide for the reduction in the length or 
 the wire teeth on the cylinder and flats, which takes place when 
 they are ground to re-sharpen them after wear. This involves 
 the provision of means whereby the bend can be so adjusted as 
 to re-establish the concentricity of the cylinder and flat surfaces. 
 If it be supposed that circles 51 and 52 inches diameter 
 respectively be struck from a common centre, and that one 
 represents the cylinder surface and the other that of the bend, 
 it is clear the distance between the two will be maintained so 
 long as these conditions prevail. If now the circle representing 
 the cylinder be reduced to 50^ inches diameter, and the 
 
152 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 arc of the crown of the circle representing the flat course be dropped 
 in a radial line, it is obvious that, when the crowns of the two 
 arcs touched, there would be a space between them at each end. 
 Unless, therefore, some means are provided by which the concen- 
 tricity of the two is re-established, the correct conditions would be 
 destroyed. The same thing arises if the circle formed by the 
 points of the teeth on the flats is enlarged, as it would be if the 
 teeth are ground. The shortening of the teeth by grinding is an 
 easy matter, but as the bend is made of cast iron it is not so easily 
 reduced, and the action of moving it nearer the centre without 
 changing its form is equivalent to changing the position of its 
 centre. The concentricity of the two surfaces being essential 
 to good carding, it is necessary to provide means whereby the 
 bend can be made to assume a circle having the reduced radius. 
 There is not only this factor to reckon with, but another, which 
 is of importance. The cylinder rotates, as was said, in 
 bearings fixed on the main frame; but as its weight is con- 
 siderable (about 10 cwts.), the speed at which it rotates great 
 from 150 to 230 revolutions per minute and the pull of the 
 driving belt in a forward direction there is a great tendency for 
 the bearings to wear forward and downward and thus move the 
 centre. Instances of this action are so numerous that special 
 provision is made in constructing the bearings to enable the 
 wear to be taken up. It is singular that the wear takes place 
 much more rapidly in the case of new machines than in those 
 which have been in use for a longer time, this arising probably 
 from the fact that the parts have not settled into working 
 positions. The practical effect upon the bend is that, as before, 
 it is necessary to provide means by which it can be adjusted. 
 The various arrangements employed for this purpose will be 
 described at a later stage. The flats are bars of a J_ section, 
 the flat face of which has the wire clothing attached to it, and 
 is therefore of sufficient length to receive a strip of full width. 
 It is important that the flat should be strong enough to resist 
 deflection, whence its shape. Projecting beyond the flat face at 
 each end is that portion of the flat on which the faces sliding 
 
CARDING. 153 
 
 on the bend are formed. On the upper side of this portion of 
 the flat is the small bracket to which the chain is attached, its 
 position being specially designed to avoid any twisting of the 
 flat. After the flat face has been ground fairly true, the upper 
 faces 'at each end are milled true, and subsequently all the other 
 working surfaces are accurately machined. 
 
 (116) Referring now to Fig. 72, which is a perspective view 
 of a carding engine on this principle, it will be seen that the 
 flats U are arranged in an endless chain, and are coupled by 
 means of screws at each end to chains with pitched links, which 
 are driven, in a manner to be afterwards described, at a slow 
 speed in the same direction as the cylinder. They are guided 
 by rollers, and at the doffer end of the card are stripped of their 
 accumulations of short fibre, etc., by a rapidly oscillating strip- 
 per comb X, and are afterwards brushed out by a revolving 
 spirally arranged brush V. Each flat has its bearing surfaces 
 so arranged that when sliding upon the bend its wire surface 
 assumes a tangential position to the cylinder periphery that 
 is to say, it is further from the latter at the edge nearest to the 
 point from which the cylinder wires approach it, and nearest 
 the latter at the point where they leave the flat. This arrange- 
 ment of bearing surface is technically called putting in the 
 " heel," and the part of the flat nearer the cylinder is spoken of 
 as. the " heel of the flat." The object of this arrangement is to 
 ensure that the fibres will readily enter the space beneath the 
 flat, without rolling up at the front of it, thus ensuring their 
 through carding. The amount of heel put into the flat is about 
 029 inch for each inch of width of the flat ; and, if the flats 
 moved on a plane surface, this would mean that there would be 
 that difference between the wires of the cylinders and flats at 
 the front and back of the flat. As a matter of fact, this is 
 diminished by the curvature of the cylinder, because between 
 the two bearing points of the flat there is an arc which has a 
 certain altitude from the chord. There is not, therefore, a. 
 gradual reduction of the distance as at first sight appears, but an 
 irregular one unless the flat be ground to the curve. 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
CARDING. 1^5 
 
 V ii7) In treating cotton by a machine of this description the 
 action of the various parts common to this and roller machines- 
 is identical. The flats act, however, as a sort of scraper or 
 comb, as afterwards shown, and effectually remove the short 
 fibre and neps as they pass below them when the cylinder is 
 revolving. The steady onward movement of about an inch a 
 minute is sufficient to ensure that the flats will continue, so long 
 as they are above the cylinder, to comb or card the cotton, 
 without becoming so charged with fly or motes before being 
 stripped as to cease to discharge that important duty. It is 
 absolutely necessary to take care of the flats, and to see that, as 
 
 FIG. 73. 
 
 far as possible, their bearing surfaces are kept in good condition, 
 and that cleanliness of the whole of the parts is preserved. At 
 one time it was the practice to make flats about two inches wide, 
 but it is now not often that they are found wider on their card- 
 ing surface than i^5 inch. There are many important 
 advantages in this course. The cotton is treated by a greater 
 number of carding points, the flats are not so heavy, and the space 
 between each pair is not so great in working. The number of 
 flats in the chain varies from 100 to no, but, as the arc formed 
 by the bend is about 1 20, only from 40 to 45 flats are in work- 
 ing position at one time, but this, when calculated, gives a large 
 carding surface. 
 
1 5 6 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (118) In paragraph 116 reference was made to the necessity 
 which existed for the provision of means by which the bend 
 could be adjusted first to the cylinder when its diameter had 
 been reduced by grinding, or when the flat teeth themselves had 
 been ground ; and, second, to the means of restoring the 
 cylinder centre ii it moved from wear of the bearings. With 
 
 FIG. 74. 
 
 regard to the first point, there are quite a number of devices 
 used for the purpose. The simplest and best known is the 
 " flexible bend," as it is called. This consists (Fig. 73) of a flat 
 plate curved on its upper edge to a circle corresponding to the 
 correct one required to sustain the flats. The depth of the 
 plate varies, being less at the ends than at the centres, gradually 
 
CARDING. 157 
 
 increasing as it approaches the centre. The object of this 
 formation is to enable the bend to be drawn inwards or pushed 
 outwards by setting screws without distortion of the curved 
 profile. The bend is provided at three or five points with down- 
 wardly projecting screws of fine pitch, which passing through 
 brackets on the fixed bend, enable the flexible to be set by 
 means of nuts. The section given in Fig. 74 may be referred 
 to. The bend D is coupled to the slide or frame G by the pin 
 H. The fixed frame C extends on each side of the bend D 
 and has screws E fitted in it. The setting screws F pass 
 through the frame G and press against the boss on C into which 
 E fits. By rotating the screw F the bend is drawn down 01 
 
 FIG. 7S. 
 
 raised to any required position. It will be easily understood that 
 the setting screws not only act as flectors, but also as struts, taking 
 up the weight of the bend at the point of attachment. The action 
 of setting the flexible bend in this form is very simple, being 
 merely the drawing down of the bend to the ^required curve, and 
 when this is attained locking it to the fixed bend by bolts pro- 
 vided for the purpose. 
 
 In another form, the " Simplex," shown in Fig. 75, the bend 
 A is a band of metal with pins fixed in its side which rest 
 on the edges of three brackets fastened to the frame B- 
 These edges are shaped to carefully plotted curves, 
 so as to ensure the bend A taking its proper form. At 
 one end the bend is connected to the crank E, and at the other 
 
'58 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 has a pin fixed which engages with the inside of the bracket C, 
 also suitably curved. At this point the inner edge of the bend 
 is formed with a rack, with which a small pinion, compounded 
 with a worm wheel engages. The wheel is rotated by the worm, 
 and as the pitch of the worm and wheel is a fine one, a delicate 
 setting can be given, the amount of which can be ascertained by a 
 graduated scale on the latter. It will be seen, on consideration, that 
 this bend is held in tension between the crank E and the rack,, 
 so that it is drawn down on to the edges of the brackets which 
 sustain it, an action aided, of course, by the weight of the flats. 
 Another form of bend is that shown in transverse section and 
 plan in Figs. 76 and 77. In this the flat G is sustained on a 
 
 FIG. 76. 
 
 Fio. 77. 
 
 triangular segmental ring C, which in turn rests on a heavier 
 segmental ring A, borne by a bracket formed on the fixed bend H. 
 The surfaces of the rings C and A and of the bracket are all 
 accurately turned, and by means of five micrometer screws B, 
 which engage with nuts D graduated on their edges, and 
 pressing on the face of the bend H, the ring A can be advanced 
 or receded towards the cylinder J, thus raising or lowering the ring 
 C to any desired extent. C being flexible, is bent to a smaller 
 circle by the weight of the chain of flats. 
 
 In the form of flexible bend shown in section in Fig. 
 78, the bend A rests on the heads of five screws D, vhich 
 
CARDING. 
 
 159 
 
 after passing through an arm formed in the fixed bend 
 B, are threaded into a nut F fitting in the space shown. 
 Through the bend at the same points are passed screws E, 
 which take into threaded brackets G, fitting against the under- 
 
 FIG. 78. 
 
 side of the arm named. The flexible bend A fits loosely 
 between flanges B and C formed on the fixed bend. The 
 screws D are formed with T heads, curved on their upper surface, 
 so as to act as supports to A, and the latter is pressed down on 
 them by the screws E. As the line of pressure of the latter is 
 the resultant of two, one vertical and the other horizoi ital, the 
 
i6o 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 bend is pushed on to the heads of the screws D and against the 
 flange C of the fixed bend and the proportionate distribution of 
 the thrust depends upon the angle at which the screw E acts 
 relatively to the vertical. In this way the bend receives a 
 support, not only from the heads of the screws D, but also from 
 its friction on the inner surface of the flange C. The screws D 
 are formed with a fine thread, and the edges of the nuts F are 
 graduated so as to act as an indicator. In all these three forms 
 the indicators register a vertical movement of the flexible bend 
 of 
 
 FIG. 79. 
 
 The arrangement shown in Fig. 79 consists in placing upon 
 the semicircular fixed bend a number of thin steel bands F, which 
 are kept in tension by being fastened on the pin G, and drawn 
 to the fixed bend by the nut and screw placed at C. The bend 
 and cylinder pedestal are formed in one piece, but the bearing 
 brasses are sustained by a screw K with a micrometer thread 
 fitting into the pedestal and locked by a nut. The head of the 
 
CARDING. 
 
 161 
 
 screw is graduated on its edge, so that its rotation through one 
 division raises or lowers the bearing j^-g- inch. The bands vary 
 in thickness, the thickest being ^ inch, and by the removal of 
 one of them the flats are lowered a definite distance, the cylinder 
 being adjusted subsequently, if necessary, by the screw ; that is 
 to say, if the removal of any band lowers the flats too much the 
 
 FIG. 80. 
 
 J.N. 
 
 cylinder can be raised so as to give the correct setting between it 
 and the flats. 
 
 In the device shown in Fig. 80, the flats are borne on a 
 ring E forming the periphery of a wheel D, which is centred 
 on a boss C bolted to the cylinder pedestal. The wheel is 
 quite loose on C, which can be adjusted by suitable setting 
 screws. The ring is fitted tightly on the wheel D, and can be 
 
 F 
 
162 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 renewed when necessary. The flats F rest upon the two wheels 
 one on each side of the machine and owing to their weight 
 establish such a friction as to rotate the ring at the same speed 
 as they move. There is obviously no wear of the flat ends in 
 this arrangement, as they do not slide but move with their 
 sustaining surface. When the ring is. first fitted it is turned of 
 sufficient size to maintain the correct separation between the 
 cylinder and flat wires, but as wear of the latter occurs it is 
 
 FIG. 81. 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 
 necessary to provide some means for reducing the diameter of 
 the sustaining circle. These are obtained by the employment 
 of milling cutters G fixed on a transverse shaft, which is borne 
 by two sliding frames, Figs. 81 and 82, one on each side of the 
 machine, and driven by a band from the cylinder shaft. These 
 are borne by brackets attached to the bend, and are operated by 
 a worm L and wheel I, the latter being threaded on the screw H. 
 The worm L is rotated by means of a graduated disc, the whole 
 arrangement being based on the micrometer principle. One 
 
CARDING. . 163 
 
 division on the disc implies a movement of -g-^ inch. After 
 wear has occurred, the bush C is loosed and gradually lowered 
 by the setting screws, which permit the amount of movement to 
 be ascertained. As soon as the teeth touch, which is indicated 
 by a click, the total amount the bush has dropped is ascertained, 
 and it is then raised to its normal position, making it again 
 concentric with the initial position of the cylinder. The dis- 
 tance it is desired to keep the teeth apart is then deducted from 
 the total movement, and the remainder indicates the amount to 
 be taken from the diameter of the rings. The milling cutter is 
 
 FIG. 83. 
 
 accordingly set in to that extent, and as the discs D revolve in 
 ordinary working they are gradually reduced to the correct 
 diameter. It will be noticed that this arrangement only permits 
 of the dropping of the flats, while in all the other devices they 
 can also be raised when required. On the other hand, if the 
 wheels are properly set and milled, and the cylinder centre is in 
 its true position, the flats move on a surface which is truly con- 
 centric. By suitable arrangements the bush can be adjusted to 
 the cylinder centre, but it is much better to readjust the latter. 
 (119) It has been said that wear of the cylinder bearings 
 occurs, causing the cylinder centre to move from its correct 
 
164 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 position. Although from careless handling this fault may be 
 serious, if the machines are carefully looked to there is no 
 necessity for its occurrence. There are several methods of 
 adjusting the bearings, which are all, however, substantially the 
 same in principle. In one case, as shown in Pig. 83, the bear- 
 ing is contained within two eccentric bushes, which can be 
 adjusted to move the cylinder centre in any direction to any 
 desired extent. In the device, Fig. 84, the pull of the belt is taken 
 up by a fixed bush C, within which the shaft, and on which the 
 
 FIG. 84. 
 
 driving pulley A, revolves, the motion being communicated to 
 the fast pulley by a carrier or coupler D. Another arrangement 
 permits the bearing to be raised vertically within the pedestal by 
 an eccentric, while the lateral adjustment is effected by sliding 
 the pedestal by a screw. The employment of wedge-shaped 
 plates below the bearing is also an effective device, the best 
 form of it being that in which two wedges are employed, the one 
 upon the other (Fig. 85), so that by careful adjustment of them 
 and the*side screws any desired position can be given to the 
 cylinder centre. A combination of a single wedge and lateral 
 
CARDING. 165 
 
 adjustment of the pedestal is also used, but the best arrange- 
 ments are those in which the pedestals are fixed and the adjust- 
 ments made within them. 
 
 (120) A twisted strand of cotton that is, yarn possesses a 
 certain strength which arises to a large extent from one factor, 
 viz., the number of fibres in its cross section. It is true that 
 the length of the staple has a very important bearing upon this 
 
 FIG. 85. 
 
 subject, because it enables the successive sets of fibres contained 
 in a length of yarn to be more readily twisted or bound together ; 
 but, in the main, it is the sum of the individual strength of 
 each fibre in a strand of yarn which gives it its strength. That 
 being so, it follows that the larger the number of fibres in any 
 cross section, the greater will be the strength. There are, of 
 course, exceptions to this, as to every other general principle, 
 
1 66 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 but as a broad statement it is accurate. Admitting, therefore, 
 that this is a correct statement of fact, its bearing upon carding 
 is obvious. The yarn eventually spun depends for its evenness 
 upon the roving frame from which it is twisted, the roving upon 
 the drawn sliver, and the drawing upon the carded sliver. It is 
 quite clear that if the fibres are stripped from the doffer in a 
 tangled or cross condition they will not lie so closely together 
 when first drawn as they will if laid in the practically parallel 
 order of a combed sliver, and the labour involved in reducing 
 them to parallel order will be much increased. It is true that 
 in combing cotton a large amount of waste is produced which 
 it is impossible to sanction in a carding machine working under 
 the commercial conditions of to-day, but it is worth ^considering 
 whether anything can be done to obtain a further parallelisation 
 of the fibres in the carded sliver. 
 
 (121) The first point which requires consideration is the con- 
 dition of the lap as it is fed to the carding engine. At one time 
 this subject did not receive the attention it deserved, and laps 
 were fed which were neither so well cleaned nor so even in 
 weight as they should have been. It cannot be too strongly 
 insisted on that it is absolutely imperative for the complete 
 success of a card that the material when presented to it should 
 be in as perfect a condition as it is possible to get. It is not 
 enough that the cotton should be made into a lap of the required 
 thickness. Every impurity which can be expelled by the beat- 
 ing action of the opening and scutching machines should be 
 eliminated, and the only work thrown upon the card teeth 
 should be the removal of short fibres and those adherent impuri- 
 ties which, without breaking the fibres, cannot be detached 
 during scutching. If the extreme delicacy of the fine points of 
 the carding surface be borne in mind, it will be seen that to 
 put upon them the task of removing heavy impurities is at once 
 an error in principle and practice. It is a noteworthy fact that, 
 in this country at least, it is widely if not universally recognised 
 :hat the improvement in the instrument for carding cotton 
 must be accompanied by a like amendment in the machines 
 
CARDING, 167 
 
 employed to prepare the cotton for that process. Accordingly, 
 as was shown in the last chapter, by careful attention to the 
 details of the scutching and opening machines cotton is now 
 submitted to the action of the carding machine in a much more 
 perfect state than at one time was thought possible. This is 
 one of the causes for the large productions got from modern 
 cards, and is by no means the least important. Not only, how- 
 ever, must there be a perfectly clean lap, but it should be very 
 regular in weight. The means adopted in the scutching machine 
 for regulating the passage of the cotton so that thick places are 
 beaten out are absent in the carding machine, and, whatever 
 may be the inequalities in the lap, no means are at hand by 
 which they can be removed during carding, although they are, 
 of course, reduced by the attenuation of the cotton before it is 
 coiled in the sliver can. The end of the lap is presented to the 
 action of the teeth of the licker-in at a steady rate, and, if one 
 part in the lap is thinner than another, fewer fibres will be 
 removed during each revolution of the licker-in than when the 
 thicker part is being presented to its action. Consequently, 
 during the time the cylinder is revolving, the number of fibres 
 presented to it varies according to the thickness of the lap. 
 Assuming the cylinder to be charged with cotton, is it un- 
 reasonable to suppose that it will retain more fibres at one 
 period than at the other, and consequently that when these 3ue 
 transferred to the doffer the number on the surface of the latter 
 will vary in like manner ? It must not be understood that all 
 the fibres taken up by the cylinder are necessarily transferred to 
 the doffer during the first revolution with the cylinder, but that, 
 if it were possible to attain this object, it would be of material 
 advantage. At any rate, whether this be so or not entirely, it is 
 so to a large extent, and it is easy to understand that a limita- 
 tion of the fibres fed would necessarily be followed by a 
 diminution in the number of fibres doffed after a due interval 
 had elapsed. If the variations in the lap were great and 
 prolonged, this point could be easily demonstrated, but as the 
 difference in the thickness in the lap is, in the present day, not 
 
1 68 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 great, and as the thin places are not of great length, it is more 
 difficult to trace their effect. 
 
 (122) Broadly speaking, however, there is no doubt that the 
 irregularities of the lap are reproduced in the sliver, and that, 
 while the irregular weight of the latter is not wholly attributable 
 to this factor, it plays an important part in connection with it. 
 Further, as the sliver is very thin, any variation in the number 
 of fibres delivered to it speedily becomes of importance, and the 
 percentage of variation noticeable. It is not a good thing to 
 lay too much stress upon this argument, but it is necessary to 
 emphasise the fact that an uneven lap cannot possibly be an aid, 
 and may be an immense hindrance to the production of a regular 
 sliver. It may be taken as an axiom that the avoidance of 
 intermittent work by the card teeth is a necessary factor in the 
 successful performance of their duty, and nothing can tend more 
 directly to bad work than to have the cylinder choked with 
 cotton at one time, and nearly bare at another. The abolition 
 of the old plan of weighing the cotton in scutching does not 
 necessarily imply uneven laps, because, thanks to the ingenuity, 
 perseverance, and skill of our mechanicians, the machines now 
 do better work than at any previous time. Having secured an 
 evenly weighted lap, the next thing necessary is to so feed it 
 that the fibres shall be removed with the minimum of risk of 
 damage. Upon this it will be necessary to say a few words. 
 
 (123) The general arrangement of the licker-in relatively to 
 the cylinder is shown in Fig. 86. The licker-in B is surrounded 
 by a cover F, which is jointed to a similar plate, acting as a 
 cover to the cylinder when the revolving flat type is used. In 
 roller and clearer machines the cover is of a different construc- 
 tion. The dish-feed plate C, of which something more will be 
 said presently, is fixed as shown, so as to be readily adjustable, 
 and two blades D called " mote knives " are placed immediately 
 beneath it. These are intended to scrape off the motes from 
 the cotton as it is carried on by the licker-in, and they are 
 arranged to be easily adjusted along with the feed-plate and the 
 grid or casing E, from the outside of the frame of the machine. 
 
CARDING. 
 
 169 
 
 The casing E and the knives are, as shown, carried by a frame, 
 which is supported at the inner end by pins taking into curved 
 slots, thus ensuring that when the plate is pushed in, in conse- 
 quence of the necessary setting in of the licker-in after the length 
 of the cylinder teeth has been reduced by grinding, or those of the 
 licker-in from wear, the relative position of the dish feed-plate, 
 knives, and undercasing are accurately preserved. Below the 
 
 ^^B J rn~ 
 
 \ ^^ C ^T"7 
 
 FIG. 86. 
 
 licker-in a packing piece L is fitted, which closes the gap that 
 would otherwise be left, and thus prevents any gathering of fibres 
 which might occur if this care were not taken to prevent it. 
 
 (124) The ordinary method of feeding the lap is by the dish 
 or shell feed. This is shown at C in Fig. 69, and is also shown 
 in detail in Figs. 87, 88, and 89, and consists of a flat polished 
 plate, over which the lap is drawn, and which at its inner end is 
 curved upwards to correspond with the curvature of the feed 
 roller. Between the periphery of the latter and the surface of 
 
170 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the dish plate the lap is passed, and a definite downward 
 pressure being maintained on the roller, which is revolved at a 
 regular rate, the lap is carried forward and its end thrust into 
 the path of the teeth of the licker-in. It is obvious that this 
 action may be so carried on that large lumps or pieces ot the 
 cotton would be struck from the end of the lap. This, however, 
 would be fatal to the efficiency of the machine, and the removal 
 of the material should be as nearly as possible the detachment 
 of the fibres separately, and not in bulk. In point of fact, the 
 action of the licker-in teeth should be first one of combine: out 
 
 the end of the lap, in this way detaching the fibres without 
 running the risk of breakage. In the attainment of this object 
 the dish feed plays an important part. It is desirable that only 
 those fibres which are practically freed from the nip of the feed 
 roller should be removed by the teeth of the licker-in, and from 
 the fact that only when they are projected over the edge of the 
 feed plate are they released, they are not so likely to be forcibly 
 removed as if the fibres were struck from the nip of two rollers. 
 This can be very readily understood, as it is obvious that a 
 much greater length of cotton necessarily exists between the nip 
 of a pair of rollers and the extreme point of the projecting part 
 of the lap, than is found lying over the nose of the dish feed 
 
CARDING. 
 
 171 
 
 plate. In other words, the teeth of the licker-in have less 
 material to pull at, and are therefore more liable to remove 
 the fibres in detail. This is easily seen if vertical lines be 
 
 FIG. 88. 
 
 drawn though the nipping point of the feed roller and plate, 
 or of the two feed rollers, when it is made visually evident how 
 much greater the length is in the latter than in the former case. 
 
 FIG. 89. 
 
 1 he shape of ihe nose of the dish feed is varied to suit the 
 cotton treated. Thus, Fig. 87 shows the shape for Surat 
 cotton, Fig. 88 for American, and Fig. 89 for Egyptian. 
 
172 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (125) The action of the licker-in tooth is, indeed, one or 
 extreme interest. There is a dual operation always going on r 
 viz. : a cleaning and a combing or straightening of the fibres. 
 Owing to the shape of the teeth and the manner in which they 
 are set, there is no danger of their becoming choked, and they 
 are, therefore, always in the best possible condition for acting 
 upon the lap. When they strike the projecting end of the lap, 
 they pass through it at such a velocity that the heavy adherent 
 impurities are struck down and partially removed. At the same 
 time the teeth remove the fibres which are sufficiently loosened,, 
 but it is important to note that those which are not so ready foi 
 detachment are simply divided and combed by the rapidly 
 revolving teeth. Thus, after a few revolutions of the licker-in, 
 the end of the lap is so far straightened and combed out that 
 the removal of the fibres is much easier, and the risk of damage 
 to them proportionately reduced. Now, it is obvious that the 
 preparation of the end of the lap in the manner described would 
 be much more difficult if so great a length of fibre projected 
 beyond the nipping point that there was any likelihood of the 
 cotton being removed in tufts or lumps of considerable size. 
 This detailed or separate detachment of the fibres is aided by 
 the dish feed, and, when thoroughly carried out, is of great 
 importance in diminishing the work thrown on to the cylinder 
 and flat teeth. The full advantage of the dish feed, however, is 
 only obtained when the surface from which the fibre is struck is 
 specially shaped and set to suit the staple of the cotton which is 
 being worked. When a short stapled cotton is being dealt 
 with, the space between the inner face of the dish plate and the 
 tips of the licker-in teeth is very small, and the projection of 
 the fibre over the nose of the feed plate is immediately followed 
 by the combing action of the teeth which has been described. 
 When the staple of the cotton treated is longer, the extreme 
 end of the fibres can be attacked at a greater distance from the 
 nip of the feed roller, and, it being desirable to comb out 
 the cotton as described, the nose of the dish plate is shaped to 
 allow of this being done. Although the dish feed is attended 
 
CARDING. 173 
 
 with so many advantages, it is quite possible to so manipulate 
 it as to break and damage the cotton. It is, therefore, essential 
 in setting it that due regard is given to the staple which is being 
 carded, and a little observation will speedily lead to the deter- 
 mination of the correct setting distance. The gradual and not 
 the sudden detachment of the fibres is what is wanted, and to this 
 end the action of the licker-in teeth m combing out the end of 
 the lap is very useful. It must not be supposed however, that 
 in speaking of the detailed removal of the fibres it is meant that 
 they are struck from the end of the lap singly, because this is not 
 the case. They are removed in numbers simultaneously, and, 
 owing to the method of setting the teeth on the licker-in, the 
 work of removal never ceases, as can be seen if an examination 
 is made of a card in work. The condition of the detached 
 fibres is such that they are readily taken up by the cylinder 
 teeth in their revolution. More depends upon the feeding of 
 the cotton to the cylinder than is sometimes thought. 
 
 (126) Assuming the fibres to have been delivered to the 
 cylinder, it is desirable to get a clear understanding of the treat 
 ment they undergo before being finally stripped from the doffer. 
 It is necessary to know something of the construction of the 
 fibre itself to get a rational idea of its manipulation by a 
 carding machine. The cotton fibre, as was shown in Chapter 
 II., is possessed of a natural twist which causes it to endeavour 
 to curl round any adjoining fibre, a tendency which makes it 
 much more difficult to straighten. Even when it is drawn 
 straight it requires little provocation to twist up again, and it is 
 in this fact that much of the difficulty of carding is found. For 
 a moment or two let us consider the process of combing, which 
 will be described in full later, but from which some useful hints can 
 be obtained. In combing, the end of the lap is caused to pro- 
 ject for a certain distance beyond the feed rollers, and is firmly 
 held while the circular combs are passed through it. The con- 
 struction and arrangement of the combs is such that the short 
 fibres are at once removed from the end of the lap, the remaining 
 fibres being straightened by the successive passage of needles of 
 
174 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 decreasing diameter and pitch. Before the fibres composing the 
 straightened end of the lap have time to bend up they are 
 gripped by the half lap and detaching roller. Indeed, as only 
 one end of each fibre is free, the other end being firmly held as 
 described, the fibre is not able to assume its natural position. 
 As the comb cylinder continues to rotate, it completely detaches 
 a tuft of cotton, and in the course of doing so draws the 
 uncombed end through the points of the top comb which has 
 dropped into the lap. During the latter part of this period the 
 first portion of the combed tuft is joined on to the previously 
 formed sliver, so that at no time are the fibres free to fall into 
 their natural position or to curl round each other. NOW T what it 
 is desired specially to point out is that the straightening of the 
 fibres in combing is effected by treating a small number at one 
 time, and that immediately they have been drawn out by the 
 action of the comb, they are so held that it is nearly impossible 
 for them to fall out of the parallel order into which they have 
 been reduced. 
 
 (127) A calculation, which can be readily made, will show 
 that it is not easy for the licker-in to feed sufficient cotton to 
 the cylinder to enable the latter to be always taking up fibres. 
 The number of teeth on the licker-in and cylinder and their 
 respective velocities render it practically impossible for each 
 point on the cylinder to take up at each revolution one fibre, 
 which it is theoretically supposed to do. Indeed it is more than 
 probable that there are considerable periods that is, compara- 
 tively during which the teeth in various parts of the cylinder 
 do not take up any fibres at all. In short, there are not enough 
 fibres to go round, and they will be held by the carding points 
 in a practically free manner. A properly made card tooth 
 should only grip the fibre for a short distance, and the hold 
 which it retains upon it will depend very largely on the " keen " 
 of the tooth, that is to say, the angle to which it is bent between 
 the foundation and the point. There ought not to be anything 
 like a film or complete covering of cotton. On this point 
 the author is strongly of opinion that it would be fatal to 
 
CARDING. 175 
 
 efficient carding if the cylinder had taken up so many fibres 
 that every tooth was charged, and that it is when such 
 a condition is approached that a cylinder becomes over- 
 charged and its work becomes bad. It is necessary that & 
 certain freedom from restraint should be left to the fibres, 01 
 otherwise they could not be effectively treated by the flat or 
 roller teeth ; for it is obvious that if a fibre were embedded in 
 a mass of others it could not be easily raised from the surface 
 so as to be combed along its free portion. Herein lies at once 
 the strength and weakness of carding. The strength is found 
 in the fact that the fibre can be readily drawn through the 
 superposed teeth on the flats, or can be easily lifted by the roller 
 teeth and cleansed. Unless this freedom existed, not only would 
 the actual work of carding be badly done, but there would be 
 a considerable risk of the rupture or fracture of the fibres owing 
 to the excess of power required to detach them. Now if the 
 description of the process of combing, given a short time since, 
 be borne in mind, it will be seen that the state of the cotton 
 fibre is nearly the reverse of what it is during combing. In 
 the one case each fibre is free, or nearly so, being held only 
 slightly at one end, while in the other it is firmly gripped during 
 the whole of its treatment. In other words, the natural 
 inclination of the fibre to twist is left uncurbed during carding 
 which is the exact opposite of its condition during combing. 
 
 (128) With regard to the character of the treatment under- 
 gone by the fibre as it is drawn through the wire teeth on the 
 flats, there is not much probability of that effect of centrifugal 
 action which is sometimes laid stress upon. It is certainly true 
 that the velocity of the cylinder is so great that the fibres, if left 
 at liberty, will tend to be thrown outwards, but it is more than 
 probable that owing to the method in which they are held, and 
 to the resistance of the air surrounding the cylinder, they would 
 be bent back so as to lie on the surface of the cylinder in nearly 
 circumferential lines. It is obvious that even the comparatively 
 coarse setting of the flats which is often made could not be 
 easily effected if the fibres stood straight out in the mannei 
 
176 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 sometimes imagined, and the importance of the accurate settings 
 of the flats now obtained lies mainly in this fact. What 
 happens is that the fibres being held by the cylinder wire, and 
 to a certain extent raised from the surface, are subjected to the 
 combing action of the superposed teeth, their free portion being 
 drawn along the points and thus cleansed. The other end of 
 the fibre that is, the part held by the cylinder, is combed or 
 carded when it is transferred to the doffer, the slower running of 
 which causes the fibre to be received and held so firmly that its 
 transferral from the cylinder to the doffer is easily accomplished. 
 In addition to this, the number of wire points on the doffer are 
 in excess of those on the cylinder, and the fibres are therefore 
 easily held. The action of the roller teeth is entirely different 
 to that of flats, because they are so set as to lay hold of and 
 remove the fibres from the cylinder, to which they are again 
 restored by the action of the clearer. In these alternate and 
 repeated transferrals the fibre is effectually cleaned, and every 
 time it is flung into the roller wire the short fibres and motes 
 accompany it and remain. 
 
 (129) Between the moment of leaving the flats and being 
 deposited on the doffer there is a period of time during which 
 the carded fibre is free at one end. The tension into which it 
 has been put during carding naturally causes it to contract as it 
 is released, and this, along with its natural tendency to curl, is 
 largely responsible for the manner in which it is placed upon 
 the doffer. Remember a fibre is being dealt with which, when 
 it flies over as it is released by the wire, falls on to a surface 
 provided with points, by which it can be tenaciously held, so 
 that if it once falls out of the circumferential line it will have 
 some difficulty in assuming it again. Remember also that 
 although every care is taken to prevent currents of air from 
 forming, it is impossible to prevent air from entering, and a 
 slight draught would be sufficient to influence the disposition of 
 the fibre. It is to the causes thus detailed that we mainly 
 attribute the lack of parallel order observable in the fibres com- 
 posing the sliver from a carding engine. It will be noticed that 
 
CARDING. 177 
 
 the individual fibre is permitted to assume a position which it is 
 entirely debarred from taking in combing, and that while on the 
 one hand it is held sufficiently to enable it to be well carded, on 
 the other it is sufficiently free to enable it to assume a position 
 which is controlled as described. Although the lack of parallel 
 order in the fibres constitutes one of the evils of the system of 
 carding, .yet if the explanation given of its cause be a sound one, 
 it is better not to so load the cylinder with cotton as to prevent 
 the fibres from having this free action. The alternate attenua- 
 tion and condensation of the cotton during carding is not of 
 great importance, except in so far as it tends to permit of the 
 establishment of the freedom named. It may, however, be 
 pointed out that as the doffer surface moves so much slower 
 than that of the cylinder, the cotton on a large area of the latter 
 is deposited on a much smaller area on the former. Thus, 
 although it is true that the charging of the cylinder is not a 
 regular, but in a sense an intermittent process, any inequalities 
 which are likely to arise in this way tend to be removed by the 
 difference of the peripheral velocities of the two parts named. 
 
 (130) The existence of air currents plays an important part 
 in the work of a carding machine, and it is surprising how 
 rapidly they act upon the material. The modern method of 
 forming and setting the flats, and the general arrangement of 
 the framework, on the whole, prevents any blowing out of the 
 air at the sides until the fleece or web is deposited on the doffer. 
 The framing is now either brought close up to the edge of the 
 cylinder, or the bend is put in that position (as shown in Fig. ' 
 74), or the gap between the framing and the cylinder edge is 
 closed in some other way. This tendency to blow out and 
 towards the formation of air currents is much greater in roller 
 than in flat cards. But there are a few points at which the air 
 can enter, and it does not need much thought to show that the 
 great velocity of the cylinder will set up very powerful induced 
 currents. Now, in this fact one explanation can be found of 
 the cloudiness often noticed in the carded web, and of the 
 existence of thin or bare places. 
 
178 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (131) The web is often marked or dotted with white specks r 
 which, as can be plainly seen, are neither motes nor sticks. 
 There is not much doubt that these are neps formed from 
 damaged or broken fibres, which become knotted or matted 
 together, and escape the cleaning action of the flats. This 
 appearance, however, is very different from the cloudiness 
 referred to, which is often visible over a large space. There is 
 a ready explanation of this defect, which arises from an aggre- 
 gation of fibres which have become overlaid and matted, being 
 much worse in their lack of parallel order than the ordinary 
 web. It is quite clear that if, in any given space, the fibres,, 
 when laid upon the doffer, are bent over, or deposited trans- 
 versely, they will present quite a different appearance to that 
 which they assume when laid in parallel circumferential lines. 
 This, however, is what happens, and it remains to discover its- 
 cause. 
 
 (132) Between the last roller or flat and the doffer there is- 
 a considerable space, this part of the cylinder being covered by 
 a metal plate correspondingly curved. In Figs. 72 and 90 this 
 plate is shown, and it will be noticed that it completely covers- 
 the breast of the cylinder and is jointed to the cover which 
 surrounds the doffer. As shown, the plate or cover descends 
 into the space between the doffer and cylinder, and quite fills- 
 it up, thus preventing the accumulation of fly, which otherwise 
 takes place. There is great care taken to fit the covers to their 
 places, and they are provided with ample means for accurate 
 adjustment. The surface of the steel plates, of which they are 
 made, is kept bright and smooth, this being a matter of great 
 importance. At the upper end of this plate there is a mote 
 knife or sharp edge, by means of which a little further cleaning 
 is obtained. If this plate or cover were not fixed in the position 
 named there would be nothing to prevent the fibres from 
 standing out in radial lines while held by the wire, and it is- 
 obvious that if they did so project they would be at the mercy 
 of every current of air. This furnishes one explanation of cloudy 
 webs. If by any possibility the air can be put into such motion 
 
CARDING. 
 
 179 
 
 as to traverse across the face of the cylinder, the fibres will be 
 immediately bent over in the same direction. A case is known 
 where, in consequence of the existence of a considerable space 
 between the wire on the cylinder and this covering plate, the 
 fibres could be seen to gather up and bend over, often becoming 
 practically doubled. The webs produced on the first series of 
 cards put in were badly clouded, but by setting in the cover, 
 -so that the fibres were not able to be influenced, the defect was 
 
 FIG. 90. 
 
 quite remedied. It may be taken as the first thing to look for 
 if cloudy webs are found, whether there is any possibility of 
 transverse air currents. 
 
 (133) The same cause, probably, accounts for thick and thin 
 places, or rather contributes to their formation. It has been 
 previously said that an uneven lap is a fruitful source of^ uneven 
 slivers, and there is little doubt that this element is the principal 
 one, but it is clear that if the fibres can, before being placed on 
 
180 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the doffer, be moved across the cylinder so as to be aggregated, 
 so to speak, there must be a thin place left in the web. To the 
 existence of air currents may be attributed not only the ordi- 
 nary position of the fibres in a well-formed web, but many of 
 those abnormal features which are sometimes found in carding. 
 
 (134) Another point upon which a few additional words may 
 be said is the action of the rollers and flats in removing short 
 fibres and neps. With reference to rollers, their action, as was 
 shown, is that of absolutely removing the fibres from the 
 cylinder, and again transferring them to it by the intervention 
 of a second roller. This involves the complete turning over the 
 fibres, and as this cannot be so treated unless a considerable 
 space is provided, the chances of the action of the air are con- 
 siderably increased. But it is specially to be noted that the 
 short fibres have a less tenacious hold on the cylinder or roller 
 wire, and not being, after they are embedded in it, so long as 
 those of full growth, are at once more easily removed from, and 
 much more difficult to transfer to the cylinder. With reference 
 to motes and neps, as they cannot penetrate deeply into the 
 cylinder wire, they are easily picked up by the rollers, and are 
 gradually forced into the interstices of the wire covering, from 
 which they can be stripped. 
 
 (135) Making due allowance for the fact that the stripping 
 surface is a stationary or nearly stationary one, the action of a 
 flat, so far as the removal of impurities are concerned, is practi- 
 cally that of the roller. But where flats are used they are 
 stripped more frequently, and there is therefore a chance of 
 observing the quality of their work throughout the whole of the 
 working period. As was pointed out, the flats are given a 
 " heel " that is to say, they are caused to assume an angular 
 position relatively to the cylinder. It is thought by some 
 spinners that the " heel " of the flat should vary with the length 
 of staple carded. There might have been some force in this 
 contention in the old days when flats were nearly double the 
 width they are at present, but the difference which it would be 
 possible to make with the present width of flat would be very 
 
CARDING. l8l 
 
 slight. The character of the stoppings or " strips " which are 
 taken from the flats as they leave the -cylinder, is a very good 
 indication of the setting and condition of the flats. If these 
 strippings be observed it will be noticed that at the edge which 
 receives the cotton first the " strip " is thinner than it is at the 
 edge where the cotton leaves. This is what would be expected 
 from the setting and construction of the flat, and it affords a 
 perpetual means of ascertaining the condition of the flats while 
 they are working. If the " strip " from one flat is heavier than 
 that from another, the former is either doing too much or the 
 latter too little work. If the thickness of the strip at the 
 receiving end of the flat varies with different flats, it is a proof 
 that the distance between the wire is not the same in both 
 cases that is, the " heel " varies. Thus a close observation of 
 the strips enables two important points to be decided, and gives 
 a guide to the carder which is invaluable. The examination of 
 the strips carefully is a very profitable exercise, and the 
 revelations of a strong magnifying glass are sometimes startling. 
 (136) The undercasings are of great importance in the work- 
 ing of a carding machine. These are grids placed as shown at 
 R in Fig. 69, and are constructed as follows. Circular frames 
 corresponding practically to the curvature of the cylinder are 
 connected by transverse bars, and are so mounted that they 
 can be easily and accurately adjusted in a short time. They 
 are preferably made of tinned iron, and the bars are of a shape 
 which permits the ready transmission of the fly without leading 
 to any adhesion. Reference has already been made to the mode 
 of setting the licker-in casing, and Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, 
 Limited, whose arrangement is illustrate'd in Fig. 86, now 
 attach one-half of the cylinder undercasing to that of the licker- 
 in, so that they are set simultaneously. It is perhaps as well 
 to say here that the licker-in pedestal and the casings are 
 usually coupled, so as to move together. The cylinder under- 
 casing is in the arrangement named in two pieces, one attached 
 to the licker-in and the other separately adjustable. Special 
 guides are formed at their adjacent extremities, so that they 
 
1 82 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 maintain, when set, the correct relative position to the cylinder. 
 The undercasings made by Messrs. Platt Brothers and Co., 
 Limited, are specially constructed, the bars being secured to 
 segmental wrought iron rings turned to the correct size. As the 
 purpose of these casings is the provision of means by which the 
 emission of " fly " and other impurities is possible, it is necessary 
 in setting them, as in setting other parts of the machine, that 
 special care should be taken. Full liberty should be given to 
 the short fibre to be ejected through the grids, but damage to 
 the cotton must be sedulously guarded against. No empirical 
 rule can be given by which this can be made, and only close 
 observation will enable the best distance to be fixed. A distance 
 of about T | Q- inch is a good one for most varieties of-cotton, but 
 this is a point which is always open to variation according to 
 the necessities of the case. It is requisite to say, however, that 
 this is a matter of great importance and should be closely 
 watched, as otherwise a considerable increase of waste results. 
 (137) The flats have, as has been indicated, to be set very 
 closely to the cylinder surface, and this is a matter which 
 involves the consideration of one or two points. There are 
 several machines made, for which it is claimed that they are so 
 constructed, mechanically, that the wire surface on the flats can 
 be brought within T oVo mcn f tnat on tne cylinder. Now, it is 
 not necessary to do more than point to the fact that this is a 
 setting which closely approximates to the diameter of the fibre, 
 and that if, therefore, these lie upon the surface of the cylinder 
 as described, a very slight elevation of their free ends will draw 
 them through the teeth on the flats. It is not, however, by any 
 means a universal practice to make these close settings, and, as 
 a matter of fact, in the majority of cases the two surfaces 
 are much wider apart. It is customary to furnish the 
 carder with several carefully ground slips of steel, called " gauges," 
 which vary respectively, from "005 inch to *oi6 inch thick. 
 In setting, the carder preferably chooses a time when the mill is 
 quiet, and there is not the vibration existing which is always 
 found during working hours. By means of his setting screws^ 
 
CARDING. 183 
 
 in the case of a flexible bend, and of the adjusting mechanism,. 
 when other forms of the machine are used, he lowers the flats 
 until, by slowly turning the cylinder, a slight click, caused by 
 the contact of the wire, can be heard. When, by this means, 
 it has been ascertained that the two surfaces are in contact over 
 the whole of the working face of the flats, the screws are 
 reversed, and the contact destroyed. In setting by gauge this 
 removal is carried on until the gauge can be slipped in between 
 the faces without undue pressure, and it depends, of course, 
 upon which of the gauges are employed, how great the distance 
 is between the two surfaces. A similar procedure is pursued in 
 setting rollers and clearers, the bearing brackets of which are 
 provided with screws for this purpose. In setting flats by the 
 special arrangements of mechanism previously named, the 
 reverse movement is regulated by means of an indicator, dial, 
 and finger, the dial being graduated by divisions, each repre- 
 senting T tyV o mcn - After the operation is completed, the various 
 screws are securely locked by means of nuts or some other 
 similar or equivalent device, and the machine is ready for work. 
 The real basis upon which this operation rests is the audible 
 click made when the wire surfaces are in contact, and in 
 endeavouring to obtain this great care should be taken to see 
 that the contact is of the slightest character. The gauges used 
 are of two kinds. For setting the doffer, licker-in, feed roller or 
 feed plate, doffer comb, and flat stripping cone to their respective 
 positions, a slip of steel ground to the required thickness, and 
 about 2 inches wide, is used. Of these, six or seven are supplied 
 to the carder, ranging, as was said, from ^005 to '016. When 
 the machine is standing, the gauge of the required thickness is 
 pushed between the parts at several points across their width, 
 which have to be set to each other until it has the "feel" of 
 fitting. Some practice is required to be certain of the proper 
 distance existing, but the skill is soon acquired if a little pains 
 be taken. In setting the flats the gauges used are short and are 
 turned up at right angles at one end to enable the operator to 
 handle them. A particular flat is selected, and two of those 
 
184 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 .adjoining it are removed, so that the gauge can be easily slipped 
 into the space between the flat and cylinder. The flat is then 
 tested at five points in its movement over the whole length of 
 the bend, the chain of flats being moved by hand and the 
 adjustments made at each point. As all the flats are ground 
 from one surface, it is assumed they are all uniform, so that 
 setting one will imply the accuracy of the others ; but care 
 should be taken to see that there is no undue wear of the ends of 
 any of the flats over that of their fellows. The following will 
 give approximately correct settings for the various parts for 
 American cotton : Feed plate to licker-in, "013 inch ; licker-in 
 to cylinder, 'on inch; flats to cylinder, '007 inch-; doffer to 
 cylinder, '005 inch; doffer comb to doffer, '005 -inch; flat 
 stripping comb to flat, '007 inch ; under casings to cylinder, 
 ^01 inch; mote knives to licker-in, '015 inch. The setting of 
 the doffer is very important, as if too closely set it will act 
 partially as a stripping roller ; while if too widely set it will take 
 -off the cotton intermittently, and so produce an uneven or 
 -cloudy web. 
 
 (138) The coiler, as was shown, has within it two revolving 
 parts, viz., the coiler-plate and the can disc. These rotate in 
 opposite directions, and their velocity is duly regulated by the 
 train of wheels shown. Assuming the doffer to be delivering 
 900 inches of web per minute, and the peripheral speed of the 
 calender rolls to be the same, it will follow that there will be 
 900 inches per minute delivered into the can ; but, as a rule, 
 there is a slight draft between the calender rolls and the coils. 
 If the laying of this sliver in the can depended upon the rotation 
 of the coiler solely, it would be placed in a series of ascending 
 coils, as at one time it was. The result of this is that nothing like 
 the same length is laid as should be, in addition to which the coils 
 become entangled, and are liable to be broken in drawing out. By 
 giving to the can a slow rotation in the opposite direction to the 
 coiler-plate, the coils are laid in various positions and the centre 
 of each succeeding coil is a little removed from that of the one pre- 
 ceding it. The result is that a much greater length is deposited, and 
 
CARDING. 
 
 the coils are quite free from one another, and can be withdrawn with 
 ease. Referring now to Figs. 70 and 91, the coiler can is 9 inches- 
 diameter, and is driven from the shaft B which, we will assume,, 
 revolves at a speed of 100 revolutions per minute. The can disc 
 J is driven by the wheel train shown, of which D has 16 teeth,. 
 E 48, F 1 6, G 48, H 14, and J 84. The speed of J is there- 
 
 16 x 16 x 14 
 fore ^ or. x 100 
 
 85. The coiler plate M is driven by 
 
 K 
 
 48 x 48 x 84 
 
 the engagement of the wheel K with the annular rack L. 
 
 FIG. 91. 
 
 has 42 teeth and L 108, the velocity of the coiler plate being: 
 
 therefore x 100 = 39. 
 plete coil in the can in 
 
 The coiler will, therefore, lay a com- 
 th of a minute, in which time the 
 
 can will make "0475 f a revolution. Thus in a complete 
 revolution of the can 21 coils will be laid, and the sliver will 
 receive 21 turns in the length of sliver delivered by the calender 
 rollers during that period. Thus, if the calender rollers are 2^ 
 inches diameter, they, being driven at an equal speed to the 
 upright shaft, will deliver 785-4 inches per minute, and during 
 one revolution of the coiler 424 inches. As 21 coils are laid in- 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 that 
 424 
 
 time, the length in which one twist is introduced is 
 = 20' 1 6, which is about the ordinary amount. The illustra- 
 tion given in Fig. 91 shows graphically the method of laying the 
 coils. It is seen that the successive coils touch the edge of the 
 can at one point, and the distance traversed by the can before 
 the next coil touches it is shown by the space between the 
 successive points indicated by the figures i to 20. It will be 
 understood that the size and number of coils depends upon the 
 eccentricity of the tube, and the relative velocity of the coiler 
 
 FIG. 92. 
 
 plate and can, but the principle is illustrated by the sketch 
 given. It is a good practice to use two discs connected with a 
 spiral spring within the can, as in this way a good deal of the 
 strain on the sliver, as it is deposited, is removed. 
 
 (139) It now only remains to show the method of driving 
 the various parts, and in order to illustrate this, the two diagrams 
 given in Figs. 92 and 93 have been furnished. These 
 represent a revolving flat carding engine, and the mode 
 of actuating the mechanism. The cylinder A is driven from 
 the driving shaft by means of a pulley A 1 . Adjoining this 
 
CARDING. l5y 
 
 there is a loose pulley on to which the belt is moved when the 
 machine is stopped. Referring now more particularly to Fig. 93, 
 which is a diagram of the opposite side of the machine to that 
 shown in Fig. 92, it will be seen that the licker-in B is driven 
 by a crossed band passing over the pulleys R on the cylinder 
 shaft and R 1 on the licker-in. The doffer is driven on the 
 other side of the machine from the licker-in, as shown in 
 Fig. 92, by means of a crossed belt passing over the pulleys C 
 and D. As shown in Fig. 92, the pulley D is compounded 
 frith a pinion E, which gears with the wheel F ; but in- 
 
 FIG. 93. 
 
 order to get more exactitude it is now the practice to gear 
 it as shown in Fig. 94. In further references, therefore, 
 regard must be paid to both figures. The pulley D 
 rotates on a shaft or pin and from it is driven a wheel E by 
 means of the pinion D 1 called the barrow wheel, which is com- 
 pounded with the pulley D. A small pinion E 1 is compounded 
 with the wheel E, and can be changed when necessary, and 
 engages with the wheel F fixed on the doffer shaft. The wheel 
 E is carried on the lever J, which is retained in position by 
 the catch J 1 , so that when desired the pinion E 1 can be taken. 
 
1 38 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 out of gear with F and the doffer stopped. From the wheel 
 F, by the wheels I I 1 and K, the calender rollers L L 1 are 
 driven. Again referring to Fig. 93, the feed roller W is driven 
 by means of a bevel wheel Z fixed on its axis, with which is 
 meshed a pinion V 1 fixed on one end of a horizontal shaft, on 
 the other end of which is a bevel wheel V engaged with a 
 similar one F 1 keyed on the doffer shaft. By the train of wheels 
 W Y Y 1 W 1 the lap roller X upon which the lap X 1 rests is 
 
 fIG. 94. 
 
 -driven. The driving of these parts does not greatly differ in 
 carding engines generally, and a clear grasp of this arrangement 
 will enable others slightly modified to be easily understood. 
 The chain of flats is driven by a band or cord which passes 
 over a pulley M fixed on the cylinder shaft, by which through 
 the pulley O, worm P 1 , worm wheel P, worm Q, and worm 
 wheel Q 1 motion is given to the pitched chain wheel actuating 
 the chain of flats. The doffing comb is driven from a grooved 
 pulley T by a band passing over the pulley T 1 , which is corn* 
 
CARDING. l8g 
 
 pounded with a second pulley U. The latter drives a pulley 
 U 1 fixed on the shaft on which is mounted the eccentric or cam 
 giving motion to the doffer comb. 
 
 (140) The following rules will be sufficient to enable the 
 necessary calculations to be made. It has been explained that 
 the lap is reduced by the variation in the speed of the different 
 parts to a thin web, and that the amount of this reduction gives 
 the " draft " of the card. To find this, multiply together the 
 number of teeth of the driven wheels and the diameter of the 
 doffer, and divide the product by that of the driving wheels and 
 diameter of feed roller. There is a slight draft between the 
 doffer G and the calender rolls L, which is arrived at by divi 
 ding the product of the driven wheels and the diameter of the 
 roller L by the product of the driving wheels and the diameter 
 of the doffer. 
 
 (141) There are two ways in which changes can be made in 
 the weight of the sliver produced on a carding engine, viz., 
 either by changing the pinion V 1 on the side shaft, or by 
 altering the speed of the doffer by changing the wheel E 1 . 
 Of these the former is the more convenient and usual course, 
 and it is a simple proportion sum to ascertain the correct pinion 
 required to make a change. If, for instance, a change was 
 wanted from a sliver 65 grains to the yard for one 75 grains, 
 the pinion V 1 , of whatever number of teeth it was, would be 
 changed for one -J~| of V 1 . Thus, if V 1 had 20 teeth, it would 
 be |f of 20 = 23 about. The speed of the doffer is, however, 
 important, for although it is quite true that all necessary 
 changes can be made by reducing or increasing the rate of feed, 
 whenever it is desired to get a bigger production, the doffer 
 must be speeded also. This matter is of some importance, and 
 its rationale may be dealt with in a few words. If the feed- 
 roller has its velocity increased or diminished the effect is that 
 more or fewer fibres are beaten down by the licker-in, and that, 
 therefore, the delivery of cotton to the cylinder is increased or 
 diminished. This means that the sliver will be affected propor- 
 tionately. Now, while it is possible to increase the quantity of 
 
t9 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 cotton so brought within the range of the cylinder teeth to an 
 extent which is only limited by the capacity of the latter 
 to receive them, it is obviously not so easy to diminish it beyond 
 a certain point. If the delivery of the lap is too far reduced , 
 the effect would be that there would be a number of bare places, 
 and that a sliver very irregular in substance would be produced. 
 Further, any change made must be accompanied by an adjust- 
 ment of the speed of the doffer, if it is desired to produce merely 
 an additional quantity of a sliver of some specific weight. If the 
 feed is increased while the doffer speed remains constant, a 
 heavier sliver will be produced, while by speeding the doffer in 
 the same ratio the quantity produced, but not the weight per 
 yard, is affected. If the substance of the sliver is known it is 
 easy to ascertain the production of the machine by calculating 
 from this and the surface velocity of the doffer. If a doffer 
 24 inches in diameter is used, its diameter when clothed would 
 be be 24^ inches. This would, when making 12 revolutions 
 per minute, have a surface speed of 25 yards. This in 56 hours 
 will give 84,000 yards delivered, and by multiplying this by the 
 weight per yard of the sliver, say 5cgr., we get a production of 
 6oolbs. per week. In the same way the production of any given 
 weight of sliver can be ascertained. 
 
 (142) It will be noticed, if the arrangements just described 
 are studied, that between the motion of the cylinder and that 
 of the feed and delivery mechanism a close connection exists. 
 Thus the doffer and licker-in are connected directly, so that a 
 change in the rotation of the former is followed by one in that 
 of the latter. In like manner the feed roller is driven from the 
 doffer and a close connection is thus established between that 
 of the two parts. By changing the pinion E 1 , or pulley D, the 
 velocity of the doffer can be easily regulated, so that it 
 can be run quicker or slower as desired, giving a thinner 
 or thicker sliver. All the calculations about this machine 
 are of a simple character and can be readily made. If 
 a = the number of revolutions of the cylinder, then those of 
 
 TD 
 
 the licker-in are a x ^rr. In like manner the velocity of the 
 
CARDING. 191 
 
 R C D 1 E 1 
 doffer G is # x |n x j=v x I p- x p-. Let this latter quantity be 
 
 F 1 V 1 
 called b, then the velocity of the feed roller is b x y- x -^-. If, 
 
 in place of the letters used, the diameter of the pulleys and the 
 diameter or number of teeth of the wheels which are indicated 
 by the letters are substituted, a ready calculation can be made 
 of the relative velocities of the parts. 
 
 (143) There are one or two other rules which may be given, 
 and which are likely to prove useful. To find the draft required 
 to produce a given weight of sliver, when the weight per yard of 
 lap is known, reduce the weight of one yard of lap to grains and 
 divide by the number of grains in the same length of .sliver. 
 This gives the draft. It may be preferable to take two o- 
 three yards instead of one, but the rule remains the same. 
 To find the hank of the sliver, take a few yards (3 to 6) 
 of the sliver as delivered into the coiier, ascertain its weight in 
 grains, and divide into the dividend for the number of yards 
 taken. 
 
 (144) The dividend is obtained by dividing the number of 
 grains in a pound by the fraction which the length taken 
 forms to the whole length of a hank. This number is 7,000, 
 and as there are seven leas in a full hank, each lea, if one 
 hank weighs a pound, weighs 1,000 grains, and is 120 yards 
 long. One yard, therefore, weighs T ^ of 1,000 grains, or 
 8-3, which is the dividend for one yard. By multiplying this 
 number by the number of yards taken a constant dividend is 
 obtained, thus that for six yards is 8*3 x 6 = 50. 
 
 (145) It will perhaps be convenient if the method of calcula- 
 ting the draft be illustrated by a few examples. Referring to 
 paragraph 141, the method of calculating the speeds of the 
 various parts was referred to. Using the letters in Figs. 92, 
 93, and 94, let 
 
 X Lap roller = 6ins. diameter. 
 
 Feed roller... . = 2^ 
 
 L Calender roller... = 3 
 
X 9 2 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 R Licker-in driving pulley =; 2oins. diameter. 
 
 R 1 Pulley = 7 
 
 C Pulley driving barrow wheel = 6 
 
 D Barrow wheel pulley = 9 
 
 G Doffer 24 
 
 W l Lap roller wheel = 48 teeth. 
 
 W Feed roller ,, = 15 
 
 Z Plate bevel =120 
 
 V 1 Side shaft change pinion = 15 
 
 V bevel = 22 
 
 F 1 Doffer bevel wheel = 22 
 
 F spur wheel = 180 
 
 K Calender wheel = 18 
 
 D 1 Barrow wheel 26 ,, 
 
 E Doffer lever carrier =104 ,, 
 
 E 1 change wheel = 26 
 
 a Speed of cylinder (revs, per min.) =170 
 
 Then the speed of the licker-in is a x S = 170 x = 485*7. 
 
 The speed of the doffer is 
 
 a x R x x D' x E. = L o x 26 * = 
 
 DBF 7 9 104 180 
 
 To change the speed of the doffer the pinion E 1 must be 
 changed. In order to calculate the velocity of the feed roller, 
 which is driven by the interposition of the side shaft from the 
 
 F 1 V 1 
 doffer, it is necessary to use the formula b x -^ x -^ or 
 
 1 1 7 x x = 1-462. By changing the pinion V 1 the 
 
 draft can be altered at will, and when it is desired to have a 
 lighter or heavier sliver this is what is done. The calender 
 rollers are driven from the doffer wheel F (see Fig. 92) through 
 I and I 1 , which finally drive a change pinion K on the end of 
 the calender shaft. The speed of the latter is therefore arrived 
 
 Tf 
 
 at by multiplying the speed of the doffer by or in actual 
 
 K. 
 
CARDING. 193 
 
 figures 1 1 7 x L__ = 117. In like manner the lap roller X 
 
 Io 
 
 is driven from the feed roller by the train of wheels W, Y, Y 1 , 
 W 1 . Of these, only W, W 1 need be considered, and as the 
 speed of the feed roller was 1*462, that of the lap roller is ; 
 
 1*462 x -| = -457. The total draft is naturally the quotient 
 
 of the surface speed of the lap roller divided into that of the 
 calender roller, and can be arrived at in that way. , Suppose that 
 the speeds were as given. Then the surface of the calender 1 
 roller is 3 x 3*1416 x 117 = 11027 and of the lap roller 
 '457 x 3' 1 4 l6 x 6 8 '6i- The draft is, therefore, 
 
 i47o_2__ _ I2 g ^ o k^er draft is necessary than 130, 
 0*61 
 
 and 120 is about an average. The draft can also be 
 obtained by multiplying all the drivers together, and the 
 product by the diameter of calender roller, and dividing the 
 final product by that of the driven wheels and the diameter of 
 the lap roller. The quotient is the draft. If in making such a 
 calculation the change wheel V 1 be omitted from it, a quotient 
 which is called a " constant number " is obtained. It is very 
 usual to employ this method of simplifying calculations in 
 textile work, and such a number is simply the quotient with the 
 variable factor eliminated. In the present case, if the constant 
 number is obtained, the draft wheel or draft can be indifferently 
 
 arrived at. Thus V - C ", or draft = CO "^ ant . It fol- 
 
 lows from what has been said that by stopping at any point the 
 intermediate drafts between various parts can be easily made. 
 It only now remains to be said that the speed of the calender 
 rollers in the coiler can be arrived at in the same way, the 
 method of driving being very clearly shown in Fig. 70. 
 
 (146) To ascertain the length of fillet required to cover a 
 cylinder, multiply the circumference of the cylinder by its width 
 and divide by the width of the fillet. It is advisable to add to 
 this a length equal to one circumference, as a certain waste is- 
 made at the tail ends. 
 
f94 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (147) The following table gives the hank of slivers of various 
 weights and will be useful for reference : 
 
 Number of 
 prains 
 per k yard. 
 
 Decimal 
 Hank 
 
 Sliver. 
 
 Number of 
 grains 
 per yard. 
 
 Decimal 
 Hank 
 Sliver. 
 
 Number of 
 grains 
 per yard. 
 
 Decimal 
 Hank 
 Sliver. 
 
 40 
 
 208 
 
 58 
 
 144 
 
 72 
 
 116 
 
 45 
 
 I8 5 
 
 60 
 
 139 
 
 74 
 
 113 
 
 50 
 
 167 
 
 62 
 
 134 
 
 76 
 
 1095 
 
 52 
 
 160 
 
 66 
 
 126 
 
 78 
 
 107 
 
 54 
 
 154 
 
 68 
 
 '122 
 
 80 
 
 104 
 
 56 
 
 148 
 
 70 
 
 lip 
 
 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 195 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS Essentials of card clothing, 148 Characteristics of founds 
 tion, 148 Character of wire used, 149 Setting of teeth, 150 
 Faults in setting, 151 Counts of wire, 152 Plain, ribbed, and 
 twilled setting, 152 Counts of wire used for different purposes, 
 153 Method of clothing cylinders, 154 Method of clothing flats, 
 154 Principle of grinding teeth, 155 Slow motions, 156 Grinding 
 rollers, 157 Principle of grinding flats, 158 Higginson and 
 MdConnel's grinding appliance, 159 Edge's flat grinder, 159 
 Dobson's flat grinder, 160 Setting grinding roller, 161 Character 
 of grinding for teeth, 162, 163 Stripping clothing, 164. 
 
 (148) Having thus explained the several points connected 
 with the operation of carding, it is now necessary to deal with 
 the various problems which are subsidiary to it. It has been 
 shown that the whole of the working surfaces of the cylinder, 
 doffer, flats, and rollers are covered with wire points, by which 
 the carding is effected. As this " card clothing " is of great 
 importance in the working of a carding machine, it is desirable 
 to give it a somewhat lengthy consideration. Card clothing 
 consists of a " foundation " of cloth, in which are set wire teeth 
 in certain numbers per square inch, these teeth being constructed 
 and set as hereafter described. In all card clothing there are 
 several points which affect the general result. Of these the 
 principal are 
 
 (1) The character of the matrix or foundation receiving the 
 
 teeth. 
 
 (2) The character of the wire as to shape, material, and 1 
 
 preparation. 
 
 (3) The angle at which the wire passes through the founda- 
 
 tion. 
 
196 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (4) The angle of the forward inclination given to the tooth 
 
 from the bend or " knee." 
 
 (5) The relative height of the knee and point. 
 
 (6) The size or thickness of the wire used. 
 
 (7) The setting of the teeth in the foundation. 
 
 The foundation usually consists of four or five layers of cloth 
 securely cemented together. When so formed the foundation 
 must provide a base which is strong enough to be tightly laid 
 upon the surface which it has to cover without unduly stretching 
 or disturbing the setting of the teeth, while giving an elastic but 
 firm support to them during work. The foundation which is 
 the favourite in England consists of three or four plies of cotton 
 and wool, or cotton and linen, or union cloth, with a top facing 
 of natural indiarubber. For cylinder and doffer fillets a 
 foundation of three plies of cotton and a ply of union, linen 
 warp and cotton weft, cemented together and faced with india- 
 rubber makes an excellent one when used for carding American 
 cotton. The chief defect of the indiarubber face is that it 
 disintegrates with heat and even long use, while its principal 
 advantage is that it gives at the point where the tooth leaves the 
 foundation a support which is elastic enough to yield, under 
 pressure, and bring the tooth back again. The clothing used 
 for the flats is never faced with rubber because of the disin- 
 tegration caused by the direct rays of the sun falling upon 
 it. The number of separate layers or " plies " used in 
 uny foundation depends upon the work to be done. For ordi- 
 nary uses three plies are sufficient, but an excellent combination 
 is that of an upper and lower layer of twilled cotton cloth, with 
 a double woollen cloth between. The twilled formation of the 
 cloth gives a special firmness, while the presence of the wool 
 gives a soft but all-round grip which holds the tooth excellently. 
 The woollen cloth used must be well made and compacted, the 
 latter being an essential condition in putting the various plies 
 together. The importance of the matter lies in the fact that if 
 a tooth is too rigidly held it is liable to be bent back or 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 197 
 
 "cranked" at the point where it leaves the foundation, or it 
 may, if hardened and tempered, " break out." The desideratum 
 is a foundation which will fasten well on to the cylinder, doffer, 
 rollers, or fiats without distortion of the teeth or stretching 
 during work. It must be strong and flexible and ]DC able to grip 
 the wire with sufficient firmness, while having the quality of 
 recovery after the teeth have been moved during work or grind- 
 ing. The strength of a cotton-wool-cotton foundation cloth is, 
 for a strip i inch wide, from 800 to goolbs., and the elongation 
 under moderate stresses is very slight. For hardened and 
 tempered teeth it is the best foundation to use, and is gradually 
 becoming more widely adopted. A typical foundation for the 
 doffers and cylinders of cards producing 800 to i,ooolbs. 
 weight of carded web from middling American cotton in 56 
 hours consists of a back of twilled cotton, a second ply of 
 cotton, a third ply of linen and cotton union, a fourth ply of 
 cotton, and an indiarubber face. For the " tops," as the strips 
 covering the flats are called, the cotton-wool-cotton combination 
 is adopted, a double ply of wool being used if extra strength be 
 required, and being very desirable. The thickness of the foun- 
 dation, if four-ply, is about o - i inch, this thickness being 
 common with three-ply cotton-wool-cotton, the wool fabric being 
 made stout in order to give strength. 
 
 (149) With reference to the second pointthe character of 
 the wire used this is now almost universally steel, and the chief 
 distinctions in it relate to its temper and the method of grinding 
 it. Although for certain purposes mild steel wire is preferred, 
 the great bulk of card clothing is provided with wire which is 
 subjected to a continuous hardening and tempering process which 
 gives it great resilience. The systems of hardening and temper- 
 ing have so greatly improved in the past few years that it is 
 possible to produce wire even in temper and polished on its 
 surface. The wire is made of various sections, those most used 
 being round or oval, triangular wire being mostly used for 
 raising machines. The sections are shown in Fig. 95. With 
 reference to the method of grinding, there are several ways of 
 
198 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 doing this. In some cases the wire is " top ground," that is, 
 the teeth are ground transversely of their axes. When " needle- 
 pointed" a most misleading term the wire is ground on its 
 sides near the point, so as to reduce its thickness a little, this 
 variety being also known as "side ground" wire. "Plough- 
 ground " wire is usually made from round wire reduced as 
 low as the knee to a flat section by passing rotating emery 
 discs between the rows of teeth, a plough guide going in 
 advance of each disc. In the first variety there is no 
 reduction of the thickness of the wire at any point ; in the 
 second the reduction is slight, and at the point only ; while in 
 the third it is considerable, nearly half the original size, as shown 
 in the left hand view in Fig. 95. As a rule, plough grinding 
 and hardened and tempered wire go together, although the 
 latter is often used with top or side-ground wire. In determin- 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 
 ing the class of wire to be used, regard must be had to the work 
 which has to be done by it. For instance, if 35olbs. only of 
 Egyptian cotton is to be passed through the machine in 56 
 hours, it is obvious that other conditions will prevail than when 
 9oolbs. of American, which is less uniform in staple and not so 
 clean, are to be carded in the same time. If it be true that the 
 holding power of a tooth is determined by the area of its point, 
 which in the course of grinding is scratched or serrated in 
 accordance with the fineness of the emery, then it is clear that a 
 top ground tooth made from round wire, with an area 35 per 
 cent greater than one which is plough ground, would hold the 
 fibres more tenaciously than the latter. It follows from this 
 that while a moderate weight of cotton could be got from the top 
 ground wire with ease, it would be impossible to put through 
 the card the heavier weight. In this case the plough-ground 
 wire would be undoubtedly the best. Much has been made of 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 
 
 I 99 
 
 the roughness of the sides of plough-ground teeth, but this 
 is a factor which is much reduced, as shown in Fig. 96, 
 which is an enlarged photograph of a side-ground tooth 
 above the knee, and, everything being equal, it is not 
 
 proven that loss of strength 
 in the yarn results from their 
 employment. It is undesirable 
 to overcard cotton, and the 
 quicker it is got out of hand 
 the better; provided it is pro- 
 perly cleansed. In the opinion 
 of the author, side grinding is 
 worse than useless. It does 
 not materially diminish the 
 area of the point, while rough- 
 ening the sides and disturbing 
 the regularity of the setting of 
 ON the teeth. Plough grinding, 
 o which diminishes the area of 
 the tooth by about 45 ' per 
 cent, does so without disturb- 
 ing the setting of the teeth, 
 and increases the space be- 
 tween the teeth to the same 
 extent. As has been said, the 
 neps, short fibres, and other 
 impurities are deposited in 
 the interstices of the teeth, so 
 that with any cotton which 
 contains much of these the 
 increased space is of high 
 importance, alike as a reposi- 
 tory and also by reason of the ease in stripping. As it 
 is extremely improbable that every tooth carries a fibre, the 
 decrease in the area of the point is not of great importance, as 
 with average cotton there will be sufficient retention of the fibre 
 
zoo 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 co insure its effective carding. With Egyptian cotton the 
 matter is different, as in this case the fibres are finer, more 
 uniform, and cleaner than in American; the weight carded is 
 much less, so that every fibre can be subjected to a longer card- 
 ing action with advantage. In this case the round top-ground 
 wire is preferable, and generally gives the best results. Before 
 leaving the question of the wire, it may be said that, on the 
 whole, hardened and tempered wire is to be preferred. By 
 subjecting it to this process, the resilience of the wire is 
 increased rather than decreased, a statement which is confirmed 
 by common experience. If the action of a card tooth be consi- 
 dered, it will at once be seen that it must in the course of its 
 life be subjected to an enormous number of oscillations on its 
 
 FIG. 97. 
 
 fulcrum, and in resistance to permanent set, hardening and 
 tempering plays an important part. Another feature is that the 
 life of the wire teeth that is, the time they wear is increased 
 by hardening and tempering, and this affects not only the quality 
 of the carding but also the strain put upon the teeth by repeated 
 grinding. 
 
 (150) Coming now to deal with the setting of the teeth, which 
 includes all the points numbered 3, 4, and 5, it is necessary to 
 give a brief description of the method of construction. All 
 card clothing which is intended to be used on circular surfaces 
 is made in long strips or "fillets," which are capable of covering 
 the. whole surface without piecing. The "tops," as the strips 
 covering trie flats are called, are made in sheets a little wider 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 
 
 201 
 
 than the length of the flats, the teeth being set in a sufficient 
 number of rows to provide a carding surface of a width which 
 varies from ^ inch to i^ inch. When the teeth for one flat 
 have been inserted, the sheet is given a rapid forward movement 
 so as to leave a space between the two tops, the setting of the 
 next top being commenced at one end of it. The teeth are made 
 from a continuous reel of wire, being bent up into the form of 
 a, two-pronged staple, as in Fig. 97, the cross bar coupling the 
 prongs being called the " crown." When the tooth is formed it 
 is pushed through holes in the foundation which have been pre- 
 viously made by a tool called a "pricker," the fillet being held 
 
 at an angle to the pricker while being pierced, so that the tooth 
 when forced home leaves the foundation at a certain definite 
 angle. As soon as the tooth is fixed its' points are seized by 
 a special tool which draws them forward to a definite extent, 
 bending them over a sharp surface which is placed at the level 
 of the " knee " of the tooth. The amount of angularity given is 
 a matter of great importance. All these operations follow in 
 sequence at a rapid rate, being effected automatically by a 
 /nachine of great ingenuity which is capable of setting 300 pairs 
 of teeth per minute. Referring now to Fig. 98, which is a 
 
202 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 diagrammatic view of a card tooth, drawn to scale from actual 
 dimensions, the foundation F is penetrated by the tooth EGA 
 at an angle with the horizontal of 75. Drawing the vertical 
 line D G through the point E, where the tooth leaves the foun- 
 dation, the position assumed by the point A can be defined. 
 This should be about three degrees in advance of A, the 
 inclination being given from the "knee" C, and being 
 technically known as the "keen" of the tooth. Having thus 
 defined the various parts, it is possible profitably to consider 
 the reasons for the construction indicated. Substantially the 
 line D G may be considered to be, when the clothing is fixed 
 in position on the cylinder, a radial line from the centre of the 
 latter. In order to enable the tooth to seize and carry the 
 fibres it is essential that it shall form what is, in its essence, a 
 
 Fie. 99. 
 
 hook. If it were not given the forward inclination while it 
 would, no doubt, engage with the fibres its carrying capacity 
 would be materially diminished. As, in addition to this, the 
 grinding of the point is effected by passing the emery wheel 
 across its face, its presentation in a truly vertical position would 
 result in the formation of a tip at right angles with the front ot 
 the tooth, instead of at an angle with it, which is the correct 
 formation. The two results are illustrated in Fig. 99. If, on 
 the other hand, the forward inclination of the tooth was too 
 great, the angularity of the point would be injuriously great, 
 giving too great a retaining power to the tooth. 
 
 (151) A card tooth is to all intents a lever which, when 
 subjected to pressure, oscillates upon its fulcrum which, in this 
 case, is theoretically the crown. It is quite true that when the 
 pressure is slight or within reasonable limits, the foundation^will 
 yield and permit the whole of the tooth within it say from B 
 to E, in Fig. 98 to move back. When the pressure applied is 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 203 
 
 excessive the resistance of the foundation increases, and becomes 
 greater than that of the tooth. The result is that the fulcrum 
 of the tooth is moved to E, and flexure takes place at that 
 point. If the pressure is continued the tooth will bend at E 
 being then said to be " broken " or " cranked " back, and in 
 some cases fracture or " breaking-out " takes place. It follows, 
 from what has been said, that any disturbance of the true con- 
 ditions will facilitate the action named. Thus, if the angle of 
 the tooth with the foundation at E be too acute, if the height of 
 the "knee" C be too great, or if the strength of the wire be 
 insufficient, the tendency towards breaking back or out will be 
 much increased. Another fault arising from the existence of an 
 angle at the base, which is too acute, is that it becomes neces- 
 
 Fio. 100. 
 
 sary to make the " keen " of the tooth greater, thus causing 
 the point to be too sharp, and lessening the resistance of the 
 tooth to collapse when as in grinding a pressure is put on it 
 in a radial line towards the cylinder. This is illustrated in 
 Fig. 100, which shows in an exaggerated form a shape of tooth 
 having the defects named. The angle at Z is too acute, as is 
 also the angle X Y Z. Applying a weight in a vertical line at 
 X would tend to cause the tooth to collapse at Y and Z alike, 
 while the tooth A C B in Fig. 98 would stand up better to its 
 work. Again, the application of a pressure at X in a horizontal 
 line would tend to push back the tooth at Z much more than a 
 pressure at A would affect the angle at E in Fig. 98.' Further, 
 as the space between the teeth becomes filled during work with 
 
2O4 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 o 
 
 fly and motes, they require removing by a stripping brush, 
 which is made of light steel wire, and if the angle of the tooth 
 with the foundation is too acute, the removal from below the 
 knee becomes more difficult. Thus the tooth gradually gets 
 supported at a higher point, and its elasticity is considerably 
 lessened. With regard to the vertical position of the knee, this 
 affects the resistance of the tooth to breaking back and its 
 " keen." The rule is with clothing for carding cotton to make 
 the tooth so that a ratio of 3 to 4 represents approximately the 
 length of the tooth from crown to bend and bend to point 
 respectively. Cards which are made for cotton waste, and 
 sometimes for roller and clearer machines, have the bend mid- 
 way of the tooth, in which case it is said to be " middle bend," 
 but in the majority of instances the proportion of 3 to 4 is 
 
 ! 
 
 FIG. 101. 
 
 approximated to. The forward inclination of the tooth, which 
 was the fifth point detailed, plays an important part in the 
 proper working of the clothing. Card teeth invariably work in 
 opposition to each other, and, as the distance separating them 
 is slight and fixed, it is essential that there shall be no danger 
 of contact between them during work. If the point of the 
 tooth be too far in advance of the vertical line, and the tooth is 
 pushed back during work, there is great danger of it oscillating 
 on its centre, and rising above the plane in which it is supposed 
 to be working. In order to make this matter clear let reference 
 be made to Fig. 101. In this the tooth is assumed always to 
 leave the foundation at an angle of 75 from the horizontal, 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 2C$ 
 
 but to be bent forward so that its point terminates 3, 10, 15, 
 20, 25 respectively to the right of the vertical line. If now, 
 lines be drawn parallel with the base through these points 
 respectively, it will be seen that they pass below the crown of 
 the arc of the circle which the point of the wire describes when 
 it is oscillated. If, therefore, the respective lines indicate the 
 normal plane in which the point works in each position, it is at 
 once apparent that if the tooth be caused to radiate about its 
 iulcrum in the direction of the arrow, its point will rise above 
 its normal plane, and will, if continued far enough, come in 
 contact with any superposed surface. There is also a tendency 
 for the tooth to straighten at the knee, which affects its action. 
 An ingenious attempt has been made to show that no such 
 
 FIG. 102. 
 
 contact can take place, but experience demonstrates that it does, 
 and not infrequently. There are many instances in which this 
 action occurs, and in which the only explanation is that given. 
 In Fig. 102 a view of a few teeth correctly set are shown, the 
 illustration being taken from a photograph of an actual piece o* 
 clothing. 
 
 (152) It is now necessary to say a few words on the method of 
 grading the wire used for various purposes. Before it became 
 customary for card teeth to be set in fillets they were always set 
 in sheets 4 inches wide and 10 crowns in each inch of length, 
 The setting used was known as " plain," and is shown in 
 Fig. 103, the points being indicated by spots, and the crowns by 
 
206 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the dotted lines. The fillets now used have the teeth set as in 
 Fig. 1 04, this particular form being known as "ribbed "setting. The 
 tops are always " twilled set," as shown in Fig. 105. If the back of 
 .a cylinder or doffer fillet be examined it will be seen that the 
 teeth are set in rows or ribs, there being a clear space between 
 each rib, which consist of successive groups of three crowns set 
 so as to overlap each other. Under the old system the number 
 of crowns per square inch gave the "counts" of the clothing. 
 With the newer settings the matter is more complicated. Thus, 
 a sheet 4 inches wide, with 100 crowns in that width, was zoo's 
 
 counts and there were Ioox I0 . = 250 crowns in a square inch. 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 In like manner, no's had 275 crowns, and i2o's 300 crowns 
 per square inch. In other words, the number of crowns is 
 counts x 2*5 and the number of teeth counts x 5. This remains 
 as the basis of calculation, and can be used, no matter how 
 widely the traditional setting is departed from. Thus, take a 
 cylinder fillet 2 inches wide, with 8 ribs or 24 crowns in that 
 width, and with 23 crowns in each inch of length measured on 
 one row. There are thus 48 crowns in 4 inches. Care should 
 be taken to count only those teeth or crowns which are on a 
 straight line on each edge of a rib in ascertaining the number in 
 each inch of length, as the triple combination is taken into 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 
 
 207 
 
 account in the width. In the instance quoted there are, there- 
 fere, 48 x 23 = 1,104 crowns in 4 square inches, or 276 in one. 
 Dividing this by 2^5 we get no's, which is the counts. Again 
 let us assume we have a fillet with 7 ribs or 21 crowns in 2 
 inches, but 26 teeth in each inch of length, then the calculation 
 
 is 
 
 4 2 x 2 = 109 -2. In this case it will be noted that the counts 
 - 
 
 2-5 
 
 are not quite full, but the effect of getting 26 crowns in each 
 inch of length is to crowd the teeth, a procedure which is 
 inadvisable and necessitates the use of a finer wire. If a doffer 
 fillet be taken with 6 ribs in i inch wide and 25 crowns per 
 
 inch long the calculation is 
 
 10 
 
 = i2o's. It is advisable in 
 
 
 u 
 
 ;f IS 
 
 FIG. 104. 
 
 FIG. 105. 
 
 every case to take the number of crowns in 4 inches wide, 
 because if i inch be taken it is sometimes necessary to break a 
 rib. Thus, in the seven-ribbed cylinder fillet dealt with above 
 the number of crowns in i inch is only 10*5, but even from this 
 
 the calculation can be made thus I0 ? x 2 =109-2 as before 
 
 The rule may be thus formulated : Number of crowns per inch 
 wide x number of crowns per inch long -f- 2*5. As each crown 
 implies two teeth, the number of the latter per square inch is 
 double the number of crowns. 
 
208 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (153) With reference to the counts of wire used for the 
 various organs these vary in accordance with the work to 
 be performed. For carding American cotton, fillets of no's 
 counts are employed for the cylinders and i2o's counts 
 for the doffers and tops. Egyptian and fine staple cotton are 
 best dealt with by clothing of finer counts. The exact counts 
 used depends upon the work to be done, and where heavy 
 weights are passed through flat cards loo's counts for the 
 cylinder are preferable ; the doffer and tops being reduced 
 proportionately. For roller and clearer machines, the cylinders 
 and rollers may have TOO'S wire on the cylinders, the clearers 
 no's, and the doffers no's to i2o's. For Indian cotton carded 
 by the revolving flat machine nothing finer than TOQ'S on the 
 cylinder and no's on tops and doffers should be used. Some 
 people prefer to have the wire coarser on the flats and finer on 
 the doffers, So's for flats and i2o's for doffers having been 
 advocated. It depends on the amount of carding wanted, but 
 generally speaking, it is not advisable to have the counts of wire 
 on the flats coarser than that on the cylinder. The wire used 
 in making card teeth is regulated as to size by a special gauge 
 which is graded on a scale fixed by the clothing manufacturers. 
 For loo's counts, the wire is made 31 gauge; for no's, 32; 
 for i2o's, 33; and for 130*8, 34. In carding fine cotton with 
 top-ground wire, the thickness of the wire is sometimes made 
 a gauge or half gauge lighter, but as plough grinding reduces the 
 thickness of the wire above the knee it is advisable to keep it of 
 the full strength below that point. The licker-in is clothed by 
 teeth which are of much coarser pitch than the cylinder teeth, 
 and are of the shape shown in Figs. 106 and 107. As shown in 
 the end v ew, the part of the steel strip in which the teeth are cut is 
 thinner than the portion forming the base, which is wide enough 
 to fit tightly into the spiral grooves cut in the licker-in body. 
 The pitch of the grooves varies, being from "166 inch to *i inch, 
 according to the class of work being done. It follows from this 
 that when the strips are in position the teeth do not follow each 
 other in circumferential lines, but overlap to an extent corre- 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 209 
 
 spending with the pitch of the spiral. Thus each succeeding 
 tooth strikes the lap a little to one side of its predecessor, and 
 the removal of the fibres is much facilitated. To a smaller 
 extent the teeth on the cylinders and doffers are also iisposed 
 in spiral lines, as the clothing is necessarily wound on spirally. 
 The licker-in teeth, as shown, are made of two shapes, one 
 (Fig. 107) less angularly and more openly set than the other. 
 The finer tooth is used when no undercasings are employed 
 under the licker-in, but this is a practice to be deprecated, as it 
 leads to a considerable loss of fibre. The clothing strips for 
 the licker-in are known technically as " Garnett " teeth. 
 
 (154) In covering cylinders, doffers, and rollers, it is necessary 
 to exercise great care. The fillets, before being put on, should be 
 kept for some time in some place where the temperature is equal to, 
 
 FIG. 106. 
 
 FIG. 107. 
 
 or a little greater than, that of the card room. If this is not done 
 they begin, when fixed, to expand and rise in particular places, 
 forming what are technically called " blisters." It was pointed out 
 that the cylinders and doffers are carefully prepared to receive the 
 clothing, and have what are practically smooth surfaces. 
 Opinion differs as to whether it is desirable to prepare these 
 by covering them with a thin coating of paint or thin calico. 
 If the latter practice is carried out, care must be taken to paste 
 it in position, so that it lies evenly over the whole area. There 
 is, however, an increasing tendency to wrap the fillets on the 
 bare surface, and it is now believed that the fillet can be so 
 fixed as to avoid any danger of slipping, which is the only 
 motive for preparing the cylinder surface. It will be at once 
 
210 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 recognised as very important that, once the cylinder is covered, 
 the clothing should be firm and immovable, as otherwise the 
 setting of the various parts to the exactitude previously described 
 would be impossible. Assuming that the cylinder is left with- 
 out special preparation, it is advisable to mark on it in chalk 
 the date of covering it, so that the life of the clothing can be 
 ascertained. The method of covering the cylinder is as follows : 
 The fillet is fastened at one end by means of a tack driven into 
 one of the wooden pegs which fill the holes drilled in the 
 periphery, and is then wound on by the rotation of the 
 cylinder. The fillet may be put on manually, or by a specially 
 constructed machine which exerts a definite but adjustable 
 tension upon it as it is being wound. The latter plan is, by far, 
 the better one, as the machine is so constructed that a very 
 regular drag is exerted, and the fillet is, therefore, stretched 
 equally throughout. The tension at which the fillets are wound 
 on the various parts is as follows : For cylinders, mild steel 
 wire 23olbs., hardened wire 27olbs. ; for doffers, mild steel wire 
 i6olbs., hardened and tempered i75lbs. As soon as the whole 
 surface is covered the other end of the fillet is secured in the 
 manner as described, and the cylinder is allowed to stand for a 
 few hours to permit the elasticity of the foundation to adjust it 
 over the whole surface. The clothing is then tacked down by 
 means of a special tool, which drives a tack into the various 
 wooden plugs referred to. Before covering the cylinder it is 
 advisable to mark on a staff the position of the plugs transversely, 
 so that the tacks may be driven without having to run the risk 
 of damaging the clothing. If this operation is properly con- 
 ducted the fillets will lie close together, without gaps, and will 
 be firmly and solidly bedded on the surface of the cylinder. A 
 similar procedure is followed with the doffers and rollers. As 
 the fillets are wound on spirally, it is obvious that at each end 
 of the cylinder and doffer it is necessary to cut them away, so 
 that they do not overlap. There are two or three ways of 
 shaping the fillets at the " tail ends," but the simplest is to cut 
 it diagonally at the required angle to suit the pitch of the spiral. 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 211 
 
 Flats are covered with strips made as indicated, which can be 
 attached in several ways. Until recently the most common 
 method was to drill a number of small holes near the edges of the 
 flats, and to pass through these, and similar holes made in the 
 top, lead rivets. One side of the top was first fastened by these 
 rivets, care being taken that it was absolutely in contact with 
 the under side of the flat throughout its length. The top was 
 then stretched by a suitable instrument and the other edge 
 riveted. Another method is to secure the strip by clasps which 
 pierce it and the flat, and are clenched rapidly on the under- 
 side. This plan is an improvement on riveting, as it protects 
 the strip from the action of the revolving brush which otherwise 
 frays it. The edge of the top strip is necessarily acted on by 
 the stripping brush, and was rapidly worn. All these methods 
 are rapidly giving way to specially constructed clamp fasteners, of 
 which there are now several varieties, The adoption of the clamp 
 fasteners has led to a further important improvement. It is 
 evident that any slackness of the top upon the flat would 
 seriously affect the carding action, and would, in addition, 
 prevent the teeth from being so firmly held. It is, in fact, 
 imperative that the top shall lie quite close to the surface of the 
 flat over its whole area, and to this end it is slightly stretched. 
 In the operation of stretching it is imperative that no undue 
 straining of the clothing shall take place, and more especially 
 that it shall not be so stretched that any distortion takes place 
 in the rows of the teeth near the edges. Some interest, there- 
 fore, attaches to the devices adopted. The first clamp, taken in 
 chronological order, is the Tweedale, shown in Fig. 108. It will 
 be noticed that the flat is formed at its underside with a semi- 
 circular bead, and that the edge of the top is enclosed within 
 and gripped by a J2)-shaped portion of the clamp. The operation 
 of attaching the clamps to the top precedes the introduction of the 
 flat, and the latter which is specially formed is made a little 
 wider than the space between the two clamps when they are fixed 
 on the top. Thus, when the flat is pushed between the clamps, it 
 stretches the clothing, and when it is pressed down so as to be 
 
212 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 firmly bedded, the free end of each clamp is, by a special machine, 
 turned over the bead on the under side of the flat. The stages 
 are thus attachment of clamps, introduction of flat and stretch 
 ing of clothing, and final attachment of clamps to flats. Ashworth's 
 fastener, which is a clamp of very ordinary construction, is 
 shown in Fig. 109, and is differently applied. One edge of 
 the clothing is first fastened to the flat, the operation being 
 completed at once, and, by means of a comb which first 
 penetrates the clothing and then moves outwards, the clothing 
 is stretched* While in that condition the second clamp is 
 attached. 
 
 FIG. 108. 
 
 FIG. 109. 
 
 (155) The foregoing description will have enabled a cleai 
 understanding to be obtained of the construction and method 
 of attachment of the wire clothing, and it is now necessary to 
 consider the most important question of grinding or sharpening 
 the tooth. It has been said that the clothing is sometimes 
 called needle-pointed. This is evidently an exaggeration, because 
 the conditions under which the clothing is formed and applied 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 213 
 
 entirely prevent the construction of any such point. A needle 
 point must of necessity be round and gradually tapering, and it 
 is difficult to conceive of clothing being made in which this type 
 of tooth was inserted. It certainly could only be done by 
 machine with great difficulty, and would involve the manual setting 
 of each pair of teeth. But suppose the teeth to be fixed, they 
 could not be resharpened when the points were worn, because the 
 pitch of the teeth is at most ^ inch longitudinally, and from -$ to 
 CT inch transversely. A needle tooth being circular although 
 its original formation is easy could not be ground at its point 
 while in position, and unless this can be done its use is im- 
 practicable. If a true needle point could be practically adopted 
 there is no doubt of its immense value, but as it cannot, the 
 next best system must be taken. The usual solution of the 
 difficulty is found in the formation of a tooth with a chisel or 
 knife edge, which is presented to the action of the cotton. This 
 is obtained by " plough grinding," and also by the employment 
 of double convex wire. It does not require pointing out that 
 when the machine has been working a short time the teeth 
 become dulled at their points, and require to be sharpened. 
 This is effected when the cylinder is dealt with, by removing 
 the cover above the doffer, and bringing a grinding roller carried 
 in bearings P (Fig. 72) into contact with the wire on the cylinder. 
 By slowly rotating the cylinder and rapidly revolving the grinding 
 roller the whole of the teeth on the former are ground. A 
 similar procedure is pursued with the doffer. Rollers and 
 clearers are removed from the carding machine, and are ground 
 in a special machine constructed for the purpose. The flats of 
 revolving flat carding engines are ground irf position, the roller 
 being placed in the bracket T shown in Fig. 72. There are 
 two points connected with the operations thus briefly summarised 
 about which something may be said. 
 
 (156) The cylinder is, as has been intimated, rotated at a 
 slow velocity while being operated on by the grinding roller. 
 At first sight it would appear that if the cylinder were revolved 
 at its working speed during grinding the finished surface would 
 
214 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING 
 
 be consequently much truer. This is only partially true, as the 
 experience gained in grinding all kinds of articles to a true 
 cylindrical shape, shows that a slow velocity of the article 
 operated on, and a quick one of the grinding wheel, give the 
 best result. It is found that only in this way can a true 
 cylinder be made, and what holds good in other cases is equally 
 applicable to this. The cylinder is, therefore, reduced to a 
 velocity of from 1^/2 to 4 revolutions per minute by various 
 arrangements of wheelwork or other gearing. Some of these 
 necessitate the use of a separate and detachable piece of 
 mechanism, in order to effect the reduction, while others are 
 permanently attached to the machine, and can be thrown in or 
 out of gear as desired. The general result of J:hem all is, 
 however, to give to the cylinder that reduction of motion named, 
 and damage to the wires is thus reduced to a minimum. It is, 
 however, customary to effect the major portion of the grinding 
 in the method described, and to give a light grinding to finish, 
 with the cylinder running at full speed. Where the clothing is 
 well looked to, and repeated grinding given to it, it is often the 
 practice to dispense with slow grinding altogether. Slow motions 
 are applied, by which the speed of the cylinder is reduced during 
 grinding, and they are also of value during the period when a 
 new lap is being put in. If the cylinder and doffer during this 
 time are allowed to run at their full speed, the doffer completely 
 strips the cylinder and the web would be broken. By running 
 at a slow speed the work of stripping is continuously carried on 
 during the period of change, which is of great importance. 
 
 (157) The grinding rollers employed are of two types. In 
 the first the roller is made of equal width to the cylinder, and is 
 covered over its whole surface either with emery or emery filleting. 
 In the second the grinding is effected by a narrow roller which is 
 mounted upon a cylindrical roller or shaft on which it can slide. 
 By means of an ingeniously arranged keybed at the bottom ot 
 the key groove, in which a fork fixed in the emery roller engages, 
 a reciprocal sliding motion is given to the latter as the shaft is 
 revolved. Thus not only does the rotation of the shaft drive the 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 
 
 2I 5 
 
 roller, but it also gives this to and fro movement to the roller. It 
 should also be stated that the continuous grinding roller receives 
 a similar reciprocal motion, the object of which is to bring into 
 operation the cutting edges of the various grains of emery, and 
 so avoid excessive wear at fixed points. Either the broad or 
 narrow roller may be covered with ordinary emery or by fillets 
 or strips of emery cloth. The latter is the plan which is most 
 preferred, and special arrangements are made for retaining the 
 fillet in position. A grooved emery filleting, made by Messrs. 
 Dronsfield Brothers Limited, in which the surface is formed of 
 several raised parts or ridges, is in much request, and for the 
 tempered "steel wire now employed is found very serviceable. 
 
