John S^vett 
 
 ^t ^'.A? 
 
 
 S90 
 
SCHOOL ENGLISH: 
 
 A MANUAL FOR USE IN CONNECTION WITH THE 
 
 WRITTEN ENGLISH WORK OF SECONDARY 
 
 SCHOOLS 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE P. BUTLER 
 
 Formerly English Master in the Lawrenceville School 
 Lawrenceville, N.J. 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI :• CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
••• • • • 
 
 • •• • • •• 
 
 Copyright, 1894, bv 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
 BUT. SCH. ENG 
 
 £DUCATS>ON4UEFi: 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The conviction seems to be steadily gaining strength, 
 that EngUsh teaching in secondary schools should 
 include (i) reading and discussing selections from 
 standard English authors, (2) constant practice in com- 
 position, (3) systematic correction of the pupil's work, 
 and (4) the study of rhetoric for the purpose of culti- 
 vating the pupil's power of criticising and improving 
 his own writing. 
 
 An ample number of standard works have been 
 published in convenient form for school use, and the 
 majority of English teachers are employing them in 
 class work. For this reason the time allowed for the 
 study of rhetoric has, in most schools, been much 
 reduced. However, the study of rhetoric cannot be 
 safely ignored ; for in order to secure the greatest bene- 
 fit from practice in composition and from the corrections 
 of the teacher, the class must be made familiar with 
 certain rules for avoiding errors in the use of language 
 and for the improvement of style. As a matter of fact, 
 rhetoric is now being taught to younger classes than 
 ever before ; and teachers of English seem to demand 
 
 541770 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 to-day a manual expressing the rules and principles of 
 good style in such a way, that a scholar fifteen or 
 sixteen years of age can easily appreciate their appli- 
 cation to his own work. 
 
 The old-style text-books of rhetoric are fast being re- 
 placed by books written with these aims more distinctly 
 in view ; but in many cases the multiplication of rules, 
 their illogical classification, or the addition of erroneous 
 or irrelevant matter, has impaired the usefulness of 
 these books; and not infrequently time is wasted on 
 examples not worthy of the attention of intelligent 
 scholars. The work now presented provides what the 
 author believes to be a logical classification of the best 
 directions for avoiding errors and securing a good 
 style. Under each rule are explained the ways in 
 which it is most frequently violated ; one or two exam- 
 ples are given and corrected; and other examples are 
 added, to be corrected by the pupil. Many of these 
 examples have been taken from the work of school or 
 college pupils, or from the pages of magazines and 
 newspapers. 
 
 The advantage of this method of classifying errors 
 can be seen through the following illustration : Sole- 
 cisms may be differentiated until they number many 
 hundreds ; but they may also be grouped under sig- 
 nificant heads, so that twenty rules, if observed, will 
 correct the common errors of inexperienced writers ; 
 while, if a specialization of errors is thought desirable, 
 
PREFACE. 5 
 
 this can be found in the explanations of the ways in 
 which the rules are violated. 
 
 A common method employed by English teachers in 
 correcting essays is to place a number or symbol over a 
 faulty word or passage, showing that a certain rule in 
 the text-book has been violated. If the rules indicated 
 are general in their bearing, the specific application 
 being left to the ingenuity of the pupil, the impression 
 is deeper and more lasting, as in some measure the 
 fault has been detected by himself. As the number 
 of symbols is multiplied, this system becomes unman- 
 ageable. 
 
 To reduce the number of rules has been one of the 
 principal aims in this work ; but the chief effort of the 
 author has been to state the rules and all other matter 
 in such a way that the scholar will feel the useful- 
 ness of his lessons. The technical terms of rhetoric, 
 often so bewildering to young minds, have been avoided 
 as far as possible, and never used without an expla- 
 nation of their meaning. At the beginning of each 
 subject, its bearing on the main object in view is 
 explained. 
 
 Examples of faulty sentences have been introduced in 
 order to cultivate the power of criticism ; but these should 
 not be dwelt on to the exclusion of examples of good 
 English. Selections from authors remarkable for their 
 good style have been included in Chapters IV. and V. of 
 Part I. in order that the teacher may be able to read 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 with the class, without referring to another volume, 
 passages of special merit as regards the points dis- 
 cussed in these chapters. 
 
 In connection with the study of rhetoric, it will be 
 of great advantage for the pupil to know something of 
 the structure and history of the English language, 
 especially those facts that will explain to him the way 
 in which English words have come into use, and the 
 changes in their form and meaning. Accordingly, in 
 the opening chapter, there are included a few pages on 
 EngHsh etymology ; and in the Appendix will be found 
 a brief history of the English language. 
 
 Part I. assumes that the pupil is constantly engaged 
 in composition work. Part II. provides practical sugges- 
 tions for his written exercises, and should be studied 
 concurrently with Part I. 
 
 Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his Essay on the Philosophy 
 of Style, has defined with exceptional clearness the aim 
 of the study of rhetoric. His definition has been taken 
 
 as the foundation of this book. 
 
 G. P. B. 
 
 YoNKF.RS, N. Y., July, 1894. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 PART I. — RHETORIC. 
 
 I. English Words 13 
 
 II. Correction of Errors in the Use of Words .... 35 
 
 III. Correction of Errors in Construction 50 
 
 IV. Clearness, Force, and Harmony 75 
 
 V. Figures of Speech 119 
 
 VI. Errors in the Use of Figures 152 
 
 PART II.— COMPOSITION. 
 
 I. Preliminary Suggestions 159 
 
 II. Letter Writing 163 
 
 HI. Exercises from Extracts 175 
 
 IV. Description and Narration 192 
 
 V. Essays 203 
 
 VI. Debate 212 
 
 VII. Punctuation and Capitals 218 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. A Short History of the English Language .... 240 
 
 II. Goldsmith's "Deserted Village" 256 
 
 Index 267 
 
 7 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Object of the Study of Rhetoric. — School pupils often 
 become discouraged, because they do not understand 
 the practical value of their studies. Our first care, 
 therefore, will be to guard against difficulties that might 
 arise from a failure to understand the object in view 
 in the study of rhetoric. 
 
 The aim of the study of rhetoric is to enable the stu- 
 dent to present his ideas in such language that they may 
 be apprehended with the least possible effort on the part 
 of the reader or listener} 
 
 To secure this end, the words used must be the best 
 for conveying the meaning ; the grammatical construc- 
 tion must be in accordance with the usage of the lan- 
 guage ; the thought must be expressed with all possible 
 clearness and force, and its expression should be agree- 
 able to the ear. 
 
 The ability to put one's thoughts in writing so that 
 another can understand them without difficulty, is one 
 of the most valuable possessions in life. In some cases 
 this power seems to be a natural gift. In the majority 
 of cases, however, whatever power one has in this direc- 
 tion can be improved by effort. 
 
 1 See Herbert Spencer's " Philosophy of Style." 
 9 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Cotrectioin of Errors. — In this book, the method 
 :e?iipl6ye(j for assisting the student in his efforts to 
 improve in composition, consists partly in pointing out 
 the errors by which unskillful writers most frequently 
 fall, short of the above requirements, and in explaining 
 how to correct these errors and how to avoid them ; for 
 to a certain extent improvement in writing comes from 
 removing imperfections and blemishes, and leaving only 
 that which is sound. 
 
 However, merely correcting errors will not of itself 
 make a good writer. Before any correction can be 
 made, there must be something to correct. Therefore 
 the first chapter of this book provides instruction 
 designed to give the scholar some knowledge of Eng- 
 lish words, — the vehicle which he must use for the 
 expression of his ideas. In the Appendix there is a 
 history of the English language, for use in connection 
 with this chapter. The other chapters of Part I. are 
 devoted to correcting errors in the use of words, and 
 errors in grammar ; and to the improvement of sentences 
 in clearness, force, and harmony. 
 
 Exercise in Composition. — Precept is valueless with- 
 out practice. The student must write continually if 
 he wishes to improve his powers of composition. It 
 is often very difficult to find subjects for compulsory 
 exercises in composition. No one appreciates this 
 fact better than boys or girls from whom essays 
 are due the next day. The advice to write often will 
 not be followed unless the way for writing is made 
 easier than it appears to most young people. Accord- 
 ingly, the second part of this book gives suggestions 
 that are intended to make the work of composition 
 easier and more attractive. There are many matters 
 
INTRODUCTION. 1 1 
 
 of form that have been adopted in order to make 
 written language more readily intelligible, such as 
 paragraphing, punctuation, and capitalization. The 
 most important rules of form are given in Chapter VII. 
 of Part II. 
 
 Reading. — Besides learning rules of rhetoric, and 
 writing exercises in composition, there is another 
 equally important means of securing improvement in 
 writing; namely, reading. One cannot write well in 
 any language until he is thoroughly familiar with it, 
 not merely with the words used in ordinary conversation, 
 but also with the literature of the language. 
 
 There is great disparity in the attainments of pupils 
 of the same age ; but in no case is this disparity so 
 marked as in the ability to use the pen ; and except in 
 cases of remarkable natural endowment, the inequality 
 of attainment is explained by the amount of reading 
 done by each pupil. Some at the age of fifteen have 
 read nothing beyond nursery rhymes and schoolbooks, 
 while others can count scores of volumes of standard 
 literature carefully read. 
 
 Other things being equal, the boy who has read much 
 will write better than the boy who has read little, 
 even though the rules of rhetoric be more thoroughly 
 mastered by the latter. Indeed, the study of rhetoric 
 can be made profitable only by acquiring, in connection 
 with a knowledge of its principles, a thorough acquaint- 
 ance with the works of standard authors. 
 
 To read much, one must read rapidly. It is not right 
 to distress the boy who loves to read by telling him that 
 all books must be read slowly and with great care. On 
 the contrary, pupils should be encouraged to read out 
 of school for pleasure, and not as a task. Moreover, by 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 rapid reading one will learn much about the meaning 
 and use of words from the context, and how to grasp 
 the meaning of sentences and paragraphs quickly. 
 
 There are, however, some books which repay one for 
 all the time and study spent upon them. The reading 
 of annotated English classics, with care to understand 
 every word, sentence, allusion, and reference, is an 
 excellent exercise for the English classroom. This 
 kind of reading or study gives the pupil an exact 
 knowledge of his language, which can be gained in no 
 other way, besides much valuable information in other 
 branches of knowledge. As each book is read, the 
 author, the purpose for which he wrote, and the age 
 in which he lived, should be borne in mind ; and, if 
 possible, the pupil's reading should be planned with a 
 view to gaining an insight into the development and 
 growth of the English tongue and the history of Eng- 
 lish literature. 
 
 The practice of reading aloud is found to be specially 
 advantageous; because it insures the reading of every 
 word, allows time for an impression to be made upon 
 the reader's mind, and, if the book has been well selected, 
 accustoms the ear to the sound of well-chosen words 
 and well-formed sentences. In the same way, com- 
 mitting to memory the masterpieces of poetry and 
 prose is of great assistance in learning to write.^ 
 
 ^ Goldsmith's " Deserted Village," a poem in which descriptions of 
 slightly varying scenes are given with charming accuracy in the choice 
 of words, has been printed in the Appendix of this book, for the conven- 
 ience of teachers who may wish their classes to commit to memory por- 
 tions of the poem. 
 
Part 1/ 
 
 RHETORIC. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ENGLISH WORDS. 
 
 Authority for Use of Words. — If the writer's aim is 
 to save the reader the expenditure of all unnecessary 
 energy, the writer should use only such words as belong 
 to the language in which he is writing, and should use 
 them in the proper sense. 
 
 " Use is the law of language T By this is meant that 
 any word used by the best English writers of the present 
 age is an English word, and the sense in which they use 
 it determines the meaning of that word in the language. 
 
 Therefore, if one is told that any word in his writing 
 or conversation is not an English word, or that he has 
 not used it in the right sense or with the proper shade 
 of meaning, he can defend himself only by quoting some 
 authority ; namely, writers of high standing who have 
 used that word in recent times to express the same 
 meaning as that in which he used it. If he can quote 
 only one, the defense is weak ; if he can quote several, 
 his use of the word is correct. 
 
 The Dictionary. — Discussions with reference to words 
 are generally settled by referring to a dictionary ; but 
 
 1 To be studied concurrently with Part II., p. 159. 
 
14 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 this is^ only u convenient way of referring to standard 
 a'kthors, ; I 'for • in^ the' dictionary we may find the way 
 in which a word is spelled, its pronunciation and deri- 
 vation, and the sense in which it is used by standard 
 authors. We may also find whether the word has gone 
 out of use or recently come into use, and whether it is 
 provincial or local, slang or rarely used, technical or 
 vulgar. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, that the word quixotic is used, 
 and some one raises the question whether it is an 
 English word. The dictionary is consulted, and we 
 find the word there spelled, the pronunciation indicated, 
 and the definition given, as follows: "Quix-ot'ic, a. 
 Like Don Quixote; romantic to extravagance." Then 
 follows a quotation from Prescott : " Feats of quixotic 
 gallantry." As we find no statement that the word is 
 rare, obsolete, slang, new, or technical, we know that 
 more authors could have been quoted, and that it is in 
 good usage as an English word. 
 
 We might likewise find that the verb ashame^ equiva- 
 lent to the verb shame, is rarely used ; that the verb orn 
 (ornament) is altogether obsolete; and' that the noun 
 altruism is of recent adoption into the language. The 
 word crank, when used to denote an eccentric person, 
 is stamped as colloquial. To bulldoze (intimidate) is 
 United States slang ; and only an illiterate person will 
 speak of a worriting child. 
 
 All these facts can be gathered from the dictionary by 
 a few moments' search. Indeed, the dictionary is the 
 best text-book for the study of words ; and in the larger 
 or unabridged editions can be found all the informa- 
 tion needed concerning every word in the language. It 
 is important, therefore, that every student should know 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 15 
 
 how to use the dictionary ; that he should look up every 
 word of which he is at all doubtful, and make himself 
 certain as to its use ; and that every time he is corrected 
 in the use of a word, he should find out exactly what his 
 mistake is, and thus guard himself against making a 
 similar mistake. 
 
 As a rule, school pupils do not refer very often 
 to the dictionary ; and those who do, from careless- 
 ness or ignorance, generally fail to get all the infor- 
 mation that they need. Therefore, we shall devote a 
 few pages to suggestions as to the use of the dictionary. 
 
 HOW TO USE THE DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ownership. — Every student should own an English 
 dictionary not smaller than the Webster's "Academic 
 Dictionary," and should make a point of keeping it in a 
 place convenient for use. From such editions the pupil 
 may find, with respect to all the words that he would 
 be likely to use in writing or speaking, the following 
 information : — 
 I. The Spelling. 
 
 II. The Pronunciation, indicated by division into 
 syllables, by accent, and by marks showing the sounds 
 of vowels and consonants. These marks are called 
 diacritical marks, and are explained at the beginning of 
 the dictionary and at the bottom of each page. Words 
 especially difficult to pronounce are spelled phonetically 
 in brackets following the correct spelling. 
 
 It is not necessary for the student to commit to mem- 
 ory any table of diacritical marks ; for most dictionaries 
 contain in the opening pages a key to their system of 
 indicating pronunciation, and explanations in footnotes 
 
l6 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 on each page. He should, however, be sufficiently 
 familiar with these symbols to be able to pronounce any 
 word without other aid. 
 
 III. The Part of Speech, indicated by an initial letter 
 or letters in small Italics. A second initial letter is 
 given if the word is more than one part of speech. 
 The various forms of inflected words are indicated in 
 brackets following the part of speech ; but regular plu- 
 rals and comparisons are not given. 
 
 Ex. Ea'ger-ly, adv?- 
 im-mov'a-ble, a. 
 Stop, v.t. [-ped ; -ping.] 
 
 Scratch, v.t. [-ed; -ing.] To rub or tear the surface 
 with something sharp, n. A slight incision or laceration. 
 
 IV. The Derivation, given in brackets, which contain 
 the original or foreign word or words from which the 
 English word has been derived. The names of foreign 
 languages are indicated by abbreviations. The foreign 
 words are printed in Italics. When referring to the 
 dictionary, the student should read carefully the deri- 
 vations given, so far as his knowledge of foreign lan- 
 guages will enable him to understand them. 
 
 Ex. Lu'nat-i«, «. \\j2X.lunaticus', luna^\ki^vciQOXi.'\ 
 Port, n. [Lat. porius, a harbor.] 
 Trib'u-la'tion,2 n. [Lat. tribulatio.l 
 
 V. The Definition, following the derivation. If the 
 word has more than one meaning, the several definitions 
 are numbered (see definitions of cross^ stream, stand, in 
 
 1 Every dictionary contains a table explaining the meaning of all the 
 abbreviations and arbitrary symbols employed. 
 
 2 The heavier of two accents on one word indicates the syllable which 
 receives the greater stress. 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 1 7 
 
 "Academic Dictionary "). Often a list of synonyms, or 
 words of similar meaning, is given after the definition. 
 
 Ex. Val'or, n. [Lat. valere, to be strong.] Strength of mind 
 in regard to danger ; personal bravery. 
 Syft. — Courage ; bravery ; boldness ; fearlessness ; heroism. 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Warning against Carelessness. — Accuracy is espe- 
 cially important in defining a word or term ; yet there 
 is the greatest difficulty in securing accuracy in defini- 
 tions from school pupils. They generally understand 
 that Latin and French exercises must be correct in 
 every particular, and that a mistake of a unit in addition 
 makes the result altogether wrong ; but ask a boy to 
 define a word, and the answer is generally given with- 
 out thought or care. Nouns are defined as adjectives, 
 adjectives as nouns, verbs as participles. 
 
 Until a class has had some definite instruction in 
 definition, the pupils will make ridiculous mistakes when 
 asked to define an ordinary word. This failure is 
 particularly evident when students who have had no 
 instruction in definition take up geometry, and are asked 
 to define the terms for which definitions must be given 
 before the study of propositions is begun. 
 
 Examples of Poor Definitions. — Unless the definitions 
 of the text-book are committed to memory, the answers 
 seldom meet the requirements of a good definition, but 
 are often like the following examples : — 
 
 A surface is the top of anything. 
 
 A line is when you draw a mark from one place to another. 
 
 A straight line is not curved at all. 
 
 An axiom is something that you know already. 
 
 A right angle is where two lines come straight together. 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 2 
 
1 8 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 A class of untrained schoolboys will define ordinary- 
 words in a manner similar to the following examples : — 
 
 1. Love, v.t. To love is when you are very fond of any one. 
 
 2. Swiftly, adv., is running fast. 
 
 3. Bicycle, n.^ a two-wheeled vehicle. 
 
 4. Cake, n., sweet bread. 
 
 With regard to Example i, certainly a transitive verb 
 must be defined by a word or combination of words that 
 denotes an action. The above definition does not denote 
 an action, but the time of an action. The proper defini- 
 tion is, (i) to regard with affection, (2) to take delight 
 in. A true definition can be substituted in a sentence 
 for the word defined, and leave the sense substantially 
 the same. - 
 
 Ex. I love my mother : I regard my mother with affection. 
 
 I love Beethoven's music: I take delight in Beethoven's 
 music. 
 
 In Example 2, the definition might be substituted in 
 some sentences, but not in all. He came runnhig fast 
 has the same sense as he came swiftly^ if the individual 
 referred to came on foot ; but the substitution will not 
 make good sense in the line, ** My days are gliding 
 swiftly by.'' To define swiftly properly, we must have 
 an adverb phrase; as, with rapidity y in haste, with 
 quick motion or speed. 
 
 Example 3 is correct so far as the part of speech is 
 concerned, but the definition is not complete ; for, so 
 defined, a bicycle might be a doctor's gig, a sulky, or 
 a cart with two wheels. A good definition must 
 go further. The dictionary defines bicycle as a two- 
 wheeled velocipede. Velocipede is a vehicle propelled 
 by the rider's feet. 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 
 
 19 
 
 Example 4 is fair ; but cake must contain butter or 
 eggs, neither of which is in bread. 
 
 Good Definitions. — For examples of good definitions, 
 look up in a dictionary the words for which faulty defi- 
 nitions have just been given, and other words whose 
 meaning you are familiar with, but whose definitions you 
 find difficulty in stating accurately. 
 
 EXERCISES IN DEFINITION. 
 
 Define accurately the following words : — 
 
 1. Arrest. 
 
 2. Blind. 
 
 3. Conductor. 
 
 4. Definition. 
 
 5. Dictionary. 
 
 6. Diacritical. 
 
 7. Excellent. 
 
 8. Ghost. 
 
 9. Initial. 
 
 10. Kick. 
 
 11. Level. 
 
 12. Medicine. 
 
 13. Normal. 
 
 14. Number. 
 
 15. Offend. 
 
 16. Perhaps. 
 
 17. Print. 
 
 18. Quire. 
 
 19. Rogue. 
 
 20. Roast. 
 
 21. Sacrifice. 
 
 22. Sick. 
 
 23. School. 
 
 24. Spend. 
 
 25. Table. 
 
 26. Tragedy. 
 
 27. Type. 
 
 28. Universe. 
 
 29. Vail. 
 
 30. Wonder. 
 
 31. Young. 
 
 32. Zenith. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Definition. — The pupil has been advised to make 
 constant and careful reference to the dictionary. He 
 has been told to notice the derivation of English words 
 from words in foreign languages. If he pays attention 
 to the advice, he will often find that the derivation of a 
 word is sufficient to explain its meaning. For example, 
 the word biography is derived from two Greek words, 
 y8/o9 (bioSy life) and ypd(l)6tv {grap/iem, to write). When 
 one knows this, no further definition is needed in order 
 to understand the meaning of biography. Expire is from 
 the Latin ex (out) and spirare ( to breathe) ; antecedent y 
 from ante (before) and cedere (to go). Somnambulist 
 is from two Latin words, meaning sleep and walk. The 
 
20 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 study of words, and of their formation from other 
 words or roots of the same or a foreign language, is 
 called etymology. The aim of the study is to enable 
 one to divide any word into its parts, separating the 
 root, or stem, on which the word is built, from the ter- 
 minations or prefixes which are added to the root, and 
 from the meaning of its parts to derive the meaning of 
 the word. 
 
 Changes in Meaning of Words. — There are, however, 
 many English words whose meaning is no longer that 
 denoted by their derivation. For example, the word 
 prevent originally meant to go before^ and was so used 
 for a long while by English authors. Prevent now 
 means to hinder or to frustrate. In studying etymology, 
 one must bear in mind that the sense in which a word 
 is used by the best authors determines the meaning of 
 that word. 
 
 Although the present use of eminent writers is the 
 only criterion for our choice of words, we must remem- 
 ber that these writers have secured eminence only 
 because of their power to present their thoughts in 
 the English language in such a way as to be readily 
 understood. Consequently they must have changed 
 the meaning of a word, or coined a new word, only 
 when the needs of the language demanded such changes 
 or additions, and only in such ways as added to the in- 
 telligibility of the writer's sentences. As the usage of 
 such writers has always been the standard, it follows 
 that the meaning of most words is that denoted by their 
 derivation. Hence we must admit the importance of 
 etymology to aid us in the right use of words, even 
 though the etymological meaning of a few words has 
 been altered. 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 21 
 
 Philology. — In its widest extent, etymology embraces 
 a complete knowledge of all the languages from which 
 any English words have been derived, and also of all 
 languages in which we find words related to English 
 words. In order to understand the meaning of what 
 has just been said of the relations of words, the pupil 
 must know something of the discoveries that have been 
 made in pJiilology^ or the study of language. 
 
 The Indo-European Family. — Marked resemblances 
 among most of the ancient and modern languages of 
 Europe, Persia, and India, indicate that they are de- 
 rived from a single language spoken in prehistoric 
 times by a race which we call the Indo-European, or 
 Aryan, race. 
 
 Though it has not been possible to decide where the 
 race was originally located, it is clear that successive 
 emigrations from its home have carried the Aryan race 
 and speech to India, Persia, and all parts of Europe. 
 The varying influences to which the different portions 
 of the race were subjected after their separation from 
 the main body, at a time before language had been 
 reduced to writing, will account for all the differences 
 existing to-day among the languages of the Aryan 
 family ; while the resemblances can be accounted for 
 on no hypothesis except that of a common origin. 
 
 Philologists have not yet agreed upon the order in 
 time in which these nations left the Aryan center; 
 but a still greater similarity existing between the lan- 
 guages of groups of nations proves that the members 
 of each of these groups, after their separation from 
 the original race, remained together for a long time 
 before they became separate nations. In case of the 
 most recent migrations of the tribes of Europe, the 
 
22 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 records of history agree with the results of the scien- 
 tific study of language. 
 
 The following table exhibits the main groups of the 
 Indo-European family and the principal members of 
 each group: — 
 
 THE INDO-EUROPEAN, OR ARYAN, LANGUAGES. 
 
 Main Branches. Principal Language of Each Branch. 
 
 1. Indian. The ancient and modern languages of India. 
 
 Sanskrit, preserved in the Vedic texts, is especially 
 important in the study of philology. 
 
 2. Persian. The ancient and modern languages of Persia. 
 
 3. Greek. Ancient and modern Greek. 
 
 4. Italic Latin, and the Romance languages (derived 
 
 from the language of Rome) ; viz., Italian, French, 
 Spanish, and Portuguese. 
 
 5. Celtic. All the original languages of western Europe 
 
 and the British Isles. The Welsh language and 
 the native dialects of Ireland, Scotland, the Isle 
 of Man, and Brittany, are the only living repre- 
 sentatives of the Celtic branch. 
 
 6. Teutonic Gothic, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, 
 
 German, Dutch, and Anglo-Saxon, or English. 
 
 7. Baltic Lithuanian, Prussian, and Lettish. 
 
 8. Slavonic Russian, Bulgarian, Servian, Croatian, and Slo- 
 
 venian. 
 
 Cognate Words. — As has been said, in every member 
 of this family of languages there are found words having 
 a strong resemblance to words expressing the same idea 
 in other languages of this family. The words which 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 23 
 
 exhibit the most striking resemblance are those used in 
 the commonest affairs of life. When we look up brother 
 in an unabridged dictionary, we find, amongst other 
 matter in brackets after the word, Anglo-Saxon, bro- 
 dor ; Dutch, broeder ; German, brtider ; Danish, broder ; 
 Gothic, brothar ; Lithuanian, brolis ; Russian, braf ; 
 Latin, f rater ; Greek, (f)pdTr}p i^f rater). 
 
 These are the words expressing the same or a kin- 
 dred idea in the languages mentioned. They are called 
 allied, or cognate, words. The English word brother is 
 not derived from the 'L.2X\xv f rater, or the German bruder, 
 nor, except in case of the Anglo-Saxon and English, 
 which are earlier and later forms of the same language, 
 is any one of these words derived from any other ; but 
 all are simply the alterations which one word of the 
 original Indo-European language has undergone in the 
 speech of the nations descended from it and separated 
 from each other. 
 
 Derived Words. — When, however, we look up the 
 English word fraternal in the dictionary, we find that 
 it comes from Latin fraternalis, from fraternus. This 
 means that some time during the history of the Eng- 
 lish language the Latin word fraternalis has been taken 
 into the English in the form of fraternal, and we say 
 that fraternal is derived from the Latin fraternalis. 
 
 t 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Knowledge of History Necessary. — Many English 
 words have been taken from other languages ; and in 
 order satisfactorily to appreciate the study of English 
 etymology, it is necessary to know a few facts of history 
 that will explain how these words have come into the 
 
24 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 language. A short history of the EngHsh language 
 will be found in the appendix of this book (p. 240). 
 
 Original and Foreign Elements. — English as spoken 
 to-day is Anglo-Saxon, the language of our Teutonic 
 forefathers, with additions and changes brought about 
 by national conquest and foreign influence. The prin- 
 cipal part of the foreign element in English con- 
 sists of Latin words that have come into our speech, 
 partly through military, ecclesiastical, and literary influ- 
 ence, but chiefly through the Norman-French conquest, 
 French itself being descended directly from Latin. 
 
 A large Greek element has been brought in to meet 
 the needs of scientific nomenclature ; and in one way or 
 another, almost every language has contributed to the 
 stock of English words. All languages borrow foreign 
 words, but in this respect English has gone beyond any 
 other of the great modern languages. 
 
 Proportion of Various Elements. — In considering the 
 proportion which one element of the language bears to 
 the whole or to any other element, we must make a dis- 
 tinction between the entire number of words and those 
 in common use. Of the words in " Webster's Interna- 
 tional Dictionary," a large majority are of foreign origin. 
 The dictionaries, however, contain many words rarely 
 used, and many words used only in the technical vocab- 
 ularies of the arts and sciences. Such words are almost 
 all foreign. 
 
 In the fullest English dictionaries there are over one 
 hundred thousand words ; yet Shakespeare, who had 
 a large vocabulary, used only fifteen thousand differ- 
 ent words. Milton employed eight thousand different 
 words in his poetical works. The everyday vocabulary 
 of conversation contains only three or four thousand 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 2$ 
 
 words, while that of the uneducated man or woman is 
 generally limited to six or eight hundred. . Of the English 
 words ordinarily used, about one half are of Saxon ori- 
 gin : of the other half, four fifths are from the Latin. 
 Next in importance is the Greek element. The words 
 from all other sources make one twentieth of the entire 
 vocabulary. 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON ELEMENT. 
 
 The Most Important. — Though much less than half of 
 the entire stock, the Anglo-Saxon words form the most 
 important element of the English language, and are most 
 necessary for the construction of an English sentence. 
 It is difficult to put four or five words together without 
 using one or more Saxon words. All the articles, pro- 
 nouns, and auxiliary verbs, nearly all prepositions and 
 conjunctions, and most simple adverbs, are. Saxon ; while 
 of English nouns, adjectives, and verbs, those which 
 most frequently present themselves to the mind are 
 from the same source, as may be seen from the follow- 
 ing list of Saxon words : man, horse, bird, blood, head, 
 heart, soul, wind, rain, day, water, stone, gold, field, 
 tree, good, evil, high, short, cold, hot, hard, soft, white, 
 black, etc. ; lie, lay, sit, stand, walk, run, do, say, take, 
 have, tell, break, think, feel, love, fear, find, etc. 
 
 Thus it is clear that the Saxon element contains those 
 words that must be repeated most frequently in making 
 sentences. If we take the writings of various authors, 
 and count the words including repetitions of the same 
 words, we shall find that far more than half are Saxon. 
 In hardly any good English writing will the ratio of 
 Saxon words to the total number used fall below sev- 
 enty to one hundred, and in many extracts we shall find 
 
26 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 it over ninety to one hundred. Counting in this way, 
 we find that Shakespeare uses from eighty-five to ninety 
 Saxon words in a total of one hundred ; Milton, over 
 eighty. Johnson is noted for his use of Latin deriva- 
 tives; but in every hundred words in the preface to his 
 dictionary, a fair sample of his writings, he uses, on the 
 average, seventy-two Saxon words. 
 
 If, however, we count only the different words used, 
 we find but sixty-five Saxon words in every hundred of 
 Shakespeare's vocabulary. About the same ratio exists 
 in the Authorized Version of the Bible ; while of Milton's 
 vocabulary, the Saxon forms less than one third of the 
 whole. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon and Modern English. — Much of the 
 original Anglo-Saxon vocabulary has become obsolete ; 
 and though some words have survived unchanged in 
 form, the pronunciation and spelling of most Saxon words 
 are different from what they were in the original tongue. 
 To all intents and purposes, Anglo-Saxon is a dead lan- 
 guage ; and until one has studied it as such, he can 
 do little work with Anglo-Saxon derivatives, beyond 
 the limits of modern English. 
 
 The roots of most Saxon derivatives and compounds 
 appear by themselves in words with which we are so 
 familiar that their meaning is evident to any English- 
 speaking person. It takes no study to understand the 
 meaning of goodness, wisely, foremost, alone, sunshine, 
 and other such words. The simplest expressions of 
 our thoughts and the earliest words of childhood are 
 Anglo-Saxon, and do not need to be defined or to have 
 their derivation traced in order to be understood, as 
 may be seen by referring to the former list of Saxon 
 words. 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 2/ 
 
 THE LATIN ELEMENT. 
 
 Knowledge of Latin Important. — Most of the other 
 half of our words come from the Latin, as has been 
 already explained. Therefore, without some knowledge 
 of Latin, we can have no clear idea of the derivation of 
 many English words. This fact furnishes the chief 
 argument in favor of spending the greater part of 
 one's youth in the study of Latin ; and the most 
 useful application of the knowledge thus gained, is as 
 a means to the more thorough understanding of one's 
 own tongue. 
 
 No one who has studied Latin even a single year need 
 look up the meaning of the words predict^ contradict, 
 tmanimoMSy uniform, consequence, animadvert, descend, 
 and hundreds of other words. It is astonishing how 
 much help In the study of words can be gained from a 
 very slight acquaintance with Latin. 
 
 The Latin words that have been taken into the Eng- 
 lish language may be divided into three divisions. 
 
 The First Division comprises the words which were 
 left by the military occupation of Britain, and those 
 Latin words which entered the Anglo-Saxon language 
 before the Norman Conquest. The former are very 
 few in number. The best known examples are street 
 (A.S. street, from Lat. strata via, a paved road) and 
 mile (A.S. mil, from Lat. milia passuum, a thousand 
 paces). The name Chester, also used as a termina- 
 tion in the names of English towns, as Winchester 
 and Colchester, is derived from the Latin castra (a 
 camp or fortified town). The following are exam- 
 ples of Latin words modified by use during the Anglo- 
 Saxon period. 
 
28 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Diabolus, 
 
 ddoful, 
 
 devU. 
 
 Presbyter, 
 
 prdost, 
 
 priest. 
 
 Pondo, 
 
 pund, 
 
 pound. 
 
 Moneta, 
 
 my net (money), 
 
 mint. 
 
 The Second Division includes all Latin words that 
 have come into English through the Norman-French. 
 
 Ex. Amiable, ancestor, circuit, faucet, people, pursuit, stable. 
 
 Latin words which have been adopted through the 
 Norman-French are often so changed in form that it 
 is difficult to recognize them. Issue is derived from the 
 Latin exire through the old French issir. 
 
 The following examples will illustrate the changes 
 which Latin words have undergone in passing through 
 the French : — 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Cantus, 
 
 chant. 
 
 chant. 
 
 Fames, 
 
 famine, 
 
 famine. 
 
 Fallere, 
 
 faillir. 
 
 fail. 
 
 Maritare, 
 
 marier. 
 
 marry. 
 
 Percipere, 
 
 percevoir, 
 
 perceive, 
 
 Regalis, 
 
 royal. 
 
 royal. 
 
 Cambire (cambiare), 
 
 changer, 
 
 change. 
 
 Cuneus, 
 
 coin, 
 
 coin. 
 
 The Third Division includes those words that, through 
 the courts of law, the church service, or through scien- 
 tific and literary influence, have been taken from the 
 Latin into English since the Norman Conquest, with- 
 out passing through the French, or at least with little 
 change from their original form. 
 
 Ex. Radius, genius, nucleus, legal, pontifical, tribulation, describe, 
 circular, circumvent. 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 
 
 29 
 
 In some cases the English has taken words directly 
 from the Latin, and the same words have come into 
 English through the Norman-French. Thus one Latin 
 word provides two English words of slightly different 
 form and meaning, as exemplified below. 
 
 
 
 ENGLISH THROUGH 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 THE FRENCH. 
 
 Benedictio, 
 
 benediction, 
 
 benison. 
 
 Pauper, 
 
 pauper, 
 
 poor. 
 
 Captivus, 
 
 captive, 
 
 caitiff. 
 
 Fragilis, 
 
 fragile, 
 
 frail. 
 
 Factio, 
 
 faction, 
 
 fashion. 
 
 Radius, 
 
 radius. 
 
 ray. 
 
 OTHER ELEMENTS. 
 
 The Other elements which compose the English lan- 
 guage may be classified as follows : — 
 
 L The Greek Element, comprising chiefly those words 
 which have been deliberately coined or borrowed to meet 
 the demand for words to represent the new ideas and 
 relations brought to light by the progress of science 
 and philosophy. When an instrument was invented 
 which enabled a person instantly to communicate intel- 
 ligence to another at a greater distance than was pos- 
 sible before, two Greek words — rrjXe {te/e, afar) and 
 ypd^ecv (^grapheifiy to write) — were put together, and 
 the new instrument was called the telegraph. So of tele- 
 phone, from TY]\e and ^(juvr) (^phon^, sound). 
 
 The Romans borrowed their scientific terminology 
 from the Greek very much as we are doing to-day. 
 The older terms of science have come into English 
 through the Latin, or through the Latin and the 
 French, as may be seen by looking up the following 
 
30 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 words in any unabridged dictionary : logic ^ machine ^ 
 echo, nucleicSy anagram, syllogism, axiom, optics, theology, 
 theologiie. 
 
 The names of most sciences are from the Greek, — 
 rhetoric, from pr^ropiKr] (^rhetorike) ; philosophy, from 
 (^iKoaoc^La {philosophia)', etymology, from ervfJuoKoyla 
 (etiimologia). In fact, the technical vocabulary of sci- 
 ence is almost entirely taken from the Greek, as may be 
 seen by looking up in any dictionary the derivation of 
 such scientific terms as the following : — 
 
 Biology 
 
 Diphtheria 
 
 Hydrostatics 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Rheumatism 
 
 Hydraulics 
 
 Biography 
 
 Politics 
 
 Asteroid 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Orthography 
 
 Horizon 
 
 Anatomy 
 
 Phrenology 
 
 Parallel 
 
 Geography 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Parabola 
 
 Bronchitis 
 
 Dynamics 
 
 Hyperbola 
 
 IL The Norse or Scandinavian Element, comprising 
 the names of towns ending in by (the Danish word for 
 village); as Ashby, Rtcgby, Whitby, and a few other 
 words ; as screech, grime, bow (of a ship), ransack. 
 Probably most of the Scandinavian words found in 
 English were introduced through the Danish invasion, 
 though they do not appear in literature until after the 
 Norman Conquest. 
 
 III. The Celtic Element, including a few words taken 
 from the language of the ancient Britons, and some 
 which have come into our speech from the Welsh, Irish, 
 or Scotch. Basket, glen, lad, were probably adopted 
 early in English history. Brogue, clan, whisky, are of 
 more recent adoption. 
 
 IV. The Miscellaneous Element, including all words 
 borrowed from other languages, or in other ways than 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 3 1 
 
 those mentioned above, through the commercial, social, 
 and literary contact of English-speaking people with 
 other nations of the world. 
 
 Ex. From the Spanish. — Galleon, armadillo, lasso, ranch. 
 From the Dutch. — Yacht, sloop, ballast, boom, reef. 
 From the Italian. — Bust, cartoon, ruffian, bravado - 
 From the American Indian. — Potato, tobacco, wigwam. 
 From the Arabic. — Alchemy, algebra, alembic, jasper. 
 From the French. — Soiree, ddp6t, prestige. 
 From the Language of Ceylon. — Mango. 
 From the Hindoo. — Bandanna, punch, toddy. 
 From the Polynesian. — Taboo. 
 From the Malay. — Bamboo. 
 
 Apply Knowledge of Other Languages. — It is not 
 
 intended to give the pupil lists of prefixes and termi- 
 nations to be committed to memory : for he will soon 
 learn by observation that -er and -or denote the actor 
 (^painter, one who paints); that a- or ab- tuqzhs from ; 
 ad-, to ; con-y together ; anti-, against ; and aitte-, before ; 
 and that tin- and in- mean not. We shall not even ask 
 the pupil to memorize the principal foreign roots that 
 have become parts of English words. No instruction 
 in foreign languages will be undertaken here. 
 
 The object of this chapter is to show the relation 
 between English and foreign languages, and to explain 
 the advantage of a knowledge of other languages in 
 investigating the origin and history of English words. 
 The student is urged to apply all that he knows of other 
 languages, especially Latin, French, and Greek, in study- 
 ing the derivation and definition of English words. 
 
32 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 As has already been stated in this chapter, etymology, 
 when scientifically pursued, necessitates some knowl- 
 edge of all* Aryan languages. When told this, many 
 pupils will be apt to conclude that the study of ety- 
 mology is beyond their power,, at least while they are 
 in school. But even in school work, etymology can 
 be made very useful, if the scholar can only be trained 
 to look carefully into the formation of words, to divide 
 them into their component parts, separating the termi- 
 nations and prefixes from the stem, or root, on which 
 the word is built, and from the meaning of the parts 
 derive the meaning of the word. 
 
 The extent to which the analysis of English words 
 can be carried depends upon the knowledge which the 
 student possesses of those languages from which Eng- 
 lish words have been derived. However, everything 
 that the student knows about the derivation and history 
 of a word will help him to appreciate the meaning of 
 that word when it is used by others, and to use it more 
 intelligently himself. 
 
 Interesting Derivations. — Often a flood of light is 
 let in upon the meaning of a word by the knowledge 
 of a very simple fact with regard to its history. For 
 instance, how much vividness is added to the meaning 
 of the noun caprice ^ or the adjective capricious ^ when 
 we notice their derivation from the Latin capra (a goat). 
 Possibly the derivation by itself will not give a clear 
 definition of the adjective urbane ; but when told that 
 it refers to manners, we need only know that it is 
 derived from the Latin urbs (a city). A polite man is 
 one who has had the roughness of his nature made 
 smooth and agreeable to others, as is seen from its 
 original politus, the past participle of the Latin verb 
 
ENGLISH WORDS. 33 
 
 polire (to polish). Archbishop Trench says in his lec- 
 tures on the study of words : — 
 
 " Let me illustrate my meaning more at length by the word 
 'tribulation.' We all know in a general way that this word, 
 which occurs not seldom, in Scripture and in the Liturgy, 
 means affliction, sorrow, anguish ; but it is quite worth our 
 while to know how it means this, and to question * tribulation ' 
 a little closer. It is derived from the Latin * tribulum^ which 
 was the threshing instrument or harrow, whereby the Roman 
 husbandman separated the corn from the husks ; and * tribu- 
 latio ' in its primary signification was the act of this separation. 
 But some Latin writer of the Christian Church appropriated 
 the word and image for the setting forth of a higher truth ; 
 and sorrow, distress, and adversity being the appointed means 
 for the separating in men of whatever in them was light, 
 trivial, and poor from the solid and the true, their chaff from 
 their wheat, he therefore called these sorrows and trials * tribu- 
 lations,' threshings, that is, of the inner spiritual man, without 
 which there could be no fitting him for the heavenly garner. 
 
 " ' Rivals ' properly are those who dwell on the banks of the 
 same river. But as all experience shows, there is no such 
 fruitful source of contention as a water right, and these would 
 be often at strife with one another in regard of the periods 
 during which they severally had a right to the use of the 
 stream, turning it off into their own fields before the time, or 
 leaving open the sluices beyond the time, or in other ways 
 interfering, or being counted to interfere, with the rights of 
 their neighbors. And in this way ' rivals ' came to be applied 
 to any who were on any grounds in unfriendly competition 
 with one another." 
 
 With these illustrations in mind, it is hoped that the 
 student will find a new interest in tracing the derivation 
 of words. 
 
 SCH. ENG — 3 
 
34 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 EXERCISES IN DERIVATIONS. 
 
 Look up the following words in the dictionary, and explain 
 their present meaning in the light of their derivation : — 
 
 Investigation 
 
 Simple 
 
 Complex 
 
 Cynosure 
 
 Duplicity 
 
 Compound 
 
 Refection 
 
 Ferry 
 
 Transport 
 
 Restaurant 
 
 Chivalry 
 
 Utopia 
 
 Culture 
 
 Auction 
 
 Victuals 
 
 Rejoice 
 
 Sinecure 
 
 Passion 
 
 Current 
 
 Magnify 
 
 Traitor 
 
 Tandem 
 
 Microscope 
 
 Soprano 
 
 Translation 
 
 Ranch 
 
 Laconic 
 
 Window 
 
 Civilize 
 
 Tantalize 
 
 Libertine 
 
 Suavity 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Welcome 
 
 From the foregoing pages we have seen that a knowl- 
 edge of English words can be gained — 
 
 1 . By constant reading of the best English authors. 
 
 2. By the use of the dictionary. 
 
 3. By the study of etymology and those languages from 
 which English words have been derived. 
 
 We now proceed to a classification of the errors made 
 in the use of words, with a view to avoiding these errors 
 in our own writing. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN THE USE OF WORDS. 
 
 Requirements of Good Diction. — Diction treats of the 
 choice and use of words. 
 
 The requirements of good diction have been summed 
 up under three heads, known as ptirity, propriety, and 
 precision. These terms are not used to cover the same 
 ground by all writers on rhetoric. But, when confined 
 to the subject of English diction, we may say : — 
 
 Purity requires every zvord used to be good English. 
 Propriety requires the selection of a word that will express 
 the meaning intended. Precision requires the writer to 
 select, from those words which in a measure express the 
 intended meaning, the one which best expresses that 
 meaning. 
 
 Errors in the use of words will be treated as violations 
 of these three requisites. 
 
 PURITY. 
 
 Different Opinions. — Some authorities maintain that, 
 without reference to origin or former usage, it is per- 
 missible to use any word that an intelligent reader or 
 listener will understand ; and that, if a writer can coin 
 a new word that will convey his meaning better than any 
 wcid already in use, he is doing good service to the lan- 
 guage by using one of his own coining. Those writers 
 
 35 
 
36 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 who are known as purists would exclude from English 
 composition all words distinctly foreign, and all those 
 not used by a majority of the best authors. 
 
 A Distinction to be made. — It is extremely difficult 
 to formulate general rules in regard to purity of dic- 
 tion ; for the same rule will not apply to all classes of 
 writers. We must make a distinction between writers 
 whose usage would add to the authority for a word, 
 and writers whose usage would have no weight. The 
 great masters of English literature have borrowed many 
 words from other languages, and coined others to meet 
 the needs of their thought. These innovations have 
 been adopted by later writers, and have become good 
 English. In this way the language has grown, and 
 developed its present rich vocabulary. To forbid and 
 effectually prevent this coining and borrowing, would 
 be to check the growth of the language ; and this would 
 be undesirable, even if it were possible. 
 
 Safest Rule. — Genius is not to be bound by rules of 
 rhetoric ; but an attempt to coin or borrow words, on the 
 part of one whose genius has not been acknowledged 
 by others, must be considered unwise and presumptuous. 
 Therefore the safest rule for the vast majority of writers, 
 certainly for those still at school, is to use only those 
 words that are in use by standard authors. 
 
 Information in Dictionaries. —To determine, from liter- 
 ature, whether a word is or is not in use by standard 
 authors, would involve a vast amount of reading. There- 
 fore questions in regard to the standing of words can 
 best be settled by reference to a large dictionary, such 
 as the " Century Dictionary," Webster's *' International 
 Dictionary," and Worcester's *' Unabridged Diction- 
 ary." 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN USE OF WORDS. 37 
 
 One of the most important factors in the work of 
 compiling or revising these dictionaries is to give 
 accurate and the latest information with reference to the 
 standing of words. If a word is not in the dictionary, we 
 may safely conclude that it is not good English. If it is 
 there, but printed in Italics, or with two bars before it, 
 as in the '^ International Dictionary," it is from a foreign 
 language, and not yet domesticated. If not in Italics, or 
 otherwise marked as foreign, and not followed by any 
 note with reference to its use, it is in good usage. Words 
 about whose standing there is some question are followed 
 by a note indicating the objection to their use. 
 