 (158) The flats, as has been said, are ground in position. In 
 Fig. 7 2 brackets T are shown fixed to the framing at each side 
 
 FIG. no. 
 
 of the cylinder, and act as bearings for the grinding roller, which 
 rotates above the flats. At this point the latter have their wire 
 surface upward, and they are held up by means of weighted 
 levers which press upon their under sides and force their working 
 faces against brackets placed for the purpose. There is involved 
 in this operation a point which is of interest and importance. 
 The flats are constructed, as previously shown, with their bearing 
 surfaces parallel with the surface upon which the wire strip is 
 fixed. This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1 10, where A B D C 
 represents the end of the flat which ordinarily rests upon the 
 " bend." The wire surface is represented by the line** F, and 
 this it will be seen is parallel with the line C D which represents 
 the bearing surface, but angularly disposed to the surface A B, 
 
2l6 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 which is the back or upper edge of the flat. Now it is obvious 
 that if the flat is held on the surface A B while it is passing 
 under the grinding roller, the surfaces E F and A B will 
 become parallel with each other ; and the heel, although remaining 
 in the surfaces C D, will, so far as practical purposes are con- 
 cerned, be entirely destroyed. It is, therefore, the practice to 
 sustain the flats, while being ground, in such a manner that their 
 surfaces C D are pressed against the guide-plate, and the parallel 
 relation of C D and E F is thus maintained. As was pointed 
 out at an earlier stage, while in theory this explanation is sufficient, 
 in practice it is necessary to take into account the curvature of 
 
 FIG. in. 
 
 the cylinder and bend. If the diameter of the circle through the 
 points of the teeth be 51 inches, and the width of the carding 
 surface of the flat i inch, then the height of the arc, with a chord 
 i inch long, is easily ascertainable by a well known rule, being 
 equal to the versed sine. It is the custom in some cases to grind 
 the wire surface of the flat to the radius of the circle formed 
 by it when in position, and strictly, this should be 
 maintained throughout the life of the flat. During the 
 whole period the flats are being ground they are moving on 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 21) 
 
 wards, so that the provision of a properly constructed guiding 
 surface is not so simple as it looks. There are several devices for 
 doing this, of more or less merit. They are mainly based on one 
 of two constructive principles, arrived at by practice. First, the 
 provision of a plate with an angular surface so arranged as to give 
 the requisite angularity to the wire surface, or maintain it in one 
 plane during grinding ; or second, the provision of a surface ol 
 the required angle which moves with the flat until the latter is 
 ground, when the bearing surface is released and returns to 
 engage with the next of the series of flats. The object in all 
 these devices is the same, although their mechanism differs, viz., 
 to keep the surface E F in a plane which is coincident with that 
 in which the grinding edge of the roller moves, while sustaining 
 the flat on the face C D. 
 
 (159) One of the best known of these devices is Higginson 
 and McConnel's, shown in Fig. 1 1 1. It consists of a bracket 
 A fixed in a corresponding position to T in Fig. 72, and 
 having at its upper portion C a slot in which the slide D is 
 fitted. The slide has its under side shaped so as to give the 
 necessary inclination to the flats when they are pressed on to it 
 during grinding, and has a lip at one end of it. It is kept 
 normally pressed to the left by the spring E. The flats G, of 
 which only two are shown, move in the direction of the arrow, 
 and when turned face up the chain lugs mount upon the nose of 
 the short lever H, on the spindle of which a bell crank levei 
 with a balance weight on is also fastened. The weight, which is 
 not shown in the drawing, presses the end H upwards, the range 
 of movement being determined by the set screw I. As the flats 
 traverse, they mount upon the higher part of H, and are thus 
 pressed into contact with the incline on the slide D, moving 
 onward until they engage with the lip on D. When in this 
 position the wire face of the flat is in the horizontal plane, and 
 passes gradually under the guiding roller B. As the flat moves 
 forward it carries the slide D with it until the whole of the wire 
 is ground, when the chain lug passes over the nose of H and 
 the flat falls. The slide D is thus released, and the spring E 
 
218 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 pushes it back into the position necessary to receive another flat. 
 The effect of this arrangement ,s that the wire is kept in one 
 plane during grinding, being held in position by the contact of 
 its working face with the slide. Little friction is caused, so that 
 
 FIG. 112. 
 
 no extra stress is thrown upon the chain. Another form of 
 apparatus is Edge's (Fig. 112), which consists of a curved plate 
 B fixed to the grinding bracket. The fiats C traverse over this 
 plate, and when they reach the centre the chain lugs pass on to 
 the raised portion B 1 , which is long enough to permit each flat 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 219 
 
 to remain in contact with it while under the grinding roller. 
 The grinding roller G is sustained and rotates in a bracket or 
 bearing resting on a cylindrical stem E 1 , fitting within a cup,, 
 and also in a similar recess or barrel E. The latter has a long 
 boss, forming part of the plate D, the necessary adjustment of 
 the under side of D being thus easily made, so as to -give any 
 desired pressure of the grinding roller. As the flats C traverse,, 
 they successively ride upon the projection B, forcing their work- 
 ing surfaces against the under side of D, which is shaped so that 
 the traverse of each flat causes one side to become depressed 
 and the other to be elevated. The change in the position of 
 the plane of the flat face is sufficient to present the wires to the 
 grinding roller in correct position, while the ease of adjustment 
 enables an accurate pressure to be established and maintained. 
 
 (160) In these various arrangements, however, the flats are 
 turned with their faces upward, and although they are strongly 
 constructed with a strengthening longitudinal rib, there is a 
 little deflection occurs between the sustaining points. Now 
 it is obvious that, however little this deflection may be^ 
 the wire surface will be affected by it, and that, although 
 it is very slight, not more than '003 inch, yet the points of 
 the wires will be arched to that extent. In other words, the 
 centre will, while face up, have less ground off than the ends. 
 The evil does not, however, stop here, because when the flat is 
 again turned face downward, as it is when in working position, 
 there will be a similar deflection in the opposite direction, so 
 that the centre of the flat will be practically about '005 to 
 006 inch below its ends. When the setting is supposed to 
 be made to *ooi inch it is clear this is a matter of importance. 
 For this reason, therefore, mechanism has been designed by 
 which the flat is ground with its face downward, while moving 
 on a surface designed to preserve the heel. In one or two- 
 cases this involves the lengthening of the chain of flats, but by 
 a recent arrangement, shown in Figs. 113, 114, 115, Messrs. 
 Dobson and Barlow have overcome this difficulty in an ingenious 
 manner, by so arranging the chain of flats that at the 
 
220 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 point where the grinding bracket and roller are fixed, the chain 
 is lengthened, and the flats pressed upon a surface correspond- 
 ing to that on which they ordinarily travel. The grinding roller, 
 which is placed just above the licker-in and between the working 
 and i"dle flats, is pressed up to the wires, and is, as the flat 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 
 FIG. 114. 
 
 travels gradually, raised a little higher, to an extent equal to the 
 heel required. After the flat is ground it is released and 
 automatically resumes its normal position, all the parts of the 
 apparatus assuming the necessary adjustment to recommence 
 the arrangement. The cylindrical grinding rollers ordinarily 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 
 used to grind the flats are turned on their grinding surface to a 
 curve supposed to correspond to that produced by the deflection 
 so as to compensate for it. 
 
 (161) All the brackets carrying the grinding rollers are 
 supplied with the necessary adjusting screws by which tha 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 221 
 
 roller can be brought into contact with the wire surface. The 
 greatest care should be taken in setting this roller. The pro- 
 cedure is similar to that of setting the flats to the cylinder, as 
 described in par. 137, but in this case the gauges are preferably 
 thin slips of paper, by pulling which the equality of the pressure 
 upon the roller can be ascertained. It is essential, for reasons 
 which will be presently detailed, that the contact should be a 
 light one, but with ordinary care there need be no difficulty 
 about this. 
 
 (162) It has already been intimated that the tooth is ground 
 for the purpose of producing a chisel or knife edge, which is the 
 nearest approach possible to a needle point. The purpose for 
 which a needle point is required is to provide a carding surface 
 which is of so delicate a character that it is able to deal with 
 each fibre separately. It is easy to see that if the carding 
 points were, say a -Jinch broad, the fibres would practically be 
 scutched instead of carded, and any such construction would be 
 fatal to efficiency. What is wanted is a point which will easily 
 travel along a single fibre, or through a number, so as to scrape 
 without injuring it, and thus complete the cleansing process. It 
 is obvious that the finer and smoother the tooth the more 
 likely it is to fulfil this important object. It is well estab- 
 lished that the effect of any grinding process upon the material 
 ground is to leave upon its surface grooves, scratches, or scores, 
 the depth and pitch of which depends entirely upon the character 
 of the material used in grinding. The material which it is neces- 
 necessary to employ, or, at any rate, which is always employed, 
 is emery, and even the finest grades whicn are commercially 
 usable will have a considerable effect upon the surface to which 
 it is applied. This has been very clearly shown by a number of 
 experiments, and is very well established. By the aid of micro- 
 photographs (like that in Fig. 95), the effect is fully demon- 
 strated, but any reader, with the aid of a moderately strong 
 magnifying glass, can see them sufficiently plainly without effort. 
 Thus all plough-ground wires are more or less abraded and 
 scratched on the side of the teeth, and, if left untouched, are 
 
222 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 apt to produce an ill effect upon the cotton. It will be 
 remembered that the cotton fibre is sheathed in a coating or 
 wax, the preservation of this sheath being absolutely necessary 
 for efficient working in the after processes. A rough tooth will 
 present a saw-like surface to the fibre and will scrape off some 
 of the wax from it. Whenever this happens a fine white powder 
 will be found about the various parts of the machine, particularly 
 about the trumpet guide and the mouth of the coiler. This is a 
 certain sign that the fibre is being damaged, and whenever it is 
 observed an examination of the wire should be made. It is a 
 very much preferable practice to burnish the wire periodically by 
 means of a wire brush, as in this way the roughened surface is 
 made smooth and a much better carding tooth is obtained. The 
 use of a brush of this character in which the bristles penetrate 
 the teeth at intervals is very advantageous, and can be recom- 
 mended to all who wish to get the very best effect. 
 
 (163) Having got a side ground tooth which has smooth sides, 
 and having fixed it in position on the .cylinder, the next thing is 
 to grind it on the point. The mechanism for effecting this has 
 been described, and it will have been noticed that the grinding 
 roller can be set so as to exert any desired pressure. It is 
 however extremely injudicious to grind heavily, as there is great 
 danger of bending or barbing the wire teeth. If the emery roller 
 is pressed too hardly down upon the tooth, the metal is made to 
 flow over the front edge of the tooth and leave a barb or hook. 
 The effect of this is that as the wire moves it gets hold of the 
 fibres in such a way that they cannot easily be withdrawn, and 
 they begin to collect until they are forcibly detached and many of 
 them broken. Bad carding is the inevitable outcome of hooked 
 wires, and nothing is more fatal to good work, the essential con- 
 dition of which is the freedom of the passage of the tooth through 
 the cotton. If this be not the case it is idle to look for an even 
 wet composed of fibres of full length and strength. In practice it is 
 infinitely preferable to grind lightly and often than to wait for the 
 card points to get dull and then grind them heavily. The diagrams 
 given in Fig. 116, will illustrate this. A is the shape of the 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 223 
 
 upper part of a card tooth, the carding edge of which is sharp 
 and clean ; B is a tooth which is badly worn at the front, so as 
 to be quite rounded, and the dotted lines across the top shows 
 the amount which requires to be ground off; C is the result of 
 heavy grinding, a hook or barb being found existing at the 
 front edge ; and D is a tooth only slightly worn, which, when 
 ground, will show a sharp clean carding point like E. It must 
 be understood that these are merely diagrammatic representations 
 of what happens, but they illustrate the point being dealt with. 
 It is clear that if a barb is formed at all the chance of effective 
 carding is lessened, and it is also clear that if the wire is 
 allowed co become so far worn as to necessitate heavy grinding, 
 the chance of forming a barb is greatly increased. It is, there- 
 fore, a preferable plan to grind the cylinder lightly once a month 
 
 than to grind heavily at longer intervals. Very much more 
 depends upon attention to this matter than many carders appear 
 to think, and observation is the only guide to correct practice. 
 Two slivers, which shall be produced from laps formed of the 
 same mixing of cotton, made up at the same time, will yet be 
 entirely different in their appearance. They may both be 
 perfectly well carded so far as motes and short fibres are con- 
 cerned, and yet one will be bright and lustrous, and the other 
 dull and dirty looking. Many such slivers have been inspected, 
 and in almost every case it is found that it is from the setting 
 and condition of the wire that the difference in result" arises. 
 &ny roughness or want of sharpness of the wire speedily affects 
 
224 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the quality of the product. It is therefore essential for good 
 work that the condition of the wire should be the very best it is 
 possible to obtain. 
 
 (164) Not only is it essential for the proper conduct of 
 carding that the wire teeth should be sharp and smooth, but 
 they should periodically be thoroughly freed from the accumu- 
 lation of short fibres, neps, and motes with which they become 
 charged. Everything depends upon the maintenance of the 
 freedom of the wire tooth, and it is obvious that if it is 
 embedded in a mass of waste material it cannot be as effective 
 as when quite free. The flats, in revolving flat carding engines, 
 are stripped after every passage they make over the cylinder, 
 so that they are always in the best and most cleanly condition. 
 The cylinder wire, which does not do much more than act as a 
 carrier for the fibre, will, of course, be in good working condi- 
 tion for a much longer time than the flats or rollers, because 
 a little accumulation is not of so much importance as it is 
 in wires which have actually to card. The proper period of 
 stripping depends also upon the character of the cotton used, 
 and this is a factor which varies from year to year, as was 
 pointed out in Chapter II. In a season when the pod bursts 
 open before many of the fibres it contains are fully matured, 
 there will always be a large percentage of short fibre, so that a 
 rule which holds good one year is of very little service the next. 
 Cotton which, like Indian, contains a good deal of immature 
 and short fibre, necessarily fills the wire much sooner than a 
 cleaner variety, and stripping must be carried out oftener. It 
 has already been pointed out that the character of the strippings 
 is a fair indication of the quality of the work done, and they 
 should be carefully looked to to see that good fibre is not being 
 removed with the bad. For very fine work stripping is carried 
 out several times a day ; while with good, clean American, for 
 ordinary work, once or twice a day is sufficient. It is very 
 good practice to strip the cards in regular rotation., so that 
 there is always a fair proportion of the machines with clean 
 wire, and the carding throughout the room will be evener in 
 
CARD CLOTHING AND GRINDING. 225 
 
 quality, as an average. The use of a wire roller for stripping 
 cylinders and doffers is preferable, not only because it is more 
 convenient, but also on account of the burnishing or polishing 
 effect upon the wire. Before leaving this point it may be 
 repeated that "good carding is absolutely essential to good 
 work. With it a good even yarn can be made. Without it no 
 such result need be looked for. It is impossible to lay too 
 much stress upon this point, and the care bestowed upon the 
 machine and its clothing will amply repay the spinner." 
 
 (165) The whole of the points which it is necessary to deal 
 with at length have now been treated, and it only remains to 
 be said that the attention of the carder should be especially 
 given to the question of cleanliness. In an operation of this 
 kind the prevention of the emission of fly is practically im- 
 possible, and it finds a lodgment on all parts of the machine. 
 It is, therefore, of high importance to prevent choking of the 
 parts and the collection of dirt, in places where it will be drawn 
 into the lap, and that the utmost vigilance should be observed 
 to keep everything free from any accumulation of fly. Especially 
 is this the case with revolving flat machines, as the chain very 
 speedily becomes stiff, unless great vigilance is exerted to keep 
 it clear. Good carding requires vigilance, and the student of 
 cotton spinning ought to be Argus-eyed in order to see every 
 neglect of the small but essential duties required. 
 
226 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Object of combing, 166 Preparation of lap, 167 Method 
 of driving feed rollers, 168 Regulation of delivery, 169 Action of 
 nipper mechanism, 170 Construction of comb cylinder, 171 Action 
 of top comb, 171 Construction and action of detaching mechanism, 
 172 Dobson and Barlow's detaching mechanism, 173 Action of 
 lap leather roller, 174 General action of parts, 175 Diagrammatic 
 illustration of action, 176 Duplex machine, 177 Setting of parts, 
 178, 179, 180 Draft in machine, 181 Object of drawing, 182 
 Description of machine, 183 Essentials of roller leather, 183 Loose 
 boss rollers, 183 Definition of "delivery," 184 Roller gearing ( 
 185 Principles of drawing, 186, 187 Setting of rollers, 188 
 Diagram of drawing, 189, 190 Stop-motion, 191 Electric stop- 
 motion, 192 Clearers, 193 Theory of doubling, 194 The prepara- 
 tion of rollers, roller cloth, 195 Metallic drawing rollers, 196 Com- 
 parative merits of various types of roller, 196 Arrangement of sliver 
 cams, 197 Calculation of draft, 198, 199, 200, 201. 
 
 ^166) As shown in Chapter II., the process of combing 
 is one which is only carried out when the finer qualities of 
 yarn are to be spun. The manipulation of the material is so 
 thorough that a large proportion of waste is made, so that, 
 except when a high priced good yarn is to be spun, economic 
 reasons forbid the combing of the cotton. It was briefly inti- 
 mated in paragraph 61 that combing was a method of dealing 
 in detail with the fibres, and that its result is to effect a much 
 greater parallelisation of the fibres in the carded sliver. Not 
 only so, but the setting of the mechanism leads to a species of 
 sorting of the fibres by which all below a certain length are 
 rigidly cast out. Thus, after cotton has been subjected to the 
 action of a machine of this character, two of the essentials of 
 perfect yarn are produced, viz., the presence within the thread 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 227 
 
 of a number of fibres laid in parallel order relatively to one 
 another, and so selected as to be practically uniform in length. 
 The cylindricality of the thread when twisted is therefore, if not 
 absolutely obtained, much more nearly approached than is 
 usually the case. 
 
 (167) In order to ensure the proper treatment of the 
 material it is the usual practice to combine a number of 
 slivers, and form them into narrow laps of 7% or 8*4 inches 
 wide. The carded slivers, in number from 12 to 1 6, are drawn 
 from the cans, and after passing over spoon guides forming 
 part of a stop motion, are passed between drawing rollers, by 
 which they are consolidated and attenuated, after which they 
 are rolled into a lap by means of suitable mechanism at the 
 end of the machine. The precise action of the stop motion 
 and drawing rollers will be discussed at length when the 
 operation of drawing is considered. After the laps have been 
 formed on the Sliver Lap Machine, as it is called, six of them 
 are passed through a second machine called the Ribbon Lap 
 Machine, also constructed with drawing rollers. In this machine 
 the laps are attenuated considerably, and are laid upon each 
 other before being passed through calender rollers, and formed 
 into a roll or lap for feeding the combing machine. The 
 advantage derived from this treatment is that the fibres in 
 the laps are drawn into an approximately parallel order, so that 
 the needles of the combing cylinder can very readily pass 
 through them without any danger of damage, either to the 
 needles or the fibres. The method in which this parallel order 
 is induced will be dealt with at length a little later on in this 
 chapter. 
 
 (168) The lap having been obtained, the next thing is to 
 feed it to the machine. This is effected in the following way : 
 Referring to Fig. 117, which is a transverse section of the 
 machine, the lap is placed upon two wooden rollers A A 
 which are given a definite rotative motion, the lap being 
 slowly unrolled as required. There are so many parts in a 
 combing machine that it is impossible to have the same 
 
228 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 letters referring to the same parts throughout, and care 
 must be taken therefore to look at any special drawing 
 dealt with at each point. The lap is taken down a tin trough 
 B which terminates a little above the nip of two rollers C C 1 , 
 these being the feed rollers. The lower roller is held in suitable 
 
 FIG. 117. 
 
 bearings, and is in one line throughout the machine, being 
 driven from the headstock placed at the end. It may be here 
 explained that the description now being given is that of one 
 head, but that there are usually six or eight heads in a complete 
 machine, all the parts of which are driven from one point. It 
 will therefore be understood that although dealing with one 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 22 9 
 
 head the construction of each is similar, and that the action 
 of all is simultaneous. The plan of the gearing is given in Fig. 
 1 1 8, which is sketched from a single nip machine, made by 
 Messrs. Dobson and Barlow. Although this varies to some extent 
 from the ordinary machine, it resembles it sufficiently to enable 
 the description to be followed. The lower roller C is driven from 
 
 FIG 118. 
 
 the wheel D by means of a star wheel G (Fig. 119;, which is 
 compounded with a pinion J. The pinion J gears into a wheel 
 H fixed on the end of the lower roller. Thus any rotary motion 
 of the star wheel G is communicated to the roller, and it is 
 only necessary to see how this is obtained. On the driving 
 shaft A is a pinion B which gears with a wheel D, to the inner 
 face of which an adjustable boss is fastened, on which is fixed a 
 
23 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 peg E gearing with the notches in the star wheel G every time 
 D makes one revolution, thus moving the wheel G forward one- 
 sixth of a revolution. It will be noticed that the partial rota- 
 tion of the feed roller only takes place once during the revolution 
 of the wheel D. As D is fixed on the shaft on which the circular 
 comb, afterwards referred to, is fastened, it follows that the 
 latter makes one revolution during each partial forward rotation 
 of the feed roller. The gapped disc F ensures that the stai 
 wheel is only revolved when the gap in F permits the peg E to 
 rotate. 
 
 FIG. 119. 
 
 (169) The feed roller is i inch in diameter, or 3*1416 cir- 
 cumference, and according to the length of the fibres being 
 combed is given from one-eighth to one-tenth of a revolution. 
 As the number of recesses or pockets in the star wheel is fixed, 
 it is necessary to vary the relation between the wheels J H when 
 it is desired to alter the amount of forward motion of the feed 
 roller, and this can easily be done. Suppose that the roller is 
 required to move forward one-eighth of a revolution, any point 
 
 3-1416 
 
 on its circumference will move ^ 5- 
 
 3927 of an inch. 
 
 That is, the end of the lap is projected to that extent by this 
 action alone. The lower roller C (Fig. 117) is made of steel. 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 2 3 I 
 
 and is provided with a finely fluted boss of sufficient length to 
 receive the full width of the lap. Upon this the upper roller 
 C 1 , which is sustained at its ends in slots, rests. C 1 is covered 
 with flannel and leather, and is weighted by hooks or stirrups 
 and weights suspended from the neck at each end. Thus a 
 complete nip is obtained which enables the feeding to be very 
 effectually performed. 
 
 rm 
 
 J.N. 
 
 FIG. 120. 
 
 (170) The nippers and their attached levers are shown in detail 
 in Fig. 120, which should be referred to along with Fig. 121. 
 The end of the lap after leaving the feed rollers is passed through 
 the nipper jaws D H (Fig. 120). In the ordinary type of machine 
 the lower nipper H is made of steel with a rounded lip H l . H 
 is fastened to the bracket or frame I, which is formed to receive 
 it, being long enough to extend across the head so that~H is 
 capable of gripping the full width of the lap. I oscillates upon 
 
232 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the rod or pin J 1 . The bracket I has two upwardly projecting 
 arms I 1 1 2 , one of which I 1 has attached to it spiral springs, which 
 give it a downward pull so as constantly to draw the nipper 
 plate H up. The extent of the upward movement of H is 
 regulated by the screw I s which is threaded through the arm I s , 
 and the point of which presses against the bracket F. The 
 latter is fixed to the framework, and constitutes a rest upon 
 
 FIG. 121 
 
 which the bracket J carrying a bearing for the centre J 1 can 
 slide. It must, of course, be understood that in most cases the 
 mechanism is duplicated. This must necessarily be so, because 
 the various parts must be wide enough to deal with the lap, so 
 that it is essential that they should be borne at each side of the 
 head. The bracket J can be adjusted by the screw shown, and 
 afterwards locked in position by means of a bolt and nut. The 
 object of these various adjustments will be subsequently ex- 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 233 
 
 plained. The upper nipper D, which is also made of steel, is 
 fastened to the face of the bracket E, which rocks upon the 
 centre E 1 and has a backwardly projecting arm to which the 
 rod G is attached (see Fig. 121). The bearing for E 1 is formed 
 in the bracket F, and E can oscillate upon E 1 freely. The rod 
 G at its lower extremity is coupled to the lever G 1 (Fig. 121), 
 which rocks upon a shaft G a . The other arm of G 1 carries an 
 anti-friction bowl engaging in a cam course formed m the 
 " cradle " cam K. This is fixed on a shaft parallel with the 
 cylinder shaft and driven by the wheel D which gears with a 
 pinion I on the cam shaft as shown in Fig. 118. Only the 
 outline of the cam course is shown in order to avoid confusion. 
 Thus a reciprocal oscillating movement is given to the bracket 
 E, which causes the nipper plate D to rise and fall, its position 
 when open and closed being indicated by the full and dotted 
 lines. A glance at Fig. 121 will show that the cam K is so 
 shaped that for a great portion of its revolution there is no 
 movement of D, the cam course being concentric The whole 
 of the oscillation of the bracket E is effected while the bowl 
 carried by G 1 approaches or leaves that part of the cam course 
 which is eccentric to the centre of the shaft on which K is 
 fixed. Beyond noting this fact at this point nothing more need 
 be said. The cam shaft is driven from the wheel D shown in 
 Fig. 118 by means of its engagement with a wheel fixed on the 
 cam shaft. As was said, both the nipper plates H and D are 
 made of steel, and both are capable of being adjusted when 
 attached to the brackets carrying them. The lower nipper 
 plate is formed with a rounded nose which is covered with a 
 soft covering of smooth leather, and from this cause is usually 
 called the " cushion plate." The upper blade is formed with 
 longitudinal flutes and an overhanging lip, as clearly shown in 
 the drawings, so that when its lower edge is pressed against the 
 rounded edge of the cushion plate a firm grip is obtained of 
 any fibres interposed. In lieu of this construction, which is the 
 one ordinarily adopted, Messrs. Dobson and Barlow make the 
 lower plate D with an angular edge, and fix in the upper plate 
 
234 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 a strip of indiarubber by which a good grip is obtained. It is 
 obvious that the two nippers should be adjusted so that con- 
 tact is established across their whole width at the same time, as 
 otherwise the nipping of the cotton will be very ineffectively 
 performed. The passage of the combs through the end of the 
 lap tends to open or spread it, a tendency which is increased by 
 the operation of the feed and detaching rollers. In order to 
 avoid this risk Messrs. John Hetherington & Sons use the 
 device shown in transverse section in Fig. 122, and in plan in 
 Fig. 123. The lower nipper jaw, or cushion plate H, has 
 
 j. N. 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 
 attached to it at each side a guide plate which has two pro- 
 jecting pieces C E, one at the front and the other at the back 
 of the nipper. E is curved so as to allow the upper nipper D 
 to descend without obstruction. The two pieces C and E are 
 connected so as to form one piece. The plate D is cut away 
 at F so as to clear the front guide C, which is arranged so as to 
 be in contact with the front end of the cushion plate H. By 
 this arrangement it is practically impossible for the lap to 
 spread when nipped, while the fibres are prevented from lifting 
 by the guide D. The cylinder is also formed with a c flange. 
 Wide laps can thus be used while the selvedge is straight. 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 2 35 
 
 (171) Having described the nipping mechanism of the Heil 
 mann machine, we have next to deal with that which is 
 employed for combing and detaching. The combing of the 
 fibre is effected by means of a series of needles fixed in a 
 cylinder, and a comb to which an upward and downward move- 
 ment is given, but which is, during the operation of combing, 
 retained in one position. The cylinder N (Fig. 117) consists of 
 a central body or stock, shaped out at one point so as to 
 receive a series of flat plates or matrices into which the needles 
 N 1 are fixed. Of the latter there are usually seventeen rows, 
 and they are made of round steel tapered to a fine point, and of 
 
 FIG. 123. 
 
 J.N, 
 
 different diameters. In the various rows the pitch of the needles 
 varies^from one-thirtieth of an inch to one-ninetieth of an inch. 
 They vary in diameter according to their pitch, and are usually 
 disposed as follows : 
 
 4 rows of 2o's 
 
 22'S 
 2 4 'S 
 26'S 
 28'S 
 
 30's 
 33's. 
 
 The matrices in which these needles are held is made of a 
 metal into which they can easily be fixed, and they are^planed 
 and shaped so as to lie accurately in their proper position, and 
 
236 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 give the needles their true angle when they are secured by the 
 set screws attaching them to the comb stock. The object of 
 this construction is to permit of the ready removal of any of the 
 sets of needles which may be broken or damaged during work, 
 and its replacement by a new one. It is essential that the 
 several rows of needles should be in parallel lines, as otherwise 
 
 FIG. 124. 
 
 there will be an injurious action on the cotton. They must not 
 be hooked too much, or their carrying power is increased, and 
 too much waste is caused. The width over all of each row of 
 needles is usually a little in excess of that of the lap, in order to 
 allow for the spreading of the cotton caused by the nipping. 
 The top comb is formed at the lower end of a flat plate L 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 237 
 
 (Fig. 124) which is fixed to the end of an arm or lever L 1 , which 
 rocks with the spindle L s , carried by a bracket on the framing. 
 The tail end of the lever L 1 comes in contact with the point of 
 a stop screw L 8 which passes through an ear in the bracket, and 
 which can be set so as to limit the range of movement of the 
 lever L 1 and thus regulate the descent of the top comb L. On 
 the same spindle as the lever L 1 is a lever M 1 , having a bowl 
 M 2 at one end which engages with the cam M secured upon the 
 cylinder shaft. Beyond noting that the shape of the cam is 
 such that the top comb is held out of contact with the cotton 
 during part of the period occupied by the revolution of the 
 cylinder, and allows it to remain embedded in it for the remain- 
 ing portion, nothing more need now be said. The top comb is 
 usually 28's, with almost all ranges of staple, and is sufficiently 
 long to thoroughly penetrate the lap. The teeth on the 
 cylinder are cleaned by a revolving brush placed below it and 
 adjustable to it. The brush is cleaned by a small doffer which 
 in turn is stripped by an oscillating comb, which is driven by a 
 crank R (Fig. 118) actuating the rocking levers Q on which the 
 comb is fixed. Special means of adjustment are given to the 
 brush and doffer by setting screws so as to compensate for the 
 wear of the bristles. The waste which is thus removed is valu- 
 able, and can be worked up for coarser yarns. 
 
 (172) At a point directly opposite that at which the needles 
 are fastened to the cylinder, a segment is formed. This is finely 
 fluted transversely, and is consequently known as the fluted seg- 
 ment Between it and the needles there are two spaces or gaps 
 in the cylinder, the object of which will be afterwards described. 
 The surface of the segment is sufficiently distant from the centre 
 as to come into contact with the underside of the combed end 
 of the lap and sustain it during the revolution of the cylinder. 
 The object of the fluted segment is to enable the detachment of 
 a tuft of cotton to take place after it has been combed, and to 
 aid in its attachment to the previously combed sliver. The last- 
 named operation is the function of two rollers S and Q (Fig, 
 117), the former called the "detaching roller," and the latter UtC 
 
238 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 "top detaching " or " leather " roller. These names are somewhat 
 delusive, because, as a matter of fact, the actual operation of 
 detachment is done by the latter, and the function of the former 
 is really that of piecing or attaching. As these names, however, 
 are those generally employed, it is better to retain them. The 
 roller S is formed in a line extending along the machine, and 
 revolves in bearings in the framework of each head, in such a 
 position that it is always clear of the needle and fluted segment. 
 
 FIG. 125. 
 
 It is actuated from the headstock of the machine by special 
 gearing, which is illustrated in Figs. 125, 126, and 127. 
 This consists of a cam O (this cam being marked N 
 in Fig. 1 1 8) fixed upon the shaft on which the "cradle" 
 cam K is fastened. Engaging with the cam course in O 
 is a bowl O 1 fastened at one end of a lever O 2 rocking upon 
 a pivot borne by the framing, which is not shown in' the 
 
 drawing. 
 
 The other end of the lever O* has hinged to it 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 2 39 
 
 a catch Q, which can be raised or lowered by means of a lever 
 Q 2 , a bowl carried by which engages with the cam Q 1 , fixed in a 
 position adjoining O. The catch Q is constantly drawn down 
 towards a '-notched" wheel T, which is fastened on a spindle 
 carried by the framing. It will be noticed that the notches in T 
 are square, and that the end of the catch Q is correspondingly 
 shaped. The reason for this construction is to enable a movement 
 being given to the notched wheel with equal facility and without 
 
 FIG. 126. 
 
 any danger of slipping in each direction. On the same spindle or 
 arbor as the notched wheel is an internal disc wheel or annulus 
 T 1 , with which engages a pinion fastened on the end of the 
 detaching roller S. Thus any motion which is given to the 
 notched wheel is at once communicated to the detaching roller, 
 and the extent to which the latter rotates in either direction is 
 regulated by the range of movement of the notched wheel and 
 the proportionate relation of the number of teeth in the internal 
 
240 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 wheel and the pinion gearing into it. A glance at Fig. 125 will 
 show that the course in the cam O is formed so that the lever 
 O 2 is rocked upon its centre in each direction alternately during 
 every revolution, but that the extent of the movement varies. 
 Thus if Fig. 125 be observed, it will be seen that the catch 
 Q is disengaged, being held out of gear by the cam Q 1 . 
 As the bowl O begins to enter the curved part of the cam 
 course in O at i, the catch Q is dropped into the notch 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 marked i, and the continued rotation of O is followed by a 
 movement of the bowl O 1 to 2, so as to cause the notched 
 wheel T to take up the position indicated in Fig. 126. It will 
 be seen that the notch i has moved forward, its position and 
 that of the lever being clearly shown in the drawing. The 
 further rotation of O 1 from position 2 to position 3 causes the 
 lever O 2 to rock in the opposite direction, so that the notched 
 wheel is drawn backward until the bowl in O 2 passes into the 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 2 4 I 
 
 concentric part of the cam course and the catch is in position 
 3, as shown in Fig. 127. It remains in this position until 
 released by the rotation of the cam Q\ The extent of this back- 
 ward, is greater than that of the forward, movement, and the pro- 
 portion which they bear to each other will be referred to at a later 
 stage. It will be sufficient at this point to mention that obviously 
 
 FIG. h8. 
 
 the same movement takes place of the detaching roller, which is 
 first given a backward and then a forward rotation. 
 
 (173) The mechanism thus described is that which is 
 ^employed in the Heilmann machine as usually constructed, but 
 Messrs. Dobson and Barlow employ a special form of motion 
 which has some points of interest. This is shown in 
 Figs. 128 and 129. It consists of a clutch E, one half of 
 
242 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 which is fixed upon the axis of the detaching roller and the 
 other half B slides upon it. The latter is formed as a toothed 
 pinion, and has a ring groove formed in it with which the 
 forked end of a lever G engages. The other end of G carries 
 a bowl A, which by the pull of a helical spring is constantly 
 pressed against the face of a cam M on the cam shaft. (See also 
 Fig/i 1 8.) A second cam F has a cam course somewhat similar 
 in shape to the one shown in Fig. 125, with which a bowl in the 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 rocking lever C engages. The latter is formed with a toothed 
 quadrant D at its inner end, which gears with the pinion on the 
 loose-half-clutch B. So long, therefore, as the clutch B E is in 
 gear the rotation of the cam F has precisely the same effect as 
 in the preceding case. The detachment of the clutch is effected 
 by a cam operating the lever G, which is similar in effect to the 
 cam Q 1 *which releases the catch Q in Fig. 1 25. The distance 
 travelled during the backward movement of the detaching. 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 743 
 
 roller is about if inch, which is a little less than one-third that 
 of the complete forward motion. The total extent of the forward 
 motion from one end of the motion of the catch to the other is 
 about 4^ inches, but this can, of course, be varied as desired by 
 an alteration of the shape of the cam. 
 
 FIG. 130. 
 
 (174) It is now necessary to deal with the action of the top 
 (leather roller Q. This, it will be seen in Fig. 130, is in contact 
 with the detaching roller, and is sustained by its arbors resting 
 against the face of the block R. The latter is fixed on a lever 
 called the " horse head," which is centred on a pin R 1 . Its tail 
 
244 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 end is oscillated by a cam Y, in which the bowl Y 1 engages. 
 Y 1 is borne by a lever Y 2 , which rocks on the same centre as the 
 lever Y 3 coupled to the horse head by the connecting rod shown 
 in the drawing. The effect is that as the face of the bracket R 
 recedes from the centre of the detaching roller the distance 
 between the centres of N and Q in like manner is increased, 
 and the roller Q is able to fall so as to approach the cylinder N. 
 The range of movement of R is regulated so that the roller Q 
 can come in contact with the fluted segment N 2 at an earlier or 
 later moment. At the same time this movement must not be 
 of such a character that the rollers S and O fall too far out of 
 contact. This adjustment can be made by means of the sliding 
 block R and by the coupling of the levers Y 2 and Y 3 , which 
 can be moved inwards and outwards by a screw and locked in 
 position. The horse head lever is, of course, formed with two- 
 arms, so as to sustain the leather roller at each end. The 
 effect of this mechanism is that the leather roller always being 
 in contact with the detaching roller is alternately lowered into 
 touch with, and removed from, the fluted segment. It is- 
 weighted by a stirrup lever and weight, or spring, so that when 
 it touches the segment it is caused to revolve with the latter, 
 and establishes a grip upon the cotton. The precise effect or 
 this action will be fully described when the whole operation is 
 dealt with. Fixed upon the rod R 1 , which acts as a pivot for 
 the lever R 2 , is a small bracket U which carries a bracket U 1 
 having two slots formed in it which act as bearings for the rollei 
 T, known as the " piecing " roller, and a flannel covered clearing 
 roller. The roller T is covered with brass, and is finely fluted 
 longitudinally. It is of considerable weight, and presses upon 
 the detaching roller so as to compress the cotton as it passes. 
 These parts complete the list of those connected with the 
 detachment and attachment of the combed tuft. After the 
 cotton has been pieced by its passage between the rollers, as 
 described, it is carried along a trough and collected by a trumpet- 
 shaped guide into a sliver, after which it is carried to the end 
 of the machine, where it passes through calender rolls prior to- 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 245 
 
 being coiled in a can like a carded sliver. This part of the 
 mechanism closely resembles that used in connection with the 
 carding engine, and does not require special description. 
 
 (175) Having thus described the essential mechanism of the 
 Heilmann machine, we have now to consider its operation. In 
 order to make this clear, let it be supposed that the lap is held 
 by the feed rollers and nippers, and that the circular combs are 
 passed through its end. As there are in the lap fibres of 
 various lengths, the comb needles, as they penetrate the end of 
 the lap, will remove those which are not gripped by the nippers, 
 so that the end of the lap will very speedily become thinned,, 
 and only the long fibres will be seized by the top leather 
 detaching roller and segment. Every forward revolution of the 
 feed rollers will thrust a fresh portion of the lap into the path of 
 the. combs, and in each case the short fibres will be removed, 
 as described ; while the long ones, being freed from the nip of 
 the rolls, will be drawn out by the detaching mechanism. To 
 understand the action, it is important to remember that only a 
 portion of the fibres contained in the whole width of a lap are 
 removed at each nip, and that as the fibres lie irregularly in the 
 length of the lap new sets are being continuously thrust out of 
 contact of the nip of the rollers, so that they can be readily 
 drawn away by the detaching mechanism. The small forward 
 movement of the lap by the feed rollers, combined with the 
 much greater forward movement of the detaching roller, makes 
 it difficult to understand why the lap is not exhausted so that it 
 does not protrude beyond the nipper. This would undoubtedly 
 happen if the whole of the fibres in the width of the lap were 
 removed at one operation, but as only a' small portion of them 
 are so removed the lap is always present. 
 
 (176) The action of these parts can now be fully explained, 
 and in order to make the explanation clearer, four diagrammatic 
 views of the positions of the various parts are given in Figs. 131 
 to 134. In the first of these, Fig. 131, the various parts are 
 shown in their position during combing. The feed rollers 
 C C 1 are stationary, and the lap is gripped by the nippers which 
 
246 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 have closed upon it. By the action of the cam, as previously 
 described, the cushion plate has been forced down until the lap 
 is laid in the path of the advancing comb needles which enter 
 and comb it, The top comb is raised so as to be out of the 
 cotton and the detaching roller is stationary, with the top 
 detaching or leather roller in its normal position. The circular 
 comb needles enter the end of the lap very freely, and the 
 gradually decreasing pitch of the successive rows causes jthem 
 to remove all the fibres which are too short to be retained by 
 the nippers, as well as the neps which have been left in the 
 
 FIG. 131. 
 
 FIG. 132. 
 
 cotton previously. After the combs have passed, the ends of 
 the fibres fall into the gap left between the needles and the 
 fluted segment, and the nipper begins to rise. At first the 
 upward motion of the top nipper is accompanied by that of the 
 cushion plate, the combined movement continuing until the 
 screw I s , in the upwardly projecting arm of the nipper cradle I 
 (Fig. 120), comes into contact with the bracket F. When this 
 occurs any further motion of the nipper ceases, and this is 
 the position which is illustrated in Fig. 132. The top nipper 
 D is just leaving the cushion plate H, and the lap is being 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 247 
 
 released. At the same time the top comb L is dropped into 
 the end of the lap, just in advance of the portion which has 
 been cleaned by the circular combs. As the fluted segment 
 approaches the detaching rollers the roller S begins to make its 
 backward movement so as to bring the end of the combed 
 sliver 'into a position to give the necessary overlap. The latter 
 is needed in order that the fibres of cotton about to be removed 
 shall be laid upon and joined to those which have previously 
 been combed and detached. For this reason, therefore, the 
 
 FIG. 133. 
 
 FIG. 134. 
 
 sliver, of which these form a part, is moved backward by the 
 rotation of the detaching roller, which takes place during the 
 period that the first portion of the oscillation of the notched 
 wheel takes place, as previously described. At the same 
 time the leather roller Q commences to roll round S, and 
 does so until it comes in contact with the fluted segment. 
 When this happens the position shown in Fig. 133 is assumed. 
 The movement of the detaching roller S is indicated in 
 the figures by the arrow which is marked a. A glance at 
 Fig. 133 will show that the nipper is entirely open, in 
 
248 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 which case the cushion plate should be about % inch from the 
 curve of the segment. The feed rollers receive their movement 
 at this period and deliver the lap. The top comb is retained 
 in the cotton, and the top leather roller comes into contact with 
 the fluted segment. The combed fibres are held up by the 
 forward movement of the segment, so that when the leather 
 roller touches it their ends are gripped between the two. The 
 weight on the leather roller is sufficient to establish a firm nip, 
 and to ensure its rotation by the revolving segment. Thus the 
 fibres are withdrawn from the lap, being forcibly pulled out. It 
 is clear that only those which are of sufficient length to be held 
 by the segment and leather rollers will be drawn away, while all 
 the longer ones will be retained by the nip of the feed rollers. 
 The rotation of the leather roller not only has the effect of 
 detaching the fibres, but by reason of its simultaneous pressure 
 upon the sliver laid between it and the detaching roller, it also 
 attaches them to that portion of the combed sliver which is 
 there retained. While the latter roller is thus being rotated the 
 forward movement of the detaching roller occurs, and the 
 result is that that end of the sliver which had been carried 
 backward previously is again moved forward at the same time 
 that the newly detached fibres are being carried forward. The 
 result is that the latter are laid upon the former, and are pressed 
 together by the nip of the leather upon the detaching roller. As 
 the movement of the latter in a forward direction is about 
 double that in a backward one, the fibres forming the end of 
 the sliver, and which have been thus overlapped, are passed 
 under the piecing roller T, which completes the operation of 
 piecing. When the detaching roller finally comes to a rest, a 
 tuft of fibres has been transferred bodily from the Jap and 
 attached to the sliver In the operation their ends, which have 
 been in the lap, are drawn through the top comb, any neps or 
 other impurities attached to them are retained by it, and are 
 left on the withdrawal of the top' comb in the uncombed portion 
 of the lap. The fibres, as they are detached, are also 
 straightened, and are necessarily laid in a parallel relation to 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING 249, 
 
 each other, so that when they pass between the nip of the 
 detaching rollers they are retained in this position. The forward' 
 motion of the detaching roller must be sufficient to ensure a 
 complete attachment of the tuft of the sliver, but must be 
 limited so as to leave the end drawn from the lap protruding a 
 short distance beyond the nip of the detaching and leather 
 rollers. The usual overlap of the sliver is about ^ inch. 
 Something will be said hereafter of the setting of the leather 
 roller when dealing with the whole question of setting the 
 various parts. As soon as detachment and attachment are 
 completed the leather roller is moved back to its normal 
 position, and the end of the lap falls into the space between, 
 the segment and comb. The top nipper descends and presses- 
 upon the cushion plate, the parts being then in the position, 
 shown in Fig. 1 34. The continued motion of the top nipper 
 takes place, and the cushion plate is pushed down until it 
 again assumes the position shown in Fig. 131, when combing, 
 recommences. The shape and setting of the cam actuating 
 the top comb, as shown, is such that the latter is raised out 
 of the cotton as the circular combs enter the end of the lap,, 
 and is dropped into it as soon as the combs have passed. 
 
 (177) Having described the operation of the Heilmann 
 combing machine, it is now possible to deal with the method 
 of setting the various parts. There are several considerations 
 which have an effect upon this subject. The principal of these 
 are the : length of the staple of cotton which is used, the weight 
 of lap to be produced, the quality of work required, and, as a 
 consequence of the last, the amount of waste which is to be 
 combed out. Each of these has an influence upon the setting,, 
 and within limits it is possible to produce widely different 
 results on the same machine. It is obvious, for instance, that 
 if a cotton, the staple of which is only one inch, is to be 
 combed, a different manipulation will be required than is neces- 
 sary if the staple is if inch. Further, if, as is now the case to 
 some extent in American mills, combing is resorted to in the 
 preparation of medium counts for the sake of getting an evener 
 
250 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 and stronger yarn, then the percentage of waste taken out can 
 be less than is necessary with the higher grades and finer 
 numbers. This need for the absolute removal of all fibres 
 which are shorter than those of full length, which exists when 
 the better and finer yarns are to be produced, has hitherto 
 stood in the way of the construction of the Heilmann combing 
 machine with a duplex combing cylinder. To obtain the best 
 effect, it is necessary to provide a full set of needles, and the 
 removal of one or two rows has a great effect upon the cleaning pro- 
 perty of the machine. Some of the leading makers of this machine 
 in this country have constructed combers in which a cylinder 
 containing two sets of combs and two fluted segments is used. 
 The result is that a double nip and detachment is required 
 during each revolution of the comb cylinder. This is not a 
 difficult thing to do, but in order to retain the cylinder of the 
 -diameter as before, one or two rows of needles have been 
 removed. The result has not been entirely satisfactory, for 
 while many of the counts of yarn can be thus prepared, for the 
 very highest and best the cleaning power has not been sufficient. 
 It may, however, be said that this mode of construction is not 
 without merit, and that it will lend itself very well to the con- 
 struction of a machine which will produce good work and a 
 greater quantity simultaneously. An enlargement of .the 
 diameter of the cylinder and a general rearrangement of the 
 parts will probably take place with advantageous results, so far 
 .as the profitable use of the machine is concerned. This is, 
 however, a digression, and we can now return to the subiect of 
 setting the various parts. 
 
 (178) To begir with, it is necessary to see that the axes of 
 all the operating parts are parallel. Taking the cylinder axis as 
 a base, it is obvious that the points of the combs will be parallel 
 -to it as well as concentric. In like manner the surface of the 
 fluted segment must be also parallel to it. Now, if the axes of 
 the feed rollers are not quite parallel to that of the cylinder it is 
 clear that the end of the lap will not be presented to the needles 
 properly, but that it will be combed more at one side than at 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 25* 
 
 the other. It is, therefore, necessary to attend to this point. In 
 setting the cushion and top nipper plates due regard must also 
 be had to this fact, and by means of the various setting screws 
 this can easily be done. The cushion plate must be quite 
 parallel with the axes of the cylinder and feed rollers, and must 
 be so set that it lays the cotton evenly upon the needles of the 
 comb. If this plate is twisted, the same effect will occur as if 
 the feed rollers and cylinder were not parallel. Care must be 
 taken that the nose of the cushion plate is evenly and properly 
 covered so as to present a perfectly smooth surface throughout.. 
 It is set to the i^ gauge from the steel rollers. The extent o 
 the downward movement of the cushion plate is, of course,, 
 regulated by the pressure of the top nipper upon it, which can 
 be regulated by the alteration of the length of the connecting 
 rod G (Fig. 121). The absolute extent of the oscillation of the 
 top nipper is, of course, dependent on the throw of the cam,, 
 but the period of its contact with the cushion plate is deter- 
 mined by the length of the connecting rod. If this is shortened 
 the top nipper is raised so that it does not come into contact 
 with the cushion plate so soon, and vice versa. The result is 
 that the oscillation of the latter and the nearness of its approach, 
 to the comb cylinder can be regulated at will. This should be 
 arranged so that a gauge numbered 20 will pass between. 
 the cylinder and nipper. The ascent of the cushion plate is 
 regulated by the screw I 3 (Fig. 120). The cushion must 
 now be set so that when in contact with the top plate it 
 touches it evenly along its entire width at the same time. 
 This is quite readily done by means of the setting screws behind 
 the cushion, but it is a delicate operation and requires care. 
 The fact of equal contact can be ascertained by the employment 
 of thin strips of paper used as gauges, an attempt to extract any 
 of which will show if it is firmly held. Upon the care exercised 
 in this respect the efficiency of the working of the comb needles 
 largely depends. A stepped gauge is provided, and the nipper 
 pins should be set to the first step on it. In the machine as 
 made by Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, in which the lower plate 
 
252 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 is the knife and the upper one the cushion, the procedure is 
 naturally reversed, but the principle remains the same, although 
 the shape of the nose of the lower nipper and the use of an 
 india-rubber cushion gives greater latitude in this respect. The 
 setting of the detaching rollers and segments is a very important 
 part of the work. It is obvious that upon the relative setting 
 of these two parts to each other and to the feed roller much 01 
 the efficiency of the machine depends. It will be further clear 
 that the relative distance of the feed rollers from the detaching 
 roller will depend upon the length of staple to be combed, and 
 gauges are provided to set them in accordance with this. The 
 bearings carrying the detaching roller having been fixed in 
 position the latter is put in. Assuming that Sea Island cotton 
 is being combed, a gauge of iyf or 1^6 inch is employed, and 
 :the detaching roller is set to that distance from the feed roller. 
 It is necessary to see that this gauge accurately measures the 
 -distance between the two rollers at each end, and the feed 
 rollers must be adjusted to ensure this. The importance ot 
 this can be seen by the fact that as it is the rotation of the 
 detaching roller and its superincumbent rollers which draws 
 . away the fibres, if it were not parallel with the feed rollers there 
 would be a straining of the fibres at one side of the lap and 
 only a partial detachment at the other. Thus the resultant 
 sliver would be unevenly delivered, and would be cloudy. 
 Unless this point is carefully looked to the fibres will be cut, 
 .and the same fault will happen if the brass attaching roller if 
 not parallel with the detaching roller. The segments must be 
 so set that they are perfectly parallel to the detaching rollers, 
 and care must be taken to adjust the bearings for this purpose. 
 A gauge is provided to set the detaching roller to the segment, 
 and a No. 21 or 22 will in most cases give ample space between 
 the two. 
 
 (179) The next operation is the setting of the segment so that 
 its front edge will be parallel to the detaching roller. The machine 
 is turned until the index finger is opposite No. 5 point on the 
 Awheel D in which the peer is fixed (Fig. 1 18), when a i y& inch gauge 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 253 
 
 should pass in between the roller and the face of the segment. 
 The wheel D is divided into 20 equal parts, which are marked 
 and numbered on the rim, so as to be easily set to a pointer 
 finger. If this does not take place all along, the segment must 
 be adjusted until the proper position is attained, as upon this 
 factor depends the appearance of the sliver when delivered. If 
 there is too great a lack of parallelism the fibre will be cut, while 
 even with a little it will be curled instead of straight. The order 
 of setting these parts is not quite that of the description, but is 
 really as follows : The placing of the detaching rollers, their 
 adjustment and that of the feed rollers relatively to each other, 
 the adjustment of the segment, and finally that of the nipper. 
 From what has been said it will have been seen that the setting 
 of the cams is a most important feature, and no empirical rule 
 can be given for this. The proper fixing of the cams is rather 
 a matter for the machine maker than the mill manager, and 
 there are so many points of adjustment that any error can be 
 easily rectified. The cam which operates the top nipper should 
 be so set that the nipper is pressed down to the proper point to 
 lay the cotton in the path of the needles. It may, however, be 
 noted that the nipper should not close upon the lap at too early 
 a moment, as if it does the forward movement of the feed roller 
 will cause the cotton to fall into a loop, which it may be difficult 
 to straighten out again. The detaching cam requires setting so 
 as to give the exact stroke forward and backward at the right 
 moment. Thus the backward stroke requires to be made when 
 the needles have passed and during the time when the gap 
 between the needles and the segment is beneath the detaching 
 roller. In like manner the traverse of the leather detaching 
 roller must take place so as to bring the latter into contact with 
 the segment at the right moment, and the cam must be timed 
 to accomplish this. The cam regulating the top comb is simple 
 to set, and hardly needs explanation. The whole of these 
 settings are regulated by means of the index wheel. The de- 
 taching cam is set, when Egyptian cotton is used, so that when 
 the index is at i the roller is moving back, and makes its for- 
 
THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 ward movement when it is at 6^. The leather or top detaching 
 roller must be set so that when the segment has passed under 
 the detaching roller the leather roller is down at 6%. The peg 
 is set so as to gear with the star wheel when the index is at 4^ 
 and the nippers close when it is at 9^. In setting the top comb 
 cam it is capable of variation within limits, being arranged to be 
 down at anything from 5 to 7^ on the index. In most cases, 
 however, from 5^ to 6 will be found to be the correct setting, 
 but much depends upon the quantity of nep and short fibre 
 which it is desired to remove. The settings given can be varied 
 for Sea Island cotton, the adjustments being made so that the 
 parts operate at a little later period. If the machine is making 
 too much waste, the feeding and nipping should be made earlier ; 
 if the waste is not enough the reverse procedure is followed. As 
 this matter is somewhat important, a few words may be spent 
 upon it. 
 
 (180) It is necessary that the top comb should be put into 
 the cotton before the leather rollers commence to move forward. 
 Not only does the comb require carefully setting so far as its 
 vertical traverse, but in addition to this it also requires setting at 
 a proper angle. Unless care is taken, the nippers, in their 
 ascent, will catch the comb, with deleterious effects, in addition 
 to which the amount of fibre which is removed will probably be 
 excessive. It is, resolved into its elements, a question of the 
 relative angle of the comb with the sliver. On the other 
 hand, the setting screws about the machine, especially those 
 about the nipper mechanism, must be thoroughly watched to 
 see that they are quite tight. The machine should be well 
 oiled throughout, but it may be remarked on this head that all 
 the parts do not require the same attention. All the chief 
 working parts want frequently and regularly lubricating, and it 
 is a good plan to reduce this operation to a system. The 
 machine should be kept carefully clean throughout, and loose 
 fly should never be allowed to collect about the machine, as it 
 is apt to form into knots or balls and pass into the sliver. The 
 bowls working in the various cams must be attended to, and it 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 255 
 
 should be carefully seen that they are neither too loose or too 
 tight. In either event bad work is inevitable. All the leather 
 coverings must be carefully seen to, and the leather roller must 
 be kept cylindrical and well varnished. The needles in the 
 cylinders should be carefully looked to, as if they are broken or 
 bent, especially if hooked, bad work results. It is a good plan 
 to overhaul the comb cylinders periodically, and always once in 
 three months. They should be kept quite clean and free from 
 dirt, cleaning taking place twice a week. The top combs 
 should also be attended to, as if any of the teeth are broken out 
 they produce a stringy lap. We may say, in brief, that constant 
 vigilance and care is required to ensure truly satisfactory work, 
 but it is certain that if given much will be gained. 
 
 (181) In proceeding to deal with the draft in the combing 
 machine, it may be explained that after leaving the calender 
 rollers the slivers are conveyed to a coiler which is similar to 
 that used for a carding engine. The draft occurs in a comber 
 (i) from the feed to the calender rollers ; (2) from the calender 
 rollers to the draw box ; and (3) from the draw box to the 
 coiler head. These three drafts, which are easily calculable, 
 multiplied give the total draft of the machine, which is always 
 very considerable. The principal draft is, of course, between 
 the feed and first calender roller, and the least is that between 
 the draw box and coiler. The production of the comber 
 depends on the number of nips. From 80 to 90 nips per 
 minute are made with a single comber, and 120 with the duplex. 
 The production depends upon the amount of waste made, and 
 the weight of the lap. With a single nip comber of eight heads 
 the production varies from 170 to 350 Ibs. per week of 56^ 
 hours, this amount being proportionately increased with a double 
 machine. The waste made is from 15 to 30 per cent, depend 
 ing on the quality of yarn required. 
 
 (i8i) There have been many attempts to construct combing 
 machines which are capable of dealing with fibres of shorter 
 staple than those ordinarily combed. The problem is one of 
 some difficulty, owing to the fact that the fibres are not so 
 
256 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 uniform in staple as they are in the better varieties. Further, 
 it has always been difficult to detach and attach the fibres, 
 owing to the limited space which exists between the nipping 
 and attaching mechanisms. The Nasmith combing machine, 
 which was introduced in 1901, is so constructed and manipu- 
 lated that it will comb successfully laps made from American 
 cotton with a staple of J inch. The combing, detachment, 
 and attachment is conducted with complete success, while the 
 amount of waste can be regulated so as to enable the^operation 
 to be conducted on commercial lines. In the Heilmann machine 
 the feeding of the cotton, the opening and closing of the upper 
 nipper, the entrance and withdrawal of the top comb, and the 
 operation of the detaching rollers are each the work of separate 
 cams, which have to be individually adjusted relatively to each 
 other. In the Nasmith machine the only cam which is used is 
 one to give the alternate backward and forward rotation of the 
 detatching rollers, all the remaining parts being operated simply 
 and effectively through the reciprocal movement of the nipper 
 frame given by a crank fixed on the cylinder shaft. 
 
 (181^) The nipper of the Heilmann machine has a very 
 limited movement. The upper jaw is forced by the cam on to 
 the lower one, and comes in contact with it at a comparatively 
 high speed, from 85 to 95 times a minute, thus giving a kind of 
 hammer blow (which is very destructive of the leather covering 
 the lower plate), and instantly transfers the full force of the 
 springs from the top screws to the nipper cam. In addition to 
 this, the force required to oscillate the whole nipper in order 
 to lay the fibres in the needles, is very considerable, each of 
 the springs sustaining the nipper having a pull of about 2olbs. or 
 4olbs. per head. In a six-headed machine this is equal to 
 24olbs. thrown upon the cam suddenly, entailing a good deal 
 of shock and wear. Unless care is taken, it often happens that 
 the cushion plate is pushed on the comb needles, damaging 
 both the covering and the needles, because the arc of oscilla- 
 tion, if continued beyond a certain point, intersects the path of 
 the needles, a defect also present in other machines) Each 
 cushion plate requires separate setting. 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 257 
 
 (i8i<r) Beyond this slight oscillatory movement, the nipper 
 of a Heilmann machine is stationary and plays no part in any 
 other operation than that of combing, gripping the fibres while 
 
 the needles are passing through the end of the lap. In the 
 Nasmith machine (Fig. I34A) it possesses many other functions, 
 and is quite differently constructed and applied. Figs. T34A 
 and 1346 are sectional views of the nipper and attaching 
 mechanisms in the combing and attaching positions respectively' 
 
258 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 The top and bottom nipper plates, feed roller F, and top comb 
 are all borne on a double frame N, which is centred at a suitable 
 joint N 1 , and is given a reciprocal oscillatory motion by means 
 
 of a disc crank fixed on the cylinder shaft, also acting as the 
 index wheel to facilitate setting, and which rocks the nipper 
 shaft W, and from which a connection to the nipper is made 
 by the connecting rod V. The pins N 1 , on which this frame 
 is hinged, are of large size, and are fixed in such a position that 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 259 
 
 the arc followed by the nose of the nipper is a very flat one, 
 and departs as little as possible, during the period of oscillation, 
 from the periphery of the cylinder, which it never intersects. 
 Consequently, when once set to the correct gauge, the nipper 
 
 FIG. 134 E. 
 
 cannot be made to touch the needles, no matter how far it 
 moves. The path of the nipper nose is nearly a direct one 
 from the combing to the attaching point, as shown in the 
 diagrammatic illustrations, Figs. 1340, 1340, and I34E. (Com 
 
260 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 pare with Figs. 131 to 134.) It will be easily understood that, 
 ^is the oscillation of the frame is derived from the rotation of a 
 crank running at 100 revolutions per minute, it will be prac- 
 tically, if not theoretically, continuous, although the rate of 
 movement will, of course, vary at different portions of the 
 rotation of the crank. It has been found that this characteristic 
 lends itself admirably to the working of the machine, the 
 mechanism being smooth and ensuring easy running. There 
 being two connecting rods V to each nipper, it can be adjusted 
 exactly to the detaching roll, and when all the nippers are in 
 line and parallel to the roller they can be simultaneously 
 adjusted. 
 
 (i&id) The bottom nipper plate is fastened to a transverse 
 bridge piece S bolted to the arms N, and adjustable vertically 
 by set screws I, enabling it to be easily and exactly set on 
 the nipper frame to the needles. On this bridge ears are 
 cast which carry the studs P 1 on which the top nipper frame 
 is hinged. The top nipper frame is ordinarily acted on by 
 springs, which tend to keep it closed, but it has a rearward 
 arm carrying a small runner, which, during the forward oscil- 
 lation of the nipper frame, engages with an adjustable 
 bracket J, and thus opens the nipper. The position and 
 shape of this bracket is such that the nipper closes easily and 
 gently at the right moment with a sort of rolling contact, in 
 marked contrast to the blow given by the Heilmann nipper, 
 there being no weight on the springs when the nipper is in 
 its most forward position. In effect, it is found that it is quite 
 unnecessary to provide either the top or the bottom nipper 
 jaw with a leather covering to form a cushion, the closing action 
 being entirely free from hammering, and there being, moreover, 
 no pressing of the bottom nipper down, as in the case of the 
 Heilmann, so that, as already explained, once it is set there is 
 no danger of its coming in contact with, while its position 
 ensures that the fibres are well laid in, the comb needles. Again, 
 a neglected roller lap cannot push down the plate into the 
 needles. It will only raise the feed roller F. 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 261 
 
 The feed roller F revolves in bearings attached to the 
 nipper frame, and rests on the bottom nipper plate, as shown, the 
 lap being passed between it and the plate. The roller is spring 
 weighted, and can be adjusted relatively to the point of nip, to 
 suit the class of cotton combed, but, being once adjusted, is 
 fixed in position. By means of a lever and ratchet feed 
 arrangement, the forward oscillation of the nipper frame is 
 caused to give the desired amount of feed, the quantity being 
 
 FIG. I34F. 
 
 regulated by the simple adjustment of a pin. The top comb 
 frame (Fig. I34F) is hinged to the nipper frame at C 8 . It can 
 be adjusted angularly and horizontally independently, and its 
 downward movement is fixed by stop screws C 4 . The needleb 
 can be adjusted to penetrate the lap to any desired extent 
 without coming in contact with the cylinder. The top 
 comb C is carried on arms, which are pivoted to the rocking 
 frame N, and carry a bowl engaging with a plate I when 
 the nipper is retiring, thus raising the comb. The comb 
 and arms can be taken out and replaced without altering the 
 
262 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 setting. Before passing on to notice the remainder of the 
 operation, it will be as well to point out that the feed roller, the 
 nipper, and the top comb are all oscillated without the use of a 
 cam of any kind. 
 
 (i8i/) In the work of detaching in the Heilmann machine 
 the tuft of cotton removed at each operation is confined to those 
 fibres only which are gripped by the leather roller and fluted 
 segment at the instant of contact, and the work of detachment 
 and separation is performed solely by these two parts without 
 any assistance from the motion of the nipper. The time that 
 the roller is drawing fibre through the top comb is only a small 
 part of the period through which the rollers turn forward. The 
 top detaching roller must be running at the full surface speed of 
 the fluted segment, and in consequence of this the grip is sudden, 
 and there is a snatching action on the fibres as they are drawn 
 out of the lap through the top comb, which very effectively 
 limits the workable weight of the lap operated on a Heilmann 
 machine. Owing to the necessity of getting the leather detach- 
 ing roller up to speed before contact with the fluted segment, it 
 is found that at least a quarter of an inch of the sliver backed oft 
 is wound back again before the roller seizes the nipper tuft, so 
 that all this length is lost for piecing, and it is this and the 
 interposition of the top roller between the top comb and 
 detaching roller which renders the treatment of short cotton 
 difficult and impracticable on a Heilmann machine. 
 
 (iSi^-) In the Nasmith machine this mechanism is altered. 
 As was pointed out, the fluted segment is abolished, and there is 
 therefore no need for the leather roller to be dropped on it, an 
 operation which is very destructive of the covering of the leather 
 rollers. Instead of three rollers there are now only two used for 
 piecing, D D 1 , and the work of detaching or separation is 
 principally thrown upon the nipper. The detaching roller D 
 (Figs. I34A and 1343) receives a similar backward and forward 
 rotation as before, but it is caused to stop and start more gently, 
 never attaining the speed of the Heilmann roller, although 
 rotating through a much greater arc at each stroke. The roller 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 263 
 
 is operated by a very smooth cam, which is a circle for the 
 greater part of its working surface, and is much easier in action 
 than the ordinary notch wheel cam. The top leather roller 
 D 1 is mounted on the detaching roller, but simply rolls upon it 
 backward and forward, being in its most backward position just 
 before piecing begins, and in its most forward position near its 
 completion. The method of communicating this rolling motion 
 consists of coupling the lever X 5 , by which the top roller is borne, 
 to the lever L (fixed on a rocking shaft, operated by an 
 
 FIG. 1340. 
 
 eccentric O 1 , adjustably attached to a wheel on the cylinder shaft, 
 Fig. 1340), by the rod X and the levers X 1 and X 3 , so 
 that the reciprocal movement of the nipper is synchronous 
 with the reciprocal rolling motion of the leather roller, the 
 relative extent of the latter being regulated very simply. It is 
 not necessary to adjust this roller as in the* Heilmann machine 
 (an operation of delicacy and frequency) as it can be set as 
 easily as an ordinary drawing roller. The leather roller, of 
 course, receives, by friction with the detaching roller, a reci- 
 procal axial rotation of the usual kind in order to turn back the 
 combed sliver preparatory to piecing and then deliver the newly 
 drawn tuft. In front of the detaching roller a second pair 
 of rollers (See Fig. I34A) are placed, which merely act as 
 straighteners, and pass the combed web forward to the usual 
 
264 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 calender rollers and draw box. The speed of the second pair 
 of rollers is regulated by that of the detaching rollers with which 
 they are geared. 
 
 (iSih) The feature which forms the most radical change from 
 the Heilmann procedure is the close relationship which now 
 exists between the operation of the nipper and that of the 
 detaching roller. As was pointed out, the Heilmann nipper, as 
 a whole, has practically no movement except a slight oscillation 
 through a short, almost vertical, arc, and the detachment of the 
 tuft of cotton is controlled by mechanism having no connection 
 with the nipper, which is stationary and inoperative during the 
 piecing and separation periods. In the Nasmith machine the 
 nipper and detaching mechanism are connected so as to operate 
 synchronously, although the detaching roller proper is still given 
 its backward and forward rotation. The oscillation of the 
 nipper frame from the cylinder shaft controls, as has been 
 pointed out, nearly every other motion, and this with the 
 minimum of effort. Referring now to Figs. 1340 and 1340 and 
 I34E, assuming that the nipper is moving towards and has 
 nearly reached its rearward position, the first few needles of the 
 comb are passing through the end of the lap, and, while this is 
 still going on, the direction of the motion of the nipper is 
 reversed, and it begins to travel with the needles, but at a slower 
 pace. The effect is that the finer needles comb out the end 
 with less exertion and less strain on the fibres, which are not so 
 liable to be damaged. After the needles have passed, the nipper 
 continues to advance, and the smooth filling-up piece on the 
 cylinder sustains the fibres and keeps them horizontal. When 
 the nipper i at the beginning of its advance the leather roller 
 moves backward (in the direction of the nipper) on the de- 
 taching roller. The result is that the tips of the fibres in 
 the lap are seized by the nip of the two rollers at the earliest 
 possible moment. 
 
 (i8i/) It is at this point that the chief difference in the action 
 of the new machine as compared with the Heilmann is found, 
 and it is upon this that its effectiveness largely depends. As 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 265 
 
 was shown, when the combed fibres are seized by the leather 
 roller and fluted segment of the Heilmann machine, the nipper 
 is stationary, and the tuft is snatched out of the lap by their 
 rotation, the length of the tuft and the amount of overlap being 
 entirely limited. The result is that only a comparatively light 
 lap can be used, as, if its mass is too great, the grip of the twd 
 rollers is not sufficient to pull a thick tuft suddenly through the 
 top comb, and if extra weights are added they would deflect the 
 roller and damage the comb as well. In the Nasmith machine, 
 after the fibres are seized by the detaching rollers, the nipper 
 and top comb continue to advance towards the nip of the 
 detaching rollers, and at the same time the leather roller rolls 
 forward on the detaching roller, which simultaneously makes its 
 axial rotation to effect the piecing. The result is, that instead 
 of gripping those fibres only in the lap head that are actually 
 engaged by detaching roller at its moment of contact with the 
 segment, as in the Heilmann, a much greater number are 
 successively seized and gradually drawn through the top comb, 
 to an extent depending upon the amount of forward movement 
 of the nipper, a longer tuft being thus extracted. In addition 
 to this, the overlap is a much longer one and is much better 
 made. As a consequence of the successive seizure of fibres 
 thus obtained a lap of greater substance is easily combed, one 
 double the ordinary weight per yard being handled with perfect 
 ease, because the tuft is not jerked instantly through the top 
 comb but gradually drawn through it during a longer period, 
 the period of the operation of the top comb being also much 
 increased. As the path of the nipper during the operation is 
 directly towards the detaching rollers the fibres are delivered in 
 the very best way without any snatching or damage. 
 
 (i8i/J The top comb is put into the lap immediately before 
 the fibres are gripped by the detaching roller. It is dropped in 
 well in front of the nipper, and the result is that all the 
 previously uncombed length of the tuft is drawn through it, 
 as well as some of the combed part, and all the noil is held 
 back by it. The actual separation of the tuft is done gently, 
 
266 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 and it is principally the work of the recession of the nipper 
 (which is the exact opposite of the Heilman method). The 
 result is that all the short fibre, nep, etc., is left behind the top 
 comb, which, when it lifts, leaves them at the end of the lap to 
 be removed by the next passage of the cylinder needles. The 
 separation of the tuft is accomplished before the nipper has 
 made its full backward movement, and the end of the lap is 
 presented to the needles of the cylinder while the nipper is still 
 receding. The result is that the fibres are well embedded in 
 the comb needles and all the waste is effectively removed. 
 
 (i.8i>&) A word or two may now be said about the simplicity 
 of adjustment. It has already been pointed out that the nipper 
 cannot be made to touch the needles when it has once been set 
 to the gauge. The set screws at either end raise or lower the 
 nipper on its frame, the pivots, unlike those of the Heilmann 
 machine, being fixtures in the framing. The throw of the 
 nipper is fixed by the crank, and, when at its most forward 
 position, each nipper is set by its own screws to a given distance 
 from the detaching roller. Once all have been set they may be 
 moved simultaneously nearer to or further from the roller. 
 The opening of the nipper is regulated by simply adjusting an 
 incline, and is also independent and unaffected by alterations in 
 the other settings. 
 
 (i8i/) The setting of the top comb is extremely simple, 
 whilst the setting of the leather detaching roller consists in 
 making it parallel with the under roller and in line with its 
 fellows, and when this is done, in regulating them to a given 
 distance from the nipper which can be done by a single screw. 
 Thus, instead of the delicate setting of the detaching roller 
 necessary in the Heilmann machine, we have no more difficulty 
 than with a drawing frame roller. There are only two things to 
 time, namely, the detaching roller cam, so as to determine the 
 moment when the rollers begin to turn, after which it is fixed, 
 and the crank pin driving the nipper. Neither of these timings 
 in any way alters the previous settings. Finally, the quantity 
 of waste made is determined not by an alteration of the combs, 
 
COMBING AND- DRAWING, .if 267 
 
 for theoretically these must always be set to take out the actual 
 dirt and short fibres, however low the percentage is, but by 
 altering the distance of the nipper and top comb from the nip 
 of the detaching roller, thus affecting not the taking out of the 
 ' dirt but the length of fibre taken out as waste. A single screw 
 is provided to alter this, and it is only a few minutes' 
 work. 
 
 (iSim) It may be stated that the production of this machine 
 varies from 2lbs. per head per hour to 4lbs., when 100 beats 
 per minute are made, and a lap io|in. wide is used. A lap of 
 that width should weigh not less than 2odwts. nor more than 
 32dwts. per yard. If production is the chief consideration 
 the heavier lap may be used, and if the slivers have been 
 drawn and then passed through sliver and ribbon lap machines 
 a heavier lap can be used than is otherwise possible. The 
 waste usually extracted is from 10 to 14 per cent with 
 good cotton for medium work. American cotton of seven- 
 eighths of an inch staple has been successfully combed, and 
 waste taken out amounting to 5 per cent only. No machine 
 previously made has been capable of doing this, especially when 
 it is stated that the work was performed on a machine which, 
 with slight adjustments, combed Sea Island and Egyptian cotton 
 successfully. The profitable combing of American cotton is an 
 object often sought, and the importance of which it is difficult 
 to exaggerate. In brief, the writer has no hesitation in saying, 
 with a full knowledge of all that has been done during recent 
 years, that the machine constitutes the greatest step in advance 
 which has been made in combing cotton since Heilmann's 
 invention, and while retaining the essential features of the latter, 
 in simplicity, ease, and accuracy of setting the various parts, in 
 its wide range of usefulness and productive capacity, it 
 possesses distinct advantages. 
 
 (182) We now come to deal with the process which is, in 
 many respects, the most important in the whole range of 
 spinning. We refer to the process of drawing. Upon the 
 proper carrying out of this depends the fact whether the 
 
268 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 resultant yarn is truly cylindrical or not, and whether its 
 proper strength is obtained It is, in addition, the first stage, 
 in the proper sense, in the formation of a thread, because, 
 although it is true that no twist is introduced into the sliver at 
 this stage, it is so far reduced that it can be readily formed into 
 a thread. Further, the drawing process is. the last one in 
 
 FIG. 135. 
 
 which any correction of the inequalities existing in the slivers 
 can be made, so that when they leave the machine any irregu- 
 larity of diameter or weight will thereafter be perpetuated. 
 Finally, it is the treatment received by the cotton at this point 
 which gives parallel order to the fibres in a sliver, especially if 
 the slivers are collected from carding machines. As the web is 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 269 
 
 produced on the latter, it consists of a thin sheet of fibres, 
 disposed in all directions. The reduction of these to some- 
 thing approaching parallel order is one of the chief functions 
 of the drawing machines. 
 
 FIG. 136. 
 
 %^ 
 (183) The drawing frame is, as shown in Figs. 135 and 136 
 
 which is a transverse secti on of the machine made by Messrs. Brook* 
 and Doxey, a very simple machine, consisting of four pairs of rollers 
 placed with their axes in one plane, but parallel to each other. 
 The^bottom rollers are made of a good quality of iron or steel, 
 and are at intervals turned down to form the necks on which 
 
270 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 they revolve, leaving bosses between them. These bosses are 
 longitudinally fluted with finely pitched flutes. The roller necks 
 revolve in brass steps, fixed in brackets B, called " roller stands," 
 fixed to a longitudinal " roller beam " C, and the bearings are 
 so arranged that they can be readily adjusted relatively to the 
 respective lines of rollers as desired. The lower rollers are 
 made in sections, which are coupled by a special socket and 
 spigot joint, so as to form a continuous " line " throughout the 
 length of the machine. The upper rollers are made of cast 
 iron in short lengths, and are formed with bosses, to correspond 
 with the lower lines. They are placed above the lower rollers, 
 against which they are kept pressed by weights E, suspended 
 from hooks D, which pass over the arbors of the rollers. The 
 top rollers are made of cast iron, accurately turned, and are 
 covered with a sheath of a specially woven cloth, surmounted 
 with a cover of soft, smooth surfaced leather. Roller leather is 
 made from sheepskins, and is most carefully treated. After 
 preliminary preparation the skin is shaved so as to reduce it to 
 a uniform thickness before tanning. After the latter operation 
 is complete the skins are glazed, and upon the perfection of the 
 glaze depends the quality of the product in spinning. Mr. A. 
 Seymour-Jones, who is thoroughly conversant with the subject, 
 in a brochure published in 1893, says : "A leather roller should 
 possess a cushion effect. ... To the feel the grain should be 
 smooth, firm, yet pliable, compressible and expansible, the flesh 
 side as fine in nap as broadcloth, and the whole skin mellow 
 and glossy." He gives the following rules for the selection of 
 skins : 
 
 For low or coarse counts select a cheap quality of skin. 
 
 For medium counts select a medium quality of skin. 
 
 For high or fine counts select only the best and finest skins. 
 
 For preparatory machines select large-sized skins of stout substance. 
 
 For intermediate machinery select medium sized skins of medium 
 
 substance. 
 For roving and spinning frames select small sized skins of thin 
 
 substance. 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 271 
 
 Great care is taken in preparing the rollers to make them truly 
 cylindrical and smooth, any adhesiveness of their surface 
 being absolutely fatal to success. The top rollers are almost 
 universally made for the front line of a drawing frame of the 
 
 Leigh loose boss type. This is 
 ~H called in America the "shell 
 ' ^ ^ - roll," and, as shown in Fi '. 137, 
 
 consists of a central roller ot 
 cast iron, formed with collars, the 
 shanks of which are specially 
 shaped to receive a cylindrical 
 shell of cast iron, turned and 
 covered as described. The shape 
 of arbor shown is the best for 
 this type of roller, as it ensures 
 steadiness of the shell. The 
 ^ advantage of this class of roller 
 " is, that as the body or shank on 
 2 which the weights are hung does 
 not revolve, but only the shell, 
 the friction set up in rotating 
 the roller is much lessened, and 
 this is still further reduced by 
 the facility with which the roller 
 can be regularly and continuously 
 lubricated. There is an ingenious 
 method of securing the shells 
 on the shanks, which consists 
 of a small split ring of steel, 
 which can close as the shell is 
 V ~T T^ pushed on, afterwards opening 
 
 out and securely holding it. The 
 
 upper rollers are kept in position by means of grooves formed 
 in " cap bars," in which their pivots rotate. 
 
 (184) A drawing frame is usually described as consisting of a 
 certain number of "heads" with so many "deliveries." A 
 
272 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 * delivery " is the term applied to each sliver delivered at the 
 front of the machine, and in each head there is a certain number 
 of deliveries ; in other words, so many completed slivers are 
 passed. The lower roller is formed with as many bosses in each 
 section as there are deliveries, so that if there are three of the 
 former there will be three of the latter. The upper rollers have, 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
 of course, the same number of bosses as the lower rollers with 
 which they are in contact. There may be a number of heads, 
 but this is determined by several considerations to which special 
 reference will be hereafter made. 
 
 (185) All the gearing of the drawing frame is placed at the 
 end of the machine. A view of this is given in Fig. 138, and 
 will enable the description to be followed. This view has been 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 273 
 
 sketched from the drawing frame in the Manchester School of 
 Technology. The frame is driven by a belt from the driving shaft, 
 passing over a pulley on an intermediate shaft. By a second 
 pulley fixed on the same shaft as the driven pulley the pulley T 
 is driven. This is fixed on the arbor of the front roller A, on 
 which also is a small spur pinion E, driving the crown wheel F, 
 which is compounded with a pinion G, gearing with a wheel H 
 on the back roller arbor D. Thus the front and back rollers 
 are directly connected. The second line C is driven, as shown 
 in a separate view 2, from the back line by means of the pinion 
 I, carrier wheel J, and pinion K on the second line. The third 
 line B is also driven from the back line D by the pinion L, 
 carrier wheel M, and pinion N, on the arbor of the third line B. 
 The coiler which is in this case employed is driven by the train 
 of wheels O, P, R, and the bevel pinions shown. 
 
 (186) The four lines of rollers are driven, as will have been 
 seen, at different speeds, and the statement of this fact at once 
 brings us face to face with the very essence of the operation. 
 The object of this variation in velocity is to procure a con- 
 tinuous attenuation of the sliver as it passes, and the amount of 
 attenuation depends entirely upon the ratio of variation. Thus, 
 if the surface speed of the back roller is 20 inches per minute, 
 and that of the front one 120, the sliver would, as it emerged 
 from the front roller, be six times as long and thin as it was 
 when it entered the nip of the back rollers. Because the speed 
 of the front roller is always the superior one, all the remainder 
 are driven from it, the reason of this being very obvious, it 
 requiring so much less power to reduce than to increase the 
 speed of revolving bodies. It is the rule to effect the major 
 part of the drawing by the front roller, and the draft between it 
 and the third line is much greater than that between either of 
 the others. The reason for this procedure is not far to seek. 
 It is customary, as will be afterwards shown, for several carded 
 slivers to be fed to each delivery at one time, and when they 
 reach the rollers they consequently form a thick strand. An 
 excessive draft put upon these slivers at this point would 
 
274 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 probably be destructive. They are compressed and flattened 
 out, and are only subjected to a slight attenuation between the 
 first and second lines of rollers. Between the second and third 
 they are drawn a little more, and this gradual acceleration 
 results in the establishment of an approximately parallel order. 
 By the time the combined sliver leaves the third line of rollers 
 it has usually been reduced to a little over twice its length, and 
 the gentle pull so exercised puts the fibres into good condition 
 for receiving the greater draft of the front line. 
 
 (187) To make this clear an examination of the operation in 
 detail can be profitably made. The first thing to determine 
 is what drawing is intended to do. It has a two-fold object, 
 but the second is really a consequent of the first. Drawing is 
 intended to reduce the number of fibres in the cross section of 
 the combined sliver fed to a defined extent, and as a corollary, 
 to place these fibres in the resultant sliver in practically parallel 
 order. To effect the first result the increasing velocity of the 
 various lines of rollers is necessary, and when combined with a 
 proper relative setting of the centres of the rollers is practically 
 perfect. The last-named point is really the most important, 
 and an improper setting of the rollers results either in broken 
 or imperfectly drawn fibres. The theory underlying the whole 
 process is that of exercising such a pull upon the fibres as will 
 enable them to be straightened, and cause them to be disposed 
 longitudinally in the finished sliver. It is obvious that, if the 
 fibres were laid even partially crosswise in the sliver, the greater 
 part of the advantage of drawing would be lost. For, as has 
 already been pointed out, the strength of a thread depends upon 
 the number of fibres existing in its cross-section relatively to 
 its diameter, and it is therefore clear that, unless they are drawn 
 so as to lie lengthwise of the sliver, the chances of a strong 
 thread are materially reduced. It is therefore necessary to 
 submit them to such a pull as will straighten but not break 
 them. 
 
 (188) When cotton is first taken from the bale the length of 
 the various fibres differs considerably. The shorter fibres are 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 2 75 
 
 removed during carding and combing, and the longer ones 
 remain. They are not, however, so long when presented to the 
 drawing frame as when passed into the opener, the reason of 
 this being that many of them are broken at their points by the 
 severity of the action of the scutcher. There is in almost every 
 fibre near its point a part which is more brittle than the body, 
 this being the result of the manner in which it is developed. 
 This brittle portion easily breaks off, and the result is that when 
 the fibre reaches the drawing frame it is ordinarily from 5 to 10 
 per cent shorter than as first presented to the spinner. This 
 fact must be borne in mind in setting the rollers, and it is well 
 to ascertain the average length of the staple in the carded sliver 
 prior to adjusting them. When this has been done the rollers 
 may be set, and in every case they should be arranged a little 
 further apart than the length of the fibres. The proportion of 
 excess varies with the character of the fibres. Harsh, wiry 
 fibres which require a longer period of draft to pull them 
 straight can have wider set rollers than the finer qualities, which 
 are easily reduced. But in the former case the reduction of the 
 cotton to proper order necessitates more repeated drawing than 
 in the latter. The distance apart is also influenced by the class 
 of sliver drawn. If a combed sliver is drawn the work of 
 parallelisation is unnecessary, and only that of attenuation is 
 required. This work is also considerably reduced by the mere 
 fact of the parallel order of the fibres, because they slide easily 
 alongside one another as the pull is exercised. It is desirable to 
 take into account a large number of circumstances in setting 
 the rollers, all of which influence the result. Thus the length 
 of the roller bosses and the sharpness of |he flutes affect their 
 drawing power materially, and it is possible when this is large 
 to pass the fibres from roller to roller in a shorter time than 
 when it is smaller. As a rule, if the fibre be an inch long the 
 distance between the centres of the front and third lines of 
 tollers should be i ^ inch, that between the second and third 
 r^ inch, and between the second and back lines i T 8 g- inch, or 
 i^f inch. It is customary to vary the diameter of the rollers 
 
27* 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 used with various staples of cotton, as well as their relative 
 setting. This, it is obvious, is necessary, because a short stapled 
 cotton demands close setting, which can only be got if the 
 rollers are small enough in diameter. With Indian cotton, 
 therefore, the rollers are made i inch or i ^ inch diameter, with 
 American i^ inch, and with long stapled cottons i^ inch. 
 The top rollers are, as a rule, smaller than the fluted ones. The 
 general rules may be stated thus : The diameter and the setting 
 of the rollers is regulated by the staple of the cotton; high 
 velocities of the rollers demand small drafts, and vice versa ; 
 easy or low drafts permit of close setting ; heavy drafts demand 
 open setting; the least draft and widest setting must accompany 
 
 FIG. 139. 
 
 the thickest sliver in each box, the setting getting closer and the 
 draft greater as the sliver is reduced. 
 
 (189) The question may be asked why it should be necessary 
 to set the rollers so that at one period during the passage of a 
 fibre no pull is being exercised on it except that induced by the 
 secondary traction of the surrounding fibres. To this there is 
 an obvious answer, but the question opens up the whole subject 
 of the treatment of the fibre as it passes through the machine. 
 In order to illustrate this point the diagram given in Fig. 139 
 has been prepared. This represents, on a reduced scale, the 
 passage of a fibre an inch long through four sets of rollers, the 
 centres of which are indicated by the letters A, B, C D, A 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 277 
 
 being the front line. In order to condense the size of the 
 diagram, the line marked E is repeated at the upper part of 
 the diagram, and the remainder carried on in regular sequence. 
 The fibre is supposed to have moved ^4 inch for each line 
 drawn, and the spaces between the rollers are arranged as de- 
 scribed in the last paragraph. That is, the distance between A 
 and B is i T V inch, between B and C i>6 inch, and between C 
 and D i% inch. Now, it will be noticed that as the fibre 
 approaches the nip of the back line at the point D, it is 
 subjected to the pull of that pair of rollers for a considerable 
 time. There is a slight pull at this point, because the slivers 
 are being drawn out of the cans, and the weight of the sliver 
 acts as a slight check upon the drawing in of the cotton. 
 Gradually, however, the fibre is carried forward until it reaches a 
 point where it lies wholly between the rollers C and D, without 
 there being any grip exercised on it by either of these rollers. 
 At this point what is happening is that the fibres which are 
 actually gripped at C are being drawn forward, and in so doing 
 are, in consequence of their adhesion to those adjoining them, not 
 only held back at their free ends, but exercise a certain pull upon 
 their neighbours. Thus the fibres which are free from any grip 
 by the rollers are not quite free from traction, although the extent 
 of this is necessarily limited. The compression of the com- 
 bined slivers, as they pass through the back rollers D, certainly 
 creates an adhesion which is more or less effective for the 
 purpose named, according to the quality of the cotton used. 
 The fibres are gradually carried on until they pass into the nip 
 of the rollers C, when the action just described begins to 
 occur. We now come to a period when the fibre has passed 
 partially through the nip of one pair of rollers, but has not 
 yet come fully within the sphere of the next pair. Thus, 
 assuming that the fourth fibre from the point E be taken as an 
 example, about one-half having passed between the nip of the 
 rollers C, what is the influence of the rollers B upon the end 
 which has passed ? There can be nothing more than an induced 
 action created by the frictional or adhesive contact of contiguous 
 
278 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 fibres, but this is very considerable. The fibre is therefore 
 carried forward by the rollers C, while at the same time its free 
 end is being pulled in the manner described. The resistance 
 which it encounters is, paradoxical as it may. seem, the resistance 
 of the rotating rollers C, which practically act as a retaining 
 nipper. Thus, until it finally passes out of the influence of C, 
 there is a pull exercised on it which is practically a retarding 
 one that is, the frictional contact is sufficient to enable the 
 fibre to be drawn against the resistance of the delivering nip of 
 C. In like manner, when the fibre finally passes forward clear 
 of C, and is laid hold of by the next pair of rollers, the adhesive 
 contact named practically acts as a backward drag upon its free 
 end. This is quite clear upon a little reflection, because the 
 rollers B, revolving at a superior speed to C, naturally tend to 
 draw all the fibres forward at the increased velocity, while the 
 more slowly moving rollers tend to prevent this accelerated 
 forward movement. Thus there is a draft exercised on the 
 fibres embedded in the mass, by which they are straightened 
 and caused to lie in the line of direction of the pull exercised 
 en them. If this description has been followed, it will be seen 
 that the contention is, that the fibres are in three conditions 
 during their passage through the rollers gripped at one end 
 by the rollers of inferior and free from contact with those of 
 superior velocity ; free from the contact of both ; or gripped at 
 the other end by rollers of superior but free from contact 
 with those of inferior velocity. In the gradual change of posi- 
 tion which they assume the influence of the rollers of superior 
 velocity is one tending to draw them forward, and that of the 
 rollers of inferior velocity one tending to prevent them moving 
 at a more rapid rate than the surface speed of the rollers. 
 Thus the fibre is constantly being submitted to a strain in 
 opposite directions, and the proportionate influence of each upon 
 it will depend solely on the ratio of its total length within the 
 sphere of the respective pairs of rollers. It is important to 
 remember that unless this alternate draft upon each end of the 
 fibre occurred there could be no straightening of it, and it is 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 279 
 
 this fact which renders the correct setting of the rollers a matter 
 of importance. It will be noticed that in no period of its pas- 
 sage through the rollers, however close their setting may be, is 
 the fibre actually in contact with two rollers at one time. If it 
 were, the superior draft of one pair would immediately pull it 
 into two pieces, which is a thing specially to be guarded against. 
 The action, which has thus been explained, is that by which the 
 fibres are drawn into parallel order, but it also results in an 
 attenuation of the sliver, as will now be shown. 
 
 (190) It has been explained that the four rollers indicated 
 by A, B, C, and D rotate at gradually accelerating speeds, and 
 it has also been shown that one effect of the drag thus exercised 
 is to pull the fibres apart from each other. This can readily be 
 tested, and the action observed by anyone who will get a small 
 piece of carded sliver, and hold it with the left hand, while, at a 
 distance of say two inches, gripping it with the right and then 
 gradually withdrawing the latter from the left hand. The 
 actual sliding of the fibres over each other can be seen, and the 
 resistance which is felt to the movement of the hand is solely 
 that occasioned by the frictional contact or adhesion of the 
 fibres with each other. True, it is not a large resistance in the 
 aggregate, but proportionately to the strength and size of the 
 fibres it is considerable. But an examination of the sliver, after 
 this manual drawing has been made for some time, will show 
 that its area has become contracted, if not throughout, at least 
 in parts. In other words, it has been attenuated or drawn. If 
 the process were continued sufficiently long, the sliver would 
 rupture and be drawn into two parts. Now, if the two elements 
 of a stationary and movable grip be exchanged for those of two 
 revolving grips, we have, in the instance given, the true analogue 
 of drawing. It is only necessary to arrange that the cotton 
 shall be delivered by one of the nipping parts at a slowei 
 velocity than it is taken up by the other, to produce exactly the 
 same kind of attenuation, but the degree, of course, varies in 
 exact proportion with the difference in velocity. If the latter 
 is made large enough the rupture of the sliver will occur, 
 
280 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 but by regulating the proportionate velocities properly any 
 desired degree of attenuation can be obtained. It has thus 
 been shown that a two-fold 
 but connected action takes 
 place in a drawing machine, 
 and that, although the at- 
 tenuation of the sliver is 
 the main object, it is inevit- 
 ably accompanied by the 
 disposition of the fibres 
 parallelly and longitudinally 
 within it. 
 
 (191) It has been already 
 indicated that a number 
 of carded or combed slivers 
 are fed to the drawing frame 
 simultaneously. The num- 
 ber varies, but an average 
 is six, and they are com- | 
 monly spoken of as so 
 many "ends" put up to 
 the machine. They are first 
 taken, as shown in Figs. 1 35 
 and 140, through the guide 
 plate F, which is formed 
 with a number of holes or 
 guides, and thus acts as a 
 separating plate. After pas- 
 sing through F, the sliver 
 is taken over the end of a 
 short, unevenly - balanced 
 lever G, which can oscillate 
 freely on a knife-edge bear 
 ing. The end over which 
 
 the sliver passes is hollowed out and highly polished, being 
 named, from its shape, a spoon lever. The superior weight of 
 
 n - ~ 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 281 
 
 the other end of the lever causes the spoon to be ordinarily 
 raised, and the tension of the sliver as it passes to some extent 
 counteracts this tendency, and presses the spoon down. By 
 means of an eccentric, fixed upon a shaft, and driven from 
 the calender rollers by the train of gearing shown, a rod I 
 receives a reciprocal movement, and communicates it by a 
 bell crank J, rocking shaft K, and levers L, to a square bar 
 fixed in the upper end of the latter. On the shaft K a bell 
 crank lever V pivoted at V 1 is fixed, which can lift a lever M 
 engaging with a stop on the stop rod N, on which a longitudinal 
 pull is exerted by means of a helical spring. As the strap guide 
 is fixed on the stop rod, the movement of it in either direction 
 respectively pushes the driving belt on or off the fast pulley. 
 
 (192) The object of this arrangement is to prevent the for- 
 mation of what is technically, but erroneously, called " single." 
 This is the passage into the drawing rollers of one or two ends 
 less than the number put up, and arises from the breakage or 
 failure of an end as it is taken from the can. The object of 
 putting up so many ends will be discussed at a later point, but 
 it may be stated that it is absolutely necessary that the combined 
 sliver shall consist of all of those put up, as otherwise unevenness 
 will occur. If, therefore, an end fails or breaks, the pressure on 
 the spoon end of its respective lever G is removed, and the 
 weighted end falls and comes into the path of the bar fixed in 
 the levers L. Thus, when the latter endeavour to make their 
 forward reciprocation they are unable to do so, and the crank V 
 is thus oscillated on V 1 so as to oscillate M and release the 
 stop rod. The helical spring at once throws the belt on to the 
 loose pulley and stops the machine. It may happen that after 
 the sliver has emerged from the front roller it will break before 
 it passes into the calender rolls Q. To stop the machine in this 
 event a spoon lever O, of the same character as G, is used, which, 
 when released, engages with a short arm of the lever P oscillated 
 from K. The action is the same as in the former case. After 
 passing the calender rolls, which it does in the shape of a loose 
 rope, being collected by the trumpet guide shown, the sliver 
 
282 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 in some cases is passed through a coiler head, by which it is 
 delivered into cans. In order to prevent damage to the cotton 
 by overfilling of the cans, it is the practice to fit under- 
 neath the coiler head a loose plate R 1 , which can be pressed 
 up, and brings into action a stop which also comes in 
 the path of the rod P, this having the same effect as the 
 oscillation of any of the spoon levers. A stop motion, which 
 has had a large employment, is the electric arrangement 
 
 FIG. 141. 
 
 shown in Fig. 141. In this case the machine is practically 
 divided into two parts, insulating material being introduced 
 in joining them together. One half of the machine thus 
 makes one pole, which is connected with the battery by 
 the rod K, while the other half constitutes the other pole, 
 being coupled to the battery by the rod O. As the sliver 
 passes to the back roller it is taken between two rollers S T, 
 coupled respectively to the positive and negative poles. The 
 ower roller S forms a line along the machine, while the roller T, 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 283 
 
 is only long enough for one sliver. If an end fails the rollers 
 come into contact, the circuit is completed, which passes a cur- 
 rent through an electro-magnet X, causing it to attract the catch Z, 
 and draw it into the path of a cam which is constantly revolving. 
 The arrest of the latter actuates a sliding clutch and releases the 
 knocking-off lever, allowing it to move the strap on to the loose 
 pulley. If a " roller lap " is caused, the top front roller H, which is 
 coupled to one pole, is raised into contact with a pin L, con- 
 nected to the other, thus completing the circuit. If the drawn 
 sliver breaks before it passes through the calender rollers N K, 
 they engage, or, if the can overfills, the tube plate in the coiler 
 lifts, the circuit being completed and the machine stopped in 
 either case. 
 
 (193) Before passing on to consider a few points in connec- 
 tion with the working of the machine, it should be stated that 
 above the rollers are placed flannel-covered surfaces, the object 
 of which is to collect the short fibres which are thrown off from 
 the cotton in the form of "fly." These, unless carefully and 
 systematically removed, gather into lumps or " slubs," and pass 
 forward with the sliver into the cans. Whenever this happens, 
 a thick place will be found in the subsequent yarn, which it is 
 then difficult to remove. By placing above the roller the 
 flannel surface named, the fly is taken up by the rougher surface 
 from the rollers, and these "clearers," as they are called, can be 
 easily and regularly cleansed. The clearers are of one of three 
 types, viz., (i) a round roller, resting in the space between the 
 two rollers, so as to engage with two of them, and free to rotate; 
 (2) a flat flannel-covered board, lying on the top of all four 
 rollers; or (3) an endless flannel band, 'constantly traversed, 
 one side of it pressing on the rollers, and capable of being freed 
 from the collected fly by an oscillating comb, the whole being 
 covered, as shown in Fig. 135, with a metal cover. The last- 
 named is the best form of clearer, and is known as " Ermen's 
 revolving clearer." The clearers should be at once removed 
 if their surfaces get roughened, as otherwise there will be a 
 great risk of licking and roller laps. 
 
284 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (194) The policy underlying the combination of several 
 slivers at the drawing frame is practically that referred to in 
 connection with the scutching machine. It is well established, 
 although the effect is often exaggerated, that a good deal of 
 advantage is derived from the passage of several slivers at one 
 time. It is by no means an incontrovertible fact that the 
 inequalities of a sliver forming one of a series will fall in the 
 convenient manner often imagined. It is generally believed 
 that the thick place in one sliver will be presented at the same 
 time as the thin one in its fellow, but this is not demonstrated, 
 and is many times contrary to fact. But it is true that if six 
 or seven slivers are put up together it will probably happen 
 that the thick places in some of them will be counteracted by 
 the thin places in the others. Further, the gradual parallelisa- 
 tion of the fibres as they are passed through the rollers induces 
 a more even thickness of sliver, especially when the drawn 
 slivers are themselves combined and passed through the machine 
 once or twice. The mere attenuation of the sliver, if it does 
 nothing else, reduces any existing irregularity, and when 
 repeated two or three times practically corrects it. Thus if in 
 one of six slivers put up, which should contain 9,000 fibres in 
 their cross section, there was only 8,000, the total number of 
 fibres in the six slivers would be 53,000 only instead of 54,000. 
 When the combined sliver is reduced six times by a draft of 
 6, instead of containing 9,000 fibres it will only contain 
 8,826. It will be seen how rapidly the deficiency is reduced, 
 and, if the attenuation is continued at a second head, 
 as it always is, it practically disappears. But the most 
 valuable features in this process of doubling are the reduction, 
 by successive drafts., of the fibres to parallel order, and the 
 gradual approximation of the sliver to a perfectly even condition, 
 so that each foot contains more nearly the same number of 
 fibres in its cross section, mainly in consequence of the 
 parallelising operation. Doubling possesses many features of 
 interest, but the observations of the author have confirmed the 
 view that its chief merit lies in the establishment of parallel 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 285 
 
 order in the fibres included in the finished sliver. It is true 
 that the gradual reduction of the thickness of the slivers also 
 tends to lessen or remove any inequalities, as just shown, but 
 the real secret of an even drawn sliver is the production of 
 an even carded one. This, in turn, implies care in the forma- 
 tion of a lap, and so the genesis of a perfect drawing is 
 removed to the earliest process within a mill. Every sliver 
 possesses its distinctive defects if any exist at different 
 points in its length, and these do not all pass into the rollers at 
 the same point, so that the continuous attenuation is likely to be 
 of advantage. Whatever may be the explanation of it, the fact 
 remains that when doubling is resorted to the finished sliver is 
 much better than when it is not. It is usual to pass the 
 slivers through three heads, and it is a very common thing to 
 put up six slivers to each head. In this case the aggregate 
 doubling received by a sliver is 6x6x6 = 21 6. The question 
 of the effect of the draft of the rollers and doubling the slivers 
 will be dealt with a little later. 
 
 (195) Among the more important detailed points which, in 
 the manipulation of a drawing frame, require attention, that of 
 the condition of the rollers is most important. The lower 
 rollers, being made of steel or iron, and fluted, are, of course, 
 much more durable than the covering of the upper ones. 
 It is necessary to see that the flutes of the rollers are kept clean 
 and smooth, and that the points are not too sharp. Any rough- 
 ness, however slight, speedily results in licking, and the greatest 
 care must be taken to avoid this. The upper rollers being 
 covered, a series of points arise of more or less importance. In 
 ;he first place the cloth with which they are covered requires to 
 3e selected carefully to suit the class of roller which it has to 
 :over Roller cloth is a fine cloth made with great care and 
 rom a fine grade of wool. It is well milled so as to look 
 almost like a felt, and it is essential that it shall be very level, 
 and of even substance. In weight it runs from 12 to 30 
 ounces per yard of 27 inches wide. A good cloth must be at 
 once pliable and firm with no more than the natural amount of 
 
286 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 moisture in it. If a solid roller is used, a lighter cloth is per- 
 missible than when a loose boss or shell roller of the same 
 length of boss is employed, and in like manner the shortening 
 of the boss of a roller has an effect upon the weight of 
 flannel used. The reason of this is that a loose boss roller 
 requires a heavier weight applied than the solid roller, and the 
 pressure upon its surface being so much greater necessitates a 
 better bed for the leather. It does not really matter whether 
 this careful grading of the weight of the flannel is made or not, 
 provided that the thickness of the cloth used is ample for the 
 pressure put upon the roller, as in most cases it will be. The 
 point really aimed at is to provide a bed sufficiently firm to 
 accommodate itself to the weight applied, so that while 
 enabling the necessary pressure to be put on the roller there is 
 no danger of crushing the fibres which are being drawn. Even 
 with the most perfect bed there is always a danger of this 
 crushing action, which is most objectionable and injurious. 
 The tendency is for weights to increase, but the student 
 will do well to bear in mind that no increased draw- 
 ing power is worth having if it endangers the fibres in 
 their passage. The cloth being selected of a proper 
 thickness, should be carefully formed into a sheath, and fastened 
 on the roller boss. The greatest care must be taken to see that 
 it is evenly stretched over the whole surface, and that there is no 
 thick place where the two ends are joined. If this is not done, 
 cutting of the fibres will take place at every revolution. The 
 roller, in fact, must be as nearly cylindrical as possible, and the 
 same remark applies to the leather covering, which must be 
 equally carefully prepared. The skin-grinding machine of 
 Messrs. Dronsfield Bros., Limited, is especially valuable in this 
 respect, as it ensures the absolute evenness in thickness of the 
 skins. The leather coverings are prepared by cutting the leather 
 into strips of the required length and width, and cementing them 
 together at the joints, which should be tapered so as not to 
 make a thick place. After being drawn on by the aid of a 
 special tool the ends of the leather must be carefully closed over 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 287 
 
 the bosses, and the roller well calendered at a moderate heat. 
 After the leather sheath is prepared and put upon the roller, it 
 is a very good practice to subject the latter to a rolling pressure, 
 so as to make it quite cylindrical. No care is too great with the 
 leather-covered rollers, if good work is required, and the smooth- 
 ness of their surface must be absolute. Any roughness induces 
 licking of the fibres, and means waste, the amount of which in 
 a drawing frame ought to be very trivial. Any roller which is 
 not running true, or the leather of which has become fluted, 
 should be at once overhauled and be re-covered, if that is found 
 to be the fault, or straightened, if the roller itself is strained. 
 Care should be taken that when rollers are ground after use 
 the skins are varnished properly with a varnish that does not 
 stick, and dries hard without cracks. The question of whether 
 a loose boss or solid roller is the best is one which possesses 
 some interest. 
 
 (196) There can be little doubt that in England, at least, 
 there is a liking for the loose boss roller, and something may be 
 said on this point. The weight of a roller has a certain influence 
 upon the drawing power, and we shall see that in many of the 
 spinning frames it is the custom to make the top rollers of some of 
 the lines self-weighted. In a recently-introduced form of drawing 
 roller, both the top and bottom lines are fluted, and made 
 of steel, and the top rollers are, therefore, of greater weight 
 than the usual form. These are known as " metallic " drawing 
 rollers, a phrase adopted to distinguish between them and the 
 ordinary covered rollers. Fig. 142 is a partial perspective 
 and Fig. 143 an enlarged partial section of a pair of rollers 
 made on this method. The upper and lower rollers are 
 kept a definite distance apart by means of collars A A, which 
 are fixed respectively at each end on the necks of the upper 
 and lower rollers. These collars are hardened steel, and 
 are ground to an exact size. The body of the rollers is fluted, 
 as shown in B, and the flutes intermesh one with the other ; 
 but the point of one tooth is prevented from going to the bottom 
 of its corresponding flute by the. compulsory separation of the 
 
288 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 rollers. It .will, of course, be understood that all the dimensions 
 are greatly enlarged in Fig. 143. The sliver, which is forced 
 through the roller, is shown by the thick black line, and is 
 naturally caused to follow the formation of the teeth, and to be 
 partially crimped, just as in a combing machine. The depth of 
 contact of the teeth is '044 inch, so that the crimping is slight. 
 The bottom roller being driven naturally drives the upper roller, 
 by means of the pressure exerted on it and the intervening 
 sliver, as shown in the figure. The space between the teeth is 
 ample for the sliver, and no crushing effect is produced. It is 
 claimed for this type of roller that the draft is a positive one, 
 
 FIG. 142. 
 
 and that there can be no damage to the fibre from such causes 
 as slip or friction, which is often found with leather-covered 
 rollers, especially when care is not taken to keep the top or 
 covered roller in good condition. It is found that a reduction 
 is wanted in the calculated draft when this type of metallic 
 roller is used; and further, that instead of the calculated draft 
 being in excess of the actual draft, the reverse is the case. The 
 explanation of this is not far to seek. The ordinary leather- 
 covered top roller is driven by the forward movement of the 
 sliver, which in turn receives its motion from the rotation of the 
 bottom roller. Thus there is, in the event of any inefficient 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 
 
 289 
 
 lubrication or similar cau.se, a resistance to the free rotation of 
 the top roller to overcome, which is in excess of the driving 
 force of the moving sliver. For this reason it is often the prac- 
 tice to weight the top rollers of drawing frames considerably, 
 especially if the material being drawn is harsh and wiry. The 
 result is that the pressure on the fibre is considerable, and even 
 then it is by no means easy to avoid slip. With the metallic 
 roll such a condition as this cannot arise, because, owing to the 
 absolute grip exercised upon the fibres, drawing is certain 
 
 FIG. 143. 
 
 Further, the divergence of the sliver from the straight line, which 
 as shown in Fig. 143, must occur, adds to the draft, and thus it 
 is found that there is a greater actual draft than that calculated. 
 Perhaps one of the most useful effects of this particular con- 
 struction will be found in countries where the leather tends to 
 become adhesive, owing to the various atmospheric changes. 
 In this country this cause does not often affect the result, but 
 in some places it is an important matter. The draft of the 
 
 K 
 
290 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 metallic roll being positive and definite, and depending on a 
 grip and not frictional contact, it is clear that there can be no 
 adhesion. It is also found that there is no necessity to weight 
 the top rollers so heavily, because, as it is. only necessary to 
 keep the collars in contact, only such weights as will do this 
 are required. There is thus a decrease of friction. It 
 the construction of a loose boss roller be considered it will 
 be seen that the friction existing is that of its inner surface 
 against the outer surface of the arbor. This friction is still 
 further reduced by the efficient lubrication of a roller of this 
 type, so that the shell can revolve with ease. This fact has a 
 two fold bearing. It renders the rotation of the top roller 
 easier, and at the same time it increases the necessity for 
 weighting. An ordinary solid roller has to overcome the 
 friction of the hooks on its arbor as well as the friction set up 
 in its bearings. Both of these are absent in the loose boss, 
 being replaced by the friction between the shell and arbor, 
 which is much less than that of the hooks and rollers. The 
 loose boss shell will therefore rotate more freely than a solid 
 roll, and this fact renders it a little more difficult to get the 
 nip required to obtain the draft. Thus the loose boss needs 
 weighting, with due regard to the facts that it is more readily 
 driven and is lighter than the solid roller, but this can be very 
 easily arranged. With a loose boss roller one danger is 
 practically removed. We refer to the abrasion of the fibres 
 which occurs if there is any retardation of the rotation of the 
 top rollers. For these reasons, although in some respects the 
 solid roller is meritorious, the balance of advantage appears to 
 the author to lie with the loose boss type, and by their use 
 the durability of the leather is increased. On the other hand, 
 it ought to be said that some spinners contend that a much 
 better draft can be got with a solid than a loose boss roller, and 
 that lighter weights can be used. With reference to the 
 latter point it should be noted that the aggregate weight 
 of roller and weights does not greatly differ in either case, and, 
 with regard to the former, experience generally leads to the 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 29 1 
 
 opposite conclusion. Further, it might be pointed out when 
 double bossed top rollers are employed it is of less importance 
 to have the diameters of each boss, when covered, exactly the 
 same size with loose boss than with solid rollers, Each shell 
 in the former case revolves independently, while in the latter 
 the surfaces of the bosses necessarily revolve at one speed, and 
 if the surface speed is not the same there will be a certain 
 amount of rubbing, which is detrimental. The lubrication 01 
 all the rollers is of importance, and should be specially looked 
 after. Care should be taken to prevent oil getting on to the. 
 leathers, and the periodical cleaning of the rollers is an absolute 
 necessity. 
 
 (197) The arrangement of the cans behind the frame is worth 
 a little consideration. The usual practice is, as has been said, 
 to place behind the machine a number of cans five to eight for 
 each delivery at the first head. Subsequently a certain number 
 of those produced at the first drawing head are fed to the second 
 head, and the same practice is pursued at the third. Now, it 
 is obviously a faulty procedure to feed a number of full cans 
 simultaneously, because at each head these would all run empty 
 at once, and the machines be stopped until the attendant 
 had pieced up the ends throughout the series. To avoid this 
 it is better to feed them in sections, one section being full, the 
 next section three-quarters full, the next half full, and the next 
 quarter full. In this way the piecing can be effected with a 
 minimum of stoppage. 
 
 (198) The question whether the resultant sliver from the 
 drawing frame is thinner or lighter than that from the carding 
 or combing machine which is fed to it, depends for its answer 
 entirely upon the number of ends put up and the total draft of 
 the rollers. Suppose, for instance, that six ends are put up to 
 a drawing head, the draft of which is six, it is obvious that there 
 would be no reduction in the weight of the sliver delivered com- 
 pared with that of any single sliver put up. It is, of cour.^, true 
 that every one of the latter has been reduced to one-sixth its 
 
292 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 original weight, but the combination of the six produces the 
 full weight in the drawn sliver. If, therefore, it is desired to 
 know what the weight of a drawn sliver will be, all that it is 
 necessary to do is to multiply the weight of each by the total 
 draft and divide by the number of ends put up. In order to 
 establish a uniform method of calculation, it is customary to 
 speak of a sliver as of such a number of hank, and this is arrived 
 at as described in paragraph 162 in connection with carding. 
 Thus, supposing the carded sliver is *i6 hank, six ends are 
 put up, and the total draft of the draw box is 5, then the 
 
 resultant drawn sliver will be - 5 = -133. In this way 
 
 the calculation can be made throughout, and, as will be shown 
 at a much later stage in this book, the proper system is to plan 
 the drafts from the opener to the spinning frame" with strict 
 relation to one another. The total draft of a frame is got by 
 multiplying together the drafts /.<?., the ratio of the velocities 
 of each pair. Thus, if the roller C (Fig. 138) travels at i% time 
 the velocity of D, the roller B i ^ time as quick as C, and A 3 
 times as quick as B, then the total draft would be i ^ x i ^ x 3 
 = 6^-. Having determined what the drafts shall be, it is easy 
 to make the necessary wheel changes required, and in doing so 
 the velocity of the front roller is the determining factor. It is, 
 for the reason previously detailed, the practice to put in the 
 larger portion of the draft between the front and third line of 
 rollers. It is, therefore, only usually necessary to alter the 
 relations between the velocities of the front and back rollers, 
 unless this change is excessive, because, as will be seen at 2 
 and 3 in Fig. 138, the relations between the velocities of C, B, 
 and D are practically fixed, and are affected by any change in 
 the relative velocities of A and D. The necessary wheel change 
 is therefore ordinarily made at G, that being a pinion which can 
 be easily altered. Now the draft of the machine is the ratio 
 existing between the surface velocity of the front roller and 
 that of the back roller. The ordinary rule for this purpose is 
 as follows. 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 293 
 
 (199) Multiply all the driven wheels and the diameter of the 
 front roller together for a dividend, then all the drivers and the 
 diameter of back roller together for a divisor, and the quotient 
 will be the draft required. 
 
 (200) This rule is really the reverse of the true way of putting 
 the case, but produces the same result. The value of a wheel 
 train is usually calculated in mechanics by multiplying all the 
 drivers and dividing that product by one obtained by multi- 
 plying all the driven wheels. If the quotient so obtained is 
 multiplied by the velocity of the first driver, the velocity of the 
 last member of the train is obtained. Thus, in the case shown 
 in Fig. 138, the wheel train consists of the wheels E, F, G, H, 
 
 and its value is - . Now let us assume that the front roller 
 F x H 
 
 is \Y% inch diameter, and the back roller i inch, and the velocity 
 of the front roller 220 revolutions. Let also E have 30 teeth, 
 F 90 teeth, G 42 teeth, and H 60 teeth. Then, according to 
 
 the formula, the velocity of the back roller will ba 3C) A4 2 x 
 
 90 x 60 
 
 220 = 51*3. The draft therefore is, according to this computa- 
 tion, - ^ = 4*3 nearly. If the front and back rollers were the 
 
 same diameter, this would represent the draft, but as they are 9 
 to 8, the draft is 4-3 x = 4-8. If the draft be worked out by the 
 
 rule detailed above, it will be found to be as follows : 9 x x 9 
 
 30 x 42 x 8 
 
 = 4'8, which is identical. If the value of the wheel G be 
 omitted from the calculations, we get a constant number. By 
 dividing this by the draft, the size of the draft wheel G is 
 obtained ; or if it be divided by the dra'ft wheel the quotient 
 is the draft. Another method, and one that is the best, is to 
 ascertain the surface velocities of the front and back rollers, and 
 divide that of the former by that of the latter. The velocities 
 can be arrived at either by calculating them in the manner 
 described, and multiplying each by the respective circumferences, 
 or by counting them. If, in the case named, the velocities are 
 
294 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 220 of the front roller, the circumference of which is 3*5343 
 inches, and 5I/-3 of the back roller, which has a circum- 
 ference of 3*1416. then the relative surface velocities of each 
 respectively are 777*546 and 161*268. Dividing the former by 
 the latter we get 4*8, as before. It does not therefore matter 
 which of the three methods is adopted, the result obtained is 
 identical, but the latter is the simpler way. The drafts of the 
 lines B and C are calculated in a similar manner as described in 
 connection with the front line, the wheel trains being shorter, and 
 as in each case the centre wheel only acts as a carrier, the factor 
 
 needed in the calculation being for C line and B line . 
 
 (201) The calender rollers are driven by the carrier wheel T 
 from a pinion on the front roller arbor, and revolve at a somewhat 
 quicker surface speed than the front roller. This must be 
 allowed for in arranging for the total draft. The coiler calcula- 
 tions need not now be dealt with, as they were fully gone intc 
 in connection with the carding engine. The length of sliver 
 that the drawing frame will pass can easily be arrived at if the 
 draft be known. Let it be assumed that the draft is 6, and 
 that the front roller is i J inch diameter and revolving 300 times 
 per minute, the back roller being i inch diameter. To give a 
 draft of 6, the velocity of the back roller must be 55*5. At 
 this speed it will take in 196 inches per minute of each sliver, 
 while the front roller will deliver 1178 inches of the drawn 
 sliver. It follows, that if six ends be put up, the length of sliver 
 taken up and delivered is practically the same. It was pointed 
 out that the change is made in the drafts by means of the 
 pinion G. If it is desired to change the hank drawing delivered, 
 it is very easy to calculate the number of teeth in the new 
 pinion. Thus, if a '15 hank drawing is produced by a pinion 
 of 36 teeth, a "20 hank drawing would require a pinion 
 .is. x 36 = 27. This can also be arrived at by calculating from 
 the weight of six yards of the drawing which is being made with 
 any definite change wheel and that desired to be made. The- 
 rule is, that the coarser the drawing produced the larger the- 
 
COMBING AND DRAWING. 295 
 
 change wheel required, and vice versa. The hank of the final 
 drawing made can be obtained, if the hank carding is known, 
 by multiplying the latter by the drafts at each head and dividing 
 by the number of ends up at each head. Thus, assuming the 
 drafts in the three heads to be 4, 6, and 6, and six ends of "15 
 hank carding to be fed at first, and six to each of the other two 
 heads, the matter stands thus : 
 
 Drafts . = . lo hank . 
 
 6x6x6 216 
 
296 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SLU BEING AND ROVING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Definition of process, 202 Creel, 203 Clearers and 
 rollers, 204 Howard and Bullough's cap bars, 204 Arrangement 
 of spindles, 204 Action of presser, 204 Long collar, 205 Higgin's 
 cradle, 206 Operation of twisting, 207 Conditions of winding, 208, 
 209 Bobbin and flyer lead, 210 Description of mechanism, 211 
 Swing motion, 212, 213 Speed of spindles and rollers, 214 Speed 
 of sun wheel, 214 Holdsworth's differential motion, 215 Speed of 
 bobbins, 216 Curtis and Rhodes' differential motion, 217 
 Tweedale's motion, 218 Brooks and Shaw's motion, 219 Dobson 
 and Barlow's motion, 220 Effect of cones on differential speed, 221 
 Theory of construction of cones, 222, 223, 224, 225 Anti-slipping 
 devices, 226 Action of cone belts, 227 Building motion, 228, 229 
 Howard and Bullough's building motion, 230 Asa Lees' building 
 motion, 230 Speed of bobbins as affected by cones, 231 Action of 
 building motion on cone strap, 232 Speed of lifting rack, 233 
 Diminishing motion, 234 Traverse motions, 235 Changes of speed 
 in parts, 236 Rules for calculating changes, 237 Tables of 
 measurements, dividends, hanks, and coils, 237 Points requiring 
 attention, 238. 
 
 (202) IN the scheme of operations which was given in para- 
 graph 61, Chapter II., those of slabbing and roving are defined 
 as drawing and twisting processes. They form practically the 
 first stage in the formation of the twisted thread to which the 
 name of " yarn " is given. As produced on the drawing frame 
 the sliver is, as was shown, seldom much thinner than that 
 obtained from the carding engine. It differs mainly in the 
 important fact of the parallel order of the fibres within it, which 
 is absolutely essential to the proper effecting of the twisting 
 operation. The drawn fibre could be twisted into a yarn or 
 thread, but its diameter would be too great for practical use. 
 It is therefore essential to still further attenuate or draw the 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 297 
 
 sliver, and this is usually done in three stages, of which the first 
 is " slubbing." In the slubbing frame the sliver is drawn to the 
 utmost extent which is permissible without damage to its 
 strength, and is, as it emerges from the drawing rollers, given a 
 slight twist. The twist given is only sufficient to impart a 
 certain cohesion and strength to the thread which will enable 
 it to withstand the draft in the next of the series of machines. 
 As the attenuation of the thread is continued until just before 
 the final twist is put into it, it is highly desirable that up to this 
 point it shall not be so "hardly" twisted i.e., have so many 
 turns in each inch as to present any obstacle in the way of 
 the drawing action of the rollers. Accordingly it is the practice 
 to put into the thread in each of the machines successively a 
 definite amount of twist, but the amount put in in each case is 
 not great. The final product of this stage is known by the 
 generic name of " roving," and the machines themselves are 
 sometimes known as " speed frames." 
 
 (203) Each of the machines of the series is practically the 
 same in mechanical details, differing only in the size and 
 strength of the parts. The slubbing frame is fed from the 
 slivers in the drawing cans, and during the time the material 
 is passing through the machine it is wound on to wooden 
 tubes, being formed into a spool or " bobbin " with a cylin- 
 drical centre portion and truncated conical ends. The bobbins 
 so produced are fed to the intermediate frame, being for the 
 purpose fitted with round rods or " skewers " pointed at each 
 end. By means of the skewers the bobbins are sustained in a 
 nearly vertical position in a light frame, known as a " creel," 
 which is placed above the body of the machine. The creel 
 consists of a number of light longitudinal rails, which have 
 fixed in them at regular intervals small porcelain cups or steps 
 in which the points of the skewers fit loosely, so that when the 
 thread is drawn off the bobbins the latter can easily revolve. 
 It may be perhaps as well to explain at this point that any 
 frame which is used for the purpose of holding the bobbins or 
 spools from which a machine is fed is known as a " creel." 
 
298 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 The bobbins produced on the intermediate frame are smaller in 
 size than those on the slabbing frame, and in consequence they 
 can be placed nearer to each other in the roving frame creel. 
 The same length of frame will therefore contain more 
 bobbins. A creel may be one, two, or three in height, according 
 to the number of rows of bobbins it holds. As at each 
 operation the coarsely twisted thread produced is reduced in 
 thickness, the bobbins on which it is wound are made less in 
 size, and the pitch of the spindles is reduced. 
 
 (204) As the material passes from the cans or creel it is 
 taken through the drawing rollers, which are in construction 
 and mode of operation similar to those used in the drawing 
 frame. There are ordinarily three lines employed ; the top 
 rollers for the back lines are of cast iron, and are made so much 
 heavier than those for the front lines that they are not other- 
 wise weighted. The rollers revolve in bearings of a similar 
 character, and are fixed to the roller beam in a similar manner 
 to those used in the drawing frames. Clearers are fitted above 
 and also below the rollers ; a revolving clearer being sustained 
 in bearings formed in a spring fastened to the roller beam, the 
 spring being sufficiently strong to ensure the constant contact 
 of the clearer with the rollers. The method of arranging the 
 cap bars which are used in roving frames to maintain the 
 position of the top rollers is somewhat important. The 
 practice is to cast on the front of the bar a projecting piece 
 usually consisting of a square rod on which the adjustable 
 " nebs " for supporting the ends of the top rollers are fixed by 
 a screw. These are often thrown out of truth by the pressure 
 of the screw, and, in order to obviate this, the arrangement 
 shown in Fig. 144 is adopted by Messrs. Howard and Bullough. 
 A rod F is fixed in the roller stand, and on it are fastened by 
 means of cotters I, brackets B. The latte^ have fixed in them 
 rods A of rectangular form on three sides, but V on lne lower 
 two sides. In the bracket B a hole of a similar shape is cut, 
 so that the rod A when fastened by the screw C, is securely 
 held. The shape of the hole is shown as cut in one of the 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 299 
 
 nebs D in a detached view. In the figure at the left-hand top 
 corner of Fig. 144, it will be seen that the necessary number of 
 nebs can be fixed in their proper, positions, and, in the two 
 lower views, the application to a four roller box is very clearly 
 shown. The pentagonal shape of the rod ensures the fixture of 
 the nebs without twisting, so that the top rollers rest properly 
 on the lower line. In the sectional view at the left-hand lower 
 corner the method of fixing the cap bar is shown, and it will be 
 seen that the slides can be adjusted without interfering with the 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 
 cap bar bracket. The top clearer bracket is also hinged on the 
 cap bar shaft. The advantage of this arrangement is mainly 
 that arising from the easy and accurate a'djustment of the cap 
 bars. The spindles are borne by two rails, one having bearings 
 formed which act as " footsteps " for the spindle and the other 
 rail carrying an upper bearing or "bolster." The spindles are 
 in two lines, placed one behind the other, and are disposed 
 rather peculiarly, the centres being arranged thus : " m m . 
 It will be noticed that those in the back line are not placed 
 exactly midway between the others, but more to the left, and 
 
300 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 foi this reason it is customary to describe the "gauge" of the 
 
 spindles that is, the distance from centre to centre as being 
 
 so many spindles in so many % inches ; as, for instance, 4 in 17^ 
 
 inches, 6 in 19^ inches, and so on. The object of thi? 
 
 peculiar arrangement is to enable more 
 
 spindles to be fitted into any given length 
 
 of machine, and to give easy access to the 
 
 back line. The spindle A, Fig. 146, is 
 
 made from steel carefully ground to an 
 
 even diameter, is reduced in size at the 
 
 lower end to form a foot, and at the 
 
 upper end is made with a taper spigot, 
 
 fitting into the flyer B. The top end is 
 
 slotted across, so that a pin driven into 
 
 holes bored through each side of the 
 
 hollow central boss C, fits into the slot 
 
 and drives the flyer. The spindle only 
 
 projects into the socket for a portion of 
 
 its length, and the upper orifice of the 
 
 boss is carefully rounded and smoothed. 
 
 Near the top a hole C 1 is bored, which 
 
 is also well rounded and smoothed, and 
 
 through which the sliver or slubbing is 
 
 threaded during spinning. The flyer has, 
 
 as shown, two downwardly projecting arms 
 
 B l B 2 connected to the boss by means of a 
 
 bridge or coupling piece. One of these 
 
 arms B 2 carries two snugs or projections 
 
 D D 1 acting as bearings fora pressure finger 
 
 or "presser" E. This is a round rod hooked 
 
 at its upper end, and bent to a right angle 
 
 at its lower end. The presser is dropped into a socket, formed 
 
 in D, and, being also sustained by D 1 , is capable of oscillating 
 
 freely on its upper pivot. The inner end of the horizontal limb 
 
 of the presser E is flattened out into a " palm " and formed 
 
 with a guide eye, and is of such a length from the vertical 
 
 145. 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 3OI 
 
 limb that it always lies about the centre of the empty bobbin F. 
 The sliver or roving is passed through the boss C, out at the 
 hole C 1 , through the tubular arm B 2 , then wrapped round the 
 presser at E, taken through the guide eye, and so on to the 
 bobbin. The effect of this construction is that the roving is 
 conveyed to the bobbin, and the centrifugal force generated by 
 the rotation of the flyer establishes a tendency in the presser 
 arm to move towards the centre of the spindle, and thus exercise 
 a certain pressure on the roving being wound. Although this 
 action is apparently "centripetal," it is really the effect of 
 " centrifugal " force acting upon a two-armed pivoted lever, the 
 weight of one arm of which is in excess of the other. If this 
 lever be hinged to a rapidly revolving arm, the result is to cause 
 the weighted arm to tend to move outwards, and thus make the 
 lighter arm approach the axis of rotation. In the present case 
 the vertical limb of the presser is heavier than the horizontal or 
 presser arm, so that the latter is caused to approach the axis 
 during the rotation of the flyer, and thus exercise a pressure 
 upon the bobbin. If only one presser is employed, the arm 
 carrying it is made tubular, and the balance of the flyer is 
 restored by making the other arm solid. If a double presser is 
 used which is now very seldom done both arms are made 
 tubular. In either case the flyer is very well finished, being 
 made of close-grained material and highly polished. Unless 
 this is the case, "fly" rapidly accumulates, and forms "slubs," 
 which may possibly pass forward with the roving, and form a 
 thick place in it. 
 
 (205) The spindle is, as shown, borne by a footstep and 
 bolster, and in order to give it steadiness it is usual to make 
 the latter a tube, which according to length is spoken of as a 
 " short " or " long " collar. The latter is shown in Fig. 145 at 
 I, and extends upwards from the bearing to a point within the 
 flyer. The advantage of this arrangement is the freedom from 
 vibration arising from the support within the flyer. The collar 
 is shelled out, so as only to be in contact with the spindle at the 
 bottom and top, thus giving the maximum of support with the 
 
302 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 minimum of friction. The advantages of the long collar 
 are so great that it is very widely adopted in preference 
 to other forms. Another method of mounting the spindle 
 is shown in Fig. 146. The spindle A is carried in a long tube I, 
 extending downwards until it forms a footstep for the spindle toe. 
 The tube is attached to the rails J K by means of swivel joints, 
 so that it practically forms a sort of cradle, and allows the 
 spindle to adjust itself in case any uneven balance exists in it. 
 The latter is thus permitted to find its own centre of gravity, 
 gyration being thus prevented and the friction on the bearings 
 much reduced. There are many advantages in this construction 
 over any other, and both the velocity and wear of the spindles 
 and bearings are favourably affected. 
 
 (206) The spindles are positively driven by means of a bevel 
 wheel F, fixed on the foot of each and fastened to the spindle by 
 a set screw, or, as in Fig. 146, formed with a square hole, into 
 which a similarly shaped part of the spindle fits. The wheel on 
 the spindle engages with a larger wheel G, fixed on a shaft H, 
 extending longitudinally of the frame. As there are two lines of 
 spindles, two shafts H are used, one driven from the other, 
 each line of spindles being driven by wheels of the same 
 character. The wheels G G 1 are skew bevels, and the pinions 
 F F 1 gear with them on their opposite sides respectively. As the 
 shafts H H are driven one from the other they necessarily revolve 
 in opposite directions,-and the effect of this method of gearing the 
 wheels is that the spindles are driven uniformly in one direction. 
 The bobbins are driven by means of skew bevel pinions M and 
 wheels N in the same way. The pinions M are borne in the 
 bolster rail, and have a flange formed on their upper surfaces 
 which sustains the bobbins L. The bobbins are provided with 
 notches in their lower ends, which engage with projections or 
 snugs on the flanges of the pinions M, so that the bobbin is 
 positively driven. The rail K, bobbin wheel M, and bobbin are 
 given a vertical traverse for a certain distance in each direction. 
 This traverse is known as the " lift," and during its continuance 
 the bobbin slides upon the spindle or collar, as the case may be. 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 303 
 
 The extent of the traverse is from 5 or 6 inches in a roving frame 
 to 10 or 12 inches in a Blubbing frame. As the flyer eye con- 
 tinues to revolve in one plane during the lift of the bobbin, the 
 spindle rail J being stationary, the roving is wound on the bobbin 
 
 FIG. 146. 
 
 in coils which vary in pitch according to the velocity of the ver- 
 tical movement of the bobbin. As the bobbin rails with their 
 attached gearing are a considerable weight, they are balanced by 
 suitable mechanism, consisting generally either of weights 
 attached by chains or of levers pressing against the underside of 
 
304 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the bobbin rails and suitably weighted. The spindles and 
 bobbins are, it will be seen, driven independently, and may 
 therefore be rotated at different velocities, the sliver being in 
 the meantime delivered at a uniform and regular rate. The 
 parts thus described form what may be called the essentials of 
 the machine, and a description of their action can now be given, 
 in the course of which one or two points of interest and 
 importance will be treated. 
 
 (207) It was shown in Chapter I. that whenever fibrous 
 material is being twisted it is necessary to hold one or both ends 
 while the twist is being introduced. In these frames the roving 
 is held at one end' by being wrapped on the bobbin, and 
 at the other by the rollers. It is necessary to observe that the 
 grip exercised is, in the two cases, of an entirely distinct 
 character. The bobbin grip is one exercised by a rapidly 
 revolving body, which rotates at a velocity slightly greater or 
 less than that of the flyer. On the other hand, the delivery of 
 the sliver by the rollers is made at a much slower rate than the 
 rotation of the bobbin or flyer, so that between the latter and 
 the roller a certain number of twists or turns are put in the 
 roving. The number of these depends upon the ratio of the 
 revolutions made by the flyer, which is the operative 
 instrument in twisting, and the number of inches of sliver 
 delivered by the rollers in any given time. If, for instance, 
 the flyer makes 20 revolutions in the same time as the rollers 
 deliver 5 inches of sliver, there will be four turns put into every 
 inch of the latter. This delivery may be intermittent or constant, 
 but the effect is not varied so long as the ratio of the velocities 
 of the two parts remain unaltered. It is the practice in all 
 spinning machines, however, except in special cases, to deliver 
 the sliver at a steady and continuous rate, and thus both the 
 delivery and twisting are regularly conducted. All twists there- 
 fore are obtained at a uniform rate, and are defined, as indicated, 
 as so many turns per inch. Thus, the chief features of a 
 machine of this character are a steady continuous delivery of a 
 sliver which is drawn by the rollers, an equally uniform rate of 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. ^05 
 
 twisting it, and the winding of the twisted strand, at a regular 
 speed, on to the bobbin. The last two of these three poinis 
 include the chief mechanical problem of machines of this class, 
 the proper understanding of which is most important alike to 
 the spinner and mechanic. 
 
 (208) From the illustrations in Figs. 145 and 146 it will be 
 seen that the bobbin and spindle, although independently 
 driven, rotate round a common axis. It follows that upon the 
 relation existing between the velocity of the flyer eye in its 
 rotation and that of the surface of the bobbin will depend 
 whether any yarn or roving will be wrapped on the latter. The 
 rollers deliver, as was shown, a definite length of sliver or 
 slubbing, which must be disposed of by being wound on tfte 
 bobbin. There are three ways in which this can be done : (i) 
 The flyer eye may revolve and the bobbin be stationary, so far 
 as rotary movement is concerned ; in which case, if the necessary 
 vertical traverse is given to it, the material would be wound on 
 its surface in coils ; (2) the flyer eye may rotate at a speed so 
 much superior to the bobbin that the roving will be wound on 
 Che surface of the latter this is what happens when there is a 
 "" flyer lead"; (3) the bobbin may be revolved at a velocity so 
 much in excess of that of the flyer that it will take up the roving 
 .and wind it upon the surface. This is the condition of things 
 -during a " bobbin lead." The first of these three conditions 
 only holds good when one or two layers of yarn are to be laid, 
 because if the bobbin remains stationary it is clear that the 
 rapidly-increasing surface upon which the material is wound will 
 stretch and ultimately rupture it. By so arranging the bobbin, 
 however, that it can be sufficiently retarded by friction, this 
 difficulty can be overcome, and this solution has been applied 
 in the case of throstle spinning. In the roving frame, however, 
 it is absolutely essential that the true relation of the velocities 
 of the parts should be preserved, and a positive driving of the 
 bobbin is therefore necessary. 
 
 (209) A few words may be expended in explaining the 
 principle underlying the second and third methods of winding 
 
306 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the roving on the bobbins, and for this purpose the four 
 diagrams given in Fig. 147 will be useful. In each of these the 
 circle A represents the spindle, B the surface of the bobbin, and 
 C the path of the flyer. The roving passes from the flyer eye 
 at D on to the bobbin at E, as shown in the figure marked i. 
 Now, if the two surfaces B and C rotate at a constantly uniform 
 speed, the relation of the positions of D and E remains the same, 
 and therefore no roving can pass from one point to the other. If, 
 however, the flyer moves in its orbit at a superior speed to the 
 surface of the bobbin, then, as shown in the diagram No. 2, the 
 point D having gained the distance from E to F during any 
 given number of revolutions over the point E, it follow? that on 
 the surface of the bobbin B yarn will be wound for that distance. 
 This is indicated by the thick line extending from E to F 
 
 FIG. 147. 
 
 This gain, if continued, will cause the roving to be wound on 
 the whole of the peripheral surface of the bobbin, and the 
 velocity with which the winding takes place depends upon the 
 diameter of the bobbin B, upon its velocity, and upon the length 
 of roving delivered by the rollers. This is the effect when the 
 flyer leads. Now, if it be assumed that during any definite 
 number of revolutions the point E on the bobbin has moved so 
 much faster than the point D, representing the flyer eye in the 
 third diagram, then the same result is produced by this excess 
 of speed as shown in diagram 4, but in the opposite way to 
 the former instance. In this case of a " bobbin lead," also, the 
 amount of this excess of movement is limited by the three 
 factors previously named. The explanation thus given holds 
 absolutely so long as the diameter of the bobbin remains 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 307 
 
 constant, but as soon as this is departed from the conditions are 
 at once changed. Suppose, for instance, that the circumference 
 of the front roller and of the bobbin alike is one inch. Then, 
 so long as the velocity of the bobbin is the same as that of the 
 rollers, it will take up all the material delivered by the latter. 
 If, now, it be assumed that the velocity of the bobbin and rollers 
 and the circumference of the latter remain constant, while the 
 circumference of the bobbin be increased to i^ inch, it will follow 
 that for every inch of roving delivered by the rollers 1^/2 inch 
 can be taken up by the bobbin. As the roving is gripped by 
 the rollers this quantity cannot be obtained, and if such con- 
 ditions arose the roving would be ruptured. It is therefore 
 absolutely necessary to provide some means whereby the velocity 
 of the bobbin can be reduced as its diameter increases, so that 
 its surface speed shall coincide exactly with that of the rollers. 
 
 (210) It is the practice at the present day to adopt the 
 bobbin lead, and there are several reasons to commend this 
 course. It will be shown hereafter that the bobbins and flyers 
 are driven by two trains of wheels. Of these, the train driving 
 the spindles contains the fewest members, and is directly con- 
 nected with the driving shaft. Thus there is more danger of 
 delay in the commencement of the rotation of the bobbins than 
 there is in that of the spindles. When a frame is started, 
 therefore, the spindles begin to revolve a little quicker than 
 the bobbins, and the flyers tend to slightly stretch the roving 
 before the bobbins have assumed their true relative velocity. 
 If, on the other hand, the bobbin leads, the tardy commence- 
 ment of its rotation only causes a little slack place to exist, which 
 is rapidly taken up as the parts begin to' revolve at their full 
 working speed. In addition to this fact there is another, which 
 js, in view of the wear and tear of the frames, not unimportant 
 viz., that the velocity of the wheels, when the flyer leads, is 
 much greater than when the bobbin leads, and accelerates as 
 the latter fills with roving, which it does with every lift of the 
 bobbin-rail. If the bobbin has to lag behind the flyer, as is the 
 -case with the latter leading, it is easy to see that the retardation 
 
3CS THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 must be greater when the bobbin is empty than when it is full, 
 for it is clear that there is a smaller surface on which the roving 
 is wound in the former case. As the bobbin fills, therefore, its 
 surface velocity must be increased, in order that the relative 
 position of the point where the yarn leaves the flyer and that 
 where it passes on to the bobbin shall be preserved. Let it be 
 assumed again that the bobbins and rollers are the same cir- 
 cumference, then the bobbin must lag behind the flyer one 
 revolution for every revolution of the roller. If, however, the 
 circumference of the bobbin is increased to double that of the 
 roller, then it is clear that its periphery with the same amount of 
 retardation would not be covered, but that such a drag would 
 be put on the roving as to stretch and break it. Thus half the 
 retardation is sufficient, and the bobbin must be quickened in 
 order to attain that end. The reverse of this is the practice 
 when the bobbin leads. In that case the bobbin requires to run 
 at a velocity so much in excess of the flyer as will enable it to 
 take up the roving delivered by the rollers. Now it will be at 
 once apparent that the smaller the surface on which the roving 
 is wound, the greater the number of revolutions needed to take 
 it up as delivered by the rollers. Thus a gradual diminution of 
 the speed of the bobbins takes place as they are filled The 
 action is not easy to describe, but may briefly be put thus. 
 With the flyer leading, the roving is wrapped on a surface 
 which is moving at a relatively slower pace than the flyer-eye. 
 With the bobbin leading, the roving is drawn on to a surface 
 travelling a relatively quicker pace than the flyer eye. There- 
 fore, the larger the diameter on which the roving is wrapped- 
 given a uniform delivery the greater its velocity when the 
 flyer leads, and the less when the bobbin leads. Now, it should 
 be noticed especially that the increase in speed takes place, 
 with the flyer leading, as the bobbins become heavier, and 
 therefore more difficult to drive ; while with the bobbin leading 
 the highest velocity is attained when the bobbins are lightest. 
 From the point of view of the spinner this is a matter of some 
 importance, as it diminishes the strain on some of the parts 
 very considerably. 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 309 
 
 (211) Before proceeding further it is necessary to describe in 
 detail the mechanism employed to drive the various parts, and 
 in order to do this the diagram given in Fig. 148 can be referred 
 to. The driving shaft A has on its outer end a pair of pulleys, 
 fast and loose, by which the machine is driven from the counter 
 shaft. The shaft A extends within the framing of the machine, 
 and has fixed upon it the wheels B and O. From the wheel B 
 the shaft C is driven by means of the carrier wheel shown and 
 pinion B 1 . On C is fixed the upper cone E and the pinion C 1 . 
 The latter gears with the wheel D on the front roller shaft, by 
 which means the front roller D 1 is driven, and from it the 
 second and third lines, as shown. The spindles are driven by 
 the wheel O, communicating motion by a carrier wheel to O l , 
 fixed on the end of one of the spindle-driving shafts, the second 
 spindle shaft being driven from the first, as was described, by a 
 pair of spur wheels fixed upon each respectively. The bevel 
 wheels W W 1 , communicate the rotation of the shafts to the 
 spindles. The bobbins K are driven by the bevel wheels M M 1 
 by means of a train of wheels N K 1 . The carrier wheel between 
 N and K 1 , K 1 itself being fixed on one of the bobbin driving 
 shafts, is sustained in a swing frame, which is centred upon 
 the shaft A. The " swing," which will be presently described, 
 is made double, so as to give a good bearing to the arbors of 
 the wheels, and is secured to a box or frame, which extends 
 along the machine, and within which the bobbin driving shafts 
 and the wheels fixed on them are sustained in suitable bearings. 
 The bobbin rails and box are attached to vertical racks or 
 pokers V, which are suitably guided, and to which an alternate 
 reciprocal motion is given by the rotartion of pinions V 1 , 
 obtained in a manner to be afterwards described. Thus the 
 bobbin rails receive a vertical motion up and down for a 
 distance which is regulated by the period of rotation of V 1 in 
 either direction. The swing being fastened to the bobbin rail 
 is caused to oscillate on its centre, and the wheel K 1 and its 
 carrier are made to roll round the wheel N. In this way the 
 necessary constant driving of the bobbin K is obtained, while 
 
310 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 at the same time it can receive the requisite vertical traverse to 
 effect the operation of winding. The wheel N, known as the 
 " bobbin wheel," is compounded with a wheel I 1 , forming part of 
 the differential or equating motion, to which a full treatment 
 will be given presently. I 1 is driven by means of the interme- 
 diate carrier wheels J J 1 , from the pinion I, which is fastened 
 on and revolves with the driving shaft. The carriers J J 1 are 
 borne in studs fixed in the arms of the plate or stud wheel L, 
 which rotates on a sleeve surrounding the shaft A, and which 
 is driven by a pinion L 1 fastened to a shaft H. On the end of 
 H is a pinion G, driven by a carrier from a wheel G 1 fixed on 
 the axis of the lower cone E 1 , which receives its motion from 
 the upper cone E by a strap F. On the shaft H is also a bevel 
 pinion R engaging with a wheel R 1 , fastened on the head of a 
 vertical shaft, on the lower end of which a pinion S is secured, 
 which can be engaged by either of the wheels S 1 S 2 called 
 "striking wheels" when they are thrust into gear with it. 
 The pinions S 1 S 2 are fixed on a shaft which has a long pinion 
 T fastened on it, T engaging with a pinion T 1 on a short shaft 
 borne by the framework. This shaft is in front of the spindle 
 shaft from the point of view in Fig. 148, and should not be con- 
 fused with it. A pinion U keyed on it engages with a wheel U 1 , 
 fastened on a horizontal " lifter " shaft, on which the pinions V 1 
 are secured. Thus the latter receive rotation in a direction 
 which is dependent entirely on the engagement of either S 1 or S 2 
 with the pinion S. The traverse of the strap F on the cones and 
 the alternate engagement of S 1 and S 2 with S are both controlled 
 from the motion Q, to which special reference will be hereafter 
 made. 
 
 (2 1 2} Before doing so reference may be made to the method of 
 communicating the motion of the bobbin wheel to the bobbin 
 shaft. This is effected by a train of wheels consisting ordi- 
 narily of the bobbin wheel, a carrier, and the bobbin shaft 
 wheel. In some cases two carriers are used, but the action is 
 the same in either instance. The bobbin rail rises and falls as 
 described, so that it is necessary that the connection between 
 
STUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 3 ir 
 
3 12 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the shaft and the bobbin wheel shall be of a flexible character. 
 The carrier wheels are therefore sustained in a double frame, 
 which is centred to the jack shaft and fastened to the bobbin 
 rail. Thus as the latter rises and falls it carries the wheels with 
 it, no break in the driving connection taking place. At one 
 time the "swing" frame, as it is called, was single, but with 
 modern speeds it is customary to make it double, so that the 
 carriers are borne at each side, thus ensuring steadiness in 
 work. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 149, and it will be 
 noticed that as the axis of the bobbin wheel N is fixed, the 
 
 FIG. 149. 
 
 carrier wheel O engaging with it will receive, in addition to its 
 rotary axial movement a similar rotation in consequence of its 
 rolling contact with N. The direction of the rotation thus 
 caused will vary with the direction of the traverse of the 
 bobbin rail. Thus, if the rail is ascending, the wheel O will 
 rotate in the direction of the arrow marked i, while if the rail 
 is descending it will tend to rotate in the direction of arrow 2. 
 If wheel N be moving as indicated it will drive O in the direc- 
 tion of arrow i, so that the effect of the rise and fall of the 
 rail will be to accelerate the motion of O during the ascent and 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 31$ 
 
 retard it during the descent. As the bobbin shaft wheel S is- 
 driven by the train of wheels named it follows that it and the- 
 bobbins will be affected in the same way as O to a degree- 
 which depends upon the extent of the bobbin traverse. It 
 follows, therefore, that during the ascent of the rail the 
 bobbin will be accelerated and during its descent retarded, thus 
 stretching or thickening the roving alternately. The divergence 
 from the normal speed takes place mainly in the last part of 
 the lift of the bobbin, although there is a certain amount 
 during the whole period. It is quite clear that any such action. 
 
 FIG. 150. 
 
 will produce inequalities in the roving which it is very desirable- 
 to avoid, because the alternations of acceleration and retarda- 
 tion take place during different periods in the process and 
 affect different parts of the roving. In ortfer to overcome this 
 difficulty Messrs. Brooks and Shaw have devised the arrange- 
 ment shown in Fig. 150. In this case the four wheels are used 
 as shown, and are coupled by the links forming the swing. To 
 the spindle of the second carrier wheel P is attached an arm R 
 which is centred at a point R 1 behind and below the jack 
 shaft A. Upon the position of this centre depends the efficacy 
 
3*4 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 of the mechanism, which has for its object the neutralisation of 
 the rotation of the wheel O caused in the manner described. 
 The movement of O is communicated to the carrier wheel P, 
 which, under ordinary circumstances, would pass on the move- 
 ment to the wheel S. By reason of the rigid arm R the centre 
 of P is made to travel in the arc described with the radius R 1 P. 
 In the diagrammatic drawing, Fig. 151, the centre position of 
 S is shown by the full line marked i, its highest position by the 
 line marked 2, and its lowest position by line 3. Each of the 
 parts are indicated by the same character of line when in 
 any of the positions. A glance will show that in the total 
 traverse of the rail during which the wheel S moves from 
 position S 1 to S 2 the centre of P is pushed outwards from 
 the position indicated by the vertical line T 1 dropped from the 
 centre of P in its lowest position to T 2 , which is a similar line 
 drawn when P is in its highest position. In other words P is 
 made to move laterally, and in doing so rolls round S to an 
 extent exactly equal to its angular movement on its axis in 
 consequence of the rotation of O. The result is that the latter 
 is neutralised and the rotation of the wheel S is unaffected by 
 the vertical movement of the rail. This can be easily seen by 
 the removal of the arm R, which is followed, if the rail be 
 moved, by a rotation of the wheel S in exact correspondence 
 with the extent of motion. It will be seen that in consequence 
 of the relative positions of the centre of the wheel N and the 
 carrier P, that the centres of O and P make a greater move- 
 ment while S is rising from the middle to the top position than 
 when it moves from the bottom to the middle position. This 
 is clearly shown by the letters P, P 1 , and P a , which represent 
 respectively the middle, bottom, and top positions of P. The 
 distance P 1 P is seen to be less than the distance P P 2 , although 
 the movement of S is equal in each. This indicates that if left 
 unchecked there would be a greater movement of S in the last 
 portion of its ascent than in its first. In like manner the 
 vertical lines T, T 1 , and T 2 show that there is a difference 
 in the relative movement of the wheel P in an outward 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 3*5 
 
 direction, owing to the action of the arm R. The two 
 movements are the complements of each other, and together 
 the effect is to neutralise the angular movement of O 
 round N. The whole matter turns upon the actual position 
 of the centre R 1 , because if this is not so placed as to give the 
 
 \ 
 
 T T 
 
 requisite lateral movement to the centre of P the latter commu- 
 nicates a certain rotation to the wheel S. Mechanically the 
 result is very interesting, and to the student is an example 
 of the effect of combining link-work and rolling contact. 
 
316 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 ^213) The general description thus given will enable the 
 operation of the various parts to be understood. Assuming the 
 speed of the driving or " jack " shaft A to be 300 revolutions 
 per minute, the velocity of the spindles is obtained by multiply- 
 ing together the driving wheels and dividing the product by 
 that of the driven wheels multiplied together. The dimensions 
 about to be given are all taken from a frame in actual work, 
 which was producing a roving for a special purpose. They will, 
 however, enable the relative influence of the various parts to be 
 followed with ease, and will also show the mode of calculating 
 the velocity of the various parts. We will first, therefore, 
 .ascertain the relative velocity of the spindles and rollers, so as 
 -to determine the twist put into the roving. The spindles are 
 driven by the wheel O, with 60 teeth, driving, by means of a 
 carrier wheel, O l , which has 50 teeth. O l is on one end of a 
 shaft having on the other end the bevel pinion W, with 50 
 ;teeth, gearing with the spindle wheel W l , with 22 teeth. The 
 
 velocity of the spindles is therefore 3- x 300 = 818. Tha 
 
 50 x 22 
 
 front roller is driven from the jack shaft A by a pinion B, known 
 
 .as the "twist" wheel. By changing this wheel the relation of 
 
 :the velocities of spindles and rollers is entirely changed, and, 
 
 .-as will be afterwards shown, every motion in the frame is 
 
 controlled by this wheel. B has 28 teeth, and drives, by the 
 
 intervention of a carrier, the wheel B 1 fixed on the top cone 
 
 shaft C. B 1 has 32 teeth, and on the outer end of the shaft 
 
 C is a wheel C 1 with 34 teeth, which meshes with the wheel 
 
 D on the front roller shaft having 120 teeth. The velocity 
 
 of the front roller is therefore ^-^- x 300 = 74. The front 
 
 32 x 120 
 
 roller being i fa inch diameter, it will deliver 261-5 inches of yarn 
 
 8 18 
 
 per minute. The twist is therefore = ^'12 per inch. The 
 
 261-5 
 
 second and third lines of rollers are driven by means of a pinion 
 with 20 teeth gearing into a crown wheel of no teeth, com- 
 pounded with a pinion having 35 teeth, which gears with a 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 317 
 
 wheel of 57 teeth on the back roller. Thus the speed of the 
 
 back roller is $5. x 74 = 8*26, and that of the centre line is 
 110x57 
 
 the same, the driving being arranged for this purpose. The 
 back roller is the same diameter as the front roller, and the 
 
 draft is therefore -^ = 8 -97, which is somewhat in excess of the 
 
 8'2D 
 
 usual draft, and, as will have been noticed, is put in entirely 
 between the centre and front rollers. 
 
 (2 14) We now come to deal with the driving of the bobbins, 
 and on the assumption that the bobbin is leading, we have to 
 deal with a case in which it shall travel so much in excess 
 of the velocity of the flyer as to take up in every minute the 
 261*5 inches of yam delivered by the rollers. The upper cone 
 
 shaft C rotates at x 300= 262*5 revolutions per minute, and 
 
 irives the upper cone E at that velocity. Assuming that the 
 strap was on equal diameters of each cone the lower cone E 1 
 would be rotated at the same velocity. In that case the pinion 
 G 1 , which is on the lower cone shaft and has 15 teeth, will drive 
 
 :he wheel G with 75 teeth at -^ x 262*5 = 52-5 revolutions. G 
 
 s fastened on the shaft H, on which is also the pinion L 1 with 
 20 teeth engaging with the "sun" or "stud" wheel L, having 
 
 125 teeth. L therefore is revolved-^ x 52*25 = 8*4 times per 
 
 minute. The wheel L forms part of the "differential" or 
 " equating " motion, which requires a special explanation before 
 proceeding further. This motion is sometimes called the " Jack 
 in the box," and is perhaps more widely known by that name 
 than by any other. 
 
 (215) The differential motion Fig. 152 belongs to that species 
 of motions which are known in mechanics as epicyclic trains, and 
 which consist of two wheels geared together by a carrier, 
 the carrier and last member of the train being borne by an 
 arm which revolves on the same axis as the driving wheel 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 during the rotation of the driving and driven wheels. It 
 is quite unnecessary to do more than explain the action 01 
 the motion, as the theory upon which it is based belongs 
 to the domain of mechanics, and not that of cotton 
 spinning. It is fully treated in other text books, especially 
 in " Goodeve's Elements of Mechanism." The letters referred 
 to will be those in Fig. 151, but the necessary corresponding 
 references in Fig. 148 will also be given. In this special case 
 the wheel B fixed on the " jack " shaft drives by the interven- 
 tion of carrier wheels C E the wheel D loose upon the same 
 
 FIG. 152. 
 
 shaft, and compounded with the wheel N which is either 
 cast in one piece with it or fastened on its boss. It is 
 now customary to provide a tube surrounding the "jack" 
 shaft on which the wheels L and D N revolve. By shelling 
 out the tube and providing special means of lubrication 
 the friction on the shaft is much reduced. The carrier 
 wheels C E are borne by studs fixed in the arms of the 
 wheel L, and are free to revolve thereon. Thus they have 
 a rotatory motion upon their axes, and are simultaneously 
 carried round the orbit of the wheel L as it is revolved. The 
 motion of these parts produces a very remarkable result ii? 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 319 
 
 practice, and as it is often only imperfectly understood a full 
 explanation is given. If the pinions C E were mounted on 
 centres which were stationary, the rotation of the wneel B would 
 cause D to revolve at the same speed in the contrary direction. 
 If now the wheel L is revolved in the same direction as B, and 
 at an equal velocity, the whole of the wheels will oe locked, 
 and D be carried round at the same speed as B. If, however, 
 the wheel L rotates at a slower speed than B, but still in the 
 same direction, then for every revolution of L the wheel D will 
 lose two revolutions as compared with B. Thus in practice 
 a curious result is produced. When the velocity of L is 
 half that of B, and its direction of rotation the same, the motion 
 of D entirely ceases. As the velocity of L still further decreases 
 the velocity of D increases, but its direction of rotation is 
 reversed. Thus what happens is, that if the velocity of L is 
 either more or less than half that of B, its direction of rota- 
 tion being the same, the velocity of D is increased, but the 
 direction of its motion is altered that is to say, the central 
 point is a zero, and there is a gradual acceleration until either 
 of the poles as they may be called are reached. Thus, if 
 L revolves in the same direction as B, and makes more than 
 half the number of revolutions of B, then the wheel D will 
 move in the same direction as B, at a constantly accelerating 
 velocity, as the speed of L and B approximate to one another. 
 If, on the other hand, L rotates at less than half the speed of B, 
 then there will be a constantly accelerated velocity as the speed 
 of L is decreased, but the direction of the rotation of D will be 
 reversed. It may be convenient to give the formula ordinarily 
 employed to calculate the value of this class of wheel train. It 
 is n = 2a m, where # = the number of revolutions of the last 
 wheel D, ;;/ = the number of revolutions of the first wheel B, and 
 a = the number of revolutions of the stud wheel L. Thus, if 
 * = 3oo and 0=150, then n = 2(150) -300=0. If ;// = 3oo 
 and a= 100, then n = 2(100) 300= 100, indicating that D is 
 revolving 100 times per minute in the opposite direction to B. 
 If m = 300 and a = 200, then n = 2(200) - 300 = 100, or in other 
 
320 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 words, D and B are revolving in the same direction at that 
 speed. Now, if the wheel L revolves in the opposite direction 
 to B, quite a different state of things arises, for the formula then 
 becomes n = 20. m, the quantity a having, by the reversal of 
 the movement of L, become a minus quantity. Then the equa- 
 tions become as follows, when (i) the wheel L is stationary, (2) 
 when it revolves at half the speed of B, and (3) when it revolves 
 at the same speed as B, but all in the opposite direction : (i) 
 n = - 2(0) - 300 = - 300 ; (2) n = - 2(150) - 300 = - 600 ; (3) 
 n= -2(300) -300= -900. In other words, the velocity of 
 the wheel D steadily increases with the increase in the speed of 
 L, but the direction of its motion is in all cases the reverse of 
 that of B. This fact has an important bearing upon the working 
 of the motion, because it enables an equal velocity of the wheel 
 D to be got with a slower speed of the wheel L. Further, when 
 the bobbin leads, it is possible to commence the operation with 
 a comparatively moderate speed of the wheel L, and to still 
 further reduce it as the bobbin fills and requires a smaller 
 circumferential speed. Thus we arrive at the conclusion that 
 when the flyer leads it is better to run the wheel L in the same 
 direction as B, and gradually accelerate the velocity of D, while 
 with the bobbin leading it is necessary to rotate the wheel L in 
 the opposite direction to B, and gradually diminish the velocity 
 of D. From the point of view of wear and tear, there is no 
 comparison in the merits of the two systems. 
 
 (216) Without pausing to consider the way in which the wheel 
 L has its rotation diminished, we will take up the calculation 
 where it was dropped in paragraph 213, merely premising that 
 the wheel L is rotated in the opposite direction to the jack 
 shaft, and consequently to I (Fig. 148 or B in Fig. 152). We 
 saw that L was revolved 8*4 times per minute, therefore according 
 to the formula n= -2a m we get the velocity of I 1 (Fig. 
 148 or D in 152) as 2 (8*4) - 300 = 316*8 ; that is, I 1 is 
 revolving in the opposite direction to I at a speed of 316*8 
 revolutions. The wheel N has 60 teeth, and drives by the 
 intervention of a carrier the wheel K 1 , which has 50 teeth. On 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 321 
 
 the same shaft as K 1 is the bobbin wheel M with 50 teeth, 
 which drives the bobbin by means of the pinion M 1 with 22 
 
 teeth. Thus the velocity of the bobbin is 6o x 5 x * i6'8 = 864 
 
 50 X 22 
 
 which is 46 revolutions in excess of that of the spindles. 
 
 (217) In the differential motion constructed as described, it 
 is necessary to use bevel wheels to transmit the motion of the 
 driving pinion to the bobbin wheel. It is also requisite for 
 the wheels to revolve in the opposite direction to the shaft, 
 and when they are borne directly by the shaft this gives rise 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 
 to a good deal of friction. Accordingly, it has been thought 
 desirable to design differential motions, by which the same 
 effect is obtained without the evils ordinarily attaching to the 
 motion. In one motion Curtis and Rhodes' the object has 
 been to avoid the use of bevel wheels altogether and use spur 
 wheels only. This motion is shown in Fig. 153, and consists 
 essentially of a disc L, which carries studs, as shown at one part 
 of it. One of these studs has fixed upon it the pinions D and 
 E, and revolves with them. The pinion E engages with a 
 pinion F, compounded with H, both of these revolving freely 
 on the second stud. The pinion H is meshed with a pinion J, 
 
 L 
 
3 22 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 formed on the end of the long collar K, on the other end of 
 which the wheel G is fastened. Thus, the rotation of G from 
 the lower cone in like manner rotates the whole train of pinions 
 from H to D. The latter is geared with an internal rack C, 
 formed in the flange of a long bush B, rotating on the jack 
 shaft A and having fastened on it the bobbin wheel N. The 
 wheel G has 40 teeth; the pinion J, 24; H, 28; F, 25; E, 23; 
 D, 14; and C 90. The wheel G rotates at 316 revolutions 
 when the belt is on the small end of the cone E 1 (Fig. 148), a 
 special train of gearing being employed between E 1 and G. The 
 disc L is fast on the shaft, and therefore revolves at 300 revolu- 
 tions; or, in other words, the wheel G revolves at 16 revolutions 
 in excess of L. Now, the pinion D is carried round with the 
 disc, so that it will cause the internal wheel to gain on the disc, 
 and the extent that it gains can be easily calculated^by obtaining 
 the value of the train from J to C, and multiplying it by the 
 excess of revolutions made by the wheel G over the disc. This 
 
 works out thus, i6x^xi^xii= 2-32. That is, the internal 
 28 23 90 
 
 wheel C -revolves 302*32 times per minute ; from which the 
 speed of the bobbins can be easily calculated. It must be 
 clearly understood that the speeds and sizes of wheels, although 
 those actually used in some cajes, are, so .far as the present 
 instance is concerned, purely arbitrary, and are simply used to 
 illustrate the method of making the necessary calculations. 
 
 (218) Tweedale's motion is illustrated in Fig. 154, and 
 consists of a compound bell wheel C D revolving on the shaft 
 A, the direction of the motion of the wheels being indicated by 
 arrows. The wheel B is connected with the cones, and is com- 
 pounded with the pinion E, both of these revolving freely upon 
 the shaft. A double boss G is fixed on the latter, and carries a 
 short transverse shaft en each end of which respectively the 
 pinions F and H are fastened. The shaft passes through a hole 
 in the shaft, but the horizontal boss of the arm G surrounds 
 the shaft at this point so as fully to maintain its strength. The 
 pinion E engages with and rotates F, thus giving motion to the 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 323 
 
 pinion H, which drives the wheel D. There is one important 
 point in this motion, which is, that the wheels B, E, and D 
 revolve in one direction and at a slower speed than the jack 
 shaft, the speed being gradually diminished as the bobbins fill. 
 This motion deserves a full explanation. It belongs to the 
 epicyclic class, but has some points of difference to the ordinary 
 motions. It will be seen that the motion given to D is com- 
 pounded of two, that due to the rotation of the arm G and that 
 to the rotation of the pinion E. Let us assume that G or the 
 jack shaft upon which it is fixed makes m revolutions. The 
 pinions F and H in their revolution round the axis of A are 
 
 J.N. 
 
 FIG. 154. 
 
 free to rotate on their common axis, and accordingly, as in the 
 Holdsworth motion, would give a rotation in the opposite 
 
 TT TT 
 
 The 
 
 direction to the pinion E at a speed equal to m x - 
 
 latter factor represents the value of the train from E to D. It 
 now it be assumed that the arm G is fixed that is to say, the 
 jack shaft is stationary then if E makes n turns, the speed 01 
 
 the wheel D is n 
 
 E H 
 F D' 
 
 The ultimate velocity of the wheel D 
 
 when Dcth the pinion and shaft revolve is equal either to the 
 sum or difference of the speed given in the two conditions 
 
324 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 \ 
 
 named. Obviously there is, if the jack shaft revolves in one 
 direction and the pinion E in another, an added velocity given 
 to the pinions F and H, which would affect the speed of the 
 bobbin wheel; while as clearly, if the pinion E and the jack 
 shaft revolve in the same direction, there is a reduced velocity 
 of F and H. If, therefore, the value of the train E F H D be 
 called r, then the velocity of the wheel D is 
 
 V = (in m r) (n r\ or by transposition, 
 
 V = m r (m + n). 
 
 When the flyer leads, the factor in the brackets is m + n,ior the 
 reason stated ; while when the bobbin leads, it is m - n. The 
 speed of the pinion E is reduced as the bobbin fills when the 
 latter leads, and its direction of rotation is the same as the jack 
 shaft. When the flyer leads the speed of the pinion E is 
 increased as the bobbin fills and its direction of motion is 
 reversed. For a bobbin lead, therefore, the formula is : 
 
 V = m r (m n), 
 and for a flyer lead 
 
 V = m r (m + n). 
 The pinion E is made with 18 teeth, H with 16, F with 30, 
 
 and D with 48. The ratio r is, therefore, l8x l6 = -2. If the 
 
 30 x 48 
 
 revolutions of the jack shaft be assumed to be 300, and of E 
 260 revs., then the two formulae work out as under 
 
 V = 300 *2 (300 260) = 292. 
 
 V = 300 *2 (300 + 260) = 188. 
 
 The chief advantage derivable from the use of this motion is, 
 that as all the wheels rotating on the jack shaft run in the same 
 direction as that shaft, a considerable amount of friction is 
 saved. This statement, of course, only applies to the bobbin 
 leading frames, because, as was pointed out, there is a reversal 
 of motion when the flyer leads. The cross-shaft and its attached 
 pinions have an entirely independent motion, revolving in the 
 direction >( the upper arrow in bobbin leading frames, and their 
 rotation does not affect the friction on the jack shaft, which is 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 3 2 5 
 
 an important point. The mechanism is very rigid and runs 
 well, and, on the whole, this is one of the best of the newer 
 appliances. 
 
 (219) Another differential apparatus is Brooks and Shaw's, 
 which is illustrated in Figs. 155 and 156. The cone pinion 
 is fastened on the boss C of the disc C 1 , which has a 
 flange C 2 . The latter joins up to the flange G 1 , forming 
 part of the disc G. Both discs revolve freely on the bosses 
 or sleeves shown surrounding the jack shaft, and carry pins 
 
 tf'c 1 
 
 E which are secured by nuts. ' The discs and flanges form 
 a cover for the gearing, in addition to acting as the revolving 
 arm. Fixed on the jack shaft A is a- pinion B, which 
 engages with the pinions F freely rotating on the pivots 
 E, and compounded with the pinions F 1 . The latter, in 
 turn, gear with the wheel D 1 , running loose on the jack shaft, 
 and having a long boss D on which the bobbin wheel is 
 fastened. It will be seen that oil ducts are formed in the 
 spindles E, oil being fed by specially contrived oil cups K, so as 
 
326 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 it) establish in the eyes of the pinions F F 1 continuous and 
 ample lubrication. In this motion the chief features are, as in 
 the one preceding, a wheel train, of which the first member is B 
 and the last one D, and a rotating arm C 1 . The value of the 
 
 "R "R 1 ^ 
 wheel train which forms the first essential feature is x ( 
 
 B 
 
 has uniformly 30 teeth, F and F 1 each have 18 teeth, while the 
 number^of teeth in D 1 is, in the slubbing frame, 37 fin the 
 intermediate, 35 5 and in the roving frame 33. If, therefore 
 
 FIG. 156. 
 
 the jack shaft makes m revolutions, the arm C 1 being stationary, 
 
 then D 1 would make -^ m. m, or m revolutions re- 
 
 37 35 33 
 
 spectively. The effect of rotating the arm C 1 is somewhat 
 peculiar. The rotation of the arm once round the shaft A 
 causes the teeth in F to roll over 30 teeth of B. As, during 
 the same time, the pinion F must roll round the wheel D 1 , and 
 F F 1 are fastened together, it follows that unless the wheel D 1 is 
 moved, the whole train would be locked and would rotate at the 
 same speed as the jack shaft. D 1 being free, can move, nnd! 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. ; 
 
 the effect is that if C 1 has a velocity in excess of that of the jack 
 shaft A, the wheel D 1 must be carried forward during each revo- 
 lution the number of teeth it has in excess of B. If, on the 
 other hand, the arm C 1 moves more slowly than A, then, in 
 like manner, it retards the movement of D 1 . Putting this into 
 a formula, let n = number of revolutions of D 1 , m = number of 
 revolutions of B, a number of teeth D 1 has in excess of the 
 teeth in wheel B, b = total number of teeth in D 1 , and c= number 
 of revolutions of C 1 more or less than those of B. If c be more 
 
 than m, then n = m + ( ^-c \ and if c be less than m, then 
 Putting this into figures, let m = 250, a = 7, 
 
 v = 37,<r= 250 (that is, 250 more than m), then n = 250 + (250) 
 = 297-3. Now, let c- 158*5 (that is, C 1 is actually making 91-5 
 revolutions, then n = 250 - (J- 158-5 j = 250 29*993 = 220*007. 
 
 It is thus possible to get a wide range of regulation with a com- 
 paratively slight movement of the sleeve C, because it is never 
 necessary to rotate it at a higher rate than the wheel B, its 
 movement at an equal rate simply causing all the wheels to roll 
 round together at an equal speed. Taking this point as the 
 zero, the velocity of the bobbin is gradually decreased as it falls 
 by diminishing the speed of the arm C 1 . This is, of course, 
 when the bobbin leads, the procedure being reversed when the 
 flyer leads. The wheels all run in the same direction, and their 
 speed is slow. 
 
 (220) Another form of motion is that shown in Fig. 157. 
 On the jack shaft A are the spindle wheel C, the bobbin wheel 
 N, and the cone wheel G. Also fastened on A is a bevel wheel 
 B, which gears with one set of teeth on a double bevel wheel 
 P. On the other face of P is a second set of teeth D, which 
 gear with teeth on a wheel F, which has a long boss, and is 
 fastened on a sleeve E, to which the bobbin wheel N is also 
 fixed. At E 1 the sleeve is swelled out into a ball or sphere on 
 
328 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 J 
 
 which the wheel P can revolve. The wheel P, as can be 
 clearly seen, forms a sort of clutch between B and F, so that 
 all the parts would rotate together. Working loosely on the 
 shaft is a hollow sleeve N, the inner face of which is turned, and 
 presses against the face of the wheel P. A glance at the illus- 
 tration will show that the face of L is diagonal to the axis of the 
 shaft A, and that consequently the position occupied by L 
 determines the vertical position of the wheel P. On the sleeve 
 of L the cone wheel G is fixed, so that L is rotated at a speed 
 regulated by the velocity of the driven cone. If L makes a 
 complete rotation, it will obvious/y rock P on its bearing E 1 , 
 and will cause all the teeth of P to engage with all the* teeth of 
 B and F in succession. As D is larger than B in the proportion of 
 
 c 
 
 FIG. 157. 
 
 9 : 8, the result is that D is retarded, or, in other words, its teeth 
 do not all engage in one revolution. D thus loses a little speed, 
 and instead of driving F at a velocity equal to that which one 
 revolution of B would give, it drives it a slower speed. As 
 N is compounded with F, it also and by it the bobbins have 
 their speed reduced. By suitably speeding the wheel G, the 
 necessary variation can be got. It is a peculiarity of this 
 motion that the work of the cam L is confined to giving the 
 retardation to the wheel D, the necessary excess of the bobbin 
 speed over the spindles being in the first instance got by making 
 N larger than D. By a duct K oil is admitted to the chamber 
 R and finds its way into the inside of the outer casing in which 
 it is flung about by the dashers shown. 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 329 
 
 It is most important in arranging the wheels in the differen- 
 tial motion, whatever may be its construction, that care should 
 be taken to give the bobbin the correct surface velocity to 
 begin with. That is to say, when the bobbin is empty its 
 velocity must be equal to that of the flyers if the cone drum if 
 stopped. In this case the only motion given to the bobbin is 
 that derived from the rotation of the fixed wheel on the jack 
 shaft, which transmits its motion through the train of wheels. 
 The function of the cones is to give such a variation of speed 
 to the bobbin as will wind the roving when delivered, and when 
 the cone belt is in its initial position at one end of the cone 
 the effect should be to give the bobbin such an amount of 
 acceleration or retardation as will suffice to do this. In some 
 differential motions this essential feature is absent, and cases 
 have come under the notice of the author which demonstrate 
 the importance of the subject. It is sometimes the practice, 
 in order to meet the difficulty, to provide a larger driving piniofi 
 for the bobbins than is used for the spindles, but although 
 this practice is permissible, it is, for many reasons, inadvis- 
 able. What is wanted is a re-adjustment of the gearing in 
 the differential motion, in order that the proper driving is 
 given to the bobbins. Any other procedure is likely to con- 
 fuse the users of the machines, and more especially those 
 whose duty it is to set and adjust them. 
 
 (221) An examination can now be made of the effect of 
 the cones upon the motion of the "stud" or "sun" wheel 
 L, and in doing so it will be necessary to explain why the 
 cones are hyperbolic in outline. Their object is, as has been 
 stated, to effect a reduction in the velocity of the wheel L, 
 and owing to the fact that the surface which is finally operated 
 on that of the bobbin is gradually increased, the reduction 
 in the velocity of the wheel L must be also uniformly and 
 gradually made. Of the two cones, E is the driving and E 1 the 
 driven one, and the motion is communicated from one to the 
 other by means of the belt F. In order to accelerate or 
 diminish the velocity of E 1 that of E being constant the 
 
33 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 belt F is traversed along the cones from one end to the other. 
 From this it follows that if the bobbin is to lead the cones are 
 placed as in Fig. 148, while if the flyer leads they are reversed. 
 The diameters of the large and small ends of E and E 1 are 
 respectively 7 and 3^ inches, and they are placed with their 
 large and small ends opposite one another. Thus, if the strap 
 is on the large end of E and the small end of E 1 , the latter 
 will be driven at double the speed of the former. When these 
 conditions are reversed the velocity of E 1 is only half that of 
 E. By this arrangement the belt is kept in even tension. If 
 the speed of the shaft C is 262-5, and tne be ^ F is on tne lar e 
 
 end of E, then E 1 will revolve at ~- x 26 2-5 = 525 times per 
 minute. If, now, the belt be at the other end of the cones, E 1 
 will revolve ^x 262-5 = 131-25 times P er minute. Thus by 
 
 traversing the strap from the first-named position to the last, 
 there would be a diminution of the speed of E 1 from 525 to 
 1 31*25 revolutions per minute. Now it is not enough that the 
 total diminution must take place during the total traverse of the 
 strap from one end to the other, but it must exactly correspond 
 at any point with the required diminution of the speed of the 
 bobbin. If the cones have a straight profile that is, if they 
 are right cones this correct diminution will not occur. This 
 is a well-established fact, and the theory upon which the forma- 
 tion of the profile is based may be profitably explained. 
 
 (222) As was shown, the object of the increase or diminution 
 in speed of a roving bobbin is to enable it to wind upon its surface 
 during a given time precisely the same length of yarn. This 
 increase or decrease is, as has been made clear, on the uniform 
 speed of the spindles, but as this is a constant factor, it will be 
 disregarded in the demonstration which follows. The length of 
 yarn which can be wound on the bobbin at any time is fixed by 
 the uniform circumferential speed of the rollers, and it is this 
 which is the governing factor in the case. The number of revo- 
 lutions required to take up the yarn during each revolution is, 
 
SLUB13ING AND ROVING. 331 
 
 if /= roller delivery and c - circumference of bobbin , a con- 
 tinually varying quantity. Now this factor is the reciprocal of 
 the diameter of the bobbin, and is the one which forms the 
 basis of the operation. In other words, it is the delivery which 
 determines the matter. If the factor / were not a constant one, 
 it would be difficult to determine the speed to be given to the 
 bobbins, but this uniformity makes all the difference to the 
 result. As the building proceeds by regular additions to the 
 diameter of the bobbins, it follows that the value of the 
 
 quantity will be affected by the increase in the factor c. 
 
 For instance, each y% inch added to the diameter increases the 
 circumference by '3927, and the reciprocal will necessarily be 
 diminished thereby. If it be assumed that the bobbin is i inch 
 diameter when bare, and that each layer increases it ^6 inch 
 
 until it is 2 inches diameter, then if 1= i inch, the value of in 
 
 each case would be as follows: For i inch diameter, '3183; 
 for i}& inch, "2829; for i^ inch, '2546; for i^ inch, '2315 
 for i^ inch, '2122; for \$/% inch, '1958; for i^ inch, '1819; 
 for i^j inch, '1697; and for 2 inches, '1592. That is to say, 
 the bobbins must make to wind on i inch in each of the posi- 
 tions named respectively, the fraction of a revolution which is 
 stated in excess of the speed of the spindles when the bobbin 
 leads or less than it when the flyer leads. In other words, the 
 bobbin velocity is in inverse proportion to the diameter of the 
 bobbin, and in direct proportion to the reciprocals of its various 
 diameters. It will be seen that, in consequence of this undoubted 
 fact, the diminution or increase of the speed depends upon the 
 relation which exists between the diameter of the bobbin at any 
 particular point in building and the velocity of the driven cone 
 at the corresponding position of the cone strap. That this will 
 be so is evident from the fact that the length delivered by the 
 rollers being constant, the only variable quantity is the circum- 
 ference of the bobbin, which fixes its relative velocity. It is 
 
332 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 better to deal with the problem mathematically, because it is 
 necessary to establish ratios which it would be inconvenient to 
 do by figures. In applying cone drums they are placed with 
 their large ends in opposition to the small ends, so that it is 
 necessary in order to keep the belt in even tension that the sum 
 of the diameters of the cones at all points in their length shall 
 be constant. Although this is practically true in roving frame 
 cones, there is a slight correction needed when an open belt is 
 used if the centre of the cones are near each other. Theoreti- 
 cally, this correction should be made, but practically, calculations 
 on the basis about to be explained will be found to be sufficiently 
 accurate. The strap is moved along the cones an equal distance 
 every time a fresh layer is commenced. 
 Let d = diameter of the bobbin barrel 
 
 a = the uniform addition to the diameter for each layer. 
 
 n = the number of layers. 
 
 / = the constant length delivered by the rollers in any 
 
 given time. 
 
 The various diameters will be expressed by the following 
 arithmetical series : 
 
 d, d + a, d + 20, ......... d + n a (i) 
 
 Therefore, the reciprocals of these diameters will be a harmonic 
 series, and will be 
 
 _ __ _JL_ _J _ ( 2 ) 
 
 d' d + a d + 2a d + na 
 
 If the terms of (i) are multiplied by TT the various circum- 
 ferences of the bobbin in the following arithmetical series are 
 obtained : 
 
 ird, ir(d + a), tr(d + 20) ......... ir(d + na) (3) 
 
 If / is divided by the term of series (3) the following series, 
 which is also harmonic, is obtained, and represents the revolu- 
 tions of the bobbin to wind the length / : 
 
 _ _ _ _ _ 
 
 TT? *(d + a) T?(d + 20)' ' " *(d + na) 
 There are, therefore, two harmonic series (2) and (4) and it 
 will be seen that the terms of the series (4) are those of (2} 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 333 
 
 multiplied by the constant . It therefore follows that any 
 
 7T 
 
 term in series (2) is to the corresponding term in series (4) as 
 any other term in (2) is to the corresponding term in (4). That 
 is to say, the speed of the bobbin varies directly as the reciprocal 
 of its diameter or inversely as its diameter. The speed of the 
 driven cone must also vary directly as that of the bobbin, since, 
 no matter what the intermediate train of wheels may be, any 
 change in the speed of one produces a corresponding change in 
 the velocity of the other. Therefore the speed of the driven 
 cone also varies directly as the reciprocal of the diameter of the 
 bobbin or inversely as its diameter. 
 
 Let R = the diameter of the large end of the driving cone. 
 
 Let r=ihe diameter of the small end of the driving cone. 
 These will also represent the end diameters of the driven cone 
 in inverse order. R + r = T, which is the constant sum of the 
 diameter of the two cones. When the strap is at the large end 
 of the driving, and at the small end of the driven, cone, the 
 
 -n 
 
 speed of the latter is , and when at the other end of the cones, 
 -^-. It has been seen that the speed of the driven cone varies 
 
 Jx 
 
 directly as the reciprocal of the diameter of the bobbin. If 
 therefore, 
 
 d = diameter of the empty bobbin, and 
 
 D = diameter of the full bobbin, 
 there is the proportion 
 
 .*.-l..JL.!or *L 
 
 r ' d " R ' D ' rD Rd 
 
 Whence T>O, o^ T ,o <>D 
 
 - - 
 
 And 
 
 or, 
 
 d 
 
 = r P (i) and similarly r=R I A.. (2) 
 
 v d v D 
 
 Let it therefore be assumed that D = 4 : d= i ; and T = 10-5, 
 then R.= 10-5 - r ; and r = 10*5 - R. Substituting these values 
 
 in the equation (i) we get R = (10-5 - R.) -x /A. = 2 
 
 v i 
 
334 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (10*5 -R) = 21 - 2R, whence 3R = 21 or R=y. As T-R = r 
 we get 10 '5 - 7 = 3*5, which is the value of r. This demon- 
 stration shows that it is easy to arrive at the diameters of the 
 cones at each end by simply determining what the diameters of 
 the bobbins at the beginning and end of a set shall be. These 
 are always arbitrarily fixed and are not a matter of calculation. 
 The initial stage of the inquiry has thus been arrived at because 
 the diameters of the cones at each end have been settled, these 
 being in exact proportion to the sizes of the full and empty 
 bobbins. In order to make the point quite clear, another 
 instance, taking another set of values, will be given. Suppose 
 that the diameter of the full bobbin D was 5-5 inches: the 
 diameter of the empty bobbin d 1*25 inch : and the sum of the 
 diameters of the cones T 10*5 inches : then the diameter of the 
 small end of the cone r would be lo^-R, the diameter of 
 the large end. The equation (i) now works out 
 
 R = /jL5_(io-<5-R) 
 v 1-25 
 
 = v/4'4 (10-5 - R) 
 
 -= 2-0976 (10*5 R) 
 
 = 22*025 - 2*0976 R, 
 
 whence 3*0976 R = 22*025 
 
 or R= 7*11 and r = 
 
 10*5 - 7 'ii = 3*39. The last example shows that the diameters 
 of the full and empty bobbins are not necessarily multiples, nor 
 need that ratio exist between the diameters of the large and 
 small ends of the cones. What it is especially wanted to point 
 out is that there are three factors fixed in commencing to design 
 the cones, namely, the size of the full and empty bobbin and 
 the sum of the diameters of the cones, and that from these 
 three factors it is possible to arrive at the various diameters of 
 the individual cones. 
 
 (223) Up to this point the dimensions for the extreme con- 
 ditions only have been obtained, and it is necessary to see how 
 the diameters of the cones are obtained from any point of the 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 335 
 
 build. It is not difficult to understand that precisely the same 
 relation exists between the diameter of the bobbin and the 
 speed of the cone, in this as in the previously cited case, that 
 relation being the determining factor in estimating the cone 
 diameters, rendered necessary by reason of the varied diameter 
 of the bobbin. If, therefore, it is assumed that R and r repre- 
 sent the large and small diameters of the cones as before, X 
 and x the diameters of the two cones respectively at any points 
 corresponding to each other in the length, d the diameter 01 
 the bobbin at that point in its build where the position X is the 
 correct one for the strap, and d the diameter of empty bobbin 
 as before, an equation can be worked out on the basis previously 
 stated, which enables the true diameter of the cone at any point 
 to be ascertained, beginning with a similar statement to that 
 made in the preceding demonstration. 
 
 : - and 
 
 r 
 
 d x 
 
 R X R<f x Y 
 
 Then m - j or j =X=T-# 
 
 rd xd rd 
 
 whence R<f* + rd x = r<t Torx = (3), 
 
 Ka + rd 
 
 np~p j 
 
 and similarly X = rd ^.^ d U). 
 
 Now assuming as was done in working out equation (i), that 
 
 3. s x 2 x 
 then 
 
 7x1 + 3-5x2 14 
 whence X- 10-5 - 5-25 -5-25. 
 
 By proceeding in this way, for every increase in the bobbin 
 diameter the correct diameter of the cone' at the corresponding 
 point can be got. Assuming now that a bobbin is to be built 
 on a barrel i inch in diameter, increased to 4 inches when 
 lull, and that the cones have a combined diameter of 9 
 inches. Assuming also that ^ mcn is adcled to the 
 diameter of the bobbin, so that there will be for the 3 inches 
 24 sizes calculated. Let it also be supposed that the large and 
 
336 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 small diameters of the cones have been found to be respectively 
 7 and 3^ inches, and that their length is also fixed at 36 
 inches, which gives a traverse for the belt of i^ inch for 
 each y% inch increase in the diameter of the bobbin. From 
 these data the diameter of the cones at each point will be 
 calculated. There, will be, as said, the effect of 24 additions 
 calculated, and this being done it is found that the relative 
 diameters of the top and bottom cones are as follows : 
 
 Position No . . . .Start 
 
 ing 1 2 3 4 5 
 
 672 6-46 6-23 6'o 5'8 
 378 4-04 4-27 4-5 47 
 DO ri25 1-250 1-375 1-500 1-625 
 
 6 
 
 5-6 
 4'9 
 1-750 
 
 Diameter of top cone ... 7*0 
 Diameter of bottom cone 3-5 
 Diameter of bobbin I'cx 
 
 
 Position No 
 
 7 
 5'4i 
 5 '09 
 i'875 
 
 8 
 
 5"25 
 
 5'25 
 
 2'QOO 
 
 9 
 
 5'09 
 
 5-4i 
 2-125 
 
 10 
 
 4 '94 
 5-56 
 2-250 
 
 v 11 
 
 4-8 
 57 
 2'375 
 
 12 
 
 4-67 
 
 5-84 
 2-500 
 
 Diameter of top cone 
 
 Diameter of bottom cone ... 
 Diameter of bobbin 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 4'52 
 5-98 
 2*625 
 
 14 
 
 4-42 
 6-08 
 2-750 
 
 15 
 
 43I 
 6'ip 
 2-875 
 
 16 
 4*2 
 
 6'3 
 3000 
 
 17 
 
 4' 1 
 6-4 
 
 3 >I2 5 
 
 18 
 
 4-0 
 6'5 
 3'25o 
 
 
 Diameter of bottom cone ... 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 3'9 
 6-6 
 
 3'375 
 
 20 
 
 3-8i 
 6-69 
 3 '5oo 
 
 21 
 
 373 
 6-77 
 3-625 
 
 22 
 
 3-65 
 6-85 
 3750 
 
 23 
 
 3-58 
 
 6-92 
 3-875 
 
 24 
 
 3'5 
 7-0 
 4-000 
 
 
 Diameter of bottom cone ... 
 Diameter of bobbin 
 
 
 It will be noticed that both the cones, although having the 
 same terminal diameters, do not increase and diminish exactly 
 in the same degree at their large ends. If the figures given be 
 looked at carefully it will be seen that the diminutions as each 
 layer is wound are not equal, but tend perpetually to diminish 
 in amount. The important feature, however, is that if tested 
 by the formula representing their mathematical relations the 
 diameters w*ll be found to correspond. That formula was 
 
 R ,2_., X.j_ 
 
 r '' d '' '' x '' d* 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 337 
 
 Taking the eighth position this works out -3 : : : ^5 : _L. 
 
 3-5 i 5- 2 5 2 
 
 In the twelfth position it is X : -L.: : 1^2 : J. . 
 
 3*5 i 5' 8 3 2-5 
 
 In the sixteenth, -3- : : : 1 : _L. 
 3*5 i 6 '3 3 
 
 And in the twentieth position it is -J-~ : : : ^ - : . 
 
 3'5 x 6 ' 6 9 3*5 
 
 All the figures given, if tested, will be found to be substantially 
 correct, and would be more so if the figures were run out to 
 more places of decimals. Further, when tested by the reci- 
 procals of the diameters which are represented by the value of 
 
 / R 
 
 they will be found to agree. Thus the velocity ratio at 
 
 starting is 2 : i ; when the bobbin is 2 inches in diameter it is 
 i : i, or half the initial ratio. In like manner the number of 
 revolutions required at i and 2 inches diameter respectively to 
 wind on i inch of yarn have the same ratio. Again, the ratio 
 of the diameter of a bobbin \y 2 inches diameter to the 
 empty bobbin is as 3 : 2, as is that of the number of revolu- 
 tions required to wind i inch in each case, and each will be 
 found to correspond with the velocity obtained by the diameters 
 of the cones shown at the fourth point. Thus, if the driving 
 cone revolves 100 times at the beginning of the winding, 
 the driven cone makes 200. To wind the same length on to a 
 surface which is as 3 : 2 of another the velocity must be as 2 : 3, 
 
 therefore, in the case supposed, will be 200 = 133*3. If tne 
 
 o 
 
 effect of the diameters of the cones given at the fourth position 
 is calculated on this basis it will be founcf that the same result 
 
 is obtained. Thus TOO \ g = 133. It is thus clear that the 
 
 ratios are the same, which demonstrates the accuracy of this 
 method of calculation, especially when tested by the required 
 bobbin velocity at any point, which is the determining feature. 
 It has therefore been shown that by taking due note of all 
 
338 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the fixed factors it is possible to calculate the Diameters of the 
 cones by having regard to the mathematical relation which 
 exists between the increase of the bobbin diameter and the 
 diameter of the cones at the driving point for the time being. 
 It is not necessary to add anything to what has been said on 
 the matter beyond remarking that the relations thus established 
 fix the nature of the cones in all cases where a variable factor, 
 such as exists in this case, is found. The cones calculated by 
 this method will have a profile which approximates to a hyper- 
 bola, and is theoretically of that character. This portion of the 
 subject is really a mechanical demonstration, and is only intro- 
 duced in order to show the principles of construction. It is not 
 often that a spinner wants new cones, and when the form is 
 once fixed by a machinist it may be taken as being settled. 
 (224) The demonstration thus given, although correctly stated, 
 may be somewhat too abstruse for some readers, but the argument 
 can be restated with sufficient clearness to make it quite intelli- 
 gible. The form of the curve given to cone drums depends 
 absolutely upon the relation which exists between the surface 
 speed of the bobbin at any point and the velocity of the driven 
 cone. The excess of the velocity of the bobbin over that of 
 the flyer must be such that its surface speed will be equal to 
 that of the rollers whatever the diameter of the bobbin at any 
 stage of building. It is not a question of an increase in the 
 bobbin diameter or the proportion which each increase bears to 
 the whole diameter which determines the matter, although these 
 factors do influence the problem, but the effect which each 
 increase has upon the velocity of the bobbins as governed by 
 the uniform delivery of the sliver or roving. As was shown 
 earlier, the decrease in the velocity gradually diminishes as each 
 layer is wound, and follows what is known mathematically as a 
 harmonic series. It is clear, therefore, that the same result 
 must follow the movement of the strap along the cones. As the 
 driving cone in every case runs at a uniform velocity the varia- 
 tion in speed is confined to the driven cone, and such variation 
 must be in exact proportion to the decrease or increase in the 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 339 
 
 velocity of the bobbin. The bobbin has two fixed diameters, 
 when it is full and empty, and in like manner the cones have 
 fixed complementary diameters at each end. From a calcula- 
 tion of the effect upon the driven cone of placing the strap upon 
 the two extreme diameters we get a certain relative ratio, and 
 this must be in accordance with the ratio existing between the 
 speed of the bobbin when full and empty. Thus the highest 
 velocity of the driven cone bears the same ratio to the greatest 
 velocity of the bobbin as the lowest velocity of the driven cone 
 does to the least velocity of the bobbin. That is to say, if the 
 driven cone revolves 4 times when the velocity of the bobbin is 
 also 4, then if the velocity of the bobbin is i that of the cone 
 should also be i. The same reasoning applies to the inter- 
 mediate velocities and sizes. In this case the ratio between the 
 highest velocity of the cone and that of the bobbin is the same 
 as the ratio between the velocity of the bobbin at any point in 
 building and that of the driven cone at the corresponding posi- 
 tion. Thus if the velocity of the bobbin be reduced to 2 the 
 velocity of the driven cone must also be reduced to 2, or half 
 its initial velocity, which is equivalent to the alteration of the 
 position of the belt to one where 'the diameter of the driven 
 cone will give this result. As the ratio of the velocity of the 
 driven to the driving cone at the beginning is as 2 to i, a 
 diminution of the speed of the driven cone to half its initial 
 speed means that the ratio must be as i : i, or in other words 
 the strap must be on equal diameters on both cones. Again, 
 if the bobbin velocity be four-fifths its original velocity the 
 driven cone must rotate in the same ratio. Again, using the 
 same figures, the velocity of the bobbin must be x 4 = 3^. It 
 is this absolute relation of the factors named which forms the 
 basis of the method of arriving at the true shape of 
 the cones, and enables the reason for using the latter 
 to be fully understood. In order to render the use of 
 the formulae given more easy they will be stated in words. 
 First dealing with that employed to calculate the end diameters, 
 the rule is bree diameter of cone = small diameter of 
 
340 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 /diameter of full bobbin , ., f , 
 
 cone x /__ ___ while for the calculation of 
 
 y diameter of empty bobbin' 
 
 the diameter of cones at intermediate points in the building the 
 formula is 
 
 Sum of both diameters x largest diameter of 
 Diameter of } driving cone x diameter of empty bobbin 
 
 driving cone > 
 
 at any point. 1 smallest diameter of driven cone x diameter 
 
 of bobbin at any point + largest diameter of 
 driving cone x diameter of empty bobbin. 
 