 Look up the following words in the *' International 
 Dictionary," and notice after each word the remarks 
 referring to its use : — 
 
 Agriculturalist 
 
 Compulsatory 
 
 Indecided 
 
 Alumnus 
 
 Cortege 
 
 -Mugwump 
 
 Authoress 
 
 Darky 
 
 Preventative 
 
 Bogus 
 
 Dude 
 
 Talented 
 
 Taste in the Choice of Words. — Literary critics and 
 writers on rhetoric often give lists of words which they 
 condemn ; and later writers have followed or copied the 
 original lists without ascertaining whether or not, in the 
 time intervening, the language has adopted any of these 
 words. Because Mr. Bryant thirty-five or forty years 
 ago would not allow certain words to be used in the 
 ** Evening Post," it does not follow that none of these 
 are in good standing to-day. 
 
 It may, however, be better to use one of two words, 
 and yet not incorrect to use the other. In writing, as 
 in all other work, the success attained and the pleasure 
 given depend largely on the exercise of taste. Taste in 
 the use of language cannot be acquired by learning 
 
38 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 rules and lists of words, but only through acquaintance 
 with the writings of those whose taste is worthy to be 
 followed. In order, however, to guard against errors, 
 the strictest rule is the safest rule for those whose youth 
 and opportunities have prevented them from securing a 
 wide acquaintance with English literature. 
 
 Rule. — Purity requires the selection of such words 
 as are used by the best English authors of the prese?it 
 age. 
 
 Application to School English. — Though the use of 
 foreign words is the most flagrant and annoying fault 
 of many literary men, especially those who contribute 
 to our magazines, i.t is a matter of fact that school- 
 boys very seldom introduce foreign words into their 
 writing. Schoolgirls who have a slight knowledge of 
 French, especially those who have spent a year or two 
 abroad, often make a bad mixture of their French and 
 English. This fault is not due to ignorance, but is 
 generally made with conscious effort. The direction, 
 then, to use no foreign words is sufficient without any 
 accompanying examples. 
 
 The rule for purity is also violated by the use of obso- 
 lete words or by the use of newly coined words ; but there 
 is scarcely any danger of its being violated in this way 
 by those who study this book. The warning most neces- 
 sary here is against the use of vulgarisms and slang, or 
 words that in one way or another have come into the con- 
 versation of various classes of people, but are not found 
 in the writings of standard authors. 
 
 Slang. — Unfortunately, slang is much used in the 
 American newspapers, and this fact accounts for the 
 confusion between good and bad English in the vocabu- 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN USE OF WORDS. 39 
 
 laries of those whose chief reading is from the daily 
 newspapers. 
 
 Slang is often in place, and is frequently used by 
 good writers, to the entertainment of the readers ; but 
 such matter is generally put into the mouth of a char- 
 acter not supposed to be speaking good English. It is 
 dangerous for an author to resort to slang in any writ- 
 ing that is to be taken for his own speech and thought. 
 
 PROPRIETY. 
 
 Rule. — Propriety requires the selection of a word that 
 will express the intended meaning. 
 
 Improprieties. — A violation of this rule is called an 
 impropriety^ and consists in using a word in a sense not 
 given it by good writers. Mistakes of this sort are the 
 inevitable result of lack of education. Words are edged 
 tools ; and it requires an apprenticeship to be able to 
 handle them without cutting one's self. The most 
 pitiable mistakes of uneducated preachers and other 
 public speakers are in propriety. Often, in the midst 
 of a lofty period, a word used in an improper sense 
 renders the sentence ridiculous. 
 
 The rule for propriety is violated — 
 
 (a) By confusing words which resemble each other 
 in appearance or sound. 
 
 Violation. — The room was luxuriantly furnished. 
 Correction. — The room was luxuriously furnished. 
 
 (3) By confusing words which resemble each other 
 in sense or meaning. 
 
 Violation. — Franklin invented electricity. 
 Correction. — Franklin discovered electricity. 
 
40 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Violation. — I expect you were wet through in the storm this 
 morning. 
 
 Correction. — I suppose you were wet through in the storm this 
 morning. 
 
 Note. — Prepositions are used to connect words and to show 
 the relations between them. Though in many instances different 
 prepositions may be used interchangeably without materially alter- 
 ing the sense, mistakes are often made through failure to appreciate 
 the real signification of prepositions. For example, to is used after 
 the verb compare when the object of the comparison is to show a like- 
 ness ; but when the object is to find the relative merits or to show 
 contrast, the proper preposition is with. Thus we say that David 
 compared the love of God for those that fear him to the pity of a 
 father for his children ; but we say that one plan is compared with 
 another, or that the thoughts of man are nothing when compared 
 zf/M those of God. 
 
 Words often confused. — It will repay the pupil to 
 notice carefully, using the dictionary if necessary, the 
 meaning of each word in the following groups of words 
 resembling each other in sound and appearance. By so 
 doing he may avoid certain deplorable errors, which 
 through carelessness or ignorance are frequently made 
 in the conversation and writing of schoolboys : lie {lay^ 
 laift)y lay {laid, laid)) sit, set; aught, naiigJit ; good {adj.), 
 well {adv.)', respectfully, respectively ; fly {flew, flown), 
 flee {fled, fled), flow {flowed, flowed)', affect, effect; 
 alhide, illude, elude; deadly, deathly; except, accept; 
 counsel, council, consul; statue, statute ; pillow, pillar. 
 
 Any two words resembling each other are likely to be 
 confused by uneducated people. The following examples 
 contain some errors so absurd that they can hardly be 
 classified as violations of any rhetorical principle. As 
 these errors have occurred under the observation of the 
 author, they are given to show the danger of using words 
 without accurate knowledge of their meaning. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN USE OF WORDS. 4 1 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. The observance of this fact saved them from accident. 
 
 2. He feared the men would get into an alteration over tne 
 question. 
 
 3. He gave pacific directions. 
 
 4. He surrounded the calvary and alluded his pursuers. 
 
 5. The cup was filled to completion. 
 
 6. His appliance for the position was refused. 
 
 7. He excepted the invitation. 
 
 8. The number of electors is proscribed by law. 
 
 9. How will the election effect prices ? 
 
 10. She was a very illiteral woman, and made many mistakes 
 in the use of words. 
 
 PRECISION. 
 
 Rule. — Precision requires that we select^ from those 
 words which in a measure express the intended meanings 
 the word which exactly expresses that meaning. 
 
 Synonyms. — In every language there are a number 
 of words of very nearly the same significance. These 
 words are known as synonyms, a name taken from the 
 Greek. De Quincey says, '* All languages tend to clear 
 themselves of synonyms as intellectual culture advances, 
 the superfluous words being taken up and appropriated 
 by new shades and combinations of thought evolved 
 in the progress of society." Thus we find that there 
 is often a very fine distinction to be made in the choice 
 of words. 
 
 Derivation. — Precision is derived from the Latin 
 prae-cidere (to cut off). The derivative significance is 
 seen in the fact that the right word cuts off what we 
 do not wish to express. There is generally, among the 
 
42 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 synonyms afforded by the language, a word that will 
 express our meaning more nearly than any other word 
 will express it. Precision requires that we find that 
 word. 
 
 Violations of Precision. — Mistakes in propriety are 
 caused by gross ignorance. Precision is more difficult 
 of attainment, and can be acquired only by constant 
 study of good authors, and by cultivating the power of 
 criticising one's own use of language. If a person 
 always uses exactly the right word in the right place, 
 we say he has a command of language. 
 
 The rule for precision is violated by using a word 
 which fails to express our meaning as well as some 
 synonym of that word would express it. 
 
 Violation. — He is a very smart man. 
 Correction. — He is a very clever man. 
 
 Note. — Smart may refer to clothes, but clever excludes all but 
 the quality to be expressed. 
 
 Violation. — Mr, Moody is a very peculiar man. 
 Correction. — Mr. Moody is a very remarkable man. 
 
 Note. — If we wish to express eccentricity of appearance or 
 character, peculiar is the better word to use ; but to indicate the 
 possession of wonderful gifts, remarkable is better. 
 
 Distinguish between the meanings of the sentences 
 in each of the following groups : — 
 
 1. His collection of the British Poets was entire. 
 His collection of the British Poets was complete. 
 His collection of the British Poets was whole. 
 
 2. She wore a very quaint dress. 
 She wore a very peculiar dress. 
 She wore a very remarkable dress. 
 She wore a very extraordinary dress. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN USE OF WORDS. 43 
 
 3. He was preparing for the contest with his enemy. 
 He was preparing for the contest with his opponent. 
 He was preparing for the contest with his adversary. 
 He was preparing for the contest with his antagonist. 
 
 4. The house has been empty for a year. 
 The house has been vacant for a year. 
 The house has been unoccupied for a year. 
 The house has been uninhabited for a year. 
 
 5. He made an equitable distribution of his estate. 
 He made an equable distribution of his estate. 
 
 Words originally of One Meaning. — The English 
 language has in its vocabulary words from the Latin 
 and words from the Anglo-Saxon, which originally de- 
 noted the same idea ; but words are too scarce to 
 allow two to do the work assigned for one, and time 
 has gradually brought about distinct uses for each. 
 No matter how nearly alike the definitions of two 
 words may be, there will always be found cases where 
 one word will not perfectly replace the other. The 
 differentiation is very evident in the words corpse and 
 body. Though the Latin corpus once had the same 
 extent of meaning as the Anglo-Saxon word, at present 
 corpse cannot be used with reference to anything but 
 a dead body. In the following extract from Scott's 
 " Ivanhoe," the words swine and pork^ ox and beef^ 
 calf and veal^ are given as illustrations of this prin- 
 ciple. Sheep and mutton might also have been added. 
 
 [from "ivanhoe," chapter I.] 
 
 " Why, how call you those grunting brutes running about on 
 their four legs ? " demanded Wamba. 
 
 "Swine, fool, swine," said the herd; "every fool knows 
 that." 
 
44 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 "And swine is good Saxon," said the jester; "but how call 
 you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn and quartered, and 
 iiung up by the heels like a traitor? " 
 
 " Pork," answered the swineherd. 
 
 " I am very glad every fool knows that, too," said Wamba ; 
 "and pork, I think, is good Norman- French : and so when 
 the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes 
 by her Saxon name, but becomes a Norman, and is called 
 Pork, when she is carried to the castle hall to feast among the 
 nobles. What dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha?" 
 
 " It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got 
 into thy fool's pate." 
 
 " Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba in the same tone. 
 '•'There is old Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon 
 epithet while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen 
 such as thou, but becomes Beef, a fiery French gallant, when 
 he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to con- 
 sume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in 
 the like manner : he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and 
 takes a Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment." 
 
 Words of nearly the Same Meaning. — The word far 
 has two comparatives, farther and further. However, 
 they are not absolutely interchangeable. Farther is now 
 confined to denote greater extent of space, whilo, further 
 applies more properly to cases where the idea of space 
 is less evident or figurative. We say, "Two miles 
 farther M^ the road," but "He prolonged the discussion 
 further than I had intended." 
 
 Perhaps the words boy and lad are as nearly alike in 
 meaning as any other two English words (excepting, of 
 course, such pairs of words as unf^equent and infre- 
 quent, which are absolutely identical in meaning) ; but 
 we do not speak of a lad baby, though, by substituting 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN USE OF WORDS. 45 
 
 boy for lad in this phrase, it is well understood. In a 
 trial in Brooklyn, the lawyer asked the witness why he 
 admitted that he was sure of a given matter, and yet 
 refused to say that he was certain. The witness replied, 
 " I am sure the sun will rise to-morrow, I am certain it 
 rose this morning " ; thus illustrating a fine but actual 
 distinction between the two words. 
 
 May and Can, Shall and Will, etc. — The rule for 
 precision is often violated by failure to make the proper 
 distinction between the meanings of the auxiliaries, may 
 and ca7i, shall and will^ would and should. May implies 
 permission or probability. / may go means either / 
 have permission to go, or There is a chance of my going. 
 Can implies ability or power. / ca7i read means / am 
 able to read. He may read means He has permission to 
 read. May I leave the room f is equivalent to Have I 
 permission to leave the room ? He may do as he wishes 
 implies that no one will object. He can do as he pleases 
 implies that he has the power to do so. 
 
 Shall and will are stumbling blocks to many writers, 
 and yet it is not difficult to understand the distinction 
 between the meaning of these words. To denote sim- 
 ple futurity without implying any compelling force, the 
 first person takes the auxiliary shall ; the second and 
 third persons, the auxiliary zvill. 
 
 Ex. I shall be happy. We shall be happy. 
 
 You will be happy. You will be happy. 
 
 He will be happy. They will be happy. 
 
 In questions, however, the proper auxiliary in the 
 second perscn is shall ; as. Shall yon go to-morrow f 
 
 The forms given just above are examples of the sim- 
 ple future statement. If we wisb to add the idea of a 
 
46 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 compelling force, or of determination or obligation, the 
 proper auxiliary for the first person is will ; for the seo 
 ond and third persons, shall. 
 
 1 
 
 . I will go 
 
 means 
 
 I am determined to go. 
 
 You shall go 
 
 ii 
 
 You must go. 
 
 He shall go 
 
 i( 
 
 He must go. 
 
 We will go 
 
 ii 
 
 We are determined to go. 
 
 You shall go 
 
 a 
 
 You must go. 
 
 They shall go 
 
 a 
 
 They must go. 
 
 / shall have satisfactio7i means that the satisfaction 
 will come in the course of time. 
 
 / will have satisfaction means / am determined to 
 have it. 
 
 The Ten Commandments illustrate the force of shall 
 in the second and third persons. 
 
 Ex. Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal. 
 
 .The command is changed to a simple future state- 
 ment, when we substitute wilt for shalt ; as. Thou wilt 
 not kill, Thou wilt not steal. 
 
 The simple forms of the conditional mood have should 
 for all persons. If I should go, If he should go, If we 
 should go, If they should go, are simple conditional state- 
 ments. When the idea of willingness is also included, 
 the proper auxiliary is would. If I would go. If he would 
 go, If they would go, mean. If I should be willing to go. 
 If he should be willing to go, etc. 
 
 Distinguish between the sentences in each of these 
 
 pairs : — 
 
 I shall come. 
 I will come. 
 
 You may use this machine. 
 You can use this machine. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN USE OF WORDS. 47 
 
 He shall not leave until he apologizes. 
 He will not leave until he apologizes. 
 
 I shall be there to introduce you. 
 I will be there to introduce you. 
 
 If they should come, there would be no difficulty in carrying this 
 through. 
 
 If they would come, there would be no difficulty in carrying this 
 through. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 Correct the errors in precision in the following sentences by 
 substituting synonyms which will more exactly express the 
 intended meaning : — 
 
 1. I am going to take up medicine for a business. 
 
 2. In what portion of the town does he live? 
 
 3. Were your instructions oral, or written? 
 
 4. I will try to tell you shortly (meaning, in few words). 
 
 5. I avow my guilt in this matter. 
 
 6. There was an insurmountable difficulty in the way. 
 
 7. For sale, — A whole set of the Aldine edition of English 
 Poets. 
 
 8. Children seldom have sufficient food. 
 
 9. We should allow enough time for our plans to mature. 
 
 10. The prisoner has abandoned his wife and children. 
 
 11. The chairman of the committee abdicated his office. 
 
 12. Will you show me this example in algebra ? 
 
 13. He was obliged to select one of three party com- 
 manders. 
 
 14. I instinctively avoid any such public attention. 
 
 15. The army deserted the position at daybreak. 
 
 16. (In a debate) I suppose that my enemies will insist on 
 further proof of this. 
 
 17. I seldom found him indolent; he was not of an idle 
 disposition. 
 
48 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 1 8. After a long argument, I at last persuaded him that he 
 had been mistaken. 
 
 19. The chandelier should be hung from the middle of the 
 ceiling. 
 
 20. The sanatory regulations were disregarded by the major- 
 ity of householders. 
 
 21. He is a perfect brute in his manners, and a beast in his 
 treatment of his children. 
 
 22. The railroad train was moving along at a very rapid 
 gait. 
 
 23. Will I be contented when I get this done? 
 
 24. If this would be found, it would be all right. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF ERRORS IN THE USE OF 
 WORDS. 
 
 Correct the errors ^ in diction in the following sentences, and 
 explain what requirement is violated by each : — 
 
 1. He was a minister in the Episcopalian church. 
 
 2. My husband is very much dictated to drink. 
 
 3. There was a great quantity of people there. 
 
 4. It seems to me there was a good deal of bunkum in his 
 speech. 
 
 5. He deeded the property to his wife. 
 
 6. The brutalness of this action was beyond human con- 
 ception. 
 
 7. I expect there has been some underhand work there. 
 
 8. He was ketcher^ on the base-ball nine. 
 
 9. Her daughter's health was not in the least delicate, but 
 she was really very indelicate. 
 
 10. Three boys in the graduating class were demoted to the 
 lower form. 
 
 1 If the error in any sentence is not readily detected, the student should 
 consult the dictionary for the meaning of the words not familiar to him. 
 
 2 Not often written, but often spoken. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN USE OF WORDS. 49 
 
 11. When asked to describe his symptoms, he replied that 
 he had a very funny pain in his side. 
 
 12. He is an extremely exceptable preacher. 
 
 13. He stood at the end ^ of his class. 
 
 14. Mr. Brown is a most impractical man. 
 
 15. The journey was found to be unpracticable. 
 
 16. I found him very social in his disposition. 
 
 17. Their method of attack was most unjudicious. 
 
 18. He wrote an essay on the counsels of the Church of 
 Rome. 
 
 19. His opponent stood at twenty paces from him with 
 revolver drawn and loaded. 
 
 20. The sermon concluded with an example from actual life 
 of the way in which God cares for man's happiness. 
 
 2 1 . Othello then stifles his wife with a pillow. 
 
 22. Let us take an hypothecated case. 
 
 23. Neither one or the other will suit me. 
 
 24. At that point another engine was telegraphed for, and 
 further up the road the train was divided into two sections, and 
 in that way reached New York. 
 
 25. They heartlessly discarded the feehngs of all most deeply 
 concerned. 
 
 26. The swimmer was attacked with cramps, lost conscience, 
 and sank in a few seconds. 
 
 27. Though dehcate in health, she accompHshes more 
 than stronger girls, for she is a great preservative of her 
 energies. 
 
 28. He was thankful, though it only gave an instant relief. 
 The pain began anew in a few seconds. 
 
 29. I was disappointed at the way the new preacher con- 
 ducted the morning service. His prayers showed great lack of 
 spiritualism. 
 
 1 If any word is less exact in expressing the intended meaning than 
 another word would be, there is an error in precision. 
 SCH. ENG. — 4 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Rhetoric and Grammar. — Grammar treats of the 
 arrangement and construction of words in a sentence, 
 and the changes of form which words undergo in order 
 to show their construction. Since the object of the 
 study of rhetoric is to enable one to present ideas in 
 such language that they may be apprehended with the 
 least possible effort, rhetoric of course requires that 
 our ideas be expressed with grammatical correctness. 
 
 Solecisms. — Experience shows that mistakes in gram- 
 mar occur even in the writings of those who have 
 attained excellence of style. It is observed, also, that 
 these mistakes are usually violations of the same few 
 rules. Writers on rhetoric, therefore, include in their 
 works a chapter reminding the student of certain rules 
 of grammar which are most often violated. Gram- 
 matical errors, when viewed as part of the subject of 
 rhetoric, are called solecisms^ a word derived from Soli^ 
 a city in Cilicia, inhabited by Greek colonists who spoke 
 a corrupt dialect. 
 
 Danger in Use of Long Sentences. — A most valuable 
 safeguard against errors in grammatical construction is 
 to be found in the habitual use of short sentences. The 
 long sentence is especially fatal to the novice in the art 
 of composition. The fair promise of the first two or 
 three lines in which all the rules of grammar have due 
 observance is seldom sustained to the end. Without 
 
 50 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 51 
 
 the slightest provocation, the parts of speech plunge 
 into confusion quite beyond the reach of syntax. 
 
 Never allow the length of a sentence to help it become 
 unmanageable. With this end in view, a good rule to 
 follow in revising what you have already written, is to 
 cut every long sentence into two. Absolute correct- 
 ness is difficult to attain even with this safeguard. As 
 English has lost almost all its inflection, and as gram- 
 matical construction is determined almost exclusively 
 by the order of the words, a grammatical slip is easy 
 even when the sentence is short. 
 
 Twenty Rules of Grammar. — The following twenty 
 rules of grammar are frequently violated. Under each 
 rule are given the ways in which that rule is apt to 
 be violated. For aid in memorizing, it may be noticed 
 that the first seven rules refer to nouns or pronouns; 
 Nos. 8 to II, to verbs; Nos. 12 to 17, to adjectives and 
 adverbs; No. 18, to prepositions; No. 19, to connec- 
 tives ; and No. 20, to the sentence as a whole. 
 
 I. Some domesticated foreign words retain their origi- 
 nal plurals. 
 
 This rule is often violated by using plurals in s for 
 domesticated foreign words which retain original plurals. 
 
 Violation. — Vertebras, axises. 
 Correction . — Vertebrae, axes . 
 
 The following is a list of foreign words which retain 
 original plurals : — 
 
 (a) From the Latin. 
 
 Sin^rular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural, 
 
 Axis, 
 
 axes. 
 
 Effluvium, 
 
 effluvia. 
 
 Basis, 
 
 bases. 
 
 Genius (a spirit). 
 
 genii. 
 
 Crisis, 
 
 crises. 
 
 Genus, 
 
 genera. 
 
52 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Singular. 
 Maximum, 
 Minimum, 
 Nebula, 
 Oasis, 
 
 Plural. 
 maxima, 
 minima, 
 nebulae, 
 oases. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Stimulus, 
 
 stimuli. 
 
 Terminus, 
 
 termini. 
 
 Vertebra, 
 
 vertebrae, 
 
 (<5) From the Greek. 
 
 Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 
 
 Analysis, analyses. Parenthesis, parentheses. 
 
 Chrysalis, chrysalides. Phenomenon, phenomena. 
 
 Diaeresis, diaereses. Synthesis, syntheses. 
 
 Hypothesis, hypotheses. Thesis, theses. 
 
 Metamorphosis, metamorphoses. 
 
 Note. — The plurals of these words, and the original plurals of 
 domesticated words with regular plurals in s, are sometimes incor- 
 rectly used for the singular forms. 
 
 Ex. A phenomena, a stamina, a genera, for a phenomenon, a stamen, 
 a genus. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 There were several genuses discovered. 
 
 He found a vertebrae of a whale. 
 
 The terminuses of the road were not at central points. 
 
 This desert has few oasises. 
 
 Their thesises were not on the same subject. 
 
 6. Nebulas are cloudlike in appearance. 
 
 7. Every man has many crisises in his life. 
 
 8. I do not wish to argue from any of your hypothesises. 
 
 II. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 
 This rule is often violated — 
 
 {a) By using the objective case of the subject after 
 verbs of saying, thinking, and the like. 
 
 Violation. — Those whom he fancied would be his friends were 
 his bitterest enemies. 
 
 Correction. — Those who he fancied would be his friends were 
 his bitterest enemies. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 53 
 
 {b) By using the objective case after as or than intro- 
 ducing a new subject. 
 
 Violation. — You know this as well as me. 
 Correction. — You know this as well as I (do). 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. He is taller than me. 
 
 2. He is not one whom I thought would do this. 
 
 3. She is further advanced than him. 
 
 4. I have found a man whom I think will suit. 
 
 5. The politicians whom he said would support the bill 
 failed to appear. 
 
 6. She seemed to be much poorer than him. 
 
 7. Many men have lived to see the folly of confiding in 
 whomever would receive their confidence. 
 
 8. They can afford to give much better than us. 
 
 9. Why won't mother answer as well as me? 
 
 10. The ladies whom I feared would object were not 
 there. 
 
 III. The predicate after the verb to be, or other verb 
 expressing existence, is in the same case as the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 ia) By using the objective case of the predicate after 
 a finite verb. 
 
 Violation. — He thought they were us. 
 Correction. — He thought they were we. 
 
 {b) By using the nominative case of the predicate 
 after the infinitive mood. 
 
 Violation. — He supposed it to be I. 
 Correction. — He supposed it to be me. 
 
54 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. It surely must be them. 
 
 2. I had supposed that it was us whom he meant. 
 
 3. I understood it was her. 
 
 4. That it was him, no one doubted. 
 
 5. Do you beheve that to be he ? 
 
 6. Here they come ! Yes, those are them. 
 
 7. Whom do you think I am ? 
 
 8. Who did she understand it to be, that had the matter in 
 charge for us ? 
 
 9. Probably it will be me that he will call next time. 
 10. It was I that said so, not her. 
 
 IV. The object of a verb or preposition is in the objec- 
 tive case. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 ia) By using the nominative case of an object pronoun 
 connected by a conjunction to a noun. 
 
 Violation. — Will you allow James and I to study together ? 
 Correction. — Will you allow James and me to study together ? 
 
 (h) By using the nominative for the objective of a 
 relative governed by a preposition at the end of a 
 clause. 
 
 Violation. — Who did you intend this for ? 
 Correction. — Whom did you intend this for ? 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. This is for John and I to practice on. 
 
 2. He loved both you and I alike. 
 
 3. Who can one trust in ? 
 
 4. Who did you mistake him for ? 
 
 5. Nobody was allowed inside except father and I. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 55 
 
 6. Every one but she received something from the com- 
 mittee. 
 
 7. She refused to let Mary and I go with the others. 
 
 8. Whoever this may be for, he must let me know at once. 
 
 V. All notcns in the singular^ and nouns in the plural 
 not ending in s, form the possessive by adding apostrophe 
 and s. Plural nouns ending in s add the apostrophe 
 alone. Definite pronouns do not take an apostrophe in 
 the possessive case. 
 
 Note. — Some authorities say that words of more than one sylla- 
 ble, and ending in an j or s" sound, may omit the possessive s to 
 avoid repetition of hissing letters. Goodness, conscience, Jesus, and 
 a few other proper names, always form the possessive singular with 
 the apostrophe only. The indefinite pronouns one, other, etc., take 
 the apostrophe and s. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 {a) By using the apostrophe alone after singular 
 nouns ending in one or tv^o j-'s. 
 
 Violation. — Witness', Jones'. 
 Correction. — Witness's, Jones's. 
 
 {b) By using the plural form for the possessive form. 
 
 Violation. — Witnesses, Joneses. 
 Correction. — Witness's, Jones's. 
 
 Note. — Nouns connected by conjunctions and implying com- 
 mon possession take the possessive sign but once, and that on the 
 last noun ; but when not implying common possession each noun 
 must have the sign. 
 
 Ex. Harrison and Morton's campaign. 
 Wade and Butcher's razors. 
 
 Cleveland's and Harrison's administrations. 
 Men's, boys', and children's suits. 
 
56 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. The ladies trains were too long. 
 
 2. Five month's supplies were exhausted. 
 
 3. Seabury's and Johnson's plasters. 
 
 4. James and John's letters crossed on the way. 
 
 5. Come quickly, for goodness's sake ! 
 
 6. This book is her's, not your's. 
 
 7. This we ask for Jesus's sake. 
 
 8. We use a Wheeler's and Wilson's sewing machine. 
 
 9. This will recompense for ones early misfortunes. 
 10. Is that their's? 
 
 VL A noun or pronoun limiting another noun is put 
 in the possessive case, unless a preposition is used. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 (a) By using the objective case in place of the pos- 
 sessive to limit a verbal noun. 
 
 Violation. — The fact of us remaining need make no difference 
 to you. 
 
 Correction. — The fact of our remaining need make no difference 
 to you. 
 
 {U) By using an object after a verbal noun not an 
 infinitive. 
 
 Violation. — He attended to the soliciting subscriptions. 
 Correction. — He attended to the soliciting of subscriptions, ^r 
 to soliciting subscriptions. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. He saw the effect of them giving. 
 
 2. He concluded the giving the money was unwise. 
 
 3. The accident of the discovering the value of anthracite 
 was extremely fortunate. 
 
 4. Her plans were altered by her husband leaving for Europe. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 57 
 
 5. Don't worry about us taking cold. 
 
 6. He is afraid to stand on the party platform for fear of it 
 breaking. 
 
 7. He tried all means to stop them investigating his 
 record. 
 
 8. He favored the closing the World's Fair on Sundays. 
 
 9. The passage of the bill was delayed by the committee 
 failing to report that session. 
 
 10. This must be the end of you attempting to control their 
 movements. 
 
 VII. Pronouns agree with their antecedents in number 
 and person. 
 
 Note. — Who refers to persons only. 
 
 Which refers to impersonal antecedents. 
 That refers to any antecedent. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 (a) By using a plural pronoun referring to some such 
 word as each^ any one^ every one, etc. 
 
 Violation. — If every one were convinced of their error. 
 Correction. — If every one were convinced of his error. 
 
 The follov^ing is a list of words often incorrectly 
 referred to as plural : — 
 
 Any one 
 
 Everybody 
 
 One 
 
 Anybody 
 
 Many a one 
 
 Somebody 
 
 Each 
 
 Neither 
 
 Something 
 
 Either 
 
 None 
 
 
 None meaning not 07ie is singular ; but none meaning 
 not any may be plural. 
 
 Ex. None dares meet him in single combat. 
 
 Several promised to come, but none were there. 
 
58 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 (b) By using a pronoun without any real antecedent, 
 the supposed antecedent being a syllable, or an idea in 
 some previous word. 
 
 Violation. — He complimented him, which he returned. 
 
 Correction, — He complimented him, and he returned the com- 
 pliment. 
 
 Violation. — The lance of tne Knight fastened itself in the bars 
 of his opponent's helmet, which unseated the latter. 
 
 Correction. — The lance of the Knight fastened itself in the bars 
 of his opponent's helmet, and the shock unseated the latter. 
 
 Note. — Often such sentences as the one just given are cor- 
 rected by substituting a demonstrative pronoun for the relative. 
 But a demonstrative pronoun also stands for a noun, and cannot 
 be correctly used when there is no antecedent noun or substan- 
 tive clause. Therefore, if we rewrite the sentence thus, — The lance 
 of the Knight fastened itself in the bars of his opponents helmet^ 
 and this unseated the latter^ — we have still to ask what noun the 
 pronoun this refers to. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. Not a boy of the entire number knew their own name. 
 
 2. The captain began to address the company, which they 
 applauded loudly. 
 
 3. If anyone is in favor of this, let them hold up their 
 hands. 
 
 4. Neither clerk had their accounts straight. 
 
 5. Each man tried to exculpate themselves and to throw 
 the blame on their companions. 
 
 6. Every one was looking out for themselves. 
 
 7. He slept more soundly than usual, which makes us hope 
 he will soon be much better. 
 
 8. Each of the children had an orange to take to their 
 homes. 
 
 9. Not a single one had the least idea what they had come 
 for. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 59 
 
 10. A solitary woman was sweeping away by the light of the 
 lamps, for which when she had finished she would receive a franc. 
 
 11. Mohun and the Lord Castlewood were great card 
 players, which in a short time resulted in the loss of most of 
 Castlewood's money. 
 
 VIII. Verbs agree with their subjects in number and 
 person. 
 
 When a verb relates to the separate individuals in- 
 cluded in a collective noun, the verb is in the plural 
 number ; when relating to the collection as a whole, the 
 verb is in the singular. 
 
 Ex. The Senate is in session. 
 
 The crew reach the shore, some on boards and some on spars. 
 A flock of birds flies above the house. 
 The committee acts promptly. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 {a) By using a plural verb with every one^ each, any 
 one, etc.^ 
 
 Violation. — Nearly every one we knew were going. 
 Correction. — Nearly every one we knew was going. 
 
 {U) By using a plural verb with a subject plural in 
 form but singular in meaning, or a singular verb with a 
 collective noun conveying the idea of plurality. 
 
 Violation. — The news have arrived. 
 
 Correction. — The news has arrived. 
 
 Violation. — The majority of the members is in favor of this 
 resolution. 
 
 Correction. — The majority of the members are in favor of this 
 resolution. 
 
 ^ For caution as to the number of the pronoun none^ see remark under 
 Rule VII. 
 
6o SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 (c) By using don't (do not) with a subject in the third 
 person singular. 
 
 Violation. — He don't improve much. 
 Correction. — He doesn't improve much. 
 
 (d) By using a plural verb when a plural adjunct 
 comes between a singular subject and its verb. 
 
 Violation. — A succession of accidents have discouraged him. 
 Correction. — A succession of accidents has discouraged him. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. The energy of all oppose him. 
 
 2. Many a woman have learned this to their sorrow. 
 
 3. Each of the officers were suspected. 
 
 4. Nothing but disappointed hopes remain to them. 
 
 5. Caesar with his veterans have conquered Gaul. 
 
 6. Every point, and there were many, were tipped with flame. 
 
 7. The greater part of the members is opposed to him. 
 
 8. The meaning of all these derivatives and compounds 
 are self-evident. 
 
 9. Vaccination is one of the most valuable discoveries that 
 has been made in modern times. 
 
 10. The encouragement of education and philanthropy were 
 the chief objects of his life. 
 
 11. Neither one example nor the other were a fair illustra- 
 tion of the case. 
 
 12. Though they hstened with great attention, not one of 
 them were convinced. 
 
 IX. In subordinate clauses the tense of the verb is 
 relative to the tense of the principal verb. 
 
 This rule is violated by using a perfect infinitive or 
 perfect subjunctive after a past tense. 
 
 Violation. — He intended to have done so. 
 Correction. — He intended to do so. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 6 1 
 
 Violation. — He thought he might have gone. 
 Correction. — He thought he might go. 
 
 Note. — In a sentence quoted indirectly and introduced by a 
 past tense, the verbs of the quotation are changed from the present 
 to the past tense, from the perfect to the pluperfect, from the future 
 to the conditional ; but statements of general propositions or un- 
 changeable truths are kept in the present tense. Thus, the sentence, 
 / have pist cojue, and will go with him as soon as I dress for the 
 evenings when so quoted, reads as follows : He said that he had just 
 come, and would go with him as soon as he dressed for the evening; 
 but we say, The lecturer said that water is composed of oxygen and 
 hydrogen, not The lecturer said that water was composed of oxygen 
 and hydrogen. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. He fully expected to have been there. 
 
 2. He meant to have written. 
 
 3. They finally decided to have done the opposite. 
 
 4. You assumed that the parties might have been present. 
 
 5. I was planning that I might have avoided meeting them. 
 
 6. He made inquiries to find how many miles it was from 
 New York to Boston. 
 
 7. I was certain that I could have gone just as well alone. 
 
 8. He believed that there was rest for the weary. 
 
 9. I hoped to have had this finished by New Year's. 
 
 X. The to which precedes the infinitive should not be 
 separated from its verb. 
 
 Note. — Some authorities maintain that the observance of this 
 rule is not essential to correct writing. 
 
 This rule is violated by placing adverbs or phrases 
 between the infinitive and its sign to. 
 
 Violation. — To more fully explain. 
 
 Correction. — To explain more fully, or more fully to explain. 
 
62 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. He came with the intention to entirely ignore the pro- 
 posals. 
 
 2. We all expected them to presently appear. 
 
 3. Be sure to promptly obey the forthcoming instructions. 
 
 4. How can a man bring himself to heartlessly ignore all 
 appeals ? 
 
 5. She intended to completely mystify them by her sudden 
 arrival. 
 
 6. I am at a loss to amicably settle this difficulty. 
 
 7. No one can expect to exactly suit every one. 
 
 8. No one was able to correctly state the case. 
 
 XI. Use the proper verbal form and the proper aux- 
 iliary. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 {a) By using the past participle for the preterit or 
 the preterit for the past participle. 
 
 Violation. — They danced and sung all night. 
 Correction. — They danced and sang all night. 
 
 Violation. — Have you broke your wheel ? 
 Correction. — Have you broken your wheel ? 
 
 (b) By using can for may^ shall for willy would for 
 should, etc. (see p. 45). 
 
 Violation. — Can I speak to Jones ? 
 Correction. — May I speak to Jones ? 
 
 {c) By using an auxiliary without supplying the 
 proper verbal form. 
 
 Violation. — He always has, and always will object. 
 Correction. — He always has objected, and always will object. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 63 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1 . They did not see this ; but if they had, it would have 
 saved them. 
 
 2. Three men were froze to death. 
 
 3. I know I will never see her again. 
 
 4. I have drove all day long. 
 
 5 . No accident has happened yet ; but if one ever should, 
 no one would be saved. 
 
 6. I will probably go to the opera to-morrow. 
 
 7. If it would rain to-morrow, I would have to stay 
 home. 
 
 8. I determined that I would, and I had another trial. 
 
 9. I thought it only fair that she would be allowed to come 
 with me. 
 
 10. I always expected to, and finally succeeded in raising 
 the required amount. 
 
 XII. Distinguish between the uses of the comparative 
 and the superlative degrees. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 (a) By using the superlative degree in comparing tviro 
 objects. 
 
 Violation. — The youngest of the two. 
 Correction. — The younger (of the two). 
 
 {h) By using the comparative without an excluding 
 term in comparing an individual with the rest of its 
 class. 
 
 Violation. — He was more distinguished than all generals of his 
 time. 
 
 Correction. — He was more distinguished than all other gen- 
 erals of his time; or^ He was the most distinguished general of 
 his time. 
 
64 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Most adjectives of two syllables, and all adjectives of 
 more than two, are compared by use of the adverbs 
 more and most, not by terminations. 
 
 Ex. Watchful, more watchful, most watchful. 
 
 Contented, more contented, most contented. 
 
 Some adjectives do not admit of any comparison. 
 Errors are often made by using the comparative and 
 superlative degrees of such adjectives. 
 
 Violation. — The work is more complete than I expected to find it. 
 Correction. — The work is more nearly complete than I expected 
 to find it. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. Which is farthest East, New York or Philadelphia ? 
 
 2. The mother's death fell harder on him than on any 
 member of the family. 
 
 3. There was no doubt about his being the better of the 
 three. 
 
 4. The oldest of the two men was dressed in homespun, 
 and had the appearance of a tradesman. 
 
 5. The " Press " is the best of any paper published in the 
 city. 
 
 6. She had read more books than any girl in the class. 
 
 7. He is the most perfect actor that I have ever seen. 
 
 8. They are the conceitedest family I know of. 
 
 9. There are four in the firm, and he is much the younger 
 member. 
 
 10. The desire for a new government is more universal than 
 ever before. 
 
 XIII. Adjectives agree with their nouns in mimher. 
 
 Note. — No English adjectives show distinction of gender or 
 <jase ; and only two, viz., this and that, show distinction of number. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 6$ 
 
 This rule is violated by using the plural of tMs and 
 ^Aat with a singular noun. 
 
 Violation. — I don't care for those sort of apple. 
 Correction. — I don't care for that sort of apple. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. Which do you prefer, these or those kind of hats? 
 
 2. He objected to these type of men. 
 
 3. Please don't touch those pile of clothes till I get my list 
 finished. 
 
 4. Don't you dislike these style of coats? 
 
 5. I selected several from those assortment of cloaks. 
 
 XIV. Adjectives qualify nouns ; adverbs qualify verbs ^ 
 adjectives^ and other adverbs. 
 
 Note. — It requires some practice to determine whether the 
 noun or verb is modified after verbs expressing being or state. If 
 the noun is quaHfied, an adjective should be used ; if the verb, an 
 adverb. We say the potatoes boil soft, if we mean the state of the 
 potatoes after boiling is soft ; but we say the potatoes boil softly, if 
 we mean the process of boiling goes on softly. 
 
 This rule is violated by using an adverb when the 
 noun is qualified, or an adjective when the verb is quali- 
 fied. 
 
 Violation. — She looks prettily in that dress ; she sings sweet. 
 Correction. — She looks pretty in that dress ; she sings sweetly. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. He appeared very handsomely in his costume. 
 
 2. He recited perfect to-day. 
 
 3. They gave the decision fair enough. 
 
 4. It is buried deeply. 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 5 
 
66 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 5. This tastes very strongly of pepper. 
 
 6. The gas has escaped, and the air smells very badly. 
 
 7. How sweetly and gently the pony looks. 
 
 8. Deal gentle with them. 
 
 9. Carry this very steady. 
 
 10. Fix the curtain pole a little more firmly, please. 
 
 XV. T/ie article an is used before words beginning 
 with a vowel sounds and before words beginning with a 
 pronounced h and having an accent on the second syllable. 
 The article a is used before all other words. 
 
 Ex. An apple, an honor, an orange, an hypothesis, an hydrangea ; 
 but^ a house, a horse, a history, a hypocrite. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 (a) By using an before words beginning with h^ but 
 with no accent on the second syllable. 
 
 Violation. — An halter, an horrid man, an history, an horoscope. 
 Correction. — A halter, a horrid man, a history, a horoscope. 
 
 Note. — Usage varies as to words of two syllables beginning 
 with h and having an accent on the second syllable. 
 
 Ex. A hotel or an hotel. 
 
 ip) By using an before words beginning with a vowel 
 having the sound of y or w. 
 
 Violation. — An union, an usage, such an one. 
 Correction. — A union, a usage, such a one. 
 
 Note. — The article should be repeated before each of several 
 expressions in the same construction, where they denote separate 
 persons or things. 
 
 Ex. There go a lawyer and a doctor ; 
 not. There go a lawyer and doctor. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 6/ 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. He was an hypocritical man. 
 
 2. The check read for an hundred dollars. 
 
 3. The travelers at length came to an hostelry. 
 
 4. Found in a omnibus, a gold-headed cane. 
 
 5. First of all, one must have a hypothesis. 
 .6. Let us consider an hypothetical case. 
 
 7. An hierarchy is a government by the priesthood of any 
 religion. 
 
 8. He had an humorous way of looking at every question. 
 
 9. I was reading an European history yesterday. 
 ID. He held him with a iron grasp. 
 
 II. The society elected three officers, — a president, a 
 secretar}% and treasurer. 
 
 XVT. Either,! neither, both, former, latter, etc., are 
 used in speaking of only two ; any, none, one, all, first, 
 last, etc., in speaking of more than two. 
 
 This rule is violated by using these words without 
 regard to the dual and plural distinction. 
 
 Violation. — Neither of the three will do. 
 Correction. — None of the three will do. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1 . Of these four generals, neither showed any fitness for the 
 place. 
 
 2. James, Harry, and John were there; the latter made 
 better use of his time than any of the others. 
 
 3. Three propositions were made, either of which would 
 have suited me. 
 
 1 Some authorities maintain that either may be used correctly in speak- 
 ing of more than two. 
 
68 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 4. They both saw the accident, but none of them made any 
 attempt to give help. 
 
 5. There are only two possible ways of doing this : the first 
 I have explained already ; the last I shall take up now. 
 
 XVII. Two negatives make an affirmative. 
 
 This rule is violated by using a negative with such 
 words as only^ hardly, but, etc. 
 
 Violation. — They haven't only one more. 
 Correction. — They have only one more. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. Harrison won't have but one term. 
 
 2. The immigrants couldn't find scarcely anything to eat. 
 
 3. Nobody could hardly imagine the situation. 
 
 4. I can't scarcely make out with this. 
 
 5. They couldn't barely squeeze through the opening. 
 
 XVIII. Use a preposition which will properly express 
 the relation of the noun introduced. 
 
 Note. — English being an uninflected language, the relation of 
 nouns is not indicated by case endings, but by prepositions. Care 
 must therefore be taken to use a preposition that expresses the 
 relation intended. 
 
 This rule is violated by using a preposition which 
 does not express the proper relation. 
 
 Violation. — He went in the shop. 
 Correction. — He went into the shop. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.^ 
 
 1. His independence on his family. 
 
 2. They saw him go over at the stable. 
 
 — . . _— a 
 
 1 These examples might have been given under Propriety. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 69 
 
 3. I am going on the opposite side of the street. 
 
 4. Often of a Sunday afternoon he would spend hours 
 remonstrating with her. 
 
 5. I saw two horses run in the stable. 
 
 6. Her youngest son enlisted for the army. 
 
 7. Compare the character of Washington to that of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 8. Don't take her in your confidence if you do not wish to 
 find trouble. 
 
 9. Some people have a faculty for making trouble to others. 
 10. You cannot help being impatient at them. 
 
 XIX. Conjunctions or relatives connect sentences. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 (a) By using prepositions for connectives. 
 
 Violation. — You must not go without you get permission. 
 Correction. — You must not go unless you get permission. 
 
 Note. — The adverb like must be followed by a preposition, 
 expressed or understood, and should never be used as a conjunction. 
 
 Violation. — He went to war like David went. 
 Correction. — He went to war like [unto] David, or^ went to war 
 as David went. 
 
 {b) By using both conjunction and relative. 
 
 Violation. — This was his favorite spot, and which he chose for 
 his grave. 
 
 Correction. — This was his favorite spot, which he chose for his 
 grave ; or, This was his favorite spot, and the one which he chose 
 for his grave. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. The enemy found the fight would be useless except the 
 guard should be bribed. 
 
 2. The Indians believe in a great Spirit, and which they 
 worship with many curious ceremonies. 
 
70 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 3. I would do anything sooner to going through with this 
 discussion. 
 
 4. He looked like he was a very sick man. 
 
 5. He acted like he couldn't bear to have them near him. 
 
 XX. Every sentence should be grammatically com- 
 plete; and every word should be a grammatical element 
 in the sentence. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 (a) By using two words for the subject of a sentence. 
 
 Violation. — My mother, when she came to investigate the 
 matter, she found it as was expected. 
 
 Correction. — My mother, when she came to investigate the 
 matter, found it as was expected. 
 
 {b) By using two thats to introduce a clause. 
 
 Violation. — He said that when all the points were made that the 
 opposition would be glad to settle. 
 
 Correction. — He said that when all the points were made, the 
 opposition would be glad to settle. 
 
 (c) By using a word that has no construction in the 
 sentence. 
 
 Violation. — The animosity which she exhibited in early life, she 
 lost it all in later years. 
 
 Correction. — All the animosity which she exhibited in early life, 
 she lost in later years. 
 
 (</) By omitting an essential part of the sentence. 
 
 Violation. — He knows better than withhold information. 
 Correction. — He knows better than to withhold information. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1 . He was as violent, if not more violent, than his opponent. 
 
 2. This fellow, after the speaking began, he kept interrupt- 
 ing the orators. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 71 
 
 3. The young tradeswomen here, the shop-girls, dress- 
 makers, etc., are some of them extremely pretty. 
 
 4. He coughed between every other word he spoke. 
 
 5. They felt that when everything was arranged and the 
 old people comfortably settled, that they could be more 
 independent. 
 
 6. Look up in the dictionary every word the spelling of 
 which you are not certain. 
 
 7. She was as good, if not better, than any seamstress in 
 the class. 
 
 8. They have for a long while, and they still will continue, 
 to deal with us. 
 
 9. Dr. M he was sure of being on the right course. 
 
 10. I never like athletic games; you have to wait so long 
 
 between each event. 
 
 SUMMARY OF TWENTY RULES FOR CORRECTING ERRORS 
 IN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Nouns 
 
 AND 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 1. Some domesticated foreign words retain their 
 
 original plurals. 
 