 (225) In the explanation just given the assumption has been 
 made that the bobbin was winding directly from the rollers without 
 the intervention of the flyer, but, as is well known, the use of 
 the flyer, which has the function of twisting the -roving, intro- 
 duces another element, for if the flyer eye and the bobbin 
 moved at the same speed, no winding would take place. It is 
 hardly necessary to remind readers that in the case of flyer lead- 1 
 ing frames it is the excess of speed of the flyer eye over that of 
 the surface of the bobbin which winds on the yarn, whilst it is 
 the reverse procedure which regulates the winding when the bob- 
 bin leads. The function of the gearing between the bottom 
 cone and the bobbin is to adjust the velocity of the latter to 
 suit the conditions prevailing, but, as the value of the wheel 
 train is constant, it can, as was said, be neglected in calculating 
 the diameters of the cones. It is the variation in the speed in 
 excess of or less than that of the flyer which has to be reckoned, 
 and in all calculations this must be borne in mind. While this 
 is true, it does not affect the mode of calculation given, because 
 that is a deduction which is entirely independent of any fixed 
 velocity of the driving cone or other part. As the diameter is a 
 variable one, the calculation can be made in other ways by 
 taking the ratio which it bears at any time to some fixed 
 quantity. Thus the proportion which the bobbin diameter at any 
 period in the build bears to its empty diameter is employed to 
 effect the calculation, and is a simple method of doing it. What 
 has been desired to do in the preceding demonstration has been 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 341 
 
 to show that the governing factor is the roller delivery, because 
 upon, that depends the velocity of the bobbin. It is worth 
 noticing that in any case where there is a variable circumference 
 or diameter on which uniformly delivered material has to be 
 wound, the reciprocals of the diameters always enable a curve 
 to be described which is similar in form to that shown to be 
 necessary for the cone drums. This will be reverted to when 
 the problem of winding on the mules is dealt with. In setting 
 out a cone from the calculated diameters an axial line is drawn 
 a little longer than the proposed cones, and is cut by two 
 verticals at the points representing the length of the cones. In 
 a roving frame the length can be arbitrarily fixed and the tra- 
 verse of the strap at each movement determined in accordance 
 with it, or the number of layers could be ascertained, a given 
 movement fixed for each, and the total length thus obtained. 
 The former is the better procedure. In the scutching machine 
 the range of movement is well defined, as the variation in thick- 
 ness which is likely to occur is known. The length of the cones 
 would therefore be arbitrarily fixed in accordance with the 
 known conditions. Having in either case drawn the axial line, 
 it is intersected by vertical ordinates drawn through points 
 representing equal traverses of the belt, which may be as many 
 as desired. The respective diameters at these points are then 
 obtained as described, and are divided by two, the distances so 
 derived being marked out on the respective verticals on each 
 side of the axis. Through the points so obtained a line is 
 drawn, and this will give the profile desired. After this has 
 been carried into practice, and the cones prepared, it is 
 necessary to make the adjustment previgusly named, which can 
 be done either with wooden or iron cones, the former being 
 preferable. The cones which are shown in Fig. 158 have been 
 set out in this way, and enable the method to be clearly under- 
 stood. 
 
 (226) As was said, the theoretical form of cones thus obtained 
 requires modification in one or two points, owing to various 
 factors arising in working. When the first layer is wound on 
 
342 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the bobbin, it is wrapped on a rigid surface, forming if properly 
 laid a continuous spiral. When the next layer is wound, 
 owing partially to the change in the initial point of the lift, the 
 coils lie in the spaces between the previously wound spirals, so 
 that the diameter is not increased by twice the diameter of the 
 roving, as at first, but by one diameter only, and that is the 
 extent of the increase afterwards throughout building. To 
 some extent, this more compact winding is compensated for by 
 the sponginess or elasticity of the mass on which the succeeding 
 layers are wound, but it doubtless affects the problem to some 
 
 &raiia i^i^iM^I^IS^ 
 
 FIG. 158. 
 
 extent. It does not really matter in making the calculation, 
 because it is known how many layers are wound on to a bobbin 
 before it is filled, and that enables a simple calculation to be 
 made as to the increase of diameter for each layer, and, as the 
 belt makes a total lateral movement of so many inches, its 
 traverse for each layer can be readily calculated. Perhaps of 
 more importance is the tendency of the strap to assume an 
 angular instead of a vertical position. It is well known that if 
 a belt is stretched over two drums, one of which is conical, or 
 has its axis placed angularly in relation to that of the other, it 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 343 
 
 will tend to run towards the larger diameter, or the point on 
 the one drum further from the other. This is recognised in the 
 common practice of rounding the faces of pulleys in order to 
 keep the belt in a central position thereon. It is clear that it 
 a belt is 3^ inches wide and be assumed to drive when wrapped 
 round complementary diameters on the two cones, the theo- 
 retical effect, at any rate, will be affected if it assumes another 
 position on either cone from the reason named. In order to 
 meet this difficulty, Messrs. Brooks and Doxey have added to 
 the small end of each cone a short parallel piece equal in width 
 to the strap. In this way the belt when starting and finishing 
 a set is prevented from riding or assuming an angular position, 
 and thus gives the correct speed to the bobbins at the beginning 
 and end of a set. In addition to this, as each cone is moved 
 endwise to a distance equal to the width of the belt, the belt 
 will throughout grip the diameters on to which it tends to ride 
 under ordinary circumstances, and will not assume an angular 
 position. It is therefore possible to obtain an accurate adjust- 
 ment. If the parallel ends are removed, the cones remaining 
 represent the ordinary construction. Messrs. John Hetherington 
 and Sons, Limited, minimise the tendency to ride by the 
 employment of a divided belt, that is, two belts of half the 
 width connected together, so that an adjustment to the 
 contour of the cone is possible. One of the most fruitful 
 sources of errors in regulation arises from the slip of the belt, 
 and a few words may be expended on this. The function of the 
 cone mechanism is, as has been clearly indicated, the regulation 
 of the velocity of the " sun " or " stud " wheel, or its equivalent. 
 This looks to be a simple thing and one which would not involve 
 much stress on the strap. As a matter of fact there is thrown 
 upon all the wheels of the train between the bottom cone and 
 the bobbins a considerable stress. Students of mechanics 
 know that wheels or pulleys are levers, and that the stress 
 caused in lifting or moving the weight is thrown upon their 
 fulcra. In this case the weight is represented by the resistance 
 of the bobbins in rotating, or practically, their inertia. The 
 
344 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 stress thus set up is transmitted from member to member of the 
 train until it reaches a point where it is either entirely sustained 
 or in some way removed. Usually this point is represented by 
 the point of contact of the belt and the lower cone, and if from 
 any cause the adhesional friction of these is insufficient a certain 
 amount of slip occurs. This tendency is increased if there is 
 any accumulation of dirt or grease on the belt. Attempts have 
 been made to overcome this difficulty by so sustaining the lower 
 cone that its weight is always on the belt. One or two firms 
 have also increased the diameters of the cones, these being 
 now made in some cases 10 inches and 5 inches diameter at 
 their large and small ends respectively. In another case a 
 duplex system of cones is used, as Fig. 159, which is an illustra- 
 tion of Messrs. Ashworth and Moorhouse's patent, as -made by 
 Messrs. Platt Bros., and Co. It will be seen there are two sets 
 of cones used, each being duplicates, and the cone shafts are 
 extended to receive two cones respectively. The strap guides 
 are in like manner attached to an extended traverse bar, but the 
 belts are only 2 inches instead of 3^ inches wide, and are only 
 in moderate tension. It is stated that the employment of this 
 system has met with considerable success. Referring now to 
 Fig. 155, the motion therein shown meets this difficulty in 
 another way. It is substantially the same problem as the well- 
 known Weston pulley block, which easily sustains heavy weights. 
 In this case the stress is taken up within the motion and is not 
 passed on to the same wheels between the cone and the arm C l . 
 The stress is taken by the jack shaft at the point where the wheel 
 B is fastened to it. It is found that if the bobbin driving 
 shaft is rotated by suitable means its motion is transmitted 
 through the intermediate wheels and " sun " wheel to the driven 
 cone when the Holdsworth and other types of differential 
 motions are used. If this be tried with the motion shown in 
 Fig. 156, it is found to be impossible to rotate the bobbins. 
 Nor is there any motion of the arm C 1 , which corresponds with 
 the "sun" wheel. The explanation of this phenomenon is 
 found in the fact that the motion is transmitted through two 
 
BLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 345 
 
 wheels of unequal size, so that the axis of the fixed wheel B 
 becomes the fulcrum. The power is expended in the attempt 
 to rotate the wheel B and shaft A, from which all the power 
 flows, and cannot be communicated to the wheel D 1 . The 
 difference in action arises from the relative position of the parts, 
 the wheel receiving the stress being a fixture, instead of, as 
 usually, movable. By the removal of this factor the sole function 
 of the cone strap is to rotate the regulating disc C 1 and the 
 
 FIG. 159. 
 
 pinions F F 1 in the same direction as the jack shaft A, which is 
 a comparatively light duty. The importance of this factor lies 
 in the ease with which a belt in moderate tension can be moved 
 along the cones, a task which is v ery much more difficult when 
 the tension is greater. Upon this rapid movement depends the 
 immediate change of velocity of the driven cone when a new 
 layer of roving is being begun. This is a most important factor 
 in producing even rovings, and its value cannot be over 
 estimated. 
 
346 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (227) The strap F receives its longitudinal traverse along 
 the cones by means of the forward movement of the toothed 
 rack P, which is actuated by the rotation of the pinion P 1 . 
 The pitch of the teeth of the rack is y 5 ^ inch, and the pinion 
 has 45 teeth. One complete rotation of the latter, therefore, 
 will move the rack i4 T V inch. It was shown in par. 221 that 
 the extreme variation in the number of revolutions of the lower 
 cone is 393, or, if the cone is 36 inches long, 10*9 for each inch 
 of strap traverse. Thus, one revolution of the pinion P 1 will 
 reduce the velocity of the lower cone 153 revolutions. The 
 rotation of the pinion P 1 is obtained by means of the pull of a 
 cord or chain passing round the pulley X 1 on the shaft X. The 
 latter cannot, however, revolve freely, being held by the detent 
 catches of the motion Q, of which a description will now be 
 given. This motion is called sometimes the " box Of tricks," 
 but a much better name is the " building motion." It has a 
 two-fold function. It regulates the movement of the belt along 
 the cones, and it throws into gear alternately the wheels S 1 S 1 
 with the pinion S. By the first of these actions it regulates 
 the velocity of the bobbin, and by the second the duration of 
 its lift. It may be here explained that in the early period of 
 the history of this machine it was customary to wind the roving 
 on bobbins with flanges at each end. It was found, however, 
 that the roving in being drawn off adhered to the flanges and 
 was thus stretched and broken. It has therefore become the 
 practice to shorten the lift of the bobbin after every layer is 
 wound, and to wind the roving on to plain cylindrical wooden 
 tubes without aids. Unless the lift was shortened the roving 
 would be easily unravelled or fall off at the ends, but by the 
 adoption of the system of shortening the traverse, the double 
 conical bobbin is built, which can be handled with impunity. 
 
 (228) The illustrations in Figs. 160, 161, and 162 represent 
 respectively a front and back view and plan of a building 
 motion, which is in every respect like the one shown in Fig. 
 148, except that weights are substituted for the springs, and the 
 rod R is differently coupled. Two cradles A and B are centred 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 347 
 
 on the pins A 1 and -B 1 . The upper cradle A has attached to it 
 at each side double hooks C C 1 , which pass through holes in 
 the lower cradle, and have weights attached to them. In the 
 lower cradle B a pin E 1 is fixed, which engages with a slot in 
 the lever E, centred on the pin F, and jointed to the rod R, 
 coupled to the striking wheel. On the pin A 1 a ratchet or 
 "rack" wheel N is fixed, with which two catches G G 1 can 
 alternately engage. These catches are coupled by a spring, and 
 
 FIG. 1 60. 
 
 are of different shape, so as to engage with the teeth of the 
 rack wheel at each side of its centre. On the same pin as the 
 rack wheel the bevel pinion J is fastened, this gearing with a 
 similar one J 1 on the upright shaft X. Two detent levers L L 1 
 are pivoted to the frame, and have their inner ends connected 
 by a helical spring M, which passes round the centre B 1 . The I 
 levers, from their action, are sometimes called "pigeons' 
 wings," and their inner extremities engage with shoulders I is 
 formed in the lower cradle B. The bobbin rail has attached to 
 
348 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPANNING. 
 
 it a double slide Q, which is slotted so that the pin O can move 
 along it. On this pin one end of the "diminishing" rod S is 
 centred, the rod passing through bearings formed in the cradle 
 A. A toothed rack is formed on the underside of the rod S, 
 with which a wheel T, fixed on the pin A 1 , engages. 
 
 (229) The action of these parts is as follows : The slide Q 
 rises and falls with the bobbin rail, and consequently communi- 
 cates an oscillatory motion to the cradle A. It is properly 
 
 FIG. 161. 
 
 set when a line drawn through its centre passes through 
 the centre of the pin A 1 when the bobbins are at the central 
 point of their lift. The rod S can then be moved horizontally 
 without producing any effect on the cradle A. The levers L L l 
 are then engaged with the shoulders I I 1 . If the bobbin rail 
 now descends the cradle A is oscillated on its axis, and, as a 
 consequence, the hook C 1 is raised while C is lowered. There 
 is a shoulder or boss on the latter which prevents it falling too 
 low, but causes the weight to come upon the arm of the cradle 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 349 
 
 B, and so exercise a pressure on the latter. As the oscillatory 
 movement of the cradle A is continued the weight C 1 is 
 entirely removed from B, and the point of contact of L 1 and I 1 
 becomes a fulcrum by which the motion of A is temporarily 
 arrested. This is practically an anchor action, and when springs 
 are used bears much more resemblance to it than in this case. 
 The effect is that the point where the weight C 1 is ordinarily 
 applied is quite free, while there is a proportionately heavier 
 thrust on B. As A continues to oscillate the screw Z begins to 
 press on the outer end of L 1 , and finally causes it to oscillate so 
 as to free it from contact with the shoulder I 1 . The cradle B 
 makes a sudden movement, which partakes both of a rotary and 
 vertical character. The result is that the pin E 1 strikes the 
 
 FIG. 162. 
 
 slot in the lever E, and the latter turns upon the pin F. A 
 blow is thus given to the detent catch G, releasing the rack 
 wheel, which at once turns. As, however, G and G 1 are coupled 
 by a spring, the lateral movement of one is accompanied by a 
 similar movement of the other. Thus the rack wheel can only 
 move half a tooth for each of the oscillations of the cradle in 
 either direction. The partial rotary movement so made is 
 communicated to the pinion P 1 by the gearing described. The 
 oscillation of the lever E, or of the cradle in Fig. 148, communi- 
 cates a longitudinal motion to the rod R, and causes it to throw 
 the wheel S 2 into gear with S, thus reversing the motion of the 
 lifter pinion. The rotation of the rack wheel is also accompanied 
 by that of the pinion T engaging with the rack on the underside 
 
35 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 of the bar S. The latter is thus drawn inwards, and the relative 
 position of the pin O and the centre of the cradle A is altered, 
 with the result that at the next lift of the bobbins the escape- 
 ment motion is actuated a little earlier. Thus the duration of 
 the lift is constantly shortened, and as a result each layer 
 occupies a little less vertical space than its predecessor. 
 
 FIG. 163. 
 
 (^30) The arrangement shown in Fig. 163 is an improvement 
 made by Messrs. Howard and Bullough, which has for itc object 
 the removal of all the weight from the diminishing rod when the 
 oscillation of the cradle takes place. It is not necessary to deal 
 with the motion generally, which resembles that just described. 
 To the slide B is attached a lever A, having at its lower end 
 two adjustable stop screws A 1 A 2 . Between these the free end 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 351 
 
 of the arm C passes. C pivots on a stud in the centre of the 
 cradle bracket, and at D is curved as shown. The two extremities 
 of D are arranged so as to take into the two weight-hooks E E 1 . 
 The effect is that, as the slide B ascends and descends, the lever 
 C D is rocked, and alternately lifts the weight-hooks E E 1 , thus 
 freeing the catches F F 1 from the weights H H 1 respectively. In 
 this way all the weight is taken off one of the catches and all of 
 it removed from the hanger bar, thus permitting the latter to 
 make the change freely, the release of the catches being made 
 by means of a stop on the upper end of each of the weight- 
 hooks E E 1 . 
 
 FIG. 164. 
 
 In lieu of the weights or springs applied directly to the cradle 
 Messrs. Asa Lees and Co. have adopted the device shown in Figs. 
 164 and 165. In this case the short sliding shaft upon which the 
 " striking " bevels S 1 S 2 are fastened is connected to the reversing 
 shaft F by the coupling F 1 . The shaft F is coupled at F 2 to the 
 cradle A, which receives its release in the same manner as 
 previously described. On the shaft F are four stop hoops, one 
 pair G G 1 having between them a coiled spring L, and the other 
 pair H H 1 being without a similar spring L 1 . Attached to the 
 frame is a slotted bracket K (Fig. 165), in which one end 
 of a lever J, the lower end of which is forked, engages, the 
 forked end being fitted into the space between the hoops 
 
35 2 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 G H. As J is pivoted to the frame, and the bracket 
 K is attached to the lifter rack, it is oscillated as the 
 /atter rises and falls. In this way the springs L L 1 are 
 alternately put into compression, thus acting on the cradle A 
 precisely as the weights or springs do in the ordinary motion. 
 The alternate release of the detent catches is preceded by the 
 compression of its corresponding spring, and followed by its 
 sudden extension, which changes the position of the striking 
 
 FIG. 165. 
 
 wheels. The charging of the spring is done a little before the 
 necessary change, so that much of the strain is taken off the 
 reversing cradle, and all of it from the diminishing rod. This 
 modification has been extended by combining the motion with 
 the knock-off motion. In Fig. 166 the knocking-off lever D is 
 shown, its upper end pressing against a stop on the setting-on 
 rod U. It is controlled by the weight D 1 when released, 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 353 
 
 which occurs at some predetermined point. The release is 
 effected by raising the latch P l attached to the knocking-oft 
 lever, by means of a stop attached to the lifter, which acts 
 
 FIG. 1 66. 
 
 when the latch is brought into proper position when the 
 bobbin is full. A lever M (see also Fig. 167) is 
 hinged on the frame carrying the reversing bracket, and is 
 coupled to an arm on D by a pin. Thus the motion of D is 
 
 FIG. 167. 
 
 i 
 
 communicated to M. The horizontal arm of M has two stops 
 on it, M 1 M 2 . When knocking off takes place, which, when this 
 motion is fitted, it always does on the downward traverse, the stop 
 M 
 
354 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 M l engages with the engaged detent catch, and releases the re- 
 versing cradle. If permitted, the latter would oscillate sufficiently 
 to reverse the gear of the striking wheels S 1 S 2 , but by means 01 
 the second stop M 2 the cradle is prevented from moving a 
 further distance than is sufficient to put the striking bevels 
 entirejy out of gear. They are therefore quite free, and in 
 starting the next set of bobbins the bobbin rail can be wound 
 down without difficulty, so as to commence rebuilding at the 
 beginning of the lift, which is a desirable thing to do. Also 
 coupled to the stop lever D is a link O which is con- 
 nected to a bell crank lever R coupled to the rod V by means 
 of which the bottom cone is lifted. The knocking off not only 
 frees the striking wheels, but also lifts the cone so as to loosen 
 the strap, thus allowing the whole of the parts to be wound back 
 easily. When the frame is restarted the adjustment of the cone 
 strap brings all the parts into position for commencing winding, 
 taking the stop M 2 out of contact with the cradle and M 1 with 
 the catch, thus allowing the striking wheels to again engage with 
 the pinion, so that the movement of the setting-on handle re- 
 starts the machine. The lever Q is so fixed that in winding 
 back it is acted on by a stop bracket, so that its arm Q 1 operates 
 the knocking-off lever and resets it. This combination has, 
 therefore, the triple object of relieving the strain on the 
 diminishing rod, freeing the strike wheels, and releasing the cone 
 belt. It is entirely automatic, and is reset in the ordinary 
 operation of restarting. 
 
 (231) Let it now be assumed that the strap is on the small 
 end of E 1 , the velocity of the shaft H will be 105, and of the 
 wheel L 16*8. From this we deduce the speed of the bobbins 
 as 909*27, or 91*27 in excess of that of the flyer. Now, if the 
 bobbin be supposed to be i ^6 diameter, it will, for every revolu- 
 tion, take up 3-53 inches of yarn. In other words, it will, 
 during the 91*27 revolutions in excess, take up 322 inches of 
 yarn. It was shown in paragraph 209 that the rollers delivered 
 in a minute 261*5 inches ; therefore the velocity of the feed cone 
 is too great, and the strap must be moved towards the large end 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 355 
 
 of E 1 in commencing the set. The bobbin requires reducing 
 to a velocity of 891*2 revolutions, or 75*2 revolutions in excess 
 of that of the flyer. By means of the modes of calculating 
 previously detailed, we find that the strap must be at a distance 
 of nearly 6 inches from the smaller end of the cone E 1 , when 
 the velocity of the latter will be 406-25 revolutions, at which 
 speed the bobbins will revolve 889-3 times, which is what is 
 required. Suppose, at the end of a set, the bobbin is 2^ 
 diameter, at each revolution it will take up 8*5394 inches of 
 yarn. Thus, to take up the 261*5 inches of yarn delivered by 
 the rollers, it must revolve 30*62 in excess of the flyers, or 
 848*62. This means a reduction of the velocity of the cone E 1 
 to 167*2 revolutions, and the traverse of the strap nearly 26 
 inches. Although the strap is sometimes moved along the cones 
 in beginning a set, in practice it is always endeavoured to 
 arrange the gearing so that the belt can move along the entire 
 length of the cones, and its traverse can be correspondingly 
 arranged. The case which is here supposed would, therefore, 
 not often arise, but it is sufficient to illustrate the general 
 principle involved, the figures given being not actual but 
 suppositions. 
 
 (232) We now come to deal with the method of obtaining 
 this traverse. The rack P is y^ pitch, and the pinion P 1 has 
 the same pitch and 45 teeth. Therefore, as shown in para- 
 graph 217, one rotation of the pinion P 1 moves the rack P 
 inwards i4 T V inches, so that to obtain a total traverse of 26 
 inches the pinion P 1 must make 1*84 revolutions. Now the 
 bevel wheels J and J 1 (Fig. 161), having each 25 teeth, it follows 
 that every time the rack wheel N makes a complete revolution 
 the shaft X and the pinion P 1 do so also. Thus as the rack 
 wheel has 3 2 teeth and moves a half tooth every lift, a complete 
 revolution means the winding of 64 layers on the bobbin. Thus 
 to attain the full diameter of 2^ inches 64 x 1*84 layers must 
 be wound, or 118*06 in all. The successive series of coils are 
 not laid over each other, but as the roving is wound, each 
 alternate layer falls into the spaces between each of the pre- 
 
356 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 viously laid coils, so that only half the diameter is added at each 
 layer. As the difference between the diameters of the full and 
 empty bobbin is 1^6 inches, the thickness of each layer is 
 
 approximately 
 
 (233) On the shaft H is a bevel wheel R with 22 teeth, 
 driving a wheel R 1 with 51 teeth. R 1 is on the same shaft as 
 the striking wheel S, which has 16 teeth, and gears with the 
 wheels S 1 S 2 with 51 teeth. On the same shaft as S 1 is the 
 pinion T with 14 teeth, driving T 1 with 70. T 1 is on the same 
 arbor as U, which has 16 teeth, and gears with U 1 with 80 
 teeth. U 1 is fixed on the lifter shaft, on which at intervals are 
 pinions V 1 gearing with the rack V. The pitch of the teeth 01 
 the rack V and pinion V 1 is ^ inch, and V 1 has 16 teeth. Now 
 on the assumption that the cone E 1 is making 406*25 revolu- 
 tions, and the shaft H 81*25 revolutions per minute, then the 
 
 . . TT1 , 22 x 16 x 14 x 16 o i 
 
 pinion V 1 will make - - x 81-25 = '44 revolutions 
 51x51x70x80 
 
 in the same time. At this velocity the bobbin rail will be 
 raised 2^64 inches per minute, and to complete the full lift 01 
 7 inches the pinion V 1 will require to make i% revolution, 
 and will take 2*65 minutes to do so. In that time the rollers 
 will deliver 693 inches of roving, which is the length of the first 
 layer. By making a similar calculation for each layer it is 
 possible to complete its length. 
 
 (234) On the same spindle as the rack wheel is a pinion T, 
 which has 20 teeth ^ inch pitch, and gears into the rack on the 
 underside of the diminishing rod, which is, of course, the same 
 pitch. Thus one revolution of the rack wheel moves the 
 diminishing rod S inwards 3^ inches, and during the period of 
 the full movement of the rack P the diminishing rod will be 
 uioved in 5*85 inches. Thus the pin O will be moved towards 
 Ae cradle A (Fig. 161), and if the lift of the bobbins remained 
 constant, the velocity of the oscillation of A would be increased ; 
 but this increased velocity leads to the release of the detent 
 catches G G 1 respectively at an earlier moment, so that the 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 357 
 
 reversal of the lift is made a little earlier every time it is com- 
 pleted. Thus the striking wheels S 1 S 2 are thrown into gear 
 at an earlier period respectively, and the lifter pinion has its 
 direction reversed at a proportionately early moment. The 
 extent of the traverse is therefore shortened after each layer is 
 wound, and the bobbin is thus formed into the double conical 
 shape to which reference has been made. There is no definite 
 ratio between the length of the lift and that of each layer, and 
 the only object of the decrease in the lift is that of forming a 
 bobbin which can be easily handled, and which will not ravel 
 off at the ends. A few words may be expended on the action 
 of the diminishing rod or hanger bar. As the slide Q is fixed to 
 the lifter rail it follows that it will rise and fall with it. It was 
 shown that when the bobbin is at the middle of its lift the hanger 
 
 FIG. 1 68. 
 
 bar S should be horizontal that is, the centre of the pin O should 
 be exactly midway of its vertical movement. At the beginning of 
 building, as shown in the diagram in Fig. 168, the diminishing rod 
 pin O is at its greatest distance from the centre T, on which 
 it is virtually pivoted. It, therefore, moves a distance equal to 
 the left of the bobbin from the position O to O 1 , and in doing 
 so the pin O passes through the arc shown being free to move 
 in the slide. As soon as it reaches that point the cradle A is in 
 the correct angular position relatively to B to release the 
 detent ^atch, the screws in the cradle A being correctly set 
 for that purpose. As was shown, the release of the detent catch 
 effects three objects: ist, the movement of the cone strap; 
 2nd, the simultaneous inward motion of the diminishing rod 
 
35 8 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 itself; and 3rd, the sliding of the striking wheels, so as to re- 
 verse the motion of the lifter shaft. It follows from what has 
 been said that whenever the centre of the pin O coincides with 
 the axial lines OT, O a T, whatever the relative position of O and 
 T may be, the correct angular position of the cradle A is 
 assumed, and the change will take place. Thus, if the pin O is 
 in any of the positions O 1 , O 2 , O 3 or O 4 , the reversal will take 
 place, and as the diagram shows, these positions correspond with 
 different points in the total length of the bobbin. It is thus 
 clear that by an acceleration of the rotation of the pinion on 
 the axis T the shortening of the lift takes place more rapidly, 
 while by retarding it the change occurs more slowly. By a 
 regulation of this movement it is possible to give more or less 
 taper to the ends of the bobbin. A reference to Fig. 148 shows 
 that the wheel S being driven from the shaft H is necessarily 
 subject to the changes which take place in the velocity of H 
 from the movement of the strap along the cone drums. This, 
 in the case supposed, varies from 105 to 26*25 revolutions. 
 The velocity of the pinion V 1 engaging with the lifting rack 
 would, therefore, be in each case respectively -56 and '142 
 revolutions per minute. Thus the extreme speed of the lift ot 
 the rail is 3-16 inches per minute, and its lowest velocity -852 
 inch. It will, therefore, be seen that as the cone strap moves 
 along the cone, not only is the bobbin velocity increased or 
 diminished, but the speed of the lifting rail also, but the latter 
 is in inverse ratio to the diameter of the bottom. The coils of 
 roving are wound, therefore, in spirals, the pitch of which is sub- 
 stantially uniform as the bobbin increases in diameter and 
 shortens in lift. In other words, these factors are reciprocals of 
 each other. An increased diameter implies a decreased velocity 
 and slower lift in exact proportion, and a decreased diameter 
 the reverse. The taper of the bobbins can be regulated within 
 certain limits by setting the screws Y Z in the cradle A 
 (Fig. 161), so that the levers L L 1 are tripped at an earlier 
 moment. If the required change cannot be got by this, it may 
 be necessary to alter the wheel T, by which means the traverse 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. J59 
 
 of the rod S can be made at a quicker rate. The coils of roving 
 should be properly laid, neither too far away nor too near, 
 because it must be remembered that the gradual shortening of 
 the lift varies the pitch of the coils. What is wanted is that the 
 largest possible number of coils shall be laid, so as to get the 
 greatest length of roving on each bobin which is possible. In 
 this connection Table IV. may be referred to. If the bobbin 
 rail traverses either too fast or too slow, the coils will be badly 
 laid, and the surface of the bobbin will be rough and uneven 
 instead of fairly smooth. To remedy this defect the builder 
 wheel S (Fig. 148) should be altered so as to give the necessary 
 acceleration or retardation to the lifter shaft. 
 
 (235) The detailed examination into the roving frame just 
 made is intended to enable the principles upon which it works 
 to be understood, and a reference can now be made to one or 
 two practical matters of detail which will be of service to the 
 student. As after the slubbing has been formed it partakes 
 more or less of the nature of a thread, it is found that its passage 
 through the rollers leads to the formation of grooves or hollows 
 in the leather covering of the top roller. This is obviated by 
 the use of a traverse motion by which the thread is guided from 
 end to end of the roller boss in each direction alternately. In 
 this movement there are one or two points of interest, especially 
 when double or treble bossed rollers are employed. If the 
 rovings make their sideward movement simultaneously there is 
 a period when one of them is well within the range of action of 
 the weights, while the other is so near the centre of the roller 
 as to be less acted upon. The problem is purely one of 
 leverage, and if it be calculated out by the ordinary rule of 
 mechanics it will be found that the pres'sure on one of the 
 slivers is greater than that on the other by a ratio of 2 : i. It 
 has been made abundantly clear that the drawing power of 
 rollers depends largely upon the pressure which is induced by 
 weighting, and if the effect of the latter is at any period so 
 unequal it is certain to have an effect upon the roving being 
 produced. Unless the draft exercised upon the sliver or 
 
360 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 slabbing is constant the tendency towards thick and thin places 
 in the resultant roving is much increased, and anything which 
 detracts from the uniformity of the action of the rollers is 
 necessarily hurtful. Towards the production of this uniform 
 action many things contribute, among which the two elements 
 of effective lubrication and equal pressure upon the slivers are 
 perhaps the most important. The ordinary traverse motion 
 does not fulfil the latter condition for the reasons stated. There 
 are several traverse motions designed with a view of minimising 
 the wear of the rollers by giving a differential traverse, but they 
 retain the principle of moving all the threads in the same direc- 
 tion simultaneously. Whatever objections therefore exist in the 
 case of the ordinary type of rollers, have equal force in the case 
 of the differential traverse motion so far as the variation in 
 weight is concerned. By adopting a double traverse rail with 
 guides on each, so that the guide for one boss is on one rail and 
 that for the other on the second rail, the difficulty can be over- 
 come by moving the rails in opposite directions at the same time. 
 Such an arrangement has been patented by Mr. William 
 Tatham, of Rochdale, and is made by Messrs. Platt Bros. 
 In Figs. 169 and 170 the old and new form of traverse guide is 
 shown. In the first case the guides are fixed on one rail, 
 which is given an alternate traverse in each direction for a 
 distance nearly equal to the length of the boss of the roller. 
 It will be seen that one of the slivers will be at the nearest point 
 to the centre of the roller, which it reaches while the other is at 
 the extreme end. As the weight is applied to the roller at its 
 centre, it follows that under these conditions the sliver nearest 
 to the weight will receive a pressure much in excess of that upon 
 the other sliver. The exact amount of this excess is easily 
 determinable, and it only requires a measurement to be made 
 from the point of the application of the weight to the 
 nearest position of the sliver. Adopting this as the unit, 
 when the pressure is greatest, the relative pressure on the 
 sliver can be easily ascertained. When the guides are- 
 in the position shown in Fig. 169, the. pressure upon A. 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 36 1 
 
 is only half that upon B, and a load of 24lbs. applied to the 
 centre of the roller would give a weight of 81bs. on A and i61bs. 
 on B. In other words, the effective drawing force exerted on A 
 is half that on B, and it is quite obvious that evenness of 
 drawing would not be secured, it being necessary to overload B 
 to get 81bs. pressure on A. In the new construction shown in 
 Fig. 170 the two guides used in connection with each roller are 
 respectively attached to separate traverse bars A 1 , B 1 . These 
 
 FIG 169. 
 
 FIG. 170. 
 
 move in opposite directions simultaneously, so that the slivers A 
 and B move towards, and recede from, the centre of the roller 
 during the same periods. The effect is that they are always 
 evenly weighted throughout their movement, and that the 
 variation arising from uneven drawing cannot occur. Further, a 
 load of i61bs. applied at the centre of the roller would always 
 give 81bs. on each sliver, and so ensure even drawing, so far 
 as equal weighting can do. 
 
362 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (236) The explanation so given is intended not so much to 
 give an absolute instance of the operation of a machine of this 
 character as to illustrate the principle upon which it works, and 
 to define the connection between the whole of the parts. It has 
 been shown that the spindles, rollers, bobbins, and cones alike 
 derive the whole of their motion from the jack shaft, and that 
 of these the only parts which constantly maintain the same 
 relation during the twisting of a set of bobbins are the spindles 
 and rollers. They rotate at a definite and regular rate, so that 
 it is possible to easily calculate their effect. When it is desired 
 to change the hank of the roving it is necessary that the velocity 
 of the rollers shall be increased or diminished. If the wheel B 
 be changed for one larger or smaller, the rollers will revolve at a 
 Blower or quicker rate accordingly, and the twist can thus be 
 altered. The alteration of the twist wheel B not only affects the 
 Boilers but also the velocity of the bobbins and the speed of the 
 'ift, for it will have been seen that the whole of these motions 
 are driven from B. Thus if a larger wheel is substituted at B, 
 giving a quicker velocity to the rollers, the roving delivered 
 will have less twist, and will be coarser. Any one who 
 has carefully read the foregoing explanation must see that a 
 coarser roving will increase the diameter of the bobbin at a 
 quicker rate, and thus necessitate a more rapid diminution of 
 its velocity. Accordingly the change in the wheel B causes 
 the cones to run at a quicker speed, thus accelerating the lifter 
 shaft, and consequently causing the change of the building 
 motion to take place at an earlier moment. This in itself would 
 bring about a quicker longitudinal traverse of the strap, but 
 when the roving is made coarser it is the custom to change the 
 rack wheel for one of fewer teeth, in order that the traverse of 
 the rack P shall be made more rapidly. When the change is to 
 a finer roving a larger rack wheel is used. The strike pinion S 
 can also be changed if desired, as can also L 1 , and where there is 
 an increase of any great extent this is probably the best course. 
 Ordinarily, however, the changes necessary can be effected by 
 the substitution of the wheel B, the rack wheel, and the change 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 363 
 
 pinion in the roller train, by others of the required size. It is 
 of course, necessary to alter the draft to suit the roving made. 
 The changes which can be made are, therefore 
 
 First. Twist wheel B when altering twist. This affects the 
 speed of the bobbins and of the lifting shaft. A larger 
 wheel gives less and a smaller one more twist. 
 
 Second. The " ratchet," or " rack " wheel N, which regulates 
 the movement of the strap guide rack P. A smaller wheel 
 increases the speed of P, a larger one decreases it. 
 
 Third. The " draft " wheel, which, as in the drawing frame, 
 
 alters the hank of the roving delivered. 
 Fourth. The " sun wheel," or jack pinion L 1 , which can be 
 
 changed when absolutely necessary to secure correct 
 
 winding. 
 Fifth. The bottom cone pinion G 1 , only to be changed when 
 
 winding is too slack. 
 Sixth. The " diminishing," " tapering," or " coning " pinion 
 
 T when desired to alter the taper of the ends of the bobbins. 
 
 The screws Y and Z can be set so as to give an equal 
 
 taper at each end of the bobbin. 
 
 (237) The following are the rules for calculating the speeds 
 and effects of the various parts. The rules are those which are 
 in ordinary use, but to make them clear references are inserted 
 to the letters in Fig. 148 : 
 
 1. To find the velocity of the spindles 
 
 Speed of jack shaft A x spur wheel O x pinion W -f- by spur 
 wheel O 1 x bevel pinion W 1 . 
 
 2. To find the velocity of front roller-^ 
 
 Speed of jack shaft A x spur wheel B x spur wheel C 1 -J- spur wheel 
 B 1 x spur \vheel D. 
 
 3. To find the length of roving delivered by the front roller 
 per minute 
 
 Speed of front roller x circumference of front roller. 
 
364 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 4. To find the twist per inch 
 
 Revolutions of spindles -f length delivered per minute. 
 
 5. To find the draft of rollers- 
 Multiply all the driven wheels together and the product by the 
 
 diameter of front roller in eighths of an inch, and divide the number 
 obtained by the product of all the driving wheels multiplied together, 
 multiplied by the diameter of the back roller in eighths of an inch. 
 
 6. To ascertain the correct change pinion to obtain a given 
 draft 
 
 Draft x wheel D x diameter (in eighths) of back roller -j- crown 
 wheel x back roller wheel x diameter of front roller. 
 
 7. To calculate turns per inch by the wheels 
 
 Wheel D x wheel B 1 x wheel O on jack shaft x wheel W -r cir- 
 cumference of front roller x wheel C 1 x twist wheel B x wheel O 1 x 
 pinion W 1 on spindle. 
 
 8. To calculate number of teeth in the twist wheel to be 
 substituted when changing from one counts hank to another 
 
 Twist wheel squared x hank roving spun -f- hank required. The 
 square root of quotient so obtained gives number of teeth required in 
 twist wheel. 
 
 A second method of obtaining the same result is 
 Hank made x present twist wheel 4- hank required. The quotient of 
 this + twist wheel -4- 2 equals twist wheel required. 
 
 9. To calculate the number of teeth in rack wheel when 
 changing hank being made 
 
 Hank required x present rack wheel -f hank being made. The 
 quotient thus obtained + rack wheel ~ 2 gives rack wheel required. 
 
 Another method is to square present rack wheel and multiply 
 it by hank required, then divide this product by hank made. 
 The square root of the quotient thus obtained gives the number 
 of teeth required. 
 
 10. To ascertain what hank a roving is 
 
 Constant dividend (see Table II.) -r- weight of any number of yards. 
 
 Another form of this rule is 
 
 Constant dividend -- given hank = weight of any length in grains 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 365 
 
 In working out rules 6 and 7 a constant number can be used. 
 This is obtained in the same way as detailed in the rules named, 
 but leaving out the draft in rule 6 and the twist pinion B in 
 rule 7. If the constant number be divided by draft required as 
 in 6, or the turns per inch as in 7, the correct pinion in each 
 case can be calculated. The ordinary method of finding the 
 necessary turns per inch for slubbing and roving is as fol- 
 lows : Slubbing \/hank = turns per inch ; intermediate 
 v/hank x i'i = turns per inch, and roving /s/hank x i'2 = turns 
 per inch. These are the usual twists, but different cottons 
 require special treatment. In this connection refer to Tables 
 III., IV. 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Measurement of cotton yarn (English) : 
 i thread on a wrap reel = i yards. 
 80 threads = i lea = 120 yards. 
 
 560 threads = 7leas= 840 yards = i HANK. 
 
 Weights used for cotton yarn (English) : 
 
 24 grains = idwt. 
 437^ grains = i8'225dwts. = loz. 
 7,000 grains = 2gr6dwts. = 1607. = ilb. 
 
 NOTE. The counts of yarn are calculated by ascertaining 
 the number of hanks in one pound weight. If one hank weighs 
 one pound, the yarn is No. i count; or, if one lea of 120 yards 
 weighs |th the weight of a pound (1,000 grains), it is No. i 
 count. By ascertaining the accurate weight of a lea the counts 
 can be easily calculated. The rule is, number of grains in ^th 
 of a pound ~ weight in grains of one lea = counts. Thus, if one lea 
 
 weighed 40 grains, the counts are I000 = 25. 
 
 4 
 
366 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 TABLE II. DIVIDENDS. 
 
 The numbers in this table are arrived at by the following 
 rule: Take 12 for a divisor, and divide as many hundreds as 
 yards are weighed. This is based upon the fact that 10 yards 
 
 are 
 
 of a lea, and that 100 is a multiple of 10. 
 120 yards = i lea = 1,000 grains dividend. 
 
 = 500 
 
 = 333'3 
 
 = 2 5o 
 
 = 166-6 
 
 = I2 5 
 
 83-3 , 
 - 666 
 
 50 
 
 4i'66 
 
 33'3 ,, - 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 3 
 
 20 
 15 
 10 
 
 8 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 A 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 A 
 
 iV 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 A 
 A 
 
 2 5 
 1 6-6 
 
 33 
 
 In using this table to find the counts the rule is to divide 
 the dividends given above by the weight in grains of the 
 respective number of yards taken. Thus, 20 yards weighing 
 
 80 grains is =2'o8 counts. In arriving at the hank of 
 
 80 
 
 the roving it is customary to use a small machine known as 
 a "wrap block." This consists of a light drum exactly one yard 
 in circumference which can be turned by hand, and on the 
 spindle of which is fixed at one end a handle and on the other 
 a worm. The worm gears with a wheel having 60 teeth, so that 
 a complete revolution of the wheels implies that 60 yards have 
 passed. Four pegs, however, are fixed in the wheel at equal 
 distances, so that every 15 revolutions of the wheel causes a bell 
 to sound, thus indicating that 15 yards have passed. The roving 
 is kept in contact with the drum by a small roller which rests on 
 it, and it is guided to and from the drum by suitable guides. 
 When the 15 yards have passed it is detached from the roving 
 and weighed, thus enabling its hank to be readily ascertained. 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 367 
 
 No. of Hank 
 Roving. 
 
 Grains per Yard. 
 
 Twists per Inch. 
 
 Slabbing. 
 
 Intermediate. 
 
 Roving. 
 
 10 
 
 83'33 
 
 316 
 
 '347 
 
 '379 
 
 15 
 
 55-56 
 
 387 
 
 425 
 
 461 
 
 20 
 
 41-66 
 
 '44 
 
 484 
 
 528 
 
 30 
 
 2777 
 
 548 
 
 602 
 
 657 
 
 40 
 
 20-83 
 
 -6 3 
 
 693 
 
 756 
 
 50 
 
 I6'66 
 
 707 
 
 777 
 
 848 
 
 60 
 
 13-88 
 
 77 8 
 
 855 
 
 "933 
 
 70 
 
 II-QO 
 
 8 9 
 
 '979 
 
 1068 
 
 80 
 
 10-41 
 
 '94 
 
 1*034 
 
 1*128 
 
 90 
 
 9^5 
 
 99 
 
 1-089 
 
 1-188 
 
 I'OO 
 
 8-33 
 
 I'O 
 
 ri 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-25 
 
 6-66 
 
 i'ii8 
 
 I'22 
 
 I-34I 
 
 1*5 
 
 5-55 
 
 i '224 
 
 1-347 
 
 1-469 
 
 i'75 
 
 47 
 
 1-328 
 
 1*455 
 
 1*587 
 
 20 
 
 4-16 
 
 1-414 
 
 i*555 
 
 1-697 
 
 2-25 
 
 37 
 
 i '5 
 
 1-65 
 
 1-8 
 
 2'5 
 
 3'33 
 
 1-581 
 
 1739 
 
 1-897 
 
 275 
 
 3-03 
 
 1-658 
 
 1-823 
 
 1-989 
 
 3*o 
 
 277 
 
 1732 
 
 1-9 
 
 2-078 
 
 3-25 
 
 2-56 
 
 r8 
 
 1-982 
 
 2 163 
 
 3'5 
 
 238 
 
 1-87 
 
 2-057 
 
 2-244 
 
 375 
 
 2'22 
 
 1-936 
 
 213 
 
 2-323 
 
 4-0 
 
 208 
 
 2'0 
 
 2 '2 
 
 2*4 
 
 4-25 
 
 I- 9 6 
 
 2'O6l 
 
 2-267 
 
 2-473 
 
 4'5 
 
 I-8 5 
 
 2-I2I 
 
 2*333 
 
 2*545 
 
 475 
 
 1-75 
 
 2-179 
 
 2'397 
 
 2 615 
 
 5'0 
 
 1-66 
 
 2-236 
 
 2*459 
 
 2-683 
 
 5'5 
 
 ''Si 
 
 2 '345 
 
 2-579 
 
 2-814 
 
 60 
 
 r38 
 
 2-449 
 
 2-693 
 
 2- 939 
 
 6'5 
 
 1-28 
 
 2*549 
 
 2-803 
 
 3*059 
 
 7-0 
 
 1-19 
 
 2645 
 
 2-909 
 
 3*174 
 
 7'5 
 
 I-III 
 
 2738 
 
 3-011 
 
 3*286 
 
 8-0 
 
 1-041 
 
 2-828 
 
 3-11 
 
 3'394 
 
 8'5 
 
 980 
 
 2-915 
 
 3'2 
 
 3-498 
 
 9-0 
 
 925 
 
 3'o 
 
 3*3 
 
 3'6 
 
368 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Hank 
 Roving. 
 
 Square 
 Root. 
 
 Coils 
 per Inch. 
 
 Hank 
 Roving. 
 
 Square. 
 Root. 
 
 Coils 
 per Inch. 
 
 i 
 
 707 
 
 6-57 
 
 4 
 
 2'000 
 
 18-6 
 
 1 
 
 866 
 
 805 
 
 4i 
 
 2"O6l 
 
 19-165 
 
 I 
 
 I OOO 
 
 9'3 
 
 4i 
 
 2'I2I 
 
 I97 2 3 
 
 I* 
 
 ru8 
 
 iQ'397 
 
 4f 
 
 2-179 
 
 20-268 
 
 *i 
 
 i '224 
 
 11-389 
 
 5 
 
 2-236 
 
 20793 
 
 if 
 
 1-322 
 
 12-302 
 
 5* 
 
 2'345 
 
 21 8l 
 
 2 
 
 1-414 
 
 13-152 
 
 6 
 
 2-449 
 
 22-78 
 
 2* 
 
 i'5 
 
 1395 
 
 6} 
 
 2'549 
 
 23-710 
 
 2j 
 
 1-581 
 
 14704 
 
 7 
 
 2-645 
 
 24605 
 
 2| 
 
 r6 5 8 
 
 15-422 
 
 7* 
 
 2-738 
 
 25-468 
 
 3 
 
 1-732 
 
 16-107 
 
 8 
 
 2-828 
 
 26-304 
 
 3i 
 
 i -802 
 
 16765 
 
 8* 
 
 2-954 
 
 27-113 
 
 3i 
 
 r8 7 
 
 17-391 
 
 9 
 
 3-000 
 
 27-9 
 
 3l 
 
 1-936 
 
 18*203 
 
 
 
 
 (238) There are a large number of small points of more or 
 less importance in working a frame of this sort. The strap 
 should be carefully looked to, and kept sufficiently tight on the 
 cones to avoid slippage. If the strap slips there will be either 
 slack or uneven winding, both being evils to be avoided. So 
 many of the motions of the machine depend for their success 
 upon the proper driving of the bottom cone, and the main- 
 tenance of a uniform velocity of it and the parts connected by 
 it, that it is of the utmost importance that the strap is kept in 
 absolutely perfect working condition. Vigilance should be 
 observed to see that the minder does not move the strap along 
 the cone by hand, as otherwise the variation in the roving so 
 produced will be detrimental to the yarn spun. The object of 
 all the carefully designed and constructed mechanism which 
 has been described is to render the action of the machine 
 automatic, and any interference with its operation is therefore 
 
SLUBBING AND ROVING. 369 
 
 to be carefully guarded against. The cones and strap should 
 be kept clear from dirt and grease, the risk of slippage being 
 thus increased. There are, of course, several points in the 
 earlier processes which have an influence in the regularity of 
 the roving, but these have been referred to in their own place. 
 The bobbins in the creels should be free from contact with 
 each other, and all undue friction which would in any way 
 retard their free rotation must be avoided. It is not advisable 
 to keep the rovings in the creels too long, as they are more or 
 less affected by atmospheric changes. In making the necessary 
 wheel changes, practice will enable allowance to be made for 
 several small matters which cannot be strictly defined, but 
 which all have an influence upon the successful operation of the 
 machine. All these points are comprehensively summed up 
 in the word slippage, the allowance for which covers most 
 of the loss in transmission, which is inevitable. It is perhaps 
 necessary to say in conclusion that, in making any changes, 
 care should be taken to see that they are accurately carried 
 out, as otherwise there will be some defect in the roving 
 which will be difficult to trace to its source. It often happens 
 that a defect in the finished yarn has its origin in one of 
 the earliest processes, and the obscurity of the cause leads to 
 a considerable amount of trouble before it is finally traced. In 
 a machine which depends so largely as the roving machine upon 
 the accurate adjustment of its mechanism, no care can be con- 
 sidered too great to attain this result. It is true that the setting 
 points ordinarily used are few in number and the changes easily 
 calculated, but a slight error in these may be of great conse- 
 quence subsequently. The establishment of a correct surface 
 velocity for the bobbin has been shown to be of great importance, 
 and unless this is preserved uniformly even roving is impossible. 
 It is sometimes found that there is a draft between the top of 
 the spindle and the front roller. Whenever this condition exists 
 the roving is in constant danger of being stretched or" ratched," 
 with the result that thin places are found in it when wound, 
 which in turn produce inequalities in the yarn. Care should 
 
370 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 he taken and vigilance continually observed with reference to 
 this matter, as otherwise good work is impossible. The con- 
 dition of the wheel trains driving the bobbins and spindles 
 should be carefully looked to, as otherwise back lash may exist, 
 which results in an earlier start of the flyers relatively to the 
 bobbins. This arises from the greater number of wheels 
 in the train which drives the latter, back lash or wear 
 being more pronounced in consequence. If the acceleration 
 of the revolution of the flyer is excessive the roving 
 will be stretched at first, with the usual consequences. 
 It is often the practice to double the slubbing and 
 intermediate in feeding it to the next machine. The 
 justification for this is, of course, that the resultant roving is 
 rendered more even than it would otherwise be. If this practice 
 is pursued it is essential to see that the tension on both threads 
 is equal, as otherwise there will be a tendency for one to be 
 wound round the other in the action of twisting. Another point 
 which it is desirable to mention is, that although twist is intro- 
 duced into the slubbing or roving, it is not preserved in its 
 passage through the drawing rollers of the succeeding machines, 
 but is, in each case, when the roving leaves the bite of the front 
 roller, practically removed. It is, therefore, quite accurate to 
 calculate the twists in each case as if an untwisted strand were 
 being dealt with. 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 3JI 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Definition of twisting operation, 239 Disposition of fibres t 
 240 Arrangement by combing, 241 Effect of drawing and mixing, 
 242 Causes of uneven yarn, 243 Effect of various fibre diameters, 
 244 Strength of yarn, 245 Measurements of yarn, 246 Direction 
 and effect of twist, 247 Factors affecting strength of yarn, 248 
 Effect of various methods in twisting, 249, 250 Essentials of good 
 yarn, 251 Ring and mule yarn, 252. 
 
 (239) WE have now reached the terminal stage in the forma- 
 tion of yarn, viz., that in which the sufficiently attenuated 
 strand of cotton receives its twist. The method of carrying 
 this process into effect is uniformly the same, although the 
 mechanism employed is different. It is not, however, the 
 operation of twisting itself which gives rise to the variation in 
 the character of the mechanism, but the necessity for winding 
 the twisted strand or yarn into a cop, spool, or on to a bobbin, 
 as the case may be. Twisting is effected by giving the roving a 
 rotary movement on its axis at a velocity which bears a definite 
 relation to the length delivered by the feed rollers. This remark 
 is, however, subject to one important qualification. If an 
 untwisted strand was wound on a cylindrical surface in succes- 
 sive coils, and was drawn off the cylinder by pulling it steadily 
 in the direction of the axis, it would, every time a coil came off, 
 receive one twist. This is practically the reverse of the action 
 taking place in the coiler. There the laying of the sliver in the 
 open coils while one end is free results in the introduction of a 
 twist, but when the coils are subsequently drawn from the can 
 this action is reversed and the twist removed. The effect, 
 however, is a real one, and explains why, without the employ- 
 ment of any eye or its equivalent, twist can be put into yarn. 
 
37 2 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 All twisting machines consist essentially of means whereby the 
 delivery of the material to be twisted is accomplished at a 
 definite rate, while it is turned or twined by the rotation of a 
 spindle or other similar part. The further attenuation of the 
 roving or strand, and its formation into a spool or cop, are 
 additions which are rendered necessary by manipulative con- 
 siderations, and are accessory to the principal object of this 
 process. In proceeding to deal with spinning, therefore, we 
 shall in the first place endeavour to discover what the principles 
 are upon which it proceeds, before describing the various means 
 and methods adopted to effect it. 
 
 (240) The cotton thread, like all those which are produced by 
 modern methods, consists of a series of fibres laid successively, 
 and which can be twisted round the axis of the thread or round 
 one another, but are not possessed of any felting or milling 
 properties. That is, the fibres being pliable and having been 
 reduced approximately to the same length and laid serially, as- 
 described, can only be incorporated into a thread by the action 
 of twisting, and not by any other pressure, which interlocks 
 fibres of different construction. From this factor it follows that 
 it is necessary to provide throughout the whole length of a 
 cotton thread successively fibres so arranged as to be present 
 in equal numbers at every point. To illustrate this let a refer- 
 ence be made to the three diagrams given in Fig. 171, marked 
 respectively A, B, and C. In A the fibres are assumed to be 
 laid in successive lengths, the ends of which adjoin each other 
 without overlapping. The effect is that, assuming the fibres 
 shown to be multiplied, when they are twisted they would form 
 a number of short strands or cords entirely unconnected one 
 with another. In the second diagram B the successive layers 
 are overlapped, and no break is therefore left in their continuity, 
 but the overlap is slight and there will exist only a partial 
 coherence between the successive sets of fibres. Further, the 
 thread will be affected so far as its diameter is concerned, which 
 is a matter of some importance, to which reference will be 
 hereafter made. Now let it be assumed that the fibres are laid 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 373 
 
 as shown at C, where each alternate set overlaps its predecessor 
 and successor to the same extent. It is clear that when a strand 
 so formed is compressed and twisted the chance of any rupture 
 of the yarn is largely avoided, and that a much stronger yarn will 
 result. Roughly speaking, the three diagrams given accurately 
 illustrate what it is desirable to aim at and avoid in preparing 
 cotton for spinning. If it be assumed that at any point in C 
 there is the same number of fibres, which were each of the same 
 diameter, it is clear that a yarn twisted up from a sliver so 
 constructed would be practically even. Of course this is a large 
 assumption, but it is the true statement of the conditions 
 necessary to obtain the perfect thread. At any rate it enables 
 the nature of the problem to be understood. 
 
 (241) This method of laying the fibres is what is aimed at 
 by combing. There an arbitrary selection of fibres of a certain 
 length is made, and they are so laid in the resultant sliver and 
 are joined to one another in such a way that practically the 
 order shown at C in Fig. 171 is established. It is clear that in 
 the succeeding drawing processes the effect upon each set of 
 fibres will be practically uniform, and that there will be if the 
 drawing is properly conducted no creation of places of variable 
 thickness in the twisted yarn. It is far otherwise with a sliver 
 constructed as shown at B. There the fibres do not fall within 
 the influence of the drawing rollers in the same regular manner 
 as do those shown at C. There are periods when the fibres are 
 being strongly drawn, and other periods when they are only 
 partially subjected to the draft. As was pointed out in 
 Chapter VI., the fibres in drawing are slid over one another 
 by the action of the rollers. If, therefore, the overlap is slight, 
 or all the fibres are not equally drawn, weak that is, thin 
 places develop in the yarn with all the ill effects consequent 
 thereon. It does not follow that, even when established, the 
 proper order is maintained throughout the various stages, but 
 if anything approaching an even draft exists there is not so- 
 great a chance of any irregularity occurring. It is, however, 
 obvious that if the fibres are so laid that their adhesion is con- 
 
374 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 siderably weakened, they can be more easily drawn into the 
 position represented in diagram A in Fig. 171. Thus, if the 
 sliver is constructed like B, it is much more liable to the danger 
 thus indicated than when it is laid as at C, and this is a factor 
 of the highest importance. The construction of such a sliver 
 in any case where a selection of the fibres dees not occur is 
 very difficult, and it is doubtful when carded slivers are used 
 whether it is ever attained. 
 
 (242) There are, therefore, a number of considerations of 
 more or less value which it is necessary to remember in select- 
 ing a cotton for spinning, and a few remarks may be made on 
 some of the features of the earlier stages. It is necessary to gs 
 over some of the ground already covered, and to amplify some- 
 what a few of the points made. It was shown in Chapter IV. 
 that the fibres when delivered from the carding engine were laid 
 in a tangled or crossed condition, and in Chapter VI. that the 
 draft exercised upon them in the drawing frame gradually laid 
 them in parallel order. It does not need pointing out that the 
 fibres which possess the greatest length are brought earlier 
 within the range of influence of the drawing rollers, and remain 
 longer under it. Thus they are subjected to a greater draft, and 
 are consequently laid longitudinally in the yarn earlier than the 
 fibres which are shorter. In consequence, the latter tend to 
 move towards the outside of the sliver, and are thus placed in a 
 position in which they can be twisted round the core of longer 
 fibres as soon as the first twist is introduced. But owing to 
 their imperfect development and consequent shorter length, they 
 do not fully twist in, and the result is a hairy or oozy appearance 
 on the surface of the yarn. The extent to which this exists 
 varies with the cotton employed, but it is present in all yarns to 
 a greater or less degree. This is one of the points requiring 
 attention in making up a mixing. In all the preparatory pro- 
 cesses it is necessary to proceed upon the assumption that a 
 definite length of fibre is being treated. That is, of course, an 
 arbitrary assumption, but it is necessary, as otherwise there 
 cannot oe any successful commercial work. The result is that 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 375 
 
 to a large extent the fibres are broken, until in the yarn, as 
 finally produced, there is much more uniformity in length than 
 existed in the cotton to begin with. It may, however, be fairly 
 laid down as a dictum subject, of course, to all the limitations 
 necessarily attaching to the knowledge existing that in an ordi- 
 nary yarn not specially prepared by combing, the sequence of 
 the successive series of fibres is more or less like diagram B, and 
 only partially approximates to diagram C. This is one of the 
 reasons for uneven yarn, because each of the spaces between the 
 termination of the fibres in B is a source of weakness and 
 unevenness. It is, of course, quite impossible to say with any 
 certainty what the disposition of the fibres will be, because the 
 different lengths will cause them to lie relatively to each other 
 
 FIG. 171. 
 
 in anything but the orderly manner shown in Fig. 171. At the 
 same time, a consideration of the manipulative machinery 
 employed will show that so far as a designed arrangement is 
 obtained, the best is that illustrated at C. No better disposi- 
 tion is possible with the machinery at disposal. 
 
 (243) As has been said more than once, the object of the 
 spinner is to produce the nearest approach f to a perfectly cylin- 
 drical thread of equal diameter throughout its length, and con- 
 taining at any point the same number of fibres in its cross 
 section as at any other point. This is a task of enormous diffi- 
 culty, and is one which it is doubtful will ever be solved. 
 There are so many considerations which influence the' result 
 that even the most unceasing vigilance will scarcely suffice to 
 
376 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 accomplish it. It has been shown that the utmost efforts are 
 made to obtain an evenly weighted sliver from the earliest 
 stage, but it is obvious that these efforts can only at best be 
 partially successful. Even when cotton is combed and a selec- 
 tion is made of the fibres, it is only a choice of length and not 
 one of diameter. Now. it is known that the fibres even of the 
 best variety of cotton differ considerably in diameter, so that it 
 is only necessary for a clump or group of the larger or smaller 
 diameters to be formed to make a sensible variation in the 
 diameter of the resultant yarn. Thus, assume that in the 
 varieties of cotton used the fibres vary in diameter from -^^ 
 inch to T oV^ inch. Suppose that at two points a foot apart in 
 a strand containing 40 fibres in its cross section throughout its 
 entire length the fibres were all of the largest and smallest 
 diameters respectively named. In that case the" strand would 
 have a thickness at one point of ^ inch, and at the other of 
 ^ inch, a difference of ^-5- inch. The result would be that 
 when twisted up, instead of being cylindrical, the yarn would be 
 uneven in diameter. Of course, this is only an example, but it 
 serves to illustrate the principle. Further, although the 
 measurement of the thread when twisted will be diminished 
 from its untwisted size, the relative variation is likely to be 
 greater owing to the increased difficulty in twisting the thicker 
 fibres. If a number of fibres, say like rhea or ramie, each 
 possessing the same diameter, were laid alongside one another 
 and twisted, it would be possible to produce a cylindrical thread 
 equal to the length of the fibres, which is considerable, although 
 the spinning properties of ramie are not good ; but when it is 
 necessary to deal with a material which exists in short lengths 
 only, and which must be practically treated in mass and not in 
 detail, the difficulties are largely increased. 
 
 (244) It has been shown how greatly the diameters of fibres 
 of the same growth vary. Now, even where the disposition, 
 shown at C in Fig. 171, exists, it does not follow that the yarn 
 will be of the same thickness, because it may happen that a lot 
 of fibres of the larger diameter may fall together, and vice versa. 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 377- 
 
 Thus, in spite of the compression existing in the calender and 
 drawing rollers, nothing but a change of disposition of the fibres 
 would remedy this fault. This is only a minor point, but the 
 measurements made by careful observers show that even with 
 fine cottons it exists. The selection of the cotton, so far as the 
 length of the fibres is concerned is, it has been shown, success- 
 fully accomplished, but it is a much more difficult task to select 
 them relatively to diameter, even if it were desirable. If some 
 procedure could be adopted by which the fibres could be mixed, 
 so that an equal proportion of those of large and small diameters 
 could be given in each part of the sliver, the problem would be 
 solved, but this is wellnigh impossible, and the only solution 
 of it appears to be the provision of a staple naturally even in 
 length and diameter, and its treatment so as to lay it in the 
 sliver in the manner indicated. 
 
 (245) Another matter, which depends very largely upon the 
 evenness of the diameter of the thread, is the strength of the 
 yarn. All things being equal, the strongest thread has the 
 greatest number of fibres in its cross section. Strength is, of 
 course, a relative term. The strength of loo's yarn spun from 
 Sea Island cotton is less than that of 30*3 spun from Orleans, 
 but relatively to its diameter it is greater. Therefore, in 
 speaking of the strength of yarn, it must be clearly understood 
 that this refers to that quality in true relation to others. It 
 follows, therefore, that the strength of a single thread of yarn 
 will vary with the number of fibres in its cross section, and if 
 these vary considerably there will be corresponding differences 
 in the strength of the yarn. This is easily ascertainable if 
 single threads are tested ; but as it is the custom to test 80 
 threads at one time, it is the average strength which is ascer- 
 tained, and which influences the record. The point which it is 
 desired to make is that the existence of uneven places in the 
 yarn detracts from its strength, and on this account they should 
 be avoided. There is an element of strength in the fibres 
 which is sometimes lost sight of, and that is the resistance to- 
 rupture which is caused by the friction of contiguous fibres upon 
 
378 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 each other. This has been admirably treated by Dr. F. H. 
 Bowman in "The Structure of the Cotton Fibre," and is a 
 similar action to that which was remarked on in connection with 
 drawing in Chapter VI. 
 
 (246) There arises from the various circumstances which have 
 thus been detailed an unevenness in the yarn which has an 
 influence upon the operation of twisting. It is obvious that if 
 three hundred fibres are to be twisted in any strand of yarn 
 they will be turned with more difficulty than 200 fibres of 
 the same diameter. It is probably true that the extreme varia- 
 tion in the number of fibres in the cross sections of any yarn does 
 not reach so high a percentage as the assumed case just given, 
 but a much less percentage is ample to produce the same effect. 
 Thus it is found that the tendency of twist is to run into the 
 thin places existing first, and afterwards to affect the thicker 
 parts of the strand. The observations of the author which 
 have not, however, been sufficiently extensive to warrant a 
 dogmatic statement tend to prove that the presence of thick 
 places in the yarn is coincident with the existence of thicker 
 fibres, but this is a point which is by no means settled. That 
 even in the best yarns, made in the most careful manner by 
 combing and repeated doublings, great variation exists is certain, 
 and this matter can be determined in two ways, namely, by 
 comparing the weight of several leas of the same yarn, or by 
 microscopic measurement. The former is the most convenient 
 method, but is of necessity much less exact than the latter. 
 The student may be referred to Dr. Bowman's book for a 
 number of tests of the weight of leas, which will illustrate this 
 point. In an interesting paper, communicated to the Man- 
 chester Microscopical Society by Mr. E. H. Turner, the follow- 
 ing measurements of mule yarns were given (see page 379). 
 These results are very remarkable, but it is evident that the 7o's, 
 76*3, and 8o's yarn are by no means the correct counts, as 
 otherwise the diameters would not vary as they do ; as, instead 
 of the latter being the thickest, it should be the thinnest of the 
 three. Making all allowance for the defects in the yarn, how- 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 
 
 379 
 
 ever the results confirm the common experience. The table 
 is only given in order to show the variations existing in the 
 same spinnings, and does not by any means deal with all the 
 points requiring elucidation. With these may be compared the 
 results given by Dr. Bowman, on p. 149 of his work, when deal- 
 ing with the twist per inch in two folds 6o's yarn spun fronv 
 Egyptian cotton. Here the variation in the twists per inch is 
 
 
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380 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 -shown to be 12 per cent, which is quite sufficient to account for 
 .a considerable difference in the diameters, especially when it is 
 stated that Mr. Turner's measurements were made with yarn 
 wound on slips one inch wide, so that the variations would be 
 -easily observed. 
 
 (247) It was mentioned in Chapter II. that cotton fibres are 
 naturally possessed of good spinning qualities that is, they are 
 possessed of a natural twist which induces that intertwining 
 one with another which is so necessary in spinning. There is, 
 however, a fact which, in this connection, is not always kept in 
 view viz., that the twists in the natural fibre are neither 
 regular in pitch nor are they always in the same direction. It 
 =is not uncommon to see a fibre with twists of widely different 
 characteristics in various parts of it, while in some grades the 
 convolutions, spirals, or twists are extremely irregular. These 
 facts somewhat detract from the absolute reliance sometimes 
 .placed upon this natural twist, although in the main it is a 
 feature not to be lost sight of. There is, however, one point 
 which is affected to some extent by this convolute formation. It 
 is customary when twisting rovings up into yarn, which is to be 
 employed for warp or "twist," to rotate the spindles from right 
 to left that is, give them a " right-handed " twist the reverse 
 being the practice when " weft" yarn is spun. It has often been 
 supposed that this difference in procedure had an effect upon 
 the finished yarn by reason of the untwisting of the natural 
 twist in spinning " weft " yarns, the direction of rotation being 
 in that case opposite to that existing naturally. Weft yarn 
 presents a more hairy or " oozy " condition than twist, and an 
 explanation which has been offered is that the untwisting of the 
 fibre led to it being thrown out from the surface of the yarn. 
 There does not appear to be any justification of this theory, 
 especially if it be true that the fibres possess twist in both 
 directions. The more open appearance of weft yarn is rather 
 to be attributed, in the author's opinion, to the smaller twist 
 put into it in spinning, and to the fact that the fibres employed 
 in the manufacture of weft are generally of a softer nature than 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 381 
 
 those used for twist. It is desirable always to keep in mind the 
 purpose for which cotton is to be used, and to manipulate it 
 throughout the whole series of processes, so that it will eventually 
 be in the best condition for spinning the class of yarn for which 
 it is employed. 
 
 (248) The strength of the yarn is affected by the twist intro- 
 duced into it in a twofold way. The cohesion of the fibres and 
 the consequent resistance to rupture ol' the sliver is much 
 increased, while in one system of spinning the thin places are 
 hardened so that more strain is thrown upon the thick ones in 
 drawing. Two principal factors have an influence upon the 
 strength of a thread the parallel disposition of the fibres, their 
 arrangement in equal numbers throughout the whole length of 
 the yarn, their diameter and the twist given to the thread. It 
 has been found that only a percentage of the sum of the strength 
 of all the fibres in any yarn is utilised. The exact amount of 
 this has not been determined, but does not exceed in any case 
 40 per cent. The pull exercised upon a thread is ordinarily in 
 the direction of its length, and the loss in its strength as com- 
 pared with the sum of the individual strength of the fibres 
 composing it, is partially the result of the divergence of the 
 fibres from straight lines, which is the effect of twisting them. 
 Unless the whole of the fibres composing a thread are equally 
 twisted that is, unless throughout the yarn there is a spiral 
 disposition of the fibres if, in other words, the fibres laid on 
 the outside of the yarn receive more twist than the inner ones, 
 they must be proportionately less able to resist a longitudinal 
 strain than those forming the centre or core. Thus the existence 
 of twist is at once a source of weakness and of strength. The 
 yarn is weakened by the divergence from the parallel longitu- 
 dinal disposition of the fibres, and is strengthened by the 
 additional cohesion thus obtained. Of these two the latter 
 factor has the most powerful influence, and, in consequence j 
 weft and hosiery yarns, which are more slackly twisted than 
 warp yarn, are, even when of the same counts, relatively weaker. 
 Although the strength of a yarn may be practically ascertained 
 
382 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 by the test of one lea, it is quite clear that within that length 
 there will be considerable variations, and that, as the strength 
 of a chain is practically that of its weakest link, the existence of 
 thinner and weaker places in a strand of yarn limits its power of 
 use in the same ratio. 
 
 (249) Having thus dealt with the question of the structure 
 of the cotton thread generally, without any consideration of the 
 way in which the twisting is conducted, we are naturally 
 brought to deal with the different methods of twisting. Of 
 these, as was intimated in Chapter I., there are two, the inter- 
 mittent and continuous. The earliest method was, as was 
 shown, of necessity the intermittent, if the phrase be employed 
 to indicate the fact that the operation was conducted with 
 successive lengths of material. Relatively to the- amount of 
 material prepared the operation was a continuous one, and the 
 difficulty was rather one of preparing the material for spinning 
 fast enough than of twisting it. As soon as the preparation 
 could be made continuously, spinning also became a similar 
 operation. At the present day there are two methods adopted, 
 which are indicated in the classification in Chapter II., viz., mule 
 and ring spinning. The third mode named flyer spinning is 
 now practically extinct, except for special ranges of counts, but 
 has some points of interest. Its rationale was described in 
 paragraph 207 in the last chapter, and need not now be dealt 
 with. Between mule and ring spinning there is a wide difference 
 existing in the mode of procedure and the result upon the yarn 
 In the former the yarn is twisted in successive lengths of from 
 60 to 66 inches each, while in the latter it is continuously spun. 
 At first sight there does not appear to be much in this, but 
 without going into a number of points bearing upon each 
 operation, there is a wide distinction. As the roving is de- 
 livered from the rollers in the mule it is conveyed to a nearly 
 upright spindle, which gradually recedes during the time 
 twisting is going on, from the roller beam. The velocity at 
 which the spindle recedes from the rollers is such that a draft 
 is exercised upon the yarn as it is being twisted. There is a 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 383 
 
 distinct difference in the effect of this draft and that of the 
 rollers. In the latter case the fibres are in a sense compressed 
 or bound by the nip of the roller, which to a certain extent 
 prevents them from assuming a different disposition in the cross 
 section of the sliver. That is, the fibres are not so free to 
 move from the centre of the sliver to the outside, although 
 where they vary in length considerably this action unmistakably 
 takes place. But when the roving is finally freed from the 
 bite of the rollers, when it is stretched between two points, 
 then the longer fibres having more cohesion, and offering pro- 
 portionately great resistance to the draft exercised, gradually 
 approach the centre of the yarn as the attenuation of each 
 length takes place. The shorter fibres consequently move out- 
 wards, and are placed on the outside of the yarn, where by the 
 rotation of the latter upon its axis they are wrapped round the 
 inner core. The latter is also twisted, but by reason of the 
 superior length of the fibres composing it, is not so easily rup- 
 tured as its outer covering of short fibres. The ends of the 
 latter project from the thread at all points, thus giving it the 
 distinctive hairy or oozy appearance named. 
 
 (250) The effect thus described has no correspondant in the 
 second of the two methods of spinning. In mule spinning the 
 successive treatment of definite lengths of yarn in the manner 
 described is followed by the winding of each length as a separate 
 operation before the subsequent length is twisted and drawn. 
 In ring spinning the only draft which is put upon the roving is 
 that exercised by the rollers, and immediately it leaves the 
 latter the roving is twisted up and wound on to the bobbin. 
 All these operations are continuous and without break. There 
 is therefore no possible chance of any further attenuation of the 
 roving after passing the rollers, and the drawing of the fibres 
 into the order which occurs in the mule is absent in this case. 
 Whatever the disposition of the fibres may be in the roving 
 after the final roller draft, remains the disposition in the twisted 
 yarn plus the effect of the twist itself, which is considerable. 
 It is quite easy to understand that under such different con- 
 
384 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 ditions the structure of the thread will vary considerably, and 
 that the effect of the final draft upon a defined length of yarn 
 will be greater than the draft of rollers applied to the same 
 length continuously. In the first-named case the older forms 
 of spinning, when conducted by hand, are approached, while in 
 the latter the more modern method of continuous drawing is 
 relied upon. The importance of this fact is made manifest 
 when it is remembered that twist is being put into the yarn 
 simultaneously with the additional draft in one case, and sub- 
 sequently to the final draft in the other. This has an important 
 bearing on the subject. In continuous spinning operations the 
 moment the roving leaves the rollers it receives twist, so that 
 whatever may be the disposition of the fibres, it is at once fixed. 
 Thus, if the shorter and longer fibres are intermingled throughout 
 the cross section, they are twisted up together and are formed 
 into a thread at once. If, moreover, there exists any variation 
 in the thickness of the roving as it leaves the rollers, the twist 
 fixes itself first in the thinner places, but is not so soon put 
 into those which are thicker. In paragraph 243 this point was 
 illustrated, and it is obvious that the twist will be much more 
 readily introduced into the thinner than into the thicker parts 
 of the roving. The velocity at which, in continuous spinning, 
 the roving is delivered, and the speed at which it is wound is 
 so great, that before any adjustment of the twist in various 
 parts of the yarn can take place, it is attached to and fixed on the 
 spool or bobbin. This is not the case with intermittently spun or 
 mule yarn. Here each successive length receives the twist as it 
 emerges from the rollers, and, as in the preceding case, it runs 
 at once into the thinner places. This increases the cohesion of 
 the fibres; in other words, it causes them to resist the draft 
 put upon them, and, as a result, the latter exerts more power 
 upon the thicker untwisted places in which, despite their larger 
 diameter, the cohesion of the fibres is less. Thus the thicker 
 places are drawn out, and as they decrease in size the twist 
 gradually runs into them. There is, further, a slight pause of 
 the spindles at the termination of their recession from the 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 385 
 
 rollers, which is generally a little in advance of the cessation 
 of their rotation, so that, during this period, the twist can 
 gradually pass into every part of the length of yarn, and thus 
 become equal throughout. Two distinct features thus charac- 
 terise the intermittent system of spinning, namely the draft 
 upon the thread after leaving the rollers, and the subsequent 
 equalisation of the twist. Both of these are, by the necessities 
 of the case, absent in yarn spun continuously, and in conse- 
 quence the structure of the resultant yarn is much affected. 
 
 (251) The essential properties of a good yarn are elasticity, 
 evenness, strength, and colour of the thread. The former 
 quality is very important. If a strand of yarn is strained until 
 it approaches the point of rupture it is very clear that its 
 strength will be materially diminished. Even if the draft 
 exercised falls short of this point, as it always does when 
 spinning is properly conducted, the method and period of 
 winding has an effect upon the yarn. It is obvious that 
 if yarn is kept in tension while being twisted, and is there- 
 upon wound so that the tension is maintained subsequently, 
 it has no chance to recover its elastic strength. The amount 
 of this property which it retains is made to depend solely upon 
 the question of the treatment accorded to the fibres in the 
 preparatory stages. If they have been overstrained the defects 
 consequent thereon will be fixed, but if reasonable care 
 is exercised in this respect, a yarn possessing a fair amount of 
 elasticity can be produced even by continuous spinning. In 
 the intermittent process, however, after the full tenuity of the 
 yarn is obtained and the twist introduced, the spindles -are 
 rotated a little in the reverse direction prior to the commence- 
 ment of winding, and the strain upon the length of yarn it con- 
 siderably reduced. Further, during the operation of winding, 
 the spindles again gradually approach the rollers, so that tht 
 yarn is slowly relieved from tension. Every condition which 
 can favourably influence the preservation of the elastic strength 
 of the yarn is present in the intermittent system of spinning. 
 Among these must not be forgotten the tendency towards the 
 
386 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 formation of a core of longer fibres, to which reference has 
 already been made. The hardness imparted by extra twist 
 naturally decreases the elasticity of the yarn, and, as will be 
 shown, it is customary to give continuously twisted threads at 
 any rate when formed on the ring frame a harder twist than 
 mule yarn. Care should be taken not to confound the strength 
 and elasticity of yarn, as these are absolutely distinct charac- 
 teristics, although each affects the other. We have already 
 dealt with the evenness and strength of the yarn and their 
 causes, and need not again treat this part of the subject. With 
 regard to the colour of the yarn, this depends largely upon the 
 twist imparted to it, as was mentioned in paragraph 66, Chapter 
 III. There is, as was there shown, a difference in colour 
 between yarns spun from the same cotton, the degree of which 
 depends upon the amount of twist put in. This effect arises 
 from the incidence of the light upon the fibres, as they lie upon 
 the surface of the yarn. This naturally varies with the angle at 
 which the fibres are disposed, which in turn is determined by 
 the pitch and direction of the spirals. The latter depends upon 
 the number of turns per inch, as can be clearly understood. 
 
 (252) It is not pretended that the foregoing explanation 
 exhausts the subject of the structure of the cotton thread, but 
 it is sufficient to enable the chief features in connection with it to 
 be comprehended. It must also be understood that the remarks 
 made with reference to continuous spinning are more especially 
 directed towards ring spinning, and are not so true of throstle 
 or flyer yarn. There is the difference between ring and flyer 
 yarn which exists between yarn spun by means which ensures 
 an absolute regularity of twist and those where the regular 
 motion is absent. The winding of flyer yarn also differs from 
 that of ring yarn, by the fact that in the former case the bobbin 
 is frictionally retarded, while in the latter it is positively driven. 
 In the flyer frame the yarn is wrapped on a bobbin, the motion 
 of which is retarded as described, while in the ring frame it is 
 drawn on to a bobbin positively driven. It is quite clear that 
 the conditions existing in the first case are more favourable to 
 
THE THEORY OF SPINNING. 387 
 
 the production of an elastic yarn than those in the latter. It is 
 also true that flyer yarn, probably owing to the method of 
 putting in the twist, is very even and cylindrical, but the slow 
 velocity of the spindles has at present put this method of 
 production out of the field. It is, perhaps, necessary to caution 
 the student against the supposition that ring yarn is necessarily 
 deficient in the qualities named. This is not so, as it possesses 
 considerable strength and elasticity, but these properties are 
 necessarily comparatively greater in some classes of yarn than in 
 others. All that has been attempted to show is that the 
 method of constructing the thread by the intermittent process is 
 more favourable to the creation of a perfect thread than the 
 continuous system. Looking at the matter from the commercial 
 point of view, the relative values of the various properties of 
 yarn, of cojurse, assume a different aspect, and on this matter 
 something will be said at the conclusion of the consideration of 
 the two systems of spinning. 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MULE SPINNING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. General description of mule, 253 General action, 254 
 Stages of process, 255 Arrangement of mules, 255 Gauge of 
 spindles, 255 Creel, 255 Inclination of spindles, 256 Arrange- 
 ment of rollers and carriage, 256 Method of twisting, 257 Con- 
 struction of twisting and drawing-out mechanism, 258 Gain of 
 carriage, 258 Rules for draft and twist, 259 Asa Lees' special 
 driving, 259 Extra draft and twist, 25o Care and adjustment of 
 parts, 260 Mechanism of changes, 261 Effect of half turn of cam 
 shaft, 262 Mendoza gear, 263 Mechanism of backing-off cone, 
 264 Independent driving of side shaft, 264 Duplex-driving, 264 
 Backing-off gear, 265 Counter-faller tension motion, 266 Actua- 
 tion of winding faller, 267 Locking of faller lever, 268 Position 
 of parts after backing off, 269 Engagement of taking-in clutch, 
 270 Driving of taking-in clutch shaft, 271 Arrangement of 
 scrolls, 271 Construction of cop, 272 Winding mechanism, 273 
 Governing motion, 274 Diameters of cop nose, 275 Conditions 
 of winding on nose, 275 Action of quadrant, 276-277 Effect upon 
 winding drum and spindles, 277 Effect of radius of nut, 277 
 Copping rail mechanism, 278 -Action of copping mechanism 
 278 Construction of copping . rail, 279 Action of copping 
 plates, 280-281 Relation of counter and winding fallers, 282 
 Effect of spindle taper, 283 Principle of nosing motions, 284 
 Nosing motions, 285 Beginning cop bottom, 286 Relation of 
 faller and winding motions, 287 Imperfections in cops owing to 
 bad drawing, 288 Imperfections in cops due to shaping and wind- 
 ing mechanism, 289 Rules for twist, 290 Restoration of parts to 
 initial position by second movement of cam shaft, 291 Backward 
 stroke of quadrant, 292 Necessities of fine spinning, 293 Fine 
 mule, 294 Jacking and receding motions, 294 Two-speed motions 
 295 Power required, 296 Slip of bands, 297 Procedure of 
 doffing, 297. 
 
 (253) HAVING explained the theory and some of the reasons 
 for the adoption of the special construction of the thread, and 
 having intimated the differences naturally arising in it according 
 
MULE SPINNING. 389 
 
 to the method of producing it, we can now profitably proceed 
 to describe the special mechanism employed and its manipula- 
 tion. As the intermittent system has, on the whole, the larger 
 employment, and as the machine employed in effecting it is the 
 more complex and interesting, it will be perhaps the better 
 course to deal with it first. The machine used is known as the 
 " mule " the origin of the name being given in Chapter I. and 
 on account of its practically automatic action, the " self-acting 
 mule" or "self-actor." It has been previously indicated that 
 the various operations of twisting and winding, which together 
 
 FIG. 172. 
 
 form the complete cycle which is understood by the term spin 
 ning, are in this machine performed separately. It will be better 
 therefore to describe the elementary or essential parts of the 
 machine before proceeding to show how it is operated in detail. 
 To enable the description to be understood the diagrammatic 
 illustration given in Fig. 172 is used. In this the roving bobbins 
 R are shown fixed in the creel, and the roving is passed 
 through three lines of rollers E, by which it is drawn and 
 emitted from the front pair. From thence it is taken directly to 
 the spindle S to which it is attached, and on which it is wound 
 in the form of a spool or "cop" C of the shape shown. The 
 
39 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 spindle S is borne by two rails, one carrying a footstep and the 
 other an upper bearing or "bolster." It will be noticed that 
 the spindle is not absolutely vertical in position, but is slightly 
 diverged from a perpendicular line. The amount of angularity 
 varies with the class of work being done to an extent which will 
 be defined a little later. Between the bolster and footstep the 
 spindle has fixed upon it a small grooved pulley V 1 called a 
 " warve " or " whirl " which has an endless band V passed round 
 it. V is also taken round a cylindrical roller T 2 , revolving with 
 a shaft T,. and called the "tin roller." The tin roller is so 
 named because it is constructed of short cylindrical lengths 
 made from tinned iron sheets which are coupled together by a 
 specially arranged coupling shaft. It is, of course, the full 
 length of the carriage, the rollers in each carriage being coupled 
 by a transverse shaft on which the whole of the driving pulleys 
 are fitted. The spindles and tin roller are borne in a frame or 
 "carriage" O, which is carried by transverse bearers, at the ends 
 of which are journals for the axes of disc rollers O 1 . The latter 
 are formed on their peripheries with square grooves, which fit 
 on to narrow iron bars or " slips " U secured to the floor of the 
 room. Thus, if traction is applied to the carriage it can 
 readily be moved to or from the rollers E in a horizontal direc- 
 tion. It will be noticed that the roving passes under a wire N 
 fixed in the sickle shaped bar shown, which oscillates with the 
 centre shaft or pivot B, and which is known as the " faller wire," 
 or shortly, the " faller." The object of this is to guide the yarn 
 on to the spindle in suitable coils during the operation of wind- 
 ing. The yarn also passes above the wire M known as the 
 " counter faller " fastened in the arm or bar shown, this being 
 oscillated with the rod B l . 
 
 (254) Yarn is produced by this mechanism as follows : When- 
 twisting is beginning, the carriage O, with the parts which it 
 bears, is brought to a point near the rollers E. As the latter 
 begin to deliver the roving the carriage simultaneously com- 
 mences to recede from the rollers, and the spindles S begin to 
 revolve. In doing so they take up the slack yarn and coil it on 
 
MULE SPINNING. 39! 
 
 the spindle between its point and the nose of the cop. Thus 
 there are three things taking place : The roving is being drawn' 
 and delivered ; it is, as it is delivered, twisted ; and it is kept in 
 a stretched condition by reason of the recession of the carriage. 
 The latter moves away from the rollers or makes its " outward 
 run " or " stretch " for a distance of 63 nr fr* in^h^g | during 
 the whole of which period the triple operation named is going 
 on. When the carriage reaches the end of its stretch that is, 
 when it has made its utmost recession from the rollers it is 
 stopped, and is held for a brief period at that point. While so 
 held, the spindles are sometimes rotated for a short time, so 
 that a little additional twist is put into the length of the yarn. 
 It is perhaps necessary to say here, that although the singular 
 number is occasionally used in speaking of the various parts, 
 mules contain a large number of spindles, sometimes as many as 
 1,500, so that the processes described are equally applicable to 
 all of these. After the completion of the twisting the motion of 
 the spindles is arrested and at once reversed, so that a few coils 
 of yarn which are wrapped on each spindle between its point 
 and the nose of the cop C are uncoiled. As this takes place 
 the faller N descends and the counter faller M ascends, so as at 
 once to maintain approximately the tension of the stretch of 
 yarn and to guide the latter on to the cop. This opera- 
 tion Of reversal of the spindles \^ tprhnirally 
 
 _ 
 
 " ba^king-off." ImmediatelyTF is completed the drawing in of 
 the carnage begins, and the spindles are revolved in their 
 normal direction, so as to wind the yarn on to the cop as it is 
 released by the inward run. As this takes place the faller 
 N first descends quickly and then rises slowly, the yarn 
 being thus guided on to the cop in descending and ascending 
 coils. When the inward run is complete the whole of the wind- 
 ing operations cease, the faller and counter faller wires assume 
 their normal position clear of the yarn, and the parts are again 
 adjusted to begin the work of drawing and twisting. The 
 completejDutward and inward run of the carriage is technically 
 called a " draw," and the speed of the mule Is indicated by the 
 
392 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 number of "draws" per minute. Generally speaking, the finer 
 theyanflKer fewer the "clraws, but mis is suDject to some 
 exceptions. 
 
 brief description just given enables a classification 
 of the various stages to be made. They are, ist, twisting and 
 drawing; 2nd, arrestation; 3rd, backing-off; 4th, winding; and 
 5th, re-engagement. The operations of the various parts during 
 each of these periods will be dealt with in detail as they arise. 
 The difficulty which occurs when an attempt is made to master 
 and comprehend the movement of the various parts at different 
 periods arises from the fact that at one time a certain portion of 
 the mechanism is performing one function and at another quite 
 a different one, both the direction and velocity of its movement 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 E f\ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 O II 
 
 ! 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 f) 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 o i; 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 E F j 
 
 FIG. 173. 
 
 being changed. In order to save space and trouble the whole 
 of the mechanism which forms the operative portion is contained 
 in a central frame, called the headstock, from which diverge to 
 the right and left the two carriages, roller beams, and bearing 
 pieces. This arrangement is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 173, 
 which is a representation of two mules set in the positions which 
 they occupy in the mill. H in each case represents the head- 
 stock, which is a double longitudinal frame securely tied together 
 by transverse beams or rails. The carriages O extend at right 
 angles to the right and left, and in each case the carriage is 
 shorter on the right hand side of the headstock. The roller 
 beams marked E also extend the whole length of the mule, and 
 are borne at suitable intervals by light frames or spring pieces,. 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 193 
 
 and at the ends by frames F as shown. The number of spindles 
 in a mule varies with the work it has to do, the gauge that is, 
 the distance from centre to centre being less with the fineness 
 of the yarn produced. Weft cops, being smaller in size than 
 those used for warp purposes, are spun upon smaller spindles, 
 and the gauge of the spindles is less. Mules are made with 
 gauges varying from i */s inch to i ^ inch. There is an advan- 
 tage in the disposition of each pair of mules in the manner 
 shown, which is that as the minder works between the headstock 
 he is able to attend to each alternately. The bulk of thejuecing 
 of broken ends is done during the early part of each stretch^ so 
 that it is^possible to be piecing uie ends 
 on one machine wrnie"lhe other carriaeis 
 
 relative movement Ts always maintained if possible, and greatly 
 facilitates the conduct of the work. The bobbins R from the 
 roving frame are mounted on pointed rods or skewers, which 
 rest in porcelain or wooden footsteps, and can, with the bobbin, 
 rotate freely. The creel is shown in Fig. 174, which is used to 
 show in more detail the general arrangement of the headstock. 
 In this figure the creel is what is known as a " three-banked " 
 one. The disposition of the creel varies, in some cases only two 
 heights of bobbins being used. These are arranged so as to 
 give a good direction to the roving, and when yarn is spun from 
 "double" roving the two ends of the latter must be guided so 
 as to pass through the same roller boss together. Guide rods 
 are provided to make the passage of the upper roving easier, but 
 in the case of the lower bobbins it is taken directly to the rollers. 
 A three-height creel is also shown in Fig. 178. A creel is some- 
 times duplex, that is to say, instead of there being one row 01 
 bobbins there are two in each height, one behind the other, the 
 bobbins being arranged so that those in tne back row have their 
 centres between chose in the front. 
 
 (256) There are usually three lines ot rollers in a mule, the 
 lower line being fluted, the upper front line sometimes loose 
 boss, the back top rollers being self-weighted. The practice in 
 this respect varies, some people preferring to weight all the three 
 
394 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 lines by stirrup and weight, while others only fit the front 
 line in this manner. The loose boss roller is unsuitable for 
 mules of a fine pitch. The rollers are, of course, in two sets 
 in each machine, one on each side of the headstock, but the two 
 
 FIG. 174. 
 
 front lines are coupled by a short shaft extending across the 
 headstock. This shaft is fitted with a clutch, the engage- 
 ment or disengagement of which gives motion to or stops the 
 rollers. The period of the engagement of the clutch is regu- 
 lated in a manner to be afterwards described. The carriage 
 
MULE SPINNING. 395 
 
 of the mule is a strong frame, built partially of wood, the 
 longitudinal beams being of that material. These are secured 
 to each other by tranverse cast-iron stays, or "muntins," 
 which also act as bearings for the tin roller shafts. It is 
 also advisable, especially in long mules, to provide diagonal 
 stays. Each of the carriages in a mule is firmly secured to a 
 strong iron frame, which is known as the "square." The square 
 carries the driving mechanism for the tin roller and also a great 
 part of that connected with the fallers. The rollers in each 
 carriage are coupled by a shaft extending across the square, 
 on which is fixed the pulley by which they are driven. 
 The spindle is made of steel, is from 13^ to 18 inches long, 
 and of a diameter varying from ^ to ^ inch, terminating in a 
 sharp conical tip. For that part of its length between the 
 footstep and bolster it is o/ the same diameter, and on this 
 part called the haft the warve is secured. Above the bolster 
 the " blade " of the spindle is made taper, and on this the 
 spool or cop of cotton is wound. The spindles are, as has 
 been indicated^ not carried vertically but angularly in their 
 bearings, the degree of angularity depending on the material to 
 be spun. Jn some cases special provision is made to enable 
 the spindle rails to be easily adjusted, and by means of stay 
 rods fixed to the rails the proper inclination can be readily 
 given. In setting the spindles a special gauge is used, with 
 arms projecting from a plumb level. One of the arms has a 
 small hole to drop on to a spindle point, and the other arm 
 presses upon the haft just above the foot. The arms are 
 attached to the level, and can be adjusted so as to give any 
 desired bevel. When so set they are pressed against the 
 spindle, and the rails are adjusted until the plumb bob 
 hangs vertically as indicated by the line on the frame of the 
 level. The rule generally pursued is to give the point of the 
 spindle a forward inclination from a vertical line drawn from 
 the centre of the footstep of about % inch for each inch of its 
 length. Thus a i6-inch spindle would have 4 inches of incli 
 nation. It is, however, the practice to vary this slightly 
 
396 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 according to the counts of yarn being spun, coarse counts 
 being spun on spindles having less inclination, the amount of 
 which is increased as the yarns spun become finer. It is also 
 the custom to give weft spindles a relatively greater inclination 
 than those used in spinning warp yarn, the reason being that 
 weft is more slackly twisted, and will not stand so great a stress. 
 The average, however, is as stated. The purpose of this incli- 
 nation is to permit of the ready passage of the yarn over the 
 point of the spindle, for it is evident that as the point of the 
 spindle is below the rollers, the angle formed by the yarn when 
 the carriage is out, and it is held between the spindle point and 
 the rollers, will be more acute than when the carriage is in. It 
 is, therefore, necessary to give the spindle such an angular 
 disposition as will enable the yarn to bend over the point at all 
 parts of the carriage traverse without undue strain" or any slip. 
 The spindles are driven by bands in the manner previously 
 named, the direction of rotation being dependent on whether 
 weft or warp is spun, as mentioned in the last chapter. 
 