 2. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative. 
 
 3. The predicate after the verb to be, or other verb 
 
 expressing existence, is in the same case as 
 the subject. 
 
 4. The object of a verb or preposition is in the ob- 
 
 jective case. 
 
 5. All nouns in the singular, and nouns in the plural 
 
 not ending in j, form the possessive by adding 
 apostrophe and s. Plural nouns ending in s add 
 the apostrophe alone. Definite pronouns do 
 not take the apostrophe in the possessive case. 
 
 6. A noun or pronoun limiting another noun is put 
 
 in the possessive case, unless a preposition is 
 used. 
 
 7. Pronouns agree with their antecedents in number 
 
 and person. 
 
72 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 AND 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 Preposi- 
 tions. 
 
 Conjunc- 
 tions. 
 
 General. 
 
 8. Verbs agree with their subjects in number and 
 
 person. 
 
 9. In subordinate clauses the tense of the verb is 
 
 relative to the tense of the principal verb. 
 
 10. The to which precedes the infinitive should not 
 
 be separated from its verb. 
 
 11. Use the proper verbal form and the proper 
 
 auxiliary. 
 
 12. Distinguish between the uses of the comparative 
 
 and the superlative degrees. 
 
 13. Adjectives agree with their nouns in number. 
 
 14. Adjectives qualify nouns ; adverbs qualify verbs, 
 
 adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 15. The article an is used before words beginning 
 
 with a vowel sound, and before words begin- 
 ning with a pronounced h and having an accent 
 on the second syllable. The article a is used 
 before all other words. 
 
 16. Either^ neither, both, former, latter, etc., are used 
 
 in speaking of only two ; any, none, one, all, 
 first, last, etc., in speaking of more than two. 
 
 17. Two negatives make an affirmative. 
 
 18. Use a preposition which will properly express 
 
 the relation of the noun introduced. 
 
 19. Conjunctions or relatives connect sentences. 
 
 20. Every sentence should be grammatically com- 
 
 plete ; and every word should be a grammati- 
 cal element in the sentence. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. Among the passengers, not one will forget their narrow 
 escape. 
 
 2. He rejoiced at the thought of being taken into partner- 
 ship of his father's business. 
 
 3. The engineer, finding he was behind time, and having 
 an open, straight track ahead, he pulled the throttle out to the 
 last notch. 
 
CORRECTION OF ERRORS IN CONSTRUCTION. 73 
 
 4. The train was composed entirely of parlor cars, and 
 were for the most part filled with many passengers. 
 
 5. It was a wild and stormy night, one of those kind we 
 often have in December. 
 
 6. If you would begin your letters sooner, you would 
 accomplish the task, if it is one, in time. 
 
 7. Write down the events of each day ; and so a long 
 letter will grow beneath your pen, and which will not tax you 
 to write. 
 
 8. She died to-day, only twenty-three years old. Youth 
 and health are no security ; it is an event which happens to all. 
 
 9. He put on the air brakes, but it does no good. 
 
 10. Every one is dressed in their best. 
 
 11. The St. Louis Express had to make good time, which, 
 of course, was known to the engineer. 
 
 12. Besides, lynching was the only thing that could have 
 been done. 
 
 13. There will be no chance of anybody being disturbed. 
 
 14. They rode forward, each with a self-confident smile 
 lingering about their faces. 
 
 15. The knights had long since began to assemble. 
 
 16. Lord Mohun immediately became angry and whipped 
 his horses, which caused a runaway. 
 
 1 7. He was a very bold fellow and reckless at cards, which 
 all gentlemen of the times were. 
 
 18. He took them in the smoking car. 
 
 19. Tennyson's Idylls of the King were dedicated to Prince 
 Albert of England, which is thought to have been very 
 appropriate. 
 
 20. Last year we were defeated in our first game, which 
 seemed to strengthen the team. 
 
 2 1 . Despite his absence, however, the Commission's actions 
 was eminently conservative. 
 
 22. He is more entirely in sympathy with the aims of the 
 society than is any of its members. 
 
74 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 23. Of the fourteen passengers, — all men, — none was killed, 
 but eight were severely injured. A severe storm prevailed, and 
 the injured suffered greatly. 
 
 24. After this, five of the knights which were chosen ad- 
 vanced, and with reversed lances touched the shield of their 
 champion. 
 
 25. He went up and struck Gilbert's shield, which started 
 the combat at once. 
 
 26. In the following examples the sound of sentences are 
 marred by repetitions. 
 
 27. Different provinces furnished men peculiarly fitted to 
 different occupations. 
 
 28. Two awful piles of wreck and ruin are in view, mingled 
 with the broken bones and mangled bodies of the passengers. 
 It catches fire, and the flames envelop all. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 
 
 Good Style. — Though the pupil has now been warned 
 
 against the errors in diction and grammar which inex- 
 perienced writers are apt to commit, and though he may 
 thoroughly understand what these errors are and how 
 to avoid them, he is not necessarily an accomplished 
 and agreeable writer. If he is not, the main cause of 
 this failure may be that he has no interesting and 
 entertaining thoughts to communicate to his readers ; 
 but an additional cause will be found in his inability to 
 express his thoughts in a pleasing manner. 
 
 A boy may have witnessed an exceedingly amusing 
 occurrence ; and yet the letter in which he gives the 
 account to his friends may be neither entertaining nor 
 interesting. The failure to entertain by the written 
 account cannot be due to the lack of subject matter, but 
 to the fact that his ideas cannot be apprehended without 
 great effort on the part of the reader. The reader has 
 been tired by the use of unnecessary words, or words 
 have been left out without which the writer's ideas could 
 not be well understood. The sentences are confused, 
 and so arranged that they do not bring out the meaning 
 clearly and forcibly ; and the important thoughts have 
 no emphasis. Another reason for the lack of interest 
 will probably be found in the absence of all illustration, 
 and in a consequent literalness of expression, so that 
 
 75 
 
76 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 nothing is suggested to the reader beyond the facts 
 related. 
 
 An analysis of such a letter might fail to reveal any 
 mistake in the use of words or any solecism ; the sub- 
 ject is known to be interesting, and yet the letter fails 
 to please. Evidently, there must be some further im- 
 provement in the style of the writer. Accordingly, the 
 following pages are devoted to those rules of rhetoric 
 the observance of which will enable one to express his 
 thoughts clearly, forcibly, and in sentences whose sound 
 is pleasing to the listener ; and an attempt will be made 
 to exhibit to him the power which lies in the use of 
 figurative language, by which a thought may be sug- 
 gested in a clearer and more forcible way than it can 
 be stated literally. 
 
 Benefit from Instruction in Rhetoric.^ — It is extremely 
 likely that some students will make these improvements 
 by unconsciously imitating the style of the authors 
 whose books they read, and that others will never 
 remedy all their faults under any method of instruc- 
 tion. Nevertheless it is possible to aid the weakest and 
 to hasten the progress of the strongest, by familiarizing 
 them with the principles of good style, giving them 
 a clear idea of what constitutes beauty, and what is a 
 blemish. By applying the rules given in the following 
 pages, students may detect the blemishes in their writing, 
 and, by making a revision of what they have first written, 
 may produce more creditable and interesting results. 
 
 CLEARNESS. 
 
 That no effort may be wasted by the reader in attempt- 
 ing to discover the meaning of words and sentences, or in 
 
 1 See Herbert Spencer's " Philosophy of Style." 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 'J'J 
 
 trying to decide which of two or more possible meanings 
 is the one intended^ a writer should select and arrange his 
 wordSy not only so that they may be understood, but, if 
 possible, so that they cannot be mistmderstood. 
 
 The following are special rules designed to aid in 
 securing this standard of clearness. 
 
 I. Modifying words, phrases, and clauses sho2ild, if 
 possible, be placed so that there can be no mistake as to 
 what they modify. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 {a) By placing modifiers too far from the words which 
 they modify. 
 
 Violation. — He made amends when he discovered his error, like 
 a man. 
 
 Correction. — He made amends like a man, when he discovered 
 his error; or, Like a man, he made amends when he discovered 
 his error. 
 
 Violation. — I only have gratitude for you. 
 
 Correction. — I have only gratitude for you ; or, I have gratitude 
 for you only. 
 
 Only is more frequently misplaced than any other 
 adverb. 
 
 Violation. — I went out in the storm and lost my hat when she 
 called. 
 
 Correction. — I went out in the storm when she called, and lost 
 my hat ; or. When she called, I went out in the storm and lost 
 my hat. 
 
 Violation. — The police officer entered as the criminal sat down, 
 by the open window. 
 
 Correction. — The police officer entered by the open window, as 
 the criminal sat down ; or, As the criminal sat down by the open 
 window, the police officer entered. 
 
78 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Note. — Special care is necessary to avoid ambiguity in the use 
 of participial constructions. 
 
 Violation. — Being in the depths of despair, the sea became the 
 refuge that he had long been seeking. 
 
 Correction. — The sea became the refuge that he, being in the 
 depths of despair, had long been seeking. 
 
 {h) By placing a modifier so that it may be taken 
 with either of two parts of the sentence. 
 
 Violation. — Telephone the doctor, if he comes home before 
 seven, to call this evening. 
 
 Correction. — Telephone the doctor to call this evening if he 
 comes home before seven ; or, If he comes home before seven, 
 telephone the doctor to call this evening. 
 
 Punctuation not Sufficient. — Separating a modifying 
 phrase by a comma often indicates that it should not 
 be taken with the part of the sentence immediately 
 preceding; and though the clearness of a faulty sen- 
 tence may be improved in this way, it is always better 
 to put the phrase in its proper position. 
 
 Ex. It is reported that Mr. Brown is at the point of death at his 
 father's summer resort from typhoid fever. 
 
 Though the clearness of this sentence might be im- 
 proved by placing a comma before the phrase from 
 typhoid feveVy the proper correction is as follows : — 
 
 It is reported that Mr. Brown is at the point of death from typhoid 
 fever at his father's summer resort. 
 
 II. Every pronoun should be so placed that its antece- 
 dent cannot be mistaken. 
 
 This rule is probably more frequently violated than 
 any other rule of rhetoric. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 79 
 
 This rule is violated by allowing between the pronoun 
 and its antecedent another noun to which the pronoun 
 may refer. 
 
 Violation. — He led a horse from the stable which was five 
 years old. 
 
 Correction. — He led from the stable a horse which was five 
 years old. 
 
 Violation. ^QoV^m.^ got me a free passage from the captain of a 
 sloop, on the ground that I was a friend of his. 
 
 Correction. — Collins, on the ground that I was a friend of his, 
 got me a free passage from the captain of a sloop. 
 
 Ambiguity may often be avoided by repeating the 
 noun instead of using a pronoun. 
 
 Violation. — When I told Jones that I was going to leave Brown, 
 he became very angry. 
 
 Correction. — When I told Jones that I was going to leave Brown, 
 Jones became very angry. 
 
 Violation. — Smith has separated from his partner ; if you ask 
 him, he may employ you. 
 
 Correction. — Smith has separated from his partner; if you ask 
 Smith, he may employ you. 
 
 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 
 
 On entering the hall, he saw some one holding a lamp in a 
 white gown beckoning to him. 
 
 Albany is a town containing one thousand houses and ten 
 thousand inhabitants, all standing with their gable ends to the 
 street. 
 
 III. The words selected should be adequate to express 
 the meaning intended. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 {a) By the omission of words necessary to complete 
 the sense. 
 
8o SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Violation. — I cannot remember one of their statements. 
 Correction. — I cannot remember even one of their statements. 
 Violation. — He is very near an agnostic thinker. 
 Correction. — He is very near to becoming an agnostic thinker. 
 
 (h) By the use of general in place of specific terms. 
 
 Violation. — It is better to take this post by strategy than by 
 force. 
 
 Correction. — It is wiser \or more prudent] to take this post by 
 strategy than by force. 
 
 ic) By the use of a word capable of two meanings. 
 
 Violation. — He draws a certain amount each year. 
 
 Correction. — He draws a fixed amount each year; or. He draws 
 an unfaiUng amount each year. 
 
 Violation. — That is a dear little trinket. 
 
 Correction. — That is an expensive little trinket; or, That is a 
 pretty little trinket. 
 
 IV. In every sentence, imity of thought should be pre- 
 served; i.e., there shoidd be but one main thought, arid the 
 construction shoidd vtake this evident. 
 
 Unity is often given as one of the four essentials of 
 good style, but may properly be classified under clear- 
 ness. The objection to presenting several main thoughts 
 in a single sentence is the possible misunderstanding of 
 the relation between the several dependent and inde- 
 pendent members of the sentence. This misunderstand- 
 ing is evidently the result of a lack of clearness. 
 
 This rule is violated — 
 
 (a) By connecting independent sentences which have 
 no real connection in thought. 
 
 Fz^/^//^«. — Lawrenceville is a small town in New Jersey, half- 
 way between Trenton and Princeton ; and the school grounds are 
 on the east side of the road which runs through the village. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 8 1 
 
 Correction. — Lawrenceville is a small town in New Jersey, half- 
 way between Trenton and Princeton. The school grounds are on 
 the east side of the road which runs through the village. 
 
 (b) By making an unnecessary change of subject. 
 
 Violation. — After the convicts reached the station, the officers 
 handcuffed them, and the train officials took them into the smoking 
 car, which was already crowded with tourists who were returning 
 from the fair. 
 
 Correction. — After the convicts reached the station, they were 
 handcuffed by the officers, and taken by the train officials into the 
 smoking car, already crowded with tourists returning from the 
 fair. 
 
 (c) By long parenthetical clauses, or by a number 
 of dependent clauses or phrases between subject and 
 predicate. 
 
 Violation. — Police matrons, for whose employment at the police 
 stations of the city where women and girls were detained this 
 society joined its efforts with those of others alike interested, are 
 now on duty, the needed legislation having been secured and carried 
 into effect. 
 
 Correction. — This society joined its efforts with those of others 
 alike interested, for the employment of police matrons at the police 
 stations of this city where women and girls were detained. The 
 needed legislation having been secured and carried into effect, the 
 matrons are now on duty. 
 
 ADDITIONAL EXAMPLE. 
 
 The girl heard the shot distinctly, she declares, while the 
 others, who were twenty feet nearer the spot where the body 
 was found, and who, from the peculiar acoustic properties of 
 the flat, aided by those of the court, which would concentrate 
 the sound waves and naturally force them through the window 
 into the two parlors, connected by a wide archway, should 
 have heard the report clearly, have sworn that they did not. 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 6 
 
82 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 V. Very often a faulty sentence cannot be corrected by 
 any of the foregoing riiles^ but must be rewritten before 
 it will convey the writer s intended meaning. 
 
 The newspaper reporter who wrote the following 
 item, — 
 
 "The office of the Italian journal 'Roma' was wrecked and an 
 Italian restaurant was demolished, as well as other damage done to 
 the property of Italian residents," — 
 
 did not mean to say that other damage was demolished ; 
 and it will be difficult to correct the sentence without 
 rewriting it somewhat as follows : — 
 
 "The office of the Italian journal 'Roma' was wrecked; an 
 Italian restaurant was demolished; and other damage was done 
 to the property of Italian residents." 
 
 It is difficult to say what was in the mind of the cor- 
 respondent who wrote the following : — 
 
 "It is the first instance of the kind the United States has ever had 
 to deal with, when the people .of another country voluntarily asked 
 for annexation, the protest of foreign powers. Consequently the 
 United States must decide whether it will assume the risk of an- 
 nexation and its possible results. That's the whole thing in a 
 nutshell. . . . Both propositions have earnest advocates, who, 
 fortunately for the object in view, concede that the other has many 
 merits. The conviction that either a protectorate must be estab- 
 lished or annexation provided for grows steadily, as the alternative 
 in case both measures are rejected is more clearly appreciated." 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF VIOLATION OF CLEARNESS. 
 
 Explain how clearness is lost in each sentence, and correct 
 the fault : — 
 
 1. He believed that if they could get the bill up, they could 
 hold the House in session until it should be finally disposed of. 
 
 2. Vestibule cars were behind the noble engine filled with 
 passengers hastening homeward. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 83 
 
 3. They pass the lights made dim by the storm on the track 
 at Yonkers. 
 
 4. Just as the bookmakers were dividing up the profits, the 
 police rushed in and said they were all under arrest. 
 
 5. He left the station with a long train full of travelers 
 going to spend Christmas with their friends and relatives, just 
 half an hour behind the Niagara Express. 
 
 6. The engineer sat waiting for the signal to start from the 
 conductor. 
 
 7. The engineer all at once sees that the "Gibraltar" is 
 standing there on his track. Quickly reversing at full speed, 
 the wheels begin to rotate backward, but to no purpose. 
 
 8. The preceding train also carries passengers en route for 
 their homes ; viz., the Niagara Express. 
 
 9. The signal is given for him to pull out. Pushing for- 
 ward the lever, the great engine starts. 
 
 10. And he spake unto his sons, saying, Saddle me the ass ; 
 and they saddled him. 
 
 11. There are guards to protect the tibia and the fibula of 
 the leg, usually made of metal. 
 
 12. But, unfortunately, we can as yet only infer from this 
 experiment that such a constitution is possible. We cannot 
 say whether it will be good or bad. 
 
 13. He spent most of his time looking from the clubhouse 
 windows of which he was a member. 
 
 14. Our Canadian neighbors have been for some time past 
 encroaching on the rights of the United States, by their un- 
 doubtedly unlawful killing of the seals. 
 
 15. He had difficulty in breathing, which yielded to treat- 
 ment, at the expense of his strength. 
 
 16. Wait till I get a big boy. 
 
 17. First, the proverbial corruption of the officials was not 
 above turning a considerable part of the money destined to 
 the purchase of food and corn for sowing into their own 
 pockets. 
 
84 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 1 8. In response to such an intimation, several opponents of 
 the bill to-day remarked with considerable sarcasm that they 
 should not heed it, unless it -assumed a more definite and spe- 
 cific form. 
 
 19. It is understood that the sight of the guns of the 
 "Atlanta" has not brought the President of Haiti and his 
 Minister of Justice to understand the seriousness with which 
 the Administration looks upon the imprisonment of one of its 
 citizens contrary to law. 
 
 20. A well-known firm, after joining the society, caused to 
 be drawn from its books, and sent to us for revision, a list of 
 twenty societies to which it had for many years contributed. 
 Upon examination we reported six as unworthy of confidence 
 or support. It thus cut off a considerable annual waste. 
 
 21. There has been much inquiry for our publications from 
 other cities and towns for use in forming kindred societies ; 
 one request coming from the far-off university town of Kharkof, 
 Russia, while several have come from France. 
 
 22. Mrs. Harris had everything she could wish that money 
 could buy, was a great favorite in Cleveland society, and appar- 
 ently lived happily with her husband. 
 
 23. Two letters were received from the Corporation Coun- 
 sel and President Barker, of the Tax Board, complaining of the 
 inadequacy of their quarters and the filthy condition of the 
 building. 
 
 24. The whole list contained the names of more than one 
 hundred deputies who had been beneficiaries of the Panama 
 fund. The sums paid to these men varied between 1,000 and 
 2,000 francs and 300,000 francs each. 
 
 25. The Secretary of the Navy arrived in the city yester- 
 day, and is at the Gilsey House, and personal business is the 
 reason for his presence here, and he says he does not think 
 he will have time during this visit to go to the Navy Yard. 
 
 26. The police could, if they would, shut up every gambling 
 place in the city. They know where they are. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 8$ 
 
 27. The operation of this bill upon the Brooklyn indictments 
 — when enacted, as it seems certain to be — will be scrutinized 
 closely. 
 
 28. The flour bought by the municipal council of St. Peters- 
 burg for the poor was found to be mixed up with indigestible 
 substances. 
 
 29. It has come to be a pretty well defined conviction that 
 there is but one proper and just course for the United States to 
 pursue, and that is to accede to the desires of the enlightened 
 and interested people of the islands in one form or another. 
 
 30. He mastered the art of engraving with the intention of 
 publishing a book never to be completed on the machinery 
 employed in the Gota Canal Works. 
 
 31. The Union League Club of New York, as will be the 
 case with the great Union of States, to aid in the preservation 
 of which it was brought into existence in 1863, has passed 
 under new executive control. 
 
 32. Whenever the Democrats can find enough members to 
 vote for the repeal of the Silver Purchase Law, who, with 
 Republican aid, can pass the bill, that is the thing for Repub- 
 licans to do. 
 
 33. Paris is the place of all others to find big wax dolls, with 
 flaxen hair and pink cheeks, that squeak when you squeeze 
 them and shut their eyes when you lay them down. But I 
 doubt very much whether the true healthy child really cares 
 for these things. 
 
 34. They are all men representative of the best class in 
 Hawaii, and on this errand will voice the desires of the intelli- 
 gent and enterprising portion of Hawaiian population. That 
 portion is made up of the foreigners who have gone to that 
 country and those who were born there of American and Euro- 
 pean parents. 
 
 35. He was born of an humble family in Genoa in 1784. 
 At a very early age he showed great musical talent, and his 
 father, who himself played the violin a little, resolved to 
 
86 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 develop it to the utmost. Accordingly the instrument was 
 placed in his hands almost as soon as he could talk, and with 
 such instruction as his father could give him he was made to 
 practice nearly the whole time, stopping only to eat and to 
 sleep. 
 
 36. From other sources it was learned that it is the present 
 intention of the Commissioner to visit the several settlements 
 in the other islands on the " Rush." The " Rush " is expected 
 to return after a week's stay here, as her services will be no 
 longer required. 
 
 37. The most important business was the report of the 
 Finance Committee, which showed that the ^250,000 required 
 by the act of the Legislature to be raised by subscription before 
 the 250 acres of land in Bronx Park could be secured and the 
 ^500,000 to be given by the city could be obtained, was prac- 
 tically in hand. 
 
 ^S. This sudden change of mind on the part of the Presi- 
 dent was wholly unexpected, and is not to be attributed to any 
 outside influence brought to bear upon him. On the contrary, 
 the men who came to Washington yesterday to talk over once 
 more the situation with the authorities, left the Secretary de- 
 cidedly disappointed. 
 
 39. The chimpanzee is supposed to stand next to man. 
 This is owing principally to his brain and the formation of his 
 thumb. It has a man's appetite, when cultivated. It learns to 
 sit at table, as a man has to do, and partakes of everything, 
 being particularly fond of sweets. It has even been known to 
 become addicted to strong drink ! — another manly art. 
 
 EXTRACT TO ILLUSTRATE CLEARNESS. 
 
 In each of the examples on the preceding pages the 
 writer's meaning is not clearly expressed. The follow- 
 ing extract from an author remarkable for the lucidity 
 of his style, is given in order that the student may 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY 87 
 
 contrast the sentences in the preceding passages with 
 those to follow, and thus appreciate the value of clear- 
 ness of expression. 
 
 [from MACAULAY's "history of ENGLAND."] 
 
 And now the time for the great hazard drew near. The 
 night was not ill suited for such an enterprise. The moon was 
 indeed at the full, and the northern streamers were shining 
 brilliantly. But the marsh fog lay so thick on Sedgemoor that 
 no object could be discerned there at the distance of fifty 
 paces. 
 
 The clock struck eleven, and the Duke with his bodyguard 
 rode out of the Castle. He was not in the frame of mind 
 which befits one who is about to strike a decisive blow. The 
 very children who pressed to see him pass, observed and long 
 remembered that his look was sad and full of evil augury. 
 His army marched by a circuitous path, near six miles in 
 length, towards the royal encampment on Sedgemoor. Part 
 of the route is to this day called War Lane. The foot were 
 led by Monmouth himself. The horse were confided to Grey, 
 in spite of the remonstrances of some who remembered the 
 mishap at Bridport. Orders were given that strict silence 
 should be preserved, that no drum should be beaten, and no 
 shot fired. The word by which the insurgents were to recog- 
 nize one another in the darkness was Soho. It had doubtless 
 been selected in allusion to Soho Fields in London, where 
 their leader's palace stood. 
 
 At about one in the morning of Monday the sixth of July, 
 the rebels were on the open moor. But between them and the 
 enemy lay three broad rhines filled with water and soft mud. 
 Two of these, called the Black Ditch and the Langmoor 
 Rhine, Monmouth knew that he must pass. But, strange to 
 say, the existence of a trench, called the Bussex Rhine, which 
 immediately covered the royal encampment, had not been 
 mentioned to him by any of his scouts. 
 
88 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 The wains which carried the ammunition remained at the 
 entrance of the moor. The horse and foot, in a long narrow 
 column, passed the Black Ditch by a causeway. There was 
 a similar causeway across the Langmoor Rhine ; but the guide, 
 in the fog, missed his way. There was some delay and some 
 tumult before the error could be rectified. At length the 
 passage was effected ; but, in the confusion, a pistol went off. 
 Some men of the Horse Guards, who were on watch, heard 
 the report, and perceived that a great multitude was advancing 
 through the mist. They fired their carbines, and galloped 
 off in different directions to give the alarm. Some hastened 
 to Weston Zoyland, where the cavalry lay. One trooper 
 spurred to the encampment of the infantry, and cried out 
 vehemently that the enemy was at hand. The drums of 
 Dumbarton's regiment beat to arms; and the men got fast 
 into their ranks. It was time ; for Monmouth was already 
 drawing up his army for action. He ordered Grey to lead the 
 way with the cavalry, and followed himself at the head of 
 the infantry. Grey pushed on till his progress was unex- 
 pectedly arrested by the Bussex Rhine. On the opposite side 
 of the ditch the King's foot were hastily forming in order of 
 battle. 
 
 " For whom are you ? " called out an officer of the Foot 
 Guards. " For the King," replied a voice from the ranks of 
 the rebel cavalry. "For which King?" was then demanded. 
 The answer was a shout of " King Monmouth," mingled with 
 the war cry, which forty years before had been inscribed on the 
 colors of the parliamentary regiments, " God with us." The 
 royal troops instantly fired such a volley of musketry as sent 
 the rebel horse flying in all directions. The world agreed to 
 ascribe this ignominious rout to Grey's pusillanimity. Yet it 
 is by no means clear that Churchill would have succeeded 
 better at the head of men who had never before handled arms 
 on horseback, and whose horses were unused, not only to stand 
 fire, but to obey the rein. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 89 
 
 A few minutes after the Duke's horse had dispersed them- 
 selves over the moor, his infantry came up, running fast, and 
 guided through the gloom by the lighted matches of Dumbar- 
 ton's regiment. 
 
 Monmouth was startled by finding that a broad and profound 
 trench lay between him and the camp which he had hoped to 
 surprise. The insurgents halted on the edge of the rhine, and 
 fired. Part of the royal infantry on the opposite bank returned 
 the fire. During three quarters of an hour the roar of the 
 musketry was incessant. The Somersetshire peasants behaved 
 themselves as if they had been veteran soldiers, save only that 
 they leveled their pieces too high. 
 
 But now the other divisions of the royal army were in 
 motion. The Life Guards and Blues came pricking fast from 
 Weston Zoyland, and scattered in an instant some of Grey's 
 horse, who had attempted to rally. The fugitives spread a 
 panic among their comrades in the rear, who had charge of 
 the ammunition. The wagoners drove off at full speed, and 
 never stopped till they were many miles from the field of battle. 
 Monmouth had hitherto done his part like a stout and able 
 warrior. He had been seen on foot, pike in hand, encouraging 
 his infantry by voice and by example. But he was too well 
 acquainted with military affairs not to know that all was over. 
 His men had lost the advantage which surprise and darkness 
 had given them. They were deserted by the horse and by the 
 ammunition wagons. The King's forces were now united and 
 in good order. Feversham had been awakened by the firing, 
 had got out of bed, had adjusted his cravat, had looked at 
 himself well in the glass, and had come to see what his men 
 were doing. Meanwhile, what was of much more importance, 
 Churchill had rapidly made an entirely new disposition of the 
 royal infantry. The day was about to break. The event of 
 a conflict on an open plain, by broad sunlight, could not be 
 doubtful. Yet Monmouth should have felt that it was not for 
 him to fly, while thousands whom affection for him had hurried 
 
90 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 to destruction were still fighting manfully in his cause. But 
 vain hopes and the intense love of Hfe prevailed. He saw that 
 if he tarried, the royal cavalry would soon intercept his retreat. 
 He mounted and rode from the field. 
 
 Yet his foot, though deserted, made a gallant stand. The 
 Life Guards attacked them on the right, the Blues on the left ; 
 but the Somersetshire clowns, with their scythes and the butt 
 ends of their muskets, faced the royal horse like old soldiers. 
 Oglethorpe made a vigorous attempt to break them, and was 
 manfully repulsed. Sarsfield, a brave Irish officer, whose name 
 afterwards obtained a melancholy celebrity, charged on the 
 other flank. His men were beaten back. He was himself 
 struck to the ground, and lay for a time as one dead. 
 But the struggle of the hardy rustics could not last. Their 
 powder and ball were spent. Cries were heard of " Ammuni- 
 tion ! For God's sake, ammunition ! " But no ammunition 
 was at hand. And now the King's artillery came up. It had 
 been posted half a mile off, on the high road from Weston 
 Zoyland to Bridgewater. So defective were then the appoint- 
 ments of an English army, that there would have been much 
 difficulty in dragging the great guns to the place where the 
 battle was raging, had not the Bishop of Winchester offered 
 his coach horses and traces for the purpose. This interference 
 of a Christian prelate in a matter of blood has, with strange 
 inconsistency, been condemned by some Whig writers who can 
 see nothing criminal in the conduct of the numerous Puritan 
 ministers then in arms against the government. Even when 
 the guns had arrived, there was such a want of gunners, that 
 a sergeant of Dumbarton's regiment was forced to take on 
 himself the management of several pieces. The cannon, how- 
 ever, though ill served, brought the engagement to a speedy 
 close. The pikes of the rebel battahons began to shake ; the 
 ranks broke ; the King's cavalry charged again, and bore down 
 everything before them ; the King's infantry came pouring 
 across the ditch. Even in that extremity the Mendip miners 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 9 1 
 
 Stood bravely to their arms, and sold their lives dearly. But 
 the rout was in a few minutes complete. Three hundred of 
 the soldiers had been killed or wounded. Of the rebels, more 
 than a thousand lay dead on the moor. 
 
 So ended the last fight, deserving the name of battle, that 
 has been fought on English ground. 
 
 FORCE AND HARMONY. 
 
 Object in Studying. — The greater the writer's pov^rer 
 to force his ideas upon the notice and memory of the 
 reader, the easier will it be for the reader to compre- 
 hend them ; and the more agreeable and attractive the 
 sound of the writer's words, the less energy will be 
 required of the reader to keep his mind upon the writ- 
 ten matter. Therefore text-books on rhetoric gener- 
 ally include some instruction designed to show the 
 student how to impress the reader and hold his atten- 
 tion, and how to write sentences agreeable in sound, or, 
 in other words, how to gain the qualities of force and 
 harmony. 
 
 Difficult to Teach. — It is entirely practicable and 
 comparatively easy to teach an intelligent scholar how 
 to write clearly ; but it is impossible to lay down defi- 
 nite rules for writing sentences that will arrest the 
 attention, make a lasting impression, or give pleasure by 
 the beauty of the sound. Force and harmony are none 
 the less important qualities of style, but all the more 
 valuable to a writer, because their presence or absence 
 marks the distinguishing features of interesting and 
 uninteresting writing. The ability to write with power 
 and grace is the attribute of genius. Moreover, no 
 suggestion can be made, or rule laid down, for force 
 
92 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 and harmony, which is not disregarded by skillful writers 
 for the purpose of rhetorical effect, and often to secure 
 the very qualities which apparently would be lost. 
 
 For example : Nearly every text-book on rhetoric 
 says, under the subject of harmony, that the repeti- 
 tion of a word or sound, especially the conjunction and, 
 is offensive to the ear. Yet there is nothing offensive 
 in the following extract from Tennyson's *' Idylls of 
 the King," a poem in which frequently occur passages 
 where beauty depends largely on a rhythmic repe- 
 tition : — 
 
 " I saw the fiery face as of a child 
 That smote itself into the bread, and went ; 
 And hither am I come ; and never yet 
 Hath what thy sister taught me first to see, 
 This Holy Thing, failed from my side, nor come 
 Cover'd, but moving with me night and day, 
 Fainter by day, but always in the night 
 Blood-red, and sliding down the blackened marsh 
 Blood-red, and on the naked mountain top 
 Blood-red, and in the sleeping mere below 
 Blood-red." 
 
 Nor is there anything offensive in this : — 
 
 " O brother, had you known our mighty hall, 
 Which Merlin built for Arthur long ago ! 
 For all the sacred mount of Camelot, 
 And all the dim rich city, roof by roof. 
 Tower after tower, spire beyond spire. 
 By grove, and garden-lawn, and rushing brook. 
 Climbs to the mighty hall that Merlin built. 
 And four great zones of sculpture, set betwixt 
 With many a mystic symbol, gird the hall : 
 And in the lowest beasts are slaying men. 
 And in the second men are slaying beasts, 
 
 . And on the third are warriors, perfect men, 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 93 
 
 And on the fourth are men with growing wings, 
 
 And over all one statue in the mold 
 
 Of Arthur, made by Merlin, with a crown, 
 
 And peak'd wings pointed to the Northern Star." 
 
 FORCE. 
 
 Means of gaining Force. — Though genius may seem 
 to be independent of rules, there are a few principles 
 of style, the violation of which without sufficient ground 
 or without great skill, is almost certain to depreciate 
 the worth of one's writings. Though originality and 
 strength of thought may be the most striking element 
 in the masterpieces of style, we know that the arrange- 
 ment and choice of words have much to do with the 
 impression made on the reader. We also know that 
 energy is wasted on every unnecessary word ; that, as a 
 rule, compact, brief sentences are more striking than 
 long, loosely connected sentences ; that one statement 
 of a truth is better than two ; that the emphasis of 
 words may be influenced by their position in a sen- 
 tence ; and that in a series of similar thoughts, the mind 
 will grasp the full meaning better if the most important 
 thought be placed last. It will be profitable for us, 
 then, to illustrate a few of the ways in which the choice 
 and arrangement of words may add or detract from the 
 force and sound of the sentence. 
 
 I. Unnecessary Words. 
 
 Errors Classified. — The fault of using unnecessary 
 words is very common with young writers, and most 
 difficult to overcome. The student, therefore, should 
 guard himself against this error by carefully reviewing 
 what he has written, and striking out every word that 
 
94 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 does not add to the thought. The various ways in which 
 unnecessary words creep into one's writings have been 
 classified, and are named as follows : — 
 
 {a) Tautology, or repeating a thought that has just 
 been stated. 
 
 Violation. — He answered their question with bitter sarcasm. 
 
 He replied to them with stinging words. 
 Correction. — (Either sentence alone tells as much as both.) 
 He has attained the summit of his ambition. 
 He has all that he desires. (Correction same as 
 above.) 
 
 (U) Redundancy, or the addition of words, which, 
 though not repeating the thought, add nothing to it. 
 
 Violation. — He indorsed his name on the back of the check. 
 Correction. — He indorsed the check. 
 
 Violation. — He returned back again. 
 Correction. — He returned- 
 
 Violation. — The last picture was a beautiful one. 
 Correction. — The last picture was beautiful. 
 
 Unnecessary words are often made use of in the form 
 of qualifying expressions which add nothing to the word 
 qualified. 
 
 Violation. — How many lessons we may draw from the unselfish, 
 beautiful life of Jesus ! 
 
 No adjective can introduce any loftier thoughts than 
 those suggested by the simple mention of the life of 
 Jesus, and therefore the presence of any adjective takes 
 from the force of the sentence. 
 
 Correction. — How many lessons we may draw from the life of 
 Jesus ! 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 95 
 
 Ex. Paul was the hero of that famous book, the Acts of the 
 Apostles. 
 
 The close of his life reminded one of a beautiful glorious sun- 
 set in a summer day. 
 
 She died like a noble martyr. 
 
 He lived throughout the life of a true and consistent apostle 
 of Christ. 
 
 (c) Verbosity or wordinesSy a fault consisting in a 
 general failure to condense thought into few words, 
 especially by lengthening out the unimportant parts of 
 the theme, and thus wearying the reader. 
 
 II. Choice of Words. 
 
 Power in Short Words. — The pupil should abandon 
 the notion that force is to be gained by the use of big 
 words. No one who has read much of English litera- 
 ture, or who has read little observingly^ can fail to 
 understand that short words often contain the greatest 
 power. Yet it is strange how easily young writers 
 drop into the use of long words ; and when once the 
 vocabulary is formed, it is very hard to be changed. 
 We fall insensibly into the use of certain words and 
 phrases; and they become part and parcel of our 
 modes of thought and of our style. Long words with 
 their full volume of sound express some ideas better 
 than short words will express them ; but the student is 
 urged to use short words as far as possible without 
 impairing the clearness of his writing. 
 
 What has just been said refers to all short words, 
 whether derived from the Latin, French, or Saxon. It 
 is, however, from the last-mentioned source that the 
 English that we speak draws its best life and power. 
 
 Illustrations from the Bible. — How many of our most 
 
96 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 familiar words, expressive of all that is best and dearest, 
 are Saxon monosyllables ! The first and great com- 
 mandment speaks in these words : — 
 
 " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and 
 with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy 
 strength." 
 
 Our English version of the Bible abounds in passages 
 full of the pith and marrow of the Anglo-Saxon tongue ; 
 some of them have a grace which is beyond the reach 
 of any later art. Take as an instance the parable by 
 which Nathan showed to David as in a glass the image 
 of his fatal crime (2 Sam. xii. 1-4). If you will count 
 the words in this parable, you will find it contains, in all, 
 a hundred and twenty-eight words, of which a hundred 
 and thirteen are words of one syllable. 
 
 Wicklif, in his translation of the Bible, puts in words 
 of one syllable, or their compounds, our Lord's saying 
 to the Seventy : — 
 
 " There is much ripe corn, but few workmen. Pray ye there- 
 fore the Lord of the ripe corn that he send workmen into his 
 ripe corn." 
 
 Further Illustrations. — Dr. Gregory says in his 
 "Memoir of Robert Hall:" — 
 
 " In one of my earher interviews with him, I used the word 
 felicity three or four times. He asked, ^Why do you say 
 feUcity? Happiness is a better word, and genuine English, 
 coming from the Saxon, and more musical, as are generally the 
 words derived from the Saxon. Listen : " My heart is smitten 
 and withered like grass." There's plaintive music. Again, 
 "Thou hast delivered my eyes from tears, my soul from death, 
 and my feet from falling : " all Saxon except delivei-ed. I could 
 think of that word tears till I wept. Then again for another 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 97 
 
 specimen, almost all good old Saxon, "Surely goodness and 
 mercy shall follow me all the days of my hfe ; and I will dwell 
 in the house of the Lord forever." ' " 
 
 Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress " owes muck of its 
 never weakened power to its plain, short words. You 
 can read from this book to a mixed company of old and 
 young, of all grades of intelligence, and they will listen : 
 the most illiterate, because it is so artless in its simple, 
 graphic style and vivid pictures ; and the most educated, 
 because it fulfills the highest conditions of art in its 
 perfect fidelity to nature and truth. 
 
 In one of the interior counties of New York State a 
 law case was being tried which turned upon the date at 
 which a certain thing was done. The judge told the 
 jury that their verdict must be for the plaintiff or the 
 defendant, according as they found that the thing in 
 question was done prior or subsequent to a given date. 
 The case was perfectly simple ; but after a considerable 
 time the jury returned to the court room and asked for 
 further instructions. They wanted to know what his 
 Honor the Judge meant by '^ prior or subsequent T The 
 judge promptly substituted before and after^ and the 
 jury agreed on a verdict. To the untutored minds of 
 this rustic jury the conversion of such plain homespun 
 words as before and after into the Latin derivatives prior 
 and subsequent^ was as complex a transformation as that 
 by which Dr. Johnson in his definition of 7ietivork turns 
 it into " anything reticulated or decussated at equal dis- 
 tances, with interstices between the intersections." 
 
 It is hard to see why text-books of rhetoric which 
 urge simplicity in the use of words should turn chapters 
 on ** Letter Writing" into directions for "Epistolary 
 Correspondence." 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 7 
 
98 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 III. Order of Words. 
 
 The emphasis given to a word or clause depends 
 chiefly upon its position in the sentence. Certain 
 methods of arranging words have become recognized 
 forms known by distinct names. Though often regarded 
 as figures of speech, and classed under that head in 
 works on rhetoric, they are given here as being the 
 chief means by which force has been gained in many 
 well-known examples from English literature. 
 
 (a) Force is lost by failure to make use of a natural 
 climax. 
 
 Climax consists in arranging a series of thoughts 
 or ideas so that the more important follow the less 
 important. 
 
 Ex. I came, I saw, I conquered. 
 
 Notice the loss of force from disturbing the climax, 
 even though the order in time be preserved : — 
 I conquered after I came and saw. 
 
 A sentence in which the less important thought 
 follows the more important is called an anti-climax. 
 
 All the force of the well-known original is lost by the 
 new order of the phrases in the following sentence : — 
 
 Ex. Washington was first in the hearts of his countrymen, and 
 first in peace, and first in war. 
 
 "One of the best examples of effective climax is the 
 following extract from Burke's speech against Warren 
 Hastings : — 
 
 " Therefore, hath it with all confidence been ordered by the 
 Commons of Great Britain, that I impeach Warren Hastings of 
 high crimes and misdemeanors. I impeach him in the name 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 99 
 
 of the Commons' House of Parliament, whose trust he has 
 betrayed. I impeach him in the name of the EngUsh nation, 
 whose ancient honor he has sulUed. I impeach him in the 
 name of the people of India, whose rights he has trodden under 
 foot, and whose country he has turned into a desert. Lastly, 
 in the name of human nature itself, in the name of both sexes, 
 in the name of every age, in the name of every rank, I impeach 
 the common enemy and oppressor of all ! " 
 
 The following is from Shakespeare : — 
 
 " Wise men ne'er sit and wail their loss, 
 But cheerly seek how to redress their harms. 
 What though the mast be now blown overboard, 
 The cable broke, the holding-anchor lost, 
 And half our sailors svvallowM in the flood.'' 
 Yet lives our pilot still." 
 
 On the same principle force is often lost by adding a 
 supplementary clause or phrase after the main thought 
 of the sentence has been stated. 
 
 A sentence in which the main thought is suspended 
 until the close is called a periodic sentence^ or a period. 
 
 A sentence in which the main thought is not sus- 
 pended until the close is called a loose sentence. 
 
 PERIODIC SENTENCES. 
 
 1. When, under a tropical sun, he ruled fifty millions of 
 Asiatics, his hopes, amidst all the cares of war, finance, and 
 legislation, still pointed to Daylesford. 
 
 2. In that temple of silence and reconciliation where the 
 enmities of twenty generations lie buried, in the Great Abbey 
 which has during many ages afforded a quiet resting place to 
 those whose minds and bodies have been shattered by the con- 
 tentions of the Great Hall, the dust of the illustrious accused 
 should have mingled with the dust of the illustrious accusers. 
 
lOO SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 By altering the order of clauses, the foregoing sen- 
 tences become loose sentences ; as follows : — 
 
 1. His hopes still pointed to Daylesford amidst all the cares 
 of war, finance, and legislation, when under a tropical sun he 
 ruled fifty millions of Asiatics. 
 
 2. The dust of the illustrious accused should have been 
 mingled with the dust of the illustrious accusers, in that temple 
 of silence and reconciUation where the enmities of twenty gen- 
 erations He buried, in the Great Abbey which has during many 
 ages afforded a quiet resting place to those whose minds and 
 bodies have been shattered by the contentions of the Great 
 Hall. 
 
 As a rule, when a sentence contains a thought which 
 should be given special emphasis, greater force can be 
 secured by the periodic than by the loose sentence. 
 This does not mean that all sentences should be peri- 
 odic, for a continued succession of such sentences is 
 unnatural and wearisome. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Change the following sentences from loose to periodic, and 
 notice the gain in force by emphasis of the important thoughts: — 
 
 1. I always prophesied his greatness, from the first moment 
 I saw him, then a very young and unknown man. There are 
 no Umits to his knowledge, on small subjects as well as great. 
 
 2. Those who look on his character without favor or malevo- 
 lence will pronounce that he was deficient in the two great 
 elements of all social virtue, in respect for the rights of others, 
 and in sympathy for the sufferings of others. 
 
 3. It is no easy matter to prevent people from going too fast 
 from want of patience when they are advancing in anything. 
 
 4. I never would lay down my arms, if I were an American as 
 I am an Englishman, and foreign troops landed in my country. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. lOI 
 
 (b) Force is lost by failure to make use of antithesis. 
 
 Antithesis consists in making similar in order and in 
 construction the parts of a sentence which contain con- 
 trasted thoughts. 
 Ex. The prodigal robs his heir, the miser robs himself. 
 
 Notice the loss of force from abandoning the antithesis. 
 
 The prodigal robs his heir, but the miser gets no good out of 
 his money. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF ANTITHESIS. 
 
 1. Fools who came to scoff, remained to pray. 
 
 2. When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves we leave 
 them. 
 
 3. A proverb is the wisdom of many and the wit of one. 
 
 4. He lives in fame that dies in virtue's cause. 
 
 (c) Force is sometimes lost by failure to make use of a 
 possible inversion. 
 
 Inversion consists in putting a v^ord or phrase out of 
 its natural order for the sake of rhetorical effect. 
 
 Ex. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 
 
 Visibly through his garden walketh God. 
 
 These are more forcible sentences than if they were in 
 the natural order of subject first, and predicate last; as. — 
 
 Diana of the Ephesians is great. 
 
 God walketh visibly through his garden. 
 
 Notice that in one of the original examples emphasis 
 is secured by placing the adjective first, in the other 
 sentence emphasis is gained by placing the noun last. 
 It is not the position of the first or last words that em- 
 phasizes them, but the fact that, being out of their nat- 
 ural position, the reader comes upon them unexpectedly. 
 
102 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 IV. Form of the Sentence. 
 
 Force is often gained by putting a sentence in the inter- 
 rogative or exclamatory form when the object is to make 
 a declarative statement. 
 
 Doth Job serve God for naught? 
 How wonderful is Death, 
 Death and his brother, Sleep! 
 Oh that I were a man ! 
 
 are more forcible ways of saying : — 
 
 Job makes something out of serving God. 
 
 Death is very wonderful, and so is his brother, Sleep. 
 
 I wish I were a man. 
 
 Many verses of the Book of Job consist of interroga- 
 tive sentences for rhetorical effect. 
 
 Ex. Doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass ? or loweth the 
 
 ox over his fodder ? 
 Can that which is unsavory be eaten without salt? or is 
 
 there any taste in the white of an ^gg^. 
 Is my strength the strength of stones? or is my flesh of 
 
 brass ? 
 Can the rush grow up without mire? Can the flag grow 
 
 without water? 
 Should a wise man utter vain knowledge, and fill his belly 
 
 with the east wind? 
 
 The Bible abounds also in exclamatory sentences used 
 for making forcible assertions. 
 
 Ex. How amiable are thy tabernacles, O Lord of Hosts ! 
 How terrible art thou in all thy works ! 
 
 The exclamatory form is frequently used for the 
 expression of passionate thought. 
 
 Ex. Oh, that this too, too solid flesh would melt, thaw, and 
 resolve itself into a dew ! 
 Alas, poor Coimtry ! 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 103 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Show how greater force might be given to the expression 
 of the thought in each of the following sentences : — 
 
 1. This is what Christianity has done for us. This is what 
 it has done for you. This is what it has done for me. 
 
 2. He gathered them up together in one place. 
 
 3. The accepted time is now. 
 
 4. I have no silver and gold. 
 
 5. The highest mountains were the ones selected for their 
 dwelling. 
 
 6. To bind a Roman citizen is an outrage ; to put him to 
 death by crucifixion — what shall I call it? To scourge him is 
 an atrocious crime, to put him to death is almost parricide. 
 
 7. When reason is against a man, he will not be reasonable. 
 
 8. I do not live to eat, but I take my meals for the sake 
 of keeping alive. 
 
 9. Every one was dressed in his best suit of clothes. 
 
 10. The account of his life must necessarily be a fragmen- 
 tary one. 
 
 11. All Lawrenceville is happy and excited, and getting in 
 readiness for the event. 
 
 1 2 . She looked perfectly contented, and was eating ice-cream . 
 
 13. Paul, before his conversion, led a life of sin and badness. 
 
 14. He organized and started the great and excellent work 
 of carrying the Gospel to the Gentiles. 
 
 15. There will be no peace for England until you come 
 back to that system. 
 
 16. What is liberty without virtue and without wisdom? It 
 is the greatest of all evils, for it is madness, vice, and folly. 
 
 1 7. Leave America to tax herself, if she has taxable matter 
 in her. 
 
 18. Now where is the revenue which is to do all these mighty 
 things ? Five sixths repealed — lost forever — gone — sunk — 
 abandoned ! 
 
104 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 HARMONY. 
 
 Avoid Repetition. — We have already referred to the 
 repetition of the same sound or word. Though Ten- 
 nyson has employed one word five or six times in as 
 many lines of poetry, it does not follow that repetition 
 is always pleasing to the ear. On the contrary, the 
 continued recurrence of the same sound is generally 
 disagreeable, and should be avoided when possible to 
 do so without destroying the sense. If a writer has 
 inadvertently used the same word three or four times in 
 a few lines, probably the clearness of what he has 
 written would be improved by substituting a different 
 word at least once or twice. 
 
 (a) When nothing is gained in clearness or rhetorical 
 effect^ avoid frequently repeating the same sound or word. 
 
 Exception. — If, however, there is only one word that 
 will express the meaning, do not be afraid to repeat this 
 word as often as you wish to repeat the idea it ex- 
 presses. In the following sentence the word awful is 
 used three times. In two instances the sense may be 
 improved by substituting another word. That this 
 change of wording will greatly improve the sound of 
 the sentence may be made evident by reading the two 
 examples aloud : — 
 
 Violation. — It was an awful night in the cab of the engine ; but 
 the engineer had to make time in spite of the awful wind and the 
 blinding rain which obscured his vision, as he peered from the 
 engine window into the awful darkness beyond. 
 
 Correction. — It was a dreary night in the cab of the locomotive ; 
 but the engineer had to make good time in spite of the terrific wind 
 and the blinding rain which obscured his vision, as he peered from 
 the cab window into the awfiil darkness beyond. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 105 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION. 
 
 1. The heaps of refuse in the streets, especially the up-town 
 streets, were frozen solid, and almost defied the attacks of the 
 gangs of sons of sunny Italy. 
 
 2. God hides nothing from us. The difficulty lies in the fact 
 that we are not able to understand all things. The Prophets 
 were told all things that they might tell us, though many things 
 are beyond our comprehension. 
 
 3. A life of St. Paul must be fragmentary owing to the fact 
 that very few facts are given in The Acts. The account of his 
 life as found in The Acts of the Apostles begins a long time 
 after his birth, and ends some time before his death ; at the 
 same time, however, the facts from the time of his birth to the 
 time we last hear of him are given in minute detail. 
 
 4. They sail to Salamis on the Island of Cyprus where they 
 preach in the synagogues ; from there they cross to Paphos, 
 where the sorcerer Elymas is struck blind. Then they cross 
 to Perga, where John leaves them. Next they go to Antioch 
 in Pisidia, where they make many converts ; but they are 
 driven from the city by the rulers, and they go to Iconium, 
 where "they are again driven out and flee to Lystra. 
 
 (b) The harmony of a sentence is often destroyed by a 
 combination of words that will not glide smoothly from 
 the tongue. 
 
 Examples. — Nursery literature provides examples of 
 sentences and phrases purposely constructed so that it 
 is almost impossible to repeat them correctly several 
 times in rapid succession. 
 
 Ex. " Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers," etc. ; or, 
 " The cat ran over the roof of a house with a piece of red 
 raw liver in its mouth," '^ Good blood, bad blood, black bot- 
 tles, blue blotter." 
 
I06 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Often, however, a sentence is difficult to pronounce, 
 though it has not been written with that end in view. 
 The translators of the Bible have made a combination 
 of words that requires a flexible tongue to be spoken 
 rapidly: "Philip saith unto him, Lord, show us the 
 Father and it sufficeth us." We will not, however, 
 suggest an improvement. 
 
 Practical Suggestion. — Often in our reading we 
 come across similar combinations, but it is extremely 
 difficult to classify them as violations of specific rules. 
 Accordingly, our suggestion under this head is for the 
 writer to read aloud what he has written^ and notice 
 the sound, as well as the sense. If the sound is not 
 agreeable, or if the matter is difficult to read, alter it 
 so as to remove the objection. 
 
 Several text-books of rhetoric instruct the pupil to 
 construct his sentences so that there shall be " a pleas- 
 ing cadence," or fall of the voice, at the close ; and one 
 suggests that the last word of a sentence should have 
 an alternation of long and short syllables, or at least 
 that the next to the last should be long. But though we 
 may imagine that such an arrangement is the cause of 
 beauty in one melodious sentence, mechanical imitation 
 would be utterly unsuccessful. Persian rugs cannot be 
 made by steam-power looms; nor can a schoolboy be 
 taught to write musically, except by bringing out the 
 music within him, by his own efforts at reading and 
 writing. More inspiration may be gained from reading 
 the best productions of famous authors than by correct- 
 ing the faults of poor writers. At the close of this 
 chapter, several extracts are given in order that the 
 student may see into what power and melody genius 
 has combined the words of our language. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 107 
 
 Correction of errors in the use of words and in gram- 
 matical construction can be made within the limits of 
 a single sentence. In order to improve one's work in 
 clearness, force, and harmony, the view taken must be 
 more extended ; and this fact leads us to the discussion 
 of the paragraph. 
 
 THE PARAGRAPH. 
 
 Object and Definition. — An earnest speaker will pause 
 after each group of sentences bearing on a single point, 
 in order that his listeners may fully comprehend that 
 point before considering the next. In the same way, 
 the clearness and effectiveness of written matter may 
 be increased by indicating where the discussion of a 
 specific topic ends and the discussion of the next begins. 
 
 A distinct szibdivision of writing which relates to a 
 particular pointy whether consisting of one or of many 
 sentefices, is called a paragraph^ and should be indicated 
 by beginning its first sentence on a new line and more 
 than the usual distance from the margin. 
 
 Important Caution. — There are no definite rules as 
 to the length and construction of paragraphs, and the 
 consequent indifference with which untrained writers 
 regard this important element of composition warrants 
 an appeal here for special effort towards understanding 
 the principles of the paragraph, and applying them in 
 all one's writing. 
 
 I. Length. 
 
 Determined by Subdivision of Theme. — The number 
 of paragraphs in any written matter, and their length, 
 are determined by the number of points which the 
 writer wishes to make distinct, and the number of words 
 or sentences devoted to the consideration of each. 
 
I08 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 It is possible to carry the subdivision of one's theme 
 to such an extent that each sentence shall be a separate 
 paragraph, or to group a large number of sentences 
 about one central thought. 
 
 Varies in Different Kinds of Composition. — The extent 
 to which this subdivision into separate points should be 
 carried depends largely upon the nature of the compo- 
 sition. A lecturer explaining a hard subject must go 
 slowly and make frequent pauses, in order to give his 
 listeners time to understand him as he proceeds. In a 
 text-book or any writing which requires continual reason- 
 ing, and where each thought must be fully compre- 
 hended in order to understand the main subject, it is 
 wise to make short paragraphs. 
 
 A schoolbook in unbroken pages looks hard, and is 
 hard, because the reader is not led to pause and reflect, 
 nor shown where it is most profitable to do so. 
 
 A story, a description, or other matter easy of com- 
 prehension, need not be so frequently broken into para- 
 graphs. (See any of the prose illustrative extracts in 
 this book.) 
 
 Beginning of New Paragraph. — Though it may often 
 be a matter of debate whether to throw two paragraphs 
 into one or to cut one into two, it is seldom difficult to 
 tell whether a given sentence belongs at the end of one 
 paragraph or at the beginning of the next. The new 
 paragraph should begin where there is a change in the 
 specific topic. 
 
 A little practice in following this simple direction will 
 go far toward solving the supposed difficulties of correct 
 paragraphing. 
 
 In writing a conversation, a change of speaker is 
 indicated by a change of paragraph. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. 109 
 
 II. Construction. 
 
 No Absolute Rules. — There are no rules for the con- 
 struction of paragraphs similar to those for the con- 
 struction of sentences. Nevertheless, the construction 
 of a paragraph can be considered critically. 
 
 Unit of Criticism. — School pupils will do well to criti- 
 cise their work by paragraphs ; and in this critical 
 survey, besides seeking to gain clearness, force, and 
 harmony in the manner suggested in this chapter, the 
 writer should see that all the parts of each paragraph 
 bear on the main subject, and that together they fully 
 express the thought in mind. Unless there is some 
 good reason to the contrary, the principle of climax 
 (see p. 98) should be observed. 
 
 Practical Suggestions. — It would violate the plan of 
 this book to give specific directions for the construction 
 of paragraphs according to an ideal arrangement. The 
 object here is to explain the fundamental principles of 
 the paragraph, to call the pupil's attention to its impor- 
 tance as a basis for critical revision, to urge him to 
 review each paragraph as it is written, and, if it is not 
 satisfactory to himself, to correct it by rearranging its 
 parts, striking out what is superfluous, and adding what 
 is necessary to make it complete. 
 
 A later revision should be made of the completed 
 work, and will generally result in changing the relative 
 position of some of the paragraphs, merging some to- 
 gether, or condensing the whole of one into a single 
 sentence, and making it part of another paragraph. 
 Such revision, however, should be made more in the 
 light of what the writer wishes to say than in regard to 
 correct expression. 
 
no SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 EXTRACTS TO ILLUSTRATE FORCE AND HARMONY. 
 
 Portia's plea for mercy. 
 
 [from "the merchant of VENICE," ACT IV,, SCENE I.] 
 
 The quality of mercy is not strain'd, 
 
 It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
 
 Upon the place beneath : it is twice bless'd ; 
 
 It blesseth him that gives and him that takes : 
 
 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest : it becomes 
 
 The throned monarch better than his crown ; 
 
 His scepter shows the force of temporal power, 
 
 The attribute to awe and majesty, 
 
 Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings ; 
 
 But mercy is above this sceptered sway ; 
 
 It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, 
 
 It is an attribute to God himself; 
 
 And earthly power doth then show likest God's, 
 
 When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, 
 
 Though justice be thy plea, consider this, 
 
 That, in the course of justice, none of us 
 
 Should see salvation : we do pray for mercy ; 
 
 And that same prayer doth teach us all to render 
 
 The deeds of mercy. 
 
 THE CLOUD. 
 
 I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, 
 
 From the seas and the streams ; 
 I bear light shade for the leaves when laid 
 
 In their noonday dreams. 
 From my wings are shaken the dews that waken 
 
 The sweet buds every one, 
 When rocked to rest on their mother's breast, 
 
 As she dances about the sun. 
 I wield the flail of the lashing hail. 
 
 And whiten the green plains under ; 
 And then again I dissolve it in rain, 
 
 And laugh as I pass in thunder. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. Ill 
 
 I sift the snow on the mountains below, 
 
 And their great pines groan aghast ; 
 And all the night 'tis my pillow white, 
 
 While I sleep in the arms of the blast. 
 Sublime on the towers of my skyey bowers 
 
 Lightning my pilot sits ; 
 In a cavern under is fettered the thunder, 
 
 It struggles and howls at fits ; 
 Over earth and ocean, with gentle motion, 
 
 This pilot is guiding me. 
 Lured by the love of the genii that move 
 
 In the depths of the purple sea ; 
 Over the rills and the crags and the hills, 
 
 Over the lakes and the plains, 
 Wherever he dream under mountain or stream 
 
 The spirit he loves remains ; 
 And I all the while bask in heaven's blue smile, 
 
 Whilst he is dissolving in rains. 
 
 The sanguine sunrise, with his meteor eyes, 
 
 And his burning plumes outspread, 
 Leaps on the back of my sailing rack. 
 
 When the morning-star shines dead. 
 As on the jag of a mountain-crag, 
 
 Which an earthquake rocks and swings. 
 An eagle alit one moment may sit 
 
 In the light of its golden wings. 
 And, when sunset may breathe from the lit sea beneath 
 
 Its ardors of rest and of love. 
 And the crimson pall of eve may fall 
 
 From the depth of heaven above, 
 With wings folded I rest on mine airy nest, 
 
 As still as a brooding dove. 
 
 That orbed maiden with white fire laden, 
 Whom mortals call the Moon, 
 
 Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, 
 By the midnight breezes strewn ; 
 
112 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 And, wherever the beat of her unseen feet, 
 
 Which only the angels hear, 
 May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof, 
 
 The stars peep behind her and peer. 
 And I laugh to see them whirl and flee 
 
 Like a swarm of golden bees. 
 When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent, 
 
 Till the calm rivers, lakes, and seas. 
 Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high. 
 
 Are each paved with the moon and these. 
 
 I bind the sun's throne with a burning zone, 
 
 And the moon's with a girdle of pearl ; 
 The volcanoes are dim, and the stars reel and swim, 
 
 When the whirlwinds my banner unfurl. 
 From cape to cape, with a bridge-like shape, 
 
 Over a torrent sea, 
 Sunbeam-proof, I hang like a roof. 
 
 The mountains its columns be. 
 The triumphal arch through which I march 
 
 With hurricane, fire, and snow. 
 When the powers of the air are chained to my chair. 
 
 Is the million-colored bow ; 
 The sphere-fire above its soft colors wove, 
 
 While the moist earth was laughing below. 
 
 I am the daughter of the earth and water, 
 
 And the nursling of the sky ; 
 I pass through the pores of the ocean and shores ; 
 
 I change, but I cannot die. 
 For after the rain, when, with never a stain 
 
 The pavilion of heaven is bare. 
 And the winds and sunbeams with their convex gleams 
 
 Build up the blue dome of air, 
 I silently laugh at my own cenotaph. 
 
 And out of the caverns of rain. 
 Like a child from the womb, like a ghost from the tomb, 
 
 I arise, and unbuild it again. 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. II3 
 
 [from DE QUINCEY's "ENGLISH MAIL-COACH."] 
 
 Passion of sudden death ! that once in youth I read and 
 interpreted by the shadows of thy averted signs — rapture of 
 panic taking the shape (which amongst tombs in churches I 
 have seen) of woman bursting her sepulchral bonds — of 
 woman's Ionic form bending forward from the ruins of her 
 grave with arching foot, with eyes upraised, with clasped 
 adoring hands — waiting, watching, trembling, praying for the 
 trumpet's call to rise from dust forever ! Ah, vision too fearful 
 of shuddering humanity on the brink of almighty abysses ! — 
 vision that didst start back, that didst reel away, hke a shrivel- 
 ing scroll from before the wrath of fire racing on the wings of 
 the wind ! Epilepsy so brief of horror, wherefore is it that 
 thou canst not die ? Passing so suddenly into darkness, where- 
 fore is it that still thou sheddest thy sad funeral blights upon 
 the gorgeous mosaics of dreams ? Fragment of music too pas- 
 sionate, heard once, and heard no more, what aileth thee, that 
 thy deep rolling chords come up at intervals through all the 
 worlds of sleep, and after thirty years have lost no element of 
 horror ? 
 
 Immediately, in trance, I was carried over land and sea to 
 some distant kingdom, and placed upon a triumphal car, 
 amongst companions crowned with laurel. The darkness of 
 gathering midnight brooding over all the land, hid from us the 
 mighty crowds that were weaving restlessly about ourselves as 
 a center : we heard them, but saw them not. Tidings had 
 arrived within an hour, of a grandeur that measured itself 
 against centuries ; too full of pathos they were, too full of 
 joy, to utter themselves by other language than by tears, by 
 restless anthems, and Te Deums reverberated from the choirs 
 and orchestras of earth. These tidings we that sat upon the 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 8 
 
114 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 laureled car had it for our privilege to publish amongst all 
 nations. And already, by signs audible through the darkness, 
 by snortings and tramplings, our angry horses, that knew no 
 fear of fleshly weariness, upbraided us with delay. Wherefore 
 was it that we delayed? We waited for a secret word, that 
 should bear witness to the hope of nations, as now accom- 
 plished forever. At midnight the secret word arrived ; which 
 word was — Waterloo and recovered Christendom ! The 
 dreadful word shone by its own light ; before us it went ; high 
 above our leaders' heads it rode, and spread a golden light 
 over the paths which we traversed. Every city at the presence 
 of the secret word threw open its gates. The rivers were con- 
 scious as we crossed. All the forests, as we ran along their 
 margins, shivered in homage to the secret word. And the 
 darkness comprehended it. 
 
 Two hours after midnight we approached a mighty Minster. 
 Its gates, which rose to the clouds, were closed. But when 
 the dreadful word, that rode before us, reached them with its 
 golden light, silently they moved back upon their hinges ; and 
 at a flying gallop our equipage entered the grand aisle of the 
 cathedral. Headlong was our pace ; and at every altar, in 
 the little chapels and oratories to the right hand and left of 
 our course, the lamps, dying or sickening, kindled anew in 
 sympathy with the secret word that was flying past. Forty 
 leagues we might have run in the cathedral, and as yet no 
 strength of morning light had reached us, when before us we 
 saw the aerial galleries of organ and choir. Every pinnacle of 
 the fretwork, every station of advantage amongst the traceries, 
 was crested by white-robed choristers, that sang deliverance : 
 that wept no more tears, as once their fathers had wept j but 
 at intervals that sang together to the generations, saying, — 
 
 " Chant the deliverer's praise in every tongue," 
 and receiving answers from afar, — 
 
 " Such as once in heaven and earth were sung." 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. II5 
 
 And of their chanting was no end ; of our headlong pace was 
 neither pause nor slackening. 
 
 Thus, as we ran Hke torrents — thus, as we swept with bridal 
 rapture over the Campo Santo of the cathedral graves — sud- 
 denly we became aware of a vast necropoHs rising upon the 
 far-off horizon — a city of sepulchers, built within the saintly 
 cathedral for the warrior dead that rested from their feuds on 
 earth. Of purple granite was the necropolis ; yet, in the first 
 minute, it lay like a purple stain upon the horizon, so mighty 
 was the distance. In the second minute it trembled through 
 many changes, growing into terraces and towers of wondrous 
 altitude, so mighty was the space. In the third minute already, 
 with our dreadful gallop, we were entering its suburbs. Vast 
 sarcophagi rose on every side, having towers and turrets that, 
 upon the Hmits of the central aisle, strode forward with haughty 
 intrusion, that ran back with mighty shadows into answering 
 recesses. Every sarcophagus showed many bas-reliefs — bas- 
 reliefs of battles and of battlefields ; battles from forgotten 
 ages — battles from yesterday — battlefields that, long since, 
 nature had healed and reconciled to herself with the sweet 
 oblivion of flowers — battlefields that were yet angry and 
 crimson with carnage. Where the terraces ran, there did we 
 run ; where the towers curved, there did we curve. With the 
 flight of swallows our horses swept round every angle. Like 
 rivers in flood, wheeling round headlands — like hurricanes 
 that ride into the secrets of forests — faster than ever light 
 unwove the mazes of darkness, our flying equipage carried 
 earthly passions, kindled warrior instincts, amongst the dust 
 that lay around us — dust oftentimes of our noble fathers that 
 had slept in God from Cr^cy to Trafalgar. And now had we 
 reached the last sarcophagus, now were we abreast of the last 
 bas-relief, already had we recovered the arrow-like flight of the 
 inimitable central aisle, when coming up this aisle to meet us 
 we beheld afar off a female child, that rode in a carriage as 
 frail as flowers. The mists, that went before her, hid the fawns 
 
Il6 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 that drew her, but could not hide the shells and tropic flowers 
 with which she played — but could not hide the lovely smiles 
 by which she uttered her trust in the mighty cathedral, and 
 in the cherubim that looked down upon her from the mighty 
 shafts of its pillars. Face to face she was meeting us ; face to 
 face she rode, as if danger there were none. " O baby ! " 
 I exclaimed, " shalt thou be the ransom for Waterloo ? Must 
 we, that carry tidings of great joy to every people, be messen- 
 gers of ruin to thee ! " In horror I rose at the thought ; but 
 then also, in horror at the thought, rose one that was sculptured 
 on a bas-relief — a dying trumpeter. Solemnly from the field 
 of battle he rose to his feet ; and, unslinging his stony trumpet, 
 carried it, in his dying anguish, to his stony lips — sounding 
 once, and yet once again, proclamation that, in //ly ears, O 
 baby ! spoke from the battlements of death. Immediately 
 deep shadows fell between us and aboriginal silence. The 
 choir had ceased to sing. The hoofs of our horses, the dread- 
 ful rattle of our harness, the groaning of our wheels, alarmed 
 the graves no more. By horror the bas-relief had been unlocked 
 into life. By horror we, that were so full of life, we men and 
 our horses, with their fiery fore legs rising in mid-air to their 
 everlasting gallop, were frozen to a bas-relief. Then a third 
 time the trumpet sounded ; the seals were taken off all pulses ; 
 life, and the frenzy of life, tore into their channels again ; again 
 the choir burst forth in sunny grandeur, as from the muffling of 
 storms and darkness ; again the thunderings of our horses 
 carried temptation into the graves. One cry burst from our 
 lips, as the clouds, drawing off from the aisle, showed it empty 
 before us — " Whither has the infant fled ? — is the young child 
 caught up to God? " Lo ! afar off, in a vast recess, rose three 
 mighty windows to the clouds ; and, on a level with their sum- 
 mits, at height insuperable to man, rose an altar of purest 
 alabaster. On its eastern face was trembling a crimson glory. 
 A glory was it from the reddening dawn that now streamed 
 through the windows? Was it from the crimson robes of the 
 
CLEARNESS, FORCE, AND HARMONY. I17 
 
 martyrs painted on the windows? Was it from the bloody 
 bas-reUefs of earth? There, suddenly, within that crimson 
 radiance, rose the apparition oi a woman's head, and then of 
 a woman's figure. The child it was — grown up to woman's 
 height. Clinging to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood 
 — sinking, rising, raving, despairing; and behind the volume 
 of incense, that, night and day, streamed upwards from the 
 altar, dimly was seen the fiery font, and the shadow of that 
 dreadful being who should have baptized her with the baptism 
 of death. But by her side was kneeling her better angel, that 
 hid his face with wings ; that wept and pleaded for her; that 
 prayed when she could not ; that fought with Heaven by tears 
 for her deliverance ; which also, as he raised his immortal 
 countenance from his wings, I saw, by the glory in his eye, 
 that from Heaven he had won at last. 
 
 Then was completed the passion of the mighty fugue. The 
 golden tubes of the organ, which as yet had but muttered at 
 intervals — gleaming amongst clouds and surges of incense — 
 threw up, as from fountains unfathomable, columns of heart- 
 shattering music. Choir and anti-choir were filling fast with 
 unknown voices. Thou also. Dying Trumpeter ! — with thy 
 love that was victorious, and thy anguish that was finishing — 
 didst enter the tumult ; trumpet and echo — farewell love and 
 farewell anguish — rang through the dreadful sanctus. Oh, 
 darkness of the grave ! that from the crimson altar and from 
 the fiery font wert visited and searched by the eifulgence in 
 the angel's eye — were these indeed thy children ? Pomps of 
 life, that, from the burials of centuries, rose again to the voice 
 of perfect joy, did ye indeed mingle with the festivals of Death? 
 Lo ! as I looked back for seventy leagues through the mighty 
 cathedral, I saw the quick and the dead that sang together to 
 God, together that sang to the generations of man. All the 
 hosts of jubilation, like armies that ride in pursuit, moved with 
 one step. Us, that, with laureled heads, were passing from the 
 cathedral, they overtook, and, as with a garment, they wrapped 
 
Il8 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 us round with thunders greater than our own. As brothers we 
 moved together ; to the dawn that advanced — to the stars 
 that fled ; rendering thanks to God in the highest — that, 
 having hid His face through one generation behind thick clouds 
 of War, once again was ascending — from the Campo Santo of 
 Waterloo was ascending — in the visions of Peace ; rendering 
 thanks for thee, young girl ! whom, having overshadowed with 
 His ineffable passion of death, suddenly did God relent ; suf- 
 fered thy angel to turn aside His arm ; and even in thee, sister 
 unknown ! shown to me for a moment only to be hidden for- 
 ever, found an occasion to glorify His goodness. A thousand 
 times, amongst the phantoms of sleep, have I seen thee enter- 
 ing the gates of the golden-dawn — with the secret word riding 
 before thee — with the armies of the grave behind thee ; seen 
 thee, sinking, rising, raving, despairing; a thousand times in 
 the worlds of sleep have seen thee followed by God's angel 
 through storms ; through desert seas ; through the darkness of 
 quicksands ; through dreams, and the dreadful revelations that 
 are in dreams — only that at the last, with one sling of His 
 victorious arm. He might snatch thee back from ruin, and 
 might emblazon in thy deliverance the endless resurrections of 
 His love ! 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 Illustration and Definition. — The rules given in the 
 previous chapter have dealt principally with the choice 
 and arrangement of words, without suggesting any sig- 
 nificant change in the method of expressing thought. 
 But before leaving the subject of clearness and force, 
 it will be necessary to acquaint the pupil with the fact 
 that there is a clearer, stronger, and more attractive way 
 of expressing our thoughts than by the literal statement 
 of what we have in mind. When David said, — '' The 
 righteous shall flourish like the palm tree : he shall grow 
 like a cedar in Lebanon," — he gave a clearer impression 
 of the blessings of the righteous than he could possibly 
 have given in the same number of words used literally. 
 
 Indeed, it may be often more forcible to say the 
 opposite of what we mean, and to exhibit the remote- 
 ness of that statement from the truth, than to make a 
 simple statement of what is true. It is a more scathing 
 rebuke to call a man an honorable gentleman in sarcasm 
 than to call him a mean rowdy in truth. We are so 
 familiar with these principles, though we may never 
 have thought of them as fixed laws, that we instinc- 
 tively make use of them when trying to convey our 
 meaning to others. 
 
 A deviation from the literal use of language for the 
 sake of greater effect is a figure of speech. 
 
 "9 . 
 
120 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Figures are also called tropes ^ (from the Greek, 
 TpETrecv, trepein, to turn), because when used with a 
 figurative significance, a word is turned from its ordi- 
 nary meaning to one suggested by resernbla7ice, associa- 
 tt07iy or contrast. 
 
 Relation to Clearness and Force. — The following 
 pages are devoted to an explanation of the commonest 
 figures, or tropes. In studying these pages the student 
 should bear in mind that the object in view is to enable 
 him to write clearly and forcibly; for in the majority 
 of cases the page of writing that is very clear in mean- 
 ing, or that impresses one with great force, is marked 
 by the apt use of figurative language, and therefore in 
 discussing clearness and force a knowledge of figures is 
 essential. 
 
 Above all things, the student should be saved from 
 the belief that figures are ornaments of style, to be 
 tacked on to one's writing to make it finer than it was 
 before, and that therefore he should have them all by 
 name. 
 
 FIGURES BASED UPON RESEMBLANCE. 
 
 I. Simile. — In the sentence, " The ungodly are like 
 the chaff which the wind driveth away," the violent end 
 of the ungodly is suggested by their resemblance to the 
 worthless part of the grain which is blown away by the 
 wind. The objects compared are alike only in this 
 respect; viz., that both are finally cast aside as worth- 
 less. If they were alike in many respects, there would 
 
 1 Some writers confine the meaning of the word trope to a single word 
 used in other than its ordinary significance. This definition would exclude 
 simile, irony, and other extended figures. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 121 
 
 be no figure; for as the comparison would be literal, 
 there would be no departure from the ordinary use of 
 language. It is no figure to say of a man that he is as 
 treacherous as an Indian, or that the earth is round like 
 an orange. But it is a figure of speech to say, ** My 
 love is like the red, red rose," or, " Kings are like 
 stars — they rise and set." 
 
 That figure in which an idea is suggested by pointing 
 out a resemblance between things otherwise unlike is 
 called simile, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Tell which of the following sentences contain similes, and 
 explain wherein the figure consists : — 
 
 As snow in summer, and as rain in harvest, so honor is not 
 seemly for a fool. 
 
 As for man, his days are as grass ; as a flower of the field 
 so he fiourisheth. 
 
 Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth 
 them that fear him. 
 
 But the cruel rocks, they gored her side 
 Like the horns of an angry bull. 
 
 This is the Arsenal. From floor to ceiling. 
 Like a huge organ, rise the burnished arms. 
 
 Pity, like a naked, new-born babe, striding the blast. 
 
 The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. 
 
 As killing as the canker to the rose. 
 
 Or taint-worm to the weanling herds that graze, 
 
 Or frost to flowers, that their gay wardrobe wear, 
 
 When first the whitethorn blows ; 
 
 Such, Lycidas, thy loss to shepherds' ear. 
 
122 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax, 
 
 Her cheek like the dawn of day, 
 And her bosom white as the hawthorn buds 
 
 That ope in the month of May. 
 
 Many a night I saw the Pleiads, rising through the mellow shade, 
 Glitter like a swarm of fireflies tangled in a silver braid. 
 
 She never told her love, 
 But let concealment, like a worm i' the bud, 
 Feed on her damask cheek : she pined in thought ; 
 And, with a green and yellow melancholy, 
 She sat like Patience on a monument, 
 Smiling at grief. 
 
 So said he ; and the barge with oar and sail 
 Moved from the brink, like some full-breasted swan 
 That, fluting a wild carol ere her death, 
 Ruflles her pure cold plume, and takes the flood 
 With swarthy webs. 
 
 II. Metaphor. — The quotation, "A star v^as in her 
 midnight hair," does not really mean that any star was 
 there, or that the hair was in any way an attribute of 
 midnight. It does mean that a gem was in her hair ; 
 that the gem was like a star in brightness ; and that her 
 hair was dark as midnight. If we point out the re- 
 semblance and say, " A starlike gem was in her dark 
 as midnight hair," we undoubtedly suggest much more 
 than the literal statement. But if we assume the resem- 
 blance, and call the gem a star and the hair midnight, 
 we paint a stronger picture, and use fewer words in 
 doing it. 
 
 Substittttiitg the name of one object for the name of 
 another which resembles it^ is the most frequently used 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 123 
 
 and the most forcible of all figures of speechy and is 
 known by the na7ne of metaphor. 
 
 In metaphor, the resemblance is implied, not ex- 
 pressed. In this respect only does metaphor differ 
 from simile. Omit the words of comparison, and all 
 similes become metaphors. 
 
 " The righteous shall be a flourishing palm tree: he 
 shall be a cedar growing in Lebanon," — is an example 
 of a simile which, by the omission of the words of com- 
 parison, has become a metaphor. 
 
 Most slang expressions are ridiculous but forcible 
 metaphors. 
 
 To call any one a hummer^ a daisy, a hog, or a wool- 
 gatherer, or to say that he is not in it, or that his leg is 
 pulled, is a figure of speech based on a fancied resem- 
 blance. 
 
 EXPLAIN THE METAPHOR IN THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES. 
 
 The ship of state. 
 
 The sinews of war. 
 
 The staff of life. 
 
 The Lord is my Shepherd. 
 
 She was a phantom of delight. 
 
 He wears the rose of youth upon him. 
 
 Thy word is a lamp unto my feet. 
 
 The news was a dagger to his heart. 
 
 There is a tide in the affairs of men which, taken at the flood, 
 leads on to fortune. 
 
 Come into the garden, Maud, 
 For the black bat, night, has flown. 
 
124 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Queen rose of the rosebud garden of girls, 
 
 Come hither, the dances are done, 
 In gloss of satin and glimmer of pearls, 
 
 Queen Hly and rose in one ; 
 Shine out, little head, sunmng over with curls. 
 
 To the flowers, and be their sun. 
 
 One burnished sheet of living gold. 
 Loch Katrine lay beneath him rolled. 
 
 The soul of the rose went into my blood. 
 
 This world is an unweeded garden. 
 
 Those that be planted in the house of the Lord shall flourish 
 in the courts of our God. 
 
 They shall still bring forth fruit in old age ; they shall be fat 
 and flourishing. 
 
 III. Allegory. — The following extract is given as an 
 illustration of allegory. 
 
 [from bunyan's " pilgrim's progress."] 
 
 Now I saw in my dream, that when Obstinate was gone 
 back. Christian and PHable went talking over the plain ; and 
 thus they began their discourse. 
 
 Chr. Come, neighbor Pliable, how do you do ? I am glad 
 you are persuaded to go along with me. Had even Obstinate 
 himself but felt what I have felt of the powers and terrors of 
 what is yet unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the 
 back. 
 
 Pli. Come, neighbor Christian, since there are none but us 
 two here, tell me now farther, what the things are, and how to 
 be enjoyed, whither we are going. 
 
 Chr. I can better conceive of them with my mind, than 
 speak of them with my tongue ; but yet, since you are desirous 
 to know, I will read of them in my book. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 1 25 
 
 Pli. And do you think that the words of your book are cer- 
 tainly true ? 
 
 Chr. Yes, verily ; for it was made by Him that cannot lie. 
 
 Pli. Well, my good companion, glad am I to hear of these 
 things : come on, let us mend our pace. 
 
 Chr. I cannot go so fast as I would, by reason of this burden 
 that is on my back. 
 
 Now I saw in my dream, that just as they had ended this 
 talk, they drew nigh to a very miry slough that was in the midst 
 of the plain : and they being heedless, did both fall suddenly 
 into the bog. The name of the slough was Despond. Here, 
 therefore, they wallowed for a time, being grievously bedaubed 
 with dirt ; and Christian, because of the burden that was on his 
 back, began to sink in the mire. 
 
 Then said Pliable, " Ah, neighbor Christian, where are you 
 now?" 
 
 "Truly," said Christian, " I do not know." 
 
 At this Pliable began to be offended, and angrily said to 
 his fellow, " Is this the happiness you have told me all this 
 while of ? If we have such ill speed at our first setting out, 
 what may we expect between this and our journey's end ? May 
 I get out again with my life, you shall possess the brave country 
 alone for me." And with that he gave a desperate struggle or 
 two, and got out of the mire on that side of the slough which 
 was next to his own house : so away he went, and Christian 
 saw him no more. 
 
 Wherefore Christian was left to tumble in the Slough of 
 Despond alone ; but still he endeavored to struggle to that side 
 of the slough that was farthest from his own house, and next to 
 the wicket gate ; the which he did, but could not get out 
 because of the burden that was upon his back : but I beheld 
 in my dream, that a man came to him, whose name was Help, 
 and asked him what he did there. 
 
126 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 " Sir," said Christian, " I was bid to go this way by a man 
 called Evangelist, who directed me also to yonder gate, that I 
 might escape the wrath to come. And as I was going thither, 
 I fell in here." 
 
 Help. But why did not you look for the steps? 
 
 Chr. Fear followed me so hard that I fled the next way, and 
 fell in. 
 
 Then said Help, " Give me thy hand." So he gave him 
 his hand, and he drew him out, and he set him upon sound 
 ground, and bid him go on his way. 
 
 Then I stepped to him that plucked him out, and said, " Sir, 
 wherefore, since over this place is the way from the city of 
 Destruction to yonder gate, is it, that this plat is not mended, 
 that poor travelers might go thither with more security? " And 
 he said unto me, ''This miry slough is such a place as cannot 
 be mended : it is the descent whither the scum and filth that 
 attends conviction for sin doth continually run, and therefore 
 it is called the Slough of Despond ; for still, as the sinner is 
 awakened about his lost condition, there arise in his soul many 
 fears and doubts, and discouraging apprehensions, which all of 
 them get together, and settle in this place : and this is the 
 reason of the badness of this ground. 
 
 "It is not the pleasure of the King that this place should 
 remain so bad. His laborers also have, by the direction of his 
 Majesty's surveyors, been for above these sixteen hundred years 
 employed about this patch of ground, if perhaps it might have 
 been mended: yea, and to my knowledge," said he, ''there 
 have been swallowed up at least twenty thousand cartloads, yea, 
 millions of wholesome instructions, that have at all seasons been 
 brought from all places of the King's dominions (and they that 
 can tell, say they are the best materials to make good ground of 
 the place), if so be it might have been mended ; but it is the 
 Slough of Despond still, and so will be when they have done 
 what they can. 
 
 " True, there are, by the direction of the Lawgiver, certain 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 12/ 
 
 good and substantial steps, placed even through the very midst 
 of this slough ; but at such time as this place doth much spew 
 out its filth, as it doth against change of weather, these steps 
 are hardly seen ; or if they be, men, through the dizziness of 
 their heads, step beside, and then they are bemired to pur- 
 pose, notwithstanding the steps be there : but the ground is 
 good when they are once got in at the gate." 
 
 Now I saw in my dream, that by this time Pliable was got 
 home to his house. So his neighbors came to visit him ; and 
 some of them called him wise man for coming back, and 
 some called him fool for hazarding himself with Christian : 
 others, again, did mock at his cowardHness, saying, " Surely, 
 since you began to venture, I would not have been so base as 
 to have given out for a few difficulties." So Pliable sat sneak- 
 ing among them. But at last he got more confidence, and then 
 they all turned their tales, and began to deride poor Christian 
 behind his back. And thus much concerning Pliable. 
 
 The passage just quoted is from a book familiar by 
 name at least to all, and remarkable for its simplicity 
 and power. In this vv^ork, by giving an account of the 
 difficulties which a traveler encounters in going from 
 one city to another, Bunyan portrays, more graphi- 
 cally than any other writer before or since his time, the 
 experiences of a Christian in his life upon earth. In 
 the extract above we have read two stories at once : one 
 of a man who has trouble in crossing a stream; and 
 the other, an account of the despondencies of a recent 
 convert to Christianity. The passage is really an ex- 
 tended metaphor ; and the double narrative results from 
 the fact that the words may be taken in their literal 
 meaning or in that suggested by the law of resem- 
 blance. 
 
 A story which thus implies another is called an allegory. 
 
128 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Most of the parables of the Bible are allegories. The 
 story of the Prodigal Son really relates the experience 
 of the Christian who, having lived a godless life, seeks 
 God again in penitence. 
 
 The Twenty-third Psalm is an allegory, or at least an 
 extended metaphor. 
 
 " The Lord is my shepherd ; I shall not want. 
 
 " He maketh me to lie down in green pastures : he leadeth 
 me beside the still waters. 
 
 " He restoreth my soul : he leadeth me in the paths of right- 
 eousness for his name's sake. 
 
 " Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of 
 death, I will fear no evil : for thou art with me ; thy rod and 
 thy staff they comfort me. 
 
 " Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine 
 enemies : thou anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth 
 over. 
 
 "Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days 
 of my life : and I will dwell in the house of the Lord 
 for ever." 
 
 IV. Personification. — "Come, gentle Spring! Ethe- 
 real Mildness, come ! " In reading this, thougji we are 
 aware that spring cannot appreciate the words ad- 
 dressed to it by the poet, the likeness between the soft, 
 mild breezes of May and the delicate touch of a tender 
 hand, enables one to appreciate the poetic imagination 
 which addresses spring as a human being. There is 
 unquestioned power and beauty in the figure which 
 suggests the approach of spring in the form of a gentle 
 maiden ; and there is almost always a charm in the 
 discovery of a likeness between personal and imper- 
 sonal objects. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 1 29 
 
 The figure of speech in which the attributes of human 
 or other living beings are implied or directly given to 
 objects which do not actually possess such attributes is 
 called personification. 
 
 This figure may be deliberately used by addressing 
 inanimate objects as if alive, or may slip almost imper- 
 ceptibly into one's writing by the use of a part of 
 speech not literally applicable to the object to which 
 it refers ; as, — 
 
 " O Death, where is thy sting? 
 O Grave, where is thy victory? " 
 
 " How wonderful is Death ! 
 Death and his brother, Sleep ! " 
 
 or less deliberately, — 
 
 The wanton winds, the playful breezC; the cruel waves, the howl- 
 ing storm. 
 
 "The sun at noon looked down and saw not one." 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PERSONIFICATION. 
 
 Point out the way in which personification is given to 
 objects in the following examples : — 
 
 A dry and thirsty land. 
 
 Ambition's debt is paid. 
 
 Love must cHng where it can, I say. 
 
 The beggar thinks no longer of his whining trade. 
 
 Love took up the harp of life, and smote on all the chords 
 with might. 
 
 Ye glittering towns, with wealth and splendor crowned. 
 
 O wandering graves ! O restless sleep ! 
 
 O silence of the sunless day ! 
 O still ravine ! O stormy deep ! 
 
 Give up your prey ! Give up your prey I 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 9 
 
I30 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 When Freedom from her mountain height 
 
 Unfurled her standard to the air, 
 She tore the azure robe of night, 
 
 And set the stars of glory there 
 
 All night have the roses heard 
 The flute, violin, and bassoon. 
 
 And the sunlight clasps the earth, 
 And the moonbeams kiss the sea. 
 
 Mercy and truth are met together ; righteousness and peace 
 have kissed each other. 
 
 FIGURES BASED UPON ASSOCIATION. 
 
 I. Metonymy. — "A watched pot never boils ; " nor 
 will any pot boil, though the water in it may. It is not, 
 however, incorrect to speak of a boiling kettle, or to say 
 that the pulpits of the city are conducting a crusade 
 against vice. The meaning is as clear as if we had 
 named the water in the kettle, or the ministers of the 
 city. For an object named may suggest another — 
 
 (6i) If the two objects are generally seen together. 
 
 Ex. Excellent table y^r excellent food. 
 (d) If one contains the other. 
 
 Ex. Long purse /<?r plenty of money. 
 
 (c) If one is the cause or the effect of the other. 
 
 Ex. The sweat of the brow /or hard work. 
 
 (d) If one is the material out of which the other is 
 made. 
 
 Ex. A collection of bronzes for a collection of bronze statuary. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. I3I 
 
 {e) If one is used as a sign to denote the other. 
 
 Ex. Winning laurels /br winning victory. 
 (/) If one is an abstract quality of the other. 
 
 Ex. Marrying wealth /^r marrying a rich man or woman. 
 
 The figure of speech which suggests an idea by fnen- 
 tioning the name of an object associated with that idea is 
 called metonymy. 
 
 Students often confuse metonymy and metaphor, 
 because the words begin with the same syllable, and 
 because each figure calls objects by other than their own 
 names. Metonymy and metaphor differ in that metaphor 
 consists in calling an object by the name of one that 
 resembles it ; metonymy, by the name of one that is 
 often associated with it without any idea of resemblance. 
 
 Ex. The opinion of the press ^ means the opinion of the newspaper 
 editors^ not because of any resemblance, but because of the 
 relation between the two ideas. 
 
 Synecdoche is a special form of metonymy ^ and con- 
 sists in denoting the part by the whole or the whole by 
 any of its parts. 
 
 Ex. A fleet of twenty masts (twenty ships). 
 A wheel (a bicycle) . 
 A force of fifty hands (fifty workmen) . 
 A hundred head (a hundred cattle) . 
 
 EXAMPLES OF METONYMY AND SYNECDOCHE. 
 
 Point out the words which suggest others, and explain how 
 they suggest them : — 
 
 A decision of the bench. Members of the bar. 
 The pen is mightier than the sword. 
 
132 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 The sleep of the cradle. 
 
 I have been reading Tennyson. 
 
 The thrones of Europe are tottering. 
 
 The tendency of the age. 
 
 Man shall live by the sweat of his brow. 
 
 Who devour widows' houses. 
 
 This is a most excellent dish. 
 
 He is bow oar in the University crew. 
 
 He has a warm heart. 
 
 He is a fine bowler and an excellent bat. 
 
 Swift as an arrow flies the leaden death. 
 
 His banner leads the spears no more amid the hills of Spain. 
 
 In the Cross of Christ I glory. 
 
 I turned to see the voice that spake with me. 
 
 Beauty is easy enough to win, but one is not loved every day. 
 
 A good man he was, and vigilant over his granddaughter's 
 deportment in any case where young Oxford might be con- 
 cerned. 
 
 II. Apostrophe. — When Milton in his "Lycidas" 
 asks, *' Where were ye, nymphs, when the remorseless 
 deep closed o'er the head of your loved Lycidas ? " the 
 nymphs were present only in the imagination ; but 
 addressing them as if present brings them more vividly 
 before the reader's vision than would any other method 
 of referring to them. 
 
 The figure of speech in which the absent are addressed 
 as if present^ or the dead as if living, is called apostrophe. 
 
 In addressing inanimate objects, apostrophe implies 
 personification also. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 1 33 
 
 EXAMPLES OF APOSTROPHE. 
 
 O Death, where is thy sting? 
 O Grave, where is thy victory ? 
 
 Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again ! 
 
 Awake, awake ; put on thy strength, O Zion. 
 
 O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets ! 
 
 Woe unto thee, Chorazin ! woe unto thee, Bethsaida ! 
 
 And thou, Capernaum, which art exalted to heaven, shalt be 
 thrust down to hell. 
 
 Thou hast taught me. Silent River, 
 
 Many a lesson deep and long ; 
 Thou hast been a generous giver ; 
 
 I can give thee but a song. 
 
 Sweet April ! Many a thought 
 
 Is wedded unto thee, as hearts are wed. 
 
 Yet once more, O ye laurels, and once more 
 Ye myrtles brown, with ivy never sere. 
 
 III. Hyperbole. — " And the Midianites, and the 
 Amalekites, and all the children of the east, lay along 
 the valley like grasshoppers for multitude ; and their 
 camels were v^ithout number, as the sand by the sea- 
 side for multitude." Doubtless this is a true statement 
 of the impression produced upon the terrified Israelite, 
 as he looked down upon the host of Midian ; and with- 
 out the exaggeration used in this statement, it would be 
 difficult to impress us with the alarm felt at the time. 
 It is a well-known fact that an object of extraordinary- 
 dimensions, either great or small, generally produces at 
 first sight an impression that the object is greater or 
 
134 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 less than it is in reality. If, therefore, we wish to sug- 
 gest to the reader the same impression as that which 
 we had at first sight of some remarkable object, we 
 must exaggerate or overstate the actual dimensions. 
 
 An exaggerated expression which increases the vivid- 
 ness of a statement without conveying a false impression 
 is called hyperbole. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF HYPERBOLE. 
 