 (257) It was said in the last chapter that twfst is introduced 
 by turning the roving upon its axis, and while it is quite clear 
 that this will happen if the material is treated by a flyer and 
 spindle as in the case of roving, it is not so obvious on the 
 mule. The angular position of the spindles relatively to the 
 line of thread renders it difficult to understand how the twist is 
 introduced into the yarn. If, however, the spindles be revolved 
 at a slow pace the action is easily seen. The yarn being held 
 in tension between the nose of the cop and the rollers is coiled 
 spirally on the spindle in coils of decreasing pitch, the latter 
 being caused by the taper of the spindle. As during the period 
 of twisting the spindles are running the direction required to 
 wind on the yarn, it is obvious that unless some relief is given 
 it would snap. Owing to the pull upon the yarn the tendency is 
 to draw off the coils, and it will be noticed if the spindles are 
 slowly revolved that the top coil slips off, and as it does so the 
 yarn is twisted right round. If a length of yarn be selected with 
 a snarl or curl in it in this operation of twisting it is very easily 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 397 
 
 noticed. As soon as the top coil has slipped off, the rotation of 
 the spindles restores it, and this process goes on during the 
 whole period of twisting. The angular position of the spindle 
 aids this drawing-off process by rendering the slip of the yarn 
 more easy, and it is probable that but for this position breakage 
 would occur. Owing to this rapidly repeated slipping ofjtfee - 
 top coil the yarn is given that peculiar vibratory movement 
 which is observable. "1 
 
 | 
 
 (258) This very general review of the essential portions of a 
 mule is sufficient to enable a clear idea to be obtained of the 
 mechanism, and a detailed description can now be given. In 
 doing so, it may be stated at the outset that it is intended to 
 
 FIG. 175. 
 
 deal with the various motions, less from the mechanical than 
 from the spinning point of view, and although it will be necessary 
 to treat largely the mechanical construction, it will be done with 
 a view of elucidating the actual operation of the machine. 
 Referring then to Figs. 175, 176, and 177, which are representa- 
 tions of the method of driving the mule of Messrs. Platt 
 Brothers and Co. Limited, the machine is' driven from a counter- 
 shaft by means of a belt, which passes over a pulley A, fixed on 
 a shaft C, known as the " rim shaft." The pulley A is 16 inches 
 diameter and is 5 inches wide. Alongside the pulley A, which 
 is fast on" the shaft, is a loose pulley B of the same diameter, 
 but 5^ inches wide. The strap is only partially put upon the 
 
398 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 fast pulley, a certain portion of it, sufficient to drive the loose 
 pulley, being always on the latter. In some cases the driving 
 pulleys A B are arranged transversely of the mule, as in the 
 arrangement shown in Fig. 178. This is often a convenient 
 arrangement, and suits the direction in which the line shaft 
 runs. In this illustration the arrangement of the counter- 
 shaft is shown, and it will be noticed that on it are fixea 
 
 F;a. 176. 
 
 a fast and loose pulley for the driving shaft belt, a broad 
 fast pulley for the belt driving the rim shaft, and the grooved 
 pulley by which, as afterwards described, the side shaft is driven. 
 The fast pulley is provided at one side with a part of a cone A*, 
 engaging with a similarly shaped, but female cone on the wheel 
 A 1 . Leather strips are used on the conical part of A 1 for two 
 reasons, to prevent any danger of fire, and to enable repairs to 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 399 
 
 be easily effected. It is important that these cones are truly 
 shaped, and that, alike in diameter and width, they are as large as 
 they can be conveniently. The great size of modern mules 
 renders this imperative, and it is also of great importance that 
 the leather covering of A 1 is as truly applied as is possible. 
 The conical shape causes a jamming or wedging action to take 
 
 FIG. 177. 
 
 place, which creates a tight grip. It is obvious that as the 
 clutch must be rapidly engaged and disengaged the angle of 
 inclination must not be too ob'tuse, it being well known that the 
 grip of slightly tapered surfaces is greater than that where the 
 inclination is larger. This is a matter of some importance, but 
 is a point which is one for the machinist rather than the 
 
^00 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 spinner. The cone A 1 is called the " backing-off friction," and 
 is utilised as afterwards described. The spindles are driven, as 
 shown in Fig. 175, from the pulley C 1 , which, although, for 
 simplicity, shown as a single grooved pulley, is generally made 
 
 FIG. 178. 
 
 with two and sometimes with three grooves. The pulley C 1 is 
 called the " rim pulley," or shortly, the " rim." The course of 
 the endless band or rope C 2 is clearly indicated, and it will be 
 seen that it passes first over a carrier pulley O 1 , thence over a 
 
MULE SPINNING. ^OX 
 
 pulley T 1 on the tin roller shaft T, being then conveyed to a 
 carrier pulley X, and back to the rim pulley. The course of 
 the rope is, naturally, doubled or triplicated, when a double or 
 treble grooved rim is used, but to show the course of the rope, 
 under these circumstances, would complicate the drawings and 
 render them obscure. When this factor is taken into account, 
 however, the effective driving of the tin roller will be easily 
 understood. The rollers are driven from the pinion G, fixed on 
 the rim shaft. By means of a carrier wheel, G drives the pinion 
 G 1 , fastened on the side shaft J, on the other end of which is a 
 bevel pinion J 1 , engaging with a bevel wheel F on the roller 
 shaft E. In order to give a clear idea of the operation of most 
 of these parts, it is intended to show the effect of the various 
 trains of wheels, but it must be clearly understood that, in 
 doing so, the number of teeth given are not actual, but 
 only such as will illustrate the subject. So long as 
 the principle is demonstrated the assumed size of the wheels 
 is immaterial, and fictitious dimensions can be employed 
 with equal effect to actual ones. Let it therefore be assumed 
 that the rim pulley C 1 is 22 inches, the pulley T 1 on the 
 tin roller shaft T 12 inches, the tin roller T 2 6 inches, and 
 the warve V 1 on the spindle ^ inch diameter respectively. Let 
 it also be assumed that the rim shaft is running at 600 revolu- 
 tions per minute. Then the velocity of the spindles would be 
 
 22 x x 600 = 8,800. In like manner, if the pinion G be 
 12 x -75 
 
 assumed to have 18 teeth, the wheel G 1 39, the pinion J 1 19, 
 and the front roller clutch wheel F 40, then the speed of the 
 
 latter would be ~ ^-^ x 600= 131*5 revolutions per minute. 
 
 39 x 4o 
 Now, if the front roller be assumed to be i inch diameter, it will 
 
 deliver 413*2 inches of yarn. The twist is therefore = 2 1 '5 
 
 4 X 3' 2 
 
 turns per inch, which is practically equal to that required for 
 32's twist The back shaft is driven by the train of wheels 
 shown in Figs. 176 and 177, of which Q is fixed on the roller 
 
42 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 shaft and is assumed to have 2 [ teeth. It drives, by the inter- 
 vention of a carrier wheel, the wheel Q 1 , which is fixed on a short 
 shaft, on which is also a pinion R, called the "gain wheel," 
 gearing with a wheel P 1 , which forms part of a clutch on the 
 back shaft H. The teeth of the clutch are also shaped so as 
 to permit the half clutch P to move outwards when required. 
 The half clutch P is ordinarily pressed into gear with the wheel 
 P 1 by the spring P 2 , which is, however, sufficiently weak to yield 
 if any obstruction is presented to the rotation of the shaft H. 
 On the back shaft H are fixed several small drums H 1 , which 
 are known as " scrolls." They have rounded grooves cut 
 spirally in their surfaces, and are for the greater part of their 
 length cylindrical, but at one end terminate in a smaller 
 
 FIG. 179. 
 
 diameter. Thus any given speed of rotation when the rope 
 is on the smaller part of the groove will give a slower velocity 
 than will be given when it is on the larger diameter. This 
 condition of things arises when the carriage is beginning to 
 run outwards, the drawing out band H s being then on the small 
 diameter winds on slowly, thus enabling the inertia of the 
 carriage to be overcome before the full speed is attained. There 
 are four operative bands wound on a similar number of scrolls 
 on the back shaft. Two of these are fixed to the end frames of 
 the carriage, as shown in Fig. 179, and two others to the carriage 
 at points between the end of each carriage and the headstock. A 
 greater number can be used if rendered necessary by the length of 
 the mule. A fifth scroll H 2 is also fixed on the back shaft. The 
 
MULE SPINNING. 403 
 
 ropes H 8 (Fig. 175) are taken round carrier pulleys Z fixed at the 
 end of the headstock, and are fastened to the carriage in the 
 manner shown. From H 2 a band is taken to the scroll L 8 , the 
 function of which will be afterwards described. Q 1 is supposed 
 to have 50 teeth, R 23, and P 1 56. The velocity of the back 
 
 shaft is therefore 2I x 23 x 131-5 = 22-6. The scrolls H 1 are 
 50 x 50 
 
 assumed to be 6 inches diameter ; 22*6 revolutions of the scrolls 
 will therefore give a traverse to the rope of6x3'i4i6x22-6 = 
 426 inches, and the carriage is traversed at the same velocity. 
 It would therefore take for a full stretch of 64 inches 9 seconds, 
 
 and in this time the rollers would deliver ^-x4i3'2 = 62 inches 
 
 DO 
 
 of yarn nearly. The carriage thus gains upon the roller delivery 
 2 inches in each stretch, and draws the yam out as described. 
 The effect of this " gain " of the carnage is to elongate or sub- 
 ject the roving to a further draft, and thus decrease the inequali- 
 ties in diameter. As was described in the last chapter, twist 
 runs into the thinner places in the roving, and thus hardens 
 them. It follows therefore that this supplementary drawing 
 action elongates the untwisted i.e., the thicker places, and 
 aids in the production of an even thread. The amount of gain 
 which is permissible depends entirely upon the quality and 
 staple of the cotton which is being treated. Very short stapled 
 cotton will not permit of the introduction of any draft subse- 
 quent to the roller draft, while long stapled cotton allows it to 
 be introduced to a considerable extent. The practice in the 
 former case often is to allow the rollers to deliver yarn at a 
 quicker speed than the rate of traverse of the carriage, the rollers 
 thus gaining on the carriage. This is principally the case when 
 very coarse counts are being spun from short stapled cotton. 
 The total draft depends entirely upon the quality of the cotton, 
 and in arranging it, it must be properly divided between the 
 rollers and carriage. 
 
 (259) No special description need be given of the metnod of 
 obtaining the differential velocity of the three lines of rollers in 
 
404 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 order to put in the draft. This is similar in principle and 
 practically in detail to that in the roving frame. In setting the 
 rollers, however, some care should be exercised, as the draft in 
 the mule is considerable, as will be seen when the question of 
 drafts comes to be dealt with. This subject will be reverted to 
 in a short time. It will be better at this point to give the 
 various rules for working out the speeds and drafts, in so far as 
 they relate to the operation of the parts described up to the 
 present point. Practically the different portions of the mechanism 
 with which we have dealt comprise the whole of those necessary 
 for spinning, the remaining operations being connected with 
 winding, and having no relation to spinning. The ordinary 
 rules employed are as follows : 
 
 To find the draft required in the rollers when the gain of the 
 carriage, the counts to be spun, and the hank roving are 
 known 
 
 Subtract the amount of gain from the total length of stretch. Thus, if 
 gain is 2 inches, and length of stretch 64, net length of yarn delivered is 
 62 inches. 
 
 Counts required x length delivered 
 
 Full length of stretch x hank roving = 
 
 To find the draft required in the rollers when the carriage 
 does not gain 
 
 Crown wheel x back roller wheel x diameter of front rollers (in eighths). 
 Front roller wheel x change pinion x diameter of back rollers (in eighths). 
 
 A constant number can be got by making the above calcula- 
 tion, and omitting the change wheel. 
 
 To calculate number of teeth in change pinion, to obtain any 
 given draft 
 
 Crown wheel x back roller wheel x diameter of front roller (in eighths). 
 Frcnt roller wheel x draft required x diameter of back roller (in eighths). 
 
 To find the counts being spun when carriage gains 
 Hank roving x total draft x total stretch. 
 Length delivered by rollers. 
 
 To find change pinion required to spin any counts when 
 present counts are known 
 
 Present counts x present change pinions. 
 Counts required. 
 
MULE SPINNING. 405 
 
 To find back roller wheel for any draft 
 
 Front roller wheel x change pinion x diameter of back roller x draft required. 
 Crown wheel x diameter of front roller. 
 
 To find the correct wheel on middle roller 
 
 First determine the ratio of draft which exists between the back roller 
 and the middle roller. Say this is as y : x, representing the relative 
 velocity of the middle and back rollers. Then 
 
 Back roller wheel x diameter of middle roller x x. 
 Diameter of back roller x y. 
 
 Two courses are open in changing the twist in yarn. The 
 one is to take off the rim pulley and substitute a larger or smaller 
 one. In this way the velocity of the spindles is altered without 
 changing that of the rollers. The second plan is to change the 
 twist wheel, by means of which the velocity of the rollers is 
 changed, and that of the spindles remains constant. For many 
 reasons the latter is the better course, but rules are given by 
 which either can be taken. 
 
 To find the number of turns per inch in the yarn, velocity of 
 spindles and rollers being known 
 
 Number of revolutions of spindles. 
 Revolution of front roller x circumference of front roller. 
 
 To find the required size of rim pulley, to obtain any counts 
 when present counts are known, without altering front roller 
 speed 
 
 Diameter present rim pulley squared x counts required. 
 Counts spun. 
 
 The square root of quotient = diameter of pulley required. 
 Or, Counts required x diameter present rim pulley _ 
 Present counts. 
 
 Then + present size of pulley = diameier pulley required 
 
 It is much preferable to change the twist wheel rather than 
 the rim pulley, except in extreme cases of variation. To do this, 
 if the size or number of teeth of the twist wheel is substituted 
 for the rim pulley in the last rule given the size of the twist 
 wheel can be ascertained when changing counts. 
 
406 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 To find the amount of gam in the carriage 
 There are three ways of doing this. The first is indicated in 
 the last paragraph, this giving the total gain. By dividing this 
 by the roller delivery the gain per inch is given. Thus, in the 
 case supposed the gain is -fa = '032 per inch. The next 
 method is as follows : 
 
 Number of inches carriage travels. 
 Number of inches of roving delivered by front roller. 
 
 The third method is (refer to Fig. 177) 
 
 Wheel Q x pinion R x diameter of scroll H. 
 Wheel Q 1 x wheel P 1 . 
 
 The quotient in either case will be the roller delivery plus the 
 gain, and will be the distance travelled by the carriage during 
 the delivery of one inch by the rollers. The rules thus given 
 are those which relate to the spinning or twisting ^mechanism 
 and a brief description of what happens during this period, 
 together with a few detailed remarks about the care required, 
 may not be out of place. The strap being on the fast pulley A, 
 which is free to revolve and entirely out of contact with the 
 friction clutch A 1 , the rim pulley C 1 is rapidly rotated. By 
 means of the rim band this movement is communicated to the 
 spindles, which are revolving at their normal velocity. During 
 the same period the rollers are delivering roving, which is being 
 twisted as it emerges. The two faller wires are out of contact with 
 the yarn, and the carriage O is traversed as described by reason 
 of the forward movement of the drawing-out band. During 
 all this period the work of spinning and drawing is going steadily 
 on, and continues to do so until the carriage arrives at the end 
 of its outward stretch. It is obvious that in starting a mule 
 containing a large number of spindles the inertia of the carriage 
 and spindles, and the friction of the bearings, will offer a con- 
 siderable resistance to the driving force, and although it is 
 assumed that the transfer of the belt to the driving pulley is 
 immediately followed by the rotation of the spindles at full speed, 
 in practice this is not so. The rollers, being driven by gear 
 wheels, begin to rotate at once, as does the back shaft, but the 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 407 
 
 rim band slips at first, so that the spindles only get up full speed 
 after a few inches of roving have been delivered. The result is 
 that twist is only partially introduced, and there is some danger 
 of broken ends and uneven yarn. In order to obviate this 
 difficulty, Messrs. Asa Lees and Co. have recently introduced 
 the system of driving which is shown in Fig. 180. The rim 
 shaft has mounted on it a long sleeve on which the driving and 
 rim pulleys A and C 1 are fixed. The rim shaft C revolves within 
 the sleeve B 1 , and has fixed on at its tail end a grooved pulley D, 
 and at its front end the wheel F from which the roller is driven. 
 
 FIG. i So. 
 
 When the outward run commences the rim pulley C 1 will be 
 driven by the rotation of the sleeve, and the tin roller and bands 
 will be similarly driven. The rim band C 2 , however, instead of 
 being returned to the rim pulley, is carried round the grooved 
 pulley D adjoining C 1 on the rirn shaft. The latter is therefore 
 driven at the same speed neglecting slip as the rim pulley C 1 
 and the front rollers are driven through the wheel F. The object 
 of this arrangement, which is working very successfully, is to en- 
 sure the spindles beginning work before any roller delivery or 
 movement of the carriage can take place. As the tension in 
 the bands, however, is considerable, the whole of the parts 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 apparently start at one time, and it is incorrect to suppose that 
 there is any pause between the operation of one motion and 
 another. It is, however, obvious that, as the power for driving 
 the rollers and back shaft is transmitted through the rim band, 
 they cannot attain their full motion while the spindles are only 
 rotating at part of their full velocity. It is obvious that the use 
 of two rims increases the power of regulating the speed of the 
 rollers and spindle. 
 
 (260) As will afterwards be specially described, when 
 very fine yarns are spun the rollers cease to deliver roving a 
 little before the carriage terminates its traverse, and an extra 
 draft is given to it. The operation is called "jacking." It is 
 also the practice for twisting to be continued after the carriage 
 has arrived at the end of its stretch, this being known as 
 " twisting at the head." The determination of the amount of 
 each of these operations is made by the peculiar setting of the 
 mechanism, which will be dealt with presently. The condition 
 of the various bands used in connection with twisting is an 
 important matter. It has become the very praiseworthy 
 practice of machinists to make all the rope pulleys used as large 
 as possible, the rim, carrier, and tin roller pulleys being alike 
 made of large diameter. In this way the operation of twisting 
 is improved, and the life of the rope increased. All change 
 wheels are also made of as large a diameter as possible ; the 
 reason of this being that if they have only a small number of 
 teeth, one tooth more or less makes a large proportionate 
 difference in the velocity of the part driven, and thus renders 
 the exact variation which is required difficult to obtain. 
 Thus, if the regulation of the roller speed depended upon 
 the changing of the pinion J 1 , which has been assumed to have 
 19 teeth, it is obvious that a change of one tooth would have 
 an effect upon the velocity of the rollers much greater than 
 would happen if J 1 had 50 teeth. It is customary to change 
 the wheel G 1 when it is desired to accelerate or diminish the 
 rate of delivery of the rollers. The tin roller bearings require 
 to be kept constantly lubricated, and it is most important to 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 409 
 
 attend to the tension of the spindle bands. These, if too tight, 
 so speedily add to the power required to drive the machine, 
 that it is highly important they should be of absolutely the 
 correct tension. If the pull of the bands is excessive, an 
 increase of friction on the bearings immediately follows, while 
 if they are too slack slipping occurs, and the correct twist 
 is not introduced. The tension of all the bands in a mule 
 is more or less affected by atmospheric conditions, and this 
 is a point which ought not to be forgotten. The lubrica- 
 tion of mule spindles is a difficult matter and requires careful 
 attention. Unless they are properly looked to, friction arises, 
 and loss of power ensues. The oil has a tendency to rise up 
 the spindle and be flung off by centrifugal action. Not only is 
 there a loss arising from this cause, but there is a danger of oil 
 getting on the cops. There are one or two patented devices in 
 the way of shields which overcome this difficulty to a large 
 extent, and which are meritorious in that respect. The setting 
 of the rollers has been previously referred to, and it may be 
 here said that, as in the drawing-frame, the diameter of the 
 rollers used depends to a large extent upon the length of staple 
 treated. Thus, Indian cotton can best be drawn by rollers -J inch 
 diameter, while most other varieties can be drawn by a front 
 roller i inch diameter. In setting the rollers a space should be 
 left between the back and middle lines of from \ inch to T \ inch 
 greater than the average length of staple, and between the front 
 and middle lines a space of from -^ inch to -J inch. The reason for 
 this procedure is obvious. The roller draft in the mule is large, 
 taking place usually entirely between the front and middle lines, 
 but is only used for the purpose of attenuation, and not for 
 parallelising purposes. Thus the absolute- work required can be 
 easily carried out with the rollers set as described. The covering 
 of the rollers should be carefully looked to, and the leather 
 sheaths kept in as nearly perfect a condition as possible. All 
 the remarks which were made in dealing with this point in 
 drawing should be carefully borne in mind, and unless they are, 
 the evils produced in drawing will be reproduced at this point. 
 
410 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 The leather should never be permitted to become too dry, as if 
 so, slip occurs, and the yarn will be too coarse. This matter is 
 one of the most important details in connection with a mule, and 
 uneven yarn is largely the result of inattention to this point. 
 Lubrication should, therefore, be strictly looked to, so as to 
 ensure the preservation of a uniform surface velocity between 
 the top and bottom lines. The bottom rollers should be kept 
 cylindrical, and, if strained, must be at once attended to. If 
 traverse motions are fitted, they must be kept clean, as other- 
 wise they are liable to set up such a friction on the roving as to 
 stretch it considerably. It is easy to see that this is an attenua- 
 tion not provided for in any system of drafts, and one which 
 will only be perceptible when wrapping the yarn. The remarks 
 made about cleanliness in the traverse guides and motion apply 
 equally to all parts of the mule. The creel pegs and their 
 bearings should be arranged in such a manner and kept in such 
 a condition that the bobbins can easily and freely revolve. 
 Cleanliness in this part is essential, and any collection of fly or 
 dust must be avoided. Attention to a number of little points 
 is, in brief, essential if the best work is to be produced, and 
 although a good workman will look after these himself, they 
 should always be borne in mind by those in authority. 
 
 (261) The points thus detailed have especial reference to the 
 operation of spinning or twisting. As soon as the carriage 
 arrives at, or near, the end of its stretch, or outward run, it is 
 necessary to stop it, so as to permit of the readjustment of the 
 parts for performing the operation of winding. It becomes, 
 therefore, requisite to provide means whereby the motion of the 
 rollers, spindles, and carriage can be stopped, and this is accom- 
 plished in the following manner. The driving strap is transferred 
 to the loose pulley, so that when the roller motion is driven 
 from the rim shaft, as shown in the preceding figures, the 
 rollers and back shaft would be stopped. It is the practice, 
 however, to afford facilities for the detachment of the clutches 
 actuating the rollers and back shaft independently of each 
 other and of the strap guide. Accordingly, on the roller shaft 
 
MULE SPINNING. 411 
 
 a toothed clutch is fitted, one-half being formed on the wheel F 
 and the other half sliding on a feather key on the shaft. By 
 means of a ring groove the necessary lateral motion of the sliding 
 half-clutch is obtained, a claw fitting in the groove. This claw is 
 at the end of a lever which is actuated as presently described. 
 In some cases the clutch is arranged so that after it is in gear 
 a little movement of the driving half is necessary before the 
 roller begins to revolve, this being effected by making the 
 driving depend upon the engagement of pins in one hall 
 with slots in the opposing half clutch. In other cases a 
 ratchet motion is employed, the pawl coming into action 
 a little after the carriage has started. The object of this 
 arrangement is to put the yarn into tension so as to avoid 
 "snarls," which are curls or loops caused by slack yarn. 
 The back shaft clutch P P 1 is also connected and disconnected 
 by means of a claw ended lever. It only remains to be seen how 
 these various levers are actuated. This is mainly the work of a 
 shaft M, shown in Fig. 181, with its connections, which is known 
 as the "cam shaft," owing to the fact that it carries several cams, 
 by means of which the necessary changes are made. It is be- 
 coming the fashion to do without the cam shaft, and to rely, 
 at least partially, for the operation of the parts on levers suitably 
 arranged and actuated. That all the requisite changes can be 
 made without the aid of the cam shaft is true, but, on the whole, 
 the latter is a convenient method of effecting them ; and, at 
 any rate, in principle, is not dissimilar to the other arrangements 
 named. The principle underlying them all is to produce the 
 requisite movements of the various parts by means of leverage, 
 so as to cause the transferral of the strap and the detachment 
 or attachment of the clutches at the proper moment. In some 
 cases the cam shaft is employed as an aid to other mechanism, 
 which is thus relieved from a good deal of strain. Whatever 
 may be the manner of its application, the object is the same i:. 
 every case. Hinged to one side of the Deadstock framing is a 
 lever T, known as the " long lever." It is by this or from a 
 corresponding lever that the changes are made when the cam 
 
412 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 413 
 
 shaft is not used. The latter is actuated in the example shown 
 by two adjustable brackets S and S 1 , which are affixed to the 
 carriage, and which, when the latter runs out or in, come in 
 contact with the two bowls R R 1 , placed on studs fixed in the 
 lever. In some makes of mule, as in Fig. 182, the lever T is 
 straight, and has affixed to it at each end brackets with angular 
 faces which project above the top of the lever, so as to come 
 into contact with the counter faller rod. These also are 
 adjustable so that the lever may be oscillated a little earlier or 
 later. This adjustment is of importance, as snarls result if the 
 oscillation is too late, and broken ends if too soon. The effect 
 is the same, as the lever T is in either case depressed alternately 
 at each end, as the engagement of the bowls R and brackets 
 
 FIG. 182. 
 
 takes place. After each alternate movement the long lever is 
 locked by the lever Q, which is constantly pressed against it by 
 the spring O. When either movement occurs, a lever U 1 , coupled 
 to T by the rod U, is rocked so that (as shown in detached 
 views in Fig. 181 at the left hand corner) one end of it is 
 oscillated towards or from the cam shaft M. The cam V, 
 against which the lever T 1 abuts, is forrned with two raised 
 surfaces, V 1 V 2 , one being part of an outer ring, and the other 
 part of an inner ring. So long as the lever T 1 is pressing on 
 either of the raised parts of the cam V, the half-friction clutch 
 W is kept out of contact with the other half X. As the^latter 
 has a toothed annulus formed on it, which engages with the teeth 
 -in the friction clutch A 1 , it is constantly revolving, because, as 
 
414 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 will be shown presently, A 1 is also in constant rotation. When 
 the lever U 1 is oscillated, however, its end is removed from the 
 high part of the cam surface with which it is engaged, and is 
 brought into the lower space of the other ring or surface. The 
 coiled spring V 3 is thus able to push the clutch VV into gear 
 with X, and the cam shaft is revolved. As the end of the lever 
 U 1 is, however, held up to the face of one of the cam courses, 
 and as the raised part in each is opposite that in the other 
 that is, at the other side of the cam shaft centre the cam shaft 
 can only make half a revolution before it motion is arrested 
 by the^detachment of the clutch W X. In the form of cam 
 shaft, as in Fig. 182, where it is placed alongside the framing 
 
 FIG. 183. 
 
 FIG. 184. 
 
 and below the long lever, the detachment is obtained by means 
 of a pendant plate L (Figs. 183 and 184) surrounding the shaft 
 M, on which revolves a tubular cam shaft K. The plate L is 
 jointed to the long lever, and is formed with a slot in it to 
 permit of its rise and fall. It is constructed with two cam 
 courses, O and S, against which the pin T is kept constantly 
 pressed, by reason of the pressure of the spring U acting through 
 the half clutch R. The clutch shown in Fig. 183 is a toothed 
 one, but it is now customary to make it as a friction clutch, the 
 part P being formed with an internal cone, and the other half 
 R with a corresponding taper. The surface of R is covered 
 with leather. The action is precisely that of the preceding case. 
 
MULE SPINNING. 415 
 
 When the cam plate L is lifted, the pin T moves on to the 
 lower part of'the adjoining cam course, and the clutch P R is 
 engaged. The cam shaft makes its half revolution, and the 
 clutch is again detached. 
 
 (262) The effect of this movement is threefold. Referring 
 again to Fig. 181, there are three cams on the cam shaft. One 
 of them, Z, operates the back shaft clutch P P 1 by means of the 
 lever Z 1 , as shown in the detached view. The clutch, as was 
 previously named, is usually kept in gear by a coiled spring H 2 , 
 threaded on the shaft H, and the half rotation of the cam Z 
 presses the clutch open. Thus the back shaft is stopped and 
 the carriage is brought to rest. A second cam course formed 
 in the half clutch W actuates by means of a rocking lever W 1 the 
 roller clutch F 1 , which is also shown in a separate view. A third 
 cam Y engages with a pin in the strap guide lever, which is 
 pivoted at its lower end, and the rotation of Y as separately 
 illustrated causes the strap lever G to be moved. The position 
 of the bowl on the strap guide lever when the strap is on the 
 loose and fast pulley is shown separately in the detached view 
 at the lower right hand corner. In some cases the movement of 
 the strap lever G is made by means of a separate motion, known 
 as the " strap relieving motion," on which a few words will be 
 said. Before dealing with this part of the subject, however, a 
 brief description of the method of moving the strap in the 
 mule illustrated may be dealt with. The strap guide is fixed 
 as indicated at the upper end of the lever G, which is free to 
 oscillate. By means of a spring attachment a second hinged 
 lever is constantly drawn towards the strap guide lever. The 
 second lever is fixed upon a short shaft, and has an arm on it 
 which receives a pull from a second spring.- The cam Y engages 
 with a pin in the latter, and the spring constantly keeps them 
 engaged. A horizontal hinged hver H, shown in Fig. 185, is 
 attached to the headstock framing, and is drawn upwards by 
 means of a spring P, so that a shoulder H 1 formed on it engages 
 with a catch L fixed to the frame. Thus, when the catch is 
 engaged any oscillation of the strap guide is impossible. The 
 
4 i6 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 worm C 3 formed on the end of the rim shaft gears with a 
 worm wheel G, which, being compounded with a spur wheel 
 G 1 , rotates, by means of the wheel J, a small crank arm K, 
 the pin in the outer end of which is caused during its rotation 
 to press on the end of the horizontal arm H. When this 
 
 FIG. 185. 
 
 happens the latter is depressed, and the catch L is disengaged. 
 The strap guide lever is thus unlocked, and the springs attached 
 to it are free to draw it over so as to move the strap from the 
 fast to the loose pulley when freed by the cam. The period at 
 which this detachment can take place is easily regulated by 
 means of the gearing named, and it is obvious that by duly 
 
MULE SPINNING. 417 
 
 proportioning the various levers the extent of the movement 
 can be accurately regulated. It is also clear that the roller 
 and back shaft clutches may be disengaged, while the strap, 
 owing to the engagement of the catch with the horizontal lever, 
 is held on the fast pulley. The cam shaft having made its half 
 revolution the strap guide lever would, of course, be free, but 
 :ould not make its traverse until the catch is released. Thus, 
 irawing out would have ceased, the rollers would not be 
 delivering yam, while the spindles would be revolving for a 
 period controlled by the detachment of the catch and lever. 
 "Twisting at the head" can thus be effected, and its extent is 
 entirely dependent on the difference between the time when the 
 cam shaft moves and the catch is released. The spur wheel J 
 on the crank arbor is practically the twist wheel when this 
 arrangement is fitted, because its diameter determines the period 
 of termination of the spindle rotation, but the change is more 
 conveniently made by altering the pinion G 1 driving it. Where 
 twisting at the head does not take place, and this contrivance is 
 not fitted, the necessary change can be made by controlling the 
 roller speed, which is effected by changing the pinion. For the 
 reasons given it is desirable to make these wheels as large as 
 possible, and thus enable slight variations to be effected. It may 
 perhaps be stated that the cam shaft is technically said to 
 " make the changes " when it rotates in the manner described. 
 (263) Instead of employing a clutch like P P 1 on the back 
 shaft, as described in paragraph 258, it is in some makes of mule 
 the practice to drive the back shaft by a train of wheels from 
 the roller shaft, and to mount these in a lever having an oscil- 
 latory movement round the roller as a centre. This lever M, 
 which is shown in Fig. 186, is known as the Mendoza lever, 
 is centred on the roller shaft, and is oscillated by suitable 
 means from the cam shaft or long lever. The wheel Q is 
 fixed on the roller shaft, and drives through the intervention 
 of a carrier wheel the wheel Q 1 compounded with which is the 
 pinion R. R in turn drives the wheel P on the back shaft 
 H. The communication of the motion from the roller to the 
 
4i 8 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 Dack shaft only takes place when the pinion R engages with 
 the wheel P. The exact period when this occurs is, as will be 
 understood, the same as that when the back shaft clutch is 
 engaged that is, immediately after the carriage has finished 
 its inward run. During the periods of backing off and winding 
 the lever M is raised so that the pinion R is out of gear with the 
 wheel P. It often happens, therefore, that, as the back shaft 
 immediately commences to revolve and draw out the carriage, a 
 considerable strain is put upon the wheels P R, which some- 
 
 FIG. i 86. 
 
 jump out of gear in consequence. In engaging again, 
 tnere is a danger of broken teeth, and this is one of the parts of 
 a mule where there is considerable risk of damage. It is not 
 :m unusual thing to see the pinion R dance in and out of gear 
 with P until the inertia of the carriage is overcome, and 
 \his is one of the chief objections to the Mendoza lever. 
 There is always a difficulty in engaging a revolving and a 
 stationary wheel, and it very often results in breakage, especially 
 :f the power to be transmitted through the stationary wheel is 
 threat. Tt is true that the weight of the Mendoza lever and 
 
MULE SPINNING. 419 
 
 its attached parts is considerable, but that does not prevent 
 this slip or failure to engage taking place. It is accordingly 
 desirable to make some provision for ensuring that the moment 
 the Mendoza lever falls and the pinion R engages with the wheel 
 P it shall be locked and prevented from rising. In the arrange- 
 ment made by Messrs. John Hetherington and Sons this trouble 
 is avoided. Fixed in the Mendoza lever M is a pin M 1 which 
 is long enough to take into an open mouthed slot S 1 in a 
 counter-balanced lever S. S is hinged to the framing, and 
 when left entirely free, its horizontal arm being heavier than the 
 vertical, causes it to overbalance the latter. The result is that 
 a shoulder formed in the slot S 1 at the point shown falls over 
 the pin and firmly secures the lever M. As the carriage O runs 
 in, a bowl O 1 fixed on it engages with the angular portion of the 
 lever U and raises it, thus freeing the lever S from the sustaining 
 effect of the tail end U 1 of the lever U. It will be noticed that 
 a small ear S 2 on S has a screw fitted, the point of which bears 
 on U 1 . So long, therefore, as the lever U can freely move on 
 its centre the lever S is held in position to allow the free passage 
 of the pin M 1 into the slot S 1 ; but when it is raised as described 
 the lever S is allowed to oscillate and thus lock the Mendoza. A 
 glance at the illustration will show that it is not until the bowl 
 O 1 passes from the angular to the straight part of U that the 
 absolute locking of S 1 and M 1 can take place, and this is simulta- 
 neous, or practically so, with the engagement of the pinion R 
 with the wheel P, which, as explained, occurs as the strap is 
 transferred to the fast pulley. After the carriage has made a small 
 portion of its outward run, the lever U is released by the bowl O 1 , 
 and the locking lever S is thus oscillated so as to free the pin M 1 . 
 By this time the carriage has gained its- full momentum, and 
 the chances of disengagement of P and R are very slight. It 
 occasionally happens that in cleaning, the minder will run out 
 the mule a little and then change the cam without freeing the 
 lever U. The result is that both the back shaft and taking-in 
 shaft are in gear, and the two sets of bands are pulling against 
 each other, there being in this case a great danger of serious 
 
420 
 
 straining of the carriage. Breakages thus occur, and to avoid 
 these there is attached to the long lever T an arm T 1 engaging with 
 a relieving lever V, the tail V 1 of which presses upon a small pro- 
 jecting piece S 4 formed on the lever S. Any elevation of the in- 
 ward end of the long lever T which is what takes place under the 
 circumstances named is followed by the arbitrary release of the 
 pin M 1 and the slot S 1 . Thus the chance of a breakage is 
 practically avoided. With a contrivance of this character 
 many of the evils usually existing with this type of gear are 
 entirely removed. The Mendoza is raised by means of a 
 lever X operated from the cam shaft, and can be locked in 
 position by the small catch Y which is employed to hold it 
 up when desired. This is very useful at times, when it is 
 desired to clean or make adjustments of the parts. Although 
 the Mendoza lever is perhaps more widely employed by makers 
 than the clutch, the latter is on the whole less liable to induce 
 breakages, and can be more certainly and smoothly put into 
 gear. In another make of mule a very similar catch is employed 
 to prevent the engagement of the taking-in friction, even after 
 the cam has been changed, and in this way breakage is avoided. 
 (264) Before describing the operation of a strap relieving 
 motion, it is necessary to deal with the method of operating 
 the friction cone A 1 , shown in Figs. 176 and 185. As will be 
 seen in those illustrations, A 1 has a ring groove formed on its 
 boss, by means of a lever engaging with which it can be moved 
 along the rim shaft towards or away from the pulley A. With- 
 out stopping at present to enquire how this is done, it may be 
 stated that the friction cone is always revolving, being driven 
 (as shown in Fig. 176) by the train of wheels B 1 on the boss of 
 the loose pulley, D 2 on the side shaft D, and pinion D 1 , also on 
 that shaft, and engaging with wheel A 1 . The loose pulley is 
 always revolving, owing to the overlap of the strap previously 
 referred to, or, in some cases, is separately driven by a grooved 
 pulley fixed on D. In either case, the friction cone A 1 is 
 always revolving. B 1 having 23 teeth and D 2 55, the velocity of 
 
 the side shaft D is ^ x 600= 251. D 1 having 14 teeth and A 1 
 
MULE SPINNING. 421 
 
 112 teeth, the speed of A 1 is - L x 251 ;= 3i'37 revolutions 
 
 that is, when the strap is transferred from the fast to the loose 
 pulley, as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 176, and the 
 engagement of A and A 1 takes place, A is revolved, as in the 
 rim shaft C, at a speed of 31*37 revolutions. The spindles are 
 
 therefore revolved at a velocity of - x 31 -37 = 460. Their 
 
 direction of motion is, however, reversed, and is utilised for a 
 purpose to be shortly described. The point it is desired to 
 make is, that the engagement of the friction clutch A 1 with A, 
 when the rim shaft is running at its normal velocity, entails the 
 expenditure of a good deal of power to arrest the motion of the 
 rim shaft and spindles prior to the direction of that motion 
 being reversed. So great is that power that many spinners 
 prefer to begin to transfer the strap from the fast to the loose 
 pulley at a time a few inches before the carriage reaches the 
 end of its outward run. It is also a common practice to fix on 
 the end of the shaft D a grooved rope pulley, which is driven 
 by a separate band from the counter shaft, thus relieving the 
 gearing driving the backing-off friction considerably. This 
 practice is becoming common, and the back view of a mule so 
 fitted is shown in Fig. 187. In order to avoid confusion the 
 same letters of reference are used for the same parts. There 
 are many advantages in this arrangement, as there is a greater 
 command both of the "backing-off" and "taking-in" friction 
 clutches, and less strain is thrown upon the rim shaft. As mules 
 are now very long the inertia of the parts is considerable, so 
 that a reduction of the power transmitted through the belt is 
 very advantageous. Of course when this- additional driving is 
 provided, the velocity of the side shaft D can be regulated 
 with ease by the provision of a suitably sized pulley. Special 
 arrangements are made to keep the bands in tension. The 
 premature transferral of the strap involves the diminution of 
 the velocity of the spindles, and also necessitates the abolition 
 of the strap lever cam Y, as the work of moving the strap in 
 
422 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 either direction is performed by the pull of springs which are 
 brought into action by the release of catches or detents by 
 means of levers. The result of such a transfer of the strap is 
 to reduce the friction named to a considerable extent because the 
 momentum of the carriage decreases more gradually, as can 
 easily be understood. Thus, when it arrives at the end of the- 
 
 FIG. 187. 
 
 stretch the power required to arrest the movement of the spindles 
 and reverse its direction is much less than it otherwise would be. 
 The construction of strap relieving motions is very simple, 
 consisting of a hinged lever, which is coupled to a connecting- 
 rod, which, in turn, is jointed to the strap lever. The first- 
 named lever is arranged to have one end of it so disposed as to 
 
MULE SPINNING. 423 
 
 come into contact with a stud fixed on the carriage. The stud 
 is capable of adjustment, and should be set so that it will have 
 depressed the hinged lever sufficiently to move the strap, and 
 cause it to be leaving the fast pulley when the carriage finally 
 arrives in its outermost position, and is locked. Means of 
 adjustment are provided at various points in the series of levers, 
 so as to give them a greater or less range of action. The chief 
 merit of a motion of this character is the saving of wear caused 
 by the reduced friction of the parts. In addition, when required, 
 it undoubtedly relieves the cam of much of its work. It also 
 enables the minder to have a better control of the mule, which, 
 owing to the fact that the strap fork is not moved by the cam, 
 but oy springs, is more easily stopped at any point. On the 
 other hand tnere is the undoubted fact that the amount of twist 
 is reduced during tne time that the carriage is gradually coming 
 to rest. The strap being ordinarily traversed by this motion 
 when the carriage is from 7 inches to 9 inches from its outermost 
 point, the velocity of the spindles is of necessity reduced. It is 
 true that the velocity of the rollers is also reduced, but the effect 
 of the reduction in the latter case is not so great as the loss of 
 speed in the spindles themselves. If the relieving motion is 
 used, this factor should not be lost sight of. More important than 
 this, however, is the fact that, when it is employed, " twisting at 
 the head " is impossible. It is doubtful whether this alone does 
 not outweigh all the advantages obtained from a relieving 
 motion. When the final twist is put in with the carriage out, 
 the yarn has been drawn by the gain of the carriage, and is in 
 the best condition for receiving twist. Therefore, the practice 
 of twisting at the head although not permissible with some 
 classes of cotton possesses real advantages which cannot be 
 overlooked. For these reasons, although the relieving motion 
 undoubtedly has advantages, it possesses other disadvantages, 
 which should be borne in mind. Its profitable employment or 
 otherwise depends upon circumstances, and can be best deter- 
 mined by every spinner for himself. It will probably be found 
 most advantageous when the coarser counts are being spun, 
 
424 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 especially when short stapled cotton is used. Before passing on 
 to consider the next branch of the subject, it may be stated that 
 a duplex system of driving has found extensive employment. In 
 this case there are (see Fig. iSS) two fast and two loose pulleys 
 on the rim shaft, two belts of less width than those ordinarily 
 used being also employed. There is thus a less range of 
 movement required in the strap guide, and consequently 
 less power required to move the straps, while the bite upon 
 the pulleys is increased. On the ether hand, there is the 
 
 J.N. 
 
 FIG. 1 88 
 
 difficulty which arises when it is necessary to keep two straps 
 uniformly of one tension. This factor is a most powerful one, 
 and all kind of schemes have been devised to overcome it. 
 Straps have been specially constructed from the same hide in 
 order to get a similar strength and structure, but the trouble of 
 unequal tension is only partly overcome. From this cause there 
 is a loss of power, which has an important bearing on this 
 matter from the commercial point of view. It is also alleged 
 thn.t the starting of the mule is made too rapidly, thus giving 
 
MULE SPINNING. 425 
 
 too great a shock. There is, however, the fact that the strap is 
 moved more quickly, and in beginning to "back off" this is a 
 matter of great advantage. 
 
 (265) The cessation of the whole of the motion of the parts 
 having been accomplished it is now necessary to obtain the 
 backward movement of the spindles which has been referred to, 
 this being known as " backing off." The reason of this pro- 
 cedure is as follows : A cop is built or wound on to the spindle 
 in gradually ascending coils which, as will be hereafter fully 
 explained, are at first laid only upon a certain part of the length 
 of the spindle, and are subsequently wound on the further 
 portion of it so as to cover the greater part of the blade. As 
 the yarn passes over the point of the spindle it is coiled round 
 it in coarsely-pitched spirals until it finally reaches the nose of 
 the cop, whatever may be the position of the latter. Reference 
 may be made to Fig. 189 to elucidate this point. It has already 
 been explained that the coils are put on the spindle by its revo- 
 lution when twisting the yarn. It is obvious that if the yarn be 
 held at both ends and the spindle is revolved it will wind 
 itself tightly on the latter in coils which will have a pitch con- 
 trolled by the length of yarn and diameter of the spindles. It 
 is quite clear that if the yarn so wound on was drawn upwards, 
 or if the motion of the spindle was reversed, the coils would 
 be unwound and the yarn freed. It is not possible in the mule 
 to take the first of the two courses named, and it is accordingly 
 the practice to take the second. Thus the coils shown in 
 Fig. 189, while formed by the*, rotation of the spindle in one 
 direction, are released by its revolution in the other. As it is 
 necessary to commence winding at a point a little below the 
 upper end of the cop, the yarn must be depressed from the line 
 it forms between the rollers and spindle during spinning to a 
 line drawn from a little below the nose of the cop to the rollers. 
 It is clear that if the yarn remained coiled on the spindle blade 
 between its point and the nose of the cop it could not be forced 
 down in the manner described. Thus it is essential that between 
 the moment when the movement of the various parts ceases 
 
426 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 and winding begins, the length of yarn which, as described, is 
 on the spindle blade, must be released. It is obvious that the 
 length to be unwound is never very great, and is gradually 
 reduced, so that the operation only lasts for a very short period, 
 which renders the shape of the friction cones a matter of impor- 
 
 FIG. 189. 
 
 tance as affecting its easy engagement and disengagement. 
 Backing-off is effected by the engagement of the friction clutch 
 A 1 with the pulley A when the strap is on the loose pulley B. 
 In order to make this movement clear, reference can be made 
 to the diagrammatic illustration given in Fig. 190 (p. 427). 
 Tt may be explained that this diagram represents the 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 427 
 
 mechanism opened out, that which adjoins one side of the 
 framing being shown at one end of the drawing, and that which 
 adjoins the other side at the other end, although in actual prac- 
 tice they are parallel to each other, as shown in the dia- 
 gram of positions on the right hand top corner in which 
 the carriage O is shown at right angles to the head : 
 stock as it really is. The contact between the two parts of 
 the clutch A A 1 is established by means of a movement 
 given to a vertical lever D, which is fixed, as shown in Fig. 185, 
 on a short arbor placed above the groove in the boss of A 1 . On 
 the same arbor, which is free to oscillate, is a claw lever engaging 
 
 
 S L 
 
 
 1 
 
 R X 
 
 O 
 
 u 1 
 
 W 
 
 Y 
 
 FIG. 190. 
 
 with the ring groove, so that the oscillation of D in either direc- 
 tion engages or detaches the clutch A 1 . The lower end of D is 
 arranged so that it passes over a rod X. which is guided by 
 suitable brackets attached to the longitudinal framework of the 
 headstock. On the rod X are two stop hoops X 1 X 2 , and between 
 X 2 and the end of the lever D a spiral spring is threaded on the 
 rod, Fig. 190. The backing off lever D has a pin fixed in it 
 which engages in a slot formed in the horizontal catch lever 
 controlling the movement of the strap. It is essential that the 
 transferral of the strap to the loose pulley shall be nearly simul- 
 taneous with the backing-off, but it is equally essential that the 
 
428 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 latter operation shall not possibly precede the former. In order 
 to give the requisite power to push over the lever, the spring on 
 X is put into compression a little before the strap is moved. 
 This is effected by means of the lever V, which is hinged on 
 the carriage O, and has a constant pull exercised on it by the 
 spring V 1 , so that it presents its open mouth to the end of one 
 arm of the lever L pivoted on a stud attached to the headstock. 
 The lever V is, from its shape, called the " shark's jaw " or " fish 
 jaw " bracket. The upper end of L is jointed to the backing-off 
 rod X. When the carriage runs out the bowl at the end of the 
 horizontal arm on L engages with the angular portion of the 
 mouth of V, and the lever L is thus oscillated so as to com- 
 press the spring on X. As soon, therefore, as the horizontal 
 strap catch lever is released, as described in paragraph 262, the 
 spring, which has previously pushed over the backing-off lever D 
 as far as it can move, continues the forward motion, and so 
 brings the backing-off friction A 1 into contact with A 2 . It is 
 important to note that the backing-off lever must be actuated so 
 as to gradually establish the contact between the backing-oft 
 friction cones. Two objects are served by this. In the first 
 place, the friction is considerably reduced, and the heat arising 
 from it is to a great extent avoided. It should, however, be 
 stated that, owing to the large diameter of the backing-oft 
 friction which is now adopted, the power exerted is better applied 
 and the spindles are gradually but rapidly brought to rest prior 
 to their reversal. This is the second object aimed at. As soon 
 as backing-off commences and the yarn wrapped between the 
 nose of the cop, and the point of the spindle is being released 
 it becomes necessary to take up this portion of it so as to pre- 
 serve the tension existing in each length. If this object is not 
 attained the twist in the yarn would cause it to run into little 
 kinks or loops, known technically as " snarls." The manner by 
 which this is effected will now be described, reference being 
 made to Fig. 191. 
 
 (266) The thread is guided by means of a wire N fixed in 
 the ends of sickle-shaped arms, which are fixed, at intervals, on 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 429 
 
 a longitudinal rod B, which can be freely oscillated. As de- 
 scribed in paragraph 253 this wire is known briefly as the 
 "faller." The arms are, from their shape, spoken of as 
 "sickles," and the rod as the " faller rod." There is also a 
 second set of sickles which sustain the " counter faller " wire M ; 
 the former being fixed on the " counter faller " rod B 1 . It is, 
 perhaps, necessary to say that the winding and counter fallers 
 extend along the whole length of the carriage, and should be kept 
 
 FIG. 191. 
 
 straight throughout their entire length. It will be noticed that the 
 counter faller presses against the underside of the yarn so as to 
 divert it from the direct line between the rollers and the cop. 
 The winding and counter faller rods are set quite parallel with the 
 centre of the tin rollers, and when the carriage is at its innermost 
 point the same parallel relation should exist between them and the 
 rollers. It was stated in the last chapter that the object of the 
 counter faller wire was to take up the yarn as it is delivered from 
 the spindle during the process of backing-off. The maintenance 
 
430 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 of the required pressure to sustain the whole of the threads in 
 
 the manner described, entails the freedom of oscillation of the 
 
 counter taller rod, and also necessitates the balancing of the 
 
 counter fallers so that they will easily yield when anything above 
 
 the normal pressure is put upon them. The action of the 
 
 counter faller is in brief a negative one, and is practically that 
 
 of a compensating motion. The object of the winding faller, 
 
 on the other hand, is to press down the yarn to the required 
 
 point for the commencement of winding, and subsequently to 
 
 guide it in such a way as to enable it to be wound on the cop. 
 
 It becomes therefore essential that the motion of the winding 
 
 faller shall be rigidly controlled, and for that reason it is 
 
 attached to suitable mechanism. There is, however, a co- 
 
 relation between the two fallers, and it is necessary to use 
 
 such means as preserves this. On the counter faller rod 
 
 B 1 , Fig. 191, a curved sector E is fastened, which has 
 
 attached to and passing ovei it a chain E 1 . This is fixed at its 
 
 lower end to a weighted lever J, which is hinged to the under 
 
 side of the carriage O. The weight of J is sufficient, when the 
 
 counter faller rod is free, to oscillate it, but ordinarily the weight 
 
 of J is taken by a second chain or band I, which is attached to J 
 
 at a point nearer its fulcrum. I is fixed to a hook attached to 
 
 a bracket S fastened on the winding faller rod B. This bracket 
 
 is formed with a stop resting on the counter faller rod, and is 
 
 normally pulled in that direction by the spring V. The result 
 
 is that the extent of the upward movement of the winding faller 
 
 is regulated. As " backing-off" proceeds the winding faller 
 
 slowly descends, and the chain I is thus by the oscillation of 
 
 the bracket gradually slackened until a point is reached when 
 
 the lever J is free to exercise a pull on the chain E 1 , and thus 
 
 cause the counter faller to press on the underside of the threads. 
 
 By means of the angular slide Q, the weight lever J is lifted 
 
 just before backing-off when the carriage is at the end of its 
 
 stretch, and the bowl W can be similarly adjusted, if desired, 
 
 at the other end of the stretch. The regulation of the weight 
 
 of the lever T is very important, and it is arranged to be readily 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 43 I 
 
 increased by the addition of small balance weights. The state 
 of equilibrium established depends entirely upon the yarn being 
 spun, and must be carefully regulated for that purpose. For 
 fine or delicate yarns the counterpoise must, of course, be more 
 exact than when stronger yarns are being spun, and a little 
 practice will speedily enable the correct results to be attained. 
 It is easily possible to adjust the balance so that a few threads 
 in extra tension will depress the counter faller, and this is one 
 of the small points which require constant attention. 
 
 FIG. 192. 
 
 (267) We now come to deal with the method of actuating 
 the winding faller, and this brings us to the consideration of a 
 very important portion of the whole operation. The winding 
 faller rod B has pivoted to it an arm D (see Fig. 192), which is 
 curved at one end so as to pass over the counter faller rod B 1 , 
 and thus forms a sector C, which is jointed at C 1 to the 
 "locking" lever A or "boot-leg," as if is sometimes called. 
 A chain D 1 is fastened to the outer end of D and passes over 
 the pulley F, borne by the lever F 1 , being attached to a snail or 
 scroll K mounted in the tin roller shaft. The snail is geared 
 by means of a ratchet clutch in such a manner that it is only 
 revolved when the tin roller is reversed during backing off. The 
 
432 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 effect of this arrangement is that the moment the tin roller 
 shaft begins to run backward, the chain D 1 is wound on the 
 snail K, and thus draws down the backing off finger D. 
 This raises the locking lever A, and at the same time 
 necessarily depresses the winding fallen As soon as the latter 
 reaches the point which it should occupy at the commencement 
 of winding, the shoulder A 1 is pulled over the bowl carried 
 at the end of the lever L, called the "trail" lever, which 
 is hinged to the carriage, as shown. In some cases a small 
 slide or bracket is used instead of the trail lever, but 
 the effect is the same. L carries a small bowl L 1 , which 
 rests on the top of a longitudinal rail P, along which it 
 is traversed by the movement of the carriage. As soon as 
 the engagement of R and the bowl in L takes place, the 
 "locking" lever and winding faller are said to be "locked," 
 and the commencement of winding is possible. It should be 
 noticed that during the time the locking lever is being raised 
 the counter faller balance weight is being released, so that 
 simultaneously with the descent of the winding faller, the 
 counter faller is raised by the action of the lever J. In many 
 mules this is all the mechanism which is provided, but in the 
 special arrangement which is illustrated in Fig. 192, there is 
 provision made for an adjustment of the position of the faller 
 wires. It can be readily understood that the number of revolu- 
 tions to be made in a backward direction by the spindles during 
 backing off will vary with the position which the winding faller 
 must assume at the beginning of winding. Further, backing 
 off commences a little in advance of the full depression of the 
 faller, so that there is a short length of yarn unwound before 
 the faller presses on it. The ratio of this prematurely released 
 yarn to the whole is greatest near the termination of the cop, 
 and gradually increases as the cop is built. For these reasons 
 it is necessary to expedite the movement of the faller so as to 
 cause its engagement with the yarn at the earliest moment. At 
 the commencement of a cop the distance traversed by the 
 winding faller is greater than at its termination, and it is locked 
 
MULE SPINNING. 433 
 
 at an earlier moment, because the subsequent descent of the 
 copping rail raises the initial position of the faller. The amount 
 of lagging in the winding faller which is permissible when a cop 
 is being commenced is absolutely detrimental when it approaches 
 its conclusion, because the ratio of this retardation to the total 
 traverse is much greater in the latter case. It is, therefore, 
 absolutely necessary to draw the winding faller down at an earlier 
 moment and at a quicker velocity. In order to effect this, a 
 lever H is pivoted to the carriage, and can oscillate within the 
 limits shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 192 on a stud fixed to 
 it, having its range of motion controlled by a claw, the two horns 
 of which engage with a stop H 1 , fastened to the carriage. The 
 vertical arm of this lever carries a bowl N 1 which engages with 
 the top of a bracket N, which is gradually pushed under it, as 
 afterwards described. The horizontal arm has attached to it a 
 rope or chain which gradually winds on to the snail the backing- 
 off chain. Thus the latter is gradually tightened, and from 
 being quite slack at the commencement of a set of cops, is 
 drawn into complete tension at the termination. In this way 
 the required expedition and acceleration of the descent of the 
 faller are obtained. 
 
 (268) As soon as the faller is locked, the period of backing-off 
 is at an end, and the parts want adjusting for winding, but it 
 should be stated that the carriage is locked while at its outer- 
 most point, and must be released prior to the beginning of its 
 inward run during winding. In order to illustrate this, the 
 diagram in Fig. 190 may again be referred to. On the carriage 
 O is a bracket O 1 in which a stud O" is fixed, with which the 
 end of the horizontal arm S 1 of the bell crank lever S can 
 engage. As will be seen by referring for .a moment to Fig. 197 
 the catch O 1 is a pin capable of adjustment by the screw shown. 
 The lever is jointed to the horizontal rod R, which is coupled to 
 a second lever U 1 , also free to oscillate. U 1 is attached by the 
 connecting rod U with the lever W, and the latter is connected 
 to the horizontal arm of Z 1 by the rod M. Thus a connection 
 is set up between the cam Z, which controls the back shaft 
 
434 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 clutch P, and the " holding-out catch-rod " R. When the 
 carriage is running out, and has nearly arrived at the termination 
 of itc outward run, the movement of the rod X, obtained in the 
 manner described in paragraph 265, causes the lever Y to be 
 oscillated on its pivot. There is a short arm Y 1 formed on Y, 
 which is pushed under the end of W 1 of the lever W, and acts 
 as a support for it and the top conical dish I 1 . W 1 is forked, and 
 has pins fixed in the fork which project into the ring groove 
 in the dish I 1 , thus controlling and sustaining it. When the 
 carriage arrives at the end of its outward run, the cam Z makes 
 a change and detaches the clutch P on the back shaft H. 
 Previously to that period the rod R is free, so that the catch on 
 S easily rises and falls over the pin in O 1 , thus locking the 
 carriage securely. It will be seen that at the moment of locking 
 three things happen : the carriage is locked, the dish -I 1 is locked 
 so that it cannot fall into gear with K, and the backing-oft 
 friction is being pushed over by the spring on X, as previously 
 described. The carriage can be locked at the end of any stretch 
 by the pedal lever fixed to the floor. 
 
 (269) We have now reached the fourth period that ot 
 winding, in which the nicest mechanical problems existing in 
 the mule are found. At the moment when backing-oft" is 
 finished, the parts are in the following position : The strap is 
 on the loose pulley ; the backing-off clutch is in gear ; the 
 spindles are revolving in a backward direction; the winding 
 faller is locked in a position a little below the nose of the cop ; 
 the counter faller is held just out of contact with the threads, 
 but is released as soon as the carriage moves in ; the roller and 
 back shaft clutches are disengaged, and the upper half of the 
 friction clutch I 1 K is out of gear with the lower, but is revolving 
 with the shaft on which it slides. It is, therefore, necessary, in 
 order to commence winding, for the following things to be done : 
 the backing-off clutch must be disengaged, the carriage must be 
 unlocked, the friction clutch I 1 K engaged so as to give motion 
 to the bands which draw in the carriage, the counter faller 
 released, and the spindles revolved at a velocity sufficient to * 
 
MULE SPINNING. 435 
 
 take up the length of yam as it is freed by the run in of the 
 carriage. These different steps will be treated in the order 
 named, and in doing so we shall deal with several problems 
 arising. 
 
 (270) It should be noted that when the whole of the yarn has 
 been unwound from the spindles and taken up by the faller the 
 function of the backing-off clutch is finished and it may be 
 detached. As the backing-off chain draws down the backing-off 
 finger D it can freely move, but as soon as the locking lever is 
 ready for locking, the continued movement of the backing-off 
 finger ceases, and the chain draws in the upper end of the lever 
 V, and by means of the connecting lever F 1 , also pulls in the 
 lever A and thus locks it. This same movement withdraws the 
 mouth of the lever V from the end of the lever L, and when the 
 sudden inward motion of the locking lever is made, the pressure 
 of the lower jaw of V causes the lever L to be moved in the 
 direction of the arrow. The result is the disengagement of the 
 backing-off clutch by reason of the pressure of the stop X 1 
 against the lever D ; the motion of the rod X being aided by 
 the extension of the spiral spring threaded on it. The move- 
 ment of the rod oscillates the lever Y and takes away the 
 supporting arm Y 1 from under the end W 1 of the lever W. In 
 this way the dish I 1 can fall into contact with the lower clutch 
 K. It is imperative that the dish I 1 shall fall into gear with K 
 as soon as backing-off is completed, and for this reason it is 
 always so held that the release of a stop is all that requires to be 
 done. There are many modifications of the mechanisms which 
 is used for this purpose, but they all proceed upon the same 
 principle. The dish is held in suspension by a suitable lever 
 and stop, upon the removal of which the engagement takes 
 place. In one instance an attempt has been made to do away 
 with the dish clutch, and use a movable strap on two pulleys 
 fixed on the side shaft, but in this arrangement there is not 
 the element of sudden contact, which is of great value. The 
 fall of the end W 1 of the lever W is aided by the pull of a 
 spring Q, which is attached to the arm of the backing-off 
 
436 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 clutch lever T, which rests on a stop fixed in the horizontal arm 
 of the lever Z 1 . In order to permit of this movement of the 
 lever W on its centre there is a slot in one end of the connecting 
 rod M, which is sufficient to allow of this motion without affect- 
 ing that of Z 1 . By means of the connecting rod U, lever U 1 , 
 and holding-out catch rod R, the motion of W is communicated 
 to the holding-out catch S, and thus unlocks the carriage. It is 
 obvious that the backing-off friction and the holding-out catch 
 must be nearly simultaneously released, and that they must be 
 quite free before the taking-in friction engages, as otherwise 
 there would be breakage. Thus there are many points of 
 adjustment provided. The stops X 1 X 2 can be set as required, 
 the connecting rod M, coupling Z 1 and W, can be also adjusted, 
 and the holding-out rod is also arranged to be regulated. The 
 effect is that immediately after the release of the ^carriage and 
 the detachment of the backing-off clutch, the taking-in clutch 
 I 1 K is engaged, and the carriage begins to run in. 
 
 (271) The shaft I (Figs. 176, 177, 187), on which is mounted 
 the friction clutch I 1 , is driven from the side shaft D by means 
 of the bevel wheels S S 1 . The lower part of the half clutch K is 
 formed as a pinion K 2 , which engages with the wheel K 1 fixed 
 on the shaft L, called the "scroll shaft." At one time it was 
 the custom to make this clutch with teeth (as shown in Fig. 174), 
 and there are still some mules working with this type. The 
 advantages of the newer form, however, are so manifest that it 
 may be fairly said that toothed clutches are becoming obsolete. 
 On the latter are several scrolls L 1 , which vary in diameter from 
 9 inches in the largest to 3 inches in the smallest portion. To 
 these scrolls are fastened ropes or bands, attached to the car- 
 riage, so as to draw it in when the shaft L is suitably revolved, 
 which it is when the "taking-in" clutch I 1 K is in gear. 
 Assuming the wheels S S 1 to have 28 and 31 teeth respectively, 
 and the pinion on K to have 20 teeth, while K 1 has 80, then 
 the speed of the shaft D being 251 revolutions (paragraph 264), 
 
 28 20 
 L revolves x - x 251 = 56*6 revolutions. Thus it will com- 
 
MULE SPINNING. 437 
 
 municate to the drawing-in bands when they are on the largest 
 diameter a speed of 1,600 inches per minute, and when on the 
 smallest diameter a velocity of 532 inches per minute. Tfy* 
 carriage is, of course, started at its slowest speed, and also 
 finisheTaFaSout the same velocity, attaining its highest, rate of 
 traverse at about the midc'lf; fit \ rtf ^""^ It is thus brought 
 evenly and easily to rest. The curve of the scrolls is carefully 
 formed, in order that the acceleration and diminution of the 
 the carnage speed may be obtained without any jerkiness or 
 irregularity, it being important that these should be avoided. 
 The formation of the scrolls is a problem of some nicety, looked 
 at from a mechanical point of view, but, as they are usually fixed 
 by the machinist, the method of making them does not belong 
 to the operation of spinning. There is fixed on the scroll shaft 
 an extra scroll L 2 , which is set at an angle of 180 to the others, 
 and which, being fitted with an extra band, which is naturally 
 diametrically opposite that of the remaining " scroll bands," is 
 wound on when they are unwound, and vice versa. The object 
 of this " check band " is to exercise a drag and avoid over- 
 running of the carriage, which it can be easily understood may 
 readily occur owing to the high and varying velocity of the car- 
 riage traverse. The scroll shaft only extends across the head- 
 stock, and the pull exerted by it is consequently confined to a 
 limited space. It is therefore the custom to fit an extra scroll L 3 , 
 which is connected by a band to the scroll H 3 on the back shaft 
 H, on which it is wound, as the latter is revolving to draw out 
 the carriage. When the scroll shaft is rotated at which time 
 the back shaft is free the latter, which extends behind the 
 carriage for its whole length, having scrolls at intervals, is con- 
 verted into a taking-in shaft, and powerfully aids in drawing in 
 the carriage without deflection. It will be noticed in Fig. 187 
 that the end bands have means of adjustment. These are pro- 
 vided in order to enable the carriage to be "squared," as it is 
 called that is, drawn into such a position that the centre line 
 through the points of the spindles is parallel with the rollers. As 
 fchis is a most important matter, it is proposed to spend a few 
 
43 S THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 words on it. The bands, being made of cotton, are, of course, liable 
 to stretch, and if one of them elongates more than the others, 
 it will follow that the carriage will have a varying pull exercised 
 on it at different points. The effect of this is, that when it is 
 being drawn in its great weight causes it to deflect from a truly 
 straight line, and the result is that the yarn is neither so evenly 
 drawn or wound as it ought to be, the tension on the different 
 ends not being the same. It is absolutely necessary for good 
 work that this departure from perfect alignment should be 
 obviated, and it is essential that minders and overlookers should 
 keep a sharp eye on this defect. The check bands require 
 considerable adjustment to make them work smoothly, so that 
 the carriage when it comes against the back stops, will come up 
 gently, and not with a bang. There is, towards the end of the 
 inward run, owing to the greater pull of the winding chain, 
 more resistance to the inward movement of the carriage, and 
 this tends to stretch the check bands. There are two principal 
 faults arising from an imperfect adjustment of the check band. 
 The carriage either comes against the back stops violently, or 
 pauses a little before doing so. The result is that in the first 
 case the threads will be snarled or broken, in the second case 
 winding takes place at such a tension that the ends are broken. 
 This matter of the stretching of the scroll bands is a most 
 material one if good work is wanted, as it will be shown here- 
 after how very important it is to have the tension on every 
 thread equal, which cannot happen if the carriage is out of 
 alignment. The length of mules is now so great that difficulty 
 is sometimes experienced, and the longer the mule the greater 
 the trouble. An increase in the diameter of the end bands 
 shown in Fig. 179 would probably be attended with good 
 results in the case of very long mules 
 
 (272) It is now possible to deal with the problems underlying 
 winding. It has been shown that the carriage is drawn in at a 
 variable speed, and that in so doing it releases the yarn held in 
 tension between the spindle point and the rollers. This it is 
 necessary to wind on the spindles, and in order to make quite 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 439 
 
 clear the nature of the problem thus stated, the construction of 
 the cop must be understood. For this purpose a reference to 
 Figs. 193 and 194 may be made. The cop is shown as a 
 cylindrical body or spool, formed with conical ends of different 
 tapers. The part indicated by the letters B, G, J, E, is nearly, 
 if not quite, cylindrical ; while to the bottom and top of these 
 are cones A, B, E, F, and G, H, I, J, respectively. The cop is 
 
 wound into this shape by wind- 
 ing upon the spindle successive 
 ascending layers of yarn. At 
 
 /I \\ first the yarn is only traversed 
 
 along a short part of the spindle 
 in closely pitched coils, the whole 
 of the first stretch being wound 
 
 / J4 \\ t within a vertical space of about 
 
 an inch. The next length of 
 yarn is wound upon that pre- 
 viously laid, and the initial point 
 at which winding begins is 
 gradually raised. It has been 
 previously pointed out that the 
 winding faller, when locked in 
 position ready to begin the 
 guidance of the yarn on to the 
 
 cop, 
 
 is a little below the " nose 
 
 FIG. 193. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 or uppermost point of the latter. 
 As soon as winding begins, the 
 first movement of the faller is 
 rapidly downwards, so as to 
 
 so as 
 
 lay the yarn upon the nose of the cop in widely pitched spirals, 
 as illustrated by the coarsely broken and rapidly descending 
 lines shown in Fig. 194. As soon as the winding faller reaches 
 the base of the top cone for the time being, it begins to rise at 
 a more gradual rate, and so allows the yarn to be wound in the 
 finely pitched spirals also shown in the same figure. The full 
 length of each stretch of yarn is wound by the time the winding 
 
440 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 faller reaches the uppermost point at the nose of the cop. After 
 the first layer or two have been wound, the initial position of the 
 faller wire is gradually raised, and its traverse slowly increased 
 until at last that portion of the full cop, as shown by the letters 
 A, B, C, D, E, F, is formed. This is known as the " cop 
 bottom," and some idea of the actual method of altering its 
 shape is shown by the angular lines. After the cop bottom is 
 fully formed, the traverse of the faller wire is gradually shortened 
 until the angle of the nose C, H, I, J is a little more acute than 
 that of the cone B, C, D, E. The length of the traverse of the 
 winding faller is called the " chase " of the cop. 
 
 (273) It is evident that we are at once confronted with a 
 problem similar in principle, although varying in character, 
 to that which was dealt with in connection with the roving 
 frame. We have to provide for winding each length of yarn 
 spun on to a surface of varying diameter while the delivery of it 
 remains constant, because even if the speed of the carriage varies 
 at different times during winding the velocity of the spindles 
 experiences a corresponding variation. It will, on the whole, 
 be better to deal with the actual mechanism employed to perform 
 the winding and the principles on which it rests before dealing 
 with the method of traversing the winding faller. The mechanism 
 employed in winding is shown in Figs. 195 and 196, to which 
 reference may be made. The winding chain or band C is 
 attached, at one end, to the scroll X 1 , and at the other is 
 attached to a small barrel E. The latter is carried by a slide A, 
 which is fitted to the face of the oscillating arm or "quadrant" 
 M, and has fastened to it a nut threaded upon the screw P. It 
 is clear that if the latter is revolved in either direction the 
 nut will be correspondingly traversed along the arm M. At 
 the lower end of A a pulley D is carried, which serves to act as 
 a guide for the "winding chain" C. The arm M has formed on 
 it a quadrant rack M 1 , with which a pinion Z engages, Z 
 receiving its rotation from the back shaft H, as the carriage 
 moves, by means of the band shown. Thus the motion of the 
 arm M in either direction is entirely controlled by that of the 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 441 
 
442 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 carriage O. On the lower end of the screw P a bevel pinion is 
 fixed, gearing with a similar pinion on the arbor or spindle on 
 which the grooved pulley P 1 is fastened. On the scroll shaft X, 
 which is carried by suitable bearings, a wheel X 2 is fixed, gearing 
 with a pinion V 2 on the tin roller shaft T (see Figs. 195, 197, 
 and 198). The pinion V 2 is in one piece with a disc V loose 
 upon the shaft T, so that any rotation of the disc has direct 
 driving power on the shaft. The disc V has fixed on it at one 
 point a pin on which a small catch or " click " V T is hinged. 
 The "click-catch " is formed with a forked end, against one side 
 of which the end of a bent " click-spring " W 1 ordinarily presses. 
 W 1 is formed so as to surround and clip the boss of the disc V, 
 
 FIG. 197. 
 
 and the pressure of its free end is ordinarily employed to 
 hold the " click-catch " out of gear with the " click- wheel " T 1 . 
 When, however, a slight oscillation of the "click-spring" in the 
 backward direction occurs it causes it to engage with the 
 wheel T 1 , and so rotates it. T 1 being fixed on the tin roller 
 shaft T, the latter is also rotated, and so communicates motion 
 to the spindle. The action of these parts is as follows : As the 
 carriage O is drawn in, the quadrant arm M begins to move 
 forward, and a pull is at once exercised on the winding chain. 
 A rotatory movement is at once given to X 1 , and the disc V is 
 moved a little forward, thus engaging the click-catch with the 
 wheel. The subsequent pull upon the chain continues to rotate 
 
MULE SPINNING. 443 
 
 the scroll X 1 and wheel X 2 , and consequently the tin roller shaft 
 T. The spindles are thus revolved, and by the arrangements 
 previously named, run at such a velocity as just to take up 
 the yarn as it is released. The arrangement just described is 
 the ordinary one, but the method ot engaging the click-catch is 
 somewhat defective. It will have been seen that only when the 
 disc V is being rotated in the manner described is the click- 
 catch in gear. As soon as the completion of winding takes place, 
 the spring W 1 acts upon the catch, and takes it out of gear. 
 The tin roller shaft can then be rotated entirely independently 
 
 FIG. 198. 
 
 of the winding scroll X 1 , from which the chain is withdrawn 
 during the forward movement of the quadrant arm M. It may 
 happen that when backing off is complete, the nose of the 
 click-catch may at one time be in close contact with the face of 
 the tooth in the click-wheel with which it must next engage, or 
 it may be only just over the point of the preceding tooth. In 
 the first case, the rotation of the tin roller would take place 
 immediately the scroll X 1 began to move, and in the other it 
 would not begin until the >catch had time to fully engage with 
 the next tooth. In the mean time the traverse of the carriage 
 
444 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 would release a little of the yarn, and in hard twisted yarns 
 the result is the production of " snarls " which are drawn on to 
 the cop. In order to avoid this difficulty a lever W is placed 
 on the tin roller shaft, and the spring W 1 fits on the boss of 
 this lever. A spring W 2 exercises a pull on W when the latter 
 is pushed back. If the lever W is oscillated, it causes the 
 spring to press the click-catch into gear, aud this movement is 
 obtained by means of a stop R 1 on the holding out rod R. 
 When the catch is released the movement of the rod R causes 
 the oscillation of W, as shown by the full lines, and thus 
 ensures the engagement of the click-catch. As soon as winding 
 is finished, and the holding-out rod assumes its normal position 
 in consequence of the movement of the cam, the weight of the 
 tail end of W causes it to again assume a perpendicular position, 
 and so disengage the click-catch. It is obvious tnat the stop 
 R 1 can be easily set so as to cause the full engagement of the 
 click-catch prior to the commencement of winding, so that there 
 is an equal celerity in commencing winding at every stretch. 
 The arrangement just described varies from the preceding one 
 in the fact that the click-catch is put in by an actual movement 
 prior to the commencement of the run in of the carriage, while 
 in the older method it was engaged in consequence of that 
 movement. 
 
 (274) There are two additional points to consider in relation 
 to this part of the subject. The first is the manner of rotating 
 the screw P, and the second the method of obtaining the 
 required terminal velocity of the spindles. The small pulley 
 P 1 (in Fig. 195) is, as shown, traversed by an endless cord or 
 band Q, which is taken over small carrier pulleys, and a large 
 carrier fixed, as shown, and also over two pulleys S S 1 sustained 
 in bearings attached to the carriage. If the whole of these 
 pulleys are free to revolve, the motion of the carriage in either 
 direction has no effect upon the cord Q, but if any one of these 
 is held, then the cord is locked and will receive motion. The 
 pulley S has affixed to it a winged wiper or detent, which is 
 formed with three teeth with straight faces. If, therefore, a 
 
MULE SPINNING. 445 
 
 catch is presented in the path of these teeth during their 
 rotation, and the pulley S prevented from rotating, the cord Q 
 will receive a longitudinal motion which will be communicated 
 to the pulley P 1 . In order to effect this, a lever Y, with a 
 downwardly projecting arm Y 2 , is hinged to the carriage O, and is 
 sustained by a chain Y 1 , one end of which is attached to an arm 
 U, on the faller shaft B, and the other to an arm U 1 , on the 
 counter faller shaft B 1 . The position of these arms is, of course, 
 controlled by the oscillation of the faller shafts, as previously 
 described. It is clear that if the two arms be depressed suffi- 
 ciently, the downward arm Y 2 on the lever Y will engage with the 
 winged detent on S. And it is equally obvious that the engage- 
 ment or non-engagement of the detent depends solely upon the 
 relative position of the arms U U 1 . The outward movement of 
 the nut only takes place during the time the cop bottom is being 
 formed. After every layer of yarn has been wound, the nut 
 remains in the same position until the next layer has been 
 begun. The alteration in the diameter of the cop, consequent 
 upon the winding of the last layer, increases the speed at which 
 the yarn is taken up, and consequently puts it in considerable 
 tension. The degree at which the diameter increases varies, of 
 course, with the yarn being produced, coarse yarns necessarily 
 giving a more rapid increase. The result is, however, that the 
 initial velocity of the spindles becomes too great after a certain 
 thickness of yarn has been laid, and establishes the tension 
 spoken of. In consequence of the manner in which the counter 
 faller is balanced, it yields to this tension, and thus slackens 
 the chain Y. The result is that the arm Y 2 falls into contact 
 with the catch on S, and prevents the pulley from turning. 
 Thus the cord Q is held between S and -S 1 , and is traversed. 
 The pulley P 1 , at the foot of the arm M, is rotated, and in 
 consequence the screw P is turned by means of the bevel wheels 
 shown. The bevel wheel on the spindle of the pulley P 1 is held 
 by a brake spring P 2 , which clips its boss and prevents it from 
 rotating with the forward motion of the quadrant, causing the 
 pinion on the screw to roll round it. When the cord Q is moved, 
 
446 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 as described, it overcomes the resistance of the clip, and rotates 
 the pulley and bevel wheel. When the winding faller is 
 depressed at the commencement of a set of cops its position is 
 lower than at subsequent periods, and consequently it requires 
 a greater elevation of the counter faller to disengage the catch 
 Y 2 than at later stages. In either case the effect is the same. 
 The advance of the nut from the centre gives it a little greater 
 movement horizontally, and so decreases during the early portion 
 of the carriage traverse the velocity of the spindles. The 
 tension on the yarn is thus released ; the counter faller rises, 
 and draws the catch Y 2 out of contact with S, thus causing a 
 cessation of the traverse of the nut. When the locking point 
 of the winding faller has been raised to that necessary when the 
 cop bottom is finished, the elevation of the arm U is sufficient 
 to prevent any further engagement of the catch Y 2 with S. 
 This it will be seen is simultaneous with the arrival of the nut 
 at its outermost point. From the fact that this motion is 
 intended to regulate the velocity of the spindles during winding 
 it is called the " governing " motion, or, on account of the use 
 of a band or strap to give rotation to the screw, a " strapping " 
 motion. Although on the whole this motion is an effective one 
 it is not without fault, and it is often found that the traverse of 
 the nut is not quick enough to preserve the correct tension. It 
 will have been observed that the motion of the nut takes place 
 when the winding is actually in operation, and that the tension 
 must be put upon the yarn before governing occurs. It 
 has been accordingly attempted by various devices to obtain 
 the required motion of the nut during the time that the quadrant 
 is making its backward stroke. In either case the regulation 
 is made from the fallers, and the relative elevation of these 
 regulates the period during which the nut is traversed. It 
 is essential that the yarn shall neither be stretched too tightly 
 or be too slackly wound, and this is a point which requires 
 care and watchfulness on the part of the minder. It is ques- 
 tionable whether any automatic motion will ever be an entirely 
 efficient substitute for this vigilance, and a good minder is able 
 
MULE SPINNING. 447 
 
 to keep his yarn in very even tension throughout a set of cops 
 by occasionally regulating the position of the nut, by means of 
 the handle shown. It is, of course, much to be preferred if an 
 efficient automatic motion can be substituted for a manual 
 operation, but there is generally some difficulty about this, and 
 it is troublesome to obtain. The skill of the minder is, in mule 
 spinning, at least, of great value, and will probably always 
 remain so. If Fig. 196 be observed, it will be seen that the 
 screw P has a rapidly decreasing pitch. Thus, one revolution ot 
 the screw, when the nut is near the centre, will move it more 
 rapidly outwards, and this enables the relatively rapid increase 
 in the diameter of the cop at this point to be compensated for, 
 the regulation of the initial velocity being thus accurately 
 accomplished. As a consequence of this construction, the nut 
 is made with a finger which enters the thread, so as to give it 
 perfect freedom when the screw rotates. 
 
 (275) Every layer of yarn wound is necessarily of uniform 
 length, and, as shown in Fig. 194, is distributed in ascending 
 coils on the cop for the greater part, and in descending coils 
 of coarser pitch for the lesser portion. It is also wound 
 throughout on varying diameters, except so far as the first 
 layer is concerned. For the present the taper of the spindle 
 blade will be disregarded. The yarn is supposed to be of 
 uniform diameter, and as the successive beds upon which it 
 is wound, after the cop bottom is fully formed, are uniform, 
 it follows that alike in the ascending and descending coils 
 the pitch is respectively similar. The speed of the cop ought, 
 therefore, to be in inverse ratio to the diameter both in the 
 upward and downward movement of the yarn, and the ratio 
 remains substantially uniform during the building of the body 
 of the cop. In other words, throughout the winding of the 
 several layers there is a uniform acceleration of the speed of 
 the cop during the ascent of the faller. During the descent 
 of the faller this variation is not so noticeable, for the rapid 
 motion given to the faller makes the spirals of a very coarse 
 pitch, thus giving a tight winding of the threads which causes 
 
44S 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 them to act as binders. The variations in the velocity during 
 the upward motion of the faller can be graphically shown by 
 hyperbolic curves, constructed by means of ordinates represent- 
 ing the number of turns which, for any given length of yarn 
 wound, are the reciprocals of the circumferences that is to say, 
 the quotient of any given unit divided by the circumference of 
 the cop at various points. When the first layer is wound on 
 the spindle little variation of speed occurs, but with each fresh 
 
 FIG. 199. 
 
 layer the differential action takes place, increasing until the 
 cop bottom is fully formed, after which it remains uniform. 
 There is an easy method of discovering the relative diameters 
 of the cop at any part of the cone. This is illustrated in 
 Fig. 199, and consists in producing the sides of the cone until 
 the lines meet at its apex. Then if X equals the length of 
 the truncated cone, and Y that from the point of truncation 
 to the apex, the full length is X + Y. If a equals the 
 diameter at the large end or base, and b that of the truncated 
 
MULE SPINNING. 449 
 
 point, then Y = (X + Y). A cop is, of course, a truncated 
 
 cone at that part where winding takes place, as shown in Fig. 
 193. If the full diameter be assumed to be i inch, the diameter 
 of the spindle T % inch, and the length of the conical portion 
 2 inches, then the length of the part Y of the cone is Y = - 1 3 7r 
 (2 4- Y) = '4615, and of the whole cone 2 + "4615 = 2-4615. 
 If any distance be selected from the apex or from the point of 
 the cop, it is easy to calculate the diameter of the cop at that 
 point. Thus if a point ^ inch from the nose of the cop be 
 selected, the distance from the apex is 75 + '4615 = i'2ii5 
 inch. If x be the required diameter at any point, at sayy 
 distance from the nose, then by the formula Yx (Y + y) b the 
 diameter can be obtained. If in this way the diameter be 
 calculated at the various positions, a curve can be described 
 which will graphically indicate the relation of the velocity 
 required to the diameter. 
 
 Let it be assumed that the cone of the cop is of the dimensions"' 
 given, i inch at its largest diameter, ^ inch at the nose, and 
 2 inches long. Its diameter at a point midway between the 
 base and nose would be '5922 inch. If it be also assumed 
 that the stretch is 64 inches the number of revolutions at that 
 
 point to wind that length will be - = 34*4. Where the cop 
 
 i *86 
 
 is i inch diameter the number of turns required would be only 
 20*4, while at the point they would be as nearly as possible 
 108*55. It nas been shown that the yarn is first wound in 
 quickly descending and part in more slowly ascending spirals. 
 In the whole stretch of 64 inches suppose that one-eighth 
 or 8 inches is laid during the downward movement, and 
 seven-eighths or 56 inches during the upward motion. The 
 downward layers are neglected in the demonstration which 
 follows, because they are not wound under the same con- 
 ditions as the upward coils ; but in Fig. 200 the nose of 
 a cop of the dimensions given is represented. This is 
 divided into 10 parts, and the required number of turns cal- 
 
450 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 culated to wind on at any of these points the same length of 
 yarn. The points are numbered i to i o, and on the horizontal 
 line A B ten equal divisions are also made. On each point or 
 division ordinates are erected. By cutting these ordinates to 
 any scale by the reciprocals of the circumferences, or by a length 
 representing the number of turns required, a curve can be drawn 
 which represents the variation in the bobbin velocity. It is 
 clear that the acceleration ought to take place at a quicker rate 
 during the downward winding when much fewer coils are laid, 
 but owing to the rapid descent, which crosses the yarn on the 
 
 O. . <&. 2> -*. 5. 6. 7- 8 ^. \o. 
 FIG. 200. 
 
 nose and thus avoids the necessity for a variation m speed, the 
 speed of the spindle is not at this point varied. 
 
 There are two points which principally affect this problem. 
 These are (i) the variation in the speed of the spindle and cop 
 necessary to wind the yarn properly on different parts of the 
 cone ; (2) the proper regulation of the movement of the guide 
 or faller wire. The first point involves the action of the winding 
 quadrant throughout the period of building, which, however, can 
 be considered along with it. As was said, the cop is a cylindrical- 
 conical body, which is built up of successive layers of yarn 
 wound on the conical surface. In order that the cop bottom 
 
MULE SPINNING. 45* 
 
 A, B, C, D, E, F, may be properly formed, it is necessary that 
 more yarn should be wound on the base than on the summit of 
 the cop. In this way the full diameter of the cop is slowly 
 reached, after which the elevation of the base remains uniform. 
 In other words, in building the cop bottom the enlargement of 
 the diameter of the point of the cone is slow, and that of the" 
 base is greater, so that the height of the cone grows more' 
 quickly. This is shown by the lines in Fig. 193, which illustrate- 
 the growth of the cop bottom. For the formation of the body;- 
 on the contrary, it is necessary to elevate the base and point 
 uniformly, so that the length of the cone remains the same, and 
 each fresh addition is substantially laid parallel to its predecessor;. 
 This remark is subject to a slight reservation. If the yarn were 
 wound upon a cylinder, the elevation of the base and summit 
 would be uniform, but, as the surface on which winding takes; 
 place is conical, it is found that the elevation of the point is; 
 lessened by reason of the conicity. The amount of correction^ 
 needed is not large, and amounts to less than three per eem-fc.. 
 
 (276) Before proceeding to show the principle underlying the- 
 action of the quadrant, reference may be made to Fig. 201. Let 
 it be assumed that the three sets of circles, B to G, H 1 to N l r 
 and O 1 to T 1 , represent the winding drum to which the chain is~- 
 attached, and that while it can be moved horizontally in the 
 direction of the arrows, it is quite free to rotate on its centre. 
 Let it first be supposed that the point A is a stationary one r 
 having no motion whatever, and that the winding drum is moved' 
 equal distances B, C, D, E, F, and G in a horizontal plane. 
 It is obvious, and is shown clearly in the upper series of circles } 
 that every such movement of the drum will cause a portion of 
 the chain to unwind from it, and, as a consequence, will rotate 
 the drum, as shown by the curved arrows. ' The result is, that 
 when the drum finally arrives at its last position, G, the chain is 
 entirely unwound from it, and has thus caused it to rotate ai 
 little over two revolutions. This is very clearly shown by the-' 
 series of small diagrams given below the circles, where the- 
 amount which the chain is wrapped on it, at each position, is 
 
45 2 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 indicated by the diagonal lines. In each of these diagrams the 
 centre of the drum is indicated by a vertical line, and its 
 diameter by the space between the two dotted vertical lines. 
 Thus in each of the positions, it will be seen that the chain is 
 gradually uncoiled, but it can also be noticed that as each hori- 
 zontal movement is assumed to be equal, the same length of 
 chain is unwound in consequence of each, and the rotation ot 
 the drum would be uniform. Now, let a reference be made to 
 the lower set of diagrams. In this case the point of attachment 
 of the chain, at its free end, is supposed to be a nut which can 
 slide out from the centre I, and which is carried by an arm H I, 
 to which, simultaneously with the movement of the drum hori- 
 zontally, a forward oscillating motion in the direction of the 
 arrow is given. In order to illustrate the point more fully, the 
 travel of the arm H I is divided into six equal j)arts, each or 
 which is assumed to be traversed during the period occupied by 
 the motion of the drum from one position to the next. In the 
 lower set of diagrams the nut is at a point only a little removed 
 from the centre. It will be noticed that as the arm H I 
 approaches the horizontal, the traverse of the nut, although 
 equal in a circular direction, becomes smaller horizontally. 
 This is clearly illustrated by the dotted vertical lines which 
 are drawn from each of the six positions of the nut, and 
 which cut the horizontal line given. The result is, that 
 while the drum is travelling the same distance as in the 
 upper diagram, the chain is delivered to it to the extent indi- 
 cated by the distance W X between the first and last of the 
 vertical dotted lines. The result is that when the drum reaches 
 its sixth position N 1 or T 1 the chain, instead of being 
 drawn from it to the full extent, as illustrated in the first series 
 of diagrams referred to, remains wrapped on it for a portion of 
 its circumference, as clearly shown. In other words, the drum 
 has made fewer rotations. But this is not the only difference. 
 If the small diagrams illustrating the wrapping of the chain on 
 the drum in the diagrams B to G and O 1 to T 1 be compared, it 
 will be seen that the chain, instead of being unwound to an 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 453 
 
 .. S 
 
454 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 equal extent as in the former case, is unwound in the latter 
 unequally during each stage. A comparison of the terminal 
 points of the line indicating the position of the end oi the chain 
 when on the drum will show this very clearly, and this is the 
 salient feature to which attention should be specially directed. 
 A close inspection should be made of these drawings, as it 
 enables the precise action which occurs in winding to be fully 
 comprehended. Now, if the point at which the nut is placed 
 on the arm be assumed to be moved outwards until it occupies 
 the position shown by the outer curve H N, then a still greater 
 variation arises. Again, the extent of each forward movement 
 of the nut is assumed to be equal, as is also each made by the 
 drum, and, as in the former case, lines indicating the chain are 
 drawn to the drums from the various points, H to N. The 
 chain, instead of being unwound entirely as indicated at G, or 
 to the extent shown at T 1 , is now only unwound as indicated 
 on the last of the circles, N 1 , in the centre set of diagrams. 
 It has, in fact, been delivered to the drum to the extent 
 indicated by the space U V between the first and last of the 
 vertical dotted lines drawn from each of the six assumed 
 positions of the nut, H to N. In addition to this, if the 
 diagrams illustrating the winding of the chain be examined it 
 will be seen that there is a great variation in the amount 
 unwound at each motion of the drum, and, if actual measure- 
 ments are made, this variation will be found to be considerable. 
 (277) In order to make this action clear, and enable the amount 
 of chain unrolled to be calculated, let it be assumed that the 
 winding barrel is 6 inches and the outermost position of the nut 
 30 inches from the centre C, Fig. 201. If the barrel is cylindrical, 
 as for the time is assumed, the movement of the carriage during 
 its inward run of 64 inches will unwind the chain in uniform quan- 
 tities for equal portions of that movement. The full traverse will, 
 of course, unwind 64 inches if the nut be fixed, which would 
 give a total revolution of 3*39 turns to the drum. By reason ot 
 the gearing between the drum and the spindles, which, it is 
 assumed, multiplies the rotation of the former by 19, this implies 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 455 
 
 the rotation of the latter 64*4 revolutions during the inward run. 
 As was seen, however, the forward movement of the quadrant 
 diminishes the number of turns of the drum, and all that is 
 necessary is to determine the amount. The quadrant arm is in 
 effect a crank, and the horizontal advance of the pin or of any 
 part corresponding to a pin along a straight line is determined 
 by the rules relating to the crank. All circular motion is a 
 compound of two movements, a vertical and a horizontal. Not 
 only does a crank pin rise vertically, but it also makes a horizontal 
 movement which can be set off on the line representing the 
 diameter. Let, in Fig. 202, A B represent the diameter of the 
 
 FIG. 20?. 
 
 circle described by the quadrant nut when at its outermost 
 position. Two quadrants of the complete circle are only shown, 
 as the movement of the nut takes place within these. Let C i 
 represent the most backward position which the arm assumes. 
 By dropping a vertical line from i till it cuts the line A B a 
 point marked E is got, which indicates the amount the pin has 
 moved in a horizontal direction, and this is calculated as 
 follows: Calling the angle E C i, a, the radius A C, b, and 
 the distance A E, c, then c=b (i - cos. a). Under the con- 
 ditions named A C = 30 inches and the angle = 77. The 
 cosine of 77 ='22495, an d the equation works out ^=30 
 
456 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING, 
 
 (i - '2249) = 30 = 6747 = 23-253, which is the distance the 
 point i, when described on the diameter, has moved from A towards 
 C. In completing its traverse from the position i to 2 the point 
 will approach and be finally coincident with the vertical radius 
 line C 2, at the same time advancing horizontally 6747 inches. 
 Let it now be assumed that the arm makes a further forward motion 
 of 70, which will take place in the second quadrant. It is 
 only necessary to deal with the motion in the same way as 
 previously to obtain the relative horizontal movement of 
 the nut and calculate each advance. This can be done by mul- 
 tiplying the sine of the angle measured from the vertical by the 
 radius of the circle described by the nut. Dividing the segment 
 of the circle traversed by the nut from the point 2 into 10 parts, 
 the advance in inches of the point representing the nut on the 
 diametrical line is found to be as follows, calling the various 
 positions 3 to 12 : (3) 3-654, (4) 3-6, (5) 3-49, (6) 3-33, (7) 
 3-113, (8) 2-86, (9) 2-56, (10) 2-23, (n) r86, (12) 1-46. It 
 is thus shown that as. the arm approaches the horizontal, the 
 forward motion of the nut thus .described on the diameter 
 decreases, so that it gradually appproximates to a fixed point, 
 which it would practically become when the lines Ci2 and CB 
 coincide. It is only necessary therefore to deduct at any of the 
 points the amount of horizontal advance of the nut from the 
 length of the carnage traverse, to obtain the actual angular 
 movement of the drum at any position, or, in other words, the 
 length of chain unrolled. Thus, if it be assumed that the 
 position of 70 from the vertical line be reached when the 
 carriage is at its innermost position, the amount of chain 
 unrolled is 64 inches, minus the total amount of the forward 
 motion of the chain nut, or 64 35*056= 28-944. This would 
 
 give to the drum ^ x ; t 5 = 1 '535 an< ^ to tne spindle a 
 
 total of 29*165 revolutions. By making a calculation of the 
 amount of chain unwound at each point the relative velocity of 
 the spindles can be arrived at, and this will be seen follows a 
 similar curve to that obtained as necessary for the proper wind- 
 
MULE SPINNING. 457 
 
 .ng of the cops. Thus assuming that the carriage in moving 
 from its initial to its final position is accompanied by a motion 
 of the arm through an arc of 83, of this 13 takes place in 
 the first quadrant prior to the vertical position being reached, 
 so that the proportionate amount the carriage must move is 
 
 ~ x 64 = 10 inches, leaving the remaining 54 inches to be 
 
 traversed during the rest of the quadrant stroke, or 5*4 inches 
 during each of the fractional movements named. The rotation 
 of the drum during a forward motion of 5*4 inches is, 
 if the nut be fixed, '35 revolutions, giving to the spindles a 
 motion of 6*65 revolutions. In the first part of the movement 
 of the arm from 2 to 3 the unwinding would only be 5*4 3*655 
 = 1 745 inches, and the number of revolutions of the drum and 
 spindles respectively '0936 and 1759. The revolutions of the 
 spindles at the various positions would be as in the following 
 statement, beginning at the point i : 
 
 Position 234567 
 
 Revolutions of spindles 3^23 175 i'8i 1*92 2^07 2^29 
 
 Position 8 9 10 n 12 Total 
 
 Revolutions of spindles 2*54 2*85 3-19 3-55 3-97 29^17 
 
 From the data thus obtained a curve can be described which 
 will give the rotation of the spindles as regulated by the winding 
 quadrant. This is shown in the upper curve, given as a broken 
 line in Fig. 201, and is substantially the same as the lower curve, 
 but is drawn to a rather larger scale. The base is divided into 
 ten equal parts, assuming the curve to start from the vertical 
 line C D, the portion of the traverse of the arm behind C D 
 being neglected. It will be easily understood that the horizontal 
 movement of the nut in the quadrant A C > is the same as that 
 in B C D, so that the rules hold good in each case. 
 
 The description thus given shows that the radius ot the circle 
 described by it has a controlling influence on the value of the 
 horizontal movement of the nut. All the other factors remain 
 similar, so that the reduction of the radius diminishes alike the 
 
45# THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 forward movement and its effect upon winding. If the centre 
 of the nut were coincident with the centre C of the arm it would 
 be practically a fixed point, and the unwinding would follow the 
 law laid down at an earlier stage. With the dimensions given, 
 this means that the value of the factor b in the equation c=b 
 (1 cos. a) increases from o to 30. As a matter of fact, in 
 actual construction this is not so, because the nut at its inner- 
 most position is always about 3 inches above the centre. The 
 effect is that, as the carriage moves in, equal distances travelled 
 by it give nearly equal numbers of revolutions to the drum and 
 spindles. As the nut moves out along the quadrant arm the value 
 of b increases, so that whenever it is used to calculate the advance 
 of the nut horizontally it gives a greater variation in the relative 
 rotation of the spindles at each movement of the nut. This, it 
 will be seen, is what is required, because during the building of 
 the cop bottom the growth of the diameter of the cop at the 
 base is, as was shown, rapid, so that the acceleration of the 
 velocity of the spindles at the end of winding, or conversely, its 
 retardation at the beginning of winding each stretch becomes 
 more necessary. When the cop bottom is fully formed the nut 
 is in its outermost position, and nothing more is needed in the 
 way of regulation. It is desirable to say that the effect 01 
 setting the quadrant arm behind the vertical line at the be- 
 ginning of its movement is to give for a longer period the rapid 
 horizontal advance of the nut, so as to diminish the velocity of 
 winding while the yarn is on the larger diameters. 
 
 (278) We have now to consider the second of the two points 
 which were named as essential to winding, viz., the method 01 
 guiding the yarn on to the nose of the cop so that it shall be 
 in the right position throughout to suit the velocity of the 
 spindles. The manner in which this object is attained is as 
 follows. Referring again to Fig. 205, it will be seen that the 
 bowl L 1 in the trail lever or slide rests upon the upper edge of 
 the rail P, which is known as the copping rail, and is drawn 
 over it by the carriage in its movement. As the latter travels 
 during its traverse along the slips, in the same plane, it follows 
 
MULE SPINNING. 459 
 
 that if the profile of P is arranged to be angularly disposed rela- 
 tively to the edges of the slips, there will be a certain amount of 
 vertical movement of the bowl L 1 and its slide L. As during 
 the inward run of the carriage the boot leg or locking lever A 
 rests on the upper edge of the slide L, it follows that any motion 
 of the latter is communicated to the former. The locking lever 
 A being jointed by means of the sector C to the winding faller 
 shaft, the vertical motion of A is necessarily communicated to 
 the latter, which is, in consequence, oscillated in its bearings. 
 The winding faller sickles being fastened on the shaft B, any 
 oscillation of the latter necessarily affects the former. Thus 
 when the locking lever A is raised by the action of the backing- 
 off chain, as described in paragraph 257, the winding faller is 
 lowered into winding position. After it is locked, the vertical 
 motion of the lever A in either direction is communicated to the 
 winding faller, but the direction of the latter is in every case the 
 contrary to that of the locking lever. That is to say, the ascent 
 of A implies the descent of N, and vice versd. All that is 
 therefore requisite to obtain the necessary guidance of the yarn, 
 as described in the last paragraph, is, that the profile, or upper 
 edge of P, shall be so shaped that, as the bowl L 1 runs along it, 
 it shall first rapidly ascend, and then slowly descend. 
 