 All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. 
 
 From the meadow your walks have left so sweet, 
 That whenever the March-wind sighs. 
 
 He sets the jewel-print of your feet 
 In violets blue as your eyes. 
 
 Behold he drinketh up a river and hasteth not. 
 
 Weary lawyers with endless tongues. 
 
 I began to think he was going on forever. 
 
 I lov'd Ophelia : forty thousand brothers 
 Could not with all their quantity of love 
 Make up my sum. 
 
 I could have half beheved I heard the leaves and blossoms 
 growing. 
 
 FIGURES BASED UPON CONTRAST. 
 
 I. Irony. — When the prophets of Baal in their con- 
 test with Elijah were unsuccessfully calling upon their 
 god to send down the fire from heaven, Elijah said to 
 them, '* Cry aloud : for he is a god ; either he is talking, 
 or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or peradvent- 
 ure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." In enumer- 
 ating these actions of a living being and attributing 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 1 35 
 
 them to Baal, Elijah meant to distress the prophets by 
 making evident the fact that Baal was a lifeless god. 
 As was said in the opening of this chapter, it may often 
 be more forcible to say the opposite of what we have in 
 mind, and allow the evident falsity of our statement to 
 suggest the truth, than to make a literal statement of 
 what is meant. 
 
 That ^nethod of statement in which the suggested mean- 
 ing is contraiy to the literal interpretation of the words 
 used is known as irony. 
 
 There is very little irony found in the Scriptures. 
 One of the few examples is where Job replies to the 
 tiresome advice of his friends : — 
 
 " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die 
 with you." 
 
 The editorials of the daily newspapers depend much 
 upon irony for the criticism of party policy. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF IRONY. 
 
 [from ELIPHALET NOTT's "address on the death of ALEXANDER HAMILTON."] 
 
 One man of honor by some inadvertence, or perhaps with 
 some design, injures the sensibility of another man of honor. 
 In perfect character the injured gentleman resents it. He 
 challenges the offender. The offender accepts the challenge. 
 The time is fixed. The place is agreed upon. The circum- 
 stances, with an air of solemn mania, are arranged ; and the 
 principals, with their seconds and surgeons, retire under the 
 cover of some solitary hill, or upon the margin of some unfre- 
 quented beach, to settle this important question of honor by 
 stabbing or shooting at each other. One or the other, or both 
 the parties, fall in this gentleman-like contest. 
 
136 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 It is true that he who falls in single combat has the honor 
 of being murdered; and he who takes his life, the honor 
 of being a murderer. Besides this, I know not of any glory 
 that can redound to the infatuated combatants, except it be 
 what results from having extended the circle of wretched 
 widows, and added to the number of hapless orphans. And 
 yet, terminate as it will, this frantic meeting, by a kind of 
 magic influence, entirely varnishes over a defective and smutty 
 character; transforms vice to virtue, cowardice to courage; 
 makes falsehood truth ; guilt, innocence, — in one word, 
 gives a new complexion to the whole state of things. The 
 Ethiopian changes his skin, the leopard his spots, and the 
 debauched and treacherous, having shot away the infamy of a 
 sorry life, comes back to the field of perfectibility, quite re- 
 generated, and in the fullest sense an honorable man. He is 
 now fit for the company of gentlemen. He is again admitted 
 to that company, and should he again by acts of vileness stain 
 this purity of character so nobly acquired, and should any one 
 have the effrontery to say he has done so, again he stands ready 
 to vindicate his honor, and by another act of homicide to wipe 
 away the stain which has been attached to it. 
 
 [from Thackeray's " newcomes," chapter viii.] 
 
 To push on in the crowd, every male or female struggler 
 must use his or her shoulder. If a better place than yours 
 presents itself just beyond your neighbor, elbow him and take 
 it. Look how a steadily-purposed man or woman at court, at 
 a ball, or exhibition, wherever there is a competition and a 
 squeeze, gets the best place ; the nearest the sovereign, if bent 
 on kissing the royal hand ; the closest to the grand stand, if 
 minded to go to Ascot ; the best view and hearing of the Rev. 
 Mr. Thumpington, when all the town is rushing to hear that 
 exciting divine ; the largest quantity of ice, champagne, and 
 seltzer, cold pate, or other his or her favorite flesh-pot, if 
 gluttonously minded, at a supper whence hundreds of people 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. I37 
 
 come empty away. A woman of the world will marry her 
 daughter and have done with her, get her carriage, and be at 
 home and asleep in bed ; whilst a timid mamma has still her girl 
 in the nursery, or is beseeching the servants in the cloak-room 
 to look for her shawls, with which some one else has whisked 
 away an hour ago. What a man has to do in society is to assert 
 himself. Is there a good place at table? Take it. At the 
 Treasury or the Home Office ? Ask for it. Do you want to go 
 to a party to which you are not invited? Ask to be asked. 
 Ask A, ask B, ask Mrs. C, ask everybody you know : you will 
 be thought a bore ; but you will have your way. What matters 
 if you are considered obtrusive, provided that you obtrude? 
 By pushing steadily, nine hundred and ninety-nine people in a 
 thousand will yield to you. Only command persons, and you 
 may be pretty sure that a good number will obey. How well 
 your money will have been laid out, O gentle reader, who 
 purchase this ; and taking the maxim to heart, follow it through 
 life ! You may be sure of success. If your neighbor's foot 
 obstructs you, stamp on it; and do you suppose he won't 
 take it away? 
 
 II. Epigram. — The truth of the saying, " Beauty 
 when unadorned, adorned the most," is made more 
 striking by the apparent contradiction in terms, and 
 by the brevity of the expression. 
 
 A short sentence or phrase which suggests a truth by 
 an apparent contradiction is called an epigram, 
 
 EXAMPLES OF EPIGRAM. 
 
 The child is father of the man. 
 The king is dead, long Uve the king. 
 Failures are the pillars of success. 
 When you have nothing to say, say it. 
 Conspicuous for its absence. 
 
138 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 We could not see the woods for the trees. 
 
 Verbosity is cured by a wide vocabulary. 
 So many things are striking that nothing strikes. 
 The easiest way of doing nothing is to do it. 
 Language is the art of concealing thought. 
 Summer has set in with its usual severity. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES OF FIGURES. 
 
 Name and explain any figure found in the appended extracts, 
 and notice how the expression of thought is made clearer and 
 more forcible than it could be by the use of Hteral expressions : — 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 I. CARDINAL WOLSEY'S SOLILOQUY. 
 
 Farewell ! a long farewell, to all my greatness ! 
 This is the state of man : to-day he puts forth 
 The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blossoms, 
 And bears his blushing honors thick upon him ; 
 The third day comes a frost, a killing frost, 
 And when he thinks, good easy man, full surely 
 His greatness is a-ripening, nips his root. 
 And then he falls, as I do. I have ventured, 
 Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, 
 This many summers in a sea of glory. 
 But far beyond my depth : my high-blown pride 
 At length broke under me, and now has left me, 
 Weary and old with service, to the mercy 
 Of a rude stream, that must forever hide me. 
 Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye : 
 I feel my heart new open'd. O, how wretched 
 Is that poor man that hangs on princes' favors! 
 There is, betwixt that smile we would aspire to, 
 That sweet aspect of princes and their ruin, 
 More pangs and fears than wars or women have : 
 And when he falls, he falls like Lucifer, 
 Never to hope again. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 1 39 
 
 II. WOLSEY'S farewell to CROMWELL. 
 
 Thus far, hear me, Cromwell ; 
 
 And, when I am forgotten, as I shall be. 
 
 And sleep in dull cold marble, where no mention 
 
 Of me more must be heard of, say, I taught thee, 
 
 Say, Wolsey, that once trod the ways of glory. 
 
 And sounded all the depths and shoals of honor. 
 
 Found thee a way, out of his wreck, to rise in ; 
 
 A sure and safe one, though thy master miss'd it. 
 
 Mark but my fall, and that that ruined me. 
 
 Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition : 
 
 By that sin fell the angels ; how can man, then, 
 
 The image of his Maker,' hope to win by it ? 
 
 Love thyself last ; cherish those hearts that hate thee ; 
 
 Corruption wins not more than honesty. 
 
 Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace. 
 
 To silence envious tongues. Be just, and fear not : 
 
 Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's , 
 
 Thy God's, and truth's ; then, if thou fall'st, O Cromwell, 
 
 Thou fall'st a blessed martyr. 
 
 Serve the king ; and, — prithee, lead me in : 
 
 There take an inventory of all I have. 
 
 To the last penny ; 'tis the king's : my robe. 
 
 And my integrity to heaven, is all 
 
 I dare now call mine own. O Cromwell, Cromwell! 
 
 Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
 
 I served my king, he would not in mine age 
 
 Have left me naked to mine enemies. 
 
 GRAY. 
 ELEGY 
 
 WRITTEN IN A COUNTRY CHURCHYARD. 
 
 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
 
 The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
140 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
 And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
 
 Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 
 And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds ; 
 
 Save that, from yonder ivy-mantled tow'r. 
 The moping owl does to the moon complain 
 
 Of such as, wandVing near her secret bow'r. 
 Molest her ancient solitary reign. 
 
 Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade. 
 Where heaves the turf in many a mold'ring heap, 
 
 Each in his narrow cell forever laid. 
 
 The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 
 
 The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 
 
 The swallow twitt'ring from the straw-built shed, 
 
 The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 
 No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed. 
 
 For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, 
 Or busy housewife ply her evening care ; 
 
 No children run to lisp their sire's return. 
 Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. 
 
 Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield. 
 
 Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke : 
 
 How jocund did they drive their team afield ! 
 
 How bow'd the woods beneath their sturdy stroke ! 
 
 Let not ambition mock their useful toil. 
 Their homely joys, and destiny obscure ; 
 
 Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile 
 The short and simple annals of the poor. 
 
 The boast of heraldry, the pomp of powV, 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. 
 
 Await alike th' inevitable hour : 
 The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, 
 If memory o'er their tomb no trophies raise, 
 
 Where thro' the long-drawn isle and fretted vault 
 The pealing anthem swells the note of praise. 
 
 Can storied urn, or animated bust. 
 
 Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
 
 Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
 Or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death ? 
 
 Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid 
 
 Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ; 
 
 Hands, that the rod of empire might have sway'd, 
 Or wak'd to ecstasy the living lyre. 
 
 But knowledge to their eyes her ample page 
 Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll ; 
 
 Chill penury repress'd their noble rage. 
 And froze the genial current of the soul. 
 
 Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
 
 The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear : 
 
 Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 
 
 Some village-Hampden, that, with dauntless breast. 
 The little tyrant of his fields withstood, 
 
 Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, 
 Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood. 
 
 Th' applause of list'ning senates to command. 
 The threats of pain and ruin to despise. 
 
 To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, 
 And read their hist'ry in a nation's eyes. 
 
 Their lot forbade : nor circumscrib'd alone 
 
 Their growing virtues, but their crimes confin'd ; 
 
 Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne, 
 And shut the gates of mercy on mankind, 
 
 141 
 
142 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide, 
 To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame, 
 
 Or heap the shrine of luxury and pride 
 With incense kindled at the Muse's flame. 
 
 Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
 Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray ; 
 
 Along the cool sequestered vale of life 
 They kept the noiseless tenor of their way. 
 
 Yet ev'n these bones from insult to protect 
 Some frail memorial still erected nigh, 
 
 With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd, 
 Implores the passing tribute of a sigh. 
 
 Their name, their years, spelt by th' unlettered Muse, 
 The place of fame and elegy supply : 
 
 And many a holy text around she strews. 
 That teach the rustic moralist to die. 
 
 For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey, 
 This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd. 
 
 Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day, 
 Nor cast one longing ling'ring look behind ? 
 
 On some fond breast the parting soul relies. 
 Some pious drops the closing eye requires ; 
 
 E'en from the tomb the voice of nature cries. 
 E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires. 
 
 For thee, who mindful of th' unhonor'd dead 
 Dost in these lines their artless tale relate ; 
 
 If chance, by lonely contemplation led, 
 Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate. 
 
 Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, 
 " Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn 
 
 Brushing with hasty steps the dews away. 
 To meet the sun upon the upland lawn. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 143 
 
 " There at the foot of yonder nodding beech, 
 That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high, 
 
 His listless length at noontide would he stretch, 
 And pore upon the brook that babbles by. 
 
 " Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn, 
 MuttVing his wayward fancies he would rove ; 
 
 Now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn. 
 Or craz'd with care, or cross'd in hopeless love. 
 
 "One morn I miss'd him on the customed hill, 
 
 Along the heath and near his fav'rite tree ; 
 Another came ; nor yet beside the rill, 
 
 Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he : 
 
 " The next, with dirges due in sad array 
 
 Slow thro' the church-way path we saw him borne : — 
 Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay 
 
 Grav'd on the stone beneath yon aged thorn." 
 
 THE EPITAPH. 
 
 Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
 A youth to fortune and to fame unknown : 
 
 Fair science frown'd not on his humble birth, 
 And melancholy marked him for her own. 
 
 Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere, 
 Heav'n did a recompense as largely send : 
 
 He gave to mis'ry (all he had) a tear, 
 
 He gained from Heaven ('twas all he wish'd) a friend. 
 
 No farther seek his merits to disclose. 
 
 Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 
 
 (There they alike in trembling hope repose,) 
 The bosom of his Father and his God. 
 
44 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 COLLINS. 
 THE PASSIONS. 
 
 When Music, heav'nly maid, was young. 
 While yet in early Greece she sung, 
 The Passions oft, to hear her shell, 
 Throng'd around her magic cell. 
 Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting, 
 Possest beyond the Muse's painting ; 
 By turns they felt the glowing mind 
 Disturbed, delighted, rais'd, refin'd ; 
 Till once, 'tis said, when all were fir'd, 
 Fiird with fury, rapt, inspired. 
 From the supporting myrtles round 
 They snatch'd her instruments of sound ; 
 And, as they oft had heard apart 
 Sweet lessons of her forceful art, 
 Each, for madness rul'd the hour. 
 Would prove his own expressive power. 
 
 First Fear his hand, its skill to try, 
 Amid the chords bewildered laid. 
 
 And back recoiPd, he knew not why, 
 Ev'n at the sound himself had made. 
 
 Next Anger rush'd ; his eyes, on fire, 
 In lightnings own'd his secret stings ; 
 
 In one rude clash he struck the lyre. 
 
 And swept with hurried hand the strings. 
 
 With woeful measures wan Despair, 
 Low sullen sounds, his grief beguil'd, 
 
 A solemn, strange, and mingled air ; 
 'Twas sad by fits, by starts 'twas wild. 
 
 But Thou, O Hope, with eyes so fair. 
 What was thy delightful measure ? 
 
 Still it whisper'd promis'd pleasure. 
 And bade the lovely scenes at distance hail! 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. I45 
 
 Still would her touch the strain prolong, 
 And from the rocks, the woods, the vale, 
 
 She caird on Echo still thro' all the song ; 
 And, where her sweetest theme she chose, 
 A soft responsive voice was heard at ev'ry close. 
 
 And Hope enchanted smil'd, and wav'd her golden hair. 
 
 And longer had she sung ; but, with a frown. 
 
 Revenge impatient rose : 
 He threw his blood-stain'd sword in thunder down, 
 And with a withering look 
 The war-denouncing trumpet took, 
 And blew a blast so loud and dread. 
 Were ne'er prophetic sounds so full of woe. 
 And ever and anon he beat 
 The doubling drum with furious heat ; 
 And tho' sometimes, each dreary pause between, 
 Dejected Pity at his side 
 Her soul-subduing voice applied, 
 Yet still he kept his wild unalter'd mien, 
 While each strain'd ball of sight seem'd bursting from his head. 
 Thy numbers, Jealousy, to naught were fix'd. 
 
 Sad proof of thy distressful state ; 
 Of diff'ring themes the veering song was mix'd ; 
 
 And now it courted love, now raving calFd on hate. 
 With eyes uprais'd, as one inspir'd. 
 Pale Melancholy sate retir'd. 
 And from her wild sequester'd seat, 
 In notes by distance made more sweet, 
 Pour'd thro' the mellow horn her pensive soul ; 
 And, dashing soft from rocks around. 
 Bubbling runnels join'd the sound ; 
 Thro' glades and glooms the mingled measure stole, 
 Or o'er some haunted stream with fond delay, 
 Round an holy calm diffusing, 
 Love of peace and lonely musing. 
 In hollow murmurs died away. 
 But, O ! how alter'd was its sprightlier tone, 
 When Cheerfulness, a nymph of healthiest hue, 
 SCH. ENG. — 10 
 
146 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Her bow across her shoulder flung, 
 
 Her buskins gemm'd with morning dew, 
 Blew an inspiring air, that dale and thicket rung, 
 
 The hunter's call to faun and dryad known ! 
 
 The oak-crowned sisters and their chaste-eyed queen, 
 
 Satyrs and silvan boys, were seen. 
 
 Peeping from forth their alleys green ; 
 Brown Exercise rejoic'd to hear, 
 
 And Sport leapt up and seized his beechen spear. 
 Last came Joy's ecstatic trial : 
 He, with viny crown advancing. 
 
 First to the lively pipe his hand addrest, 
 But soon he saw the brisk-awak'ning viol. 
 
 Whose sweet entrancing voice he lov'd the best ; 
 They would have thought, who heard the strain. 
 They saw in Tempe's vale her native maids, 
 Amidst the festal sounding shades. 
 To some unwearied minstrel dancing. 
 
 While, as his flying fingers kiss'd the strings. 
 
 Love fram'd with Mirth a gay fantastic round ; 
 
 Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound . 
 
 And he, amidst his frolic play. 
 As if he would the charming air repay. 
 Shook thousand odors from his dewy wings. 
 O Music, sphere-descended maid, 
 Friend of pleasure, wisdom's aid. 
 Why, goddess, why to us deny'd 
 Lay'st thou thy ancient lyre aside? 
 As in that lov'd Athenian bow'r. 
 You learn'd an all-commanding pow'r, 
 Thy mimic soul, O Nymph endear'd, 
 Can well recall what .then it heard. 
 Where is thy native simple heart, 
 Devote to virtue, fancy, art? 
 Arise, as in that elder time; 
 Warm, energic, chaste, sublime! 
 Thy wonders, in that godlike age. 
 Fill thy recording sister's page : 
 'Tis said, and I believe the tale, ' 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 147 
 
 Thy humblest reed could more prevail, 
 Had more of strength, diviner rage. 
 Than all which charms this laggard age, 
 Ev'n all at once together found 
 Cecilia's mingled world of sound. 
 O bid our vain endeavors cease. 
 Revive the just designs of Greece ! 
 Return in all thy simple state ! 
 Confirm the tales her sons relate ! 
 
 THE VISION OF MIRZA. 
 
 [from the " SPECTATOR."] 
 
 When I was at Grand Cairo, I picked up several oriental 
 manuscripts which I have still by me. Among others I met 
 with one entitled "The Vision of Mirza," which I have read 
 over with great pleasure, and which I have translated word 
 for word as follows : — 
 
 " On the fifth day of the moon, which according to the cus- 
 tom of my forefathers I always keep holy, after having washed 
 myself, and offered up my morning devotions, I ascended the 
 high hills of Bagdat, in order to pass the rest of the day in 
 meditation and prayer. As I was here airing myself on the 
 tops of the mountains, I fell into a profound contemplation on 
 the vanity of human life ; and passing from one thought 
 to another, ' Surely,' said I, ' man is but a shadow, and life 
 a dream.' Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards 
 the summit of a rock that was not far from me, where I discov- 
 ered one in the habit of a shepherd, with a little musical instru- 
 ment in his hand. As I looked upon him, he applied it to his 
 lips, and began to play upon it. The sound of it was exceed- 
 ing sweet, and wrought into a variety of tunes that were inex- 
 pressibly melodious, and altogether different from anything I 
 had ever heard. They put me in mind of those heavenly airs 
 that are played to the departed souls of good men upon their 
 first arrival in Paradise, to wear out the impressions of the last 
 
148 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 agonies, and qualify them for the pleasures of that happy place. 
 My heart melted away in secret raptures. 
 
 "I had been often told that the rock before me was the 
 haunt of a genius ; and that several had been entertained with 
 music who had passed by it, but never heard that the musician 
 had before made himself visible. When he had raised my 
 thoughts by those transporting airs which he played, to taste 
 the pleasures of his conversation, as I looked upon him like one 
 astonished, he beckoned to me, and by the waving of his hand 
 directed me to approach the place where he sat. I drew near 
 with that reverence which is due to a superior nature ; and as 
 my heart was entirely subdued by the captivating strains I had 
 heard, I fell down at his feet and wept. The genius smiled 
 upon me with a look of compassion and affabiHty that familiar- 
 ized him to my imagination, and at once dispelled all the fears 
 and apprehensions with which I approached him. He lifted 
 me from the ground, and taking me by the hand, ' Mirza,' said 
 he, ' I have heard thee in thy soHloquies ; follow me.' 
 
 " He then led me to the highest pinnacle of the rock, and 
 placing me on the top of it, 'Cast thy eyes eastward,' said he, 
 'and tell me what thou seest.' — 'I see,' said I, 'a huge valley, 
 and a prodigious tide of water rolling through it.' — 'The valley 
 that thou seest,' said he, ' is the Vale of Misery, and the tide of 
 water that thou seest is part of the great tide of eternity.' — 
 'What is the reason,' said I, 'that the tide I see rises out of a 
 thick mist at one end, and again loses itself in a thick mist at 
 the other?' — 'What thou seest,' said he, 'is that portion of 
 eternity which is called time, measured out by the sun, and 
 reaching from the beginning of the world to its consummation. 
 Examine now,' said he, 'this sea that is thus bounded with 
 darkness at both ends, and tell me what thou discoverest in it.' 
 — ' I see a bridge,' said I, ' standing in the midst of the tide.' 
 — 'The bridge thou seest,' said he, 'is human life ; consider it 
 attentively.' Upon a more leisurely survey of it, I found it 
 consisted of threescore and ten entire arches, with sev€^ral 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 1 49 
 
 broken arches, which added to those that were entire, made up 
 the number about an hundred. As I was counting the arches, 
 the genius told me that this bridge consisted at first of a thou- 
 sand arches ; but that a great flood swept away the rest, and 
 left the bridge in the ruinous condition I now beheld it. 
 ' But tell me farther,' said he, * what thou discoverest on it.' — 
 'I see multitudes of people passing over it,' said I, 'and a 
 black cloud hanging on each end of it' As I looked more 
 attentively, I saw several of the passengers dropping through 
 the bridge into the great tide that flowed underneath it, and 
 upon farther examination, perceived there were innumerable 
 trapdoors that lay concealed in the bridge, which the passen- 
 gers no sooner trod upon, but they fell through them into the 
 tide, and immediately disappeared. These hidden pitfalls 
 were set very thick at the entrance of the bridge, so that 
 throngs of people no sooner broke through the cloud, but 
 many of them fell into them. They grew thinner towards the 
 middle, but multiplied and lay closer together towards the end 
 of the arches that were entire. 
 
 " There were indeed some persons — but their number was 
 very small — that continued a kind of hobbling march on the 
 broken arches, but fell through one after another, being quite 
 tired and spent with so long a walk. 
 
 " I passed some time in the contemplation of this wonderful 
 structure, and the great variety of objects which it presented. 
 My heart was filled with a deep melancholy to see several drop- 
 ping unexpectedly in the midst of mirth and jollity, and catch- 
 ing at everything that stood by them to save themselves. Some 
 were looking up towards the heavens in a thoughtful posture, 
 and in the midst of a speculation stumbled and fell out of sight. 
 Multitudes were very busy in the pursuit of bubbles that glit- 
 tered in their eyes and danced before them; but often when 
 they thought themselves within the reach of them, their footing 
 failed and down they sunk. In this confusion of objects, I 
 observed some with scimiters in their hands, who ran to and fro 
 
ISO SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 upon the bridge, thrusting several persons on trapdoors which 
 did not seem to lie in their way, and which they might have 
 escaped had they not been thus forced upon them. 
 
 " The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy 
 prospect, told me I had dwelt long enough upon it. *Take 
 thine eyes off the bridge,' said he, ' and tell me if thou yet 
 seest anything thou dost not comprehend.' Upon looking up, 
 *What mean,' said I, 'those great flights of birds that are per- 
 petually hovering about the bridge, and settHng upon it from 
 time to time ? I see vultures, harpies, ravens, cormorants, and 
 among many other feathered creatures several Httle winged 
 boys, that perch in great numbers upon the middle arches.' — 
 'These,' said the genius, 'are Envy, Avarice, Superstition, 
 Despair, Love, with the like cares and passions that infect 
 human life.' 
 
 " I here fetched a deep sigh. * Alas,' said I, ' man was made 
 in vain ! how is he given away to misery and mortality ! tortured 
 in life, and swallowed up in death ! ' The genius being moved 
 with compassion towards me, bid me quit so uncomfortable a 
 prospect. ' Look no more,' said he, ' on man in the first stage 
 of his existence, in his setting out for eternity ; but cast thine 
 eye on that thick mist into which the tide bears several genera- 
 tions of mortals that fall into it.' I directed my sight as I was 
 ordered, and (whether or no the good genius strengthened it 
 with any supernatural force, or dissipated part of the mist that 
 was before too thick for the eye to penetrate) I saw the valley 
 opening at the farther end, and spreading forth into an immense 
 ocean, that had a huge rock of adamant running through the 
 midst of it, and dividing it into two equal parts. The clouds 
 still rested on one half of it, insomuch that I could discover 
 nothing in it : but the other appeared to me a vast ocean 
 planted with innumerable islands, that were covered with fruit 
 and flowers, and interwoven with a thousand little shining seas 
 that ran among them. I could see persons dressed in glorious 
 habits with garlands upon their heads, passing among the trees, 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 151 
 
 lying down by the sides of fountains, or resting on beds of 
 flowers ; and could hear a confused harmony of singing birds, 
 falling waters, human voices, and musical instruments. Glad- 
 ness grew in me upon the discovery of so delightful a scene. 
 I wished for the wings of an eagle, that I might fly away to 
 those happy seats ; but the genius told me there was no passage 
 to them, except through the gates of death, that I saw opening 
 every moment upon the bridge. ' The islands,' said he, ' that 
 lie so fresh and green before thee, and with which the whole 
 face of the ocean appears spotted as far as thou canst see, are 
 more in number than the sands on the seashore ; there are 
 myriads of islands behind those which thou here discoverest, 
 reaching farther than thine eye, or even thine imagination, can 
 extend itself. These are the mansions of good men after death, 
 who, according to the degree and kinds of virtue in which they 
 excelled, are distributed among these several islands, which 
 abound with pleasures of different kinds and degrees, suitable 
 to the reUshes and perfections of those who are settled in them ; 
 every island is a Paradise accommodated to its respective 
 inhabitants. Are not these, O Mirza, habitations worth con- 
 tending for ? Does not Hfe appear miserable, that gives thee 
 opportunities of earning such a reward ? Is death to be feared, 
 that will convey thee to so happy an existence? Think not 
 man was made in vain, who has such an eternity reserved for 
 him.' I gazed with inexpressible pleasure on these happy 
 islands. At length, said I, ' Show me now, I beseech thee, the 
 secrets that lie hid under those dark clouds which cover the 
 ocean on the other side of the rock of adamant.' The genius 
 making me no answer, I turned me about to address myself to 
 him a second time, but I found that he had left me ; I then 
 turned again to the vision which I had been so long contem- 
 plating : but instead of the roUing tide, the arched bridge, and 
 the happy islands, I saw nothing but the long hollow valley of 
 Bagdat, with oxen, sheep, and camels grazing upon the sides 
 of it." 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF FIGURES. 
 
 Originality Essential. — Figures have been defined 
 and illustrated, not with a view to giving the student 
 something new to put into his writing ; for the charm of 
 any production would be entirely lost, if the writer 
 should feel that having just finished a chapter on figures 
 of speech, he must keep on the lookout for a chance 
 to put in a simile, or ask himself what would be a good 
 metaphor for this thought, or how this idea could be 
 best personified. Originality and spontaneity are abso- 
 lutely necessary to happy expression, and no author 
 could inform us how he found his bright ideas, or by 
 what rule he constructed the lines which have since 
 become familiar quotations to us all. 
 
 But genius must receive its inspiration from some 
 source; and it is possible that reading and reflecting 
 upon the examples and selections given may awaken in 
 the mind of some pupils the power needing only to be 
 aroused and guided. 
 
 Figures as Stumbling-blocks. — Few men have written 
 well when very young. Shakespeare became the wonder 
 of all ages after years of writing, so aptly named the 
 ** workshop period." The youthful work of most poets 
 is valuable mainly for completing the collections of their 
 poems. Figurative language has been a stumbling- 
 block for all grades of genius. Eminent critics have 
 
 152 
 
ERRORS IN THE USE OF FIGURES. 1 53 
 
 shown this to be true even with the princes of song. 
 When the schoolboy, consciously or unconsciously, be- 
 gins to put his thoughts in pictured phrase, in lifting 
 his eyes toward the sky for inspiration, he takes them 
 from the stony road, and thus too often falls. 
 
 Errors in the use of figures are frequently found in 
 the work of promising scholars ; for it takes boldness for 
 a boy to give his imagination any play at all. It would 
 be a great wrong to ridicule any genuine outburst of 
 youthful enthusiasm, and therefore careful criticism and 
 guidance are necessary here. 
 
 Errors Classified. — One pupil is prone to pick up 
 and weave into his writing all the old hackneyed fig- 
 ures he can find ; another pupil will mix his figurative 
 expressions so they can with difficulty be understood ; 
 another will think that he is doing well, if only he can 
 put his words in high-sounding flowery phrase, without 
 regard to its fitness for the expression of his meager 
 thoughts. 
 
 But where a figure fails to suggest the thought as 
 well as the literal expression would state it, the figure 
 does not accomplish the purpose for which it was 
 intended, and hence is useless ; for not only is no force 
 gained, but clearness also is lost. 
 
 Errors of this sort can be definitely pointed out, and 
 suggestions can be given for their correction, only after 
 the pupil has learned the names and definitions of the 
 various figures which it is possible to use or misuse. 
 We shall now classify the faults most frequently made 
 in the use of figures. 
 
 I. When the relation between the words used and the 
 thought to be suggested is too remote or obscure^ the 
 
154 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 figure fails to add clearness or force y and is consequently 
 
 useless. 
 
 Ex. " From harmony, from heav'nly harmony 
 This universal frame began ; 
 From harmony to harmony 
 Through all the compass of the notes it ran, 
 The diapason closing full in Man." 
 
 Dryden doubtless expresses a valuable thought in the 
 last lines of the foregoing extract ; but does the meta- 
 phor employed add clearness or force .-* 
 
 The following is from a college periodical : — 
 
 '* Still in my youth my love was torn away. 
 O broken lute ! O shattered glass of wine ! 
 They gave her to a husband worthier far 
 
 Of her enchantment ; I was bound to clay, 
 But re-inspired by her, his soul divine, 
 
 Touched the hot orbit of my worshiped star." 
 
 A well-known clergyman of New York prayed as 
 
 follows : — 
 
 " O Lord, we cannot put our finger into the print of the nails ; 
 but thou dost ever put thy finger into the folds of our hearts." 
 
 Just what did he mean t 
 
 II. Metaphors lose their power of suggesting thoughts 
 when several are mixed in the one sentence, when one is 
 used within another, or when they are carried into minute 
 detail. 
 
 The commonest example of mixed metaphor is 
 Shakespeare's line, — 
 
 "Or to take arms against a sea of trouble." 
 
 Though the line occurs in one of the best of Shake- 
 spearean paragraphs, it certainly seems incongruous to 
 speak of taking arms against a sea. 
 
ERRORS IN THE USE OF FIGURES. 1 55 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
 That longs to launch out into bolder strain. 
 
 Mr. Harter's scheme of national and state banking in a sort 
 of financial wedlock, I fear, will be a Pandora's box. 
 
 And now some light on the real character of Lord Mohun 
 begins to crop out. 
 
 Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light into the thick 
 gloom. 
 
 He never opened his mouth but to put his foot in it. 
 
 He was unable to steer his ship over the rough road of public 
 sentiment. 
 
 III. Certain very expressive figures^ chiefly metaphors, 
 have been used so much that they have become worn out, 
 or trite. It is well to avoid the use of these, for they 
 no longer have the charm of freshness or originality. 
 
 Examples of such figures are : — 
 Narrow bed for grave. 
 Lily white hand, ruby lips, ivory brow. 
 The flower of youth. 
 The journey of Hfe. 
 The springtime of life. 
 Honeyed lips. 
 Brave as a lion. 
 Cunning as a fox. 
 Last resting place. 
 Dewy eve. 
 
 Blue vaulted heavens. 
 The golden orb of day. 
 
156 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 IV. The warning most necessary here is against the 
 use of figures too expressive for the thought and the con- 
 sequent ridiculous impression produced. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L 
 
 ANN ARBOR. 
 
 Enthroned upon fair hills the city sips 
 From Huron's breath, or Michigan's dew brewed, 
 Ambrosial draughts. Nor giant oak nor elm 
 Bedims her view. Below, ambitious shoots 
 A generation new, their stripling forms 
 Admire, vainglorious, in the murky sheen 
 The river mirrors, from its slothful breast. 
 
 CASCADE GLEN. 
 
 The aromatic breath of nature fills 
 
 These avenues, whose shafts, leaf-capitoled. 
 
 Re-echo shout and gladsome song, or chant 
 
 The M^mnon anthem of the day. Here is 
 
 The laboratory of the Universe. 
 
 Here, heaven her alchemy unfolds. The rill 
 
 In cascade leaping, rainbows every beam 
 
 Of straggling day, its wild ambition drowns 
 
 In mimic dance and eddying whirl across 
 
 The bosom of the stream below, then drones 
 
 To list the willows gossip a romance. 
 
 The following extract from the New York " Sun " 
 shows that even with George Washington for a theme, 
 extravagant figures may produce a ridiculous impres- 
 sion : — 
 
ERRORS IN THE USE OF FIGURES. 1 57 
 
 Of all the eloquence that fell from the lips of speakers yester- 
 day, there was none other to compare with that of the President 
 of this Club. 
 
 " Gentlemen : — It has been said that when two or three men 
 gather together in the name of the Lord, the Lord is in their 
 midst. We have met to-night to celebrate one of the most im- 
 portant events that ever constituted an epoch in the annals of 
 history — the birthday of Washington." 
 
 Then Mr. P. went on : '^ Col. Ingersoll, in his recent great 
 speech on Lincoln, said : * Washington is now only a steel 
 engraving,' but I, for one, think he is something more. 
 
 " He speaks to us from the canvas ; he lives in monumental 
 brass and marble ; his memory is enshrined in millions of warm 
 and patriotic hearts ; and up from our cloud-capped hills and 
 sunny vales shall ever arise the swelUng anthem of praise of him 
 who gave to his country more of Fame's immortal dower than 
 any king, conqueror, or emperor that ever walked God's broad 
 earth or bore the honors that stalked upon it. 
 
 " True, he did not, like the God-like Webster and eloquent 
 Clay, the applause of Hstening Senates command, nor, like the 
 great astronomer, read the beautiful and blazing mystery of the 
 stars, nor yet, like Franklin, call down the red lightning from its 
 far-off home, that it might become the swift-winged messenger 
 of thought, but in the broader and higher atmosphere of 
 patriotism and freedom he won a corona of fame brighter than 
 any that ever glittered in the crowns of Assyrian kings, or 
 blazed on the breastplate of old Aaron." 
 
 Mr. P. concluded his speech like this : " Let us then, my 
 friends, cherish the remembrance of Washington, and wear 
 him in our heart of hearts, for ages may pass away ere the world 
 will look upon his like again. . . . Flow on, dark rolling Poto- 
 mac, and sing the praises of the hero who sleeps upon your 
 banks * a sleep that knows no waking.' Ye zephyrs of morning 
 that once kissed the manly brow of Washington, whisper in 
 each listening ear his name, and ye blithe birds whose wild 
 
158 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 notes chimed with the ripple of the wavelets and floated on the 
 morning air, chant ye a requiem sad and sweet for the departed 
 soldier, patriot, and statesman." 
 
 There was a burst of applause when this speech ended. 
 Mr. P. bowed modestly and sat down. Several of the mem- 
 bers of the club came forward and congratulated him. 
 
Part II. 
 
 COMPOSITION. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Difficulties. — Part I. of this book has for its almost 
 exclusive aim the correction of errors in the pupil's 
 written work, and the improvement of his style. It has 
 been assumed, for the purpose of criticism, that the 
 essay has already been written. Nothing has been 
 said with a view to helping the pupil put his thoughts 
 into writing. Therefore, though the foregoing pages 
 have been carefully studied, though all the rules have 
 been committed to memory, and even though skill has 
 been acquired in applying them in criticism, unless the 
 pupil possesses a natural gift for composition, the 
 knowledge thus far acquired will be useful only in criti- 
 cising the work of others. As school pupils find diffi- 
 culties in composition, and have many false ideas with 
 reference to it, some instruction is necessary to over- 
 come the difficulties and correct these ideas. Accord- 
 ingly Part II. furnishes suggestions which it is hoped 
 may prove useful in starting work of composition. 
 
 Naturalness. — At the outset it will be well to correct 
 an erroneous but common impression among young 
 
 ^ 159 
 
l6o SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 people, to the effect that they must have for writing a 
 set of ideas and words quite different from those used 
 in conversation. If the pupil starts on this principle, 
 he will find that the hitherto unused part of his brain 
 refuses to work when suddenly called upon to furnish 
 material. 
 
 If one feels that he must write ia_a different way 
 from that in which he talks, or upon thoughts which 
 he never has except when taking up a pen, learning to 
 write in his own tongue will be as difficult as learning 
 to speak in a new language. Indeed, he will never be 
 happy in any composition work, until he karns that he 
 should not approach it as if it were an extraordinary 
 occupation which called for the exercise of a new set of 
 faculties. 
 
 On the contrary, the student should restrict himself 
 in all that he writes to simplicity and naturalness of 
 expression, by recording with his pen what he would 
 say if conversing upon the subject on which he is writ- 
 ing. This, however, is not the mood in which most 
 pupils begin to write. On account of the desire to pro- 
 duce a masterpiece of thought and expression, the flow 
 of words so easy and unstudied in conversation refuses 
 the aid of conscious effort, and often ceases when the pen 
 is taken in hand. 
 
 Doubtless many young people have often experi- 
 enced this sudden chill and paralysis of the powers 
 of expression. But would this paralysis set in, if 
 the writer felt that in tracing his words in ink, he 
 were doing nothing more than talking with his pen ? 
 This is exactly what is done in writing a letter ; for 
 if the person to whom the letter is addressed were 
 present, the message of the letter would be delivered 
 
PRELIMINARY^ SUGGESTIONS. l6l 
 
 verbally ; and for this reason letter writing is one of the 
 best means for improvement in composition. 
 
 Carefulness. — It will probably be necessary to caution 
 most pupils against mistaking naturalness for careless- 
 ness. If one is naturally careless, his composition should 
 be unnatural to the extent of carefulness in expression 
 and penmanship. 
 
 By insisting on carefulness of expression, we mean 
 that all that has been learned in studying the chapters 
 on " Correction of Errors and Clearness " should be put 
 into practice in every exercise. No mistake in grammar 
 should be allowed to pass uncorrected, and every sen- 
 tence obscure in meaning or capable of double sig- 
 nification should be made clear. Try always to make 
 sentences correct and clear as you write them ; but if you 
 fail to make them, so at firsts do not hesitate to alter them. 
 Make the alteration as neatly as you can ; but if the cor- 
 rection spoils the looks of the page, copy it. 
 
 Spelling. — Correct spelling will come naturally to 
 some ; to others, it will not. If one belongs to the latter 
 class, he should spare no pains to make up for the defi- 
 ciency, and he should cultivate a pride which, notwith- 
 standing the labor that may be necessary, will prevent 
 any misspelled word from ever appearing in his writing. 
 The ability to spell with accuracy can be acquired by 
 every one. A poor speller should always have a diction- 
 ary at his side when writing ; and if he will refer to it 
 for every word concerning the spelling of which he is 
 not certain, a few years will place him on the same 
 footing as his more gifted brother. 
 
 Neatness. — Besides the cautions for accuracy of ex- 
 pression and spelling, it will be well to add a few 
 instructions as to neatness. Neatness in penmanship 
 
 SCH. ENG. — II 
 
l62 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 also seems to be a natural gift. Some possess it, and 
 will need no directions here. Others will find that 
 neatness is the most difficult to acquire of all virtues. 
 For these a few suggestions will be beneficial. 
 
 Ink is a difficult material to use, and will cause much 
 damage at the hands of the unskillful. It is best 
 therefore to have a solid inkstand that cannot be easily 
 upset ; it should have a wide mouth, so that the penholder 
 will not rub against the edge, and thus smear the fingers. 
 For this reason never use a bottle for an inkstand. It 
 may seem an insignificant matter to mention here, but 
 it will save untold trouble if you always dip the pen but 
 a little way into the ink, or with a motion of the wrist 
 throw back the surplus ink into the inkstand. Nine 
 tenths of the blots come from an over-full pen. The rest 
 can be avoided by never attempting to write without 
 plenty of good fresh blotting paper, by having ample 
 room for one's writing paper and arm, and by keeping 
 the desk free from loose scraps that may be pushed 
 over the paper. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 LETTER WRITING. 
 
 The Best Practice in Composition. — The practice of 
 letter writing, as has already been said, is of great help 
 toward securing the much-needed naturalness of expres- 
 sion ; and more improvement in the power of writing 
 has come through this means than through any other. 
 The freedom and unreserve which belong to this kind of 
 composition, and the fact that what is written will be 
 read by another, with interest and not with a criticising 
 spirit, give to it a peculiar scope, and are well adapted 
 to bring out the otherwise unused powers of the writer. 
 
 Letters in Literature. — English literature abounds 
 with instances in which familiar letters from friend to 
 friend, or between kindred, meant only for a single reader 
 or for a household circle, have been rescued from such 
 obscurity and set in the full light which shines on the 
 classic page. The letters of Horace Walpole, of which 
 he says — at least of those to Sir Horace Mann — that 
 they were written very carelessly by a young man and 
 never intended for the public, are among the most in- 
 structive and entertaining of the many instructive and 
 entertaining books which exhibit to us the life of England 
 during the last century. 
 
 The private correspondence of Dr. Arnold and the 
 inimitable letters of Dickens are familiar illustrations 
 of the power and permanence of the most unstudied 
 
 163 
 
1 64 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 efforts of the pen when it is directed by an impulse 
 from the heart and the brain, in the service of friend- 
 ship and affection. A bright, cheerful letter, in which 
 the everyday scenes of home, or some festive commemo- 
 ration, or marked event, or the experiences of school, or 
 college, or travel, are set down in the fresh glow of the 
 occasion which prompts it, is often stamped with the 
 best traits of a true style. 
 
 Voluntary Letters. — By letter writing we do not mean 
 exercises written in class at the command of a teacher, 
 and put in the form of a letter by addressing an imagi- 
 nary person at the beginning, and implying affection or 
 respect over your signature at the close. It will be just 
 as hard to find ideas for such letters as for any other 
 written exercise; and though it may be necessary to 
 assign letters to be written in class, in order to teach 
 the pupil the correct form of a letter, and the proper 
 method of arranging the various broken lines, these are 
 not the letters to which we refer as the best means of 
 developing a good style. The greatest benefit will come 
 from those letters which one writes of his own free will, 
 when the pen is taken in hand without the slightest 
 effort of mind to find thoughts, but because the writer 
 has a message to deliver to a person to whom he cannot 
 speak. 
 
 The advantage of voluntary letter writing lies in the 
 fact that one can by that exercise, more than by any 
 other, make direct effort at improvement. The object 
 of all study of rhetoric is to learn to express ideas in 
 writing so that they can be readily understood by another. 
 In a letter, the writer knows exactly what he wishes to 
 say. When, therefore, one has written a real letter, he 
 can, by criticising it, make a truer estimate of his ability to 
 
LETTER WRITING. 1 65 
 
 express his ideas correctly, than he can by criticising an 
 essay in which he is not so certain of what he wishes 
 to say. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR LETTER WRITING. 
 
 I. Subject Matter. — As to what you should say in a 
 letter, there can be but one sound direction : Say what 
 you have in mind ; and do not try to lengthen out a let- 
 ter by searching for something more to write about. It is 
 not necessary to begin with an apology or to add any 
 excuse for closing. There are few exercises in writing 
 more profitable than trying to express a given idea in 
 as few words as possible. Short letters are blessings, 
 afford as much opportunity for skill as longer letters 
 do, and are proverbially the stumbling-blocks of the 
 careless ; as the following example will show. 
 
 A young Englishman, while at an inn on the Medi- 
 terranean, received a note inviting him to accompany a 
 gentleman on a trip to Rome. The answer to the note 
 was as given below : — 
 
 "The Honorable Mr. N. presents his compliments to Sir 
 Wm. F., and as I am going to Rome, he will be very happy to 
 take a seat in your carriage." 
 
 II. Form of a Letter. — It will be necessary to give 
 specific directions as to the proper form in which the 
 letter should be written. We have seen that the usage 
 of educated people is the law of language : it is also the 
 law of form in various kinds of writing and printing. 
 
 A complete letter consists of seven parts, and edu- 
 cated people generally follow the arrangement which 
 experience has discovered to be the best for appearance 
 and intelligibility. The seven parts are : 
 
1 66 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 I. The Headings which tells when and where the 
 
 letter is written. 
 II. The Address ^ which gives the name of the person 
 to whom the letter is sent. 
 
 III. The Salutation, or greeting, by which the mes- 
 
 sage is prefaced. 
 
 IV. The Letter Proper, or message. 
 
 V. The Complimentary Close, or polite remarks at 
 the close of the letter. 
 VI. The Signature of the person writing the letter. 
 VII. The Superscription, or direction, for the delivery 
 of the letter. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR ARRANGING THE PARTS OF A LETTER. 
 
 The appearance of a letter depends not only on the 
 writer's skill in penmanship, but also on the arrange- 
 ment of its parts. It is therefore important that both 
 skillful and unskillful penmen, especially the latter, 
 should adhere strictly to an approved form, such as is 
 given in the following directions. 
 
 In all written work, the pupil should leave on the left 
 side of the page a margin of uniform width. The first 
 line of each paragraph should be indented one half inch 
 from the margin. 
 
 I. The Heading should be written on the first line of 
 the paper, on the right-hand side. Commas should be 
 placed between all the items, and periods after all abbre- 
 viations. If the heading is long, the words indicating 
 the place should be on one line, and the date on the 
 next. The second line should begin at the right of the 
 beginning of the first line. When the paper is not 
 ruled, the heading should be written about one inch 
 
LETTER WRITING. 1 6/ 
 
 from the upper edge of the sheet, and should never be 
 crowded or written in a cramped handwriting. 
 
 II. The Address. — Leave one blank line between 
 the heading and the address. Beginning at the margin, 
 write the name of the person addressed with the proper 
 title ; on the next line, beginning a little to the right of 
 the margin, the number, street, town, and state. Use 
 two lines for these items, if necessary, to avoid crowd- 
 ing. The second line should begin twice as far from the 
 margin as the line above. With large cities the state 
 may be omitted. Commas should be placed between 
 all items, and periods after all abbreviations. All 
 words in the name or title of any person, and all names 
 of places, should begin with capitals. 
 
 In letters of friendship the address may be placed 
 before the salutation, in accordance with the direction 
 given, or on the second line below the signature, com- 
 mencing at the margin. 
 
 III. The Salutation. — On the next line, beginning 
 at the margin, write the salutation. After the saluta- 
 tion put a colon. If the letter is begun on the same 
 line, put a comma and dash. In addressing a friend 
 or relative, use any term of endearment that you wish. 
 In addressing a stranger, the common salutation is 
 Dear Sir or My dear Sir ; or in case of a woman, mar- 
 ried or single. Dear Madam or My dear Madam. For 
 more than one person, Gentlemen is more frequently 
 used than Dear Sirs. In addressing women, use Ladies. 
 
 IV. The Letter may begin on the same line as the 
 salutation, or on the next line directly beneath the colon. 
 If three lines have been used for the address, the letter 
 should begin on the same line as the salutation, to avoid 
 too many broken lines. 
 
l68 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 V. The Complimentary Close should be written on 
 the next line after the end of the letter, should begin 
 considerably to the right of the page, and, unless 
 crowded by so doing, under the last word of the line 
 above. The first word should begin with a capital; 
 and the last word should be followed by a comma. 
 Yours truly or Yours very truly is the ordinary polite 
 ending to a business letfer. Yours faithfully or Yours 
 sincerely is used where there is acquaintance or friend- 
 ship between the person writing and the one addressed. 
 Respectfully is used where the writer acknowledges 
 authority in the one to whom he is writing. Affection- 
 atefyy and other terms of endearment, should be used 
 only when relationship or friendship warrants them. 
 It is immaterial whether you write Yours very truly or 
 Very truly yours^ or Yours sincerely or Sincerely yours^ 
 etc. The complimentary close may be turned into a 
 sentence by placing before it, / remain^ I am, or other 
 words; as, / remain^ my dear Sir, with respect^ Yours 
 very truly. 
 
 VI. The Signature should be written on the line 
 below the complimentary close, beginning to the right 
 of the beginning of the line above. The signature 
 should be followed by a period. 
 
 VII. The Superscription, or Direction, is written on 
 the outside of the envelope. The name and title should 
 be in the middle of the envelope. The words used to 
 indicate the destination of the letter (number, street, 
 town, county, state, country, etc.) should be divided 
 into appropriate lines, and written below the name, each 
 line beginning a little to the right of the beginning of 
 the line above. Commas should be put between all 
 items, and periods after all abbreviations. 
 
LETTER WRITING. 1 69 
 
 Punctuation and Capitals. — There are no special 
 rules in letter writing for punctuation or capitals. 
 In all writing, commas are put wherever a word is 
 omitted, and between words in the same construction 
 not connected by conjunctions, and periods always fol- 
 low abbreviations. The first word of every sentence, 
 the first word of every line indented from the margin, 
 and every word standing for a proper name or title, 
 should in all forms of writing begin with capital letters. 
 One of the most frequent errors in letter writing con- 
 sists in using capitals when there is no reason for such 
 use ; as. My Dear Sir, Very Truly Yours, for My dear 
 Sir, Very truly yours. 
 
 When unruled paper is used, double the ordinary 
 space should be left where the foregoing directions call 
 for blank lines. 
 
 Practical Value. — Letter writing has been placed 
 first in the list of exercises because it is the best means 
 for securing natural expression of thought; but it is also 
 true that letter writing is in itself an important end to 
 be kept in view in the study of rhetoric. The majority 
 of those that study this book will make use of what they 
 learn from it chiefly in writing letters. Essays and 
 compositions will be left behind with school and college ; 
 but every one engaged in the practical affairs of life 
 must be continually writing letters. Moreover, the 
 ability to write a clear, well-expressed letter has a 
 high market value in the business world, and saves 
 time and energy for every one concerned; but the 
 delay caused by a poorly written or obscurely expressed 
 letter will in many cases result to the detriment of the 
 writer. 
 
170 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF COMPLETE LETTER. 
 
 (I) 
 
 3 Band ^t,, Jttw- ya\A. 
 
 S^ttdQ^b faiyW-duC wib (yy dcLd'yyb'Qy €%- 
 pbt^Qy tw-a knA/yuL\,uL (200^ mjO'lt'St^ aj 
 8a^(mJ^ '^ STbcftl/^Jh ^^aTn/Joxy^vU/yyo a/yuL 
 
 ycmA^h tvidAf; 
 
 CC. Hi, hcuv-VQ.. 
 
 (a) 
 
 cAeAA^ liaik, jwyi& 7; '^^' 
 
 jCcmyod9i&&v-lttt^ c/t.f. 
 
 ht/Jolj ta niyj jovnvub t&tt&V; cmcC i/ro (i@y- 
 (yyo yau, ta-ifiammv-. 
 
 of. &. ^aA/oaW: 
 
LETTER WRITING. 171 
 
 EXAMPLES OF DIRECTION. 
 
 Tyi&Q^QA^. 
 
 8 Band ^t. 
 
 of. y. 
 
 &a. 
 
 ^%e.ntan 
 
 Re.v: 
 
 f'f. 
 
 ^. 
 
 ^yn.itk, A^. 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 RCv-&vdaC& 
 MCa. 
 
1/2 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Important Caution. — The estimation in which a per- 
 son is held by those among whom he lives depends 
 very largely on the letters he writes, more so, perhaps, 
 than on what he says. The exact words of a con- 
 versation are difficult to recall, and a cautious person 
 hesitates to form an opinion from the quotation of a 
 conversation ; but the words of a letter stand exactly as 
 they are written, and challenge criticism. Flaws can be 
 picked in them at leisure. Remember that what you 
 write in a letter may be read by those who you never 
 expected would see it, and that whatever you say in a 
 letter cannot be easily taken back. It is wise to avoid 
 rash statements even when writing to the closest friends. 
 Business men find it necessary to preserve a copy of 
 every important letter, in order that the next letter may 
 be written in the light of what has been said, and in 
 order that there may be no alteration by dishonest 
 persons. Even though one is not in business, it will be 
 wise for him to keep a copy of every letter that he con- 
 siders of serious interest to himself. All these cautions 
 are suggested by the Latin sentence, Littera scripta 
 manet (the written letter remains). 
 
 In view of the importance of letter writing in every 
 branch of life, and on account of the opportunity af- 
 forded for improvement in writing, you are urged to 
 put into practice in every letter that you write all that 
 you have learned from this chapter. 
 
 The following letter is taken from Trevelyan's " Life 
 of Lord Macaulay." 
 
 We can excuse Macaulay's abuse of mathematics on 
 account of the entertaining way in which he expresses it. 
 He afterwards regretted his lack of mathematical power. 
 
LETTER WRITING. 1 73 
 
 Cambridge, 
 Wednesday, , 1818. 
 
 My dear Mother : King, I am absolutely certain, would take 
 no more pupils on any account. And, even if he would, he has 
 numerous applicants with prior claims. He has already six, 
 who occupy him six hours in the day, and is likewise lecturer 
 to the college. It would, however, be very easy to obtain an 
 excellent tutor. Lefevre and Malkin are men of first-rate 
 mathematical ability, and both of our college. 
 
 I can scarcely bear to write on mathematics or mathemati- 
 cians. Oh for words to express my abomination of that science, 
 if a name sacred to the useful and embellishing arts may be 
 applied to the perception and recollection of certain properties 
 in numbers and figures ! Oh that I had to learn astrology, or 
 demonology, or school divinity ; oh that I were to pore over 
 Thomas Aquinas, and to adjust the relation of Entity with the 
 two Predicaments, so that I were exempted from this miserable 
 study ! " Discipline " of the mind ! Say rather starvation, 
 confinement, torture, annihilation ! But it must be. I feel 
 myself becoming a personification of algebra, a living trigono- 
 metrical canon, a walking table of logarithms. All my percep- 
 tions of elegance and beauty gone, or at least going. By the 
 end of the term my brain will be "as dry as the remainder 
 biscuit after a voyage." Oh to change Cam for Isis ! But such 
 is my destiny ; and, since it is so, be the pursuit contemptible, 
 below contempt, or disgusting beyond abhorrence, I shall aim 
 at no second place. But three years ! I cannot endure the 
 thought. I cannot bear to contemplate what I must have to 
 undergo. Farewell, then. Homer and Sophocles and Cicero. 
 
 " Farewell, happy fields. 
 Where joy forever reigns ! Hail, horrors, hail, 
 Infernal world ! " 
 
 How does it proceed? Milton's descriptions have been driven 
 out of my head by such elegant expressions as the following : 
 
1/4 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 Cos. ^ = I h 
 
 Tan. a + b = 
 
 1-2 1.2-3.4 1.2.3.4.5.6 
 Tan. a + Tan. b 
 
 I — Tan. a + Tan. b 
 
 My classics must be Woodhouse, and my amusements summing 
 an infinite series. Farewell ; and tell Selina and Jane to be 
 thankful that it is not a necessary part of female education tc 
 get a headache daily without acquiring one practical truth or 
 beautiful image in return. Again, and with affectionate love 
 to my father, farewell wishes your most miserable and mathe- 
 matical son, 
 
 T. B. Macaulay. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 
 
 Composition generally Distasteful. — It is probable 
 that many pupils from every class will appreciate the 
 assistance they have received from instruction on letter 
 writing, that they will note the improvement in their 
 letters, and that they will take intense satisfaction in 
 the consciousness of having learned something of value 
 in the practical affairs of life. However, the problem 
 of writing an essay is still unsolved ; and it is true that 
 the composition has often been made a bugbear, haunt- 
 ing the pupil's life whenever the thought is suggested 
 or the name mentioned. If one could hear all the com- 
 plaints made at home, and read all the thoughts of a 
 class from which an essay is due, he would be sorely 
 tempted to agree with the pupil's views, that composi- 
 tions do more harm than good, by destroying the temper 
 and worrying the life of well-meaning boys and girls. 
 
 Essay Writing Necessary. — Fortunately or unfortu- 
 nately, it is quite impossible to do away with essays and 
 compositions ; for ability in writing can be secured only 
 by constant practice. The few letters that a boy or 
 girl has to write in the course of a week or month do 
 not furnish a significant fraction of the practice neces- 
 sary to gain proficiency ; and one quickly wearies of 
 writing letters to imaginary persons, or on make-believe 
 occasions. The teacher, therefore, cannot do away with 
 the aid of composition exercises ; but some way must 
 
 175 
 
176 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 be found for removing the difficulties that often beset 
 the pupil's path in this line of work; and with that 
 end in view, let us analyze the complaints most com- 
 monly heard, get at the real difficulties, and, if possible, 
 overcome them. 
 
 Common Complaints. — If members of the class are 
 left to choose their own subject, the majority will at 
 once complain that they are unable to find anything to 
 write about. If the subject is chosen for them, the 
 general complaint is that they have nothing to say on 
 that subject. Under all circumstances there will be 
 found some who maintain that they *' never could write 
 a composition, anyway," and that they "don't see the 
 use in it," because they have nothing worth saying. 
 
 Complaints Analyzed and Answered. — We have al- 
 ready learned that the usefulness of composition exer- 
 cises lies in the practice in writing which they afford. 
 Moreover, such practice is absolutely necessary for 
 attaining proficiency in writing, and this attainment is 
 the foremost requisite of an education. 
 
 In reviewing the complaints just enumerated, it is 
 clear that the main difficulties of composition lie not so 
 much in the pupil's inability to put his thoughts in 
 writing, as in the absence of suitable thoughts. What 
 man or woman, even though possessing great genius as 
 an author, could write anything worth reading on a sub- 
 ject in which he had little interest, and on which he 
 had meager information ? Arouse in any intelligent 
 youth a keen interest in a topic within his mental grasp, 
 show him where to find information on that topic, fill 
 his mind with ideas, so that he is able to converse with 
 intelligence on the subject, and if he can handle a pen 
 and spell, he will be able to write an intelligent compo- 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 1 77 
 
 sition. In other words, nine tenths of the difficulties 
 lie in the pupil's mistaken idea that he can write on 
 a subject before he has secured any information on that 
 subject, or that he must start to write his thoughts on 
 paper before he has any thoughts in his mind. 
 
 Thoughts, then, being the first requisite in essay writ- 
 ing, we must first of all study the various methods of 
 furnishing ourselves with ideas. 
 
 I. REPRODUCTION. 
 
 Method Explained. — The simplest method of secur- 
 ing ideas for an exercise in composition is to take a 
 short extract from the writings of another, read it over 
 until we have become familiar with the subject matter, 
 and then try to reproduce in writing the thoughts of 
 the original passage. It is necessary to become suffi- 
 ciently familiar with the extract to retain a clear impres- 
 sion of the thoughts expressed ; but, of course, if the 
 matter is learned by heart, the exercise of writing is 
 simply one in spelling and penmanship. In order to 
 remember the matter without committing sentences to 
 memory, it is well to read a short passage over but a 
 single, time, or longer passages two or three times, mak- 
 ing brief notes that will suggest each paragraph with- 
 out giving its exact words. 
 
 Advantages from Exercises in Reproduction. — The 
 advantages of exercises in reproduction are to be seen 
 at a glance. In the first place, the student starts his 
 work at once, knowing exactly what to do ; and besides 
 having thoughts in his mind, he has in his memory the 
 sound of well-formed sentences and well-chosen words. 
 If an occasional phrase or sentence is remembered 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 12 
 
178 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 word for word, writing this and weaving it in with other 
 sentences of his own making will improve the quality 
 of his writing; and he will, thus, unconsciously set a 
 higher standard for his own work. This method of 
 learning to write has been of great use to many 
 students ; and it is of especial interest to American 
 boys to know that Benjamin Franklin, whose success 
 in many branches of life was due to indomitable perse- 
 verance, acquired his proficiency in writing by the use 
 of this method, which is described in the following 
 extract from his "Autobiography." 
 
 After relating the circumstances of a debate which 
 he was carrying on with one named Collins, Franklin 
 proceeds : — 
 
 " Three or four letters of a side had passed, when my father 
 happened to find my papers and read them. Without entering 
 into the discussion, he took occasion to talk to me about the 
 manner of my writing ; observed that, though I had the advan- 
 tage of my antagonist in correct spelling and pointing (which 
 I owed to the printing-house), I fell far short in elegance of 
 expression, in method, and in perspicuity, of which he con- 
 vinced me by several instances. I saw the justice of his 
 remarks, and thence grew more attentive to the manner in 
 writing, and determined to endeavor at improvement. 
 
 "About this time I met with an odd volume of the 'Specta- 
 tor.' It was the third. I had never before seen any of them. 
 I bought it, read it over, and was much delighted with it. I 
 thought the writing excellent, and wished, if possible, to imitate 
 it. With this view, I took some of the papers, and making 
 short hints of the sentiments in each sentence, laid them by a 
 few days, and then, without looking at the book, tried to com- 
 plete the papers again, by expressing each hinted sentiment at 
 length, and as fully as it had been expressed before, in any 
 suitable words that should come to hand. Then I compared 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 1 79 
 
 my ' Spectator * with the original, discovered some of my faults, 
 and corrected them. But I found I wanted a stock of words, 
 or a readiness in recollecting and using them, which I thought 
 I should have acquired before that time if I had gone on mak- 
 ing verses ; since the continual occasion for words of the same 
 import, but of different length, to suit the measure, or of dif- 
 ferent sound for the rhyme, would have laid me under a con- 
 stant necessity of searching for variety, and also have tended 
 to fix that variety in my mind, and make me master of it. 
 Therefore, I took some of the tales and turned them into 
 verse ; and after a time, when I had pretty well forgotten the 
 prose, turned them back again. I also sometimes jumbled my 
 collections of hints into confusion, and after some weeks 
 endeavored to reduce them into the best order, before I began 
 to form the full sentences and complete the paper. This was 
 to teach me method in the arrangement of thoughts. By com- 
 paring my work afterwards with the original, I discovered 
 many faults and amended them ; but I sometimes had the 
 pleasure of fancying that, in certain particulars of small import, 
 I had been lucky enough to improve the method or the lan- 
 guage, and this encouraged me to think I might possibly in 
 time come to be a tolerable EngUsh writer, of which I was 
 extremely ambitious. My time for these exercises, and for 
 reading, was at night, after work, or before it began, in the 
 morning, or on Sundays, when I contrived to be in the print- 
 ing-house alone, evading as much as I could the common 
 attendance on public worship which my father used to exact 
 of me when I was under his care, and which, indeed, I still 
 thought a duty, though I could not, as it seemed to me, afford 
 time to practice it." 
 
 The foregoing passage from Franklin's " Autobiog- 
 raphy," and the following extract from Addison, may 
 be used as the first passages given the class for exer- 
 cises in reproduction. 
 
l80 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 A SUNDAY AT SIR ROGER DE COVERLEY's. 
 
 [from "the spectator."] 
 
 I am always very well pleased with a country Sunday ; and 
 think, if keeping holy the seventh day were only a human in- 
 stitution, it would be the best method that could have been 
 thought of for the poHshing and civilizing of mankind. It is 
 certain the country people would soon degenerate into a kind 
 of savages and barbarians, were there not such frequent returns 
 of a stated time, in which the whole village meet together with 
 their best faces, and in their cleanliest habits, to converse with 
 one another upon indifferent subjects, hear their duties explained 
 to them, and join together in adoration of the Supreme Being. 
 Sunday clears away the rust of the whole week, not only as it 
 refreshes in their minds the notions of religion, but as it puts 
 both the sexes upon appearing in their most agreeable forms, 
 and exerting all such quaUties as are apt to give them a figure 
 in the eye of the village. A country fellow distinguishes him- 
 self as much in the churchyard, as a citizen does upon the 
 'Change, the whole parish politics being generally discussed in 
 that place either after sermon or before the bell rings. 
 
 My friend Sir Roger, being a good churchman, has beautified 
 the inside of his church with several texts of his own choosing : 
 he has likewise given a handsome pulpit-cloth, and railed in 
 the communion-table at his own expense. He has often told 
 me, that at his coming to his estate he found his parishioners 
 very irregular; and that in order to make them kneel and 
 join in the responses, he gave every one of them a hassock 
 and a Common Prayer-Book : and at the same time employed 
 an itinerant singing-master, who goes about the country for 
 that purpose, to instruct them rightly in the tunes of the 
 Psalms ; upon which they now very much value themselves, 
 and indeed outdo most of the country churches that I have 
 ever heard. 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. l8l 
 
 As Sir Roger is landlord to the whole congregation, he keeps 
 them in very good order, and will suffer nobody to sleep in it 
 besides himself; for if by chance he has been surprised into a 
 short nap at sermon, upon recovering out of it he stands up 
 and looks about him, and if he sees anybody else nodding, 
 either wakes them himself, or sends his servant to them. Sev- 
 eral other of the old knight's particularities break out upon 
 these occasions : sometimes he will be lengthening out a 
 verse in the singing Psalms, half a minute after the rest 
 of the congregation have done with it ; sometimes, when he 
 is pleased with the matter of his devotion, he pronounces 
 " Amen " three or four times to the same prayer ; and some- 
 times stands up when everybody else is upon their knees, 
 to count the congregation, or see if any of his tenants are 
 missing. 
 
 I was yesterday very much surprised to hear my old friend, 
 in the midst of the service, calling out to one John Matthews 
 to mind what he was about, and not disturb the congregation. 
 This John Matthews it seems is remarkable for being an idle 
 fellow, and at that time was kicking his heels for his diversion. 
 This authority of the knight, though exerted in that odd man- 
 ner which accompanies him in all circumstances of life, has a 
 very good effect upon the parish, who are not polite enough to 
 see anything ridiculous in his behavior ; besides that the gen- 
 eral good sense and worthiness of his character make his 
 friends observe these little singularities as foils that rather set 
 off than blemish his good qualities. 
 
 As soon as the sermon is finished, nobody presumes to stir 
 till Sir Roger is gone out of the church. The knight walks 
 down from his seat in the chancel between a double row of his 
 tenants, that stand bowing to him on each side ; and every 
 now and then he inquires how such a one's wife, or mother, or 
 son, or father, do, whom he does not see at church ; which 
 is understood as a secret reprimand to the person that is 
 absent. 
 
1 82 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 The following notes on the foregoing extract explain 
 the method suggested for aiding the memory, and will 
 be found helpful : — 
 
 1. Advantage of Sunday, if only a human institution ; 
 civilizing ; cleanliest habits ; duties, adoration ; rest of 
 week ; churchyard and 'Change. 
 
 2. Sir Roger, the church, pulpit-cloth, prayer-book, 
 psalm tunes. 
 
 3. Sir Roger in church : order, nap, singing, amen, 
 counting congregation. 
 
 4. Incident of John Matthews : idle fellow ; effect on 
 parish ; singularities. 
 
 5. Sermon finished, row of tenants, inquiries. 
 
 Note to Teacher. — At first it may be best for the teacher to 
 read short extracts aloud to the class, as many times as it seems 
 necessary, and make notes upon the blackboard according to the 
 capacity of the class. Newspaper clippings and accounts of current 
 events in which the pupils are likely to be interested may be often 
 used to advantage ; but care should be taken to select passages that 
 are models of good style ; for this will unconsciously be copied even 
 from a single reading. If, as the author of this work assumes in the 
 preface, part of the English work of the class consists in reading an 
 English classic, the book used for that purpose will provide many 
 examples for reproduction. The passages given above from Frank- 
 lin's "Autobiography" and from the " Spectator," may be used for 
 the first exercises in reproduction. 
 
 II. SUBSTITUTION. 
 
 Method Explained. — A most excellent exercise in 
 composition may be found in taking a passage of good 
 prose similar to one chosen for an exercise in repro- 
 duction, reading it over carefully several times, substi- 
 tuting for the original theme or subject one similar to it, 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 1 83 
 
 and adapting from memory the language of the original 
 extract to the treatment of the new theme. This exer- 
 cise is especially suitable for descriptions. For example, 
 the student may read from Irving's "Sketch Book" the 
 description of the Catskill Mountains, and use it as a 
 model for describing other mountainous scenery with 
 which he is familiar. 
 
 In " Bracebridge Hall " there is this description of 
 Ready-Money Jack : — 
 
 READY-MONEY JACK. 
 
 On the skirts of the neighboring village there lives a kind of 
 small potentate, who, for aught I know, is a representative of one 
 of the most ancient legitimate lines of the present day ; for the 
 empire over which he reigns has belonged to his family time 
 out of mind. His territories comprise a considerable number 
 of fat acres ; and his seat of power is an old farmhouse where 
 he enjoys, unmolested, the stout oaken chair of his ancestors. 
 The personage to whom I allude is a sturdy old yeoman of the 
 name of John Tibbets, or rather Ready-Money Jack Tibbets, as 
 he is called throughout the neighborhood. 
 
 The first place where he attracted my attention was in the 
 churchyard on Sunday, where he sat on a tombstone after 
 service, with his hat a little on one side, holding forth to a 
 small circle of auditors, and, as I presumed, expounding 
 the law and the prophets, until on drawing a little nearer, I 
 found he was only expatiating on the merits of a brown horse. 
 He presented so faithful a picture of a substantial English 
 yeoman, such as he is often described in books, heightened, 
 indeed, by some little finery pecuUar to himself, that I could 
 not but take note of his whole appearance. 
 
 He was between fifty and sixty, of a strong, muscular frame, 
 and at least six feet high, with a physiognomy as grave as a 
 lion's, and set off with short, curling, iron-gray locks. His 
 
1 84 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 shirt collar was turned down, and displayed a neck covered 
 with the same short, curling, gray hair ; and he wore a colored 
 silk neckcloth, tied very loosely, and tucked in at the bosom, 
 with a green paste brooch on the knot. His coat was of dark- 
 green cloth, with silver buttons, on each of which was engraved 
 a stag with his own name, John Tibbets, underneath. He had 
 an inner waistcoat of figured chintz, between which and his 
 coat was another of scarlet cloth unbuttoned. His breeches 
 were also left unbuttoned at the knees, not from any slovenli- 
 ness, but to show a broad pair of scarlet garters. His stock- 
 ings were blue, with white clocks ; he wore large silver shoe- 
 buckles ; a broad paste buckle in his hatband ; his sleeve 
 buttons were gold seven-shilling pieces ; and he had two or 
 three guineas hanging as ornaments to his watch chain. 
 
 On making some inquiries about him, I gathered that he was 
 descended from a line of farmers that had always lived on the 
 same spot, and owned the same property ; and that half of the 
 churchyard was taken Up with the tombstones of his race. He 
 has all his Ufe been an important character in the place. When 
 a youngster, he was one of the most roaring blades of the 
 neighborhood. No one could match him at wrestling, pitch- 
 ing the bar, cudgel play, and other athletic exercises. Like 
 the renowned Pinner of Wakefield, he was the village cham- 
 pion ; carried off the prize at all the fairs, and threw his gaunt- 
 let at the country round. Even to this day the old people 
 talk of his powers, and undervalue, in comparison, all heroes of 
 the green that have succeeded him; nay, they say that if 
 Ready-Money Jack were to take the field even now, there is no 
 one could stand before him. 
 
 When Jack's father died, the neighbors shook their heads, 
 and predicted that young Hopeful would soon make way with 
 the old homestead; but Jack falsified all their predictions. 
 The moment he succeeded to the paternal farm he assumed a 
 new character, took a wife, attended resolutely to his affairs, 
 and became an industrious, thrifty farmer. With the family 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 1 85 
 
 property he inherited a set of old family maxims, to which he 
 steadily adhered. He saw to everything himself; put his own 
 hand to the plow ; worked hard ; ate heartily ; slept soundly ; 
 paid for everything in cash down ; and never danced except 
 he could do it to the music of his own money in both pockets. 
 He has never been without a hundred or two pounds in gold 
 by him, and never allows a debt to stand unpaid. This has 
 gained him his current name, of which, by the by, he is a little 
 proud ; and has caused him to be looked upon as a very 
 wealthy man by all the village. 
 
 Notwithstanding his thrift, however, he has never denied 
 himself the amusements of life, but has taken a share in every 
 passing pleasure. It is his maxim, that *' he that works hard 
 can afford to play." He is, therefore, an attendant at all the 
 country fairs and wakes, and has signalized himself by feats 
 of strength and prowess on every village green in the shire. 
 He often makes his appearance at horse races, and sports his 
 half-guinea and even his guinea at a time ; keeps a good horse 
 for his own riding, and to this day is fond of following the 
 hounds, and is generally in at the death. 
 
 He is a regular frequenter of the village inn, the landlady 
 having been a sweetheart of his in early life, and he having 
 always continued on kind terms with her. He seldom, how- 
 ever, drinks anything but a draught of ale ; smokes his pipe, 
 and pays his reckoning before leaving the taproom. Here he 
 *^ gives his little senate laws;" decides bets, which are gener- 
 ally referred to him ; determines upon the character and quality 
 of horses ; and indeed plays now and then the part of a judge 
 in settling petty disputes between neighbors, which otherwise 
 might have been nursed by country .attorneys into tolerable 
 lawsuits. Jack is very candid and impartial in his decisions, 
 but he has not a head to carry a long argument, and is very apt 
 to get perplexed and out of patience if there is much pleading. 
 He generally breaks through the argument with a strong voice. 
 
1 86 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 and brings matters to a summary conclusion, by pronouncing 
 what he calls the " upshot of the business," or, in other words, 
 " the long and short of the matter." 
 
 Of late years the old fellow has begun to take the world 
 easily; he works less and indulges in greater leisure, his son 
 having grown up, and succeeded to him both in the labors of 
 the farm and the exploits of the green. Like all sons of dis- 
 tinguished men, however, his father's renown is a disadvantage 
 to him, for he can never come up to public expectation. 
 Though a fine active fellow of three and twenty, and quite the 
 " cock of the walk," yet the old people declare he is nothing 
 like what Ready- Money Jack was at his time of life. The 
 youngster himself acknowledges his inferiority, and has a won- 
 derful opinion of the old man, who indeed taught him all his 
 athletic accomplishments, and holds such a sway over him, that 
 I am told, even to this day, he would have no hesitation to 
 take him in hands, if he rebelled against paternal government. 
 
 The foregoing extract having been taken as a model, 
 the following description of "The Village Cobbler" 
 was written in accordance with the method just ex- 
 plained : — 
 
 THE VILLAGE COBBLER. 
 
 There is a cobbler in the little town of Crosby Cross-roads 
 who might be classified as one of those persons called " char- 
 acters." His name is James Harrison, but he is commonly 
 known in the village by that of Jim. 
 
 The first time that he attracted my attention, was one Sunday 
 morning in church, when, in the first hymn, I was nearly 
 deafened by a deep bass voice, a couple of pews back of me, 
 bellowing forth the hymn in a manner truly wonderful. 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 1 8/ 
 
 Jim is a typical old-fashioned cobbler, about sixty years of 
 age. He is above the average height, and quite broad and 
 strong for his years. His face is one of those broad, Ger- 
 man types, with a large mouth, deep-set eyes, and hooked 
 nose. He has a short, iron-gray beard, and what hair he 
 possesses is gray and rather curly. He was dressed, on that 
 day, in the ordinary Sunday manner of a farmer; that is, his 
 clothes were far too big for him, and looked as though they 
 might have been made of pasteboard. 
 
 My curiosity once aroused, I determined to find out some- 
 thing about him, so one or two days after I dropped into his 
 shop, and had a long talk with the old fellow. 
 
 He lives in an ordinary country house, painted white, with 
 brown blinds. In front is a garden, in the shape of a square, 
 bordered with a scraggy hedge of boxwood, which boasts a 
 couple of flower beds of dried and withered sunflowers and 
 geraniums. His shop, in the wing of the house, is a small 
 room, with a stove in the center, and the bench and stool 
 where Jim works in one corner. The whitewashed walls are 
 decorated with long shelves of old and dusty shoes, the soles of 
 which, as they gaze down upon the visitor, one may imagine, 
 bespeak the character and habits of their owners. Here the 
 thick hobnailed shoe of some plowman seems to smile at 
 you, as if well contented with its goodly supply of leather, and 
 then you may see the poor remains of the once gorgeous ball 
 slippers of some country belle, thin and old now, and seemingly 
 tired of their gay and frivolous life. 
 
 On the day of which I speak, Jim was very talkative, and 
 unfolded to me his whole history. It seems that he was the 
 son of a French carpenter, brought up and married on the 
 other side, who had immigrated to this country to be employed, 
 for the rest of his life, in the navy yard at Philadelphia. 
 
 Jim had been born on the voyage over, but he still maintains 
 that he must be an American, because, as he says, " he'd 'eared 
 tell that he was born on the last half of the journey." Jim, 
 
1 88 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 when he was about seventeen, came from Philadelphia to 
 Crosby Cross-roads, to learn the trade of shoemaking ; and 
 afterwards, as near as I could understand, had worked at his 
 trade in about every city in the Union. This was long before 
 the civil war. 
 
 Jim always had a taste for hard cider, and, of late years, has 
 been freely indulging himself. So, if he is not at home, he is 
 sure to be found at the " Black Swan," a tavern two or three 
 miles below Crosby Cross-roads. In fact he now frequently 
 spends the night off " rabbit-shooten," as he says, with his dog 
 *' Colonel," a forlorn cur, which snaps and growls at anybody 
 but his owner. So much time, indeed, does Jim spend away, 
 that if any one, on going into his shop, did not know his habits, 
 he might think, from the number of shoes waiting to be mended, 
 that his trade was rapidly rising. 
 
 Jim is generally very talkative, and likes nothing better than 
 to tell you long stories of his past life. He is still an ardent 
 sportsman, and, like most persons of that genius, has a stock of 
 stories, which, from their frequent repetition, border closely 
 upon the marvelous. 
 
 That Jim is an earnest Christian, nobody, from his strict 
 attendance at church, can doubt. He was something of a 
 singer, too, in his day, I believe, and led the village choir for 
 many years. Jim has also entered into politics, and was once 
 constable and squire of the township. It is, however, a long 
 time since he gave up public life, though he still remains, with, 
 perhaps, the exception of the old white-haired parson, the most 
 venerated inhabitant of the village. 
 
 III. ABSTRACT OR CONDENSATION. 
 
 Method Explained. — A third method of using the 
 writings of others as a source of ideas for school com- 
 positions, may be found in taking extracts of somewhat 
 greater length than those in mind for exercises in repro- 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 1 89 
 
 duction and substitution, and condensing the matter of 
 several pages into a single paragraph. This exercise 
 may be performed with the book open, or from memory, 
 and has the practical advantage of cultivating the faculty 
 of abridging or epitomizing a detailed statement of facts 
 or events. 
 
 The student should select the important matter from 
 the passage to be condensed, and should take care that 
 in the work of abridging he does not omit any matter 
 necessary for making the abstract coherent and intelli- 
 gible. He is not to pick out a sentence here and another 
 there ; but each sentence of the abstract should cover 
 the ground of several sentences, if not several para- 
 graphs, of the original. A good recitation in history is 
 a fair example of a verbal abstract of the book studied. 
 A poor recitation is often made by dwelling on a detail, 
 and forgetting the general current of events. 
 
 If the class is studying history, or if it has recently 
 studied history, the best practice in writing abstracts 
 will be found by assigning work from the book used in 
 the history class. Familiar poems, ballads, or legends 
 are excellent for this purpose. 
 
 EXERCISE. 
 
 Condense into three or four hundred words the subject matter 
 of one of the following poems : "The Loss of the Galleon," by 
 Bret Harte ; " The Ancient Mariner," by Coleridge ; " Count 
 Robert of Sicily," by Longfellow. 
 
 IV. TRANSLATION. 
 
 Advantages of Written Translation. — If a class has 
 made sufficient progress in the study of any foreign 
 
rOO SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 language to translate extracts from that language, the 
 writing of translations will be found one of the best exer- 
 cises in English composition. The advantages of writing 
 translations are evident from the fact that the thought 
 is furnished, and can be kept constantly in view, while no 
 English words are present. The choice and arrange- 
 ment of words are often treated in a very slovenly 
 manner in oral translations ; and through such careless- 
 ness, pupils often neutralize the good effects of their 
 English lessons. Whether speaking or writing, the 
 student should make his translation thoroughly English, 
 not only by using English words, but by using only 
 English idioms and constructions ; and he should never 
 follow the order of the original words, or the foreign 
 idioms, to the destruction of a good English sentence. 
 
 It is not necessary to give extracts for use in trans- 
 lation ; for they must be taken from books that the class 
 is familiar with. Any French, German, or Latin reader 
 may be used for this purpose, as may any foreign author 
 that the class has studied. 
 
 Advantages of Exercises from Extracts. — In the exer- 
 cises given thus far, we have paid little attention to the 
 subject, or theme ; for this in its full development, as 
 well as the order of statement, has been provided in 
 the extracts used as models. The aim in the foregoing 
 exercises has been to start the work of composition with 
 the least possible hindrance from the lack of thoughts 
 suitable for written work. It is to be hoped that the 
 practice in writing thus acquired has done much to 
 secure an easy advance in the more difficult work we are 
 about to take up, in which the student must find the 
 materials for his composition from wider sources than a 
 single extract. 
 
EXERCISES FROM EXTRACTS. 19I 
 
 The following books contain many passages suitable 
 for work in reproduction, substitution, and condensation, 
 and are well adapted for use in class : — 
 
 Irving's " Sketch Book." 
 
 Scott's " Lady of the Lake " and " Marmion." 
 
 Shakespeare's " Midsummer Night's Dream," and Lamb's " Tales 
 
 from Shakespeare." 
 Addison's " Roger de Coverley Papers." 
 Scott's " Ivanhoe." 
 Franklin's '^ Autobiography." 
 Goldsmith's " Vicar of Wakefield." 
 Thackeray's " Henry Esmond," 
 Cooper's " Spy." 
 Ruskin's " Sesame and Lilies." 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 
 I. DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Most Natural Kind of Composition. — After practice in 
 exercises based on extracts from the writings of others, 
 the easiest advance for the pupil is to describe what 
 he has seen or to narrate events that he has witnessed 
 himself. Here the material for the composition is 
 either before the writer's eyes or in his memory. But 
 there are other equally good reasons for placing descrip- 
 tion first in the list of exercises in original composition ; 
 for description enters into every other form of writing ; 
 and the initial step toward attaining power with the 
 voice or with the pen is the exercise of a close and acute 
 observation. 
 
 Ample Scope for Genius. — At first thought it may seem 
 that one who has been traveling, or living in strange 
 surroundings, will have the only subjects on which to 
 write entertaining descriptions or stories. However, no 
 form of writing affords greater scope for genius than 
 does the description of ordinary sights or the recital of 
 ordinary events. The charm of the writings of Addison, 
 Hawthorne, or Irving lies in the wonderful power pos- 
 sessed by them to paint in words the beauty which they 
 were able to discover in the simple everyday affairs of 
 life. It is said that Charles Dickens had a power of 
 
 ip2 
 
DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 1 93 
 
 observation equal to that of nine ordinary men. The 
 close attention to details which he practiced in the 
 reporter's gallery of the House of Commons reappears 
 in all his works in the faithful touches of his pen. The 
 opening of the fifth chapter of " Pickwick " is especially 
 noticeable for the beauty of the description ; and it is 
 well known now, that the picture there given, in a few 
 touches of the magic pencil of the great master of 
 modern fiction, was most familiar to his eye, and had 
 painted itself on his memory in his early days, as he 
 loitered on the old stone bridge of the city of Rochester, 
 close by his native place. 
 
 [from " PICKWICK PAPERS."] 
 
 On the left lay the ruined wall, broken in many places, and 
 in some overhanging the narrow beach below in rude and heavy 
 masses. Huge knots of seaweed hung upon the jagged and 
 pointed stones, trembling in every breath of wind ; and the green 
 ivy clung mournfully around the dark and ruined battlements. 
 Behind it rose the ancient castle, its towers roofless, and its 
 massive walls crumbling away, but telling us proudly of its old 
 might and strength, as when, seven hundred years ago, it rang 
 with a clash of arms or resounded with the noise of feasting 
 and revelry. On either side, the banks of the Medway, covered 
 with cornfields and pastures, with here and there a windmill or 
 a distant church, stretched away as far as the eye could see, 
 presenting a rich and varied landscape, rendered more beauti- 
 ful by the changing shadows which passed swifdy across it, as 
 the thin and half-formed clouds skimmed away in the light of 
 the morning sun. The river, reflecting the clear blue of the 
 sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on; and 
 the oars of the fishermen dipped into the water with a clear and 
 liquid sound, as their heavy but picturesque boats glided down 
 the stream. 
 
 scH. BNG. — 13 
 
194 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Practical Suggestions. — It is this quick sense and 
 power of observation to which we owe many of the 
 masterpieces of our literature. 
 
 The following advice to students of English composi- 
 tion was given by one well qualified to speak on the 
 subject : — 
 
 " It is not given to every one to transmute, by magic touches, 
 the dust of the highway into gold and gems. True enough, 
 and yet the magic touch must be tried before its possessor is 
 aware that he has it ; and I would place next in order to a close 
 and acute observation, as an essential aid in the formation of a 
 good style, the practice of descriptive writing. To any one who 
 would improve in the art of English composition I would say, 
 describe as faithfully as you can some scene or incident of 
 which you are a part. Seat yourself on a summer day under 
 a native pine, on some height commanding a varied landscape ; 
 and with pencil and notebook in hand, try to reproduce in 
 words the picture which nature spreads before you. Begin by 
 describing the pine which shelters you. You look up into its 
 dark, dense mass of green with a new scrutiny. You are to 
 sketch its portrait. In its stern, grim aspect it seems to say to 
 you as Cromwell said to Sir Peter Lely, * Paint me as I am.* 
 Your eye fastens upon it with a strange sense of wonder. You 
 measure with your glance the height of the giant trunk ; you 
 trace the dark, rough outlines of the huge outspreading branches ; 
 and as you seek for the secret of its unUkeness to all other 
 growths of the forest, you discover as if for the first time that 
 it is a leafless tree, thick set at every point, with bristling needles 
 of polished green, tipped perhaps with dewdrops or raindrops 
 like diamond points, and throwing back the sunbeams as from 
 an emerald wall. This tree, if you study it, is a revelation, and 
 perhaps when you have written down its true description, and 
 from it, as a central point, have traced all the familiar but ever- 
 varying objects which make up the landscape, a new power 
 
DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 195 
 
 will be revealed to yourself of using, in the description of natu- 
 ral objects, the words you have often striven in vain to com- 
 bine for the expression of thought or feeling. 
 
 " It seems to me that the first essays in original composition 
 should be in descriptive writing. For beginners, the eye and 
 no other faculty, unless an alarming precociousness has set in, 
 must instruct the pen. If there is any value in the object 
 system on which our kindergarten schools are founded, it is 
 surely most available here. At first the results may be rude 
 enough. A boy of five or six years old is set to write a compo- 
 sition on a horse. Here is what comes of it : 'A horse is 
 bigger than a dog. He has four legs, one at each corner.' 
 But this is very well as far as it goes ; and it is better to perse- 
 vere in this direction, training the mind to draw from nature, 
 than to bound the mental horizon by histories, encyclopedias, 
 and story books." 
 
 Before undertaking any work in description, it will be 
 a great aid to you to read as much as you can find time 
 to read from the works of authors noted for their powers 
 in this direction. No time will be spent to greater 
 advantage than by reading Irving's '* Sketch Book " 
 or " Bracebridge Hall." Passages which contain the 
 brightest and strongest descriptions should be care- 
 fully studied, not with the idea in view of imitating any 
 single passage, as in the exercises in substitution, but, 
 if possible, with the teacher's aid to find general sugges- 
 tions for all writing of this kind. Take, for example, 
 the following extract from Irving's " Legend of Sleepy 
 Hollow : " — 
 
 Old Baltus Van Tassel was a perfect picture of a thriving, 
 contented, liberal-hearted farmer. He seldom, it is true, sent 
 either his eyes or his thoughts beyond the boundaries of his 
 own farm ; but within these everything was snug, happy, and 
 
196 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 well-conditioned. He was satisfied with his wealth, but not 
 proud of it, and piqued himself upon the hearty abundance 
 rather than the style in which he lived. His stronghold was 
 situated on the banks of the Hudson, in one of those green, 
 sheltered, fertile nooks in which the Dutch farmers are so fond 
 of nestling. A great elm-tree spread its broad branches over 
 it, at the foot of which bubbled up a spring of the softest and 
 sweetest water in a little well formed of a barrel, and then 
 stole sparkling away through the grass to a neighboring brook 
 that bubbled along among alders and dwarf willows. Hard by 
 the farmhouse was a vast barn that might have served for a 
 church, every window and crevice of which seemed bursting 
 forth with the treasures of the farm. The flail was busily re- 
 sounding within it from morning till night; swallows and 
 martins skimmed twittering about the eaves ; and rows of 
 pigeons — some with one eye turned up, as if watching the 
 weather ; some with their heads under their wings or buried 
 in their bosoms ; and others swelling, and cooing, and bowing 
 about their dames — were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. 
 Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abun- 
 dance of their pens ; from whence sallied forth, now and then, 
 troops of sucking pigs, as if to snuff the air. A stately squad- 
 ron of snowy geese were riding in an adjoining pond, convoying 
 whole fleets of ducks. Regiments of turkeys were gobbhng 
 through the farmyard, and guinea fowls fretting about it like 
 ill-tempered housewives, with their peevish, discontented cry. 
 Before the barn door strutted the gallant cock, that pattern of 
 a husband, a warrior, and a fine gentleman, clapping his bur- 
 nished wings and crowing in the pride and gladness of his 
 heart, sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet, and then 
 generously calling his ever-hungry family of wives and children 
 to enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered. 
 
 The pedagogue's mouth watered as he looked upon this 
 sumptuous promise of luxurious winter fare. In his devouring 
 mind's eye he pictured to himself every roasting pig running 
 
 > 
 
DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 1 97 
 
 about " with a pudding in its belly " and an apple In its mouth ; 
 the pigeons were snugly put to bed in a comfortable pie, and 
 tucked in with a coverlet of crust ; the geese were swimming 
 in their own gravy; and the ducks pairing cozily in dishes, 
 hke snug married couples, with a decent competency of onion- 
 sauce. In the porkers he saw carved out the future sleek side 
 of bacon, and juicy, relishing ham ; not a turkey but he beheld 
 daintily trussed up, with its gizzard under its wing, and, per- 
 adventure, a necklace of savory sausages ; and even bright 
 chanticleer himself lay sprawling on his back, in a side-dish, 
 with uphfted claws, as if craving that quarter which his chival- 
 rous spirit disdained to ask while Hving. 
 
 Points to be noticed. — In studying this passage and 
 others of like merit, the following points are especially 
 noticeable : — 
 
 I. The language used is simple y as if the author were 
 talking rather than writing. 
 
 Use the ordinary words of conversation when describ- 
 ing simple scenes. If describing Westminster Abbey 
 or the Pyramids, the grandeur of the scene may require 
 the use of loftier words, but not any more so than if 
 the writer were speaking earnestly on the same theme. 
 The moment a writer employs words that he would not 
 use in conversation, there is danger that his writings 
 will become empty, and lack the attractiveness which 
 comes from naturalness and sincerity. 
 
 II. It is not necessary to give a complete description or 
 to go with equal detail into every feature of the scene. 
 
 The general description or outline of the scene may be 
 suggested by a very brief sentence, or even by a passing 
 
198 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 phrase ; and the writer may start at once upon the 
 detail of that feature which has impressed him as the 
 most prominent or attractive ; and he may dwell on that 
 so long as he feels he can hold the reader's interest. 
 In the foregoing extract, the animals of the farmyard 
 are the attractive feature, and everything else is second- 
 ary to them. 
 
 Many school pupils, in writing a description of a barn- 
 yard with which they are familiar, would feel bound to 
 give its size, shape, the kind of fence about it, to tell 
 which side of the barn it was on, and to mention every 
 gate to it, or building in it, with equal accuracy of 
 description. 
 
 in. Description is not necessarily an instantaneous 
 vieWy but may be enlivened by action. 
 
 In the scene above described the birds are flying, the 
 geese are swimming, and chanticleer is clapping his 
 wings and crowing in pride. Of course, this is only 
 giving a true picture of the scene. Young writers often 
 make the mistake of supposing that a description must 
 consist only of measurements, location, size, color, and 
 other enumeration of points. A description may be 
 better accomplished by telling what is going on than by 
 painting objects as they stand. 
 
 In the following extract from " Romola " but a single 
 word, breads is devoted to the size of the market ; none 
 to the shape ; and the briefest description of a statue 
 and fountain is the only attempt at describing any of 
 the architecture or buildings ; yet in these pages George 
 Eliot has painted a true picture of the old market at 
 Florence. 
 
DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 1 99 
 
 [from GEORGE ELIOT'S " ROMOLA."] 
 