 In order to make this clear, Fig. 203 may be referred to. The 
 profile of the copping rail is indicated by the line Q, Q 1 , P, the 
 pendant or locking lever by the line A, the sector by C B, and 
 the faller sickles by B N. The point B indicates the position 
 of the faller rod on which the sector and sickles are fixed, C 
 being that where the locking lever is jointed to the sector. If, 
 therefore, A receives any vertical movement, the arm C N will 
 be rocked on B and the point N will receive a movement in the 
 reverse direction, within a range regulated by the ratio of C B 
 and B N. This ratio is assumed to be i : 2, so that i inch of 
 the vertical movement of A will give one of 2 inches to N in 
 the opposite direction. To effect the upward and downward 
 movement of N, which has been shown to be necessary, means 
 be provided by which, as A is diawn forward with the 
 
460 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 carriage, the trail lever will first rise rapidly, and then fall more 
 gradually. The trail lever bowl runs on the copping rail, the 
 profile of which is indicated in Fig. 203 by the line Q Q 1 P, and 
 it will be readily seen that if the point Q called the "ridge" 
 be raised relatively to the terminal points of the lines Q Q 1 and 
 Q 1 T, a corrresponding greater movement of the lever A and 
 faller N will be obtained. 
 
 The actual method of building the cop was shown in Fig. 
 193, but in order to make it more clear, the diagram may 
 again be referred to. It should be premised that there are two 
 distinct 1 stages in building a cop, the first the formation of the 
 cop bottom, and the second the formation of the body. In the 
 
 FIG. 203. 
 
 first the action of the building motion, like that of the winding 
 motion, is continually varying, while in the second the conditions 
 are fixed, and only a vertical advance of the winding points is 
 necessary. Thus the only movement of the copping rail, which 
 is required in the latter period, is a uniform vertical one, while 
 in the earlier stage it is necessary to enlarge the chase gradually, 
 and at the same time to raise the initial point of winding. In 
 Fig. 193, let the length of the chase at the beginning of winding be 
 i inch, and indicated by the vertical distance A B. Assume that 
 when the chase is fully formed that it is i ^ inch, as shown by the 
 dimension B C. It will be noticed, first that the terminal point of 
 winding must rise from the position marked B on the spindle to 
 that marked C, a distance of i^ inch. In the same period 
 
MULE SPINNING. 4 j 
 
 the rise of the initial point of winding must take place 
 from the base A to the point B. In other words, while 
 the length of the chase is increased from i inch to i ^ inch, the 
 height of the initial point of winding must be raised i inch. The 
 lengthening of the chase is the work of that part of the rail 
 which extends from the point Q 1 towards the roller beam, while 
 the elevation of the initial point of winding is the work of the 
 front part of the rail It follows from this that the declination 
 of the long part of the rail must, in the inception of winding, be 
 rapid, while that of the front part must be less so. It has been 
 shown that when the faller locks, it is opposite the nose of the 
 cop, and is then pushed down so as to reach its base. 
 Remembering the multiplication of the movement of the locking 
 lever, and that the motion of the latter is the reverse of ,that of 
 the rail, let the point F represent that occupied by the bowl of 
 
 FIG. 204. 
 
 the trail lever when at its initial point. When it arrives at its 
 highest position the bowl ought to be raised sufficiently to have 
 given the faller a movement of i inch and the pendent,^ inch. 
 Assuming that the proportion of the traverse of the carriage 
 during the winding of the downward coils is one-eighth of the 
 whole, that would mean that the bowl must move 8 inches while 
 the locking lever rose i. Drawing a diagram, Fig. 204, in which 
 the fall is shown on an exaggerated scale, we are able to illus- 
 trate the necessary alteration in the shape of the profile required. 
 For the front part of the rail this is iriitially the line F G. 
 Having arrived at the base of the cop, the faller must rise to 
 the same height, and the line assumed by the long part of the 
 rail is indicated by the line G H. The fall of the point H, 
 to ensure the enlargement of the chase so as to make it full size, 
 must be to the point K, and the line G K then represents the 
 
462 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 position assumed by the long portion of the copping rail. In 
 the same period the front rail must also fall, and the position it 
 .assumes is shown by the line G L. It will be noticed that the 
 declination of L is less than that of K, and the effect of the 
 fall from F to L is to cause the faller N to take a higher position 
 as every stretch is wound, but as the rise of the initial point of 
 winding is slower than that of its terminal, it follows that the 
 beginning of the various layers is wound partially on that 
 preceding it, but is carried beyond it at the end of the chase. 
 Thus the cop is thickened at the base, and the cone slowly 
 formed. 
 
 (279) There is another point which it is now necessary to deal 
 with, and in order to make it clear it will be desirable to consider 
 the construction of the copping rail and its attached parts, these 
 being shown in Fig. 205. The copping rail consists of two 
 
 FIG. 206. 
 
 parts, but as originally made was in one piece, approxi- 
 mately of the shape shown separately in Fig. 206. The 
 disadvantage of this arrangement was that, as not only the 
 ascent but the descent of the faller had to be provided for, 
 while the range of the two varied, it was difficult to get a 
 movement which was accurate enough to permit of the faller 
 locking at the right place and being pushed down to its true 
 position at the base of the cop during each stretch. This is 
 overcome by the application to the copping rail of a loosely 
 fhinged front rail separately regulated. Thus in Fig. 207 P i* 
 ithe copping rail proper and Q is the loose rail which is hinged 
 ;to P at Q 1 , so that its upper edge does not project above P at 
 that point. In this way the bowl does not meet with any 
 obstruction as it passes over Q 1 . At the front of the rail P a 
 head is formed, in which is a slot for the reception of a pin 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 463 
 
 projecting at each side of P. On the pin bowls are placed 
 which rest upon the edges of two plates Y, one at each side of 
 the rail, and thus sustain it. The position of the pin is 
 
464 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 regulated by a screw, which is not shown, but which is used to 
 give a certain vertical adjustment of the front end of P. At the 
 other end of P another pin is fixed, also carrying bowls, each of 
 which rests on a plate X. The copping rail is thus sustained 
 between two sets of plates. The loose rail Q is in the form of a 
 shell which fits over the front end of P, and in each of its sides 
 is fixed a pin, the bowl on which rests on the edge of a plate Z. 
 The effect of this arrangement is to give steadiness and solidity. 
 A frame is fixed to the floor in a level position, and has within it 
 planed surfaces upon which the feet of the copping plates 
 which are also planed rest and can slide. A similar frame 
 carries the copping plates X. On one side of the "copping 
 plate" Y is an ear S 1 , which forms a nut into which the 
 "shaper" or "builder" screw S is fitted. S is borne so that it 
 has only a rotary but no longitudinal motion, and^on its inner 
 end has fixed a hanging pawl S 2 , which engages with a 
 " shaping" or "building" wheel fixed on S, The pawl is 
 controlled from the quadrant when it makes its backward 
 stroke. The rotation of the screw S by the action of the pawl 
 draws the plate Y inwards, and by reason of the connection of 
 Y and X by the connecting rod W also gives the plate X a 
 corresponding movement in the same direction. The plates Z 
 and Y are coupled, so that the latter when moved carries Z 
 along with it. 
 
 (280) Having thus described the various parts used, it is now 
 possible to make their action clear. It has been previously 
 shown that in building the cop bottom it is necessary to drop 
 the inner end of P at a more rapid rate than its outer end. It 
 will be convenient to neglect for a time the action of the loose 
 copping rail Q, because that requires specially dealing with. 
 Consider the rail P first, because it is the descent of the locking 
 lever from Q 1 to the inner end of the rail which determines the 
 chase. Assuming that the length of the bottom of the cop is 
 i inch, and of the cylindrical part or body 4 inches, then 
 during the building of i inch the inner end of the copping rail 
 must fall sufficiently to permit the chase to increase to 134. inch, 
 
MULE SPINNING. 4 (^ 
 
 while during the building of the remaining 4 inches both ends 
 must fall at the same rate unless it is desired to shorten the 
 chase. Now it is obvious that if a rigid bar is supported on 
 surfaces receiving a horizontal movement which is not com- 
 municated to it, that in accordance with the shape of the 
 supporting surfaces and the rate of their motion, the position 
 of the bar relatively to the horizontal will be determined. As 
 in the case under consideration all the surfaces move at a 
 fixed rate this element can be neglected, and only their shape be 
 treated. It is necessary, therefore, to provide a surface by 
 
 FIG. 208. 
 
 which the required fall of the end of the rail is obtained. In 
 Fig. 208 an illustration is given of three plates, which are super- 
 imposed so as to facilitate comparison. These are drawn from 
 actual examples, and correspond to the plate Y carrying the front 
 end of the copping rail, the plate X carrying the back end, and 
 the plate Z which sustains the front loose rail. The thick 
 vertical and horizontal lines represent inches and the thinner 
 lines quarter inches on the original full-sized drawing, so that 
 the effect of any movement of the plates can be ascertained. 
 If now it be supposed that the bowl at the front end of the 
 
466 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 rail rests on the highest point of Y, and that the latter is moved 
 in the direction of the arrow i inch, the fall of the bowl will 
 only be T \- inch. Assuming that the plate X is also moved 
 simultaneously, as in practice we have seen is the case, then the 
 fall of the bowl resting on its surface beginning at the highest 
 point will be ^ inch. In other words, while the front end is 
 practically fixed, the back end has fallen ^ inch, and the pen- 
 dant or locking lever receives an additional vertical movement to 
 that extent. The next inch of motion of the two plates results in 
 no fall of the front end, but a further fall of ^ inch of the back 
 end. In all, therefore, to this point the rail is i }i inch lower 
 at the back end than at the front, in addition to the inclination 
 previously existing. When the second position is reached the 
 bowl is entering upon the straight part of the plates, and the 
 rail thereafter falls in accordance with the inclination given at 
 both ends. It will be noticed that the fall of the front end over 
 the entire length given from the beginning of the straight part. 
 of the plate is 2^6 inches, while that of the back end is only i^ 
 inch, leaving a net fall of i ^6 inch over that existing initially 
 In other words, during this part of the traverse, the chase is 
 gradually shortened as building proceeds. From this descrip- 
 tion it will be seen that the higher portion of the plates is 
 that concerned with the enlargement of the chase, while the 
 remaining portion is that which completes the building of the 
 cylindrical part of the cop. There is one correction to make. 
 As the highest part of plate Y is nearly straight, it follows that 
 during the descent of the bowl on X, the bowl at the front end 
 of the rail substantially forms a fulcrum on which the copping 
 rail hinges. If, therefore, the upper portion of X was quite 
 straight, a thrust would be put on the rail which would tend to 
 make it move forward. This is neutralised by giving the plate a 
 curve such as is produced when its inward traverse, the vertical 
 descent of the rail, and the curve followed by the end of the latter 
 are graphically drawn. This is really a draughtsman's point, and a 
 demonstration of the method of drawing the curve would not 
 aid in the comprehension of the principle, which is all that is 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 467 
 
 needed in a book of this kind. It may also be said at this point 
 that a bracket P 1 , Fig. 207, is fixed alongside the rail P, being 
 formed with a slot into which a pin fixed in the rail takes. The 
 slot in the bracket is formed at such an angle relatively to the 
 horizontal that the rail always falls in a directly vertical line. 
 There is a slight correction due to the radial movement of the 
 rail. The ascending motion of the faller is caused by the 
 descent of the locking lever from G to K, Fig. 204, and its 
 range depends on the amount of that descent. As the rail 
 radiates about the point F, it follows that G will also move a 
 little in a circle, and the amount of the descent of the ridge so 
 caused must, of course, be deducted from the total fall of the 
 point H. The correction needed is not great, as will be easily 
 understood when the relative lengths F G and G H are 
 considered, 
 
 (281) Coming now to deal with the front copping rail, it rests 
 on the plate Z, and following the same course with it as with the 
 plates X Y, the fall of the bowl in the front of the loose rail is 
 for the first inch ifo inch, and for the second inch *4 inch, 
 together 1^3 inch. But the trail lever bowl only runs along 
 one half of the length of the loose rail, and thus begins 
 its inward traverse half way between the point of support of 
 the plate Z and the ridge where the rail is fulcrumed. Thus 
 the motion at the initial point is only half the total fall given to 
 the end of the rail, or ^| inch. After the cop bottom is formed 
 the inclination of the rail Z is substantially that of the rail Y 
 carrying the front end of the long rail. It will also be noticed 
 that the plate Z is ^ inch lower at its head than the plate Y, 
 which gives the necessary inclination to the loose rail at the 
 beginning of winding. The loose copping rail is a valuable 
 adjunct to the mechanism, as it ensures the locking of the pen- 
 dant A always in the right place, owing to the ease of indepen- 
 dent adjustment. When it was not applied, the faller often 
 locked at a point i. inch or i*4 inch below the nose of the cop, 
 and the ends became lashed, thus leading to breakage. This is 
 entirely avoided by the use of the loose rail. It will be quite 
 
468 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING, 
 
 clear, after the demonstration given, that the motion of the cop- 
 ping rail can be varied in two ways first, by accelerating or 
 retarding the speed of the horizontal movement of the plates ; 
 and, secondly, by increasing or diminishing their inclination. 
 Some remarks are made on this point at a little later stage, but 
 the facts should be borne in mind, as they form the basis of the 
 construction and manipulation of the plates. 
 
 (282) It is obvious that the relative position of the winding 
 and counter fallers will have an influence upon the yarn. For 
 instance, the angle formed by the yarn when it passes over the 
 counter faller to the winding faller when the latter is in the 
 second position, shown in Fig. 203, must of necessity be greater 
 than it is when it is in the position illustrated at the right hand of 
 that drawing. In the one case it is more acute than it is at the 
 other, owing to two factors. There is also the increased acute- 
 ness of the angle formed by the relative position of the winding 
 faller and the nip of the front rollers when the carriage is out, as 
 compared with the angle formed when the carriage is in. The 
 variation in the angle at which the thread is bent over the 
 two fallers, however, remains, and forms a consideration 
 which cannot be neglected. The yarn always passes round 
 the winding faller at a sharp angle, and the drag thus induced 
 is not without influence upon it. The second factor which 
 affects this portion of the subject is found in the variation in 
 the paths of the faller and counter fallers. The former travels 
 round a circle with a smaller radius than the latter, and its 
 traverse relatively to a vertical line drawn through the centre 
 B shows a greater inward and outward movement than that of 
 the counter faller. This variation is, of course, also affected by 
 the extent of the depression of the faller at various points, as it 
 is clear that the further the winding faller travels, the greater 
 will be its distance from the circle described by the counter 
 faller. There is also the fact that in the commencement of 
 winding, the counter faller will rise to a much higher point than 
 at other times, and the angle formed by the thread is made 
 more acute. The extent of the rise of the counter faller is 
 
MULE SPINNING. 469 
 
 naturally determined by the amount of yarn released during 
 backing-off. Thus, throughout the building of the cop the 
 yarn is bent at a constantly differing angle round the counter 
 fallen In other words, there will be at different periods con- 
 siderable variations in the strain put upon it between the counter 
 and winding fallers. This point has a bearing upon the 
 weighting of the balance lever which controls the counter faller, 
 and involves the consideration, that if this is too great, the 
 strain upon the yarn may be caused to vary considerably during 
 a stretch, and throughout building, with a necessarily detri- 
 mental effect upon it. Another feature in connection with this 
 part of the subject is the character of the surface upon which 
 the yarn is spun. If it has to be wound upon a hard surface 
 like a steel spindle, it is quite evident that the strain on it will 
 be greater than when wound on to the cushion-like surface of 
 the cotton when the cop is partially filled. Although a small 
 matter, this has some bearing on the character of the winding 
 and the diameter of the yarn. 
 
 (283) As was shown in paragraph 272, the cop is built upon 
 the taper blade of the spindle, which varies in diameter from 
 T\ to y& mc h- At fi rst > an< * more especially when a short 
 paper tube is employed, the yarn is wound on a practically 
 cylindrical surface, so that every revolution takes up about the 
 same quantity. Thus, if this be -$ inch diameter, or '9$ 
 circumference, every revolution will take up the latter length of 
 yarn. Thus, to wind on 64 inches, 65-3 revolutions of the 
 spindle are wanted. Every layer of yarn, as shown in Fig. 193, 
 increases the diameter of the cop until the full size is reached, 
 so that if it be assumed that the cop is finally i inch diameter, 
 every revolution of the spindle will take up 3'i4i6 inches of yarn, 
 and only 20-5 revolutions of the spindle are required to take 
 tip the full length of yarn. But, as was made obvious when the 
 method of building the cop was dealt with, the yarn is not 
 always being wound either on the smaller or larger of the 
 diameters named, but is during each stretch wound on a 
 variable diameter. Thus, when the cop bottom is formed, the 
 
470 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 next layer is wound on the surface B C (Fig. 193), and is 
 
 consequently taken up at a continually varying velocity. Now, 
 
 if the carriage had a uniform speed, and the tin roller also 
 
 received a similar rotation during the period of winding, it 
 
 would follow that the yarn would either be taken up at the 
 
 point JB too quickly or too slowly at the point C. In the first 
 
 case it would be strained and broken, and in the latter case 
 
 would be wound too slackly on the spindle. Either of these 
 
 difficulties are detrimental to the production of a perfect cop, 
 
 and must be avoided. It is a natural consequence of these 
 
 factors that there must be means provided by which the velocity 
 
 of the spindle is accelerated as the yarn is wound on the 
 
 constantly decreasing circumference of the nose. Until the 
 
 cop bottom is finished this acceleration is calculable and easily 
 
 provided for, but after that period an entirely -new set of 
 
 conditions arise. If it be assumed that the correct initial and 
 
 terminal velocities of the spindle which are needed to wind the 
 
 yarn on the spindle blade have been obtained when the cop 
 
 bottom is finally formed, every rise of the initial point of 
 
 winding brings into play a new set of conditions. The spindle 
 
 S (Fig. 193) is, as shown, tapered, and the result is that the 
 
 yarn is being wound at the nose on a perpetually decreasing 
 
 diameter. Suppose, for instance, that at the termination of the 
 
 cop bottom the yarn is wound at the nose on the spindle, 
 
 which at this point has a diameter of T \ inch. In this case its 
 
 circumference would be '9817, and to take up the last 5 inches 
 
 of yarn it would require to rotate 5-09 times. Now, let it be 
 
 assumed that the winding is being conducted higher up the 
 
 spindle, and that the diameter of the spindle at the nose is 
 
 ^6 inch. In this case the circumference of the spindle will 
 
 only be '3927, and to wind 5 inches of yarn will require 1272 
 
 revolutions. It is quite obvious that the same terminal velocity 
 
 of the spindles being maintained in each case, if the yarn is 
 
 wound with sufficient tension on the larger diameter of the 
 
 blade, it will be slackly wound on the smaller diameter. In 
 
 other words, a " spongy " nose will be formed. As yarn is 
 
MULE SPINNING. 471 
 
 often wound off a cop by drawing it upwards, as shown in 
 Fig. 194, any such condition of the cop nose results in a 
 number of coils being drawn off simultaneously in an entangled 
 condition. In this case the cop is said to be " halched," and a 
 good deal of waste is produced when the unwinding takes 
 place. From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that in 
 addition to an increase in the variation of the velocity of the 
 spindles as the full diameter of the cop is approached, an 
 acceleration of the terminal velocity as the cop nose is wound 
 on a higher point on the spindle is also required. It is some- 
 times the practice to give the copping rail such a profile that 
 the faller rises more rapidly as it approaches the nose of the 
 cop, the idea being to lay it in spirals of increasing pitch, and 
 thus keep it tight. 
 
 (284) When the gradual outward traverse of the nut, which 
 is made during the time the cop bottom has been formed, has 
 been completed, the relative initial and terminal velocities of the 
 spindle remain fixed, so that any further acceleration of the 
 spindle must be obtained by other means. This supplementary 
 acceleration is requisite, as shown, on account of the diminishing 
 diameter of the spindle blade, and the consequent inability of 
 the spindle to take up exactly the same length of yarn at the 
 nose throughout the whole of the building, as previously 
 explained. It has been pointed out that the length of the 
 conical surface upon which the yarn is wound remains practi- 
 cally the same, so that if the diameter of the spindle blade was / 
 thereafter uniform, the establishment of the true conditions tor / 
 successful winding at this point would be all that is necessary. / 
 As, however, this is not the case, but the spindle blade decreases/ 
 in diameter, it follows that a new set of conditions arises, which J 
 however, does not affect the operation, except at the point! 
 where the yarn is being wound at the nose. It, therefore, be-l 
 comes necessary, as was said, to communicate to the spindle, as 
 the yarn approaches the nose, a greater velocity, and the amounll 
 of the acceleration at this point must increase in exact proportion 
 to the diminution of the diameter of the spindle. There are two 
 
472 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 ways of doing this. One is to deflect the chain attached to the 
 drum from a straight line while it is in tension, and the other is 
 to gradually shorten it by taking it up. In the first method, 
 the chain is either pressed or pulled down as the arm H I 
 approaches the horizontal, so as to be suddenly shortened. 
 For instance, if it be assumed that the line from A to F in Fig. 
 201 represents the chain in tension, and the drum F be supposed 
 to be stationary, it is clear that if the chain be pressed down 
 between those two points so as to be deflected from a straight 
 line, the drum F would, if free to rotate, revolve for a distance 
 commensurate to the deflection of the chain. It is easily under- 
 stood that the deflection of the chain is practically equivalent to 
 shortening it, so that in addition to the rotation of F, caused by 
 the ordinary pull on the chain, it would receive an additional 
 amount because of the extra pull put on it by the deflection of 
 the chain. If, on the other hand, the chain is shortened, then 
 the effect upon a truly cylindrical surface, such as that shown in 
 Fig. 20 1, would be practically nothing. All that would happen 
 would be, that the chain would be earlier unwound from the drum. 
 If, however, in lieu of a cylindrical surface on which the chain is 
 wound, a spiral surface, such as that found in a scroll, is used, 
 then the shortening of the chain has an important consequence. 
 For instance, if the largest and smallest diameters of the scroll 
 were 6 inches and 3 inches respectively, their circumferences 
 would be 18*84 inches and 9*42 inches respectively. Thus, to 
 cause the drum to rotate once, lengths of chain equal to the cir- 
 ference must be unwound. In other words, if 18*84 inches of 
 chain is unwound from the large part of the scroll, so producing 
 .one revolution, the same length taken from the small diameter of 
 the scroll would cause the drum to revolve twice. Thus, there 
 is not only the acceleration caused by the increased pull upon 
 the chain referred to, but also that caused by the unwinding of 
 the chain from a surface of less length. Shortening or taking up 
 the chain when used in conjunction with a scroll is, therefore, 
 very effective as a means of getting a high terminal velocity, 
 from the fact that it is taken off a smaller circumference as the 
 
MULE SPINNING. 473 
 
 shortening proceeds, and that the pull of the chain itself draws 
 it from a circumference which is continually decreasing. If a 
 scroll were used with a fixed point of attachment of the nut 
 there would be a terminal acceleration, but when it is employed 
 in conjunction with a greater pull on the chain as the nut moves 
 forward, and the gradual removal of the chain from the larger 
 diameter as the chain is shortened, the acceleration is con- 
 siderably decreased. It is, of course, necessary to give a 
 correct velocity to the chain nut in its forward movement to 
 compensate for the diminishing diameter of the scroll, because 
 it is essential that the conditions illustrated in Fig. 200 should 
 be as nearly as possible approximated to. 
 
 (285) It is now possible to deal with the method of actuating 
 the chain to obtain the desired terminal acceleration. This is 
 done in most cases by a device known as a " nose peg," which 
 is a pin or stud fixed in an arm fastened to the upper end of 
 the quadrant. As the nut is gradually moved outwards, the 
 nose peg begins to press upon the chain, and depresses it 
 more and more as the nut is raised. At first, while the 
 cop bottom is being formed, and is in its early stages, the 
 pressure of the nose peg is slight, but as the building proceeds 
 it gradually increases. It is worth while noticing, however, that 
 with the plain nose peg, the chain, after the nut has arrived at 
 its outermost point, and the cop bottom is finished, is always 
 deflected to the same extent, so that unless the terminal velocity 
 of the spindles is too great at first,Jt is too little at the termi- 
 nation of building. Accordingly, it is sometimes the practice 
 to fit an automatic arrangement by which the peg is gradually 
 moved downwards, and thus presses upon the chain with 
 increasing force, communicating to it. a greater deflection 
 each time the quadrant makes its forward stroke. In many 
 respects this arrangement has been satisfactory in actual 
 practice, and has found extensive use. Another method of 
 obtaining the same result is one, in which, instead of 
 pushing the chain down, it is pulled out of a straight line by 
 means of a second chain which is being continually shortened. 
 
474 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 In taking the faller mechanism as a base from which to carry 
 out the operation the method is noteworthy and meritorious. 
 One good point in this procedure is that an alteration in the 
 deflection of the chain only takes place when the elevation of 
 
 FIG. 209. 
 
 the faller really necessitates it, which is a matter of some im- 
 portance. The arrangement shown in Fig. 209 is based upon 
 the idea of shortening the chain, and is controlled from the 
 shaper screw, which may be said to be the other extremity of the 
 
MULE SPINNING. 475 
 
 mechanism of which the winding faller is the last member. The 
 ratchet wheel E, fixed on the slide A carrying a small barrel 
 to which the winding chain C is fastened, is held by pawls 
 E 1 . On the spindle of the barrel is an arm F receiving a 
 pull from the chain G fastened to it, the latter being guided, 
 as shown, until it is attached to the bracket I, moved 
 inwards by the shaper screw S, by the finger I 1 . In its 
 course the chain is passed over a hinged or pendulum bracket 
 K, a short arm of which K 1 comes into contact with a finger or 
 bracket K 2 on the quadrant during the backward movement of 
 the latter. The extent to which the pendulum K is pushed back 
 by this action depends entirely upon the extent to which its 
 lower end is drawn forward by the travel of the bracket I, and 
 varies as winding proceeds. When winding is beginning, 
 the chain G is slack, and F is in the position shown in the 
 view at the top right hand corner of Fig. 209. As the slide 
 A rises and the bracket I is moved inwards there is a pull 
 upon the chain G, which draws down the arm F and thus 
 rotates the barrel, causing the chain C to be wound on it. 
 The amount of the movement of E is very slight until the cop 
 bottom is completed, when it begins to increase. The result is 
 that the chain C is gradually wound on the barrel in the slide A 
 and wound off the large diameter of the scroll X 1 (Fig. 195), so 
 that there is the combined effect of the slower horizontal move- 
 ment of the nut and the unwinding of the chain from a smaller 
 diameter. The actual position which these parts occupy, at the 
 beginning and end of a set, is shown in Figs. 210 and 211. 
 
 (286) In commencing to build a set of cops it is the practice 
 to attach the first few layers to the spindle by means of a 
 starchy mixture. This practice is supposed to strengthen the 
 cop bottom, and to enable it to be more readily placed upon a 
 skewer when it has to be wound. The initial position of the 
 nut in the quadrant depends upon whether the cop is formed 
 on the bare spindle or upon a paper tube. If the latter, it is 
 not wound down so far as it is when winding begins on the 
 spindle. In commencing a set of cops the copping plates are 
 
476 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 tvound back to the stops, adjusted as described, and the 
 But is wound down to its initial position. The extent to 
 which the copping plates are drawn back and their setting 
 is determined by the fact whether a short or long cop bottom is 
 wanted. Some spinners prefer the former, alleging that they 
 can be better made, especially when starching takes place. In 
 this case the bottom cone is made short, and the lengthening of 
 
 j N 
 
 FIG. 210. 
 
 J.N 
 
 FIG. 211. 
 
 the chase takes place with a very slow elevation of the locking 
 point. The regulation of this is effected as afterwards described, 
 but it is worth noting that by skilful manipulation of the shapei 
 or copping mechanism cops of any shape can be easily obtained. 
 (287) The proper building ot a cop is seen, from the foregoing 
 explanations, to depend upon two operations viz., the eleva- 
 tion and traverse of the faller and the differential rotation of 
 
MULE SPINNING. 477 
 
 the spindles. These two factors have a close connection and 
 each has an influence upon the other. It is quite clear that the 
 inaccurate adjustment of either of the two portions of the 
 building mechanism would entirely destroy the normal relation 
 of one to the other, and it is this absolute interdependence 
 which renders this part of the operation of a mule of high im- 
 portance. It will, therefore, be profitable to consider some 01 
 the defects usually found in cops, and explain the causes which 
 produce them. If the explanation given has been followed it 
 will be seen that during every run-in of the carriage a uniform 
 length of yarn is wound*on the spindle. If the traverse of the 
 winding faller is not correctly adjusted, or if the velocity of the 
 spindles is not differentiated properly, then some of the yarn 
 will be wound upon a part of the cop which is not the right one. 
 In this case the cop will be wrongly built, and, unless great care 
 is taken, the readjustment is likely to lead to mischief in other 
 directions. Cops are often badly shaped that is, instead o* 
 maintaining the cylindrical shape in the body, which is the 
 characteristic of a true cop, they vary in thickness at different 
 points. In other cases the nose of a cop will be spongy and 
 soft, so that when the yarn is being unwound it unravels, and 
 thus causes a great deal of waste. Occasionally, cops will vary 
 in weight, one from another, although they may be produced on 
 the same mule. Now, all these defects arise from causes which 
 are ascertainable, although, in some cases, a long search is re- 
 quired before the cause can be found. It is always necessary to 
 ascertain the part of the cop in which the defect exists, because, 
 by so doing, a guide is given to the parts which require adjust- 
 ment or alteration. For instance, if it were found that the cop 
 suddenly became thicker at a point about midway of its length, 
 this would enable the observer to determine the place where the 
 defect arose. It would be evident to him that for some reason 
 or other the gradual elevation of the initial position of the faller 
 during winding was not, at this particular point, taking place at 
 the proper velocity. Suppose, on the other hand, that the cop 
 became gradually thinner as building proceeded, then it would 
 
478 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 be easily inferred that the elevation of the faller was taking place 
 too rapidly, and that, instead of the cone being properly formed, 
 the first coil of each stretch was being laid upon a portion of cop 
 where the diameter was too small. If the cop thickened, as 
 building proceeded, the cause could be ascertained, by the same 
 reasoning, to be the too tardy elevation of the winding faller and 
 the consequent winding of the earliest coils on a diameter ot 
 excessive size. In this way, by exercising a little thought, much 
 time and labour will be saved, and there will be a chance of the 
 actual defect being cured in the most effective manner. 
 
 (288) It will be better to deal with' the defects in cops as 
 they are produced, by treating first, those which are due to the 
 improper setting of the carriage or driving mechanism ; second, 
 those which can be attributed to the wrong shaping or mani- 
 pulation of the copping rail; and third, those arising from 
 imperfect winding. In the first instance named the faults which 
 are created are mainly those of imperfect drawing. If a" 
 carriage is not perfectly squared that is, if the centre line oi 
 the spindles is not parallel to the rollers then, during the out- 
 ward run, some of the threads will be subjected to a greater draft 
 than others, and will be, when spun, thinner, and of course 
 lighter. The tension upon the drawing out bands is so great 
 that it is only natural that they will stretch. The result is 
 that one part of the carriage is drawn out quicker than the 
 other, and the draft put upon the yarn is proportionately 
 increased. Thus on the same mule there will be cops produced 
 which vary in weight considerably. It is, in practice, necesf>ary, 
 especially with long mules, to make some allowance for the 
 inevitable vibration caused when dealing with so large a body 
 as the carriage, but the amount necessary is not great, and will 
 not practically affect the general principle. If the rollers are 
 not carefully attended to, and the lubrication of the top rollers 
 properly effected, the drawing will be imperfect, and the result 
 will be variable threads. There is another consequence of the 
 imperfect squaring of the carriage, which rather comes under 
 the third division, but which can be conveniently dealt with 
 
MULE SPINNING. 479 
 
 here. If the tension is not even, the spinner, in attending to 
 the governing of the quadrant nut, will be almost certain to 
 regulate the winding by the tightest threads, with the result 
 that snarls will especially with hard twisted yarn be liable 
 to form in the ends which are slackest. When soft twisted 
 yarn, such as hosiery or weft yarn, is wanted, the extra tension 
 induced by a badly squared carriage is very prejudicial, and is 
 apt to produce uneven yarn, which in the first case named is 
 most undesirable. It is, of course, not intended to be implied 
 that the bands are always stretching and requiring adjustment, 
 only that this is a point which requires periodical attention 
 and care. Sometimes it happens in very long mules that the 
 scrolls on the back shaft will work loose, and that the carriage 
 is thrown out of the square. This is not a frequent occurrence, 
 but if it takes place the scrolls should be set and re-fastened on 
 the back shaft. 
 
 (289) Coming now to deal with the question of bad copping 
 caused by the incorrectness of the shaping mechanism, it is 
 necessary to point out one or two features in the latter which 
 bear upon the subject. The copping plates are formed as was 
 shown, with curved portions at their upper ends. These are indi- 
 cated in Fig. 207 by the letters Y 1 Z*and X 1 . When the copping 
 rail P is in position for commencing a set of cops, the studs fixed 
 in each of its ends rest on these curved portions of the plates, and 
 the first result of the inward traverse of the latter is to rapidly alter 
 the position of the profile of the copping rail. It was pointed out 
 that the curve X 1 is much steeper than Y 1 , the result being 
 that the back end of the rail P falls more quickly than the 
 front, and the traverse of the faller is in consequence rapidly 
 lengthened. This action is intended, as was shown, to form the 
 bottom cone properly, and it will be an obvious corollary to this 
 fact that the special formation or setting of the plates will enable 
 a shorter or longer cone to be formed. This can be done in one 
 or two ways. If the back plate X be moved towards the plates 
 Y Z by an alteration in the point of attachment of the rod W 
 the studs will rest on a higher part of the curve X 1 , and will thus 
 
480 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 fall more rapidly as X is pushed back. In ordinary cases the 
 same effect can be produced by winding back all the plates. It 
 is quite clear that the length of the cop bottom can be varied at 
 will by the simple adjustment of the parts in such a way that, 
 when the inward motion of the plates takes place, the back ot 
 the copping rail P will fall more rapidly forward than the front. 
 It is extremely desirable that the position of the rail shall not be 
 such as to cause the yarn to be wound below the lower coils cf 
 the bottom cone. If this occurs the yarn is liable to be broken 
 either when being unwound in warping or when in the shuttle. 
 We have referred to the variation in the diameters of cops which 
 is sometimes found, and have indicated its cause, which is that 
 the elevation of the point of locking takes place too early or too 
 late. In other words, the descent of the copping rail is, at the 
 particular point where the defect occurs, not properly accom- 
 plished. If the cop is thickened, then the elevation of the 
 locking point is made too slowly, and the copping plates require 
 adjustment to permit the rail to fall. In the case of a thin cop 
 the opposite of this procedure is necessary. These points are 
 so obvious, if the principles of copping are understood, that it 
 would be hardly worth while spending time in explanation, were 
 it not that the matter is one of some importance and occasional 
 perplexity. What it is desired to do is to endeavour to make 
 clear the reasons which regulate the adjustments rather than 
 give a specific for every imaginable case. The yarn should, 
 if the rail is correctly shaped, produce a cop the upper cone 
 of which is straight and neither convex nor concave, and 
 unless this is the case the rail should be straightened. In 
 some cases spinners prefer to have the cop bottom curved 
 in its outline, and a slight alteration in the profile of the 
 plates will do this. It is a common practice, when these 
 defects are found and are attributed to the formation of the 
 copping plates or rails, to file or plane the plates or rail, 
 and there are cases in which this is the only procedure which 
 will remedy the evil. It is desirable, however, to give a 
 warning against undue interference with the shape of the 
 
MULE SPINNING. 481 
 
 copping plates or rails, as, unless the alteration is skilfully made, 
 evils worse than those it is intended to cure will be produced. 
 In addition to this it may happen that the variation thus pro- 
 duced will so affect the working of the machine as to render it 
 difficult for any one who is not familiar with the alterations made 
 to put on the required ratchet or " shaper " wheel S. This point 
 may be illustrated thus. Suppose the shaper or copping plate 
 Y was shaped so that its edge was at an angle from the vertical 
 of 45, then the rail P would fall at a definite rate. Let this 
 angle be now altered to one of 20, it is obvious that for each 
 inch of inward traverse of the plate the end of the rail would fall 
 proportionately quicker. If, therefore, it is desired to maintain 
 a uniform rate of descent, it follows that the velocity of the 
 inward movement of the copping plates must be decreased or 
 increased according to the amount of angularity m the plates. 
 In other words, the speed at which the screw is rotated must be 
 varied, and if its pitch remains the same, this implies the 
 adoption of a shaper or builder wheel S of greater or smaller 
 size. The evils which arise from worn or loose pins need not 
 be dilated on, as these are well known to be very great in 
 machines of all classes, and when the accuracy and delicacy of 
 the settings of this part of the mechanism are remembered, it is 
 not too much to say that this feature is of prime importance. 
 
 (290) We have now to deal with the defects which arise from 
 imperfect winding. These may be caused in the cop bottom by 
 the governing of the traverse' of the quadrant nut being imper- 
 fectly performed, and this is a point which requires careful 
 attention. The initial point of the quadrant traverse is a matter 
 to which some care "should be devoted, and there can be no 
 empirical rule given to guide the student. In most cases the 
 quadrant arm should be, as shown in Fig/ 201, set well behind 
 the vertical line through its centre at the commencement of 
 winding, and a common practice is for the quadrant to be set 
 quite vertically when the bowl L 1 is at the point Q 1 (Fig. 203), 
 and the full diameter of the cop has been icached. It is not, 
 however, possible to say that in all cases such an adjustment 
 Q 
 
482 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 will succeed, and the best practice is to leave the setting to be 
 determined by careful observation, coupled with experience. 
 The exact delivery of chain to the carriage by the quadrant 
 during its forward stroke cannot be other than a variable 
 quantity, and the amount of variation necessarily depends on the 
 whole circumstances of the case. The setting of the scrolls on 
 the scroll and back shafts is also a matter which affects winding, 
 because the quadrant is driven by a band from the back shaft, 
 and its forward motion should be in unison with that of the 
 carriage. If this is not so, and if any antagonism of the two 
 parts exists, it is impossible for winding to be effected properly. 
 The regulation of the nosing motion is a matter of the greatest 
 importance, as has been previously pointed out, and sBould 
 have constant attention paid to it. Most of the points which 
 affect the formation of the cop have now been touched on, and 
 without giving dogmatic and inflexible rules for adjusting the 
 various parts, the points which require special attention have 
 been sufficiently indicated. It is altogether undesirable, in dealing 
 with a subject of this kind, to do more than point out the 
 direction in which the efforts of the student should be made ; 
 but a careful study of the explanations given will enable most 
 ordinary defects to be grappled with. It may, however, be said 
 that the following procedure can be followed in adjusting the 
 various parts. The carriage being out and locked, an inspection 
 can be made of the position of the scrolls to see that all the 
 bands are in the proper position. If the scrolls want adjusting, 
 in order that the correct speed of winding shall be obtained, 
 this should be done, and the scrolls fixed. Examine the 
 backing-off, see that the backing-off friction is always free 
 during twisting and winding, and ascertain that the chain is just 
 tight enough to draw down the faller to its proper position and 
 no further, and that immediately the faller is down the click- 
 catch gears. Next, adjust the quadrant in the manner described, 
 after which the squaring of the carriage can be carried out. 
 Care should be taken to see that no slip is taking place in the 
 rim band, as, although this is an unusual occurrence, it does 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 483 
 
 sometimes happen, and is difficult to discover. All the rollers 
 must be kept very clean, and any imperfect ends ought to be 
 broken, if seen, and not allowed to run on to the cop. These 
 are a few of a large number of points which should be looked to, 
 and it is this multiplication of detail which makes the mule a 
 comparatively difficult machine to tend. 
 
 (291) In paragraph 259 the various rules used for calculating 
 the effect of the parts actuating the rollers and carriage were 
 given, and we can now give those which relate to the various / 
 portions of the mechanism subsequently described. 
 
 To find the correct twist wheel to put in any defined number 
 of turns per inch 
 
 Number of inches in a stretch x turns per inch. 
 
 Number of revolutions of spindles for each revolution of rim pulley. 
 
 To calculate number of teeth required in twist wheel in 
 altering counts 
 
 Present twist wheel squared x counts required _ 
 
 Counts being spun. 
 \l~x '= twist wheel required. 
 
 NOTE. It may be found more convenient to have a twist 
 wheel which makes two complete revolutions, in which case the 
 number of teeth in present wheel would require multiplying by 
 2, and the number equalling J x divided by 2. 
 
 To find the builder or shaper wheel required to spin any 
 counts when counts being spun are known 
 
 Present wheel squared x counts required _ 
 Present counts spun. 
 V x wheel required. 
 
 NOTE. The above rule should be read in the light of the 
 last paragraph, especially those remarks which are made 
 regarding the alteration of the profile of the shaper plates. 
 
 To find turns per inch during the outward run of carriage, by 
 means of the wheels (refer to Figs. 176 and 177), when relative 
 number of turns of spindles to rim shaft is known 
 
 (1) Pinion G x pinion J 1 x wheel Q x pinion R_ 
 Wheel G 1 x wheel F x wheel Q 1 x wheel P 1 ~~ 
 
 (2) Relative turns per minute of spindle to riru_ u 
 
 x x circumference of scrolls H 1 
 
484 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 The method of arriving at the number of turns per inch which 
 should be in yarn is, for the different varieties, as follows 
 
 Hosiery yarn V counts x 2-50. 
 
 Yarn for doubling V counts x 275. 
 
 Weft (medium numbers) V counts x 3'25. 
 
 Weft (fine numbers) V counts x 3'i83. 
 
 Twist (medium numbers) V counts x 375. 
 
 Twist (fine numbers) V counts x 3 '606. 
 
 Twist (extra hard and ring) V counts x 4*0. 
 
 Although the numbers given form the usual multipliers em- 
 ployed in arriving at this result, it must not be understood that 
 the amount of twist is inflexible. It may happen that a change 
 of cotton, or many other causes, will enable the method of calcu- 
 lating the twist to be judiciously modified, and it is only pos- 
 sible, therefore, to give the above as a general rule for the 
 purpose. 
 
 (292) Having now fully dealt with the question of winding 
 and its accompanying problems, it only remains to describe 
 ihe method by which the various parts are restored to the 
 necessary position for recommencing the operation. As the 
 carriage approaches the roller beam, the various parts are 
 operated as follows : The spindles are being revolved at a 
 gradually accelerating speed by means of the winding chain; 
 the carriage is being drawn up by means of the scrolls on the 
 scroll and back shafts; the winding faller is locked and is 
 gradually approaching the nose of the cop ; the counter faller 
 is sustaining the threads ; the strap is on the loose pulley ; and 
 the rollers are disengaged. The whole of these portions of the 
 mechanism want adjusting so that they shall occupy the places 
 and perform the functions which were detailed as belonging to 
 the first period of action. In doing this, the cam shaft plays a 
 great part where it is used, or the changes may be made by 
 other means, such as a series of levers, which are set in motion 
 by stops or fingers on the carriage. In the case of the mule 
 illustrated, the bracket S 1 (Fig. 181) engages with the bowl R 1 
 
MULE SPINNING. 485 
 
 on the long lever, and so oscillates the latter. This leads to 
 the cam shaft making a half revolution in a similar way to that 
 described. The half rotation of the cam Z detaches the taking 
 in friction clutch I 1 K, and at the same time, by reason of the 
 connection between the lever Z 1 and the back shaft clutch lever 
 T, engages the back shaft clutch P P 1 (see Fig. 177). The roller 
 clutch is engaged by the cam W and the strap is transferred 
 by the cam Y from the loose to the fast pulley. The horizontal 
 catch lever, which is connected with the strap guide lever, is 
 pushed forward and is engaged with the detent catch, thus 
 firmly fixing the strap lever in driving position. At the com- 
 pletion of the half revolution of the cam shaft, the friction 
 clutch W X is disengaged, and the cam shaft stops. The 
 carriage is drawn by the scroll bands up against the back 
 stops, and it is very desirable that it should be drawn up 
 gently and without a hard blow. This has been previously 
 touched upon, and depends upon the adjustment of the 
 scroll and check bands. If the carriage is not parallel to 
 the roller beam, it is very likely to thump against the back 
 stops, and this is a matter to be avoided. When the carriage 
 runs up to the beam the counter faller is relieved by means of 
 a pendent arm which engages with a releasing bracket in the 
 manner diagrammatically shown in Fig. 205, and the lever J 
 is also released by means of a stop. The effect of this is to take 
 the strain from the yarn before delivery by the rollers recom- 
 mences. The lower end of the locking lever A in like manner 
 comes in contact with one of the back stops, and the shoulder 
 R is pushed off the bowl L 1 in the trail lever. The weight of 
 the locking lever causes it to fall until its movement is checked 
 by the stop bracket engaging with the counter faller shaft, the 
 winding faller being in the meantime entirely removed out of 
 contact with the yarn. It is obvious that the guiding action 
 of the faller must be fixed, so far as its period is concerned, by 
 the height at which the cop is being built, and it must ter- 
 minate at such a point that sufficient yarn is left to coil on the 
 spindles between the nose of the cop and the point of the 
 
486 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 spindles. As this length of yarn varies throughout the forma- 
 tion of a cop, and is greatest at the commencement of building, 
 it follows that the detachment is required at a little later period 
 as building proceeds. For this reason the face of the stop 
 bracket G (Fig. 205) is made curved, and is so shaped that the 
 exact moment when the faller is unlocked is strictly regulated 
 by the position of the winding faller at the termination of each 
 stretch. The descent of the copping rail P has an influence 
 upon this special operation. The whole of the parts are thus 
 restored to their initial position and spinning recommences. 
 
 (293) It will have been noticed that the quadrant arm M is 
 at the termination of winding in its most forward position, and 
 that the winding chain is drawn off the scroll or drum. It has 
 also been shown that the forward motion of the quadrant is 
 obtained from the back shaft by means of a band driven by the 
 latter. As the back shaft therefore rotates in the opposite 
 direction in drawing out the carriage, it, by means of the pinion 
 M 1 , restores the quadrant arm to its original position. During 
 this time the tin roller is rotating, but no motion is given to the 
 scroll X. It is accordingly necessary to provide some means by 
 which, during the outward run, the latter will be rotated so as to 
 take up the winding chain preparatory for the recommencement 
 of winding. This is found in the employment of a band S 
 (Fig. 212), which is kept in tension by means of a weighted 
 lever U hinged to a bracket fixed on the floor. S passes over 
 the pulleys fixed on the carriage, and the tension is sufficient to 
 cause it to rotate X, and thus wind the chain on to the winding 
 scroll. In this way the parts are in the necessary position to 
 recommence winding. There is another motion which is some- 
 times fitted to a mule about which some people speak in high 
 terms. This is called a hastening motion, and consists in an 
 arrangement by which the transfer of the strap to the fast pulley 
 is accomplished prior to the completion of the inward run of the 
 carriage. It will be easily understood that as at the completion 
 of winding the spindles are revolving in their normal direction, 
 the actual transference of the work of driving them to the rim 
 
MULE SPINNING. 487 
 
 band is merely an acceleration. The question is whether this 
 action should take place a little before the actual termination of 
 the inward run. Where nosing motions of an inefficient 
 character are used there is an advantage in this course, but 
 otherwise the only gain from its employment is found in the 
 more rapid commencement of the outward motion of the 
 carriage. If used it requires constant attention, or the carriage 
 will not " light in " so easily, and the slow motion thus 
 produced will probably be more detrimental to good winding 
 than the acceleration of the spindles in the manner described 
 will be beneficial to the general operation. 
 
 (294) The machine which has hitherto been dealt with is 
 designed for the purpose of spinning medium counts, and when 
 
 FIG. 212. 
 
 the finer counts are to be spun it is necessary to provide special 
 means for the manipulation of the material. The finer the 
 counts the greater number of twists contained in the yarn, and, 
 as a consequence, the shortening effect, which takes place in 
 each length of yarn by reason of the twisting, is proportion- 
 ately increased. As the yarn is of smaller diameter, it is less 
 fitted to sustain the extra strain thus* put upon it, and if 
 delivered and twisted in the same manner as a coarser yarn, it 
 would be broken. In addition to this, there is another factor 
 which has to be reckoned with. Yarns of medium counts are 
 subjected to a draft, by means of the gain of the carriage, the 
 amount of which is proportionate to the counts spun. The longer 
 
4 83 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the staple of the cotton the greater the draft which the yarn will 
 stand. It follows, therefore, that the finer yarns being spun 
 from the longer staples, a better draft can be given to each 
 thread. It is very desirable that yarns of this class shall be as 
 even in diameter as the best skill can make them, and the draft 
 to which they are subjected, after some of the twist is put in, is 
 well calculated to draw out the thick places. It is customary, 
 in spinning fine yarns, to put in, during the outward run of the 
 carriage until it arrives nearly at its termination, very little twist, 
 and the amount of this is iust sufficient to enable the thin places 
 to be strengthened sufficiently to resist the final draft. When 
 the carriage approaches within a few inches of its extreme outer- 
 most point, the rollers cease to deliver yarn while the carriage 
 continues its outward run. There is thus an additional and 
 final draft exercised which has some influence in .evening the 
 yarn. The full twist is put in when the carriage arrives at the 
 end of its stretch, and a shortening of each length of yarn takes 
 place. The extent to which this takes place is dependent solely 
 upon the number of turns per inch put into the thread. The 
 tension of the yarn, which is induced by the operation or 
 " jacking " just described, entirely precludes the possibility or 
 any further stretching of each length. If the tension is main- 
 tained during the final period of twisting rupture is inevitable, 
 and a large percentage of breakages will occur. It is customary, 
 therefore, to relieve the yarn either by shortening the length held 
 between the spindles and rollers or by delivering a small length 
 as twisting takes place. The first method involves the move- 
 ment of the carriage towards the roller beam for a short distance. 
 The weight of the carriage renders the regulation of the extent 
 of this movement difficult. to obtain, and this course has therefore 
 ceased to be followed. The usual practice is to give the rollers 
 a slight forward motion, so that they deliver a little yarn, 
 sufficient to relieve the tension without affecting the twist in the 
 yarn. This " roller delivery " has entirely superseded the 
 " receding " motion, and can, as will be shown, be very easily 
 ejected. 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 489 
 
 (295) Referring now to Fig. 213, which is a plan view 
 of a fine spinning mule, it will be seen that in all essential 
 features it is similar to the machine previously described. 
 The winding barrel X is in this case cylindrical, and the 
 terminal acceleration of the spindles therefore depends upon 
 the action of the nosing motion. In this machine the method 
 adopted is, as has been mentioned, to draw the chain out of the 
 
 FIG. 213. 
 
 straight line to an increasing extent by means of a second chain 
 which is shortened as required, the actuation of the mechanism 
 for this purpose being regulated by the position of the locking 
 lever. The mule, as shown, is adapted for spinning the finer 
 medium and fine counts. The " jacking " motion is controlled 
 from the side shaft J, which has fixed on it, in addition to the 
 wheel ] l t the smaller bevel pinion J 2 . This motion is shown in 
 detail in Fig. 214. This engages with a larger wheel J 3 , which 
 is geared, by means of a catch and ratchet clutch arrangement 
 
49 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 M M 1 , similar in principle to the " click " motion previously des- 
 cribed, to the wheel Q 2 driven by the wheel Q on the roller shaft, 
 and forming one of the train of wheels driving the back shaft H. 
 So long as the motion is derived from the wheel Q, the velocity 
 of Q 2 being then higher than when driven from J 2 , the catch 
 driving Q 2 slips over the ratchet teeth in the latter. When the 
 friction clutch F Q is disengaged, then the wheel J 2 obtains 
 command of Q 2 , and drives it and the back shaft at a slow 
 velocity until the Mendoza lever, in which the wheels driving Q 1 
 are carried, is raised, and the back shaft thus ceases to rotate. 
 
 FIG 214. 
 
 The amount of this extra "jacking" stretch is dependent upon 
 the timing of the motions controlling the disengagement of the 
 rollers and back shaft, which in this case can be varied as de- 
 sired. The relative velocity of the carriage during the ordinary 
 period and when jacking varies in accordance with the require- 
 ments of the case, but an average is probably 6:1. During the 
 period that the shaft J is running, which coincides with that of 
 the rim shaft, the supplementary shaft K is also rotated, being 
 driven by a pinion on J, which gears with a carrier' also engaged 
 with a^pinion on K (see also Figs. 213 and 215). The shaft 
 K has on its outer end a worm K 2 , which meshes with a 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 491 
 
 worm wheel K 1 fastened on a short transverse shaft. This is 
 provided with a clutch box N, similar in construction to that in 
 Q 2 , one half of N being loose upon the shaft and compounded 
 with a pinion N 1 . N 1 drives a pinion N 2 , fastened on the roller 
 shaft E. When the roller shaft E is driven by the ordinary 
 
 FIG. 215. 
 
 clutch F Q the velocity of the wheels N 1 N 2 is such that the 
 pawl in N slips over the teeth in the ratchet, but when F Q is 
 disengaged, then the clutch box N takes command and drives 
 the roller shaft E at a slow speed. Although this movement of 
 the rollers accompanies the slow motion of the back shaft it 
 lasts for a longer time, and only ceases when the strap is taken 
 
492 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 off the fast pulley A. Thus it is possible, by timing these 
 motions and providing suitable wheels, to enable the rollers to 
 deliver any desired length of yarn, which is equivalent to the 
 recession of the carriage. At one time motions which gave a 
 backward movement to the carriage were used, and were known 
 as " receding " motions. These are superseded by the one just 
 described, which is called a " jacking delivery motion," from ^ 
 an inch to i^ inches being usually delivered by it. The worm 
 wheel K 1 or the pinion or gain wheel which gears with Q 1 can 
 be changed to give more or less delivery. The wheel G can 
 also be substituted by any other, when it is desired to change 
 the twist by altering the roller delivery. The relative velocities 
 of the different lines of rollers is obtained by means of the wheel 
 train F 1 F 2 Z Z 1 , of which Z is the change pinion. It will be 
 noticed that the middle and back lines of rollers^ are driven 
 one from the other at the same velocity by the intervention of 
 the wheel Y, the draft being entirely put in between the front 
 and middle lines. A change can also be made by substituting 
 one size of rim pulley for another. On the back shaft H is a 
 pinion R, which drives by the intervention of a carrier wheel the 
 wheel R 1 , which, although not so shown, is provided with a 
 catch box similar to N, and by its means drives the shaft E as 
 the carriage is moving in. This motion is that which gives a 
 "roller delivery during winding," and its object is to ensure the 
 delivery of a little yarn as the inward run of the carriage is 
 made. It is found that the winding of the yarn is more effec- 
 tively performed in this way, and that better twisting is obtained 
 in spinning fine yarns by reason of the short length of unspun 
 yarn thus delivered. The action of this motion is obviously 
 similar to that of N, and the catch in the box on R 1 does not 
 obtain command of E until the back shaft H rotates during 
 drawing up. The full length of yarn wound is of course lessened 
 by the amount delivered, whatever that may be. It is only 
 necessary further to point out that this machine is driven by a 
 belt on A during spinning, but that the backing-off and tnking-in 
 mechanism is driven by a rope separately driven from the 
 
MULE SPINNING. 4 93 
 
 countershaft and gearing with the grooved pulley D*. The 
 actuation of the strap fork after the completion of the twisting 
 is the work of a small crank arm driven from the worm on the 
 end of the rim shaft, as in the case of the mule previously 
 described. The points of adjustment in this mule are very 
 numerous, and enable a wide range of counts to be spun. In 
 all fine mules special provision is made for the relief of the 
 fallers at the conclusion of winding, and this is a matter of some 
 importance. 
 
 (296) Akin to the motions just described is the arrangement 
 which is usually made to give to the spindles a differential 
 speed. It is obvious that yarns which are very fine will not spin 
 so easily as those which are coarser. They are necessarily 
 weaker, and although requiring more drawing are more difficult 
 to handle. Thus the yarn delivery motion is intended to 
 obviate the danger of breakage owing to the additional stress 
 put upon the yarn when it is shortened by the introduction of 
 twist. In like manner it is the custom to give the spindles two 
 speeds one a comparatively slow one when the carriage is 
 moving outwards, and the second a much quicker one when it 
 has reached the end of its outward run. The most ordinary 
 method of doing this is to place on the countershaft, as shown 
 in Fig. 216, two sets of fast and loose pulleys, B and C, to 
 receive two belts driven by the line shaft. There are in all six 
 pulleys, three in each set containing a fast and two loose pulleys. 
 The diameter of one set is smaller than that of the other, and 
 the pulleys are so arranged that the two belts are never on their 
 respective fast pulleys together. During the outward run the 
 larger sized driving pulley has its belt upon it, and the second 
 belt is on its loose pulley. The whole of the work is being done, 
 therefore, by this belt. When the carriage gets nearly out, the 
 changes take place which bring into action the jacking motion, 
 at which time the carriage is moved very slowly. A rod E is 
 connected at one end to a lever F, rocked by a cam G, rotated 
 by a train of wheels from the back shaft, and operates the 
 rocking lever H during the outward run, by the end of which 
 
494 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the whole of the weight is taken off the latter. It actuates the 
 slide bar K, which is acted on by a spring L, but the latter 
 cannot act until, by a bracket on the carriage, the setting-on 
 handle M is released, thus freeing the slide bar K. The spring 
 then draws the slide bar, and the strap on the larger pulley D is 
 moved on to its loose pulley, and that on the smaller one on to its 
 fast pulley. The setting-on handle is again latched until twisting 
 is finished, when it is released and the lever H freed. The belt 
 from the countershaft to the rim shaft pulleys remains until this 
 
 FIG. 216. 
 
 time unmoved. The consequence is that the spindles are 
 revolved at a much quicker velocity for a short time, and twist 
 is rapidly introduced into the yarn. It is obvious that, as the 
 element of draft is at this period practically eliminated, the yarn 
 is subjected to much less strain than it is when twisting and 
 drawing are practically simultaneous although the shortening 
 action affects it. As soon as the twist is fully in the yarn^the 
 rest of the changes take place, the two driving belts mafce a 
 further movement on to loose pulleys, and backing-off com- 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 495 
 
 mences. The description thus given shows that the controlling 
 element is outside the mule proper, and entails the employment 
 of a considerable amount of mechanism. To obviate this, 
 Messrs. Threlfall have adopted the plan shown in Fig. 217. In 
 this case the rim shaft is in two parts, one D, the longer portion, 
 going to the front of the mule, and the shorter portion C going 
 to the back. The two portions are brought together end to end, 
 and there are three pulleys A B A 3 placed in the headstock on the 
 shaft. Of these, the two outer A A 8 are fastened on the shaft C and 
 D respectively, but all are of the same diameter. On the back end 
 of the shaft is fixed a rim pulley C 1 of the usual construction, and 
 
 FIG. 217. 
 
 on the other portion of the shaft, at the front of the headstock, 
 is placed a second rim pulley E. The rim band C 2 is passed 
 over the two pulleys so that it can be set in motion by either of 
 them. It is at once obvious that if the two rim pulleys are 
 made of different diameters two speeds can be given to the rim 
 band in accordance with the position of the driving belt on 
 either of the fast pulleys. Further, when the front rim is being 
 driven the back one becomes merely a carrier, and vice versd. 
 The action is a perfectly obvious one, and hardly needs 
 explanation. When the carriage is coming out the driving belt is 
 on the back pulley A 3 , and the rim band is being driven from the 
 back rim C 1 . As the latter is the smaller of the two, it follows 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 that at this period the spindles are revolving at the slower speed. 
 When the carriage gets out the change takes place, and the belt 
 is transferred to the front fast pulley. In this way the front or 
 larger rim begins to drive, and the spindles are given their full 
 velocity. It is quite obvious that the employment of rims of 
 different sizes will enable a large variation in the velocity of the 
 spindles to be made, and in this respect the Threlfall motion is 
 notable. It is much easier to change a rim pulley than a pulley 
 on the counter or driving shaft, and, as in all mules, the rim 
 pulley is fitted so as to be easily changed, there is no trouble in 
 getting a different speed, while at the same time the speed of the 
 countershaft may be changed if desired. The change is 
 generally made at the back rim C 1 , because the twist wheel is 
 driven from the front rim shaft. As it is desirable always to 
 maintain uniformity in twist, it is clearly the best to make all 
 changes in the relative velocity of the spindles by changing the 
 back rim. As shown in the illustration, the backing-off friction 
 clutch A 1 A 2 is fastened on the back rim shaft C, it being found 
 that it gives a better result, bringing the winding faller down 
 with much more steadiness. Where the terminal speed is very 
 high, a brake E F is applied to the front fast pulley, which is 
 actuated by the connecting rod H from the backing-off friction 
 clutch, so that the latter and the brake move into gear simul- 
 taneously. The part E of the brake is formed in the boss of 
 the pulley A, and the part F, with ratchet teeth, with which 
 pawls engage. The latter, when put into gear, prevent F from 
 moving, although it can freely rotate in the ordinary course of 
 work, 
 
 (297) The description thus given of the mule and its mode 
 of operation has necessarily been a very lengthy one; but if 
 studied, it will enable a clear idea to be got of the operation 
 generally. There is one point which deserves some notice, and 
 that is the question of the power required to drive the machine. 
 This is considerable, but is variable throughout the cycle of 
 movements which together make up mule spinning. As is 
 natural, the greatest power is taken when the spindles are 
 
MULE SPINNING. 497 
 
 revolving at their highest velocity during the period of spinning, 
 the friction of the spindles during this portion of the operation 
 being greatest. In " Oesterrich Wollen-Industrie " a record 
 appeared of a number of tests made with one of Rieter's brake 
 dynamometers, by which the power required is approximately 
 settled. The mule which was tested contained 600 spindles, 
 i y z inch gauge, and was spinning 2o's yarn. The rim shaft, 
 when spinning, made 578 revolutions per minute, and the 
 spindles 7,450. The outward run of the carriage occupied 8'6 
 seconds, and the recorded diagram showed a pressure on the lever 
 at the beginning of 235 kilogrammes. During the first three 
 seconds the inertia of the carriage and other parts actuated 
 is overcome and the pressure falls to 115 kilogrammes, at 
 which it remains until the stretch is completed. Backing-off 
 lasts 2 '2 seconds, and the power required falls to 10 kilo- 
 grammes. Winding began at the end of 10*8 seconds, and 
 lasted 2*6 seconds. The power absorbed rose during 1*7 
 second from 10 to 50 kilogrammes pressure on the lever, but 
 fell during the next -9 second to zero, which it reached at 
 the termination of the cycle of movements. The mean pressure 
 during the trial was stated to be 101 kilogrammes, and by 
 
 using the formula x = -. - the horse power absorbed is 
 
 * x 75 
 
 obtained. In this formula P = mean pressure ; n = number of 
 revolutions of dynamometer pulley indicated on counter ; and 
 / = duration of trial in seconds. Applying this to the case in 
 
 101 x 66*5 
 question, the formula is worked out as ; = 6 '68, 
 
 which gives the total horse power registered, but deducting the 
 power absorbed by the dynamometer itself, the net horse power 
 required is found to be 6-59. This gives the power required 
 for 100 spindles as 1*098 H.P., which approximates very closely 
 to that generally assigned to the mule. There is a singular 
 lack of reliable data as to the power absorbed during the whole 
 cycle of movements of a mule, and this test, although obviously 
 made with a slow speed of carriage traverse, is valuable as 
 
498 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 throwing some light on the amount required at various periods. 
 Thus the mean pressure during the period of spinning is 134 
 kilos., but reaches 235. The rise of pressure during winding is 
 obviously affected by the increase in the velocity of the carriage 
 about the middle of the outward run, which is the moment 
 when the greatest weight is being moved at the highest speed. 
 Thus a good deal of light is thrown upon the conditions of 
 working, and it is to be hoped that some further experiments 
 will enable the point to be still further cleared up. 
 
 (298) The actual twist which is put into the yarn is never 
 equal to the full calculated twist, the variation arising from the 
 slip of the bands and similar causes. It is obvious that the 
 bands will slip more at one time than at another, atmospheric 
 variations and several other causes contributing to this result. 
 The question as to what is the right amount to allow for the 
 slip of bands is one which is largely settled by personal experi- 
 ence, which is not always accurately recorded. It will vary, 
 however, from three to eight per cent, and the latter figure is 
 often nearer the mark than the former. It is requisite, therefore, 
 in making any calculations to remember this fact, as it has an 
 important bearing upon the subject. There is a little difference 
 in the twist put into yarn when being spun on a cop either 
 partially or fully built, this arising mainly from the better grip 
 which the yarn has in the one case than in the other. This is 
 not an important point, but it has a little bearing on the subject, 
 and causes a slight variation in the weight of a lea. In doffing 
 a mule, after a set of cops is finished, the following procedure is 
 adopted: The mule is stopped during backing-off and the 
 counter faller is depressed and fastened down at a point below 
 the cop by a special catch. The cops are first raised a little by 
 placing the thumb below them so as to free them ready for 
 removal. The winding quadrant and shaper screws are then 
 turned by hand so as to bring the quadrant nut and shaper 
 plates back to their initial position. A turn or two of yarn is 
 then wound on the spindle below the bottom of the cop so as to 
 hold it sufficiently to enable it to be broken when the cops are 
 
MULE SPINNING. 
 
 499 
 
 finally removed, which is the next operation. Thus there is a 
 connection remaining between the spindles and rollers. If paper 
 tubes are used they must be fitted on the spindles immediately 
 the cops are doffed, and in that case the quadrant nut should 
 be wound back a few turns to compensate for the increased 
 diameter. From 6 to 10 turns will be found sufficient. The 
 counter faller is released, the carriage run up to the rollers, and 
 spinning re-started. After a few stretches have been wound 
 and the cop bottom formed, the starch may be applied if neces- 
 sary. The size or starch used for this purpose is made from 
 potato flour or farina, principally, with a little tallow and soft 
 soap mixed with it. It is boiled for about half an hour, and is 
 taken to the mule in buckets or cans. A good plan has been 
 adopted by which, instead of handling a large bulk of starch, it 
 is boiled at some convenient point and pumped up to the^mule 
 rooms by a special pump, being discharged over a trough or 
 tray, into which the surplus starch can fall and be again 
 used up. 
 
500 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 RING SPINNING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. The throstle frame, 299 Roller mechanism, 300 Thread 
 board mechanism, 300 Action of ring rail. 301 Driving rollers, 
 302 Duplex rope drive, 302 Action of mechanism, 303 Adjust- 
 ment of rollers, 304 Rabbeth spindle, 305 Elastic spindles, 306 
 Adjustment of ring and spindle, 307 Action of traveller, 308 
 Variation in twist, 309 Drag of traveller, 310 Balance of forces 
 acting on traveller, 311 Effect of winding on cylindrical surface, 
 312 Bare spindle spinning, 313 Ballooning appliances, 314 
 Conditions of good spinning, 315 Grading of travellers, 316 
 Character of bands, 317 Rules for twist, 318 Method of testing 
 yarn, 319 Strength of yarn, 319 French and English counts, 319 
 Terms of sale of yarn, 320. 
 
 (299) THE machine which replaced the old spinning wheel was 
 founded upon it, and accordingly both Wyatt's and Arkwright's 
 machines were constructed with a flyer revolving round a common 
 centre with a bobbin. The only rival to the mule for many 
 years was the flyer or throstle frame, and in many respects it was 
 the most perfect spinning machine ever used, so far, at any rate, 
 as the character of the product was concerned. The throstle 
 consists of an arrangement of rollers by which the roving is 
 delivered, and of twisting mechanism. The latter is similar in 
 principle to the roving spindle, but differs in constructive details. 
 The spindle is borne by a footstep and bolster, and the bobbin 
 is placed loosely upon it. On the upper end of the spindle a 
 flyer, with two downwardly projecting arms with curls at their 
 extremities, is fitted by means of a screwed nipple. The flyer 
 eyes revolve with the spindle round the bobbin, and the yarn is, 
 after leaving the rollers, passed through the curl or eye of the 
 flyer on to the bobbin. The latter rests upon the rail in which 
 the bolsters are xed, and is formed with a comparatively broad 
 
RING SPINNING. 50 1 
 
 flange, which is recessed on its under side. The bobbin has 
 also an upper flange, and upon the cylindrical barrel between 
 the two the yarn is wound this space being the " lift " of the 
 bobbin. Below the bobbin, and between it and the rail, flannel 
 washers are placed, the object of which is to so far retard the 
 rotation of the bobbin as to cause it to lag behind the flyer and 
 thus wind on the yarn. There are two things to notice in con- 
 nection with this operation. The first is that the flyer always 
 maintains a definite and uniform velocity, which thus establishes 
 a constant relation between it and the rollers. The second is 
 that the bobbin is drawn round the axis of the spindle by the 
 pull of the yarn, and is held back sufficiently to ensure that it 
 will take up the same length of yarn which is delivered by the 
 rollers. The moment the tension on the yarn increases beyond 
 the normal amount the bobbin is moved, and thus a constant 
 relative velocity of the bobbin and flyer is obtained. The 
 conditions of spinning thus established are marked by two 
 characteristics. They are eminently fitted to produce a very 
 evenly twisted thread," and are equally likely to result in a strong 
 elastic yarn being obtained. It is well established that flyer or 
 throstle yarn is the most even, cylindrical, and regularly twisted 
 which has yet been produced, and there is little doubt that two 
 factors contribute to this. These are first, the fact that the 
 twisting is effected by the rotation of an eye which travels in the 
 same orbit at a uniform velocity ; and, in the second place, the 
 moderate velocity at which the operation is conducted. The 
 first point does not require demonstration, and is only made in 
 order that some little light may be thrown upon the conditions 
 prevailing in the modern method which is substituted for flyer 
 spinning. The second consideration is more important, and 
 there is little doubt that a comparatively slow delivery of the 
 roving and a positive steady turning of it on its axis is much 
 more likely to produce an ideal thread than any system where 
 these two factors are absent. Whatever be the explanation, the 
 fact remains, that no yarn has ever been produced which, for 
 evenness, strength, and elasticity, compares with fiver varn. As 
 
5 02 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 J.N. 
 
 FIG. 218. 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 503 
 
 the process now is comparatively obsolete it is not necessary to 
 expend many words on it, but it is worth while emphasising that 
 
 it is eminently suited for the 
 production of a high quality 
 of yarn, although confined, 
 mainly, to the coarser counts. 
 
 (300) The system to which 
 the name of ring spinning is 
 given is in its elements very 
 simple, and it will be most 
 convenient to give a brief 
 description of the machinery 
 employed prior to considering 
 the problems involved. For 
 this purpose a reference to Figs. 
 218 and 219, which are, respec- 
 tively, transverse and partial 
 sectional views of a ring 
 frame, may be made. The 
 roving bobbins are placed in a 
 creel, and the yarn is guided, 
 in the manner shown, to the 
 1 rollers E E 1 , through which it 
 is passed and drawn in a similar 
 manner to that described in 
 connection with the mule. It 
 may, however, be said at this 
 point that it is desirable to put 
 in the drafts for slightly finer 
 yarns than are intended to 
 be spun. As twist is intro- 
 duced there is a little con- 
 traction of the yarn, and it 
 is desirable, to avoid thin 
 and uneven places, to deliver 
 -p lG 2IQ a little greater length than tKit 
 
5^4 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 which is calculated by the strict rule. After leaving the rollers 
 the yarn is taken through the wire eyes F fixed in hinged boards 
 known as " thread boards," and thence to the ring R. The 
 ring is a small cylinder formed with a lip or flange at its upper 
 or both ends, being constructed as afterwards described. It is 
 borne in a rail or plate sustained at the upper end of round rods 
 or pokers P, which are guided by the double rail shown, and 
 which receive an alternate vertical motion by suitable mechanism. 
 At the end of the pokers it is customary either to use a crossbar 
 or a nipple fitting a corresponding hole in the rail. By a recent 
 arrangement Messrs. Tweedale and Smalley place on the top of 
 the poker a flat disc fitting on the nipple. The edges of the 
 disc are turned taper, and the flanges of the ring rail are corres- 
 pondingly bored out and tapered, so that the rail fits on to the 
 disc when it is pressed down. This makes a neat and effective 
 holder, giving great firmness v ithout any obstructing parts. 
 Fixed in the rail S 1 is the spindle. S, which is accurately adjusted 
 and fastened in the exact centre of the ring. Thus the conditions 
 of the operation are not dissimilar in principle to the operation of 
 roving, but are different in the fact that, instead of the bobbin 
 being given an alternate reciprocal vertical movement, while the 
 flyer eye remains stationary, it is fixed, so far as its vertical 
 position is concerned, and the part corresponding to the flyer 
 eye receives a motion of that character. The above is a general 
 description of the mechanism, which may now be treated in 
 detail. The rollers are sustained in roller stands A, which are 
 fastened to a longitudinal beam B, and are, as usual, in two 
 lines E E 1 . They are weighted by means of stirrups G 1 , levers 
 G, and weights G 2 . It is customary to form the roller stands A 
 so that a line through the centres of the rollers is angularly dis- 
 posed to the horizontal. The reason for this procedure will be 
 explained presently. A revolving clearer D is placed above the 
 top rollers, so as to take up the fly from the two lines, and an 
 underclearer D 1 is sustained below the bottom front rollers. 
 The thread boards are connected by levers H to a central rock- 
 inn; lever J which can be oscillated by means of a handle on the 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 505 
 
 end of the shaft on which it is fixed. The thread boards are 
 separately hinged to a wooden rail, which is in turn hinged to 
 the roller beam and turned up as described. Messrs. Tweedale 
 and Smalley have a very neat arrangement, which is shown in 
 Fig. 220. This consists in cutting out a circular groove in* the 
 edge of the roller beam A. In this groove a rod B rests, and is 
 supported at intervals by small brackets E. It is formed with a 
 flat side to which the thread boards are hinged, so that by rotat- 
 ing the rod the whole of them can be turned up, as shown by 
 the dotted lines. It will be noticed that there is a shaft G with 
 a handle fixed on one end, which runs transversely of the 
 machine, and which actuates a bevel wheel in which are two 
 pins K L, one of which engages with the rod H coupled at the 
 
 front to a short crank on the axis of B, and the other with a 
 second rod H 1 which actuates the eyes on the other side of the 
 frame. The rotation of the shaft G therefore moves H and H 1 , 
 lengthways, and so lifts the two sets of thread boards D and 
 wire eyes F clear of the bobbin C, which can thus be doffed 
 easily. This is the procedure when doffing the whole frame, 
 but when one bobbin only requires removal the thread board D, 
 which is attached to B v by a hinge, can be lifted singly. This is 
 a compact arrangement, and leaves the top- of the roller beam, 
 quite clear. 
 
 (301) The mechanism described up to this point is that 
 which is concerned with the delivery and guiding of the yarn to 
 the spindles S. The latter are now entirely self-contained 
 that is, they can be fixed in position at one operation and, as 
 
506 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 presently shown, carry wooden spools or bobbins upon which 
 the cop C is wound. They are driven by bands from the tin 
 rollers T. The ring R is fastened in a light rail, preferably of 
 wrought iron, which is given a reciprocal traverse up and down. 
 The ring is usually of the shape shown in Fig. 221, but a better 
 form is that shown in Fig. 222, which is Coulthard's double ring, 
 and which is fastened to the ring rail by means of a special 
 fastener. Ordinarily, the ring is formed with a cylindrical 
 portion at its lower end, fitting a hole in the rail, to which it is 
 firmly secured. On the ring a small clip, made of special wire, 
 is sprung, being of such a size that it can freely rotate round the 
 
 FIG. 221. 
 
 FIG. 222. 
 
 ring, but cannot come off easily. This " traveller," as it is 
 called, is the means by which the twist is put into the yarn, but 
 has a twofold object, of which something will be said hereafter. 
 The yarn is passed through the traveller on its way from the eye 
 F to the bobbin. The pokers P rest, as shown, on the ends of 
 a crossbar X 1 , which is coupled by the chain P 1 (Fig. 219) to 
 small grooved pulleys fixed upon a shaft running longitudinally 
 of the machine. Reference may now be made to Fig. 223, 
 which is an end view of the machine, showing the method of 
 driving. Driven from the main shaft of the machine by the 
 train of wheels indicated, is the shaft Z, having on its lower end 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 507 
 
 a worm K meshing with a worm wheel L. On the axis of the 
 latter is a heart-shaped cam M, eccentrically mounted, against 
 
 
 FIG. 223. 
 
 which is constantly pressing a bowl in the lever M 1 . Thus 
 when the heart revolves the lever M 1 is given a reciprocating. 
 
508 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 movement which varies in velocity according to the speed 
 and shape of the cam M. The lever carries a small barrel 
 at its outer end, receiving by means of the rotation of the 
 worm O, gearing with the wheel Q on its axis, a rotatory 
 motion when O is rotated. This happens when a pawl, 
 suitably placed, is caused to rotate the wheel U geared to the 
 wheel O 1 on the axis of the spindle on which the worm O is 
 
 
 Fie. 224, 
 
 fixed. Thus, when the arm N is pressed down by the cam M, 
 the chain W is unwound from the barrel P 1 , which is thus 
 caused to rotate along with the shaft on which it is fixed. 
 Thus the motion of the lever M 1 is transmitted to the barrel P 1 
 and the ring rails, which receive not only a traverse of a definite 
 amount, but are also gradually raised as building progresses. 
 Another arrangement, which is often preferred, is that shown 
 in Fig. 224, which is a partial front view, and in Figs. 225 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 509 
 
 and 226, which are detailed views of the mechanism. The 
 lever M 1 has a winding barrel Q, as in the arrangement 
 shown in Fig. 223, on which the chain Q 1 is wound. Q 1 
 passes round a guide pulley, and is carried to the quadrant R, 
 which is fixed on a cross-spindle R *, on which is also fastened 
 the arm P 1 , the end of which supports the poker P. It is 
 evident that the ascent and descent of the lever M 1 , obtained 
 by the rotation of the cam M, will give a similar movement to 
 
 FIG. 225. 
 
 the pokers and ring rail. Referring now more particularly to 
 Figs. 225 and 226, the spindle on which the winding barrel is 
 fixed carries a ratchet wheel U, with which a pawl V 1 engages. 
 U 1 is carried at the end of a curved lever V, which is centred on 
 the spindle. Also adjoining the spindle is an adjustable 
 slotted bracket W, which is coupled to V by a pin W 1 , which 
 is held in the bracket N fastened to the spindle. It will be 
 seen that as the lever rises and falls, W 1 will traverse the 
 slot in W, and thus rock the curved lever V and pawl U 1 . 
 The stroke of the pawl can be regulated by the adjustment of the 
 bracket W. On the spindle carrying the ratchet wheel in either 
 arrangement is a pinion which drives a train of wheels terminating 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 at one on the chain barrel. It is thus possible to vary the 
 effect of the stroke of the pawl, and cause the barrel to take the 
 chain Q 1 up at a quicker or slower rate as desired. In this war 
 the necessary provision can be made for the required changes 
 to suit varying counts of yarn. 
 
 FIG. 226. 
 
 (302) There are one or two points to be considered with 
 reference to the question of driving the tin rollers. As constructed 
 in Fig. 223 the two rollers T are driven by pulleys, not shown 
 in the drawing, but fixed on the driving shaft. From this the 
 wheel T 2 is driven, being compounded with the pinion T 1 , which 
 is the "twist" pinion. The wheel T 2 T 1 is borne in a spindle 
 
RING SPINNING. 511 
 
 which, as shown, is sustained in bearings on an arm N centred 
 on the driving shaft, and fixed in position by a bolt passing 
 through a radial slot in the bracket N 1 . The motion of T 1 is 
 communicated to the pinions V on the roller shaft by the train of 
 wheels shown. In such an arrangement as this the only point 
 
 of change is the twist wheel, and this involves, when low counts 
 are being spun, a high speed of the front roller unless the driving 
 pulleys are changed. In order to get a wider range of variation 
 without difficulty the plan of driving by means of a rim band 
 has been adopted. Such an arrangement is shown in Figs. 227 
 
512 .THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 and 228. In this case an endless cord passing over a rim 
 pulley on the driving shaft, which is placed above the framing, 
 is used, the band following the course shown by the figures. 
 It passes first from the rim pulley to one tin roller pulley over 
 
 the compensating or tension pulley, round the other tin roller 
 and compensating pulleys, and twice thence to the rim, and 
 again round the first tin roller. The effect is that each tin 
 roller is thoroughly driven at a high speed, while at the same 
 time there is an additional change place at the rim pulley. The 
 
RING SPINNING. 513 
 
 latter can be easily changed by slackening the band, by 
 means of the compensating or tightening pulley, which, as 
 shown, is carried on a pin fixed in a nut sliding in a slot in a 
 bracket, and controlled by means of a square threaded screw. 
 This arrangement is of great value in places where grea/ changes 
 in the counts spun often occur. In this country it is not so 
 much felt, because there is little change in the counts spun on 
 individual frames, but the matter is one of some importance on 
 the Continent and elsewhere where spinning mills are not so well 
 organised as they are here. 
 
 (303) The action of this mechanism is as follows : When a cop 
 or spool is commenced the ring rail is at its lowest position, as 
 shown in both figures, and two or three coils of yarn which are 
 passed through the traveller are wound on the spindle below the 
 bottom of the bobbin. These have been wound on prior to the 
 operation of " doffing " that is, the removal of the full bobbins 
 and when the latter operation is carried out the yarn is 
 broken, but does not require piecing up. The empty bobbins 
 having been put on the spindles, the frame is started, and the rota- 
 tion of the bobbins causes them to wrap the yarn round them, 
 very soon breaking the connection with the spindle. The tra- 
 veller is thus caused, by the pull of the yarn, to travel round the 
 ring, and twist begins to be introduced into the roving. At the 
 same time the lever M 1 makes its first reciprocal movement, 
 which is one of slow ascent and of more rapid descent. The yarn 
 is thus coiled on the spindle in a manner to be shortly described, 
 and layer after layer continues to be wound in the same way. 
 In the meantime the ratchet wheel U is actuated by coming 
 into contact with the pawl, and the chain W is thus gradually 
 taken up by the barrel Q, rotated as described. The result is 
 that the shaft on which is the chain pulley P 1 is slightly rotated, 
 so as to take up the chain which is coupled to the crossbar X 1 . 
 Thus the ring rail is gradually raised, so that it has a higher 
 initial point at each traverse, and finally a spool C of the shape 
 shown in Fig. 218 is formed. It is necessary to note that the 
 length of each " lift " as the reciprocal traverse of the ring rail 
 
 R 
 
5 1 4 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 is called remains constant throughout, and that the character 
 of the reciprocations also remains the same that is to say, 
 throughout the process of building, the upward traverse of the 
 ring rail is comparatively slow and the downward traverse com- 
 paratively quick. It is sought, in this way, to form a firm nose, 
 and thus enable unwinding to take place without entanglement. 
 The operation of building in a ring frame is not a complex one, 
 but the velocity at which it takes place is, of course, regulated 
 by the fineness of the yam which is being spun. While there 
 is no attempt in the ring frame to give any differential winding, 
 which' is the work of the traveller, there is, as shown, a similar 
 method of laying the yarn so as to form binder threads, thus 
 ensuring the firmness and security of the nose. The shape of 
 the heart-cam controls this point absolutely, and the only object 
 of the remaining building mechanism is to gradually raise the 
 initial point of the lift. In the train of wheels, shown in Fig. 
 223, there is ample adjustment for many changes. The velocity 
 of the traverse or lift of the ring rail can be varied by an altera- 
 tion of the size of the pinion driving the train of wheels shown, 
 but this involves a similar change in the velocity of the front 
 roller wheels V. By varying the shape of the heart or cam M 
 the relative velocity or extent of the upward and downward lift 
 of the ring rail can be changed as desired. 
 
 (304) We now come to deal with the question of the relative 
 adjustments of the rollers. As shown, the axes of the rollers 
 are not in a horizontal plane, but are angularly disposed. The 
 reason for this procedure is as follows : As the yarn emerges 
 from the bite of the front rollers, it is essential that it shall 
 receive the twist at once, as the velocity at which the spindles 
 run and the tension put into the yarn, owing to its work in 
 pulling round the traveller, alike tend to break the ends. It is 
 obvious that if the yarn had to press against a part of the cir- 
 cumference of the front roller the twist would not readily pass 
 the point of contact. It is thus necessary to provide an adjust- 
 ment which enables the twist to run right up to the nip of the 
 rollers, and this necessity becomes greater when softer twisted 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 515 
 
 yarns are spun. The practice is, therefore, to vary the amount 
 of inclination according to the character of the work, and the 
 range of variation being from 5 to 35 degrees. Weft yarns re- 
 quire the greater inclination on account of the smaller number 
 of turns put into them. Not, only, however, is it necessary to 
 set the rollers angularly, but the nip of the front roller must in 
 some cases be as nearly as possible arranged so as to allow the 
 yarn to pass to the traveller in a straight line from the rollers. 
 If it were bent to an acute angle round the wire eye F, for 
 instance, it would be detrimental to the best work, and accord- 
 ingly there is a growing tendency to approximate the line to a 
 straight one. Before leaving this point it may be stated that 
 the most common angles adopted are about 35 for weft and 25 
 to 30 for twist yarns. This is one of the most important 
 features in a ring frame, and upon it largely depends the success 
 or non-success of the machine. 
 
 (305) The ring is made almost universally now of mild steel, 
 and is constructed without a weld ; being, after it is turned to 
 shape, case hardened, so as to present a very hard surface on 
 which the traveller can travel. The absolute cylindricality of 
 the rings is essential, and users of them should see that they are 
 free from defects of any kind. The traveller is a C"~)- sna ped 
 clip which, as was said, can be sprung into place on the ring, 
 but, when in position, is quite free from any binding contact. 
 Something will be said, at a later point, about the necessary 
 grading of the weight of the travellers used for the various 
 counts ; but, in the meantime, it is necessary to deal with the 
 character of the spindles used. Without going into the history 
 of the subject, which has been amply treated by the author in 
 a book of earlier date, it may be said that the first type of 
 spindle was similar to the mule spindle, possessing con- 
 siderable weight, and was sustained by a footstep and bearing. 
 It was not long before the vibration set up by the increased 
 speed at which they were run led to the construction of spindles 
 with a bearing well within the bobbin, so that the position of 
 the bolster was practically raised to a higher point on the 
 
516 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 spindle. To Mr. Sawyer belongs the honour of first applying 
 this principle successfully ; m but although the spindle bearing his 
 name was very successful, it was not in existence long before it 
 was superseded by the Rabbeth spindle, which was introduced 
 into this country by Messrs. Howard and Bullough. The 
 Rabbeth spindle is illustrated in Fig. 229. It possessed 
 the chief feature of the Sawyer by having its upper bearings 
 within the bobbin, but this very decided advantage was 
 accompanied by another viz., the fact that the whole of the 
 bearings of the spindle were self-contained, only one setting 
 'being required. Referring to the illustration, the spindle B is 
 carried in a bolster, which is bored so as to form a footstep 
 F at its lower end and an upper bearing at C. At the latter 
 point it is fitted with a nickel tube which is cut with a very 
 coarsely pitched spiral groove by which the oil, contained in the 
 ireservoir formed by the space shelled out in the body of the 
 Ibolster, is raised. The bolster, at the lower end, has a flange 
 formed on it, below which is a screwed shank on which is fitted 
 a nut. The shank is passed through the spindle rail S 1 , as it is 
 called, which is pierced by holes a little larger than the shank 
 of the spindle, thus allowing for adjustment. Fitting tightly 
 upon the spindle at a point a little above the upper bearing is a 
 cast-iron sleeve E, formed, at its lower end, with a warve round 
 which the driving band passes. On the lower end of the sleeve, 
 just above the warve, is a cup D, which receives the lower end 
 of the bobbin A. It is not, however, good practice to allow the 
 bobbin to fit the cup, and it should be so constructed that it 
 will only fit the spindle tightly at its upper end. The sleeve is 
 prevented from rising by a device consisting of a hooked wire 
 G, which can be arranged to swivel, or which, as in the example 
 shown, is fastened in a small frame, hinged to the bolster, which 
 can be oscillated as required, to allow of the sleeve and spindle 
 being lifted out when required to. oil. The great merit of the 
 Rabbeth spindle lay in the fact that it contained sufficient oil to 
 last, without renewal, for many months, and it had a very large 
 employment in a short time. It was, however, found that 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 5 1 ? 
 
 although a largely accelerated velocity was possible with it, 
 the bobbins did not run as steadily as could be desired, 
 for which reason it was, after a time, abandoned in favour of 
 another form, to which the name of the " top " or " elastic " 
 spindle was given. 
 
 (306) The elastic type is founded on the principle that any 
 rapidly revolving body which is in slightly uneven balance will 
 tend to assume such a position that, although its axis of gravity 
 
 FIG. 230. 
 
 FIG. 231. 
 
 FIG. 232 
 
 is out of the perpendicular, it will continue to rotate steadily in 
 that position. This tendency is observable in humming tops, 
 as everybody is aware, and it is the application of the principle 
 to spindles which forms the basis of the " top " or " elastic 
 type. It is not permissible, nor, for reasons shortly to be given, 
 would it be desirable, that the variation from the vertical position 
 shall be too great, and means are taken to limit the movement 
 of the spindle. For all the practical purposes of spinning, how- 
 ever, the freedom of the spindle to assume its true axis of 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 gravity is absolute. One of these forms the Whitin spindle- 
 is shown in Fig. 230. In this type the spindle A is sustained 
 by a bolster of the ordinary type, but rotates entirely in an inner 
 sleeve B, which is turned at D to a diameter about yj^ inch less 
 than the inner diameter of the bolster at that point. The lower 
 end F of the sleeve is turned with a cup or recess passing over 
 a nipple formed in the bolster, and the upper end of this recess 
 fits on a small pad of cork placed on the top of the nipple. 
 There is a certain space left for the movement of the sleeve B 
 in all directions at its foot, and this, combined with the freedom 
 at the point D, allows the sleeve B to assume any position 
 required by the want of balance in the bobbin. The oil is 
 introduced into the cup E, and is contained in the recess 
 shown, being raised in a similar manner as in the Rabbeth. 
 The sediment contained in it can be deposited at the point G. 
 Another form of elastic spindle is that shown in Fig. 231, 
 this being the invention of Mr. John Dodd. In this case an 
 inner sleeve D is fitted, which is prevented from rotating by a 
 rectangular nipple C formed at its lower end. The sleeve is 
 made of such a size that it practically oscillates on its upper end 
 when the exigencies of the ca'se " necessitate it, and it will be 
 noticed that there is an increase in the size of the spindle up to 
 and above the top bearing, by which, with a slight increase in 
 weight, great strength and increased steadiness is obtained. A 
 small ring B is fitted which prevents the rise of the oil to a point 
 above the top of the bolster, and causes it to flow back into the 
 reservoir. The spindle is driven, like the Rabbeth, by a short 
 sleeve formed with a cup for the reception of the bottom 
 of the bobbin. There are a large number of spindles in the 
 market varying from those described in small details, but not 
 in any essential principle. In some forms the bottom of the 
 bolster is open and is covered by a withdrawable cap, so 
 that the removal of the dirty oil and its substitution by fresh 
 lubricant can be easily effected. In another form made, a 
 cork cushion surrounds the bolster at its upper end, thus 
 supplying the necessary yielding when required. One of the 
 
RING SPINNING. 519 
 
 more recent developments which has received the test of actual 
 practice is that shown in Fig. 232. This is the device ot 
 Mr. Thomas Wrigley, and is chiefly notable for the method of 
 driving the bobbin. Only the spindle and bobbin is here 
 shown, because the spindle can be fitted to any form of bolster 
 as desired. On the spindle is fixed a warve, the upper portion 
 of which is formed with a conical surface. On this rests a 
 bobbin, turned out to a corresponding cone at the underside of 
 its lower flange. Except for the contact thus established the 
 bobbin is free, and is not in any way jammed on the spindle. 
 The driving is wholly effected by the frictional contact of the 
 bobbin and cone, and the bobbin is, instead of being of the 
 shape shown in Fig. 229, double flanged with a cylindrical barrel 
 between the flanges. The lift of the ring rail is, in this case, 
 equal to the lift of the bobbin that is, the space between 
 its flanges and the yarn is therefore wound throughout each 
 traverse of the ring rail upon a surface of the same instead 
 of upon one of a varying diameter. It is found that the 
 driving of this type of bobbin is perfectly effected, and there 
 are one or two features about it which will be dealt with in 
 due course. In order to effect the removal of the oil, it is 
 sometimes the custom to leave the bottom end of the bolster 
 open, and cover it by a cup which can be readily applied or 
 removed. By a recent invention, however, this plan has been 
 improved upon, the inside of the bolster being formed with 
 a multiple quick thread, which can be fitted with a plug or 
 cup correspondingly threaded. A half-turn of the cup brings 
 it into position, and it is so shaped at the top that a little 
 further movement by a spanner makes it quite oil tight. A 
 further development of interest is shown in Fig. 233. It 
 consists of applying to the spindle an "upwardly projecting 
 tube, which is connected by a horizontal duct with the 
 bolster. By filling the tube with oil a constant level of oil 
 is maintained in the bolster, so that there is substantially bath 
 lubrication. A hinged cover is fitted, as shown, which has 
 a neb on it acting as a holder down for the spindle and 
 
520 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 sleeve. It is perhaps necessary to say, in closing this brief 
 description of the various types of spindles, that they are al) 
 very accurately constructed. By means of special machine 
 
 FIG. 233. 
 
 tools the greatest nicety is obtained in their manufacture, and 
 they form one of the best instances of the admirable results of 
 the systems of construction which have been adopted in recent 
 years. 
 
RING SPINNING. 521 
 
 (307) We have now to consider the relations of the ring and 
 spindle to each other. It is absolutely necessary that these two 
 parts shall be concentric, and for this purpose means of adjust- 
 ment are provided both for the ring and the spindle. In setting, 
 it depends whether the fixed or elastic type of spindle be used, 
 whether the ring is set to the spindle or vice versd. It is a 
 common practice to fix the spindle and set the ring to it 
 when an ordinary Rabbeth spindle is used; but it is much 
 preferable to reverse this procedure, and set the spindle to the 
 ring when the elastic or top type is employed. It is quite clear 
 that, owing to the fact that an elastic spindle may vary from 
 the perpendicular, there may be moments during the lift of the 
 ring rail, when the concentricity of the two parts is destroyed, but 
 owing to the limitation of the motion of the spindle previously 
 referred to, the amount of variation is not great. The relation 
 which the sizes of the bobbins and rings bear to one another is 
 a matter also of some importance. The bobbins used in ring 
 spinning are very important factors. That shown in Fig. 234 
 is an ordinary Rabbeth bobbin, and that in Fig. 235 an 
 improved type. All the efforts of inventors during recent years 
 have been directed to strengthening the bobbin at the foot, 
 mainly by means of metallic shields or protectors, and as now 
 made there are bobbins to be obtained which are noteworthy in 
 this respect. The spool shown in Fig. 236, is used for 
 spinning weft yarns. It is well established now by practice 
 that the best results are obtained in spinning certain counts 
 with a ring of a definite diameter. Thus counts of about 
 Nos. 28 to 32's can be well spun with a if inch ring, and it is 
 important that the size of the full and empty bobbins is care- 
 fully adjusted to suit this. The reason of this will be explained 
 immediately, but in the meantime it is well to record the fact. 
 It is especially desirable to remember this when dealing with the 
 finer numbers, but it always has a considerable bearing upon 
 the case. In the instance given above a bobbin of ^ inch 
 diameter when empty and ij^ inch when full will give good 
 results. Generally speaking a difference of ^ inch in the 
 
5 22 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 respective diameters of the ring and full bobbin will give 
 sufficient clearance for practical working, but less than this 
 amount should never be given. The setting of the building 
 motion should, therefore, be such that as soon as the full size is 
 reached the gradual elevation of the ring rail which takes place 
 will be sufficient to build the spool of a cylindrical form. Care 
 should be taken to see that all bobbins are free from defects, 
 
 FIG. 234. 
 
 FIG. 235. 
 
 FIG. 236. 
 
 <nd that the spindles and rings are kept clean, for, as will be 
 shown, it is a matter of great importance to maintain perfect 
 cleanliness. 
 
 (308) Enough has now been said to enable the principle of 
 the ring frame to be dealt with, and for this purpose a reference 
 to Fig. 237 may be made. In this figure A represents the spindle, 
 B the empty bobbin, C the full bobbin, and D the circum- 
 ference of the ring. It will be noticed that, assuming the yarn 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 5 2 3 
 
 to be passing through the traveller at the point E, it is taken to 
 the surface of the full and empty bobbins in a line disposed 
 tangentially, in each case, to the circumference of the ring. The 
 traction thus exercised upon the traveller causes it to rotate 
 round the ring at a velocity which depends upon that of the 
 spindle and the diameter of the latter. For the present it is 
 only necessary to note that this is the manner m which the tra- 
 veller receives its motion, and that the yarn, in passing from the 
 rollers to the bobbin, is bent round at a sharp angle practi- 
 cally, at a right angle to the vertical line occupied by it as it 
 travels from the rollers. It is quite obvious that in the length 
 
 FIG. 237. 
 
 between the traveller and the bobbin a considerable tension 
 will exist, and that as all that is taking place is the direct pas- 
 sage of the yarn on to the bobbin there cannot be any turning 
 of the yarn upon its axis, which is necessary to put in twist. 
 The latter is put in by means of the rotation of the traveller at a 
 defined relative velocity during the delivery by the rollers of a 
 definite length of yarn. In short, the traveller performs the 
 same functions as the flyer eye in the throstle or the presser eye 
 in the roving frame. It is, however, necessary to note that the 
 motion of the traveller, instead of being obtained from any direct 
 connection with the spindle, is one which is only derived from it. 
 In rins spinning the primary rotation is that of the 
 
524 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 spindle, that of the traveller being purely secondary and derived. 
 The effect, however, is that being caused to rotate round the 
 ring it gives a rotating movement to the thread, and twists it. 
 It is a corollary from this that the velocity of the spindle deter- 
 mines that of the traveller, which, in turn, fixes the twist intro- 
 duced into the yarn. The traveller, therefore, plays an impor- 
 tant part in the economy of the ring frame, and it is highly 
 necessary to understand its precise action. In addition to the 
 effect which it has upon the twisting of the yarn, it also has the 
 function of causing the winding of the yarn upon the bobbin. 
 In order to enable it to do this its weight is arranged so that it 
 will lag behind the periphery of the spindle sufficiently to enable 
 the length of yarn delivered by the rollers to be wrapped on the 
 bobbin. There is thus a two-fold action going on, in con- 
 sequence of the rotation of the traveller, and, as there is much 
 misapprehension existing as to its precise action,^ it will be as 
 well to enquire into its operation in each case. 
 
 (309) Referring to Fig. 237, it will be seen that the traveller 
 receives a pull in two different ways when the yarn passes from 
 it on to the full bobbin C and the empty bobbin B. In the 
 \atter case the pull is more directly towards the centre, and is 
 not, therefore, so well suited to draw the traveller round the 
 ring D. To make this point clear, let it be assumed that the 
 yarn was drawn round the ring before going to the bobbin ; it 
 can at once be seen that the tractive force exerted would be 
 such as to cause the traveller to rotate at the speed at which 
 the yarn moves. The nearer the yarn approaches a radial line, 
 the less the tractive force which is applied becomes, and, con- 
 sequently, the slower relatively the rotation of the traveller. 
 This is one source of loss, but there is another of equal import- 
 ance. The power exerted is applied from the periphery of the 
 bobbin at every point, and consequently is varying throughout 
 the lift of the ring rail. Thus, the yarn when held at the base 
 of the cone formed during building, is if the full bobbin be 
 1 24 inch diameter being carried round through a space of 
 4-31 inches at each revolution. When it is held on the surface 
 
RING SPINNING. 525 
 
 of the bare bobbin, which is ^ inch diameter, it only travels 
 at the rate of 2-35 inches at each revolution. It is thus clear 
 that, if no retardation of the traveller took place, it would travel 
 during each revolution of the spindle a distance equal in each 
 case to that stated. The effect of this upon the twist is easily 
 seen. Suppose that 100 revolutions of the spindles are made 
 in each case, and the rollers deliver 5 inches of yarn, the effect 
 would be that the traveller in one case would travel 431 inches, 
 and in the other only 235 inches. The circumference of the 
 ring being 5-1, this means that the traveller makes 84-5 and 46 
 revolutions respectively. There would thus be introduced into 
 the yarn i6'g and 9*2 turns per inch respectively at each of 
 these periods, which is a considerable variation. This instance 
 illustrates the principle, and shows the effect of the varying 
 diameter of the bobbin; but the reader should be warned 
 against supposing that this degree of variation actually occurs, 
 It will be shown presently that there are a number of elements . 
 entering into the problem of more or less importance and 
 complexity. There is, beyond doubt, a considerable influence 
 exerted by this factor alone, but it is partially overcome by 
 others, to which reference will be made. The fact remains, 
 however, that the smaller the diameter of the bobbin the slower 
 the speed of the traveller. 
 
 (310) This variable size of the bobbin has another effect 
 besides that on the question of twist. It was shown in dealing 
 with the roving frame that an increased diameter of the surface 
 upon which the yarn is wound necessitates a reduction of its 
 velocity. This is obtained in the roving frame by a reduction 
 of the velocity of the bobbin, which there rotates independently 
 of the flyer eye. It is obvious that this solution of the difficulty 
 is not possible with the ring frame, because the flyer eye, or its 
 equivalent the traveller only receives its motion as a con- 
 sequence of the rotation of the bobbin with the spindle. In 
 one sense there is a resemblance between the roving and ring 
 frames to the extent that each has a bobbin lead, but the resem- 
 blance in this respect only deepens the contrast actually existing. 
 
526 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 This point may be briefly put as follows : The bobbin in the 
 roving frame draws the roving on to it by reason of the excess 
 of its speed over that of the flyer, both of these factors being 
 determined by suitable mechanism. The bobbin in the ring frame 
 winds the yarn on to its surface because of its excess of speed 
 over the traveller ; but the rotation of the bobbin is constant, 
 while that of the traveller is slower only on account of its retar- 
 dation from various causes. . The amount of lagging is deter- 
 mined by a set of conditions to which fuller attention will be 
 presently given. The problem of winding in the ring frame is 
 also like and unlike that of the mule. Here also there is the 
 difficulty of winding on a surface of variable diameter, and 
 taking up a given length of yarn. But the likeness does not 
 extend further, because the spindle in this case rotates at a 
 uniform velocity, and the roving is being constantly delivered to 
 the bobbin. Thus it is clear that other means must-be found to 
 enable the yarn to be wound throughout building at an even 
 tension. Reverting to the illustration given in the last para- 
 graph, where the diameters of the full and empty bobbins were 
 i^i inch and ^ inch, and their circumferences 4-31 inches and 
 2*35 inches each, it will be seen that when the yarn is being 
 wound on the smaller circumference it will require more revolu- 
 tions to take up any given length of yarn delivered by the rollers 
 than when it is being wound on the larger diameter. But we 
 have shown that the velocity of these two points is uniformly 
 the same, so that they cannot take up more than the lengths 
 named at each revolution. To ensure proper winding, therefore, 
 there must be some compensating arrangement, and this is found 
 in the variable motion of the traveller previously referred to. It 
 was observed that it was not likely that there would be between 
 the highest and lowest velocity of the traveller the variation 
 calculated in the manner given. The matter ' which really 
 determines the amount of lagging of the traveller is the tension 
 upon the yarn between it and the spindle combined with the 
 direction of the pull exercised on it. The action which takes 
 place is affected by these two factors in different degrees at 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 527 
 
 different times, but they are always the determining factors. 
 If the spindle is revolving at 1,000 revolutions a minute during 
 the time the rollers are delivering 50 inches of yarn, the first 
 result is that the yarn receives 20 turns per inch. But the 
 tension put upon it during the rotation of the spindle drags the 
 traveller after it, at a velocity depending entirely upon the main- 
 tenance of this tension. Suppose that the tension is relieved 
 by a slightly increased delivery of yarn, the effect would be that 
 the traveller would lag until a tension was again established 
 sufficient to overcome its resistance and drag it round the ring. 
 Thus, the pull upon the traveller is entirely determined by its 
 weight, the speed of the surface of the bobbin, and the delivery 
 of the yarn by the rollers. It can thus be seen that the weight 
 of the traveller must be graded so that it will lag behind the 
 bobbin at all times to maintain a uniform tension sufficient to 
 cause the bobbin to take up the same length of yarn as that 
 delivered by the rollers, less the shortening consequent upon 
 twisting. It follows, therefore, from this, that, as the bobbin 
 will only take up, when the yarn is being wound on the nose, 
 2 '35 inches of yarn, while it will take up 4*31 inches when it is 
 being wound on the full bobbin, there must be a variation in 
 the speed of the traveller of a like amount. This is presuming 
 that the ring rail remains opposite each of these points for the 
 same length of time, but, as a matter of fact, this does not take 
 place. Owing to the shape of the builder cam or heart, there is 
 a great variation in the speed of the lift at various points, and 
 this has an influence upon the problem. The smaller diameter 
 of the bobbin would necessitate more rotations of the spindle to 
 wind the same length, and as it cannot get this, the tension on 
 the yarn becomes relaxed, the pull on the traveller consequently 
 relieved, and the latter falls behind the bobbin a little more, on 
 account of the decreased tension. The converse of this is the 
 case when the yarn is being wound on the larger diameter, the 
 traveller being then drawn a little further forward. Thus, sup- 
 posing the front roller to be i inch diameter revolving 100 times 
 per minute, and the full and empty bobbins to be of the sizes 
 
528 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 given, then the following will be the result. In every minute 
 314*16 inches of yarn would be delivered by the front roller. 
 Now, the circumference of the empty bobbin being 2*35 inches, 
 the traveller would have to lag behind the bobbin 314*16 -^ 2*35 
 or 133*7 turns. When the yarn is being wound on the full bobbin, 
 with a circumference of 4*31, then the lagging is 314*16 -7-4*31 or 
 73 turns, nearly. Assuming the spindle speed to be 9,000 revo- 
 lutions, then the relative velocity of the traveller, at each of these 
 points, is 8,866*3 and 8,927 revolutions respectively. In other 
 words, the twist would be, in each case, 28 and 28*4 respectively. 
 This more nearly approximates to the actual condition of things 
 than the calculation previously deduced from the speed, but 
 neither of them are actually exact. The above gives an accurate 
 theoretical explanation of the action of the traveller, both in its 
 effect upon the twist and upon winding, and it is, in the main, 
 correct, when applied to practice. There are, however, one or 
 two considerations which require taking into account, and which 
 very materially modify the conclusions thus arrived at. It is 
 quite true that if the variable speed of the traveller, to which 
 reference has been made, takes place, there will be a considerable 
 difference in the twist of the yarn, but it can also be seen that 
 the greatest amount of twist should, according to this reckoning, 
 be found in the yarn at the base of the cop and the least in 
 that at the nose. Between these points there should be, accor- 
 ding to this theory, a gradual increase or decrease of twist accor- 
 ding to the direction of the lift of the ring rail and, acting on 
 this assumption, calculations, such as that given, have been made 
 by which the exact variation between the maximum and mini- 
 mum is obtained. The observations of the author have led 
 him to reject this theory in its entirety, and a few words may be 
 .expended to make the matter clear. 
 
 ,(311) So far the demonstration has proceeded upon the 
 ^hypothesis that the only forces which affect the traveller are 
 the pull of the yarn being wound and the weight of the traveller 
 itself. It does not, however, require much thought to see that 
 these are the converse of and antagonistic to each other, and 
 
RING SPINNING. 529 
 
 that each has other effects than those iust stated. The tendency 
 for every rapidly revolving body is to fly outwards from the 
 centre, which it will do unless it is controlled. Now it is quite 
 clear that a traveller, although a comparatively light body, is yet 
 by reason of its high velocity necessarily impelled to move from 
 the centre round which it revolves. Its motion in this direction 
 is, however, limited in two ways, viz., by the ring and by the 
 pull of the yarn between it and the ring upon it. It is 
 quite clear from the construction of the parts that a very 
 slight outward movement would bring one end of the traveller 
 into contact with the inner surface of the ring, and thus 
 retard its motion. On the other hand, the pull exercised upon 
 it by the yarn draws the traveller away from the ring, and 
 thus prevents this friction taking place. There are, therefore, 
 two forces which play an important part, each of which is the 
 complement of the other. It is when they are balanced that the 
 most steady rotation of the traveller is obtained ; but the de- 
 scription of the action of the bobbin recently given shows that 
 there cannot be any preservation of this balance throughout the 
 lift of the ring rail. When the centrifugal force exerted by the 
 traveller is exactly met and held in check by the tangential pull 
 of the yarn, then the traveller will revolve round the ring 
 without any appreciable friction, and the drag depends en- 
 tirely upon its weight. It is obvious that this set of conditions 
 can only exist at one point, and that when it is necessary 
 for the traveller to fall back in order to wind on the yarn, as is 
 the case when the ring rail is opposite the nose of the spool, 
 this balance, if it previously existed, is destroyed. There must 
 be therefore periods when each of these forces is in the 
 ascendant, and when that is the case there will be entirely 
 different results obtained. When the pull of the yarn, owing 
 to the large diameter of the bobbin, is at its maximum, then 
 the traveller will, as was shown, rotate at its highest speed. 
 In this case its momentum is necessarily increased, and it will 
 tend to overrun the yarn and fly out. When it makes a slight 
 outward movement it comes into contact with the ring, and the 
 
53 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 speed of its rotation is immediately checked. But so long 
 as the surface speed of the bobbin is large, the drag on the 
 traveller is sufficient to re-establish its velocity and momentum. 
 The effect is that throughout the building of a bobbin there 
 is a constant series of alternate accelerations and retardations 
 of the velocity of the traveller, according as the centrifugal 
 or tangential tractional forces are in the ascendant. The 
 "balloon," as it is called, also affects the problem to some extent, 
 as will be presently pointed out. It is therefore easily ascer- 
 tainable by careful observation that instead of there being the 
 maximum twist put in at the base of the cop and the minimum 
 at the nose, the amount varies throughout the whole of the lift 
 of the ring rail. It is customary, as stated, to base all calcula- 
 tions of the loss of twist upon the difference in the maximum 
 and minimum circumferences of the bobbin, as if no other factor 
 entered into the calculation. For the reasons stated,^ the author 
 is of opinion that this is an erroneous assumption, and his 
 attention was first called to the subject by an observation made 
 to him by a gentleman of long experience in ring spinning. 
 This was to the effect that although there was a good deal of 
 talk about loss of twist at one point, it was very difficult to find. 
 Observation has led the author to come to the same opinion, 
 with the modification that throughout the whole length of a 
 ring cop there is a variation of twist occurring, and that it does 
 not merely happen at one point in each lift. The rapidity with 
 which each lift is made is sufficient to prevent the traveller from 
 entirely losing its momentum when it is opposite the nose of the 
 cop, although it will naturally tend to do so, and on this account 
 the difference in twist arising from the variation in circumference 
 is not so great as a calculation would show it to be. That there 
 is a difference is certain, but the conditions under which the 
 operation is conducted are such that it is impossible to localise 
 the place where it occurs. The action of the traveller is an 
 extremely complex one, and depends on several conditions, 
 which may be summed up as follows : The velocity of the 
 spindle, the velocity of that portion ot the surface of the 
 
RING SPINNING. 531 
 
 bobbin, on which winding is taking place, the weight ot the 
 traveller, which affects its centrifugal action and the amount of 
 its retardation, and finally, the direction of the pull of the yarn 
 towards the bobbin. If the remarks previously made were not 
 considered, it would be seen that there are several opposing 
 elements existing, and that it is extremely difficult to establish a 
 balance between them. Although great care is taken in grading 
 the weight of the traveller so that the most regular action takes 
 place, it is impossible under the conditions of practical work to 
 obtain an equilibrium of forces. Even if it were perfectly estab- 
 lished, a small change in the tightness of the driving bands, 
 the speed of the engine, and many other causes would lead to 
 its destruction. Thus it is deduced that throughout the prac- 
 tical operation of the machine there is a continual variation in 
 the effect of the traveller which is faithfully reproduced in the 
 yarn. So far as the author is concerned, it appears that the 
 difference in twist exists alike in the yarn wound at the base and 
 at the apex of the ordinary cone, and actual countings of twists 
 have shown this assumption to be correct. 
 
 (312) Reference was made a short time since to a method of 
 winding ring yarn on a cylindrical surface, which was shown in 
 Fig. 231. Now, in this case, it will be seen that through- 
 out each lift the circumference upon which the yarn is wound is 
 approximately equal. It follows, therefore, that the amount of 
 the tangential pull upon the traveller will remain the same from 
 the beginning to the end of each lift. Under these circumstances 
 it might be expected to find a greater evenness in the twisting 
 of the yarn than in that spun in the ordinary manner. The 
 variation observed is naturally greatest between the initial and 
 terminal lifts, which is not altogether an advantage, especially 
 when two ends have to be doubled together. Careful tests, 
 made by independent observers, show that, as gauged by 
 the strength of the yarn, this is undoubtedly the case, and this 
 is, perhaps, as good a rough test as can be applied. But even 
 with this system there is evidence of the alternate preponderance 
 of the centrifugal and frictional forces referred to, and it appears 
 
532 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 to be inseparable from any system of ring spinning. The sub- 
 ject is one of great interest, and opens a field for the observer 
 which ought not to be neglected, and regarding which it is 
 probable that some important facts may be brought to light. 
 There is one advantage in this method of building a ring bobbin, 
 which may at this stage be referred to. A greater length of 
 yarn is wound on each bobbin, and in unwinding, a higher 
 speed can be obtained, owing to the fact that for a considerable 
 period the yarn is being drawn from a circumference of the same 
 size, instead of being unwound from a surface varying consider- 
 ably within a comparatively short' length. On the whole, however, 
 the characteristics of ring spun yarn are preserved, and there is 
 no reason to doubt that although one of the elements which 
 tend to vary the twist is removed, the rest remain and exert 
 their due influence. 
 
 (313) It is now necessary to say a few words on a subject of 
 extensive interest, which has received a large amount of 
 attention without, however, having been very successfully dealt 
 with hitherto. We refer to the question of spinning, as in the 
 mule, on the bare spindle. The importance of this may be 
 understood when it is stated that a large quantity of yarn is 
 exported in the cop ; that a still larger quantity is sent from 
 spinning mills to the weaving factories in that form, and 
 that weft cops are used, as they are produced, in the shuttles of 
 looms to an enormous extent. If, therefore, it is necessary to 
 wind the yarns on bobbins in the spinning frame, this implies 
 the carriage of the bobbins to and from the place to which the 
 yarn is sent, which, in addition to an increase in the cost of 
 carriage, is also subject to the disadvantage of the loss of large 
 numbers of the bobbins. Further, when weft is so spun, the 
 length put on each spool is somewhat decreased, this involving 
 more frequent renewals in the loom. For these reasons- 
 which are, of course, of greater cogency when the yarn is 
 used in establishments apart from those in which it is 
 spun the spinning of ring yarn is somewhat handicapped, 
 but, as will be shown hereafter, there are a number of advan- 
 
RING SPINNING. 533 
 
 tages which must be set against the disadvantages. At the 
 same time a solution of the problem of spinning on the 
 bare spindle would be of enormous advantage to spinners, and 
 it is not therefore surprising that many strenuous efforts have 
 been made to accomplish it. The chief difficulty has been found 
 in the direction of the pull of the yarn when it is being wound 
 on the spindle at the nose of the cop. Referring to Fig. 243, 
 it will be seen that at this point the direction of the yarn from 
 the ring to the spindle is almost a radial line, and that in 
 consequence very little traction is at this point exercised on the 
 traveller. Now although it is quite true that the momentum 
 of the traveller must not be neglected, it is not sufficient to 
 maintain the balance of forces to which attention has been 
 directed. In addition to this, the angle at which the yarn is 
 bent is much more acute, and therefore the strain on the yarn 
 at this point is greater. Weft yarn is more commonly spun on 
 the bare spindle, and as this is more softly twisted than warp 
 yarn, it follows that this excess of strain is thrown upon yarn 
 in which the cohesion of the fibres is less than in other varieties. 
 Thus all the elements of the case are against the successful 
 accomplishment of the operation, and it is found, that it is 
 precisely at the point where it might be looked for, that failure, 
 takes place. The defect of most of the machines constructed 
 for this purpose has been the difficulty experienced in restarting 
 the machine, when it has stopped with the ring rail opposite the 
 nose of the cop, without an excessive number of breakages of 
 the ends. The explanation of this occurrence is found in the 
 fact that the friction of the traveller and of the yarn through it 
 is greater at this period than at any other. This has been 
 noted by several observers, and coming at the period when the 
 direction of the pull is also nearer the racial, the strain is too 
 severe, thus leading to breakage. A few particulars of the 
 various devices adopted in the endeavour to overcome this 
 trouble will not therefore be without interest. One of the 
 earliest methods used was to give the ring rail such a velocity 
 of traverse as to cause it to move much faster than usual as it 
 
534 
 
 THE STUDENTS COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 left the nose of the cop. This plan was only partially successful 
 and in the most important feature it was practically a failure. 
 After this attempt the only approximately successful efforts have 
 proceeded upon the principle of diverting the course of the yarn 
 from a straight line. The traveller D was constructed (as in 
 Figs. 238 and 239) with two loops or hooks, C and E, and the 
 yarn passed under the first of these, which was in a position 
 corresponding to the ordinary traveller, thus having the twist 
 put in in the usual manner. The second loop or eye C lies 
 close up to the surface of the bobbin or spindle, so that as the latter 
 revolves it sets up such a pull on the outer end of the traveller as 
 to cause it to move rapidly round the ring. The traveller, in 
 fact, was a lever with its fulcrum on the spindle, and the appli- 
 
 D fi 
 
 FIG. 238 
 
 FIG. 239. 
 
 cation of the force of the yarn was sufficient to cause its outer 
 end to move rapidly in a circular direction. The fulcrum or 
 inner end of the traveller is, of course, always changing its 
 position, being retarded in the usual manner, and so effecting 
 the winding. In the instance illustrated the ring was in two 
 parts, A and B, and the traveller worked in the groove between 
 them. Although machines thus constructed were fairly success- 
 ful, they were not completely so, but they constituted a very 
 considerable advance on anything previously devised. The 
 mastery of this problem may be accomplished in time, but it is 
 surrounded with difficulties, and is accompanied by many 
 features of mechanical intricacy. 
 
 (314) There* is another matter to which reference may be 
 made at this point. A reference to Fig. 219 will show that, 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 535 
 
 between the wire eye F and the ring R, there is at times a con- 
 siderable distance, especially when the building of the cop is 
 just commencing. The result is, that even when the ring is at 
 its highest point in each lift, there is a certain length of yarn 
 which is being carried round at a high speed by the rotation of 
 the traveller. In its passage through the air it naturally 
 encounters a considerable resistance, and this combined with the 
 centrifugal force set up causes it to fly outwards, so as to assume 
 the shape shown in Fig. 219. This is called, technically, 
 " ballooning/' and it is not without some advantages. Ballooning 
 is caused largely by the centrifugal force of the yarn between 
 the thread board and the traveller, and it follows that the greater 
 this distance the moie ballooning is produced. It is clear that 
 precisely the same effect will be produced by the tension in this 
 length of yarn as is caused by the tangential tension. In either 
 case the traveller is drawn in the direction of the tension, and is 
 aided in its rotation. Thus a well-formed balloon permits of a 
 heavier traveller being used, while its limitation necessitates a 
 lighter one. It is quite certain, from the facts which -are 
 available, that the tension of the " balloon " thread, as it may be 
 called, must be taken into account in considering the balance 
 of forces which exists and effects the problem of spinning. As, 
 however, the distance from centre to centre of .the spindles is 
 limited, if there is too large a balloon the "ends" of yarn lash, 
 become entangled, and break. Means are therefore adopted to 
 check this tendency, and restrain the distance which the yarn 
 can fly out. These consist of the placing of guards on each side 
 of the spindle, so that the ends are limited in their outward 
 movement. Devices of this character are in this country called 
 anti-ballooners, and in America separators. The most primitive 
 method of checking the balloon is that shown in Fig. 240, which 
 consists of the placing of a wire B, held in the fingers A, hinged 
 on brackets fixed to the roller beam at a point behind the 
 spindle. The wire ran the whole length of the frame and met 
 and checked the balloon. In another device the anti-ballooner 
 consists of a plate A mounted on supports fixed to either 
 
536 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the ring or spindle rail, and shaped as in Fig. 241. The 
 gaps are cut out so as to give a clear space at the back 
 while confining the balloon at the sides, as shown by the 
 
 FIG. 240. 
 
 dotted lines, and the projecting pieces B enable the adjoining 
 balloon to be kept quite clear. In the arrangement shown 
 m Fig. 219, a second rail R 1 is employed, which is formed with 
 
 FIG. 241. 
 
 holes surrounding the bobbins of such a size as to permit 
 of the formation of a certain size of balloon. This procedure is 
 found to be advantageous, as it is proved by practice that if the 
 yarn is not unduly restrained it greatly aids the drag c/ the 
 
RING SPINNING. 537 
 
 traveller, and that, in consequence, a lighter traveller can be 
 used than is otherwise possible. The balloon rail R 1 is mounted 
 on the ends of pokers R 2 , which receive movement from the 
 same shaft as the ring rail, but have a reciprocal traverse much 
 more limited in extent. Thus, the balloon rail rises with the 
 ring rail, and its motion is arranged to give, as nearly as- 
 possible, the best results. Although this device has undoubtedly 
 many merits, there is one feature in connection with it which 
 ought to be mentioned. There is of necessity a certain retard- 
 ing influence in the friction of the yarn against the separator or 
 guard, which is not without its influence upon the twist, because 
 the greater the length of yarn between the thread guide F and 
 the ring rail R, the greater the tendency to balloon, and the 
 consequent frictional contact of the yarn and separator. Before 
 leaving this subject, it is necessary to say that there is a well- 
 defined influence exerted alike by the guide F and the position of 
 the balloon guard or separator. If the angle formed by the yarn 
 on passing through the wire eye is too great, the twist cannot 
 pass up to the bite of the rollers, and is practically put in in two 
 stages. If the separator is too low, relatively, to the length of 
 yarn, between the wire eye and the ring, instead of checking the 
 balloon at its larger diameter it does so below that point, and 
 consequently the yarn presses over the top of the separator, 
 with the necessary consequences. The most recent type of 
 device is that which consists of a thin plate or casting which is 
 introduced between adjoining spindles. It is this device to 
 which the distinctive name of " separator" is given, although, as 
 said, this is substantially applicable to all devices used for this 
 purpose. When originally designed, the separator plates were 
 fastened either to a fixed rail or to a rail attached to a poker 
 which could rise or fall with the ring rail. In either case the 
 fixing of the position of the separator became difficult, and the 
 best effect was never produced. In the device shown in Fig. 242,. 
 which is the invention of Mr. Alfred Hitchon, these difficulties 
 have been overcome. In order to economise space, the frame 
 end is shown as broken off, but the spindle mechanism is shown. 
 
538 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 at each side. The reference letters used for parts other than 
 those now dealt with are the same as those in the other illustra- 
 tions. The ring rail R is cut away at the back so as to receive 
 and act as bearing for a rod T, to which a partially rotary move- 
 
 FIG. 242. 
 
 ment is given. The rod is kept in position by small brackets 
 fixed to the ring rail, but not shown in the drawing,. The sec- 
 tion of T is such that when fitted in the eye of the separator 
 plate M, the latter is practically fixed to T. The separator plate 
 is shown at the left hand side in working position, and it will 
 
RING SPINNING. 539 
 
 be noticed that it must rise and fall with the ring rail. It 
 follows that there is always a considerable length of the balloon 
 enclosed between the bobbin and separator, a factor which is 
 absent in all devices which consist merely of thin plates, but one 
 which has a great influence upon the operation. Looking at 
 the right hand view in Fig. 242, the separator is shown in posi- 
 tion when the bobbins are being doffed, and it is clearly seen 
 to be quite out of the way of the operative, in which respect it 
 differs from all fixed separators. As the ring rail rises when the 
 frame is restarted, say into position R 1 , the separator comes into 
 contact with a curved bracket H, and is thrown into the posi- 
 tion M 1 . It will be noted that gravity, which kept M in its 
 backward position, now ensures its falling forward into working 
 position, and as the rail rises to the position R 2 , M takes the 
 position M 2 . The guide brackets F are cut so as to permit of 
 the passage of M between them, and thus, at all points of the 
 lift, the separator is in position presenting the greatest surface 
 when most required. The employment of this device permits 
 the gauge of the spindles to be largely decreased, as shown in 
 the plan view, without any risk of lashing of adjoining ends. 
 The drag given to the yarn has also led to the use of much 
 lighter travellers without affecting the winding, which is a most 
 important point. Larger bobbins and rings can be used, and 
 counts so fine as 36*3 can be spun with 2 inch rings, the gauge 
 of the frame being only 2^ inch. 
 
 (315) There are, therefore, a well-defined set of conditions 
 which affect the proper carrying out of spinning on the ring 
 frame, and they may be summarised thus : A correct inclination 
 of the roller stand, a definite ratio between the diameter of the 
 ring and size of bobbin, a traveller of correct weight, and an 
 effective separating appliance. The second and third of these are 
 the most important, and although the principles on which they 
 are founded have been fully explained, there are several con- 
 siderations which still require noticing. With reference to the 
 relative size of the bobbin and the ring this is important, 
 because of the direction of the traction on the traveller, which, 
 
540 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 if varying to any great extent, has an important bearing on the 
 character of the product. This is especially noticeable when 
 spinning the finer yarns, and as there is, especially in America, 
 a determined effort being made to spin the finer counts on the 
 ring frame, the subject is of importance. Thus, in spinning 
 loo's yarn at a spindle speed of 10,000 revolutions per minute, 
 the ring used was i% inch diameter, and the bobbin i-^ inch, 
 leaving only a difference of T \ inch. Allowing for the clearance 
 of y% inch between the ring and full bobbin, this reduces the 
 difference in the space to T 7 g- inch, or in other words, only -% 
 inch of yarn is wound on the bobbin. The diameter of the 
 bobbin when full is, therefore, i^ inch, and a little examination 
 will show how small is the difference in the velocity of the ring 
 at the two points. At a velocity of 10,060 revolutions, the 
 traveller would neglecting its drag move through 33,379 
 inches when the bobbin was empty, and 47,124 inches when it 
 was full. If this be compared with the calculation given in 
 paragraph 310, it will be seen that the loss of speed, and con- 
 sequently of twist, is proportionately much less between the full 
 and empty bobbin than it was in the case there supposed. 
 Further, the necessary difference in the retardation of the 
 traveller to wind on the yarn is considerably reduced, owing to 
 the smaller variation in the diameter of the full and empty 
 bobbins. It is evident that this is the true condition when 
 dealing with fine yarns, which possess much less absolute 
 strength than do the coarser counts. A variation, which in the 
 former case was permissible, would be in the other fatal, and 
 this is a fact which must not be lost sight of. There is, there- 
 fore, a close connection existing between the size of the bobbin 
 and that of the ring, and it will be easily understood after this 
 explanation upon what principle the sizes are adopted, but in 
 order to make the matter clear, a full sized diagram is given in 
 Fig. 243 illustrative of this point. If the direction of the yarn 
 in its passage from the traveller to the full and empty bobbin 
 A and B be compared with the line A C, it will be seen that the 
 variation in the angle formed by it in the former case is slight 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 541 
 
 when compared with the latter. Usually, counts from ID'S 
 to 26's are spun with a rirlg ify inch diameter, and from 28's 
 to 4o's on one of i^ inch, or i^ inch diameter. 
 
 (316) We now come to deal with the second of the two special 
 points named the weight of the traveller. The traveller is, 
 as may be easily imagined, probably the most important instru- 
 ment in ring spinning, and performs a variety of functions. 
 Not only does it guide the yarn from the ring to the bobbin, 
 but, as has been shown, it is the means by which it is twisted. 
 Equally as important as these functions is that of regulating 
 the tension so as to lead to effective winding. Not only is its 
 weight of importance in that respect but its form also, and this 
 
 E. 
 
 FIG. 243. 
 
 latter feature furnishes grounds for careful study. If a traveller 
 which is too heavy is adopted it is evident that not only will 
 the tractive force necessary to rotate it be excessive, but the 
 traveller will not accommodate itself so readily to the variable 
 pull exercised. When it acquires its full speed its momentum will 
 be so great that it is likely to overrun, and thus wind imperfectly. 
 On the other hand its weight would prevent it from acquiring 
 the full speed, and the result would be that an excessive tension 
 would exist. A traveller which is too light would be so easily 
 moved that its retardation would be very imperfectly obtained, 
 thus causing over-running, and the result would be that the 
 winding would be only partially effected, so as to produce a soft 
 
542 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 bobbin. Over-running takes place in this case to a much larger 
 extent than with a heavy traveller. It is impossible to give any 
 empirical rule by which the weight of the traveller can be arrived 
 at, as many considerations enter into the calculation. The 
 temperature of the spinning room, the velocity of the spindles, 
 and the amount of fly which collects have each an effect upon 
 the traveller. In consequence it is necessary for the attendant 
 or overlooker to carefully grade the 'raveller in accordance with 
 the observed conditions, and a little practice speedily enables 
 the right weight to be determined. The travellers are made of 
 certain sizes of wire, so that a given number have a definite 
 weight. The basis upon which travellers are graded is kept a 
 secret by the makers, but the general practice can be ascertained 
 by weighing a few sizes. The travellers of C*^ shape are most 
 commonly used, and a certain number of any size equals an 
 ascertainable weight, or conversely a fixed weight will contain a 
 definite number of travellers, according to the size. A second 
 system is to make what are called grain travellers, which are 
 made from wire of triangular section, and which advance one 
 grain in weight for each size. They are accordingly designated 
 by certain numbers, which can be referred to when necessary. 
 There are two standards of weight, one being that adopted in 
 Scotland and the other that used in the United States. A few 
 common sizes are given herewith, but it must be distinctly 
 understood that they are only given as a guide and not as fixed 
 practice. 
 
 Counts 
 being Spun. 
 IO 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 2 4 
 28 
 30 
 32 
 
 34 
 36 
 38 
 40 
 
 Diameter of Ring 
 in inches. 
 
 SIZES OF TRAVELLERS AND RINGS. 
 
 MESSRS. HOWARD AND BULLOUGH'S FRAMES. 
 
 Counts of Travellers. 
 
 U.S. standard. 
 
 7 or 6 
 
 4 r 3 
 2 or i 
 i/o or 2/0 
 
 4 
 
 !! 
 
 2/0 or 3/0 
 3/0 or 4/0 
 4/0 or 5/0 
 5/0 or 6/0 
 6/0 or 7/0 
 7/0 or 8/0 
 8/0 or 9/0 
 
RING SPINNING. 543 
 
 MESSRS. BROOKS AND DOXEY's FRAMES. 
 
 Counts Diameter of Ring Counts of Travellers, 
 
 being Spun. in inches. U.S. standard. 
 
 O to 4 ...... 2i to 3 
 
 4 to 10 2 to 2 . 
 
 10 ...... 2 6 
 
 14 1^ or 2 4 
 
 18 i ; 2 
 
 22 if i 
 
 26 i| 3/o 
 
 30 if 4/o 
 
 32 it 5/o 
 
 36 ii 7/o 
 
 40 14 9/o 
 
 The following figures relate to special American practice for 
 hard twisted yarns A/counts x 47 with a spindle speed of 
 
 9,000 : 
 
 Counts. Traveller. 
 
 4 34 
 
 47 28 
 
 5'5 24 
 
 12 9 
 
 14 8 
 
 16 6 
 
 The accumulations of fly about the traveller must be carefully 
 watched, and it is the practice to fit to the ring rail a clearer 
 or cleaner, which is simply an upwardly projecting piece of 
 metal which catches the fly on the traveller in its rotation and 
 removes it. The clearer should be set so that it approaches 
 the traveller, when the latter is pushed outwards as far as it will 
 go, within the space of a piece of writing paper. It is highly 
 important to keep the traveller free from fly, as any accumula- 
 tion of it speedily adds to the friction on the ring. In doubling 
 it is necessary to lubricate the ring well.' For this purpose a 
 special grease is used which adheres to the surface of the ring 
 very tenaciously. 
 
 (317) The spindles are driven, as shown in Fig. 218, by means 
 of. two tin rollers. It was formerly customary, and is still 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Traveller. 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 2 or i 
 
 22 
 
 i/o 
 
 25 
 
 3/o 
 
 30 
 
 6/0 
 
 35 
 
 IO/O 
 
 40 
 
 22/O 
 
544 
 
 largely the practice, to drive one tin roller from the other by 
 passing the spindle bands from the driven roller over it. That 
 is to say, the bands driving the spindles on the left hand side 
 of the frame are those which are driven from the right hand tin 
 roller, and vice versti. It is obvious that by a method of this 
 kind there must be necessarily some uncertainty as to the actual 
 velocity of the driven roller, and it is this which forms the basis 
 of the arrangement shown in Fig. 227, by which each of the tin 
 rollers is driven by means of an endless cord or band, similar to 
 a rim band. In this way the speed of the tin rollers can be 
 ascertained and relied upon, and much more even work can be 
 produced on each frame. Allied to this factor is the question 
 of the construction of the bands, and the first remark which it 
 is necessary to make is that it does not pay to use the spindle 
 bands made of inferior material. When it is considered that 
 the band is bent round a half circle of three-eighth inch radius 
 from 8,000 to 10,000 times per minute, it will be seen that it is 
 subjected to a strain which, unless great care is taken, will prove 
 fatal. It is, therefore, the truest economy to have them made 
 of good cotton, carefully prepared and twisted. In putting 
 them on care should be taken that the joins are as free from 
 lumps as possible, and that the tension on the bands is even 
 throughout. It is preferable to stretch them a little before 
 putting on, which can easily be done by giving them a smart 
 pull while held in some convenient way. Opinions vary as to 
 whether the bands should be put on when the machine is 
 running, or when it is stopped ; but, on the whole, the latter is 
 probably the best course. The condition in which the bands 
 are kept is an important factor, and this requires steady and 
 constant attention. Of the importance of these various points 
 there will be no doubt in the minds of any one who has carefully 
 followed the previous reasoning. If the bands are not equally 
 effective in driving, the spindles will revolve at too high a speed 
 in some cases and too low a one in others, with the result that 
 all the care taken in selecting the travellers will be entirely lost, 
 and twist and winding will alike be affected 
 
RING SPINNING. 
 
 545 
 
 (318) We have now touched upon all the points which 
 practically affect the working of the ring frame, and the rules 
 by which the various calculations are made in it can now be 
 given. 
 
 To find the number of revolutions of the spindles 
 
 Ascertain the velocity of the tin roller, then 
 
 Revolutions of tin roller x its diameter. 
 Diameter of spindle \varve. 
 
 To ascertain the twist in turns per inch 
 
 Diameter of tin roller x carrier or arm wheel x front roller wheel. 
 
 Wheel on tin roller x twist pinion x circumference of front roller x 
 
 diameter of warve. 
 
 To find change pinion for twist 
 
 Constant number , . . 
 
 : = change pinion. 
 
 iurns per inch 
 
 The constant number is found by the method given in the 
 preceding rule, omitting the twist change pinion. From the 
 result thus obtained deduct five per cent as an allowance for 
 winding on. 
 
 In conclusion it may be said that in the ring frame, as in 
 the mule, absolute cleanliness is essential to complete success. 
 It would be going over much of the ground previously traversed 
 in connection with the mule to deal with a number of points of 
 more or less importance, and it may just be said briefly that 
 the conditions of the spindles, rollers, and bobbins are as 
 important in one case as in the other. Constant vigilance is 
 required, and in a well organised mill the cleaning of the 
 machines will be a regular and not a spasmodic operation. 
 Not only is this the best course for efficient work, but it is 
 distinctly the most economical, and this should be borne in 
 mind. 
 
 (319) It will be advisable at this point, as the spinning 
 processes have now been dealt with, to say a few words on the 
 subject of the commercial qualities of and dealings in yarn. 
 The counts of yarn are ascertained by the employment of what 
 is known as a wrap reel, Fig. 244. This consists of a light metallic 
 
540 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 swift R revolving in bearings, attached to a wooden base, and 
 rotated by a handle H, carrying on its tail a small bevel wheel B 
 forming one of an epicyclic train, similar to that employed in 
 connection with the roving frame. The effect is that one 
 revolution of the handle gives two turns to the swift. The 
 swift, 54 inches circumference, is made wide enough to wind a 
 skein from several cops, fixed on skewers in the holders F, if 
 
 FIG. 244. 
 
 desired at the same time, which is occasionally useful. The 
 frame F is given a transverse horizontal reciprocation by the 
 lever L pivoted at D and rocked from the wheel W. Eighty 
 revolutions of the swift winds 120 yards of yarn, and when this 
 is concluded a bell C is struck by a hammer actuated by the 
 worm T, this calling attention to the fact that the full r length 
 is wound. By ascertaining the weight of one lea in grains the 
 counts can be calculated, as described on page 366, by dividing 
 
RING SPINNING. 547 
 
 1,000 grains by the number of grains in each lea. To save the 
 trouble of calculation, tables are published giving the weights of 
 from one to seven leas of various counts of yarn, so that a 
 reference is all that is necessary. The calculation, however, is 
 such a simple one that it is not necessary to reproduce the table. 
 If more than one lea is weighed the corresponding number of 
 thousands must be used as a dividend and the weight of all the 
 leas as divisor. After having got a lea it is sometimes necessary 
 to test its strength. This is done by a machine called a yarn 
 tester, which consists of a fixed hook and a hook attached to a 
 slide controlled by a hand wheel and screw, the position of 
 which causes a greater or lesser pull to be exerted on the yarn. 
 The breaking strain is shown by a finger traversing the face of 
 a circular dial plate. The breaking strain of the same counte 
 varies under different conditions, and it is hardly possible to fix 
 any standard strength. The conditions which affect this problem 
 are so many and numerous that it is quite impossible to specify 
 them all. The character of the cotton, its early treatment, the 
 atmospheric conditions during spinning, the exact twist inserted, 
 are only a few of the things which affect the strength. It is, 
 therefore, customary in ordering yarn, where strength is needed, 
 to specify the amount which should exist. For instance, in a 
 table issued by Messrs. George Draper and Sons, of Hopedale, 
 Mass., U.S.A., the strength of 32'$ American ring warp yarn 
 per lea is given as 54lbs. Dr. Bowman gives the strength of 
 that counts spun from American cotton as 547lbs., although 
 they were a little lighter than standard. Mr. James Hyde, 
 in his well-known and admirable book, gives the strength of 
 32*5 yarn as follows: Ordinary, 45*6; fair, 46*4; good, 47*3 ; 
 extra, 48*2 ; super-extra, 49*1. There is thus a considerable 
 disparity in the figures, and, except as a mean of comparison, 
 the tables given are not very serviceable. Generally the 
 strengths given for American yarns are higher than those com- 
 mon in England, this being accounted for by the harder twist 
 and the better mixture necessary, owing to the difficulties of 
 spinning. The French counts of yarn are based upon the 
 
548 
 
 metrical system. The measures of length and weight employed 
 are the metre = 39*37 inches, and the kilogram (kilo.) = 
 2'2O47lbs. The yarn which is called No. i count is that of 
 which 1,000 metres weighs half a kilogram or 500 grammes, 
 there being 1,000 grammes in a kilogram. The hank is divided 
 into ten skeins (echevettes), each 100 metres long, the full 1,000 
 metres long being the hank (^cheveau). The circumference of 
 the swift of the reel which is employed to form the hank is 
 1-425 metre 56*122 inches so that it takes seventy revolu- 
 tions to wind one hank. The following rules will enable all the 
 necessary calculations to be made : 
 
 Length in metres 
 ^ 2 weight in grammes. 
 
 English counts = French counts x i'i8. 
 
 English counts 
 French counts = - p^g 
 
 (320) Yarn in England is, when produced, dealt with in 
 several ways. In America, except for hosiery purposes, the 
 trade in yarn is not great, as most of the great establishments 
 in that country utilise their output in the production of cloth. 
 In England, on the contrary, there is a division between the two 
 operations, although there are a large number of factories in 
 which both the operations of spinning and weaving are carried 
 on. Yarn is often sold through an intermediary, known as a 
 yarn agent. He charges a commission of i per cent, with an 
 extra ^ per cent if the account is guaranteed. In many 
 instances yarn is sold by the direct representatives of the mill, 
 and in Manchester 14 days' credit is given, with a discount of 
 2^ per cent at the end of that period, or an extra y 2 per cent is 
 given for prompt cash. There are, of course, many classes of 
 yarns prepared for special purposes which are sold outside of 
 Manchester. For instance, fine yarns are sold as warps, to mjx 
 with worsted yarns in Bradford dress goods. These are sold on 
 monthly terms for all deliveries on and before the 25th day of 
 each month, payment being made on the third Thursday in the 
 following month. This means nearly two months' credit in some 
 
RING SPINNING. 549 
 
 cases. In Glasgow, yarns are largely sold for thread purposes, and 
 are subject to a maximum discount of 7^ per cent for payment 
 before the 2Oth of the month succeeding delivery. Cotton 
 yarns for mixed linen goods are sold for payment less 2^ per 
 cent, on the 4th of every month, for deliveries made up to the 
 1 5th of the preceding month. In Nottingham, where yarns are 
 sold for the purposes of lace and hosiery, all deliveries made up 
 to the end of any month are paid for on the first Thursday of 
 the second month following, that is, goods delivered up to the 
 3ist December would be paid for on the first Thursday in 
 February. Sometimes the agent buys his yarn and makes it up 
 into bundles for the special market it is intended for, whilst in 
 other cases this operation is performed at the mill. In most 
 cases specific instructions are given as to the mode of making 
 up. A bundle is usually made of lolbs. net weight of 
 yarn, and the number of hanks it contains depends upon 
 the counts of yarn included. It is tied, as a rule, with four 
 strings in its length, although occasionally five are used. If 
 the hank is wound in leas, it is tied so as to keep each lea 
 separate, and the hanks are laid in the bundles either straight 
 or tied so as to form a figure of eight, being so ordered. 
 
 The details of a make-up can be varied, but are easily under- 
 stood by a little study. This matter was raised by a question 
 put in a recent examination, which is here repeated, with the 
 .answer. " Define exactly what is meant by the following 
 particulars, given with an order for bundle yarn, taking them 
 in the same order as given lolbs. net, 40*5, 361bs. test, 
 grandrelle, 20 hank halshed, 8, blue facing, back, no type stamp, 
 black press twine, full length, say how many ends of knots 
 would show at the end of the bundle ?" Interpreted, this 
 means that a bundle consisting of lolbs. net of 40*3 yarn, each 
 lea capable of sustaining 361bs. weight, with hanks of full length, 
 is wanted. It must be made up so as to have blue facing 
 paper on the face of the bundle, and back paper in the bundles, 
 the twine being hemp and black. The hanks must be tied up 
 .in twenties in the form of the figure 8 with grandrelle yarn, jind 
 
55 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 twenty knots would show at the end of the bundle. Yarns ir> 
 the form of cops are also shipped to the Continent packed in 
 casks, and are thus known as cask yarns. The counts sent in 
 this form range in counts from 2o's to 6o's, all higher count* 
 being sent packed in boxes. There is a growing trade in yarn 
 wound on quick traverse winding machines into cheeses, as 
 previously described ; and ring yarn is now shipped in that 
 form. 
 
KEELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 551 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 REELING, WINDING, AND THE MANUFACTURE OF 
 THREAD. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Varieties of reels, 321 Description of reeling machine, 
 322 Doffing motions, 323 Bundling, 324 Doubling, 325 Doub- 
 ling winding machine, 326 Cross winding, 327 Twining, 328 
 Ring doubling machines, 329 Flyer doubling, 330 Gassing, 331 
 Polishing thread, 332 Spooling thread, 333 Balling thread, 334. 
 
 (321) YARN, whether spun on the mule or ring frame, is used 
 mainly for three purposes, weaving, knitting, or thread. With 
 that used for the first purpose we have not to do beyond the 
 stage of reeling, and the same remark applies to hosiery yarns. 
 Very large quantities of both kinds are shipped abroad, and 
 in this case the yarn is made into hanks and formed into 
 bundles for convenience of carriage and the saving of cost. 
 For this purpose there is a special class of machines made, 
 which are part of the outfit of any mill in which yarns are pre- 
 pared for export. The first of these machines is intended to 
 wind the yarn into hanks of any determined or defined length 
 In this country, as previously stated, a hank is usually 840 yards 
 long, and is wound in coils or layers, each of which is i^ yard 
 or 54 inches long. These are produced on a machine called a 
 " reel," and its construction depends upon whether it winds the 
 yarn from cops or bobbins. A "cop" and "bobbin" reel are 
 widely different in appearance, but in each the operating instru- 
 ment is a light frame called a "swift" or "fly."* This consists 
 of a central axis or barrel made either of light iron tube, or of 
 tin cylinders, and- having mounted upon it several arms on the 
 ends of which are fixed longitudinal wooden laths or rails, the 
 outer surface of each of which is equidistant from the centre of 
 the shaft. The arms are either formed in pairs with a central 
 
552 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 boss, or are part of a light iron spider, that being the course 
 when a " drop motion " is used. The latter is an arrangement 
 by means of which two of the staves can be dropped so as to 
 release or free the hank and facilitate its removal. This object 
 in an ordinary reel is effected by oscillating the arms on the 
 barrel, so as to draw the various staves together (see dotted 
 lines in Fig. 246). In either case a " swift " is formed, 
 on which coils of yarn of the required length can be easily 
 wound. The fly or swift revolves in suitable bearings at 
 each end, and is driven by hand or power in the case of a 
 cop reel, or by power mainly if bobbin reels are used. The 
 yarn is drawn from the bobbin on which it is spun and is 
 wound on to the fly, being in the process guided by means 
 of a "guide rail" which is actuated by suitable mechanism. 
 When cops are to be reeled they are mounted on skewers, which 
 are fixed in small holes in longitudinal rails, and the yarn is 
 taken to the fly through a guide rail, as described. In conse- 
 quence of the method of winding the bobbins formed on ring 
 frames, and the extra twist put into the yarn, it is necessary to 
 subject the latter in reeling to a considerable tension, in order 
 that they will wind properly. For this purpose a special wire 
 guide is used, which is so constructed as to draw out the snarls 
 as the yarn passes. 
 
 (322) The form in which the yarn is wound on the fly de- 
 pends upon the purpose to which it is to be put. It may be 
 either formed into seven "leas" or small hanks of 120 yards 
 each in length; " crossed " wound that is, laid by the rapid 
 reciprocal traverse of the guide rail in a crossed condition ; or 
 " skeined," in which case it is wound into hanks of some 
 defined length. Cross reeling is resorted to when the hank 
 is to be dyed, the yarn being left in such an open condition that 
 it not only receives the dye better, but is more easily unwound 
 without entanglement. Latterly a system of cross reeling has 
 been adopted, which is called "Grant" reeling. It consists 
 simply of giving a more rapid and longer traverse to the guide 
 rail In this way the yarn is much better crossed, and presents 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 553 
 
 openings which facilitate the tying up of the various crossed 
 portions so as to avoid any entanglement in dyeing. In this 
 system of reeling the length of 840 yards is not adhered to, as a 
 hank often contains many thousands of yards, and there is 
 practically no fixed limit. If the hank is to be forced with 
 seven leas, the guide rail is actuated as shown in Fig. 245. 
 
 FIG. 245. 
 
 The rail K is fitted with an arm in which is fixed a pin H en- 
 gaging constantly with the face of the steppecl rack R. A spring 
 is attached to K, so as constantly to draw it towards R, so that 
 when any one of the seven steps comes opposite the pin, the 
 rail can make a movement so as to bring the pin into contact 
 with the face of the rack R. The latter forms the head of a 
 
554 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 vertical bar G guided in suitable bearings attached to the frame, 
 and having at its lower end a second rack F with a corresponding 
 number of teeth to steps in the upper rack. On the barrel B 
 of the swift is a worm W, gearing with a worm wheel D, on the 
 axis of which a tooth E is fixed so as to engage with the rack F. 
 Thus every revolution of D is followed by the raising of the 
 rack G to the extent of one of the teeth in F, which is sufficient 
 to lift the next step in R high enough to enable the pin H to 
 fall into it. The guide rail F is moved to that extent, and the 
 yarn is thus laid on another part of the staves A, a small space 
 being left between each lea. It is, therefore, obvious that the 
 length of yarn wound on the swift, during the period occupied 
 between one lift of G and the next, will be regulated by the 
 velocity of the swift barrel B, and the size of the worm wheel D. 
 Thus, if D has 80 teeth, the barrel and swift require to make 80 
 revolutions before the pin E raises the rack F one tooth. The 
 swift being i y^ yard circumference, it follows that 80 times that 
 length, or 1 20 yards, is wound in each lea. To cross reel yam 
 the pin H is removed, and the rail K coupled to a small disc 
 crank fixed in the head of a small upright shaft, and rotated 
 from the barrel B, so that K receives the necessary rapid re- 
 ciprocal motion, the rack F being, however, raised as before. 
 In skeining, a plate is fixed to the head R of the rack G m such 
 a way that it projects beyond the steps in the rack. The pin H 
 presses against the plate, so that the hank is wound in a regularly 
 spiral manner. By arranging the speed at which the rack F is 
 driven any length of a hank or " skein " can be wound. It is 
 customary, when skeins are required, to substitute for the rack 
 F a finely-pitched tooth rack with which a pinion gears. The 
 pinion is driven by a train of wheels, which in turn receive 
 their motion from the worm on the barrel, and, by simply 
 changing a pinion forming one of the train, the rack can be 
 raised at any desired speed. Skeining is usually resorted to- 
 with doubled yarns. Whatever system of reeling is adopted, 
 when the rack F has been raised sufficiently high to wind on the 
 proper length, the stop rod of the reel is released, and by mean* 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 555 
 
 of a spring is traversed so as to stop the machine by transferring 
 the strap from the fast to the loose pulley. The creel used in a 
 reel can be adapted either for cops, bobbins, or "cheeses." In 
 the first case the reel is specially constructed, and the cops are 
 held in skewers. The bobbins are mounted in a creel something 
 like that in Fig. 249, shown as applied to the gassing frame, 
 being placed on spindle free to revolve, but braked by a friction 
 band. When reeling is conducted from a che'ese the latter is 
 placed end up on a peg, and the yarn is drawn from it. As a 
 good deal of slack yarn is caused during this operation special 
 tension rails or rods are provided by which all chances of unequal 
 tension are avoided. 
 
 (323) The weight of a swift with the hanks wound on it is 
 considerable, and requires a good deal of power to lift. As 
 the hanks require "doffing," it is necessary to provide some 
 means by which they can be easily removed from the swift. If 
 this operation is manually performed, it is effected by collecting 
 all the hanks at one end of the machine, and lifting the swift 
 with one hand while with the other the hanks are removed. 
 There are two objections to this course. The first is, that the 
 operatives, being generally women, the strain caused by the 
 weight, especially of doubled yarns, is excessive; and the 
 second is, that there is a great danger of greasing the yarn. It 
 is, therefore, customary to fit to the machines what are called 
 doffing motions, which are mainly of three forms, the " wheel," 
 the "gate," and the "bridge" motions. Of these, the last two 
 were introduced by Mr. Joseph Stubbs, and the first is now 
 obsolete. The " bridge " motion is mechanically the simplest, 
 consisting merely of a small slotted bracket of sufficient length 
 to bridge a gap formed in the end frame F of the machine. 
 The motion is shown in Fig. 246, the bridge B when working 
 being shown in full, and when doffing by dotted lines. It is 
 pivoted on the two pins D, one at each end. The hanks are 
 drawn up to the end of the fly as in ordinary practice, and are 
 partially placed in the gap. By means of a smart push the 
 bridge piece is forced over with the fly, so that it rests on its 
 
556 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 pivot in a bearing constructed to receive it at the inner side of 
 the gap. The hanks can thus be readily removed and the fly 
 pulled back to its place. It can be seen that the bridge bracket 
 
 D 
 
 FIG. 246. 
 
 is in a vertical position both during reeling and doffing, and 
 rests upon pivots formed in each end, respectively, during this 
 period. To avoid greasing, the end of the fly is borne in a 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 557 
 
 sleeve arranged to lubricate it perfectly, and, at the same time, 
 to avoid the escape of the oil. The nipple of the sleeve is 
 cylindrical, and fits in the slot formed in the bridge bracket. 
 The chief advantage of doffing motions is, of course, the ease 
 with which the hanks are removed, but there is also much less 
 danger of their being oiled. 
 
 (324) The hanks after being doffed are, if for export, formed 
 into bundles; these are either 5lb. or iclb. weight each, and are 
 formed in a press which contains, within a strong frame, powerful 
 gearing by which a sliding table is pressed upwards. By a recent 
 improvement the table is raised by the action of an eccentric, 
 the throw of which regulates the elevation of the table. The 
 advantage of this is that no undue pressure can be applied, and 
 the bundles are made of a uniform size. Attached to the side 
 frames are wrought-iron plates, five or six in number, separated 
 from each other sufficiently to permit the passage of string. 
 To one of the sets of plates other bars are hinged, which pass 
 across the top of the space between the two sets, and are locked 
 by levers jointed to the second set. The hanks are placed in 
 the box thus formed, the bottom resting on a specially grooved 
 wooden block, the covering plates are drawn down and locked, 
 and the machine is started. The table thus ascends and presses 
 the bundle to the required size. When it reaches a determined 
 point the machine is automatically stopped, the bundle is tied 
 up, after which, the pressure is relieved, the box thrown open, 
 and the bundle removed. 
 
 (325) We now come to deal with the " doubling " of yarn, 
 which is the name given to the process by which two or more 
 strands or " ends " of yarn are twisted together. There are 
 many purposes for which doubled yarn is used. Sometimes 
 the warp threads used in weaving are doubled, and in many of 
 the better classes of cloth this is the custom. Doubled yarn is 
 used for the manufacture of lace, crotchet and knitting cotton, 
 embroidery yarns, and sewing thread. The yarn used for 
 crotchet and knitting purposes is carefully made and free from 
 knots, and lace yarn is generally " gassed " with the same 
 
558 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 object. Sewing thread is almost invariably doubled by two 
 operations, being in most cases composed of six or nine 
 separate ends twisted up into one, being known as " six " or 
 " nine " cord. The practice is in manufacturing it to twist 
 together first two or three strands of yarn, and subsequently to 
 twist a similar number of the threads so produced into the 
 finished thread. There are several ways in which yarn can 
 be arranged for doubling. The cops can be fixed on skewers 
 threaded into them, and placed in the creel of the doubling 
 machine, from which they are drawn in the ordinary way. This 
 is a practice which has largely fallen into disuse except for the 
 very finest counts of yarn, two ends of which are doubled 
 together for lace purposes, and for warps for fine mixed cotton 
 and worsted goods. It is now the usual practice to wind the 
 yarn to be doubled on to bobbins produced in a machine 
 ^nown as a doubling winding machine. This js a drum 
 winding machine that is, the bobbins on to which the yarn is 
 wound are rotated by surface contact with a series of drums 
 fixed upon a shaft suitably driven. The bobbins are formed 
 with a cylindrical barrel, at each end of which is a broad flange. 
 The distance between the two flanges is the " lift " of the bobbin, 
 and the yarn is guided by the traverse of a guide rail between 
 these two points in each direction alternately. The object of 
 using a machine of this character is to avoid the production of 
 "single" and "corkscrewed" thread. "Single" is a name 
 which, although technically understood, is inaccurate as a 
 description of the true character of the defective thread. It has 
 arisen from the fact that when two ends are twisted together 
 the failure of one of them is likely to result in the winding on 
 to the doubling bobbin of one end only. This is only true 
 when the ends are twisted together in the same direction to that 
 in which they arc spun, but, as a matter of fact, doubling is 
 always conducted by twisting up the ends in the opposite 
 direction. Thus, if two ends were being doubled, the only 
 result of the failure of either of them would be that the other 
 would be untwisted, and would, by the tension put upon it, be 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 559 
 
 speedily broken. When more than two ends are being twisted, 
 this effect does not take place, as the breakage of one does not 
 prevent the other two or more from being twisted together. 
 In this case there will be a certain length in which the number 
 of ends in the thread will be less than the normal number. 
 " Corkscrewed " yarn is caused by the uneven tension of the 
 threads being twisted, and is very likely to occur when they are 
 drawn from a surface varying in diameter like that of a cop. 
 This was referred to in paragraph 283, in Chapter IX., and the 
 overrunning of cops is a fruitful cause of this defect. When 
 such a state of uneven tension exists, one end, being slacker, is 
 wrapped round the other in coils which are not regular in pitch, 
 but are irregular and slackly formed. This tendency is utilised 
 in the production of fancy yarns, which are employed for various 
 classes of dress goods, but when it is desired to obtain a 
 perfectly even thread, such as must be used for sewing machines, 
 or for any other purpose where it has to be passed through 
 needles, such as hosiery or lace, it is fatal in its effect. 
 
 (326) For these reasons, therefore, the use of a doubling 
 winding machine is desirable. The Stubbs machine is shown 
 diagrammatically in Fig. 247, and consists of one or two 
 lines of drums A generally one fixed upon shafts usually 
 driven by a belt. Against the face of this drum the barrel of 
 the bobbin B is pressed, the latter being held on a spindle or 
 mandril borne in a forked cradle C. The necessary pressure on 
 the bobbin is exerted by means of weights J, which are coupled 
 by chains to the tail end of C. Also hinged to the cradle C is 
 a frame E, which is forked at its outer end, and formed with 
 bearings in which rest the pivots of a small box free to 
 oscillate. The box is provided with guides for several light 
 wires, with eyes or curls G at their upper extremities, through 
 which the yarn passes on its way to the bobbin. The wires are 
 usually sustained by the tension of the yarn during winding, 
 but are heavy enough to fall quickly as soon as an end either 
 breaks or fails. When this happens the lower end F of the wire 
 comes into contact with one of the wings of a revolving wiper 
 
560 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 H, and the pressure thus exerted on the wire causes it to 
 oscillate the box. A catch I which holds down the frame E is 
 thus released, and the weight J is thus free to act on the cradle 
 C and its attached parts. The pull so set up causes the bobbin 
 B to be drawn slightly away from the drum on to a brake 
 surface B, so as to arrest its motion at once. A further 
 movement of the cradle C can be made so as to draw it away 
 from the drum, and thus entirely free it, enabling the piecing 
 of the broken end to be done with ease. The position 
 of the parts during winding is shown on the left hand side 
 of Fig. 247, and when an end is ready for piecing, on the 
 right hand side of the same figure. The yarn is wound 
 from the cops, which are borne in brackets fixed to a 
 central shaft O. If bobbins are being wound a special creel 
 is constructed to receive them. Each of the ends is taken 
 through a slit in a thin metal plate, and then over a flannel- 
 covered rail Y, the angular position of which can be adjusted to 
 give more or less tension. By the time the yarn has passed this 
 point, if the flannel rail has been properly covered and set, the 
 tension on the ends will be equalised. After passing the 
 detector wire eye the yarn is taken over a light roller X, and 
 thence through the guide eye W, fastened on a rail Z, to which 
 the necessary reciprocal traverse is given. The box T is used 
 for the reception of the wound bobbins, and the rollers X are 
 carried by brackets fastened to the underside of T, T itself 
 being borne by brackets from the frames of the machine, the 
 same brackets acting as guides for the traverse rail Z. The 
 latter is actuated by suitable mechanism from the driving shaft, 
 and the traverse should be so arranged as to be a little shorter 
 than the full lift of the bobbin. Doubling winding machines 
 of this construction will wind yarn at speeds up to 7,300 inches 
 per minute, but for ordinary working purposes 5,000 inches is a 
 good speed. If this operation is properly conducted there 
 should be wound upon the bobbins a number of ends 
 contiguous to each other, and each in the same state of tension. 
 Care should be taken that in piecing the winder does not make 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 501 
 
 44 bunch knots" that is, tie all the ends together but should 
 simply tie together the broken ends ot each strand singly. 
 Unless this is done the subsequent twisting will be very 
 
 FIG. 247. 
 
 ineffectively performed, and the thread will be full of lumps, 
 which are very objectionable. If the machine is well looked to, 
 and care is taken in its operation, there will be a great improve- 
 ment in the resultant thread with a very slight increase in the cost. 
 
562 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (327) Instead of using a machine in which double-flanged! 
 bobbins must be employed, it is now largely the custom to wind 
 cylindrical spools on wooden or paper tubes without flanges. 
 In order to do this it is necessary to increase the velocity of 
 the guide wire traverse relatively to the speed of the bobbin, so 
 that the yarn, instead of being laid in finely pitched spirals, is 
 wound in coils, which rapidly cross the surface of the bobbin. 
 It is, therefore, requisite to alter the mechanism actuating the 
 guide rail, so that the latter will receive the rapid reciprocation, 
 necessary. In doing this there is a mechanical effect produced 
 which is somewhat of a difficulty. The guide rail should be 
 given such a movement as will practically ensure uniformity of 
 speed throughout. In order to obtain the required velocity of 
 traverse, a cam or cam course of suitable shape is ordinarily 
 employed. It has, however, the defect that, at the points which 
 represent the end of the stroke in each case, the reversal of the 
 movement of the guide rail is not made quickly enough. 
 However little the time occupied it is sufficient to cause a slight 
 dwell during the change, and the yarn is held at the ends of the 
 bobbins a little too long. This results in a bobbin being made 
 with the ends slightly raised, which is very objectionable. All 
 forms of cams employed are, from their shape, liable to this 
 defect, and a slight wear at the point speedily increases it. 
 Perhaps the simplest method of attaining this object is the 
 employment of a divided drum of the Hill and Brown type. 
 The drum, instead of being made in one piece is in two, and 
 the edges which adjoin are shaped so as to form a widely 
 pitched spiral. Through this slit the yarn is passed, being 
 retained in one position by a guide arranged within the drum,, 
 and is, by the rotation of the bobbin itself, very rapidly 
 traversed. The yarn passes on to the spool from below, the 
 spindle on which it is wound being held in a suitable cradle. 
 It is desirable that as far as possible a uniform speed is attained 
 throughout the whole of the traverse of the rail, and that no 
 dwell is either visible or can be traced in the character of the 
 bobbin produced. This is a more important point than it 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. ^C^ 
 
 appears at first sight, because, unless the yarn is taken away 
 rapidly from the ends of the bobbin it is very liable to unravel 
 when it is being handled. As the object of this method of 
 winding is to form bobbins or spools which can be handled 
 with the utmost freedom, it is obvious that any defect such 
 as that named will be fatal to true efficiency. Machines of 
 this character are now largely employed, and their use is 
 extending. When bobbins are formed in this way they can be 
 transported without difficulty, and the reduction in the cost of 
 carriage is very great. The yarn unwinds much better, and 
 owing to the greater length which can be put on a cheese, fewer 
 piecings are required either in reeling or doubling. 
 
 (328) The actual operation of doubling is carried out on a 
 machine similar in general construction to the ring frame, or in 
 a modification of the mule, known as a twiner. Of these the 
 first named is most largely used, and the twiner is chiefly 
 confined to the production of doubled yarn for warps. The 
 twiner differs from the mule in the fact that the spindles are 
 sustained in a stationary frame, being rotated at a definite speed 
 by a rim band. The faller motion is, in principle, identical 
 ttith that of the mule, but the necessary lift of the locking 
 lever is obtained by giving a sliding movement to the copping 
 rail instead of letting it remain stationary. This entails, of 
 course, a different method of constructing the rail, which is 
 much shorter than that used in the mule, and there is also a 
 different mode of unlocking, but the principle of the operation 
 is the same. The rollers are entirely done away with, and their 
 place is taken by a creel, in which the cops are mounted in 
 such a way that the yarn can be readily unwound from them 
 while being held in sufficient tension to permit of the insertion 
 of the twist. This creel is fixed on a slide which receives 
 a to and fro motion from the spindles,' the construction of 
 this portion of the machine being completely reversed. The 
 drawing out shaft is driven by a train of wheels from the tin 
 roller shaft, no draft being needed in the operation of twisting, 
 so that it is only necessary to deliver the yarn at the proper 
 
564 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 tension during the revolution of the spindles at a speed which is 
 sufficient to supply the quantity required. When the period of 
 winding comes the yarn is firmly gripped by a sliding nipper, so 
 that it can be formed into a cop free from snarls. Winding is 
 conducted, in all respects, as it is in the mule, the motions being 
 practically identical. Twiners are used almost exclusively for 
 twisting two-fold yarns, but the wheel trains are so arranged 
 that they are capable of giving a great variation in the effect 
 produced. The spindles revolve from 7,500 to 9,000 revolu- 
 tions per minute, and an allowance of 2}^ per cent for the slip 
 of bands is necessary in calculating the twist. It is not requisite 
 to give the rules for the various motions in the twiner, but the 
 following will give the number of turns per inch. 
 Revolutions of spindles per minute 
 Length in inches of movements of slide. 
 
 Each of these can be ascertained by making the calculations of 
 the effects of the various trains of gearing in the machine. In 
 calculating the necessary twist wheel to make any desired 
 change, recourse must be had to the square root, as in the case 
 of the mule. It may however be said, finally, that the size of 
 the rim pulley has no effect upon the twist, which is entirely 
 controlled by the rate of movement of the slide, which, in turn, 
 is driven from the tin roller shaft. In most of its essential 
 features the twiner is like the mule, and the methods of calcu- 
 lating the turns per inch, speed of spindles, etc., are similar to 
 those given for that machine. 
 
 (329) The difference existing between the ring doubling and 
 spinning frames is principally one of size. The gauge of the 
 spindles, the diameter of the ring, the shape of the traveller, the 
 size of the spindles, and tie arrangement of the drawing rollers 
 constitute the chief differences existing. Taking these in order, 
 the gauge of the spindles varies from 2% inches to 4 inches, 
 and the diameter of the rings from i^ inch to 3 inches. 
 The traveller, instead of being constructed so as to clip the 
 upper bead of the ring, is made of such a shape that it passes 
 over both the upper and lower beads, and is consequently much 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 565 
 
 heavier than the spinning travellers. The spindles are made 
 generally larger and heavier, and the top of the sleeve is provided 
 with two projections, one on each side of the spindle, which take 
 into recesses formed on the upper side of the lower flange of the 
 bobbin, which is thus absolutely and positively driven. ^ Knee 
 
 brakes, as in Fig. 248, are pro- 
 vided to facilitate piecing, the 
 attendant pressing against the 
 ninged bracket B with her knee r 
 thus giving such a frictional resist- 
 ance on the spindle as to stop it. 
 The removal of the knee pressure 
 permits B to fall back, and the 
 spindle restarts. Similar arrange- 
 ments are made as with spinning 
 spindles to ensure the steadiness 
 of running of the spindle, but the 
 necessity for limiting the move- 
 f ment of the sleeve is greater than 
 is the case with spinning spindles. 
 (Vnother point which is allied to 
 this is the character and length 
 of the lift. There are two ways- 
 of arranging this. The first is 
 similar to the one described in 
 the last chapter, which is used 
 when the doubled yarn is to be 
 wound into a cop or spool. The 
 second method is to give the 
 ring rail a traverse equal to the 
 lift of the bobbin, thus winding 
 
 FIG. 248. 
 
 the yarn in parallel layers throughout. The latter is the most 
 usual procedure. With reference to the drawing rollers, the 
 chief characteristic is the fact that there is only one pair, both 
 being covered with brass, and the upper roller being heavy 
 enough to establish a good nip. As the doubling frame is not 
 
566 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 required to draw the twisted yarn, but only to deliver it, all that 
 is necessary is to provide means by which it will be emitted 
 from the rollers at a regular and defined speed. The function 
 of this machine is, therefore, that of twisting only, and no draft 
 need be calculated. Once the relation of the roller delivery and 
 the spindle speed is established for any number of twists, that is 
 all that is required. The rollers are arranged differently in the 
 two existing systems, the English and Scotch. In the former 
 they are fixed in front of a shallow water trough which has 
 running along its entire length, a glass rod immersed in the 
 water. The yarn can be passed under the rod when wet doubling 
 is required, or taken directly to the rollers when the yarn is 
 doubled in a dry state. In the Scotch system the rollers are 
 -carried in arms fixed upon a rocking shaft, which can be 
 -oscillated, as required, by means of suitable gearing. In this 
 way, the yarn, which is wrapped round the top roller, can be 
 made to absorb the required amount of moisture by simply 
 lowering the bottom roller into a water trough placed for the 
 purpose. The rollers can be raised as required, for cleaning 
 .purposes. 
 
 (330) The flyer doubling frame is still used to some extent 
 for special classes of work, and everything which was said of 
 the employment of the flyer for spinning is equally applicable 
 in this case. For a really well twisted thread, in which 
 cylindricality and regularity are requisite, the flyer has not 
 been excelled, but its use is mainly confined to the coarser 
 counts. The amount of twist put into thread varies largely 
 with the class of thread being produced, but there is no rule to 
 which all firms adhere. The same counts of yarn are twisted 
 with widely varying numbers of turns per inch by different 
 people even when intended for similar work. In manufac- 
 turing sewing thread, as has been said, the best practice is 
 to "cable" the yarn that is, twist up two ends together, 
 and then twist three of the doubled threads so produced 
 into one. It is found that by this practice a more even and 
 stronger thread is produced, and it is practically universal in this 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 567 
 
 specific branch of the business. Thread so produced is called 
 " six cord," and the counts or numbers given to it depend 
 entirely on those of the yarn used from which it is made. 
 Thus, 3o's six-fold or cord means that six ends of 3O ? s yam 
 have been twisted up together, producing the thread in question,, 
 which is, really, 5's counts. 
 
 (331) The doubled yarn having been produced, its further 
 treatment is determined by the purpose for which it is intended. 
 If for lace purposes, it is cleared and gassed. The first operation 
 consists in passing the yarn through a slit or nick which is 
 wide enough to permit it to pass, but which, when a knot or 
 lump is presented, prevents its passage. The winding in this 
 case is effected by a frictionally driven bobbin, which either has 
 its rotation arrested, or if the yarn is not strong enough for that, 
 breaks the latter. In either case, whether the yarn is broken or 
 the knots arrested, the effect is the same. The attention of 
 the winder is called to it, and the lumpy place can be cut out 
 and removed. As an aid to this process a small appliance 
 known as Balfe's piecing machine is very useful. It consists of 
 two small spindles which are slit in such a way that the thread 
 can readily be placed in them. When a knot comes up to the 
 slit in the clearer, the winder lifts off the bobbin from the creel 
 spindle, and also that on which the thread is being wound r 
 and takes it to the piecing machine, which is conveniently 
 situated for the purpose. A short length of yarn about 12 
 inches long with the knot in it, is attached to the two spindles,, 
 being firmly held by a spring clip in the very centre of the 
 spindle, the slits permitting of this adjustment. One of the 
 spindles is then rotated by means of a hand wheel, so as to 
 untwist the thread, and the knot is then cut out. The threads 
 are then pieced, not tied, by twisting two strands in one of the 
 portions of the several threads together with one strand in the 
 other portion, and vice versa if the thread is three-fold. If more 
 than three strands are in the thread, a correspondingly varied 
 piecing is effected. When the ends are thus attached the rota- 
 tion of the spindle is reversed until the whole of the twist is again- 
 
568 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 restored to the thread, when the bobbins are replaced in their 
 position in the machine. Clearing, if properly effected, greatly 
 improves lace yarns, and is, indeed, absolutely necessary. When 
 thread is intended for lace purposes it is generally dry doubled 
 .and " gassed." A sectional view of one side of a Stubbs' gassing 
 frame is shown in Fig. 249. The yarn to be gassed is either 
 wound on clearing bobbins M, as in the illustration, or is on 
 cops, or cheeses. In the latter case the creel is arranged so as 
 to ensure a uniform tension being maintained in the yarn by 
 means of properly arranged tension rods. In the machine as 
 shown in Fig. 249 the yarn is taken from the bobbin over the 
 tension rod L to the runners R. The latter are held on pins 
 'fixed in brackets attached to the beam R, and are quite free to 
 'rotate. They have usually four or five grooves in their 
 peripheries, and the yarn is wound over them, as shown in the 
 illustration. Midway between them is a Bunsen gas-burner B, 
 .at the end of a swivel tube, which is supported on the nipple 
 in the gas supply tube F. On the inner pipe an arm E is 
 'fastened, which engages with the inner end of the setting on 
 'handle H. The latter, at its inner end, is slotted so as to allow 
 Mt to have a certain inward and outward movement. At its 
 front end the handle is curved as shown, and engages with a 
 projecting part on the cradle C, which is two-armed, and carries 
 the spool, being weighted as shown. After the yarn has passed 
 the runners R it is taken over the rod L to the guide G, and so 
 on to the bobbin. The position of the bobbin cradle and 
 handle, when the bobbin is removed from the drum, is shown 
 by the dotted lines. By the adjustment of the arm E, and the 
 shape of the handle H, the bobbin is rotating before the gas- 
 light passes under the yarn, so that all chance of burning down 
 is avoided. For the reasons stated with regard to doubling 
 winding it is desirable to give the guide G a quick traverse, 
 which is done in this particular frame. 
 
 (332) Having produced the thread, it is necessary to make it 
 up for the market. There are two methods of doing this, thread 
 being sold either in its ordinary or " soft " condition, or polished. 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 569- 
 
 In preparing the latter class of thread, 360 bobbins are placed 
 in a creel and are wound on to a beam, which is similar in con- 
 
 FIG. 249. 
 
 struction to those used in receiving the warp in weaving, the 
 ends being wound side by side. A " chain " of ends is made, 
 which consists of the 360 threads loosely gathered together, and 
 
570 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 in this form the material is bleached or dyed, as the case may 
 he. After dyeing, it is wound by means of a special arrange- 
 ment, which ensures the proper tension of the threads, on to a 
 beam similar to the one described. This is placed in bearings 
 formed in the frame of the polishing machine, and the threads 
 nre drawn off the beam and passed through a box in which a 
 mixture of pure size or starch is placed, which is taken up by 
 the thread. Immediately it has passed this point it is subjected 
 to the action of brushes which are revolving at a high velocity, 
 the frictional contact of the bristles giving it a very high polish. 
 The thread is then dried, and finally wound on three rollers, 
 each of which is divided in the centre, so that 60 threads are 
 laid in each division. These rollers are used to feed the yarn 
 to a winding machine, which winds the thread on to specially 
 shaped wooden spools, each of which has about i^lb. of the 
 polished thread laid upon it. Soft or unpolished thread is not, 
 of course, passed through the polishing machine, but is, after 
 being dried, beamed in the manner described. There is another 
 system by which the thread is polished in the hank, but it has 
 the objection that the length of thread treated is comparative!} 
 small, and that on this account there are more knots required 
 in the same length of yarn, The wages cost entailed is also 
 lighter in the system named. 
 
 (333) Sewing thread is sold principally in the form of small 
 wooden reels or bobbins, which are made with a cylindrical 
 barrel and end flanges bevelled on their inner side. Thus the 
 -distance between the flanges is less at their roots than at their 
 peripheries, so that the thread has to be laid on a continually 
 lengthening surface. This operation is called spooling, and if 
 is conducted on a machine of great ingenuity, invented by the 
 late Mr. William Weild. The machine is usually made with six 
 or eight heads that is, that number of reels are wound at one 
 time. It is, therefore, necessary to actuate the mechanism of 
 .all of the heads separately, but simultaneously, and the 
 necessary regulation is obtained from a headstock placed at 
 one end of the machine. The empty spools are held in troughs. 
 
REELING, WINDING, AND THREAD MANUFACTURE. 57* 
 
 the lower orifice of which is directly opposite the different 
 heads, and in the latter are two spindles with conical ends- 
 which grip the holes in the centre of the bobbins" After a 
 bobbin is finished, these spindles open, the bobbin drops, and' 
 an empty one falls from the trough into a plate which is auto- 
 matically raised so as to place it between the two spindles. 
 These immediately close and begin to rotate the bobbin. As- 
 the ends of the threads which are drawn from the spools are 
 held in a suitable position, the beginning of the rotary motion 
 of the bobbin causes them to be wound on to the latter. In its- 
 passage from the spool on which it is wound the thread is taken- 
 through a tension clip, by which the required amount of tension 
 is put upon it, and is then passed over a groove formed in a thin 
 steel guide. This is mounted on a shaft which can rock on its 
 centres, but which has also a longitudinal reciprocal movement. 
 The under edge of the steel guide is cut in such a way that it 
 corresponds to the pitch of the spirals formed by the threads afr 
 they are wound, the reason of this being that the guides rest 
 upon the thread during winding. It is obvious that the rate of 
 the longitudinal movement of the guide must be identical with 
 the pitch of the spirals, as otherwise there would be a rubbing 
 action which would be very injurious to the thread. The guide 
 rods are, therefore, actuated from a finely pitched screw, to which 
 a definite speed of rotation is given which can be regulated 
 as desired by suitable gearing. With this, two half-nuts corres- 
 pondingly threaded and on different sides of the centre engage 
 alternately, so that the guide rod is given the necessary reciprocal 
 movement. By an ingenious arrangement the exact time when 
 they are alternately geared with the screw is regulated, so as 
 to compensate for the increasing distance between the flanges as 
 the bobbin fills. When the required number of layers of thread 
 have been wound which can be regulated as desired the shaft, 
 on which is a driving wheel engaging with a pinion on one of the 
 spindles in each head, is stopped, so that winding ceases. A 
 knife descends and cuts a nick in one of the flanges of the- 
 bobbin, immediately after which the thread is drawn down into- 
 
5/2 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 this nick and across a knife edge, thus severing its connection. 
 The guide which pulls the thread into the nick and cuts it off, 
 leaves it in such a position that it is gripped by the new 
 bobbin and immediately begins to wind on the latter as soon as 
 it is rotated. As soon as this operation is completed the spindles 
 open automatically and release the reel, after which a new reel 
 is fed and the operation again begins. By means of the various 
 machines described a large quantity of thread can be prepared 
 for the market in a week : i2olbs. weight of 30*3 three-cord can 
 be polished in ten hours, and soft thread can be turned out at 
 the rate of 5,67olbs. in a week of 56 hours. An eight-headed 
 spooling machine will produce spools or reels, each containing 
 2ooyds. of thread, at the rate of 26 gross per day of 10^ hours. 
 (334) Cotton thread, which is employed for crotchet and 
 mending purposes, is often wound into a barrel-shaped spool 
 called a "ball." The balls are formed on a mandril, which is 
 mounted on an oscillating frame, and which is placed between 
 the forks of a flyer. This has eyes at the ends of its arms, and 
 by passing the thread through one of these and rotating the 
 flyer, the thread can be wound on the mandril. By oscillating 
 the mandril in each direction alternately for any defined 
 distance, the thread is wrapped on it in coarse spirals until at 
 last a " ball " is formed. The length of thread wound is not 
 usually great, and the operation of balling is generally a manual 
 one, although there are one or two machines which are 
 approximately automatic. Compared with spooling, " bal 
 ling" is a very small trade, and does not require any further 
 -explanation. 
 
WASTE SPINNING. 573 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 WASTE SPINNING. 
 
 SYNOPSIS.- Definition of waste, 335 Method of breaking, 336 
 Methods of carding, 337 Feed arrangements, Derby doubler, 
 drum, Blamire's, and Scotch, 338 Methods of condensing, Saxon 
 and Bolette's, 339 Spinning waste, 340 Mixed cotton and 
 waste, 341. 
 
 (335) I N tne ser ^ es f processes which have thus been 
 described there is necessarily a large quantity of waste produced. 
 The amount varies naturally with the quality of the cotton 
 and the skill of the workpeople, but it is always large. 
 Over the whole series of operations the amount varies from 
 12 to 20 per cent, but some of this is the dust and similar 
 impurities deposited in scutching and opening. While there is 
 always a certain part of the waste made in the two stages 
 named which consists of fibres of more or less value, on the 
 whole, the usable waste if the phrase may be employed is 
 principally that which is made in the carding engine and 
 subsequent processes. Waste is defined as being "hard" or 
 "soft," the former including all cotton into which twist has 
 been put, and the latter, untwisted or partially twisted material. 
 These are the broad distinctions made, and are sufficient for 
 practical purposes. At present the trade in yarns spun from 
 waste is principally a Continental one, and in England it is the 
 exception to produce this class of yarn. The reason for this is 
 probably that to spin it requires a special plant, which is different 
 in many cases from that usually found in the spinning-mill. It 
 is, however, an undoubted fact that waste spinning is an 
 operation which repays the trouble entailed, and a brief treat- 
 ment of the method usually pursued is likely to prove interesting. 
 
574 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 (336) Much of the waste which it is possible to spin into 
 yarn is of a greasy nature, and this partially facilitates and par- 
 tially retards the performance of the operation. It is obviously 
 the first thing to do, when dealing with hard waste, to restore 
 the material to its fleecy condition and detach the fibres from 
 each other. For this purpose it is obvious that the machines 
 employed to deal with cotton in its ordinary open condition are 
 absolutely useless, and that the treatment given to it must be 
 quite different. Accordingly waste is first treated in the Oldham 
 willow, which has already been referred to. The willow is con- 
 structed with a drum or cylinder, having its surface covered with 
 spikes or teeth. It is surrounded for the greater part of its 
 circumference with a grid also fitted with projections on its inner 
 side. By the rotation of the cylinder, the twisted cotton is 
 rapidly broken up, as it is called, and reduced to a soft fleecy 
 mass. The form of machine employed varies a, little in its 
 details. In one type, which is constructed for dealing with hard 
 waste, more especially in the form of cop bottoms, there are 
 several cylinders used one after the other, each provided with 
 round taper teeth, and revolving at a rapid rate. The cylinder 
 shafts are made long enough to project beyond each side of the 
 machine, so as to receive the necessary pair of driving pulleys. 
 This construction is adopted in order to enable the cylinders to 
 be reversed after the teeth have become bent out of their true 
 position, which sometimes happens. When they become too 
 much inclined, the reversal of the cylinder is necessary, in order 
 that they will be fully effective. Machines on this principle are 
 made with three, four, or six cylinders, and the hardest waste is 
 speedily reduced into a condition resembling raw cotton. The 
 length of staple obtained depends largely upon the character of 
 the cotton broken up, and it must, of course, be understood 
 that the fibres have lost part of their strength by their repeated 
 manipulation. Still, an excellent product can be obtained from 
 clean hard waste, and it is worth noting that for this class it is 
 found that a treatment by six cylinders gives the best result. 
 Soft waste such as that made in the processes of scutching, 
 
WASTE SPINNING. 575 
 
 carding, and drawing obviously does not need the same severe 
 treatment as that described, only requiring to be dealt with so as 
 to remove any dirt or other extraneous matter which may be 
 mixed with it. Two courses may be pursued with the waste 
 opened in the willow or breaker. It may be passed through a 
 Crighton opener or a scutching machine, fitted with a lap 
 attachment, and fed to a breaker carding engine. In the 
 former case, a modification in the details of the machine is 
 necessary, in order to allow of the effective treatment of the 
 material. An extra picker or breaker cylinder is provided, and 
 the cotton is fed by means of a lattice apron, it being, of course, 
 essential that this operation is conducted with care, so as to 
 produce a good and even lap. A pedal motion being fitted, the 
 latter object is naturally considerably aided To all machines 
 for cleaning and opening waste it is advisable to apply fans to 
 carry away the dust, of which there is a considerable quantity. 
 
 (337) When the opened or broken-up cotton is thus obtained, 
 it is carded, and in this operation we meet with a distinct 
 departure from the methods previously described in connection 
 with the carding of cotton. It was shown in Chapter IV. 
 that the cotton was fed to the carding engine ordinarily in the 
 form of a single lap, the regularity and evenness of which was 
 obtained by the mode of producing it on the scutching machines. 
 In proceeding to card waste, a different course is followed. If 
 the cotton has been formed into a lap on the scutching 
 machine, two of these are placed on a lattice apron fitted to 
 the end of the machine, so that a certain amount of doubling 
 takes place at this point. For reasons which will be detailed 
 later, it is desirable to obtain an even weight in the sliver at 
 the earliest possible time. If the cotton is in the open or loose 
 condition, the practice is to weigh a certain portion and spread 
 it upon the feed lattice, thus pursuing a sirrlilar course to that 
 which is followed in carding wool. Sometimes, but not often, 
 weighing is resorted to as in dealing with wool. In many respects 
 the manipulation of cotton waste resembles that of wool, and it is 
 found that, like the latter material, the carding is better performed 
 
576 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 if the waste is a little greasy. When the material is too dry, it is 
 therefore the custom to use a lubricant to increase its working 
 qualities. The object aimed at in feeding the breaker card is 
 to get a regular and uniform supply delivered to the action of 
 the machine. So far as the construction of the latter is con- 
 cerned, that described in paragraph 112, Chapter IV., is closely 
 followed, except that the number of worker and clearer rollers 
 is greater. There are also in some cases extra or "fancy" 
 rollers fitted, these being practically similar in construction to 
 the workers, by which the cotton is raised from the surface of 
 the cylinder, and is more effectively delivered to the doffer than 
 it otherwise would be. The material is doffed from the cylinder 
 in the usual way, and the web taken from the doffer is variously 
 treated. There are three ways of dealing with it, but the object 
 in each case is the same, and a few words may be expended in 
 explaining it. As there is not any very effective separation, 
 possible of the various grades of waste produced, it is at once 
 obvious that there will be a great variation in the component 
 parts of the opened mass, so far as quality and length of staple 
 is concerned. This is especially the case when waste spinning 
 is conducted as a special business, and the raw material is- 
 bought from dealers in it, or from several mills. To produce 
 really satisfactory results, it is therefore of the highest impor- 
 tance that the mixture of the various elements in the broken 
 waste shall be as intimately made as possible. When a six- 
 cylinder breaking machine, such as was described, is used, this 
 object is to a large extent attained, but it is absolutely neces- 
 sary not to neglect it, and no precautions are too great to ensure 
 its full attainment. It is therefore the practice so to deal with 
 the web, as taken off the breaker carding engine, as to ensure 
 the fibres within it receiving this intimate mixture, and the four 
 principal methods of doing this will now be described. 
 
 (338) The first plan of which notice need be taken is to form 
 the web into a sliver, and coil it into a can in the same way as 
 if cotton were being carded. If this course is pursued, it is 
 necessary to take special precautions to prevent the sliver 
 
WASTE SPINNING. 577 
 
 being broken, as it is very liable to rupture owing to the 
 short staple and the weakness of the cotton fibres within it. 
 It is obvious that if a fibre has been twisted on its axis as 
 described, the separation of it from its fellows in the severe 
 manner which is requisite must weaken it, and there is every 
 reason to suppose that the effect of its natural convolutions is 
 largely destroyed. After slivers have been obtained, however, 
 they are drawn from the cans, and passed through a machine 
 known as a Derby Doubler. This machine, although at one 
 time extensively employed in the preparation of cotton for 
 spinning, has not hitherto been described, because the methods 
 of spinning used at the present day in this country have largely 
 rendered it obsolete. A number of cans are placed so that the 
 slivers can be readily drawn from them and traversed along a 
 polished plate alongside each other, after which they are com- 
 bined and passed through a pair of compression rollers, and are 
 afterwards rolled into a lap of about 25 inches wide. The 
 lap is by these means made very solid, and is usually about 
 i5lbs. to 2olbs. in weight. As the various slivers are possibly 
 composed of different qualities of fibre, a combination is thus 
 obtained, which, when treated by the finishing carding machine, 
 results in their intimate mixture. The second method of deal- 
 ing with the web is to wind it upon a large drum constructed of 
 wood, and of such a size that a bulky web is obtained. When 
 the required thickness is thus wound, the web is taken off the 
 drum by being cut across at one point, the sheet thus produced 
 being fed to the finishing carding engine. As there are several 
 layers in this sheet which resembles wadding it is evident 
 that when it is treated by the teeth of the licker-in, the fibres 
 will be laid upon the cylinder promiscuously, and will be 
 intimately mixed, but they will not be crossed. The third plan 
 pursued is to use what is known as Blamire's feed. This 
 consists of an apron or lattice of the same width as the 
 cylinder, fitted immediately behind the doffer upon which the 
 web is deposited. The lattice in turn delivers the web to a 
 transverse lattice, placed below, and running at right angles to 
 
578 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 it. The delivery is made by rollers, in such a way that the fleece 
 or web is laid all over the surface of the second lattice in 
 folds. As this formation takes place the second lattice 
 slowly traverses and delivers the web to a lap roll, by 
 which it is rolled up into a lap of the requisite width. It 
 is important to note that the direction of the fibres on the 
 first lattice and in the lap is necessarily different, they being 
 disposed at right angles to their former direction when in the 
 lap. This, although at first sight a defect, is not really so, as 
 the fibres are laid in every direction within the delivered web, 
 and further, this peculiar arrangement, when the lap is afterwards 
 carded, greatly aids the proper mixture, the importance of which 
 has been described. When the laps are formed, they are fed to 
 the finishing carding machine, and, as in the first mode of 
 dealing with the material which was described, two laps are 
 placed on the lattice, so that they are doubled and presented 
 simultaneously to the action of the licker-in. In- the Scotch 
 feed the plan pursued is to take the web as it leaves the doffer 
 of the first carding engine, and form it into a band three or 
 four inches wide, which is taken upwards by a duplex feed tape 
 or apron, and carried to the feed lattice of the finishing 
 carding machine. Here the web is laid across the feed apron 
 in successive layers, which overlap each other for about half 
 their width, and is carried to the cylinder, so that the fibres 
 are presented to the latter with their length running across its 
 face. 
 
 (339) Whatever form the cotton is given it is carded a second 
 time on a machine which is of similar construction to the one 
 used for breaking, so far as the carding part of the machine is 
 concerned. The object of the second or finishing carding is to 
 complete the blending of the fibres, so as to obtain a better and 
 more uniform thread than is otherwise possible. As the web 
 leaves the doffer it is dealt with by a device known as a 
 "condenser." This is an arrangement by which the web is cut 
 or divided into narrow strips which are rolled up into the form 
 of a round strand. The number of divisions made depends 
 
WASTE SPINNING. 579 
 
 upon circumstances, but the range is from about 40 to 120, 
 There are two chief forms of condenser, the Bolette steel tape 
 and Saxon or leather tape. In each case the operating instru- 
 ment is a narrow tape which, in combination with rollers 
 consisting of alternate rings and grooves, divides the web into a 
 number of separate filaments or ends. The Saxon condenser, 
 however, divides the web after it is taken from the doffer. The 
 web is first compressed by a pair of calender rollers over which 
 the tapers pass. The rollers are grooved, and are so set relatively, 
 that the grooves of one are opposite the raised part of the other, 
 the leather tape resting in the grooves. They are, therefore, 
 alternately placed, and by guiding the lower set upwards and 
 the upper set downwards, a division of the web is obtained in 
 accordance with the number of tapes used. The exact number 
 employed depends, of course, upon requirements, but this can be 
 arranged as desired. Opinions differ as to the merits of the 
 two systems of division ; but, in late years, the steel tape con- 
 denser has met with great favour. It is desirable, in using the 
 machines, that the dividing mechanism is kept in good order, as 
 it is requisite to get a clean, sharp division of the web and thus 
 avoid any unevenness in the roving produced. After the slivers 
 as they may be called leave the dividing tapes they are passed 
 between broad bands of leather, very smooth on their surface, 
 and stretched over rollers to which a rotative motion is given. 
 The leather bands are being constantly traversed longitudinally, 
 so that the strips of carded material placed between them will 
 be carried forward and delivered at the point where the leathers 
 pass round their respective rollers. The surface velocity of 
 each band must, therefore, be identical, and it is highly desirable 
 that the bands shall be quite free from any unevenness or rough- 
 ness. In addition to the longitudinal motion, the bands are 
 given a transverse reciprocal movement in opposite directions by 
 means of eccentrics fixed on an upright shaft driven from the 
 cylinder shaft. Thus the strips are rubbed up between the 
 leathers, and are formed into a roving which, while acquiring a 
 large amount of cohesion, has no twist, in the proper sense of 
 
580 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the word, but is very cylindrical. The pressure exercised upon 
 it is sufficient for all practical purposes and is considerable, so 
 that the roving, when it emerges, has strength enough to enable 
 it to be wound on to specially constructed bobbins, and to be 
 unwound from them with equal facility. The name of the 
 apparatus is, therefore, evidently derived from the method of 
 treating the material, the strips formed from the web being 
 literally condensed by the action of the "rubbing leathers." 
 The bobbins upon which the rovings are wound are light barrels 
 of metal or wood, with light flanges at each end, and mounted 
 so that they can be readily and freely rotated. From twenty to 
 thirty ends are ordinarily wound on each bobbin, which thus is 
 capable of containing a considerable length of material. It is 
 sometimes the practice to provide each of the finishing cards 
 with two sets of rubbers, this entailing two rollers for removing 
 the web from the doffer. It is, on the whole, preferable, if this 
 arrangement be used, to spin the bobbins produced on the upper 
 and lower condenser separately, as it is difficult to get the doffing 
 quite equal in each case. The whole of the arrangements of the 
 condenser require care and watchfulness, and the leathers used 
 should neither be too rough nor too dry. It is also necessary to 
 keep them clean, as any adhesiveness would speedily result in a 
 defective roving. In some cases an ordinary doffer is applied to 
 the machine, and by the removal of part of its clothing at intervals 
 the web is divided into several parts which can be taken off in 
 the form of long strips. This does not give so good a result as 
 the condenser. The operation of carding waste, generally 
 speaking, is not a difficult one to effect, but it naturally possesses 
 several points of difference to the carding of raw cotton. 
 