 They had now emerged from the narrow streets into a broad 
 piazza, known to the elder Florentine writers as the Mercato 
 Vecchio, or the Old Market. This piazza, though it had been 
 the scene of a provision market from time immemorial, and may, 
 perhaps, says fond imagination, be the very spot to which the 
 Fesulean ancestors of the Florentines descended from their 
 high fastness to traffic with the rustic population of the valley, 
 had not been shunned as a place of residence by Florentine 
 wealth. In the early decades of the fifteenth century, which 
 was now near its end, the Medici and other powerful families 
 oi ih^ popolani grassi, or commercial nobility, had their houses 
 there, not perhaps finding their ears much offended by the 
 loud roar of mingled dialects, or their eyes much shocked by 
 the butchers' stalls, which the old poet Antonio Pucci accounts 
 a chief glory, or dignita, of a market that, in his esteem, eclipsed 
 the markets of all the earth beside. But the glory of mutton 
 and veal (well attested to be the flesh of the right animals ; 
 for were not the skins, with the heads attached, duly displayed, 
 according to the decree of the Signoria?) was just now wanting 
 to the Mercato, the time of Lent not being yet over. The 
 proud corporation, or "■ Art," of butchers was in abeyance, and 
 it was the great harvest time of the market gardeners, the 
 cheesemongers, the venders of macaroni, corn, eggs, milk, and 
 dried fruits : a change which was apt to make the women's 
 voices predominant in the chorus. But in all seasons there 
 was the experimental ringing of pots and pans, the chink- 
 ing of the money changers, the tempting offers of cheapness at 
 the old-clothes stalls, the challengers of the dicers, the vaunting 
 of new linens and woolens, of excellent wooden ware, kettles, 
 and frying pans ; there was the choking of the narrow inlets 
 with mules and carts, together with much uncomplimentary 
 remonstrance in terms remarkably identical with the insults 
 in use by the gentler sex of the present day, under the same 
 
200 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 imbrowning and heating circumstances. Ladies and gentle- 
 men who came to market looked on at a larger amount of 
 amateur fighting than could easily be seen in these later times, 
 and beheld more revolting rags, beggary, and rascaldom than 
 modern householders could well picture to themselves. As the 
 day wore on, the hideous drama of the gaming house might be 
 seen here by any chance open-air spectator — the quivering 
 eagerness, the blank despair, the sobs, the blasphemy, and the 
 blows : — but still there was the relief of prettier sights : there 
 were brood rabbits, not less innocent and astonished than those 
 of our own period ; there were doves and singing birds to be 
 bought as presents for the children ; there were even kittens 
 for sale, and here and there a handsome gattuccio, or "Tom," 
 with the highest character for mousing; and, better than all, 
 there were young, softly rounded cheeks and bright eyes, 
 freshened by the start from the far-off castello at daybreak, 
 not to speak of older faces with unfading charm of honest good- 
 will in them, such as are never quite wanting in scenes of human 
 industry. And high on a pillar in the center of the place — a 
 venerable pillar, fetched from the church of San Giovanni — 
 stood Donatello's stone statue of Plenty, with a fountain 
 near it, where, says old Pucci, the good wives of the market 
 freshened their utensils, and their throats also ; not because 
 they were unable to buy wine, but because they wished to save 
 the money for their husbands. 
 
 But on this particular morning a sudden change seemed to 
 have come over the face of the market. The deschi, or stalls, 
 were indeed partly dressed with their various commodities, 
 and already there were purchasers assembled, on the alert to 
 secure the finest, freshest vegetables and the most unexception- 
 able butter. But when Bratti and his companion entered the 
 piazza, it appeared that some common preoccupation had for 
 the moment distracted the attention both of buyers and sellers 
 from their proper business. Most of the traders had turned 
 their backs on their goods, and had joined the knots of talkers 
 
DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 201 
 
 who were concentrating themselves at different points in the 
 piazza. A vender of old clothes, in the act of hanging out 
 a pair of long hose, had distractedly hung them round his 
 neck in his eagerness to join the nearest group ; an oratorical 
 cheesemonger, with a piece of cheese in one hand and a knife 
 in the other, was incautiously making notes of his emphatic 
 pauses on that excellent specimen of marzolino ; and elderly 
 rnarket women, with their egg baskets in a dangerously oblique 
 position, contributed a wailing fugue of invocation. 
 
 II. NARRATION. 
 
 Narration and Description. — Relating in writing 
 events of which the writer has been a witness, or with 
 whose history he has become familiar, is almost as 
 natural an exercise in composition as is the description 
 of objects before the writer's eyes. Of course, every 
 story must contain some description, or it will lack 
 interest; and in narrating events as well as in the 
 description of scenes, careful observation is all-important. 
 It is this faculty which makes the stories of Defoe so 
 marvelously lifelike, that in reading them, we can hardly 
 convince ourselves that they are not as real as our own 
 lives. Remember, then, that interest in a story will be 
 increased by good description of characters and of the 
 scenes where the actions take place. As a matter of 
 fact, most famous descriptions occur in the course of a 
 story or history. 
 
 It is by no means necessary to limit one's self to the 
 realm of truth in these exercises. Our imaginations play 
 most easily in constructing imaginary actions in which 
 we are supposed to take part, or which we are supposed 
 to witness. It may even be easier to make up a story 
 than to relate one that is true. 
 
202 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Practical Suggestions. — In all forms of narration, as 
 far as possible, relate events in the order of occurrence. 
 Remember, however, that every story, true or fictitious, 
 long or short, if worth telling at all, should have in it one 
 fact of special interest ; and that simply enumerating a 
 series of events, without regard to their relation to each 
 other, and without leading up to one of special interest, 
 is telling a story without a point. Be sure, then, in 
 writing any narrative, to keep in mind the point which 
 you wish to bring out ; and let everything be said with 
 a view to making your point clear. When the chief 
 fact has been stated, the story should be quickly brought 
 to a close, for the reader will no longer be interested. 
 In a novel with a happy ending, the culminating point 
 of interest is that chapter in which the hero or heroine 
 overcomes all the obstacles, in which misunderstandings 
 are cleared up, and obstructing agents disposed of. In 
 a tragedy, the events related all lead to misfortune or 
 death. A well-written novel may contain many pages 
 which one will not tire of reading over and over 
 again ; but the events narrated generally have a direct 
 bearing upon the plot ; and when the plot is unraveled, 
 the rest of the book is taken up with disposing of the 
 characters. 
 
 No matter how short a story one writes, he should 
 have some point in view, or he will fail to please him- 
 self or others. An account of the last vacation is 
 frequently assigned for a subject in narration. The 
 writer who simply enumerates one event after another 
 will fail to make a good composition, but the writer 
 who is impressed with one interesting incident or phase 
 of his vacation, will, if he writes so as to bring this out, 
 be more entertaining than if he had no point in mind. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 ESSAYS. 
 
 Definition. — An essay or exposition is a short written 
 composition explai7iing any subject. 
 
 Subject must be thoroughly understood. — In all the 
 forms of composition studied thus far, the thoughts for 
 writing have been found either in an extract from the 
 writings of another, or, as in description or narration, 
 the subject-matter has been furnished by the eye, the 
 memory, or the imagination. From the definition given 
 above, it is evident that information of a wider nature is 
 absolutely necessary before any progress can be made 
 in the work of writing an essay. It is the effort to 
 explain a subject before it is understood, or to give 
 information before one has any to give, that discourages 
 and distracts the person who sits down with pen in 
 hand to write on a subject of w^hich he knows nothing 
 except that an essay upon it is due from him. 
 
 Understand, then, at the outset, that unless you have 
 studied, or read, or at least reflected upon the subject, 
 you cannot possibly write an essay on it. Therefore, if 
 called upon to write an original composition without 
 previous opportunity for preparation, choose for your 
 work the description of what you have seen, a story 
 that you know, or one that you can make up. The 
 essay needs work of preparation before it can be written ; 
 and if this work cannot be given, do not attempt to 
 write one. 
 
 203 
 
204 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Pleasure in Work. — There are undoubtedly many 
 pupils who think there is no enjoyment to be found 
 in school, because it is a place to work ; and they are 
 unwilling to believe that pleasure can be found aside 
 from play. This belief will be the cause of much 
 unhappiness for them and for all who fail to appreciate 
 that one of the greatest pleasures in life is to be found 
 in the successful accomplishment of a hard task. The 
 scholar who takes any enjoyment in his work will find, 
 if he reflects, that his keenest delight comes from the 
 consciousness that he has learned something. If 
 properly managed, essay work can be made the best 
 means of proving to ourselves that we have made some 
 progress in our work. The pages which contain the 
 expression of one's own knowledge on a subject that 
 he has been studying, will be to the writer, if to no one 
 else, a reality of no small significance. If, however, 
 one attempts to write on subjects in which he is not 
 interested or on which he has no real knowledge, the 
 essay will be only a sham, incapable of affording satis- 
 faction to any one. 
 
 CHOOSING A SUBJECT. 
 
 Unnatural Methods. — How often may a boy be found 
 turning over the pages of the encyclopedia or reading 
 a column of subjects in a text-book on rhetoric, in the 
 hope of finding something to write on, willing to take 
 anything, from ''A Sheet of Paper" to "The Ambition 
 of Napoleon," if only he can be convinced of his ability 
 to fill out two pages of foolscap. Choosing subjects by 
 these unnatural methods is the chief cause of the diffi- 
 culties of essay writing. 
 
ESSAYS. 205 
 
 School Essays and Literature. — The schoolboy or 
 schoolgirl who finds difficulty in choosing a subject, or 
 in writing on one arbitrarily assigned, may gain some 
 comfort from the fact that no sensible man or woman 
 would ever think of acting on this principle. Those 
 who have interested the world have written books because 
 they could not help writing them ; and though it may 
 be unfair to draw conclusions from the career of genius, 
 when our aim is the instruction of the average boy and 
 girl, yet we may say of all good books that the authors 
 wrote them because they had some subject so much in 
 their thoughts and in their hearts, that, if they were to 
 write at all, they must write on that subject. They 
 do not first determine to write and then acquire ideas 
 on some new topic of thought, for the sake of putting 
 them in writing. 
 
 Of course, school compositions must generally be 
 written at the demand of some authority, or not written 
 at all ; and viewing them in the same light as real litera- 
 ture would be to do away with them entirely. Never- 
 theless, it is well to make school exercises as real as 
 possible; and with this end in view, it is important that 
 essay subjects should be chosen or assigned by the most 
 natural method possible. 
 
 Practical Suggestions. — The first question in your 
 mind should not be. What can I write about ? but What 
 do I think about f What do I talk about f or What am I 
 most interested in ? It must be a very vacant-minded 
 lad who cannot tell what he talks about most frequently, 
 or who cannot name the subject which is most promi- 
 nent in his thoughts. If the only thought you can name 
 is how you hate school, develop that on paper ; and by 
 so doing, you may find a better heart and learn the error 
 
206 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 of your way. If you only think of baseball, write on 
 that in the best way you can. 
 
 But the state of the schoolboy's brain is better than 
 many believe ; and his thoughts are regulated more by 
 the work he is doing and the books he is reading than 
 by any other influence. Give a boy an exciting book, 
 and he will be apt to neglect his work for it, and pos- 
 sibly his play. Put a good novel in his hands, and his 
 thoughts, and even his dreams, will be largely upon the 
 subject of that book. Therefore, if you wish to write 
 on a literary subject, instead of hunting for subjects, or 
 taking one arbitrarily assigned, select a good book, or 
 study carefully any book that you are reading in class. 
 Listen carefully to the discussions which come up in 
 the classroom. Notice every question asked there that 
 you would like to answer yourself or to know the answer 
 of. Carry the discussions of the classroom to your 
 home, make them topics of conversation there and 
 elsewhere, and very soon you will have an essay sub- 
 ject on which you can write with interest and pleasure. 
 
 GATHERING INFORMATION. 
 
 Subjects Classified. — Essay subjects on which school 
 pupils may profitably spend their time may be divided 
 into three classes. 
 
 I. Those taken from the occupations or entertain- 
 ments of boys or girls. 
 II. Those taken from topics of current interest. 
 III. Literary subjects, or those taken from books. 
 
 After the subject has been chosen, the next step is to 
 gather sufficient information for intelligently explaining 
 
ESSAYS. 207 
 
 Jt in a written composition. The method of gath- 
 ering information will vary as the subject is taken 
 from one or another of the three classes mentioned 
 above. 
 
 Practical Suggestions. — I. If the subject is taken from 
 school life, or your own occupations out of school, 
 especially if it is, as it should be, something in which 
 you are particularly interested, you will probably have 
 many ideas of your own; and you may feel ready to 
 start the work of writing at once. It will always be 
 wise, however, to talk the matter over with some friend 
 also interested in it, and thus add his to your own stock 
 of information. If you have arrived at any opinions on 
 debatable matters, give your friend your opinions and 
 the reasons for having adopted them. His arguments 
 for or against your conclusions will probably be sug- 
 gestive of new thoughts. If any good books or articles 
 can be found bearing directly on the subject, it will be 
 well to read them, unless you feel that you have plenty 
 to say without doing so. 
 
 II. If your essay is to be on some current topic of gen- 
 eral interest, your fitness to write will depend on whether 
 you have gained interest in your subject by listening to 
 intelligent conversations, or by reading the articles on 
 that subject in the newspapers and magazines. If you 
 have not become interested in this way, your theme has 
 been ill chosen ; and you ought to take another. If, 
 however, the subject is well chosen, you should make 
 notes of all the information you have picked up from 
 conversations ; and if possible, review the best articles 
 you have read on your subject. Find as many articles 
 as you can, and keep them for reference. Remember 
 you are after information. Do not stop seeking it until 
 
208 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 you feel that you have sufficient to explain your subject 
 to an intelligent reader. The encyclopedia may be 
 consulted for matters in the history of the theme 
 being discussed ; but no mistake is more childish than 
 to suppose that an essay on a topic of current interest 
 can be written from an encyclopedia article. 
 
 III. A subject may be taken from a book, whenever 
 in reading a book special interest has been awakened 
 on that subject. The book should be reread, and all 
 passages containing useful thoughts should be noted. 
 If other books can be obtained that will add information 
 on the subject, they should also be consulted. It is 
 especially necessary to have several books for reference 
 in writing on a subject from history. It is difficult to 
 overestimate the amount of time that can be profitably 
 spent in reading, if one is going to write an essay on a 
 character or topic in history. Of course, your time is 
 limited, but remember that most of the time allowed for 
 the essay should be spent in reading and making notes. 
 If you are going to write an essay on Alexander the 
 Great, you should know the life of Alexander well 
 enough to pass an examination upon it, and to have a 
 few thoughts of your own worth telling to others. 
 
 THE OUTLINE. 
 
 Necessity for an Outline. — When the subject has 
 been chosen, and by reading and conversation the mind 
 and notebook are full of information, though the writer 
 may have determined on the order for the presenta- 
 tion of his thoughts, difficulty may be found in following 
 this order in writing. This difficulty can be overcome 
 by making a written outline or skeleton of the essay, 
 
ESSAYS. 209 
 
 showing the topics to be covered and the order in which 
 they should be taken up. 
 
 There is nothing unnatural or artificial in the con- 
 struction of an outline. Let us suppose that a boy has 
 received an invitation which he is very anxious to 
 accept, and that his father has said to him, ** I hardly 
 think I can allow you to go ; but come to me in half 
 an hour, and we will talk it over." Now, if that boy 
 has ordinary intelligence, he will spend the half hour 
 in thinking up all possible objections his father might 
 have, and in finding an answer to each one. He will 
 decide what he will say first, what he will say next, and 
 what argument he will reserve to the end. The boy 
 will, in other words, make an outline. He may trust 
 to his memory to recall the order he has arranged ; 
 but if he should make a note of the outline in writing, 
 he would be more certain to cover every point, and 
 better able to concentrate his attention on each point 
 as he takes it up. Lawyers speak from briefs ; and 
 the most eloquent ministers generally have an outline 
 or a few notes which enable them to deliver their 
 sermons without reading them or committing them to 
 memory. 
 
 Avoid Artificial Methods. — Mistakes are often made 
 by teaching scholars artificial methods of making out- 
 lines. It is not necessary to ask yourselves such ques- 
 tions as When ? Where ? How ? Who ? and others 
 equally mechanical. But simply sort out your knowl- 
 edge under stick heads as suggest themselves most natu- 
 rally y and arrange these in the best order. 
 
 The publisher of one of the most popular magazines 
 recently said that the beginning and ending of most 
 articles from new contributors could be cut off without 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 14 
 
2IO SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 harm to the articles. Do not feel it necessary to begin 
 with remarks more or less irrelevant to the subject for 
 the sake of having an introduction ; and after you are 
 through, do not think you must add a conclusion. Begin 
 your subject without any apology or explanation; and 
 let the first item of your outline be a part of the infor- 
 mation you wish to convey ; and when you have cov- 
 ered every point, nothing more is necessary. 
 
 WRITING THE ESSAY. 
 
 Make Use of the Outline. — When the outline is fin- 
 ished, you are ready to write. But the work is two 
 thirds over when you have reached this point. Develop 
 each item of the outline as fully as you can. When 
 you have developed all the items, look carefully over your 
 work with a view, if possible, to improving the arrange- 
 ment of the matter and weaving together what has 
 been written on the different points. Criticise the lan- 
 guage you have used. Correct every error you have 
 made in grammar or in the choice of words, and every 
 sentence that lacks clearness. Make such changes as 
 you see will improve the force and harmony of your 
 work. Finally copy the essay as corrected. 
 
 Write carefully from the Start. — Do not write care- 
 lessly at first, because you intend to copy the first 
 draught. Write always as carefully as you can. Capi- 
 talize and punctuate as you go along. As was said in 
 the chapter on letter writing, carefulness will not pre- 
 vent naturalness in writing. Never allow a mistake to 
 go uncorrected. If after the work is copied, you dis- 
 cover too many errors to correct without spoiling the 
 appearance of a page, copy that page again. 
 
ESSAYS. 211 
 
 For original work, as has been already shown, one 
 will draw his ideas very largely from books, and the 
 question will arise. How far is it proper to take the 
 thoughts or words of others ? Of course, it is never 
 right to copy the exact words of others without inclos- 
 ing the passage taken in quotation marks ; nor should 
 you deliberately take the ideas of another and advance 
 them as your own. Unless quoting, it is best not to 
 write with your authorities open before you, except 
 when referring to dates and similar matter of record, or 
 when designedly introducing a condensed statement of 
 another's work. When, however, by reading or study 
 you have worked into your own mind the knowledge or 
 opinions of others, so that you are able to reflect intel- 
 ligently on this knowledge, you need have no hesitation 
 in writing down whatever you think on any subject, 
 even though your thoughts be similar to those you have 
 read. , 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DEBATE. 
 
 Natural Tendency to Debate. — The object of much 
 of our writing and talking is to convince others of an 
 opinion, or to persuade them to a certain course of 
 action. If we enter a room and find an animated con- 
 versation in progress, we may be quite sure that some 
 sort of argument is going on. This is apt to be the 
 case, even if the persons engaged in the conversation 
 are very young children, whose arguments as to the 
 relative merits of their respective parents, brothers, or 
 games, are as serious to themselves as they are enter- 
 taining to the listener. 
 
 Letters and most other forms of composition are apt 
 to be argumentative in their nature. Lawyers, preach- 
 ers, and public speakers of all sorts, deal chiefly with 
 some form of persuasion. When a number of school 
 or college students come together voluntarily for the 
 object of literary improvement, their exercises generally 
 take the form of debate. 
 
 When, therefore, we urge the student to be natural 
 in his composition, we must expect that much of his 
 writing will be argumentative. In spite, however, of 
 this natural tendency, few people have the ability to 
 argue well. The strife incident to the difference of 
 opinion between uneducated people, the unsatisfactory 
 results from their discussions, and the ease with which 
 
DEBATE. 213 
 
 skilled orators can turn an excited audience from one 
 opinion to another, show clearly that the force of an 
 argument depends chiefly on the way in which it 
 is put. 
 
 Logic and Rhetoric. — The study of the laws of 
 thought and an analysis of the ways in which the 
 human mind arrives at knowledge and conviction, do 
 not belong to our subject. But when one is attempt- 
 ing to prove any proposition, or to convince readers 
 or listeners of any matter, it is most important that 
 he should express himself so that his ideas may be 
 apprehended with the least possible effort. Without 
 method most arguments become a hopeless confusion 
 of facts, beliefs, and illustrations. Often the real 
 question is lost sight of, and m.uch breath or ink ex- 
 pended to no purpose. We, therefore, give a few 
 suggestions, the observance of which will enable the 
 student to arrange the material to be used in an argu- 
 ment, so that the reader or listener will readily appre- 
 ciate its bearing upon the question at issue. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 I. Begin with a clear ajid complete explanation of the 
 question. 
 
 Before arguments on either side can have any 
 weight, the exact nature and extent of the question 
 must be thoroughly understood : therefore the first 
 requisite for an intelligent and persuasive argument 
 is a clear and complete exposition. Nothing else 
 will aid so much towards securing a speedy and satis- 
 factory settlement. For example, a body of men, in 
 drawing up regulations for a charitable institution, are 
 
214 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 undecided whether to prohibit card playing. A discus- 
 sion ensues; and the man who does not consider it 
 wrong to play cards himself will listen to no arguments, 
 for he has assumed that they are discussing the moral- 
 ity or immorality of card playing : whereas the ethics 
 of ordinary card playing may not in the least affect the 
 question ; for it is often necessary, for the best of 
 reasons, to exclude from an institution articles which are 
 no evil in any sense of the word, such as guns and 
 dogs ; and the question ought to be strictly confined to 
 the compatibility of uncontrolled card playing with the 
 purposes and regulations of this particular institution. 
 If the question were so stated at the outset, there would 
 be no danger of falling into the side issue, or of failing 
 to settle in the end the question that was proposed at 
 the outset. 
 
 A skillful debater may state a question so as to gain 
 as much by his exposition as by argument ; for the 
 strength of the right and the weakness of the wrong 
 may be made evident by simple statement. A recital 
 of all the incidents of a crime is sometimes the strong- 
 est weapon to be used against a prisoner at the bar. 
 
 II. Explain fairly just what each side of the question 
 means y stating which side you are supporting. 
 
 There is no more forcible argument in a plea for 
 honesty, sobriety, morality, or cleanliness, than to state 
 the other side and ask a man to defend it. Nothing is 
 ever gained by misrepresenting the other side; for 
 should the audience discover the misrepresentations, 
 or should they be exposed by an opponent, all further 
 statements would be discredited, and, even if perfectly 
 true, lose much of their force. 
 
DEBATE. 2 1 5 
 
 III. State your agreement with the opposite side ; also 
 state and answer any evident objection to the side sup- 
 ported. 
 
 By doing this, attention is secured ; for the person 
 who has already decided the question against the 
 speaker, on account of a supposed unanswerable argu- 
 ment, will be in no attitude for listening, until he sees 
 that this objection is realized and to be squarely faced. 
 Also one may in this way for a while enlist the sym- 
 pathy of those opposed to his proposition, and may pos- 
 sibly hold their sympathy when he resumes the defense 
 of his own side. In addressing a mob, a speaker would 
 generally be silenced by hooting, unless he began by 
 showing his appreciation of its grievances. 
 
 IV. Find a proposition which your opponent^ or all 
 reasonable persons, must admit, and use this as a common 
 ground on which to build your argument. 
 
 No argument can be advanced with effect unless 
 based on a proposition to which both sides agree. There 
 are certain maxims, laws, or decisions, that all lawyers 
 and courts must accept; and law pleading must be based 
 on these ; but in ordinary debate it is necessary to find 
 some proposition that your opponent will admit, or to 
 find some universally admitted proposition, before you 
 can be certain that you have a common ground. 
 
 When we hear from the lips of a speaker, " Now all 
 will admit this," or "Everybody believes as follows," 
 we know that he is stating the foundation for his argu- 
 ment. For example, in appealing to any one for a 
 subscription, after the person appealed to has declared 
 his willingness to subscribe to all worthy charities, one 
 
2l6 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 has simply to prove the worthiness of the charity he is 
 representing. If, however, the man appealed to raises 
 the question whether all charity does not tend to pau- 
 perize those who receive it and to increase the diffi- 
 culties of the coming generation, it will be necessary 
 to convince him of several preliminary propositions, 
 before it will be of use to describe the merits of the 
 charity under consideration. 
 
 V. Select the strongest arguments^ state them sepa- 
 rately^ and make clear the exact bearing of each with 
 reference to the proof of the main proposition. 
 
 How often when listening to a speaker do we fail to 
 appreciate the bearing of what he is saying, and wonder 
 what he is driving at. To make sure that all arguments 
 will have their full weight, the syllogism in each should 
 be easily discernible. 
 
 A syllogism is the regular logical form of every argu- 
 ment, and consists of three propositions, of which the 
 first is called the major premise^ the second the minor 
 premise^ and the last the conclusion. 
 
 The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises ; 
 so that if these are true, the conclusion must be true; 
 and the argument amounts to demonstration. 
 
 Ex. I. Major Pretnise. — A charity that aids only the deserving 
 
 and helpless is a worthy charity. 
 Minor Premise. — This charity aids only the deserving 
 and helpless. 
 Conclusion. — This is a worthy charity. 
 
 Ex. 2. Major Premise. — A worthy charity deserves your assist- 
 ance. 
 Minor Premise. — This is a worthy charity. 
 
 Conclusion. — This charity deserves your assistance. 
 
DEBATE. 217 
 
 When the conclusion of one syllogism forms a prem- 
 ise of the next, a chain of argument is formed. 
 
 It is not necessary that all arguments should be for- 
 mally reduced to syllogisms with all the terms expressed ; 
 but by stating that the syllogism in each argument 
 should be easily discernible, we mean that the relation 
 between premises and conclusions, and the relation be- 
 tween each argument and those based upon it should be 
 evident. 
 
 VI. Answer your opponenfs arguments^ or if speaking 
 before him^ anticipate and answer the chief arguments on 
 the opposite side. 
 
 By stating and answering an argument before it is 
 advanced by the opposition, the force of it when so 
 advanced will be very much impaired. 
 
 VII. Conclude with a brief summary y making evident 
 the complete chain of argument. 
 
 Do not, however, make the summary a repetition in 
 detail of any part of the debate, but confine the con- 
 clusion to a clear and concise enumeration of points 
 made in the preceding argument. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 
 
 The Object of Punctuation. — In conversation, the 
 grammatical construction of sentences and the rela- 
 tions of words are to a certain extent indicated by 
 pauses, and inflections of the voice. For example, in 
 the imperative sentence, Boys^ run home quickly, the 
 pause after the word boys tells, as clearly as any words 
 could explain, that boys is not the subject of the verb 
 run, but the vocative of the direct address. Leave out 
 the pause, and boys becomes the subject of the verb, 
 and we have the declarative sentence. Boys nm horne 
 quickly. 
 
 In written language the grammatical construction is 
 exhibited by punctuation ; i.e., by separating sentences 
 and the parts of sentences from each other by means of 
 symbols called punctuation points. 
 
 If in conversation pauses were made only for the 
 sake of showing grammatical construction, and if all 
 grammatical constructions were exhibited by pauses of 
 the same length, there would be but a single rule to 
 learn for all punctuation; viz.. Put a point wherever 
 the voice would make a pause. As, however, in speak- 
 ing, pauses are often made for rhetorical effect, or to 
 gain time for breathing, and as pauses of different 
 lengths are made to show different constructions, it is 
 almost impossible to punctuate by following the pauses 
 
 218 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 219 
 
 that would be made in speaking. It is far easier to 
 apply directly the rules for punctuating according to 
 the grammatical construction. As in all other depart- 
 ments of rhetoric, these rules are determined by the 
 best usage. » 
 
 Relative Rank of the Principal Points. — Cases may 
 arise where the sentence is to be divided into groups 
 of words or clauses, and these groups into still smaller 
 subdivisions. Then, one symbol, or pauses of the 
 same length, would not be sufficient. For example, 
 the line below is to be divided into three equal 
 parts, and each of these parts is itself to be divided 
 into three equal parts. One point or pause would 
 fail to exhibit these divisions, as can readily be seen 
 below : — 
 
 Let two points be used, or pauses of two lengths, and 
 the twofold division is clearly exhibited : — 
 
 Just as in an army, companies are commanded by 
 captains, regiments by colonels, and brigades by gen- 
 erals; so in punctuation, the comma, the lowest point, 
 is used between the short and closely connected parts 
 of a sentence ; the semicolon comes next in rank, and 
 separates the parts of a sentence which are themselves 
 already divided by the comma ; while the colon sepa- 
 rates parts already divided by the semicolon. The 
 period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation 
 point are used chiefly at the close of sentences. 
 
220 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Punctuation and Grammar. — The object of punct- 
 uating, as has been already explained, is to exhibit 
 the grammatical construction of what is written. A 
 chapter on punctuation must therefore deal largely 
 with grammatical terms. For this reason, although it 
 has been assumed that the students of this book have 
 a knowledge of the principles of English grammar, it 
 will be profitable, before proceeding with the rules for 
 punctuation, to review the definitions of the grammatical 
 terms mentioned in these rules. 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 
 
 A sentence is a collection of words expressing com- 
 plete sense. Every sentence must have two parts : 
 a subject^ that which is spoken of, and a predicate^ that 
 which is affirmed of the subject ; as. The boy runs ; 
 The bird flies; The locomotive of the Empire State 
 Express can run at the rate of seventy-five miles an 
 hour. 
 
 In each of the above examples the part of the sen- 
 tence underscored is the subject ; the part not under- 
 scored is the predicate. 
 
 According to the manner in which the thought is ex- 
 pressed, sentences may be divided into four classes : — 
 
 1 . Declarative sentences^ in which a thought is asserted 
 or affirmed. 
 
 Ex. He is good. They are not here. 
 
 2. Interrogative sentences ^ in which the thought is in 
 the form of a question. 
 
 Ex. Is it good ? Are they here ? 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 221 
 
 3. Imperative sentences^ in which the thought is in 
 the form of a command. 
 
 Ex. Be good. Do not come here. 
 
 4. Exclamatory sentenceSy in which feeling or emotion 
 is expressed without making a direct statement. 
 
 Ex. How good he is ! Would that I were home ! 
 
 Sentences are also classified as simple, complex, 
 or compound, according to the relation between the 
 parts. 
 
 A simple sentence is divisible into a single subject and 
 single predicate. 
 
 Ex. The cold winds blow from the north. 
 
 A complex sentence is divisible into one independ- 
 ent statement and one or more subordinate state- 
 ments. 
 
 Ex. The man that bought the horse came for him this morning. 
 
 In the preceding sentence the part underscored is the 
 independent statement: the rest depends upon it, and 
 does not make sense by itself. 
 
 A compound sentence is divisible into two or more 
 independent sentences, each of which makes sense 
 when taken by itself. 
 
 Ex. One of them came at nine o'clock, and the other came at ten. 
 The party reached the stream, and there they camped. 
 
 Two or more words performing the office of a single 
 part of speech and not having a subject and predicate 
 are called a phrase. 
 
222 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Ex. The wind blows from the north . He came into the house . 
 She sat under an elm . 
 
 In these examples the parts underscored are phrases. 
 
 Two or more words performing the office of a single 
 part of speech and having a subject and predicate are 
 called a dependent clause. 
 
 A dependent clause may also be defined as a subordi- 
 nate statement. 
 
 Ex. When the guests arrived , the band began to play. 
 He worked hard, that he might finish quickly. 
 I do not understand what you say. 
 
 In these examples the parts underscored are clauses. 
 
 RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 I. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 
 
 When the subject is so long that part of it might be 
 mistaken for the subject of a verb to follow, or when the 
 subject ends with a verb and the predicate begins with 
 one, a comma should be used between the subject and 
 predicate. 
 
 Ex. That the First Form should not be able to leave papers in 
 their desks without having them stolen by the Second Form, 
 is a disgrace to the school. (The comma after Form shows 
 that the entire clause, and not any part of it, is the subject 
 of is.^ 
 
 Whatever is, is right. 
 
 To say that he sleeps, is to say that he is better. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 223 
 
 II. WORDS IN THE SAME CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 1. Words and short phrases in the same construction 
 should be separated by commas, except when there are 
 only two words or phrases and they are connected by 
 conjunctions. The last of a series of words, when not 
 preceded by a conjunction, should be separated by a comma 
 from the portion of the sentence following. 
 
 Ex. The good, the true, and the beautiful are to be found in all 
 
 grades of life. 
 The good, the true, the beautiful, are to be found in all grades 
 
 of life. 
 It seems he never, never, could redeem from such a steadfast 
 
 spell his lady's eyes. 
 He sees the evil and the good. 
 Actions, not years, determine a man's life. 
 Months or years will tell. 
 Horses, cattle, and sheep are the chief products of the country. 
 
 Some writers omit the commas in the case of three 
 or more words severally connected by conjunctions ; as, 
 The good and the true and the beautiful are to be found 
 in all grades of life. If, however, only the last pair 
 are connected by a conjunction, the comma should be 
 placed before that conjunction ; as, Men, women, and 
 children came rushing to the place. 
 
 Ex. In Paris, wits, philosophers, and coffee-house politicians were 
 all to a man warm Americans. 
 
 2. When one of two words or phrases connected by a 
 conjunction has a qualifier that does not belong to the 
 other, but might otherwise be supposed to belong to it, 
 the words shoidd be separated by a comma. 
 
 Ex. The soldiers, and the prisoners of the enemy, lay down to rest. 
 
224 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 3. When the second of two words connected by the 
 conjunction or is explanatory of the first or a definition 
 of it J the words should be separated by a comma. 
 
 Ex. The river, or streamlet, was full of trout. 
 
 The valley, or canon, was so narrow that one could hardly see 
 the sky above. 
 
 4. If words in the same construction fiaturally fall 
 into pairSy the commas should be used only between 
 the pairs. 
 
 Ex. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish. 
 
 In comfort and distress, in success and failure, in prosperity 
 and ruin, he exhibited the same calmness of mind. 
 
 III. CLAUSES AND PHRASES. 
 
 I. Phrases and dependent clauses not closely and 
 smoothly connected with the rest of the sentence should be 
 separated from it by commas. If the phrase or clause is 
 at the beginning or end of a sentence^ one comma is suffi- 
 cient. 
 
 Ex. As the time drew near for action, they prepared themselves as 
 
 best they could. 
 With this conviction of the importance of the present crisis, 
 
 silence in me would be a crime. 
 When I shall be called upon, I shall be found ready. 
 If you do not believe me, ask others. 
 
 Note. — After the conjunction and or but^ preceded by a longer 
 pause than the comma, the first comma may be omitted. 
 
 Ex. We now enter upon a new subject ; and for the sake of order 
 and clearness, it is proposed to separate this subject into two 
 branches. (Comma is omitted after and.^ 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 225 
 
 If all kinds of phrases and clauses were enumerated 
 and a rule given for each, every one of these rules after 
 naming the kind of clause or phrase, whether conditional, 
 antithetical, participial, or temporal, would end by say- 
 ing, //", hozvevery it is closely and smoothly connected in 
 thought and construction with the rest of the sentence, 
 the commas may be omitted. The above rule will do 
 for all. 
 
 In the following examples the dependent clause is so 
 closely and smoothly joined to the principal clause that 
 no punctuation is needed : — 
 
 I shall be found ready when they call me. 
 
 They will accept if they are asked. 
 
 We came upon him when he least expected it. 
 
 2. The parts of a compound sentence, if short and 
 closely connected, should be separated by the comma; if 
 long, by the semicolon. 
 
 In the following short compound sentences the comma 
 is sufficient punctuation : — 
 
 The door was locked, and the key was in it 
 He came in, and they all called for help. 
 
 In the following sentence the parts are longer, and 
 the semicolon is used between them : — 
 
 He came into the house in a great hurry ; and before long every one 
 was in a state of alarm. 
 
 3. When a relative clause is restrictive, — i.e., when it 
 is necessary to complete the meaning of its antecedent, — 
 it should not be separated by punctuation from the a7tte- 
 cedent clause. When not restrictive, — i.e., when making 
 an additional statement not necessary to the definition of 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 15 
 
226 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 the antecedenty — it should be separated from the ante- 
 cedent clause by a comma. 
 
 Ex. He disliked all the members of the family who disagreed with 
 him. 
 He disliked all the members of his family, who disagreed with 
 him continually. (With the comma, this sentence means he 
 disliked all, and they disagreed with him.) 
 
 Distinguish between the following sentences : — 
 
 He left one thousand dollars to his first son who should graduate 
 
 from the high school. 
 He left one thousand dollars to his first son, who should graduate 
 
 from the high school. 
 
 4. Direct quotations, if short and informally introduced^ 
 should be separated from the rest of the sentence by tin 
 comma; if long and formally introduce d, by the colon. 
 
 Ex. He replied, " I am not certain of this." 
 
 He looked up from the book and answered, "There will be 
 
 plenty of time to decide that later."' 
 " I like his voice," thought Bob, " and he has a pleasant face." 
 Xenophon addressed the soldiers in these words : " F'ellow- 
 
 soldiers, we have now been," etc. 
 The president arose and made the following remarks: "It 
 
 seems to me that there is just cause for," etc. 
 
 rv. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 The following constructions are always separated from 
 the rest of the sentence by commas. If they occur at the 
 beginning or end of their clause, one comma is sufficient. 
 
 I. Vocative expressions. 
 
 Ex. Mr. President, I move we adjourn. 
 John, I wish you would come here. 
 I propose, sir, a vote of thanks to the committee. 
 Let us hurry on, fellow^.3. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 227 
 
 2. Words ill apposition. 
 
 Ex. Plato, the philosopher, wrote many books. 
 Og, King of Bashan, went out against them. 
 Tarsus, a city of Cilicia. 
 
 3 . Words or phrases out of their natural order ^ or break- 
 ing the closely related paints of a sentence. 
 
 Ex. This, on the contrary, is not included. 
 
 He felt, however, that he ought to have gone. 
 This, I repeat, is altogether uncalled for. 
 
 4. A clause or phrase removed from the word which 
 it qualifies, if otherwise it might be mistaken as quali- 
 fying the next preceding word. 
 
 Ex. They came out to meet the minister's family, dressed in their 
 best clothes. (The comma after family shows that the fol- 
 lowing phrase qualifies they, and not family.^ 
 The gentlemen who visited Washington this week, left the 
 President, highly elated at their success. 
 
 V. ELLIPSIS. 
 
 The comma marks an ellipsis wherever the voice woidd 
 mark such ellipsis with a pause. 
 
 Ex. The children thought one way ; their parents, another. 
 
 A topical memory makes man an almanac ; a talent for debate, 
 a disputant. 
 
 VI. THE COMMA OMITTED. 
 
 The comma may be omitted after the period used with 
 abbreviations} also after either of the conjunctions but or 
 and folloiving a higher pause. 
 
 Ex. He came to a river bank ; and although every one urged him 
 to cross, he refused to do so. 
 
 1 The comma is generally retained after the period in the case of viz. 
 and i.e., but should be omitted in references to volume, chapter, and verse 
 in books, Ex. Vol. II, p. 137, notNoX. II., p. 137. 
 
228 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 The tendency of many writers is to omit the comma 
 wherever the sense would be clear without any punctu- 
 ation. 
 
 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 1. Two or more clauses, one or all of which are them- 
 selves divided by commas, should be separated from each 
 other by the semicolon. 
 
 Ex. He was, considering the disadvantage he labored under, doing 
 vast good ; though as has been frankly admitted, it may not 
 have been evident to alL 
 Heralds by swift relays transmitted the war message from hand, 
 to hand; till village repeated it to village, the sea to the 
 vast woods, the plains to the highlands. 
 
 2. The semicolon is used between the parts of a com- 
 pound sentence, except where the parts are short and 
 closely connected, and between complete sentences where 
 the period would indicate too long a pause. 
 
 Ex. Washington felt the keenest sensibility at their distress ; but 
 he had exhausted all his influence. 
 
 It provoked the unawakened to combine against him ; but one 
 of the brethren gave liberty to eight slaves. 
 
 Life lies about us dumb ; day, as we know it, has not yet found 
 a tongue. 
 
 From distant corners of the street they ran to greet his hearty 
 welcome ; lords of his house were they. 
 
 As the summons hurried to the South, it was one day at New 
 York, in one more at Philadelphia; the next it lighted a 
 watchfire at Baltimore ; thence it waked an answer at An- 
 napolis. 
 
 3. The semicolon shoidd be used before as, viz., e.g., to 
 wit, namely, etc. ; the comma should be used after them. 
 
 Ex. He had three new members to propose ; namely, Brown, Jones, 
 and Smith. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 229 
 
 Ex. There are only two exceptions to this statement ; to wit, the 
 adjectives this and that. 
 He proposed to visit the three largest cities of the United 
 States ; viz., New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. 
 
 THE COLON. 
 
 1. Two clauses^ one or both of which are subdivided by 
 the semicolon^ should be separated from each other by the 
 colon. 
 
 Ex. This chapter is divided into two sections : the first, which was 
 written many years since, being a history of the institution ; 
 the second, a prophecy as to its future. 
 
 2. The colon is used before all direct quotations^ if 
 formally introduced, and after all words which formally 
 introduce a sentence to follow. If the quoted matter 
 begins a new paragraph^ the colon should be followed by 
 a dash. 
 
 Ex. Caesar spoke as follows : (His speech to follow.) 
 
 He replied in these words : " I shall always be prepared in 
 
 future." 
 My dear Friend : (A letter following.) 
 After this manner therefore pray ye : Our Father, etc. 
 The calamities are our friends. Ben Jonson specifies in his 
 
 address to the Muse : — 
 
 " Get him the time's long grudge, the court's ill-will, 
 And, reconciled, keep him suspected still ; 
 Make him lose all his friends, and what is worse, 
 Almost all ways to any better course ; 
 With me thou leav'st a better Muse than thee, 
 And which thou brought'st me, blessed Poverty." 
 
 3. The colon is sometimes used between complete sen- 
 tences where the period would indicate too long a pause y 
 and the semicolon too short a pause. 
 
230 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Ex. It was a dark and dreary night : the wind was blowing in fitful 
 gusts. 
 
 It is over : let us go. 
 
 Our botany is all names, not powers : poets and romancers 
 talk of herbs of grace and healing ; but what does the bota- 
 nist know of the virtue of his weeds ? 
 
 THE PERIOD. 
 
 1. The period is used at the close of every complete 
 declarative sentence, not in a series, and not closely con- 
 nected in thought with the se^itence following. 
 
 Ex. This is the reason why beauty is still escaping out of all analy- 
 sis. It is not yet possessed ; it cannot be handled. 
 
 2. The period is used to mark an abbreviation, after 
 Roman numerals, and as a decimal point in ordinary 
 figures. 
 
 Ex. Ex., viz., e.g., St., No., etc , XL, XII., 1.5, 1.03, 2.50, .07. 
 
 INTERROGATION POINT. 
 
 The interrogation point is used at the eitd of every direct 
 question, hoivever expressed, whether in a series or alone ; 
 but indirect questions should not have the interrogation 
 m,ark. 
 
 Ex. What can I do for you ? 
 Now, you understand ? 
 
 How old are you ? What is your trade ? Where do you live ? 
 How did this happen ? When? Where? Why? 
 I asked him how this happened. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 23 1 
 
 EXCLAMATION POINT. 
 
 The exclamation point is used after exclamatory words 
 and phrases, and after sentences expressing a wish or 
 strong emotion. If an interjection occurs in an exclama- 
 tory sentence, the exclamation point is used at the end of 
 the sentence only. 
 
 Ex. Praise be thine, O God ! 
 
 Lost ! Lost ! O that I were home ! 
 
 Oh, I never, never, can be reconciled to this ! 
 
 But even these can understand the cry of fire ! 
 
 Give me of your bark, O Birch Tree ! 
 
 O the long and dreary winter ! 
 
 THE DASH. 
 
 The dash is used before and after parenthetical clauses, 
 and before the conclusion after a series of clauses. It 
 is used where the grammatical construction of the sen- 
 tence is changed, or brought to a sudden close, also to shozv 
 hesitation in speaking, and to mark the omission of letters 
 in a word. 
 
 Ex. Every natural feature — sea, sky, rainbow, flowers, musical 
 tone — has in it somewhat which is not private, but uni- 
 versal. 
 
 If I have been inconsiderate of the feelings of any, if I have 
 proceeded without due investigation of facts, if I have made 
 a single unjust remark, — I stand ready to make every repa- 
 ration in my power. 
 
 She had a heart — how shall I say ? — too soon made glad, too 
 easily impressed. 
 
 The ultimate cause was one that has been generally recog- 
 nized — the lack of proper signals. 
 
 He was a — a — a — well, you know exactly what I mean. 
 
232 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 PARENTHESES. 
 
 Parentheses are used to inclose an explanation^ author- 
 ityy definition^ reference, translation, or any matter not 
 belonging to the grammatical construction of the sentence. 
 
 Ex. He is (and I make this statement from no base motive) a most 
 thoroughly corrupt politician. 
 John Cabot was the first European to visit the continent of 
 North America. (Bancroft, vol. i. p. 9.) 
 
 BRACKETS. 
 
 The use of brackets is about the same as that of the 
 marks of parenthesis, but is generally confined to words 
 inserted in quotations for the sake of explanation. 
 
 Ex. Another schoolmate, Dr. Henry Dawson, furnished Mr. Fors- 
 ter with some more detailed reminiscences, from which we 
 may make a few extracts. 
 
 " Dickens has given a very lively account of this place [the Academy] 
 in his paper entitled ' Our School,' but it is very mythical in many re- 
 spects, and more especially in the compliment he pays to himself." 
 
 QUOTATION MARKS. 
 
 Quotation marks are used before and after a passage 
 quoted in the exact words of another. Matter quoted 
 indirectly, or given only in substance, is not placed within 
 quotation marks. A quotation within a quotation is in- 
 closed in single mai^ks. 
 
 Where a quotation consists of several paragraphs, 
 quotation f narks shoidd be used at the beginning of each 
 paragraph, but at the close of the last paragraph only. 
 
 Titles of books, essays, newspapers, etc., should be placed 
 within quotation marks, unless in italics or capitals. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 233 
 
 Ex. "Now, by St. George," the archer cries, 
 
 " Edward, methinks we have a prize ! " 
 
 Upon the completion of "The Old Curiosity Shop" in the 
 pages of the " Clock," " Barnaby Rudge " was begun. 
 
 The following is from the letters of Charles 
 Dickens ' — 
 
 "The child lying dead in the little sleeping-room, which is 
 behind the open screen. It is winter time, so there are no flowers ; 
 but upon her breast and pillow, and about her bed, there may be 
 strips of holly and berries,, and such free green things. Window 
 overgrown with ivy. The little boy who had that talk with her 
 about angels may be by the bedside, if you like it so ; but I think 
 it would be quieter and more peaceful if she is quite alone. I want 
 it to express the most beautiful repose and tranquillity, and to have 
 something of a happy look, if death can. 
 
 " The child has been buried inside the church, and the old man, 
 who cannot be made to understand that she is dead, repairs to the 
 grave and sits there all day long, waiting for her arrival, to begin 
 another journey. His staff and knapsack, her little bonnet and 
 basket, etc., lie beside him. 'She'll come to-morrow,' he says 
 when it gets dark, and goes sorrowfully home. I think an hour- 
 glass running out would help the notion ; perhaps her little things 
 upon his knee, or in his hand. 
 