 (340) Having obtained the rovings in the shape named viz., 
 on bobbins from 24 to 30 inches long it is necessary to spin 
 them. The twisting of waste varies from that of ordinary 
 cotton, mainly because the character of the material has been 
 so changed that it will not permit of any draft being put into 
 it until it is partially twisted. It is this fact which necessitates 
 the great care to which we have referred as being essential in 
 
WASTE SPINNING. 581 
 
 the preparation of the roving. There is no chance of rectifying 
 by means of a draft exercised on a combined sliver any uneven- 
 ness which may be found in it, and it becomes the more 
 requisite therefore to obtain from the finishing carding machine 
 a web as even in weight and thickness over its whole area as it 
 is possible to make. The intimate mixture of the fibres to 
 which reference has been made has this object, and the 
 formation of laps or the weighing of the cotton fed to the 
 carding engines are directed towards the same end. Whatever 
 unevenness exists in the roving when formed will be found in 
 the twisted thread, with such reductions as follow upon the 
 operation of spinning. This factor affects the construction 01 
 the spinning machine, because it is necessary to provide means 
 by which, subsequently to the introduction of twist, a little 
 draft can be exercised. Waste spinning is therefore generally 
 conducted on a mule of a construction which, in its main 
 features, resembles that employed for spinning woollen threads. 
 It deals with the thread in an entirely different way to that 
 in which ordinary yarn is formed, and the characteristics of 
 the thread correspondingly vary. It was shown that the 
 twisting of cotton yarn, although completed in some cases 
 after the draft had ceased, was, to a large extent, put in 
 simultaneously with the reduction of the roving by the rollers. 
 Further, the draft of the carriage takes place at the same 
 time as the twisting, and thus the attenuation and spinning 
 of the material are effected during one period of the cycle of 
 movements. In consequence of these factors, a thread is produced 
 which is remarkably level, but the counts which can be spun are 
 naturally limited. In some cases an attempt is made to get a little 
 draft by means of rollers, but, on the whole, the best results are 
 obtained by the employment of mules in which this element is 
 absent. Accordingly only one line of rollers is used, and it is 
 principally in the arrangement of the parts affecting these that 
 the difference between a waste spinning and ordinary mule is 
 found. The condenser bobbins are placed in a creel, and the 
 various ends are taken from them and guided to the rollers. 
 
582 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 These are made ij^ inch diameter, and the top rollers are self- 
 weighted. The rollers may be made with two bottom lines, on 
 which the top rollers rest, the roving being passed between the 
 rollers, and being thus nipped twice. The cops are formed 
 in the usual way, the turns per inch depending upon the same 
 conditions as those ordinarily existing. At first the carriage 
 runs out at its highest speed, and the rollers deliver the roving 
 at the same or a little quicker speed than the travel of the 
 carriage. The exact amount of the excess of roller speed 
 depends, of course, upon the strength of the roving, which is 
 determined by the character of the mixing made. When the 
 carriage has made a certain portion of its outward run the 
 rollers are disengaged and the delivery of the roving entirely 
 ceases, but the traverse of the carriage continues at a slower 
 velocity. In this way the twisted yarn is drawn, and for the 
 reasons explained in Chapter VIII., this results in a certain reduc- 
 tion of the thick places owing to the hardening of the thinner 
 ones by the twist. This, it will be noticed, is a somewhat similar 
 procedure to that adopted with fine yarns, being a species of 
 " jacking," but it differs from it because it is the only draft 
 which is exercised on the yarn throughout. There is a wheel 
 provided on which figures are stamped, and by setting a finger 
 to the required figure the detachment of the rollers takes place 
 at the right moment. A draft of a few inches is given, and 
 instead of calculating this, and making elaborate wheel changes, 
 the adjustment of the setting finger is all that is needed. If 
 required, a drawback motion can be fitted. As the cops spun 
 are naturally large the gauge of the spindles is great, varying 
 from i^ inch to 2^ inches, and from 300 to 500 spindles are 
 usually fitted in one mule. Productions vary naturally with the 
 counts being spun, but y^lbs. per spindle per week of 56 hours 
 is a common production when producing No. 4*5 yarn. The 
 strength of waste yarn depends upon two factors the quality of 
 cotton used in the waste from which it is spun, and the twist 
 introduced but is in some cases considerable. As was said, it 
 is possible to spin waste yarn from condenser bobbins on 
 
WASTE SPINNING. 
 
 5*3 
 
 continuous flyer or ring spinning machines, but, generally 
 speaking, the method described is that adopted. 
 
 (341) Although soft waste may be dealt with by a set of 
 machines such as those described, it is a common practice to 
 use it up in the mill in which it is spun by mixing it judiciously, 
 of course with the cotton as it is passing through. For some 
 classes of yarns a mixture of two-thirds soft waste and one-third 
 cotton can be advantageously used, and it must not be forgotten 
 that waste in this condition consists of fibres which have not 
 been twisted, and are not, therefore, so liable to damage in 
 opening them. Of course the drafts of the rollers must be 
 arranged to suit this special mixing, and the resultant yarn is 
 sure to be weaker than one spun from cotton solely, but by 
 careful arrangement the whole of the soft waste can be easily 
 utilised in the ordinary work of the mill. A certain loss is 
 inevitable, however great the precautions taken, but the utilisa- 
 tion of the waste in the best manner is a most important thing 
 in the economy of a mill. It is recommended by some persons 
 that soft waste of all kinds should be made a mixing of by them- 
 selves, and spun in the ordinary manner, but this is an objec- 
 tionable and expensive course. It is much preferable to use this 
 class of material along with cop bottom waste, and spin it by 
 the series of machines previously described. On the Continent 
 Vigogne and Barchant yarns, which are the specific names given 
 to waste spun material, are produced on machines of this 
 character, and as the principal seat of the manufacture is found 
 in Germany and Italy it may be taken for granted that the 
 system described is the best and most economical. 
 
584 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. Points affecting drafts, 343 Drafts for counts lo's to 2o's, 
 344 Drafts for i6's to 24's, 345 Drafts for hosiery and weft 
 yarns, 346 Drafts for medium and fine counts, 347 Method of 
 calculating machines required, 348 Method of arranging machines, 
 348 Examples of arrangements of mills, 349 Productions of 
 various machines, 351 Waste produced, 351 Power required, 
 352 Speeds of machines, 352. 
 
 (342) THE various operations described are those which are 
 usually carried on in spinning mills, and the full explanation 
 given needs only to be supplemented by a consideration of the 
 methods of arranging the machinery and mill for any specific 
 counts. There is one subject which requires special treatment, 
 and which has been repeatedly named. This is the arrange- 
 ment of the drafts in the various machines. It is evidently of 
 the highest importance that in the management of a mill due 
 regard should be paid to the proper drafting of the machines, 
 even though the range of counts and the production of the 
 machines should be limited by their special construction. This 
 is a duty which falls into the province of administrative work, 
 but is one of the most vital matters in the actual operation of a 
 mill. There are several circumstances which have a bearing 
 upon it, and not the least of these is the number of the machines 
 of various kinds provided. It is obvious that this factor will 
 affect the problem very materially, but within limits it is possible 
 to vary the numbers of the machines used in the different 
 stages, and still obtain a satisfactory scheme of drafts. 
 
 (343) Among the chief elements which affect this question is 
 that of the class of cotton used. It is clear that a scheme of 
 drafts which is suitable for a long stapled cotton like Egyptian 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 585 
 
 is utterly unsuitable for a short stapled variety, such as Surat. 
 It follows that at no stage when spinning the latter can there be 
 any approach to the long drafts which are quite permissible 
 nay, necessary in spinning the longer stapled cottons. When 
 arranging a scheme of drafts, therefore, the character of the 
 material employed must be taken into consideration, and, as 
 will be shown, leads to a good deal of variation. Another point 
 which exercises a great influence on the question is the number 
 of machines which are employed. As was pointed out in para- 
 graphs 6 1 and 202, the sliver is treated in two, three, or four 
 roving machines, according to the quality of the cotton used. 
 It is obvious that in accordance with the number of stages 
 which are employed, the reduction of the sliver must take place 
 differently in each case. Another factor which has an influence 
 upon the subject is whether the slubbings are doubled that is, 
 two of them fed simultaneously in the intermediate, roving, 
 and spinning machines. When this is the case a more severe 
 draft can be given in the machines than is exercised when a 
 single roving is used. Then again the class of yarn which is 
 being produced must be considered. For instance, hosiery 
 yarn, which must be as level as it is possible to make it, in 
 addition to being pliable and soft, requires careful and special 
 preparation in the earlier stages. Any excessive draft speedily 
 has an effect upon the roving, inducing uneven places in it, and, 
 as this special yarn receives only a small amount of twist, the 
 draft in the mule has not so great an effect upon it as is the case 
 with other varieties. Finally it may be said that, without 
 absolute uniformity being preserved at each stage of the whole 
 set of drawing processes, it is better that the reduction should 
 be gradual and continuous. All these various matters and 
 many others have an influence upon this subject. In considering 
 the remarks and instances which follow, a special warning must 
 be given that it is not intended when giving a set of drafts for 
 any counts to infer that these are fixed, and will uork out 
 successfully in every case and under all circumstances, but only 
 that having been employed, they form a guide which may be 
 
586 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 useful. Nothing is more fatal to any proper treatment of this 
 subject than to accept as inflexible, arrangements which work 
 well under given conditions, but which if the conditions are 
 varied, even slightly, will not do so. The reader must, there- 
 fore, understand that the different schemes of drafts given are 
 merely illustrative and not fixed. 
 
 (344) It will be convenient to commence with a system of 
 drafts for the lower counts, and subsequently deal with those 
 which are finer. One of the most important points to be con- 
 sidered in dealing with this subject is the weight of the scutcher 
 lap which is fed to the carding engine. This should not be too 
 heavy, as, if it is, the draft in the carding engine, or those in 
 the succeeding machines, must be materially increased. For 
 counts from ID'S to 2o's, a lap of from n to 12 ounces per yard 
 is heavy enough, and as the yarn to be spun becomes finer, the 
 lap is necessarily lighter, although the difference ir\ the weight is 
 not proportionate to the increasing fineness of the yarn. Another 
 matter requiring special care is the draft in the carding engine. 
 There is no rule observed in this case, and, judging by results, 
 a draft of 85 and one of 105 give equally satisfactory results. 
 Generally speaking, however, the shorter the staple of the 
 cotton the less the draft in the carding engine. Having made 
 these preliminary remarks, a few instances may be given of 
 typical drafts. In spinning the lower counts, say up to 2o's, 
 short stapled American and Indian, or a mixture of these 
 cottons, are used, and the drafts ars regulated accordingly. 
 Assuming that an noz. lap of Indian cotton is used, and that 
 such speeds are adopted in the card as to produce a sliver of 
 60 grams weight per yard, a draft of about 85 will be found 
 sufficient. A 60 grains sliver is '139 hank, and assuming 
 that the usual procedure was followed of putting up six 
 ends at each passage through the drawing frame two pas- 
 sages being thought sufficient in some cases for such coarse 
 work and a draft of 6 being arranged for in each head, the 
 hank roving is the same. Thus, to reduce this to a slubbing 
 of '625 hank, a draft of 4*5 is wanted in that machine. In 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 587 
 
 some cases it is preferred to give a little less draft in the draw- 
 ing frame, so as to get a heavier sliver for presentation to the 
 slabbing frame, the draft in which is increased, but with a 
 cotton so short in the staple as some classes of Indian, it would 
 probably be better to keep the draft as low as possible both m 
 the drawing and slubbing frames. This can be done by getting 
 a finer carded sliver, but the weights given will be found to work 
 fairly well. Having got a slubbing of the hank named, a draft 
 of 2*8 will give a roving of 175. Drafts of 5*7 or 6*85 will be 
 needed to spin lo's or i2's yarn respectively. These drafts are 
 all arranged for single roving. If the slubbing were doubled at 
 the roving frame, the draft in that machine would necessarily be 
 double that stated, or, in other words, it would be 5*6. If 
 American cotton is used, then the drafts in the drawing frame 
 can be arranged to increase the weight of the sliver, or a heavier 
 sliver can be employed, in which case the draft in the roving 
 frame would be increased, as would be also that in the spinning 
 machine. In spinning Indian cotton into i6's yarn, and using 
 three roving frames beginning with a carded sliver of '144 hank, 
 and passing it through three heads of drawing in which the 
 number of ends and the drafts are equal, then the following are 
 a good set of drafts. Slubbing 3*5, intermediate 2, roving 275, 
 spinning machine 5-8. This scheme has the fault that the 
 drafts in the drawing machine are too great, and in the three 
 passages an increase in the weight of the sliver may very advan- 
 tageously be made. If the draft at this stage be reduced, and 
 chat at the slubbing and intermediate arranged to compensate 
 for it', an improvement would result. In spinning the same counts, 
 leaving out the intermediate machine, the sliver can be reduced in 
 weight in the drawing machine, and the draft in the slubbing 
 frame increased, leaving that of the roving frame about the same, 
 but increasing that of the spinning. In producing counts from 2o's 
 to 24's, a little lighter finished scutcher lap is used, and a draft 
 of about 90 in the card will be sufficient. In this class of yarn, 
 whatever may be the carded sliver produced, it is good practice 
 to obtain the same weight of drawn sliver. Assuming this to be 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 done by making the draft and number of ends put up at each 
 head to be equal, and that the slubbing should be '625 hank, a 
 drawn sliver of "16 hank will give good results. If the material 
 used be Indian cotton, this weight may be slightly increased, 
 and if American is employed it may be a little decreased. If, 
 however, this is the sliver used, a draft of 3-9 in the slubber, of 
 2 in the intermediate, and of 2*4 to 2*8 in the roving machine, 
 will enable a draft of 8*3 to 8*6 in the spinning machine to pro- 
 duce 2o's or 24's yarn. 
 
 (345) Twist yarn can be spun either on the ring frame 
 or mule, but there is not in the main much difference in 
 the preparatory stages. As stated when dealing with the 
 ring frame, it is necessary to rather increase the draft in that 
 machine to compensate for the shortening action which takes 
 place, but this is a matter affecting the final draft, and not 
 those in the preparatory stages. In preparing twist yarn, say 
 22's or 24^, and beginning with a carded sliver '15 hank, the 
 common draft of 6 in each of the drawings and doubling of 6 
 ends will give a similar hank drawing. Now let the drafts in the 
 three rovings be respectively 4, 4, and 5 the intermediate and 
 roving fiames being fed by double slubbings then a roving 
 will be produced of 3 hank, which being used single in the 
 mule or ring frame, can be spun in the first case with 
 a draft of 8, and in the latter with a draft of 8 '2, 
 which will give a yarn of 24's. It is possible to vary 
 these drafts by using a slightly heavier carded sliver, increasing 
 the drafts in the roving frames, and decreasing that in 
 spinning, but this is a matter which must be left to the discre- 
 tion of the spinner. Now let it be supposed that the yarn so 
 made has been produced from laps made at the opener, which 
 have been passed through two scutchers, three being fed to 
 each. The doublings given to the cotton under this system 
 would be 3 x 3 x 6 x 6 x 6 x 2 x 2 = 7,776. In spinning counts 
 coarser than 2o's the drafts do not greatly vary if an 
 intermediate slubbing frame is used, but a heavier sliver is 
 employed. Say that i6's yarn is being spun, then the 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 589 
 
 drafts in the drawing head can be well arranged to reduce 
 the sliver to the necessary extent as it passes the first head, 
 preserving its weight in the subsequent passages. A final drawn 
 sliver of '155 to "165 will give good results in the subsequent 
 processes. If only two machines be used for producing the 
 roving, then the draft in the roving frame must be largely in 
 excess of that in the slubbing frame. The latter can be about 
 4*5, while the former may be as high as 5 "8. A draft in spin- 
 ning of about 7 '5 will give the desired counts of yarn. If, on 
 the other hand, an intermediate frame is added, then the weight 
 of the sliver must be increased, and the draft in the slubbing 
 frame can be reduced materially, that in the intermediate be a 
 little higher, and that in the roving frame somewhat less than that 
 stated above. Suppose, for instance, that we commence with a 
 carded sliver of '14, and double six at each of the drawing heads, 
 but give drafts of 6*4, 6-2, and 6 respectively, then the drawn 
 sliver will be 1 54. If, however, only two machines are being used 
 to further prepare the sliver for spinning, then a draft of, say, 4*7 
 given in the slubbing will give 72 slubbing. Double this in the 
 roving frame creel, and give a draft of 5-8 in that machine, then 
 a roving will be produced which will be 2-09 hank. To spin 
 this into i6's yarn from a single roving requires a draft of 7*7. 
 If the same procedure be followed, with the exception of 
 introducing an intermediate frame, then the sliver can be made 
 as heavy as '12 hank when it leaves the drawing frame, and the 
 drafts must be arranged accordingly. Thus, giving drafts of 
 3-6, 4, and 5-1 in the three machines respectively, and using 
 double, slubbing, and intermediate, will give a 2*24 hank roving, 
 which, with a draft of 7*14 in the mule with single roving, will 
 give the necessary yarn. 
 
 (346) In arranging the drafts for 2o's hosiery yarn, the 
 carded sliver should be from '15 to -18 hank, and a good result 
 is got by putting up six ends to each head of the drawing frame, 
 and giving a draft of 6, by which a similar weight of drawn 
 sliver is got. The following are good drafts in the rollers of 
 the drawbox for most classes of cotton: Fnm back to third 
 
THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 roller, 1*25; from third to second roller, 1*48; and from 
 second to front roller, 3-222. The total draft is, therefore, 
 1-25 x 1-48 x 3-222 = 5-96, or, practically 6. The cotton from 
 which hosiery yarn is spun being of the softer varieties, the 
 distances of the rollers apart can be regulated as indicated 
 in paragraph 1 88. Assuming that the sliver from the draw- 
 ing frame is '15, the following is a good scheme of drafts 
 throughout. In the slubbing frame the draft is 5, and the 
 hank slubbing produced 5 x -15 = '75. For the best work it is 
 preferable and necessary to double the slubbing and roving at 
 each subsequent stage, as this conduces largely to the regularity 
 which is essential. Whenever two ends are put up and drawn 
 together, it is equivalent to doubling the weight of the slivers 
 put up, and thus, in the present case, the slubbing would practi- 
 cally be, when presented to the intermediate frame, -75^2 = '375 
 hank. The draft in the intermediate frame being 5*865, the hank 
 roving produced is -375 x 5-865 = 2*2. The intermediate slubbing 
 being doubled, and the draft in the roving frame being 5*2, the 
 
 hank roving produced is x 5-2 = 5-72. When placed in the 
 
 2 
 
 mule creel twq ends are doubled, and the rollers in the mule 
 having a draft of 7, the yarn produced is _Z- x 7 = 20*02. If 
 
 the hank sliver produced in the drawing frame be, say "17 hank, 
 then the draft in the intermediate and roving frames could be 
 reduced, but that in the mule ought to be kept constant. In 
 spinning hosiery yarns, a speed of about 7,000 revolutions is a 
 good one for the spindles. Weft yarns for medium counts, say 
 36's to 4o's, are spun much in the same way as hosiery yarns. 
 Taking a weft yarn of, say 36^ counts spun from average 
 American cotton, the drafts could be averaged thus. Let a 
 carded sliver of -16 hank be obtained, it is desirable to have 
 a triple passage through the drawing frame, putting up six 
 ends to each head and giving a draft at each passage of 6. 
 The drawn sliver would therefore have the same weight. The 
 drafts in the roving frames are determined by the question 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 59! 
 
 whether a single or double roving is to be used in the inter* 
 mediate and roving frames and mules, or any of them, but it 
 is a very common practice to put up double rovings throughout. 
 In that case the drafts could be arranged as follows : 
 
 Slubbing, one end up, draft 4*5, gives 16x4*5 = '72 hank. 
 Intermediate, two ends up, draft 4/8, gives -Z3 x 4*8 =1-72 hank. 
 
 Roving, two ends up, draft 6'25, gives 12. x 6*25 = 5*33 hank. 
 Mule, two ends up, draft i3'5, gives -L^L x I3'5 = 36'o hank. 
 
 There are one or two remarks which may be made on this. The 
 drafts given will work out very well, but it is the practice in 
 some cases to give a greater draft in the mule, using not more 
 than a 5-hank roving for thfs yarn. In that case the drafts in 
 the intermediate and roving frames require reducing, and that 
 in the mule increasing. Drafts of 4*6, 6, and 14*5 in these 
 machines respectively will give the desired results. Now, let it be 
 assumed that only one end is put to the mule, so that the yarn is 
 spun from single rovings, then the hank roving could be reduced 
 to, say 4-5, and the drafts in the mule 8. It is therefore possible 
 within certain limits to alter the drafts very considerably, and 
 yet get good results. For instance, the following are the drafts 
 which are actually used in spinning 4o's weft from an 'i8-carded 
 sliver in a mill in which the drawing frames are too few in 
 number. It is therefore essential to compensate for this at a 
 later stage. 
 
 Drawing, ist head, six ends up, draft 4*01, gives sliver '12 hank. 
 
 2nd head, six ends up, draft 6*02, gives sliver "12 hank. 
 
 3rd head, six ends up, draft 6'O2, gives sliver '12 hank. 
 Slubbing, one end up, draft 5-3, gives sliver '636 hank. 
 Intermediate, two ends up, draft 5 '2, gives sliver 1-64 hank 
 Roving, two ends up, draft 6*21, gives sliver 5 hank. 
 
 The drafts show an important variation from those previously 
 given, and may be compared with the following, which 
 are also actual instances, with single rovings throughout 
 For 32 J s yarn, a draft in slubbing frame of 3*8, with a '16 sliver 
 
592 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 of 2-8 in the intermediate, of 2-6 and of 7-3 in the spinning 
 machine will be sufficient : 4o's yarn can be spun from a similar 
 sliver, with drafts of 4-7, 2-5, 2*53, and 8-4 in the slubbing, 
 intermediate, roving, and spinning machines, respectively. 5o's 
 yarn can be produced with drafts in the same machines of 5 -4, 
 2 '3, 2 '5, and 10 ; but these drafts can be very advantageously 
 changed by using a finer sliver and reducing the draft in the 
 slubbing machine; say a "17 sliver and a 5*1 draft. If the 
 slubbings and rovings are doubled the drafts in the intermediate 
 and roving frame must be proportionately increased, as has 
 been previously shown. All the above are drafts for American 
 cotton. 
 
 (347) Fine yarns can be best spun when the slivers are combed, 
 but the higher medium counts are often spun without a combing 
 machine. In spinning yarn of 45's to 5o's counts, using a 
 good staple and double rovings, with a draft in the slubbing 
 frame of 4*5, a drawn sliver jf '194 hank may be used, which 
 will make the slubbing "875 hank. Doubling the slubbing 
 and intermediate in the creel, then drafts of 6*3 and 6 '6 will 
 give a g-hank roving, which spun with a draft of 10 (with 
 double roving) will give 45*3, or of 11*2 will give 5o's yarn. It 
 is not necessary to give, in full detail, all the drafts for the 
 various counts, so far as the drawing is concerned, but it may be 
 stated that a sliver of from -19 to '21 hank may be used for 
 counts from 6o's to iso's, getting finer as the yarn is also made 
 finer. It may also be noted that the draft must not, in the 
 finer numbers, be always understood, when applied to the mule, 
 as meaning the total, but only the roller draft, the difference 
 required to produce the yarn being that given by the extra 
 stretch referred to previously in dealing with the mule. The drafts 
 and ends at the drawing frame are also increased as finer counts 
 are produced, counts of over 150*5 having 7 or 8 respectively. 
 After this explanation the drafts for various counts may now be 
 given tabularly, these only relating to the slubbing, roving, 
 jack-frames, and mule, double rovings being presumed in 
 each case. The hank given with the mule is, of course, 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 
 
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594 
 
 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 the counts of yarn spun, as will be easily understood. It 
 will be noticed in reviewing these drafts that there is a con- 
 siderable change in procedure taking place as the counts are 
 varied, and that even when the same numbers are being spun 
 there is a good deal of variation possible in the drafts. 
 The following is a scheme of drafts for double combed yarns 
 from good Sea Island cotton, as given recently by Mr. H. 
 Walmsley. The cotton is prepared with one porcupine beater 
 and one two-bladed scutcher, running at 900 revolutions per 
 minute. The lap is -8 ounce per yard, and the carded sliver 
 15 grains per yard. The combing machines are arranged to 
 give a sliver of 20 grains per yard. In the drawing frames 8 
 ends are put up, and the draft is 7*75, giving a sliver 24 grains 
 per yard or -347 hank. The slubbing draft is 5-65, and the 
 slubbing 2 hank; two ends at intermediate and draft of 5*5 gives 
 roving 5*5 hank; two ends up at roving with draft 6'66 gives 
 15 hank roving; two ends up at jack frame 5*33 draft gives 40 
 hank roving, which doubled in mule with draft 7-5 gives 3oo's 
 yarn. Although the drafts given can, of course, not be taken as 
 actually applicable to all cases in which the -same counts are 
 being spun, they are founded upon actual practice, and will 
 serve as a guide for the formulation of a complete set when any 
 given counts are being spun. The ground is thus cleared for a 
 consideration of the number of machines of each class needed 
 in any mill which is intended to spin a given range of counts. 
 
 (348) We are now able to calculate the necessary number of 
 machines and their size in order to produce any given kind of 
 yarn, and will take a mill producing 32*3 twist only and con- 
 taining 60,000 spindles. A good average production for this 
 class of yarn is one pound per spindle per week, although this is 
 sometimes exceeded. Such a mill will, therefore, produce 
 6o,ooolbs. of yarn per week, and this weight of cotton must, 
 consequently, be supplied by each set of machines. In the 
 calculation which follows waste is not taken into account, but 
 the amount made will be subsequently indicated, so that the 
 corrections can be readily made. It must be again pointed out 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 -595 
 
 that all these instances are illustrative of the principle rather 
 than definite examples. Assuming that it is spun from a four- 
 hank roving, the production of which is io'62lbs. per spindle 
 per week, with a front roller speed of 119, 5,650 roving spindles 
 are required. The hank of the intermediate roving used being 
 1*75, which enables a production of 3ilbs. per spindle to be 
 obtained with a front roller speed of 132, the number of inter- 
 mediate spindles required is 1,936. This is produced from a 
 slubbing of "625 hank, which can be produced at a rate of 
 89'261bs. per week with a roller speed of 161. This implies the 
 use of 672 slubbing spindles. Now, these spindles have to be 
 supplied by the drawing frames, which will deliver a varying 
 quantity of sliver, depending upon its weight and the diameter 
 and velocity of the front roller. Assuming this to be produced 
 from a drawn sliver of *i6 hank, or 52 grains to the yard, and 
 the front roller to run at 340 revolutions, then the production of 
 each drawing head will be in 56^ hours, with a front roller 
 i% inch diameter, i,o57lbs. Thus, to supply 6o,ooolbs. of 
 cotton, 56 deliveries .would be required, which could be got by 
 using eight machines of seven deliveries each. If revolving flat 
 carding engines are employed, and it be assumed that they 
 produce 850105. of finished sliver per week, then 70 will be 
 wanted. The necessary opening and scutching machinery 
 required would be three finishing scutchers, three intermediate 
 scutchers, and two combined openers and lap machines. Thus 
 we arrive at the needs of a mill of this description, to be as 
 follows : 
 
 2 or 3 combined opening and lap machines. 
 
 3 breaker scutching machines. 
 
 3 finishing scutching machines; 
 70 revolving flat carding engines. 
 
 8 drawing frames with seven deliveries each. 
 672 slubbing spindles. 
 1,936 intermediate spindlea. 
 5,650 roving spindles. 
 60,000 mule spindles. 
 
 It only remains, therefore, to fix the size of the slubbing and 
 roving frames and mules to arrive at the arrangement of the 
 
596 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 machines in the mill. If it was not thought advisable to have so 
 many deliveries in the drawing frames the number could be in- 
 creased say to 1 1 frames of five deliveries each, which, with a 
 slightly accelerated speed of front roller, would provide all the 
 drawing power required. As the mill building would probably be 
 arranged to get in mules as long as possible, this is the determin- 
 ing feature in designing it, and would to some extent control the 
 length of the roving frames. Assume the mules to have 1,044 
 spindles, and to be i fa gauge, then the spinning rooms would have 
 to be 1 25ft. wide plus the space required for alleys or passages 
 at each end. Assuming these to be 3ft. each, this gives a total 
 width of mill of i3ift. within walls; and if four spinning rooms 
 are used, then there would be 14 mules in each room, and a 
 length of 1 7 2ft. would provide for these. Thus the lower floor 
 would be 1 7 2ft. by about i28ft, because, as will be shown here- 
 after, the width of the rooms gradually narrows as the basement 
 is reached. In a room of this size, therefore, the whole of the 
 carding, drawing, and roving machines have to be fitted. The 
 carding engines are sometimes provided for in modern mills of 
 a large size by the erection of a shed adjoining and forming 
 part of the lower room ; and the blowing room is also separately 
 arranged. It must, of course, be understood that these dimen- 
 sions are only approximate, although in the main accurate. It 
 is useless following the calculation and fixing the size of the 
 machines, because this can only be done when the whole cir- 
 cumstances of the case are known. In Fig. 250, however, the 
 card room of a mill containing 86,494 spindles is shown in 
 plan, which will give an idea of the method of arrangement. It 
 will suffice therefore to demonstrate the method of calculating 
 the number of spindles required, but it may perhaps be stated 
 that for spinning counts of this character the roving frames 
 would be made with 8 spindles in 20 inches or 20^ inches space, 
 with bobbins of 7 inches or 8 inches lift. The intermediate 
 frames could be conveniently made about 6 spindles in 19 inches, 
 with bobbins of about 9 inches lift, and the slubbing frames 
 with 4 spindles in 19 inches or 20 inches, and a bobbin 10 inches 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 597 
 
598 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 to ii inches lift. The drawing frames are made of various 
 gauges, from 15 inches to 20 inches, but a convenient gauge for 
 frames of the character required is 18 inches, and as many as 8 
 deliveries can be got from each head of these machines. In 
 arranging the blowing rooms, it is now customary to separate 
 them from the main building by the rope race, and to have a 
 mixing room on an upper floor, from whence, by pneumatic 
 means, the cotton can be conveyed to the first opening machine 
 in the manner illustrated in Chapter III. The latter is arranged 
 so that its lap end adjoins the feed end of the breaker scutcher, 
 which in turn is succeeded by a finisher scutcher in an approxi- 
 mately similar position. The laps do not therefore require 
 much handling, and the expenditure of labour is thus reduced. 
 (349) The instance just given will enable the general 
 principles upon which mills are planned to be understood, 
 and in order to give a little better guide than the purely 
 illustrative case stated, a few actual instances will * be given. 
 It may be taken as a general rule that the finer the counts 
 the greater the number of spinning spindles required to the 
 same number of drawing deliveries and roving spindles. This 
 will be quite evident if the table of productions be considered. 
 Not only so, but in low counts the number of machines used 
 can be varied, the intermediate frames being dispensed with ; 
 while in the higher counts, with Egyptian cotton, the number 
 of scutching machines can be reduced. In double carded 
 Egyptian yarns a Derby doubler is introduced between the 
 breaking and finishing cards. In producing very fine combed 
 yarns the machines necessary to form the lap for the comber 
 are added, and, as indicated in Chapter II. , a fourth roving 
 or jack frame is used. In the first instance chosen the mill 
 is designed to spin from American cotton, 40*3 or 50'$ twist 
 and 5<D J s to yo's weft. There are the following machines 
 employed : 
 
 22 weft mules, ij inch gauge each, 1.260 spindles = 27,720 
 22 weft mules, ij inch gauge each, 1,272 spindles = 27,984 
 
 Total 55,704 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 599 
 
 22 twist mules, i| inch gauge each, 1,038 spindles = 22,836 
 22 twist mules, if inch gauge each, 1,044 spindles = 22,968 
 
 Total.... 45,804 
 
 52 roving frames, 8 spindles in 20^ inches, 7 inches lift, 168 spindles 
 
 in each = 8, 736. 
 18 intermediate frames, 6 spindles in 19^ inches f 10 inches lift, 132 
 
 spindles in each =2,376. 
 12 slubbing frames, 4 spindles in 19 inches, 10 inches lift, 90 spindles in 
 
 each = 1,080. 
 
 9 drawing frames, 4 heads, 7 deliveries each = 252. 
 
 128 revolving fiat carding machines, 50 inches cylinder, 38 inches wire. 
 6 finishing scutchers, fed from 4 laps. 
 6 breaker scutchers, fed from 3 laps. 
 4 opening machines, with lap attachment. 
 4 porcupine feed tables in mixing room. 
 
 The following are the details of the machinery in the plan given 
 in Fig. 250 : 
 
 40 mules, each 1,308 spindles, i inch gauge = 52,320 
 32 mules, each 1,066 spindles, i| inch gauge = 34,174 
 
 Total 86,494 
 
 40 roving frames, 8 spindles in 20 inches, each 172 spindles = 6,880. 
 16 intermediate frames, 6 spindles in igf inches, each 132 spindles = 
 2,112. 
 
 8 slubhing frames, 4 spindles in 20 inches, each 86 spindles = 688. 
 
 8 drawing frames, each 3 heads of 7 deliveries = 168. 
 67 revolving flat carding engines, 50 inches cylinder, 38 inches on wire. 
 
 4 single beater finishing scutchers. 
 
 4 single beater breaker scutchers. 
 
 2 combined openers and single scutchers. 
 
 i bale breaker. 
 
 (350) The following are the particulars of the machinery in a 
 modern spinning mill devoted to the production of good yarns 
 for sewing cottons, the mules being, arranged for spinning 
 medium fine counts : 
 
 74 mules, 1,016 spindles each, i| inch gauge. 
 60 roving frames, 182 spindles each, 8 spindles in 18 i 
 lift. 
 
 inches, 7 inches 
 
^ 600 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 30 intermediate frames, 126 spindles each, 6 spindles in 19^ inches, 
 
 10 inches lift. 
 14 slubbing frames, 84 spindles each, 4 spindles in 16 inches, 10 inches 
 
 lift. 
 
 6 drawing frames, 4 heads, 6 deliveries each, 
 i drawing frame, 3 heads, 6 deliveries each. 
 3 drawing frames j 2 heads, 7 deliveries each. 
 I i head, 6 deliveries each 
 
 
 
 140 combing machines, 8 heads each. 
 20 ribbon lap machines. 
 20 sliver lap machines. 
 140 revolving flat carding machines, cylinders 50 inches diameter, 44^ 
 
 inches wide. 
 
 6 finisher scutching machines. 
 6 combined opening, scutching, and lap machines. 
 i bale breaker, used as a mixer. 
 
 As there is a considerable variation existing in designing mills 
 for countries in which spindles are not run at so high a speed as 
 in England, nor the productions so great, a few details of the 
 spinning department of a mill fitted in Portugal by Messrs. 
 John Hetherington and Sons, Limited, will be of interest. In 
 these works weaving and bleaching are also carried on, but as 
 these lie outside the scope of this book, nothing is said of that 
 class of machinery. It will be noticed that a large variety of 
 yarn is made, which renders it necessary to make special 
 provision for it. 
 
 4 mules, each 404 spindles, i^ inch gauge, for hosiery yarns. 
 
 2 mules, each 780 spindles, \\ inch gauge, for reeled weft. 
 
 8 ring frames, each 408 spindles, 2f inches gauge, for twist yarn. 
 
 4 ring frames, each 428 spindles, 2g inches gauge, for twist yarn. 
 
 4 mules, each 1,040 spindles, i inch gauge, for weft. \ 
 
 22 ring frames, each 500 spindle?, ? inches gauge, for weft. ( 
 1 8 ring frames, each 428 spindles. 2 inches gauge, for twist. ( 
 
 3 ring frames, each 408 spindles, 2f inches gauge, for twist. / 
 
 3 ring frames, each 428 spindles, 2 inches, gauge, for reeled yarn. 
 33 roving frames, each 164 spindles, 8 spindles in 20 inches, 7 inches 
 lift. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 6oi 
 
 24 intermediate frames, each 124 spindles, 6 spindles in igf inches, 
 ic inches lift. 
 
 17 stubbing frames, each 82 spindles, 4 spindles in 20 inches, 10 inches 
 
 lift 
 
 1 8 drawing frames, each 3 heads, with 6 coilers to each head. 
 
 140 revolving flat carding engines, 50 inches cylinder, 38 inches wide, 
 3 finisher scutchers for 40 inches laps. 
 3 breaker scutchers for 40 inches laps. 
 2 single Crighton openers and lap machine. 
 
 1 bale breaker. 
 
 In addition there are 
 
 14 forty-hank double reeling machines. 
 
 15 cop reels. 
 
 2 bundling presses. 
 
 The following particulars of the equipment of a recently erected 
 ring spinning mill will be of interest : 
 
 21 ring spinning frames, 2f inches gauge, 5 inches lift, each 372 
 
 spindles = 7,812. 
 
 32 ring spinning frames, 2f inches gauge, 376 spindles =12,032. 
 34 ring spinning frames, 2f inches gauge, 380 spindles '= 12,920. 
 31 roving frames, 8 spindles in ao inches each, 180 spindles = 5,580. 
 12 intermediate frames, 6 spindles in 19^ inches each, 140 spindles =? 
 i, 680. 
 
 7 slubbing frames, 4 spindles in 17^ inches each, 98 spindles = 6S6. 
 
 4 drawing frames, 3 heads, 8 deliveries ) =deliveries IO4 
 
 9 drawing frames, i head, 8 deliveries. ) 
 56 revolving flat cards. 
 
 3 finisher scutchers. 
 3 breaker scutchers. 
 2 openers. 
 
 (351) In order to enable the necessary calculations to be 
 made, a few particulars of productions of various machines are 
 given. Scutching machines may be taken as being able to pro- 
 duce 2o,ooolbs. weight of laps per week, and opening machines 
 up to 3o,ooolbs. weight. Carding engines of the revolving flat 
 type will produce Soolbs. to i,ooolbs. per week, and roller and 
 clearer machines from 6oolbs. to yoolbs. It is not desirable to 
 overload .carding engines, and 85olbs. per week may be taken 
 as a base in calculating the number of revolving flat carding 
 
602 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING- 
 
 engines wanted. When dealing with good cottons, such as 
 Egyptian, the weight obtained is only from 450 to 5oolbs. per 
 week, and with Sea Islands from 200 to 35olbs. It is very 
 essential not to overload cards when preparing fine yarns. 
 Combing machines will produce from 3olbs. to 75lbs. per 
 day, according to the quality of yarn. The production 
 of drawing frames depends upon the number of deliveries 
 and the speed and diameter of the front roller. It can easily 
 be obtained by calculating the number of yards delivered by 
 the front roller in a week, and then multiplying that product 
 by the weight of the sliver in grains per yard. If 10 per cent be 
 allowed for stoppages, a fair margin is given. With reference 
 to the remainder of the machines, the table on page 591 gives a 
 number of average productions, but it must be understood that 
 these can be varied according to the circumstances of the case. 
 In dealing with Indian cotton and low counts it is, of course, 
 necessary to adopt a different scale of productions^ This is 
 evident when the characters of the material and of the available 
 labour are considered, but in the main the productions which are 
 given are correct. They are, indeed, rather in excess of those 
 actually obtained, but with this reservation may be accepted as 
 a guide. The waste made naturally depends upon the quality 
 of the cotton, and even in the same variety differs largely in 
 various seasons. In the opener and scutching machines this 
 factor plays the greatest part, but there is an excess of produc- 
 tive power in these machines, so that the calculation of the 
 number wanted is not much affected. The waste at tiie carding 
 machine averages about 5 per cent ; in the combing machine 
 about 15 to 1 8 per cent; in the drawing frame about 2 to 2^ 
 per cent; in the slubbing and intermediate about i^ per cent 
 each ; and the roving frame about i per cent. The waste in the 
 spinning machines is light, and does not need special considera- 
 tion. In making a calculation of the number of spindles, etc., 
 wanted at each stage, it is necessarily subject to the correction 
 indicated for the waste produced The figures are. derived 
 from data collected by the author, and are given as a guide 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 603 
 
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604 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 and not as fixed productions. The speeds of the various parts 
 can be altered at will, thus affecting the production. 
 
 (352) The question of the power required to drive a mill is a 
 matter of some importance, and one which has not been properly 
 formulated. The powers which are usually given are as follows, 
 but it must be obvious that these will differ considerably under 
 different circumstances : 
 
 Single opening machine, 4 to 5 h.p. 
 
 Double scutching machine, 1,400 revolutions of beater per minute, 6 h.p. 
 
 Revolving flat carding engine, to f h.p. 
 
 Roller and clearer carding engine (single), f h.p. 
 
 Roller and clearer carding engine (double), i^ h.p. 
 
 Drawing frames, per delivery, h.p. 
 
 Slubbing frames, 68 spindles, 600 revolutions, if h.p. 
 
 Intermediate frames, 74 spindles, 700 revolutions, ii h.p. 
 
 Roving frames, 160 spindles, 1,000 revolutions, 2 h.p. 
 
 Mule spindles, 230 spindles, 9,000 revolutions, I h.p. 
 
 Ring spindles, 120 spindles, 7,000 revolutions, i h.p. 
 
 As a rule, it is considered that about 85 mule spindles, with the 
 necessary preparation machinery, require one-horse power, the 
 number of ring spindles being somewhat less. From some 
 results of mills of equal size and of similar conditions 100 mule 
 spindles, with preparation, spinning coarse and medium counts, 
 take i|^ h.p., while ring spindles take 2^ h.p. for the same 
 number. The power required, however, is only a part of the 
 question, as the number of pounds of yarn produced per h.p. 
 is much more important. In this respect, if ring yarn answers 
 the purpose for which it is intended, there is little doubt that 
 in counts up to 32's the ring has an advantage over the mule. 
 In other respects there is some advantage, as the class of labour 
 employed is remunerated at a cheaper rate. The power needed 
 is naturally affected by the speed of the machines, which 
 enormously affects the friction of the numerous small bearings. 
 This is a factor which depends largely upon the judgment of the 
 user, and it is often found that a slower speed is more economical 
 than a faster one. For fair average counts and cottons the 
 speeds may be taken to be as follows : 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAFTS AND PRODUCTION. 605 
 
 Crighton opener beater from 8ootor,xco 
 
 fan 1,000 to 1,200 
 
 Porcupine opener beater 800 to 1,200 
 
 Scutcher beater, 2 bladed 1,200 to 1,500 
 
 3 bladed 900 to 1,000 
 
 Revolving flat carding engine cylinder 160 to 180 
 
 ,, ,, doffer... 12 to 14 
 
 Drawing frame front roller ,, 300 to 350 
 
 Slubbing frames spindles ,, 650 to 750 
 
 Intermediate 750 to 850 
 
 Roving ,, 1,000 to i, loo 
 
 Mule rim shaft 700 to 800 
 
 Ring frame twist spindles 7.000 to 8,000 
 
 ,, weft , ,, 6,500107,500 
 
 Ring frames are run at higher speeds than those indicated 
 but in the most successful cases those given are not exceeded. 
 It may be taken as a guiding rule that the finer the grade ot 
 cotton used the slower the speeds of the machines used, 
 and great care is necessary in this respect. Another point 
 which also affects this matter is the character of the lubri- 
 cant used. This speedily has its effect upon the power 
 required, and unsuitable oils are responsible for a great loss. 
 Mr. J. Veitch Wilson, who has given great thought to this 
 matter, says that the viscosity of oils for use in textile purposes 
 should be for ring spindles equal to sperm oil, and for mule and 
 throstle spindles 50 per cent greater. This is a very important 
 matter, and deserves the most serious consideration of ail 
 spinners. The author knows of one case in which a rapidly 
 drying oil was supplied for the lubrication of the rollers of roving 
 frames, with the result that there was a jerky delivery and much 
 uneven roving. 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIGURE PAGB 
 
 1 Young-Cotton Plants 42 
 
 2 Young Cotton Plant Thinned Out 43 
 
 3 Cotton Plant during Growth 44 
 
 4 Cotton Plant Flowering 45 
 
 5 Cotton Plant in Fruit 48 
 
 | Diagram of Staple 50, 51 
 
 8 Microscopical Drawing of Sea Islands Cotton 52 
 
 9 Microscopical Drawing of Georgia Islands Cotton 53 
 
 10 Microscopical Drawing of Cross Sections Sea Islands Cotton 53 
 
 11 Microscopical Drawing of Egyptian (Brown) Cotton 54 
 
 12 Microscopical Drawing of Cross Sections Egyptian Cotton... 54 
 
 13 Microscopical Drawing of Peruvian (Rough) Cotton 55 
 
 14 Microscopical Drawing of Cross Sections Peruvian and 
 
 American Cotton 56 
 
 15 Microscopical Drawing of Peruvian (Smooth) Cotton 56 
 
 16 Microscopical Drawing of Pernam Cotton 57 
 
 17 Microscopical Drawing of Maranham Cotton :.... 58 
 
 18 Microscopical Drawing of Cross Sections Brazilian Cotton... 52 
 
 19 Microscopical Drawing of Orleans Cotton 60 
 
 20 Microscopical Drawing of Texas Cotton 60 
 
 21 Microscopical Drawing of Uplands Cotton 61 
 
 22 Microscopical Drawing of Benders Cotton 62 
 
 23 Microscopical Drawing of Cross Sections American Cotton 62 
 
 24 Microscopical Drawing of Hingunghat Cotton 63 
 
 25 Microscopical Drawing of Broach Cotton 64 
 
 26 Microscopical Drawing of Oomrawuttee Cotton 64 
 
 27 Microscopical Drawing of Dhollerah Cotton 65 
 
 28 Microscopical Drawing of Scinde Cotton... 66 
 
 J- Microscopical Drawing of Cross Section E.r,st Indian Cotioii 67 
 
 31 Microscopical Drawing of China Cotton 6S 
 
 32 Microscopical Drawing of Cross Section China Cotton 68 
 
 33 Microscopical Drawing of African Cotton 69 
 
 34 Microscopical Drawing of Cross Section African Cotton 69 
 
6o8 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 35 Platt's Gin 77 
 
 3^j Roller Gin 78, 79 
 
 38 Bale Breaker 88 
 
 39 Diagram of Blowing Rooms 94 
 
 40 Diagram of Lattice Aprons 95 
 
 41 Plan of Mixing Room 96 
 
 42 Howard and Bullough's Hopper Feeder 97 
 
 43 Arrangement of Blowing Room 104 
 
 44 Platt's Self-Cleaning Lattice 105 
 
 45 Taylor, Lang and Co.'s Opener 107 
 
 46 Dobson and Barlow's Opener 108 
 
 47 |- Lord's Porcupine Beaters 109 
 
 49 Crighton's Opener no 
 
 50 Lord's Combined Opener and Scutcher 112 
 
 -^ j-Crighton's Opener Grid 115 
 
 53 Lord's Scutcher 117 
 
 54 Dust Cage Dampers 7 118 
 
 55 Feed Regulator 119 
 
 56 Scutcher End View 120 
 
 5 ? jScutcher Feed Rollers 122 
 
 59 Howard and Bullough's Pedal Rollers 124 
 
 60 Pedal Rollers 124 
 
 61 Dobson's Pedal Rollers 125 
 
 62 Asa Lees' Feed Regulator 125 
 
 63 Asa Lees' Feed Regulator 126 
 
 64 Howard and Bullough's Dirt Grid 129 
 
 65 Calender Roller Weighing 133 
 
 66 Lap Roller Weighing 134 
 
 67 Diagram of Scutching Machine Driving 136 
 
 68 Asa Lees' Rope Driving for Scutchers 139 
 
 69 Roller and Clearer Carding Engine 143 
 
 70 Section of Coiler 145 
 
 71 Setting Brackers for Rollers , 148 
 
 72 Revolving Flat Carding Machine 154 
 
 73 Dobson's Flexible Bend 155 
 
 74 Platt's Flexible Bend, Section 156 
 
 75 Simplex Bend 157 
 
 7 ^ JHowardand Bullough's Bend 158 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 609 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 78 Tweedales and Smalley's Bend 159 
 
 79 Ashworth's Bend 160 
 
 80 Brooks and Doxey's Bend 161 
 
 g * JBrooks and Doxey's Milling Gear 162 
 
 83 Dobson and Barlow's Pedestal Setting 163 
 
 84 Ashworth's Driving Arrangement .... 164 
 
 85 Howard and Bullough's Cylinder Bearing 165 
 
 86 Dish Feed and Licker-in 169 
 
 87 Dish Feed Plate for Indian Cotton 170 
 
 88 Dish Feed Plate for American Cotton 171 
 
 89 Dish Feed Plate for Egyptian Cotton 171 
 
 90 Cover of Doffer 179 
 
 91 Diagram of Coiler Action 185 
 
 92 Diagram of Driving 186 
 
 93 Diagram of Driving 187 
 
 94 Diagram of Doffer Driving 188 
 
 95 Cross Sections of Teeth 198 
 
 96 Enlarged Photograph of Plough Ground Tooth 199 
 
 97 Diagram of Tooth 200 
 
 98 Diagram of Setting of Card Teeth 201 
 
 99 Diagram of Grinding of Points 202 
 
 100 Diagram of Wrong Setting of Teeth 203 
 
 101 Diagram of Effect of Keen 204 
 
 102 Sample of Clothing (Photograph) 205 
 
 103 Plain Setting of Card Teeth 206 
 
 104 Twilled Setting of Card Teeth 207 
 
 105 Ribbed Setting of Card Teeth 207 
 
 j^ JGarnett Teeth for Licker-in 209 
 
 108 Tweedale's Fastener 212 
 
 109 Ashworth's Fastener 212 
 
 no Diagram of Grinding. 215 
 
 in Higginson's Grinding Bracket 216 
 
 112 Edge's Grinding Bracket 218 
 
 113 / 
 
 114 > Dobson's Grinding Arrangement 220 
 
 "5) 
 
 1 16 Diagram of Effect of Grinding ! 223 
 
 117 Section of Combing Machine 228 
 
 118 Plan of Driving Gear for Comber 229 
 
 1 19 Feed Roller Mechanism for Comber 230 
 
 120 Nipper Mechanism 231 
 
6 to THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 121 Method of Operating Nipper 232 
 
 122 \ 
 
 123 / Hetherington's Lap Guide 234, 235 
 
 124 Top Comb Mechanism 236 
 
 125) 
 
 126 J- Detaching Cam and Wheel 238, 239. 240 
 
 127) 
 
 I- Dobson and Barlow's Detaching Gear 241, 242 
 
 130 Attaching Mechanism 243 
 
 Diagrams of Action of Combing Machine 246, 247 
 
 132 
 133 
 134 
 
 I34A Nasmith Machine Section 257 
 
 '34B ., , 258 
 
 I34C) 
 
 1340 j-Diagrarns of Action Nasmith Machine .... 259 
 
 I34EJ 
 
 I34F Top Comb Mechanism of Nasmith Machine 261 
 
 1340 Mechanism Actuating Top Leather Roller 263 
 
 135 Section Brooks and Doxey's Drawing Frame 268 
 
 136 End View, Brooks and Doxey's Drawing Frame 269 
 
 137 Loose BossRoller 271 
 
 138 Diagram of Gearing for Drawing Frame 272 
 
 139 Diagram of Drawing Action 276 
 
 140 Detail of Stop Motion 280 
 
 141 Electric Stop Motion 282 
 
 142 Metallic Rollers 288 
 
 143 Metallic Rollers, Enlarged View 289 
 
 144 Howard and Bullough's Cap Bars 299 
 
 145 Spindle and Long Collar 300 
 
 146 Higgins' Spindle Frame 303 
 
 147 Diagram of Winding 306 
 
 148 Diagram of Gearing 311 
 
 149 Ordinary Swing Frame 312 
 
 150 Brooks and Shaw's Swing Frame 7 * 313 
 
 151 Diagram of Brooks and Shaw's Swing Frame 315 
 
 152 Holdsworth Differential Motion 318 
 
 [ 53 Curtis and Rhodes' Differential Motion 321 
 
 154 Tweedale's Differential Motion 323 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 6 II 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 r S5 \Brooks and Shaw's Differential Motion ......... . 326 
 
 I 56J 
 
 157 Dobson and Barlow's Differential Motion .......................... 328 
 
 158 Drawing of Cone Drums ................................................... 342 
 
 159 Ash worth and Moorhouse's Duplex Driving ........................ 345 
 
 160 Front View of Building Motion .......................................... 347 
 
 161 Back View of Building Motion ........................................ 348 
 
 162 Plan View of Building Motion .. ........................................ 349 
 
 163 Howard and Bullough's Building Motion ........................... 350 
 
 1 A | Asa Lees' Building Motion .......................................... 351, 352 
 
 Asa Lees' Knocking-off Gear ................ .............................. 353 
 
 168 Diagram of Diminishing Motion ....................................... 357 
 
 *5 9 JTatham's Traverse Motion ................................................ 361 
 
 171 Diagram of Thread Structure ............................................. 375 
 
 172 Diagram of Mule ............................................................ 389 
 
 1 73 Disposition of Pair of Mules ............................................. 392 
 
 174 Side View of Headstock ................................................... 394 
 
 175 Platts' Method of Driving ................................................ 397 
 
 176 Section of Headstock ...................................................... 398 
 
 177 Back View of Headstock ................................................... 399 
 
 178 Back View of Headstock and Counter-shafts ........................ 400 
 
 179 Carriage-end Bands ......................................................... 402 
 
 180 Asa Lees' Improved Driving ............................................. 407 
 
 181 Platts' Cam Shaft and Attachments .................................... 412 
 
 182 Curtis's Cam Shaft ......................................................... 413 
 
 Jg 3 J Details of Cam Shaft Clutch ............................................. 414 
 
 185 Backing-off Gear (Platts') ................................................ 416 
 
 186 Hetherington's Mendoza Gear .......................................... 418 
 
 187 Back View Headstock Showing Counter Driving .................. 422 
 
 188 Duplex Driving ............................................................... 424 
 
 189 Coils on Spindle ............................................................ 426 
 
 190 Diagrammatic View of Mechanism .................................... 427 
 
 191 Weighting of Counter Faller ............................................. 429 
 
 192 Backing-off Chain Gear ................................................... 431 
 
 1 I Diagram of Building Cops ................................................ 439 
 
 |9| j- Winding Mechanism ...................... , .............................. 441 
 
6l2 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 FIGURE PAGE 
 
 1 97 j Details of Click Gear 442, 443 
 
 199 Diagram of Cop Nose 448 
 
 200 Diagram of Winding Curves 450 
 
 201 Diagram of Effect of Quadrant in Drums 453 
 
 202 Diagram of Quadrant Movement 455 
 
 203 Diagram of Action of Faller 460 
 
 204 Diagram of Effect of Fall of Copping Rail 461 
 
 205 Copping Rail, Plates, and Fallers 463 
 
 2 } Copping Rails and Plates 461, 463 
 
 208 Diagram of Copping Plates 465 
 
 209 Platts' Nosing Motion 474 
 
 2 * j Platts' Nosing, Beginning and End of Stretch 476 
 
 212 Rewinding Chain 487 
 
 213 Dobson and Barlow's Fine Mule 489 
 
 214 Jacking Motion 490 
 
 215 Roller Delivery Motion 7 491 
 
 216 Dobson and Barlow's Two Speed Motion 494 
 
 217 Threlfall's Two Speed Motion 495 
 
 218 Transverse View, Brooks' Ring Frame 502 
 
 219 Partial Longitudinal View of Parts 503 
 
 220 Tweedale's and Smalley's Thread Board .. 505 
 
 221 Ordinary Ring 506 
 
 222 Coulthard's Double Ring 506 
 
 223 End View of Ring Frame Showing Gearing 507 
 
 224 Quadrant After Motion 508 
 
 22 2 i- Details of Building Motion 509, 510 
 
 22 Z I- Rope Driving Motion 511, 512 
 
 229 Rabbeth Spindle 517 
 
 230 Whitiji Spindle 7. 517 
 
 231 Dodd's Spindle 517 
 
 232 Wrigley's Spindle 517 
 
 233 Woodmancy Spindle 518 
 
 234 Rabbeth Bobbin 522 
 
 235 Improved Warp Bobbin 522 
 
 236 Weft Pirn 5 22 
 
 237 Diagram of Spindle Ring 523 
 
INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 613 
 
 FIGURE PACK 
 
 3 | Special Ring for Bare Spindle Spinning 534 
 
 240 Anti-Ballooning Wire 536 
 
 241 Anti-Ballooning Plates 536 
 
 242 Hitchon's Separators 538 
 
 243 Diagram of Winding 541 
 
 244 Wrap Reel 546 
 
 245 Seven Lea Rack for Reels 553 
 
 246 Bridge Doffing Motion 556 
 
 247 Doubling Winding Machine 561 
 
 248 Knee Brake for Doubling Spindles 565 
 
 249 Gassing Frame 569 
 
 250 Plan of Mill 597 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 615 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Acreage United States Cotton District 20 27 
 
 Indian Cotton District 21 28 
 
 Action of Carding Engine no 146 
 
 Flats 117 155 
 
 Fibres in Sliver ... 120, 121 165 
 
 Licker-in Mote Knives 123 168 
 
 Combing Machine 168 227 
 
 Drawing Frame Rollers 189 276 
 
 ,, Stud Wheel in Roving Frame 214 317 
 
 ,, Roving Frame Building Motion 228 346 
 
 Diminishing Rod 234 356 
 
 Leather Roller in Comber 174 355 
 
 Licker-in 125 172 
 
 Roving Frame Traverse Motion 235 359 
 
 Draft on Long and Short Fibres 242 374 
 
 Mule 254 390 
 
 Rollers and Spindles of Mule During Twisting ... 254 390 
 
 Cam Shaft 262 415 
 
 Mechanism in Backing-off 262 415 
 
 Check Band 271 437 
 
 Winding Faller 278 458 
 
 Ring Frame 303 51^ 
 
 Advantage of Dish Feed ., .. 124 181 
 
 ,, Bobbin Lead 210 307 
 
 Adhesion of Fibres in Drawing Frame ,.. 201 294 
 
 Adjustment of Winding Faller in Backing-off 267 431 
 
 Backing-off Chain 267 43^ 
 
 Shaping Mechanism 280 46^ 
 
 Alteration of Draft in Carding Machine _... 143 191 
 
 Alteration of Roving Frame Twist Wheel 236 362 
 
 Amount of Variation of Twist <o Ring Yarn . 311 528 
 
 ** 
 
616 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PACK 
 
 Analysis of Ash 24 30 
 
 Ash and Fibre 25 30 
 
 Arkwright's Spinning Machine 13 17 
 
 Arrangement of Processes 61 86 
 
 Pedal Levers 84 119 
 
 Pedal Bowls 85 122 
 
 Air Flues 92 130 
 
 Double Carding Engine 114 150 
 
 Gearing for Drawing Frames 185 272 
 
 Drawing Frame Cans 197 291 
 
 Draft , 199 292 
 
 Creel 203 297 
 
 ,, Roving Spindles 205 299 
 
 Carding Feed Roller 106 142 
 
 Mules in a Mill 253 388 
 
 Area of Dust Flues 93 1^1 
 
 Average Size of a Bale 56 79 
 
 B 
 
 Bale Breaker 62 88 
 
 Balancing of Counter Faller 266 4 ^ o 
 
 Ballooning 314 534 
 
 Balfe's Piecing Machine 331 567 
 
 Balling Machine 334 $j 2 
 
 Bearing of Roving Spindles 205 301 
 
 Blamire's Feed for Waste 338 576 
 
 Bobbin and Flyer Leads 208 305 
 
 Bowing Cotton 6 i O 
 
 Brazilian Cotton 44 57 
 
 Breaking Machine for Waste 336 574 
 
 Bundling Machine 324 557 
 
 c 
 
 Calculation of Drawing Frame Roller Speed 200 293 
 
 Drafts 199 293 
 
 Care of Combing Machines 180 266 
 
 Carriage Locking Catch 268 433 
 
 Carding Arrangement of Feed Roller 106 142 
 
 Action of Machine no 146 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 617 
 
 PAR. PAGB 
 
 Carding Action of Flats ~ 128 175 
 
 ,, Arrangement of Fibres 120 165 
 
 Arrangement of Licker-in and Mote Knives 123 168 
 
 Action of Licker-in 125 172 
 
 Action of Rollers and Clearers 113 149 
 
 Advantage of Dish Feed 124 169 
 
 Action of Coiler 138 184 
 
 Air Currents in 130 177 
 
 Alteration of Draft 145 193 
 
 Bearings for Cylinders 119 164 
 
 Bend, Flexible 118 156 
 
 Simplex 118 157 
 
 Howard and Bullough's 118 158 
 
 Tweedale and Smalley's 118 159 
 
 Ashworth's 118 160 
 
 Wilkinson's 118 161 
 
 ,, Construction of Cylinder 105 142 
 
 Coiler Mechanism 108 144 
 
 Construction of Revolving Flat 116 153 
 
 Condition of Lap 121 166 
 
 Clothing, Essentials of 148 195 
 
 Foundation of 148 196 
 
 |t Character of Wire 149 198 
 
 Sections of Wire 149 198 
 
 Setting Wire in 150 200 
 
 Correct Setting of Wire in 151 203 
 
 Types of Setting 152 205 
 
 Method of Counting Wire 152 206 
 
 Counts used 153 208 
 
 for Licker-in 153 208 
 
 ,. Flats ., 154 211 
 
 Cloudy Webs 132 178 
 
 Construction of Grinding Rollers 157 214 
 
 Cleanliness 165 225 
 
 Development of Machine n 14 
 
 Doffer Mechanism 107 144 
 
 Double Machine M 114 150 
 
 Deflection of Flats 160 220 
 
 Driving of Machine 139 186 
 
 Driving of Doffer and Licker-in ._ 139 i87 
 
 Draft of Machine 145 193 
 
 Feed Roller Mechanism ^ 106 142 
 
618 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAG 
 
 Carding Fixing Fillets 154 209 
 
 Flats 117 155 
 
 Grinding Flats 158 215 
 
 Higginson's Flat 159 217 
 
 Edge's Flat 159 218 
 
 Dobson's Flat 160 219 
 
 Light and Heavy Grinding 163 222 
 
 Length of Fillet 146 193 
 
 Methods of in 146 
 
 Movement of Fibres in 128 175 
 
 Nepsin 131 178 
 
 Needle Pointing 149 198 
 
 Operation of Coiler 138 184 
 
 Object of 104 141 
 
 Position of Fibres on Cylinder 128 175 
 
 Plough Grinding 149 199 
 
 Position of Flats during Grinding 158 215 
 
 Roller and Clearer 112 148 
 
 Revolving Flat Mechanism ^.... 115 151 
 
 Removal of Impurities 135 180 
 
 Rule for Draft 143 191 
 
 Rule for Dividend 144 191 
 
 Shell Feed Plate in 124 170 
 
 Setting Undercasings of 136 181 
 
 Setting Flats and Rollers 137 183 
 
 Setting of Grinding Brackets 161 220 
 
 Surface Grinding of 155 212 
 
 Slow Motion Cylinder 156 213 
 
 Smooth Teeth 149 199 
 
 Stripping Cloth 164 224 
 
 Velocity of Parts 109 148 
 
 Velocity of Rollers and Clearers 113 149 
 
 Weight of Slivers 147 194 
 
 Waste 337 575 
 
 Feed for Waste 338 576 
 
 Condenser for Waste 339 578 
 
 Character of Cotton Growing Soils 28 31 
 
 Churka Gin 6 10 
 
 Character of Air Current 93 131 
 
 Classification of Growths 38 46 
 
 Cloudy Webs 132 178 
 
 Cleanliness of Carding Engines 105 225 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 619 
 
 PAR. PAGB 
 
 Cleaning Dust Trunks 72 105 
 
 Cloth for Drawing Frame Rollers 195 285 
 
 Click Catch 273 441 
 
 Clearing Machine 33* 5 6 7 
 
 Combined Machines , 77 in 
 
 Combing Preparation of Lap for 167 227 
 
 Arrangement of Mechanism ifi8 227 
 
 Feed Roller Mechanism 168 229 
 
 Nipper Mechanism 170 231 
 
 Arrangement of Needles 171 235 
 
 Top Comb 171 237 
 
 Detaching Mechanism 172 237 
 
 ,, Action of Detaching Mechanism 172 240 
 
 Dobson and Barlow's Detaching Mechanism 173 242 
 
 Action of Leather Roller 174 243 
 
 Operation of Heilmann Comb 176 245 
 
 Duplex Machine 177 249 
 
 Setting of Parts 178 251 
 
 CareofParts 180 254 
 
 Draft in 181 255 
 
 The Nasmith Machine i8iA to i8iM 255 
 
 Counts of Card Clothing 152 200 
 
 , for Various Parts , 153 208 
 
 Cohesion of Fibres in Twisted Thread 248 381 
 
 Construction of Distaff and Spindle 3 8 
 
 Spinning Wheel 5 9 
 
 Dust Trunk 72 105 
 
 . Scutching Machine 82, 83 116 
 
 Carding Engine Cylinder 105 142 
 
 Revolving Flat Card 116 153 
 
 Grinding Rollers 157 214 
 
 Combing Machines 168 227 
 
 Comb Cylinder 171 235 
 
 Detaching Mechanism 172 237 
 
 Drawing Frame 183 269 
 
 Clearers 193 283 
 
 Roving Spindles / 204 299 
 
 , t Roving Frame Building Motion 228 346 
 
 .,, Rollers in Mules 256 393 
 
 Mule Carriage 256 394 
 
 , Mule Spindles 256 395 
 
 ,, Cam Shaft 261 413 
 
 Fallers , 266 429 
 
620 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAG 
 
 Construction of Cop 272 439 
 
 Copping Rail ^79 462 
 
 Rings 301 505 
 
 Traveller 316 541 
 
 Condition of Scutched Lap 121 166 
 
 Rollers in Drawing Frame 195 285 
 
 Cone Strap 226 343 
 
 Roving Frame Parts 238 368 
 
 Composition of Cotton 27 31 
 
 Cost of Cotton Cultivation 34 38 
 
 Comparison of Cotton , 50 70 
 
 Cotton Acreage in the United States 20 27 
 
 Acreage in India 21 28" 
 
 M other countries 22 28 
 
 Analysis of Ash 24 30 
 
 n Bowing . 6 10 
 
 Brazilian 44 57 
 
 Caterpillar 33 37 
 
 Churka Gin ;. 6 n 
 
 Character of Soils 28 31 
 
 Classification of 57 So 
 
 Caterpillar 33 37 
 
 Contracts C.I. F 58 8r 
 
 Future '. 59 83 
 
 Cost of Cultivation 34 38 
 
 Dharwar 48 65 
 
 Egyptian 42 54 
 
 Growth of Plant 37 42 
 
 Gin 55 76 
 
 Growths of 40 50 
 
 Humidity of Districts 30 34 
 
 Hingunghat 47 63 
 
 Indian 48 66 
 
 Impurities in 50 70 
 
 Method of Cultivating 37 42 
 
 Mixing 65, 66 g o 
 
 Mobile 46 61 
 
 v Orleans 46 60 
 
 M Phosphorus in 29 33 
 
 Periods of Cultivating 35 40 
 
 .. Peruvian 43 55 
 
 . Rainfall in Growing Districts 30 34 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 62 1 
 
 PAR. PACK 
 
 Cotton Rules for Mixing 66 91 
 
 ,, Sea Island 41 52- 
 
 Spinning Processes 61 86- 
 
 Structure of 40 47 
 
 Temperature in Growing Districts 23 29- 
 
 Texas 46 60 
 
 Test for Moisture in 51 71 
 
 Twist and Weft 53 72- 
 
 Uplands 46 61 
 
 Varieties of 38 46 
 
 Varieties of American 45 58 
 
 West Indian 49 67 
 
 Weight of Bales 56 79 
 
 Cotton Gin 55 77 
 
 Crighton Opener 76 no 
 
 Crompton's Mule 13 17 
 
 Curtis and Rhodes' Differential Motion 217 321 
 
 Cycle of Operations in Mule 255 392 
 
 D 
 
 Deflection of Flats ... 160 220 
 
 Designing Roving Frame Cones 225 341 
 
 Definition of Twisting 239 371 
 
 Defects in Cops 287 477 
 
 ,, Copping Plates 289 479 
 
 Depression of Winding Faller During Backing-off . 267 431 
 
 Description of Mule , 253 388 
 
 Detailing Mechanism in Comber 172 349 
 
 Development of Carding Engine n 14 
 
 Mule 13 17 
 
 j, Scutching and Opening Machine 15 21 
 
 Difference between Mule and Ring Yarn 250 383 
 
 Distaff and Spindle, Spinning by 2 y 
 
 Dobson and Barlow's Detaching Mechanism 173 242 
 
 Dobson and Barlow's Opener 74 Io g 
 
 Fine Mule 294 487 
 
 Dodd's Spindle r 306 5I7 
 
 Doubling, Operation of 325 ^j 
 
 Doubling of Slivers 194 284 
 
 Winding Machine 326 559 
 
 Quick Traverse 327 
 
622 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAG 
 
 Doubling Frame Ring 329 564 
 
 Draft in Bale Breaker 63 89 
 
 Drafts, Condition of Successful 343 584 
 
 Drafts tor Scutching Machine 101 138 
 
 Coarse Counts 344 586 
 
 Hosiery Yarn 346 589 
 
 Medium and Weft Yarns 347 592 
 
 Fine Yarns 347 592 
 
 Drawing Frame Stop Motion 191 580 
 
 Drawing by Rollers 9 12 
 
 Drawing Action of Rollers 189 276 
 
 Arrangement of Cans 197 279 
 
 ,, Arrangement of Draft 199 280 
 
 Construction of Frame 183 269 
 
 ' Clearers for 193 2 $3 
 
 Condition of Rollers in 195 284 
 
 Cloth for Rollers 195 285 
 
 Calculation of Speed of Rollers 200 281 
 
 ., Drafts in 188 274 
 
 Doubling Slivers in 194 284 
 
 Effect of Differential Speed of Rollers in 186 273 
 
 Electric Stop Motion 192 281 
 
 Gearing for Machine 185 272 
 
 ;, Heads and Deliveries 184 271 
 
 Loose Boss Top Rollers 183 289 
 
 Licking of Fibres 201 282 
 
 Metallic Drawing Rollers 196 287 
 
 Object of 182 267 
 
 Result of Doubling 194 272 
 
 Rule for Draft in 199 281 
 
 Roller Leather 183 258 
 
 Setting of Rollers in 188 274 
 
 Stop Motion for Frame 191 285 
 
 Variable Setting of Rollers 188 275 
 
 Driving of Scutcher 97 135 
 
 Lap Machine 98 137 
 
 Calender Rolls 99 137 
 
 ., Carding Engine 139 186 
 
 Doffer and Licker-in 139 187 
 
 Combing Machine Mechanism 168 227 
 
 Roving Spindles 206 312 
 
 Platt's Mule 258 397 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 623 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Driving of Differential Wheel 210, 221 329 
 
 Duplex Combing Machine 177 246 
 
 E 
 
 Early Spinning Wheel 5 9 2 
 
 History'bf Cotton 19 26 
 
 Economy of Mixing 66 9 2 
 
 Effect of Velocity of Rollers and Clearers 113 M9 
 
 ,, Air Currents in Carding 130 17? 
 
 Variable Velocities of Drawing Frame Rollers 186 274 
 
 the Variation of Fibres 243 375 
 
 Twist upon Strength 248 381 
 
 Carriage Drafts on Yarn 258 403 
 
 Cam Shaft Motion 262 415 
 
 Forward Movement of Quadrant 273 440 
 
 Elastic Spindle 306 517 
 
 Wrigley's Bobbin 306 519 
 
 Egyptian, Brazilian, and Peruvian Cotton Acreage 22 28 
 
 Cotton 42 53 
 
 Electric Stop Motion 192 281 
 
 Essential Features of Paul's Machine 10 14 
 
 Properties of Yarn 251 385 
 
 Essentials of Opening Machines 73 106 
 
 in Mixing 66 90 
 
 Explanation of Quadrant Action 276, 277, 451 
 
 Extent of Traverse of Cone Strap 231 354 
 
 F 
 
 Feed Roller Mechanism in Comber 168 229 
 
 Fillets Attaching, to Flats 154 211 
 
 Manufacture of Card 148 196 
 
 Setting Teeth in 150 200 
 
 Different Settings of Teeth in 152 205 
 
 Winding on 154 2 9 
 
 Flats, Heel in .'. 158 209 
 
 Working Setting of 137 183 
 
 ,, Construction of 117 155 
 
 Deflection of 160 220 
 
 Flyer Spinning Frame 14 25 
 
624 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAGB 
 
 Flyers, Lead of 209 305 
 
 Formation of Lap 71 102 
 
 Foundations for Card Clothing 148 196 
 
 G 
 
 Gain of Mule Carriage " 258 403 
 
 Gauge of Roving Spindles 204 299 
 
 Gauges for Mule Spindles 256 395 
 
 Gassing Machine , 331 567 
 
 Gin, Cotton 55 76 
 
 Churka 6 n 
 
 Governing Motion of Mule 274 444 
 
 Grids, Howard and Bullough's 90 128 
 
 Pitch of Bars 90 128 
 
 Position of Scutcher 90 128 
 
 Setting in Opener 79 114 
 
 Grinding, Defects of Side "149* 1 99 
 
 Desirability of Light ... 163 222 
 
 Principles of Flat 158 215 
 
 Roller 158 215 
 
 Growth of Cotton Plant 40 47 
 
 H 
 
 Hank, Calculation and Definition of ., 237 365 
 
 Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny 12 16 
 
 Hastening Motion 293 486 
 
 Heads and Deliveries, Definition of 184 271 
 
 Heilmann Combing Machine 168 227 
 
 Hingunghat Cotton 47 63 
 
 Holding Out Catch 268 433 
 
 Holdsworth's Jack in the Box Motion 16 23 
 
 Howard and Bullough's Dirt Bars 90 128 
 
 Humidity in Cotton Districts 30 34 
 
 I 
 
 Impurities in Cotton 54 72 
 
 Improved Crighton Grid 80 114 
 
 Imperfect Winding in Mule 287 476 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 625 
 
 PAR. PAGB 
 
 Importance of Cleanliness 260 410 
 
 Invention of Roving Frames 16 23 
 
 Indian Cottons ... 47 63 
 
 Inclination of Mule Spindles 256 395 
 
 Copping Rail 278 458 
 
 Ring Frame Roller Stand 304 515 
 
 Inertia of Parts of Mule 259 406 
 
 J 
 
 Jack Shaft 2ii 309^ 
 
 Jacking 295 49 o 
 
 L 
 
 Lap Attachment ....... ....* 83 118 
 
 Doubling of 102 139 
 
 Effect of Licker-in on 125 172 
 
 ., Feeding on Scutching Machine 83 116 
 
 Feeding on Carding Engine 106 142 
 
 Licking of .... 95 132 
 
 Selvedges of 94 131 
 
 Leather for Rollers 183 270 
 
 Lewis Paul's Specification 9 13 
 
 Length of Fillet Required 146 193 
 
 Licking of Laps 95 132 
 
 Light and Heavy Grinding 163 222 
 
 Licker-in, Setting of 153 208 
 
 Licker-in, Teeth of 153 208 
 
 Lift of Roving Bobbins 206 33 
 
 Ring Bobbins 301 55 
 
 Lift, Shortening of, in Roving Frame 234 356 
 
 Loose Boss Top Rollers 183 270 
 
 Copping Rail 279 462 
 
 Locking of Winding Faller 270 435 
 
 M Mendoza Lever 263 419 
 
 M 
 
 Machines Required for Various Counts 348 594- 
 
 ,, Production of Various 351 601 
 
 Method of Cultivation 37 4* 
 
626 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAG* 
 
 Method of Mixing 67 93 
 
 Adjusting Mule 271 43$ 
 
 Fixing Fillets 154 209 
 
 Twisting Warp and Weft 247 3^o 
 
 Methods of Carding _ in 146 
 
 ,, Spinning 249 3^2 
 
 Mechanism of Doffer 107 *44 
 
 Coiler 108 '44 
 
 Revolving Flat Card 116 J 53 
 
 Measurement of Mule Yarn 246 379 
 
 Mendoza Lever 263 4*7 
 
 Metallic Drawing Rollers 196 2 7 
 
 Mills, Machines Used in Different 349 59 8 
 
 Mixing Arrangements 67 93 
 
 Mobile Cotton 46 6l 
 
 Moisture Test for Cotton 51 7 1 
 
 Cops .. 52 72 
 
 Movement of Fibres on Card ^28 I 75 
 
 Mule for Fine Counts 294 487 
 
 Action of 254 390 
 
 Arrangement of 253 3^8 
 
 Action of Cam Shaft 262 4*5 
 
 ,, Adjustment of Winding Faller in Backing off 267 43 1 
 
 Action of Winding Faller 278 45$ 
 
 Adjusting Shaping Mechanism 280 4^6 
 
 Action of Quadrant in 276, 277 457 
 
 ,, Adjusting 271 43 8 
 
 Arrest of Carriage 261 4 IQ 
 
 Backing-off Mechanism of 262 4 J 5 
 
 ,, Back Shaft 258 402 
 
 ." Balancing Counter Faller 266 43O 
 
 Creel 255 393 
 
 Crompton's 16 21 
 
 ChaseofCop 272 439 
 
 Check Band 271 437 
 
 Cycle of Operations in 255 392 
 
 Construction of Rollers in 256 393 
 
 of Carriage 256 394 
 
 of Clutches 256 399 
 
 v , of Spindles 256 395 
 
 ^ of Cam Shaft 261 413 
 
 w of Fallers 266 429 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 627 
 
 PAR. PAG 
 
 Mule Construction of Cop 272 439 
 
 of Copping Rail 279 462 
 
 of Copping Plates 280 465 
 
 Click Catch 273 441 
 
 Development of 13 19 
 
 Description of 253 386 
 
 Drawing-out Bands 258 402 
 
 Driving Platt's 258 397 
 
 Driving Spindle 258 397 
 
 Side 258 400 
 
 Rollers 258 401 
 
 Asa,Lees' 259 407 
 
 Backing-off Shaft 264 420 
 
 Duplex 264 425 
 
 Scroll Shaft 271 436 
 
 Depression of Winding Faller 267 431 
 
 Defects in Cops 287 477 
 
 ,, in Copping Plates 289 479 
 
 Dobson and Barlow's Fine 295 489 
 
 Doffing 298 498 
 
 Disengagement of Backing-off Friction 270 435 
 
 Effect of Cam Shaft Motion 262 415 
 
 Forward Movement of Quadrant 273 440 
 
 Fine 294 487 
 
 Gain of Carriage 258 403 
 
 Governing Motion .... 274 444 
 
 Holding Out Catch 268 433 
 
 Hastening Motion 293 486 
 
 ,, Inertia of Parts 259 406 
 
 Inclination of Spindles 256 395 
 
 of Copping Rail 278 458 
 
 Imperfect Winding in 287 476 
 
 )? Jacking Motion 295 490 
 
 Locking of Faller 270 435 
 
 Carriage , 268 433 
 
 ,, Loose Copping Rail 279 462 
 
 Locking Mendoza Lever , 263 4I9 
 
 ? , Mendoza Lever 263 4I y 
 
 Number of Downward Coils in Cop of 267 432 
 
 , Nosing Motion, Reason for use of 284 471 
 
 Peg 285 473 
 
 f , Operation of Backing off Friction 264 420 
 
628 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAGB 
 
 Mule Platt's Nosing Motion 285 474 
 
 Power for Driving 297 496 
 
 Roberts' 13 19 
 
 ,, Relation of Rollers and Spindles during Twisting 254 390 
 
 Roller, Setting of 260 409 
 
 Roller Speeds in 258 401 
 
 ^ Roller Delivery Motion 395 491 
 
 Rales for Calculating Draft 259 404 
 
 Reasons for Backing Off 265 425 
 
 Relation of Holding out Catch 268 433 
 
 of Winding and Counter Fallers 282 468 
 
 . of Faller Wire and Quadrant 287 476 
 
 Remedies for Defective Shaping 289 479 
 
 . Rules for Wheels and Counts in 259 404 
 
 . M M and Shaper 251 483 
 
 Re winding Quadrant Chain 293 486 
 
 Relieving Motion 264 422 
 
 Scroll Shaft 271 43 6 
 
 Shaper Mechanism 279 464 
 
 Slipping of Band 298 49 8 
 
 Size for Cop Bottoms 298 ^gg 
 
 Tension of Bands 271 437 
 
 Threlfall's Two Speed Motion 296 495 
 
 Traverse of Strap 262 417 
 
 Twisting Method of 257 396 
 
 Twisting at the Head 260 408 
 
 . Two Speed Motion 296 493 
 
 Tightening Backing off Chain 267 433 
 
 Taper of Spindle .' 283 469 
 
 Turns, Number in Yarn 291 484 
 
 Termination of Inward Run 292 484 
 
 Uneven Tension during Winding 288 418 
 
 Velocity 258 401 
 
 of Scroll Shaft 271 436 
 
 of Spindle During Winding 277 457 
 
 . Winding Conditions of 275 447 
 
 . Theory of 275 449 
 
 Points Affecting 275 45 
 
 . Mechanism 273 440 
 
 . for Waste , 340 580 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 629 
 
 N 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Neps in Carding 131 178 
 
 Needle Pointing 149 198 
 
 Needles in Combing 171 235 
 
 Necessity for Smooth Teeth 149 199 
 
 Nipper Mechanism in Comber 170 231 
 
 Nosing Motion, Necessity for 284 464 
 
 NosePeg 285 483 
 
 Number of Fibres in Cross Section 245 377 
 
 Coils in Downward Movement of Winding Faller 267 43 2 
 
 o 
 
 Object of Drawing 182 267 
 
 Roving 202 296 
 
 Operation of Coiler 138 184 
 
 Backing off Friction , 261 420 
 
 Opening Crighton 76 no 
 
 Combined Scutching and 77 in 
 
 . ' Dobson and Barlow's 74 108 
 
 Porcupine Rollers 75 109 
 
 Position of Exhaust Fan 77 in 
 
 Shape of Blades ... 78 113 
 
 ,, Setting of Dirt Grid 79 114 
 
 ,, Taylor Lang's Opener 74 107 
 
 Velocity of Beater 80 115 
 
 Orleans Cotton 46 60 
 
 P 
 
 Particulars of Cotton Used to 1835 17 24 
 
 Periods of Cultivation 35 40 
 
 Peruvian Cotton 43 55 
 
 Phosphorus in Cotton 29 33 
 
 Piano Feed Motion 84 119 
 
 Plough Grinding 149 ipc 
 
 Platt's Nosing Motion 285 474 
 
 Porcupine Feed Table 71 103 
 
 Beaters 75 109 
 
 Position of Exhaust Fan 77 in 
 
 Fibres on Cylinder 128 175 
 
630 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. 'PAGH 
 
 Position of Flats During Grinding .......................... ...... 158 215 
 
 Fibres in Yarn ............................................. 244 376 
 
 Parts before Winding in Mule ........................ 268 433 
 
 ,, Parts at end of Inward Run in Mule ............... 292 484 
 
 Power for Driving Mules ............................................ 297 496 
 
 Power Taken by Various Machines .................... . ............ 352 604 
 
 Polishing Machine ...................................................... 332 568 
 
 Primitive Spinning ................................................... I, 2 5 
 
 Principle of Twisting ................................................... 207 nQ . 
 
 Differential Motion ....................................... 215 j_ 
 
 Production of Machines ................................................ 351 g ol 
 
 R 
 
 Rabbeth Spindle ......................................................... 305 347 
 
 Rainfall in Cotton Districts .......................................... 30 34 
 
 Ragged Edged Laps ......................................... .......... 94 131 
 
 Regulation of Weight of Laps ....................................... 100 138 
 
 Removal of Neps ..................................... .................. 135 180 
 
 Removal of Short Fibres ................................ ............ 135 180 
 
 Result of Doubling in Drawing Frame ........................... 194 272' 
 
 Reasons for Backing-off ................................................ 265 425 
 
 Release of Backing-off Friction ....................................... 270 435 
 
 Holding-out Catch ....................................... 268 433 
 
 Relative Effect of Winding and Counter Fallers ............... 282 453 
 
 Relation of Faller Wire and Quadrant ........................... 287 47 g 
 
 Ring and Bobbin .......................................... 308 ^ 2 
 
 Remedies for Defective Shaping in Mules ........................ 289 ^g 
 
 Rewinding of Quadrant Chain ....................................... 293 4^5 
 
 Reeling Machine ......................................................... 321 ^51 
 
 Methods of ...................................................... 322 552 
 
 Doffing and Drop Motions ................................. 323 35- 
 
 Cross ............................................................ 322 552 
 
 ,, Seven Lea ...................................................... 322 552 
 
 Ring Frame Mechanism ............................................... 300 503 
 
 Ring Spinning, Action of ............................................. 303 ^3 
 
 Action of Traveller .............................. 311 528 
 
 Bare Spindle ....................................... 313 532 
 
 Building Motion .................................... 301 ^ o ^ 
 
 Ballooning .......................................... 314 5^4 
 
 Calculations ............... ........................ 318 545 
 
 Construction of Rings ........................... 301 505 
 
 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 63! 
 
 PAR. PACK 
 
 Ring Spinning Construction of Traveller 316 541 
 
 Dodd's Spindle 306 517 
 
 Elastic Spindle 306 517 
 
 Inclination of Stands 304 514 
 
 ,, Mechanism of 300 503 
 
 Rabbeth Spindle 305 516 
 
 Relation of Ring and Bobbin 308 522 
 
 Rope Driving 302 500 
 
 Setting of Ring and Spindle 307 521 
 
 Separators 314 535 
 
 ,, Slip of Bands 317 544 
 
 ,, Twisting by Traveller 308 524 
 
 Thread Boards 300 503 
 
 Theory of 310 525 
 
 Tangential and Vertical Tension 311 328 
 
 ., Variable Twist 310 525 
 
 ., Variation in Winding 316 541 
 
 ,, Variation of Twist in 311 530 
 
 Wrigley's Bobbin 306 579 
 
 Whitin Spindle 306 ^ T g 
 
 Woodmancy Spindle 306 Hjg 
 
 Roberts' Mule 13 19 
 
 Roller and Clearer Cards 112 j,g 
 
 Churka 7 IZ 
 
 ,, Delivery Motion in Mule 295 - O Q 
 
 Spaces in Mule 260 , O g 
 
 Rollers Action of Mule 254 ~Q O 
 
 Clothing Drawing Frame 195 ~gH 
 
 Drawing by 9 I2 
 
 Drawing Frame 182 ^ 
 
 Loose Boss Top 183 2 _ o 
 
 Metallic Drawing ; 196 2 g_ 
 
 Mule 248 2 ^ 7 
 
 Roller Cards 112 I4 g 
 
 Ring Frame Stands 304 ^-. 
 
 Setting Scutcher Feed 85 I2 ^ 
 
 Combing Machine 178 2c . l 
 
 ,, Drawing Frame .*.. 188 2 _- 
 
 ,, Spaces in Mule , 256 _ 
 
 Velocity of Roving Frame 213 ^^ 
 
 Roving Asa Lees' Building Motion 230 ^ 
 
 Bearing of Spindles 205 - QI 
 
632 i'HE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Roving Brooks and Shaw's Differential 219 3 2 5 
 
 ,, Bobbin Lead 208 35 
 
 Brooks and Shaw's Swing Motion 212 314 
 
 ., Building Motion 228 346 
 
 Cap Bars 204 39$ 
 
 Cone Strap Traverse 231 354 
 
 Construction of Spindles 204 300 
 
 ,, Curtis and Rhodes' Differential Motion 217 321 
 
 Calculating Speeds 237 363 
 
 Change Points 236 3 6 3 
 
 Cone Strap Action 226 351 
 
 Condition of Parts 238 368 
 
 Creels 203 397 
 
 Driving Spindles 206 302 
 
 Differential Wheel 221 329 
 
 ,, Definition of Hank 237 365 
 
 Designing Cones 225 341 
 
 ,, Diminishing Rod 214 356 
 
 ,, Dobson and Barlow's Differential "220 327 
 
 Duplex Driving 226 344 
 
 Effect of Cone Belt Traverse 221 329 
 
 Flyer Lead 208 305 
 
 Howard and Bullough's Building Motion 230 350 
 
 Invention of 13 17 
 
 ., Lift of 206 303 
 
 Long Collar 205 301 
 
 ,, Mechanism of 211 309 
 
 Method of Calculating Cone Profile 223 334 
 
 Principle of Differential Motion 215 317 
 
 Presser Action in 204 391 
 
 Setting of Spindles 204 399 
 
 Stud Wheel 214 317 
 
 ,, Swing Motion i 212 312 
 
 Shape of Cones 225 337 
 
 Slip of Cone Strap 226 341 
 
 ,, Traverse of Cone Strap 231 354 
 
 Twist Wheel 236 362 
 
 ,, Twisting Action 207 304 
 
 Tweedale's Differential Motion 218 322 
 
 Table of Dividends 237 366 
 
 Table of Twists 237 367 
 
 Table of Coils on Bobbins ... 237 368 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 633 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Roving -Traverse Motion 235 359 
 
 Taper of Bobbin 234 356 
 
 Theory of Cone Construction 222 330 
 
 Velocity of Rollers 213 316 
 
 Bobbin 216 320 
 
 Cone Strap Traverse 231 354 
 
 Lift 233 356 
 
 Winding 209 305 
 
 Rules for Draft of Card 145 193 
 
 Dividend 237 366 
 
 ,, Draft in Roving 237 363 
 
 Calculating Roving Frame Speeds 237 363 
 
 )t Speeds and Draft in Mule 259 405 
 
 Shaper and Counts in Mules 291 483 
 
 s 
 
 Saxony Wheel 5 10 
 
 Scutching, Air Current in 91 128 
 
 Air Flues 92 130 
 
 Areaof Flues 92 131 
 
 Asa Lees' Regulator 87 125 
 
 Dealers, Two and Three Winged 85 122 
 
 Cleaning Dust Trunks 72 105 
 
 Construction of Lord's Machine 82 116 
 
 DustTrunk 72 105 
 
 Cages 83 118 
 
 Driving Cone Motion 97 135 
 
 Lap Machine 98 137 
 
 Drafts in Machines 101 138 
 
 Formation of Lap 83 119 
 
 Howard and Bullough's Dirt Bars 90 128 
 
 Piano Feed Motion, Lord's 84 119 
 
 Pedal Levers and Rollers 85 122 
 
 Bowls 86 124 
 
 > Ragged Edges Laps 94 131 
 
 Setting Feed Rollers . 85 123 
 
 Dirt Bars 90 128 
 
 Velocity of Beaters 82 116 
 
 Weight of Laps 100 138 
 
 Sea Island Cotton -. 41 52 
 
634 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAGE 
 
 Setting of Dirt Grid in Openers 79 114 
 
 Feed Rollers in Scutcher 85 122 
 
 Scutcher Bars 90 128 
 
 ,, Undercasings 136 181 
 
 Flats and Rollers 137 183 
 
 Teeth in Card Clothing 156 200 
 
 Grinding Brackets 158 215 
 
 Covering of Cushion Plate 170 231 
 
 Combing Machine Mechanism 178 251 
 
 Drawing Frame Rollers 188 275 
 
 Ring to Spindle 307 521 
 
 Securing Carriage in Mule 268 433 
 
 Shape of Beater Blades 78 113 
 
 Shape of Roving Frame Cones 225 337 
 
 Shaper Mechanism of Mule 279 463 
 
 Shell Feed Plate 124 170 
 
 Size for Cop Bottoms 298 499 
 
 Slow Motion Carding Cylinder 156 213 
 
 Sliver and Ribbon Lap Machine ^167 227 
 
 Slipping of Band in Mule 298 498 
 
 Spinning Waste 340 5 o 
 
 Spooling Machine 333 570 
 
 Structure of Cotton 37 49 
 
 Stripping Card Clothing 164 224 
 
 Strength of Yarn 319 546 
 
 Stoppage of Mule Carriage Motion 262 415 
 
 Strap Relieving Motion 264 422 
 
 Surface Grinding ... 155 212 
 
 T 
 
 Table of Weights 237 365 
 
 Dividend 237 366 
 
 Twists 237 367 
 
 Coils on Roving Bobbins 237 368 
 
 Taper of Roving Bobbin 234 356 
 
 Taper Blade of Mule Spindle, Effect of 283 369 
 
 Texas Cotton 4 6 6o 
 
 Tension of Bands in Mule 271 437 
 
 Temperatures in Cotton Districts 23 29 
 
 The Early Stage of Carding , 8 12 
 
 The Caterpillar and Boll Worm 33 37 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 635 
 
 PAR. PACK 
 
 The Draft of Card . 145 193 
 
 The Whitin Spindle 306 518 
 
 Throstle Spinning Frame 299 500 
 
 Thread Doubling 325 558 
 
 Top Comb Mechanism 171 237 
 
 Traverse of Cone Strap 231 354 
 
 Traverse of Mule Strap 262 417 
 
 Twist and Weft Cotton 53 72 
 
 Tweedale's Differential Motion 218 322 
 
 Twisting at the Head in Mule 260 408 
 
 Twisting Action of Traveller 311 530 
 
 Twiner 328 563 
 
 Two Speed Motions in Mule 296 493 
 
 u 
 
 Uneven Webs 133 179 
 
 Uneven Tension During Winding in Mule 288 478 
 
 Uplands Cotton . 46 61 
 
 V 
 
 Varieties of Cotton 38 46 
 
 American Cotton 45 58 
 
 Setting Card Teeth 152 205 
 
 Variable Setting of Drawing Frame Rollers 188 275 
 
 and Accelerated Motion of Spindle during Winding 277 457 
 
 Twist in Ring Frame 310 525 
 
 Variation of Winding Action of Traveller 316 541 
 
 Velocity of Opener Beater 80 115 
 
 Scutcher Beaters 88 126 
 
 Carding Engine Parts 109 146 
 
 Rollers and Clearers 113 149 
 
 Roving Frame Rollers 213 316 
 
 ,, Roving Frame Bobbins 216 320 
 
 Roving Frame Lift 233 356 
 
 Scroll Shaft in Mule 271 437 
 
 Velocity and Traverse of Cone Strap 231 354 
 
 w 
 
 Waste, Spinning M 340 58) 
 
 Hard and Soft . 335 573 
 
 Carding 337 575 
 
636 THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING. 
 
 PAR. PAGB 
 
 Waste, Breaking Machine 336 574 
 
 Feed for Carding Machine 338 577 
 
 Condenser Card 339 578 
 
 Mule 340 580 
 
 Production of Yarn 340 581 
 
 Utilisation of Soft ?.. 341 58.3 
 
 West Indian Cotton 49 68 
 
 Weight of Slivers 147 194 
 
 Winding of Roving 209 305 
 
 Mechanism of Mule 273 440 
 
 Wrigley's Spindle 306 579 
 
 Y 
 
 Yarn, Counts of English and French 319 547 
 
 ,, Commerce 320 548 
 
 Strength. 319 547 
 
 ... Wrapping M 319 546 
 
 Jons HEYWOOD LTD., Excelsior Printing and Bookbinding Works, Manchester, 
 
demand^^perW. 
 
o 
 
 LIBBABY.O.C. BERKELEY 
 
 8000135251 
 
 , 
 
 241091