 "I am breaking my heart over this story, and cannot bear to 
 finish it." 
 
 HYPHEN. 
 
 The hyphen is used between the parts of certain com- 
 pound wordsy arid to mark the division of syllables in 
 showing the spelling of words. It is sometimes itsed in 
 place of the dicBresis after a prefix ending in a vowel 
 before a word beginning with a vowel. 
 
 Ex. Horse-chestnut, Franco-Prussian, re-edit, de-vi-ate, truth-tell- 
 ing, text-book. 
 
234 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 APOSTROPHE. 
 
 The apostrophe is used in the possessive case of nouns, 
 to denote the plural of figures and letters, and to mark 
 the elisio7i of letters at the beginning or middle of a 
 wordy and the omission of figures in a number or date. 
 
 Ex, John's, men's, 2's, 7's, p's and q's, I've, TU, don't, won't, 
 Po'keepsie, tho', '92, '76. 
 
 THE PARAGRAPH. 
 
 For the sake of appearances, and also to facilitate the 
 apprehension of the writer's thoughts, written matter is 
 divided into paragraphs, or groups of sentences which 
 have a close connection in thought. The paragraph is 
 indicated by beginning on the line next after the close 
 of the last sentence and by indenting the first word from 
 the margin. 
 
 Every group of sentences closely related in thought 
 should m.ake one paragraph. When a new subject is to 
 be treated, or where any change is made in the m,ethod 
 of treatment, a paragraph should be 7nade. In a written 
 conversation, a change of speaker should be indicated by 
 a new paragraph or by a dash. 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 The following words should begin with capital let- 
 ters : — 
 
 I . The first word of every sentence, of every line of 
 poetry, of every paragraph or line indented from the 
 margin, of every sentence quoted directly, of every direct 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPHALS. 235 
 
 question, and of every statement or precept formally 
 introduced. 
 
 Ex. May I ask you, Have you never noticed this before ? 
 
 The heart should ever beat, " How good to live and learn !" 
 
 Thy voice is on the rolling air ; 
 
 I hear thee when the waters run ; 
 
 Thou standest in the rising sun, 
 And in the setting thou art fair. 
 
 A good rule to keep in mind is as follows : Cut every long 
 sentence into two parts. 
 
 2. Every p7vper noun, every important zvord tised alone 
 or in a combination of words to designate the individual 
 name^ of any person, place, time, or thing, and every 
 word derived from a proper noun, unless by long usage 
 it has lost its derivative significance. 
 
 Ex. David, Francis, Smith, tne Black Prince, the West, the North, 
 the Lowlands, the Highlands {b?it, He sailed west ; There 
 are many lowlands in this peninsula), the Revolution, the 
 Father of the Faithful, the Christian era, the Constitution, 
 Sunday, Tuesday, January, September, God, Satan, Jehovah, 
 Paris, Uncle John, the Bishop of New Jersey, the Peninsular 
 Campaign, Scotch broth, Johnsonian style. 
 
 3. All important words in the titles of books or 
 essays. 
 
 Ex. A History of the Rebellion. 
 Upward and Onward. 
 Free Trade and Protection. 
 Put Yourself in his Place. 
 Milton's Select Poems. 
 
 1 Whenever any word or words are used in place of a proper name, the 
 words are capitalized; but the same words, though designating the same 
 object, if used as common nouns, should not be capitalized. (Ex. Good 
 
236 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 4. The words I and O. 
 
 5 . Personal pronouns referring to God, when nsed in 
 direct address^ or where the capitals may help to indicate 
 the antecedent. 
 
 Ex. Praise be Thine, O God. 
 Our times are in His hands. 
 
 6. Nouns i7idicating personified objects^ wheft used 
 distinctly as proper names. 
 
 Ex. Grace, Beauty, and Caprice 
 Build this golden portal ; 
 Graceful women, chosen men, 
 Dazzle every mortal. 
 
 (See examples, p. 129.) 
 
 EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Explain according to the rules given in this book, the 
 reason for each punctuation point used in the following 
 extract. 
 
 A COUNTRY PARSONAGE. 
 
 [from goldsmith's " VICAR OF WAKEFIELD."] 
 
 A proof that even the humblest fortune may grant happiness, which depends 
 not on circumstances but constitution. 
 
 The place of our retreat was in a little neighborhood con- 
 sisting of farmers, who tilled their own grounds, and were 
 equal strangers to opulence and poverty. As they had almost 
 all the conveniences of life within themselves, they seldom vis- 
 ited towns or cities, in search of superfluities. Remote from the 
 
 morning, Uncle John ! How now, Brother William ? President Harrison. 
 I saw my uncle. How is your brother? He is president of three societies.) 
 Fragmentary quotations need not commence with a capital. 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 237 
 
 polite, they still retained the primeval simplicity of manners ; 
 and frugal by habit, they scarcely knew that temperance was a 
 virtue. They wrought with cheerfulness on days of labor, but 
 observed festivals as intervals of idleness and pleasure. They 
 kept up the Christmas carol, sent true-love-knots on Valentine 
 morning, eat pancakes on Shrove-tide, showed their wit on the 
 first of April, and religiously cracked nuts on Michaelmas eve. 
 Being apprized of our approach, the whole neighborhood came 
 out to meet their minister, dressed in their finest clothes, and 
 preceded by a pipe and tabor. A feast also was provided for 
 our reception, at which we sat cheerfully down ; and what the 
 conversation wanted in wit, was made up in laughter. 
 
 Our little habitation was situated at the foot of a sloping hill, 
 sheltered with a beautiful underwood behind, and a prattling 
 river before, on one side a meadow, on the other a green. 
 My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, 
 having given an hundred pound for my predecessor's good- 
 will. Nothing could exceed the neatness of my little inclos- 
 ures, the elms and hedgerows appearing with inexpressible 
 beauty. My house consisted of but one story, and was cov- 
 ered with thatch, which gave it an air of great snugness. The 
 walls on the inside were nicely whitewashed, and my daughters 
 undertook to adorn them with pictures of their own designing. 
 Though the same room served us for parlor and kitchen, that 
 only made it the warmer. Besides, as it was kept with the 
 utmost neatness, the dishes, plates, and coppers being well 
 scoured, and all disposed in bright rows on the shelves, the 
 eye was agreeably relieved, and did not want richer furniture. 
 There were three other apartments, one for my wife and me, 
 another for our two daughters, within our own, and the third, 
 with two beds, for the rest of the children. 
 
 The little republic to which I gave laws, was regulated in the 
 following manner : by sunrise we all assembled in our common 
 apartment, the fire being previously kindled by the servant. 
 After we had saluted each other with proper ceremony, for I 
 
238 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 always thought fit to keep up some mechanical forms of good 
 breeding, without which freedom ever destroys friendship, we 
 all bent in gratitude to that Being who gave us another day. 
 This duty being performed, my son and I went to pursue our 
 usual industry abroad, while my wife and daughters employed 
 themselves in providing breakfast, which was always ready at 
 a certain time. I allowed half an hour for this meal, and an 
 hour for dinner ; which time was taken up in innocent mirth 
 between my wife and daughters, and in philosophical arguments 
 between my son and me. 
 
 As we rose with the sun, so we never pursued our labors 
 after it was gone down, but returned home to the expecting 
 family ; where smiling looks, a neat hearth, and pleasant fire 
 were prepared for our reception. Nor were we without guests : 
 sometimes farmer Flamborough, our talkative neighbor, and 
 often the blind piper would pay us a visit, and taste our goose- 
 berry wine, for the making of which we had lost neither the 
 receipt nor the reputation. These harmless people had several 
 ways of being good company; w^hile one played, the other 
 would sing some soothing ballad, "Johnny Armstrong's Last 
 Good Night," or "The Cruelty of Barbary Allen." The night 
 was concluded in the manner we began the morning, my 
 youngest boys being appointed to read the lessons of the 
 day; and he that read loudest, distinctest, and best, was to 
 have an halfpenny on Sunday to put in the poor's box. 
 
 When Sunday came, it was indeed a day of finery, which all 
 my sumptuary edicts could not restrain. How well soever I 
 fancied my lectures against pride had conquered the vanity of 
 my daughters, yet I found them still secretly attached to all 
 their former finery : they still loved laces, ribbons, bugles, and 
 catgut. My wife herself retained a passion for her crimson 
 paduasoy, because I formerly happened to say it became her. 
 
 The first Sunday in particular their behavior served to mor- 
 tify me. I had desired my girls the preceding night to be 
 dressed early the next day ; for I always loved to be at church 
 
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS. 239 
 
 a good while before the rest of the congregation. They punc- 
 tually obeyed my directions ; but when we were to assemble in 
 the morning at breakfast, down came my wife and daughters, 
 dressed out all in their former splendor, their hair plastered 
 up with pomatum, their faces patched to taste, their trains 
 bundled up in a heap behind, and rustling at every motion. I 
 could not help smiling at their vanity, particularly that of my 
 wife, from whom I expected more discretion. In this exi- 
 gence, therefore, my only resource was to order my son, with 
 an important air, to call our coach. The girls were amazed at 
 the command; but I repeated it with more solemnity than 
 before. — "Surely, my dear, you jest," cried my wife, ^'^we can 
 walk it perfectly well : we want no coach to carry us now." — 
 "You mistake, child," returned I, "we do want a coach; for 
 if we walk to church in this trim, the very children in the 
 parish will hoot after us." — " Indeed," replied my wife, " I 
 always imagined that my Charles was fond of seeing his chil- 
 dren neat and handsome about him." — " You may be as neat as 
 you please," interrupted I, " and I shall love you the better for 
 it ; but all this is not neatness, but frippery. These rufflings, 
 and pinkings, and patchings will only make us hated by all the 
 wives of all our neighbors. No, my children," continued I 
 more gravely, " those gowns may be altered into something of a 
 plainer cut ; for finery is very unbecoming in us, who want the 
 means of decency. I do not know whether such flouncing 
 and shredding is becoming even in the rich, if we consider, 
 upon a moderate calculation, that the nakedness of the indigent 
 world may be clothed from the trimmings of the vain." 
 
 This remonstrance had the proper effect ; they went with 
 great composure, that very instant, to change their dress ; and 
 the next day I had the satisfaction of finding my daughters, at 
 their own request, employed in cutting up their trains into 
 Sunday waistcoats for Dick and Bill, the two little ones ; and 
 what was still more satisfactory, the gowns seemed improved 
 by this curtailing. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Origin of the English People. — Notice, in the first 
 place, that in the Table of Aryan Languages,^ English 
 appears as a member of the Teutonic, or Germanic, 
 group. For the origin of the English people and 
 language, we must look far away from England itself 
 to that part of Europe now comprising the kingdom 
 of Denmark and the Prussian province of Sleswick- 
 Holstein. Here, until the middle of the fifth century, 
 lived three tribes of the Teutonic family, — the Jutes, 
 the Angles (or English), and the Saxons. There was 
 undoubtedly a difference in dialect among these tribes ; 
 but they all had substantially the same language. 
 
 Religion and Habits. — The religion of the Angles, 
 Jutes, and Saxons was that of the other tribes of the 
 Teutonic group. Their chief god was Woden, the 
 war god. Our names for the days of the week still 
 preserve to us the names of several of their gods 
 and goddesses. Wednesday is Woden's day; Thurs- 
 day preserves the name of Thor, the god of thunder ; 
 Friday, the name of the goddess Frigu. Tacitus has 
 
 - See p. 22. 
 240 
 
APPENDIX. 241 
 
 given us an interesting description of the Saxons, or 
 English, before they left their native soil. They were a 
 nation of farmers and herdsmen ; but the barrenness of 
 their country drove them to the sea, and they became 
 the terror of the tribes about them. A Roman poet 
 writes of them, that they were fierce beyond all other 
 foes ; that the sea was their home, and the storm their 
 friend. He calls them sea wolves, for they lived upon 
 the pillage of the world. But let us see how the lan- 
 guage of these Angles and Saxons became the language 
 of England. 
 
 Celtic Britain and Roman Conquest. — When England 
 was first made known to the civilized world of Rome, it 
 was inhabited by a warlike Celtic race called Britons, 
 and was known as Britain. Julius Caesar landed upon the 
 island in 55 B.C., but not until nearly a century later was 
 the conquest completed. A Roman general, Agricola, 
 carried the Roman occupation as far north as the Clyde 
 and the Firth of Forth. A military government was 
 established, and Britain became a Roman province. A 
 network of well-built roads covered the island ; agricul- 
 ture was encouraged ; and the products of Britain were 
 sent from its seaports to all parts of the civilized world. 
 Roman occupation continued for nearly four hundred 
 years, during which time Britain became civilized and 
 Romanized. In the country the Celtic speech survived, 
 but Latin was the language of the cities. 
 
 In A. D. 411 the Roman legions were withdrawn from 
 Britain, in order to protect Rome from the invasion of the 
 barbarians, who were pressing upon it from the north. 
 
 Saxon Conquest of Britain. — After the withdrawal of 
 the Roman soldiers, the unprotected Britons were attacked 
 by the wild tribes of Scotland and Ireland, called Scots 
 
 SCH. ENG. — 16 
 
242 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 and Picts, which Roman rule and civilization had never 
 reached. Centuries of protection by Roman arms, and 
 the despotic crushing of all independence and national 
 spirit, had rendered the Britons powerless to defend them- 
 selves against their warlike neighbors. The east coast of 
 the island had been subject to frequent attacks from the 
 Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. In their extremity the rulers 
 of Britain tried to match these pirates against their 
 enemies from Scotland and Ireland. Land was promised 
 as a reward for their services ; and in 449 a fleet of boats 
 from Jutland landed warriors on the Island of Thanet, 
 a short distance from where Canterbury now stands. 
 The Picts were defeated ; but the Jutes, reenforced by 
 additional bands from home, became the most danger- 
 ous foe that the Britons had yet known. More pay and 
 rations were demanded than could be supplied, and the 
 Teutonic invaders turned upon the Britons, defeated 
 them in one battle after another, and in the course of 
 time conquered, exterminated, or absorbed almost the 
 entire British population as far west as Wales and 
 Cornwall. Britain thus became Teutonic, and the later 
 supremacy of the Angles accounts for its present name 
 of England. 
 
 Saxon Kingdoms. — The Jutes, in all probability, 
 formed the first permanent Teutonic settlement in Eng- 
 land. This settlement, however, was comparatively 
 small. The Saxons were the first invaders with whom 
 the Britons had to deal in large numbers. They, there- 
 fore, gave the name of Saxons to all invaders from the 
 continent. The Angles occupied a much greater share 
 of land than the Saxons ; and therefore as soon as the 
 Teutonic settlers began to bear a common name among 
 themselves, they were called Angles, or English. In 
 
APPENDIX. 243 
 
 the sixteenth or seventeenth century the term Anglo- 
 Saxon became prevalent as the common designation of 
 the race and language of the Teutonic settlers in Eng- 
 land. No sooner were the wars with the Britons ended, 
 than the Anglo-Saxons began fighting among them- 
 selves for the mastery of the conquered territory. For 
 a long time, Angles, Jutes, and Saxons were distinct 
 tribes in England. Different bands of each tribe main- 
 tained at first their individual existence ; and the island 
 was divided among a crowd of smaller states, and a 
 few kingdoms, seven or eight in number, among which 
 in course of time three or four stand out as aspiring 
 for the general supremacy of the country. These 
 seven or eight kingdoms are generally known as the 
 Saxon Heptarchy. They were Kent, the settlement of 
 the Jutes, Sussex (South Saxons), Essex (East Saxons), 
 Wessex (West Saxons), and the kingdoms of the Angles, 
 known as East Anglia, Bernicia, Deira, and Mercia. 
 Bernicia and Deira united and formed Northumbria. 
 Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex for a long time dis- 
 puted with each other the supremacy of the tribes. 
 Finally Wessex gained the ascendency, and England 
 became one nation under West Saxon kings. 
 
 Remnant of the Celts. — The Picts and Scots who 
 remained unconquered in Ireland and Scotland, and 
 the remnant of the Britons confined to Wales and 
 Cornwall, were Celts. The Gaelic, or Highland Scotch, 
 the Irish, the Manx, of the Isle of Man, the Welsh and 
 the Cornish, are to-day Celtic people ; and though the 
 English language is used by the educated classes, the 
 native Celtic speech is still spoken by all these races 
 except in Cornwall, where English has replaced it 
 altogether. 
 
244 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. 
 
 The Foundation of English. — Thus we see that what- 
 ever happened in England before the Saxon Conquest 
 had little influence on the development of the English 
 language. It is important for the student to bear in 
 mind that the language we speak has for its foundation, 
 not the speech of the Celtic Briton, but that of the 
 Anglo-Saxon conqueror. Although our modern English 
 is built on the Anglo-Saxon, the two languages or dialects 
 are so different that no amount of familiarity with 
 modern English will enable one without special study- 
 to read Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Inflections. — Besides having a very dif- 
 ferent vocabulary from modern English, Anglo-Saxon 
 was a highly inflected language. The relations of words 
 to each other were exhibited by changes in their endings. 
 In English there are scarcely any inflectional endings. 
 The relations of words in a sentence are designated by 
 prepositions or by the order of the words. The plural s 
 of nouns, the 's of the possessive case, the personal and 
 tense endings of the verb, the terminations used in the 
 comparison of adjectives, and a few forms of the pro- 
 nouns comprise nearly all the inflectional forms in 
 modern English. 
 
 Ex. Nominative, John; Possessive, John's; Present, I love, thou 
 lovest, he loves ; Past, I loved, thou lovedest, he loved ; 
 Present Participle, loving; ^d Personal Pronoun, he, his, 
 him, they, their or theirs, them. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon nouns had three or four cases in both sin- 
 gular and plural : the nominative, the genitive or posses- 
 sive, the dative, and the accusative. Adjectives and pro- 
 nouns had each of these cases in the masculine, feminine, 
 
APPENDIX. 245 
 
 and neuter gender, and each adjective had one declen- 
 sion for use with the definite article, and another for 
 use without it. In many instances, however, the same 
 form was used for several cases. 
 
 SPECIMEN OF ANGLO-SAXON. 
 WEST SAXON DIALECT. 
 
 [from an interpolation made by king ALFRED IN HIS TRANG.LATION OF OROSIUS.^] 
 
 6htere s^de his hlaforde, ^Ifr^de cyninge, j^aet h^ ealra 
 NorSmonna norSmest bijde. H^ cwaeS f aet h^ biide on ])km 
 lande norSweardum wiS fa Westsse. H6 s&de p^ah ]:3et f set 
 land sie swi6e lang norS |)onan ; ac hit is eall w^ste, bijton on 
 f^awum st6wum styccemfelum wiciaS Finnas, on huntoSe on 
 wintra, ond on sumera on fisca(Se be j^^re sfe. H^ sfede J/aet 
 h^ 3et sumum cirre wolde fandian hu longe [set land norSryhte 
 l^ge, oS6e hwaeSer jfenig monn be norSan [fern w^stenne biide. 
 
 TRANSLATION OF THE FOREGOING PASSAGE. 
 
 Ohtere said to his lord, King Alfred, that he dwelt farthest- 
 north of all Northmen. He said that he dwelt in the land 
 northward along the West Sea. He said, though, that that land 
 extended far north from there ; but it is all waste, except that in 
 a few places here and there Finns live, hunting in winter and 
 in summer fishing, by that sea. He said that he on one 
 occasion wished to explore how far that land extended due 
 north, or whether any man dwelt north of th^ waste. 
 
 Latin and French in English. — By comparing the orig- 
 inal passage in the above illustration with modern Eng- 
 lish, it is evident that our language has undergone great 
 changes in the last thousand years. \i we are acquainted 
 
 1 From Webster's " International Dictionary," p. xlii. 
 
246 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 with French and Latin, we may see in the translation 
 of this passage that the words printed in ItaHcs resemble 
 French or Latin words. Let us now endeavor to trace 
 the events that have brought about these changes. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF OTHER LANGUAGES ON THE ANGLO- 
 SAXON. 
 
 Celtic. — We have seen that Celtic languages con- 
 tinued to be spoken in Wales and Cornwall, Ireland, 
 and Scotland. We might, therefore, expect to find the 
 Anglo-Saxons adopting many words from the vocab- 
 ulary of their neighbors ; but the hostility between the 
 Saxons and the Celts precluded any extensive influence 
 of the languages upon one another. Some words have 
 been taken from the Welsh and other Celtic dialects, 
 but the number of Celtic words in English is very small. 
 
 Roman Occupation. — It is probable that at the time 
 of the Saxon conquest the Britons used many Latin 
 words, for they had been for centuries under Roman 
 rule. Many Roman names of places in England are 
 still retained. A few other words have come into Eng- 
 lish from the Latin of the Roman occupation of Britain. 
 
 Church Latin. — In the year 597, Augustine and a 
 company of priests from Rome landed in Kent. Other 
 missionaries from the church of Rome, and from the 
 Christian churches in Ireland, went to other parts of Eng- 
 land ; and by the year 681, the last Anglo-Saxon king- 
 dom accepted Christianity. The missionaries brought 
 with them the Latin services of the church of Rome. 
 The language of the monasteries was also Latin ; and 
 as the monasteries were the home of literature and the 
 source of all education in England, we find Latin words 
 
APPENDIX. 247 
 
 entering the vocabulary of the Anglo-Saxons. With the 
 changes from heathenism to Christianity came a host of 
 new ideas, the names for which were taken from the 
 Latin of the priests. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Literature. — It is a question with 
 scholars whether any Anglo-Saxon literature was pro- 
 duced before the introduction of Christianity. It is 
 possible, however, that two poems, **The Traveller's 
 Song," and " Deor's Complaint," were originally com- 
 posed about A.D. 550. One of the most important 
 monuments of Anglo-Saxon literature is the poem 
 " Beowulf," which for a long time was supposed to 
 have been written before the Saxons came to England, 
 but belongs, in its existing form, it is now generally 
 agreed, to the tenth century. Most of the other 
 writings of the Anglo-Saxons were religious poems, or 
 historical records called chronicles. 
 
 Literary culture among the Anglo-Saxons began in 
 Northumbria, and their first literature was written in the 
 dialect of the Angles. For a long while Northumbria 
 was the most important literary center of England. 
 Later the West Saxons took the lead in letters as well 
 as in arms and in government. King Alfred, who 
 reigned from 871 to 900, was the greatest of the West 
 Saxon kings. He was himself an author, and the first 
 who wrote extensively in English prose. The Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle was begun during his reign. Former 
 fragmentary chronicles were woven together and filled 
 out down to the reign of Alfred, but from that time the 
 history is contemporary, and was continued by different 
 writers to the year 1 1 54. 
 
 Danish Conquest. — From the beginning of the ninth 
 century for nearly two hundred years England was 
 
248 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 subject to frequent invasions from the Danes. The raids 
 of these pirates were at first confined to the east coast 
 of England. For many years they were kept under 
 control and given a portion of territory, where they 
 settled and lived under their own laws and rules. The 
 land thus allotted to the Danes was known as the Dane- 
 lagh. In 1016 the Danes rose and defeated the English 
 in a decisive battle ; and after this for nearly a quarter 
 of a century England was ruled by Danish kings. 
 
 It is impossible to determine how much the vocabu- 
 lary of our language has been affected by the Danish 
 invasion. The number of English words supposed to 
 be of Scandinavian origin is large; but Scandinavian 
 words bear a close resemblance to Anglo-Saxon words ; 
 and there is not sufficient Anglo-Saxon literature to 
 prove that words appearing only after the Danish in- 
 vasion were not in the original vocabulary of Angles, 
 Jutes, or Saxons, or borrowed before their settlement in 
 England. Many scholars, however, incline to the belief 
 that most of these words were introduced by the Danish 
 invasion and settlement. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Period. — For the first six hundred years 
 of its existence in England the foreign languages with 
 which the Anglo-Saxon had come into contact had pro- 
 duced but slight changes in its vocabulary and structure. 
 The period from 449 to 1066 is called the Anglo-Saxon 
 period of English history. But English soil was soon 
 to become the scene of an invasion and conquest which 
 mingled the people with another race, and their lan- 
 guage with a foreign tongue, 
 
 Norman French. — France, like England, was at first 
 inhabited by Celtic tribes. They were called Gauls. 
 Roman conquest and occupation had civilized and 
 
APPENDIX. 249 
 
 Romanized the Celts of France ; and the language 
 spoken there was, as in Spain and Italy, Latin slightly 
 modified by the original speech. The Gauls, like the 
 Britons, had been overcome by Teutonic invasion. Be- 
 fore the Anglo-Saxons had conquered Britain, the Franks 
 had invaded Gaul and settled in that part of Western 
 Europe which from the names of these conquerors has 
 ever since been known as France, or the country of the 
 Franks. Unlike the Teutonic invaders of Britain, the 
 Franks adopted the language and religion of the Roman- 
 ized Celtic population ; and France continued to be a 
 Christian country speaking a Latin tongue. 
 
 At the time that England was suffering from the raids 
 of the Danes, or Northmen, similar excursions were 
 being made by the same nation against the northern 
 coast of France. In 912 the Northmen under Rolf made 
 an inroad into France and forced the French king, 
 Charles the Simple, to make them a grant of lands in 
 the north of his kingdom. There the Northmen settled, 
 and their descendants have remained to this day. Rolf 
 accepted Christianity and became a vassal of the French 
 king. The language of the French prevailed, and in 
 course of time the Northmen adopted the manners and 
 customs of the French. Soon their name was softened 
 into Normans, and the region they inhabited was known 
 as Normandy. 
 
 Norman Conquest. — In 1066 the Normans, under 
 William Duke of Normandy, crossed the English Chan- 
 nel from the north coast of France ; and England was 
 for a third time the scene of foreign invasion and con- 
 quest. William became king of England, and his 
 descendants have held the throne ever since. After 
 the Normans conquered England, they settled there in 
 
250 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 large numbers. The Saxons were not driven from the 
 island, nor were they exterminated. The lands of the 
 Saxon barons were confiscated and divided amongst 
 the Norman army; but the Saxons remained as tillers 
 of the soil and serfs of the Norman nobility. 
 
 Two Languages in England. — We might naturally 
 suppose that as the Normans had conquered the Saxons, 
 the Norman language would drive out the Saxon, espe- 
 cially since after the Conquest the king's court, the 
 nobility, and nearly all the governing agents of the 
 king were Norman. The army was composed mainly 
 of Norman troops ; and Norman clergy had replaced 
 the Saxon priesthood. Instruction in the schools was 
 imparted in French. There was little to stimulate, 
 and much to discourage, the cultivation of the native 
 language. As a result of this exclusion of the Saxons 
 from the higher walks of life, and of the consequent 
 separation of the two races, we find that for a long 
 period, viz., from 1066 to 1200, the two languages 
 existed side by side without materially affecting each 
 other. During this period very little English literature 
 was produced, aside from the Saxon Chronicle, which 
 was carried on with only a few breaks in the record to 
 the accession of Henry the Second, in 1 1 54. Most of the 
 works produced on English soil were written either by 
 the clergy in Latin or by Norman writers in their native 
 tongue. Many books written in Normandy were read 
 in England during this period. In the study of English 
 literature the period from 1066 to 1200 is called the 
 Anglo-Norman period. The Norman works of this 
 period have nothing to do with the English language, 
 and the Saxon works are in the Saxon of the previous 
 period. Therefore, in tracing the development of the 
 
APPENDIX. 251 
 
 English language, the Anglo-Saxon or Old English 
 period (including the Anglo-Norman, or Transition 
 period) may be said to extend to the year 1200. The 
 next period is called the Middle English period, and 
 covers those years during which the Anglo-Saxon, by 
 the adoption of French words and by the loss of its 
 inflections, gradually changed its vocabulary and struc- 
 ture, and finally passed into the modern English that we 
 now speak. 
 
 MIDDLE ENGLISH (12OO-1500). 
 
 French or Saxon to Survive ? — For some time after 
 the Conquest the languages of the Normans and the 
 Saxons mingled very little. In 1204 the kings of 
 England lost their possessions in Normandy ; and this 
 loss brought about much closer relatione between the 
 ruHng classes and the Saxons. As a result, we find the 
 Normans generally learning to speak the Saxon tongue, 
 and native writers introducing into their works such 
 Norman words as would be readily understood by their 
 readers. The Normans made efforts to retain French 
 as the literary language. But as fast as French books 
 were written they were translated, and the translations 
 were read by ten times as many readers as the original 
 works. Gradually the Saxon literature gained the 
 mastery over the Norman French, but the language of 
 this new literature is very different from the Saxon 
 previous to the Conquest. 
 
 Norman French absorbed by Saxon. — Much has been 
 written as to the importance of the Norman element^ 
 
 1 The student should bear in mind that French is Latin in a slightly 
 modified form, and that the Norman French element in the English 
 language is really a part of the Latin element. 
 
252 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 in English ; and the best authorities object to speak- 
 ing of the fusion of Norman French and EngHsh. In 
 the struggle for existence on English soil the Anglo- 
 Saxon language succeeded. The two races mingled and 
 became one ; but the original language has never lost its 
 individuality. It borrowed words from the French, and 
 gradually lost most of its inflectional forms ; but there 
 never was a time when there was any question whether 
 the language was French or English. For these and 
 other reasons many prefer to designate the language 
 before the Conquest as Old English, and not as Anglo- 
 Saxon. The borrowing of French words at first went 
 on slowly. In the works produced in the last half of 
 the thirteenth century, only about twelve per cent of the 
 whole number of words are foreign, in some works only 
 four per cent ; but the inflections are to a great extent 
 discarded. By the middle of the fourteenth century 
 we find the number of French words greatly increased ; 
 many inflectional forms have disappeared ; and most of 
 the original terminations have been leveled to the single 
 termination e. 
 
 Chaucer. — The writings of Chaucer, who wrote his 
 last works about 1390, can be read without much diffi- 
 culty by any educated English-speaking person. In the 
 following passage from Chaucer's *' Canterbury Tales," 
 we find many words spelled with a final e no longer used 
 in modern English, and many final e's> now silent must 
 be pronounced in order to preserve the meter. One 
 hundred years from Chaucer's time we find these 
 words spelled and pronounced nearly as at present; 
 and for this reason the date of the commencement of 
 modern English is generally placed at about the year 
 1500. 
 
APPENDIX. 253 
 
 [from Chaucer's " canterbury tales."] 
 
 Whan that the moneth in which the world bigan 
 That highte March, whan God first made man, 
 Was complet, and y-passed were also, 
 Syn March bygan, thritty dayes and tuo, 
 Byfel that Chauntecleer in al his pride. 
 His seven wyves walkyng him by syde, 
 Caste up his eyghen to the brighte sonne 
 That in the signe of Taurus hadde i-ronne 
 Twenty degrees and oon, and somewhat more ; 
 He knew by kynde, and by noon other lore, 
 That it was prime, and crew with blisful stevene. 
 " The Sonne," he sayde, " is clomben up on hevens 
 Fourty degrees and oon, and more i-wis. 
 Madame Pertelote, my worldes blis, 
 Herkneth these blisful briddes how they synge. 
 And seth the fressche floures how they springe ; 
 Ful is myn hert of revel and solaas/' 
 But sodeinly him fel a sorweful caas ; 
 For evere the latter ende of joye is wo. 
 God wot that worldly joye is soone ago. 
 
 MODERN ENGLISH. 
 
 Modern English dates from Caxton, who brought the 
 printing press to England about the year 1475. By this 
 time the Norman and English races were blended into 
 one, and no further change could come from the influence 
 of one race upon the other. The English that Caxton 
 printed was the same language as that which we speak 
 to-day. All the inflections had been lost ; and as far 
 as the adoption of French words was concerned, the 
 vocabulary definitely determined. Many words of Cax- 
 ton's time have since become obsolete, and many words 
 have since been introduced. For though there has been 
 no national immigration to England since the day of 
 William the Conqueror, there have been many influences 
 
254 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 at work which have introduced new words into the 
 English vocabulary. Latin continued to be the language 
 of the church of Rome and of the courts of law ; and 
 for many years it seemed as if Latin were destined to 
 become the literary language of England. Even as late 
 as 1600 we find authors translating their works from 
 English into Latin in order that they might survive the 
 longer for being written in the " universal tongue." Thus, 
 besides the Latin which has come into English with the 
 Norman French, many words have come directly from 
 the Latin itself by reason of its long use in law, by the 
 church, and by men of letters. The terminology of 
 science is derived largely from the Greek, and commerce 
 has introduced words from nearly every language on the 
 globe. Each new edition of the dictionary contains 
 words that are not to be found in the editions previously 
 published. One hundred years from now there will be 
 many words in the English language that our generation 
 will never hear nor see. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.^ 
 
 The following extracts from various English transla- 
 tions of the Bible will best exhibit how the language 
 has changed in the course of time : — 
 
 L WICLIF VERSION— 1380. 
 
 Nile 3e tresoure to 3ou tresouris in erthe : where rust and 
 moii3te distrieth, and where theues deluen out and stelen^ but 
 gadir to 3ou tresouris in heuene f where nether rust ne mou3te 
 distrieth, and where theues deluen not out ne stelen for where 
 thi tresoure is : there also thin herte is 
 
 1 From the English Hexapla, London, 1841. 
 
APPENDIX. 255 
 
 II. TYNDALE VERSION — 1534. 
 
 Se that ye gaddre you not treasure vpon the erth where 
 rust and mothes corrupte^ and where theves breake through 
 and steale. But gaddre ye treasure togeder in heven where 
 nether rust nor mothes corrupte^ and where theves nether 
 breake vp nor yet steale. For where soever youre treasure y^ 
 there will youre hertes be also. 
 
 III. RHEIMS VERSION — 1582. 
 
 Heape not vp to your selues treasures on the earth : where 
 the rust & mothe do corrupt, & where theeues digge through 
 & steale. 
 
 But heape vp to your selues treasures in heauen : where 
 neither the rust nor mothe doth corrupt, and where theeues 
 do not digge through nor steale. 
 
 For where thy treasure is, there is thy hart also. 
 
 IV. AUTHORIZED VERSION— 161 1. 
 (Original spelling retained.) 
 
 Lay not vp for your selues treasures vpon earth, where moth 
 and rust doth corrupt, and where theeues breake thorow, and 
 steale. But lay vp for your selues treasures in heauen, where 
 neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where theeues doe not 
 breake thorow nor steale. 
 
 For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 
 
256 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 II. 
 
 GOLDSMITH. 
 THE DESERTED VILLAGE.^ 
 
 Sweet Auburn ! loveliest village of the plain ; 
 
 Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swaiac 
 
 Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, 
 
 And parting summer's lingering blooms delayed : 
 
 Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease, 
 
 Seats of my youth, when every sport could please, 
 
 How often have I loitered o'er thy green, 
 
 Where humble happiness endeared each scene ! 
 
 How often have I paused on every charm, 
 
 The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm, 
 
 The never-failing brook, the busy mill. 
 
 The decent church that topt the neighboring hill, 
 
 The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, 
 
 For talking age and whispering lovers made ! 
 
 How often have I blest the coming day. 
 
 When toil remitting lent its turn to play. 
 
 And all the village train, from labor free. 
 
 Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree, 
 
 While many a pastime circled in the shade, 
 
 The young contending as the old surveyed ; 
 
 And many a gambol frolicked o'er the ground, 
 
 And sleights of art and feats of strength went round 
 
 And still, as each repeated pleasure tired, 
 
 Succeeding sports the mirthful band inspired ; 
 
 The dancing pair that simply sought renown 
 
 By holding out to tire each other down ; 
 
 The swain mir.trustless of his smutted face. 
 
 While secret laughter tittered round the place ; 
 
 The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, 
 
 The matron's glance that would those looks reprove. 
 
 These were thy charms, sweet village ! sports like these, 
 
 ^ See footnote, p. 12. 
 
APPENDIX. 257 
 
 With sweet succession, taught even toil to please : 
 These round thy bowers their cheerful influence shed : 
 These were thy charms — but all these charms are fled. 
 
 Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn, 
 Thy sports are fled, and all thy charms withdrawn ; 
 Amidst thy bowers the tyrant's hand is seen, 
 And desolation saddens all thy green : 
 One only master grasps the whole domain. 
 And half a tillage stints thy smiling plain. 
 No more thy glassy brook reflects the day, 
 But, choked with sedges, works its weedy way ; 
 Along thy glades, a solitary guest, 
 The hollow sounding bittern guards its nest ; 
 Amidst thy desert walks the lapwing flies. 
 And tires their echoes with unvaried cries ; 
 Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all, 
 And the long grass overtops the moldering wall ; 
 And trembling, shrinking from the spoiler's hand. 
 Far, far away thy children leave the land. • 
 
 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey. 
 Where wealth accumulates, and men decay : 
 Princes and lords may flourish, or may fade ; 
 A breath can make them, as a breath has made : 
 But a bold peasantry, their country's pride. 
 When once destroyed, can never be supplied. 
 
 A time there was, ere England's griefs began, 
 When every rood of ground maintained its man ; 
 For him light labor spread her wholesome store. 
 Just gave what life required, but gave no more : 
 His best companions, innocence and health ; 
 And his best riches, ignorance of wealth. 
 
 But times are altered ; trade's unfeeling train 
 Usurp the land and dispossess the swain ; 
 Along the lawn, where scattered hamlets rose, 
 Unwieldy wealth and cumbrous pomp repose. 
 And every want to opulence allied, 
 And every pang that folly pays to pride. 
 These gentle hours that plenty bade to bloom, 
 Those calm desires that asked but little room, 
 scH. ENG. — 17 
 
258 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 Those healthful sports that graced the peaceful scene, 
 Lived in each look, and brightened all the green ; 
 These, far departing, seek a kinder shore, 
 And rural mirth and manners are no more. 
 
 Sweet Auburn ! parent of the blissful hour, 
 Thy glades forlorn confess the tyrant's power. 
 Here, as I take my solitary rounds 
 Amidst thy tangling walks and ruined grounds. 
 And, many a year elapsed, return to view 
 Where once the cottage stood, the hawthorn grew, 
 Remembrance wakes with all her busy train. 
 Swells at my breast, and turns the past to pain. 
 
 In all my wanderings round this world of care. 
 In all my griefs — and God has given my share — 
 I still had hopes my latest hours to crown, 
 Amidst these humble bowers to lay me down ; 
 To husband out life's taper at the close, 
 And keep the flame from wasting by repose : 
 I still had hopes, for pride attends us still, 
 Amidst the swains to show my book-learned skill, 
 Around my fire an evening group to draw. 
 And tell of all I felt, and all I saw ; 
 And, as an hare whom hounds and horns pursue 
 Pants to the place from whence at first she flew, 
 I still had hopes, my long vexations past, 
 Here to return — and die at home at last. 
 
 O blest retirement, friend to life's decline, 
 Retreats from care, that never must be mine, 
 How happy he who crowns in shades like these 
 A youth of labor with an age of ease ; 
 Who quits a world where strong temptations try, 
 And, since 'tis hard to combat, learns to fly ! 
 For him no wretches, born to work and weep. 
 Explore the mine, or tempt the dangerous deep ; 
 No surly porter stands in guilty state. 
 To spurn imploring famine from the gate ; 
 But on he moves to meet his latter end. 
 Angels around befriending virtue's friend ; 
 Bends to the grave with unperceived decay, 
 While resignation gently slopes the way ; 
 
APPENDIX. 259 
 
 And, all his prospects brightening to the last, 
 His heaven commences ere the world be past! 
 
 Sweet was the sound, when oft at evening's close 
 Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. 
 There, as I passed with careless steps and slow, 
 The mingling notes came softened from below ; 
 The swain responsive as the milkmaid sung, 
 The sober herd that lowed to meet their young. 
 The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool. 
 The playful children just let loose from school, 
 The watchdog's voice that bayed the whispering wind, 
 And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ; — 
 These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, 
 And filled each pause the nightingale had made. 
 But now the sounds of population fail, 
 No cheerful murmurs fluctuate in the gale. 
 No busy steps the grass-grown footway tread, 
 For all the bloomy flush of life is fled. 
 All but yon widowed, solitary thing, 
 That feebly bends beside the plashy spring : 
 She, wretched matron, forced in age, for bread, 
 To strip the brook with mantling cresses spread, 
 To pick her wintry fagot from the thorn. 
 To seek her nightly shed, and weep till morn ; 
 She only left of all the harmless train. 
 The sad historian of the pensive plain. 
 
 Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled. 
 And still where many a garden flower grows wild ; 
 There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. 
 The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 
 A man he was to all the country dear, 
 And passing rich with forty pounds a year ; 
 Remote from towns he ran his godly race. 
 Nor e'er had changed, nor wished to change his place ; 
 Unpracticed he to fawn, or seek for power, 
 By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour ; 
 Far other aims his heart had learned to prize, 
 More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise. 
 His house was known to all the vagrant train , 
 He chid their wanderings but relieved their pain : 
 
26o SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 The long remembered beggar was his guest, 
 Whose beard descending swept his aged breast ; 
 The ruined spendthrift, now no longer proud. 
 Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowed ; 
 The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, 
 Sat by his fire, and talked the night away. 
 Wept o'er his wounds or tales of sorrow done. 
 Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won. 
 Pleased with his guests, the good man learned to glow, 
 And quite forgot their vices in their woe ; 
 Careless their merits or their faults to scan. 
 His pity gave ere charity began. 
 
 Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride, 
 And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side ; 
 But in his duty prompt at every call. 
 He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all ; 
 And, as a bird each fond endearment tries 
 To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies, 
 He tried each art, reproved each dull delay. 
 Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. 
 
 Beside the bed where parting life was laid. 
 And sorrow, guilt, and pain by turns dismayed. 
 The reverend champion stood. At his control 
 Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul ; 
 Comfort came down the trembling wretch to raise, 
 And his last faltering accents whispered praise. 
 
 At church, with meek and unaflected grace. 
 His looks adorned the venerable place ; 
 Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, 
 And fools, who came to scoif, remained to pray. 
 The service past, around the pious man, 
 With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran ; 
 Even children followed with endearing wile. 
 And plucked his gown to share the good man's smile. 
 His ready smile a parent's warmth exprest ; 
 Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distrest : 
 To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, 
 But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven. 
 As some tall cliff" that lifts its awful form. 
 Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, 
 
APPENDIX. 261 
 
 Tho' round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, 
 Eternal sunshine settles on its head. 
 
 Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, 
 With blossom'd furze unprofitably gay, 
 There, in his noisy mansion, skilFd to rule. 
 The village master taught his little school. 
 A man severe he was, and stern to view ; 
 I knew him well, and every truant knew : 
 Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace 
 The day's disasters in his morning face ; 
 Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee 
 At all his jokes, for many a joke had he ; 
 Full well the busy whisper circling round 
 Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned. 
 Yet he was kind, or, if severe in aught. 
 The love he bore to learning was in fault ; 
 The village all declared how much he knew : 
 'Twas certain he could write, and cipher too ; 
 Lands he could measure, terms and tides presage, 
 And even the story ran that he could gauge : 
 In arguing, too, the parson owned his skill. 
 For, even tho' vanquished, he could argue still ; 
 While words of learned length and thundering sound 
 Amazed the gazing rustics ranged around ; 
 And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew. 
 That one small head could carry all he knew. 
 
 But past is all his fame. The very spot 
 Where many a time he triumphed is forgot. 
 Near yonder thorn, that lifts its head on high. 
 Where once the sign-post caught the passing eye. 
 Low lies that house where nut-brown draughts inspired, 
 Where gray-beard mirth and smiling toil retired. 
 Where village statesmen talked with looks profound. 
 And news much older than their ale went round. 
 Imagination fondly stoops to trace 
 The parlor splendors of that festive place: 
 The whitewashed wall, the nicely sanded floor. 
 The varnished clock that clicked behind the door ; 
 The chest contrived a double debt to pay, 
 A bed by night, a chest of drawers by day ; 
 
262 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 The pictures placed for ornament and use, 
 The twelve good rules, the royal game of goose ; 
 The hearth, except when winter chilPd the day, 
 With aspen boughs and flowers and fennel gay ; 
 While broken teacups, wisely kept for show, 
 Ranged o'er the chimney, glistened in a row. 
 
 Vain transitory splendors ! could not all 
 Reprieve the tottering mansion from its fall? 
 Obscure it sinks, nor shall it more impart 
 An hour's importance to the poor man's heart. 
 Thither no more the peasant shall repair 
 To sweet oblivion of his daily care ; 
 No more the farmer's news, the barber's tale. 
 No more the woodman's ballad shall prevail ; 
 No more the smith his dusky brow shall clear, 
 Relax his ponderous strength, and lean to hear ; 
 The host himself no longer shall be found 
 Careful to see the mantling bliss go round ; 
 Nor the coy maid, half willing to be prest, 
 Shall kiss the cup to pass it to the rest. 
 
 Yes ! let the rich deride, the proud disdain, 
 These simple blessings of the lowly train ; 
 To me more dear, congenial to my heart. 
 One native charm, than all the gloss of art ; 
 Spontaneous joys, where Nature has its play. 
 The soul adopts, and owns their first-born sway ; 
 Lightly they frolic o'er the vacant mind, 
 Unenvied, unmolested, unconfined. 
 But the long pomp, the midnight masquerade. 
 With all the freaks of wanton wealth arrayed — 
 In these, ere triflers half their wish obtain. 
 The toiling pleasure sickens into pain ; 
 And, e'en while fashion's brightest arts decoy, 
 The heart distrusting asks if this be joy. 
 
 Ye friends to truth, ye statesmen who survey 
 The rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay, 
 'Tis yours to judge, how wide the limits stant 
 Between a splendid and a happy land. 
 Proud swells the tide with loads of freighted ore, 
 And shouting Folly hails them from her shore ; 
 
APPENDIX. 263 
 
 Hoards e'en beyond the miser's wish abound, 
 
 And rich men flock from all the world around. 
 
 Yet count our gains. This wealth is but a name 
 
 That leaves our useful products still the same. 
 
 Not so the loss. The man of wealth and pride 
 
 Takes up a space that many poor supplied ; 
 
 Space for his lake, his park's extended bounds, 
 
 Space for his horses, equipage, and hounds : 
 
 The robe that wraps his limbs in silken sloth 
 
 Has robbed the neighboring fields of half their growth ; 
 
 His seat, where solitary sports are seen, 
 
 Indignant spurns the cottage from the green : 
 
 Around the world each needful product flies, 
 
 For all the luxuries the world supplies ; 
 
 While thus the land adorned for pleasure all 
 
 In barren splendor feebly waits the fall. 
 
 As some fair female unadorned and plain, 
 Secure to please while youth confirms her reign. 
 Slights every borrowed charm that dress supplies, 
 Nor shares with art the triumph of her eyes ; 
 But when those charms are past, for charms are frail, 
 When time advances, and when lovers fail, 
 She then shines forth, solicitous to bless. 
 In all the glaring impotence of dress. 
 Thus fares the land by luxury betrayed : 
 In nature's simplest charms at first arrayed, 
 But verging to decline, its splendors rise ; 
 Its vistas strike, its palaces surprise: 
 While, scourged by famine from the smiling land. 
 The mournful peasant leads his humble band. 
 And while he sinks, without one arm to save. 
 The country blooms — a garden and a grave. 
 
 Where then, ah! where, shall poverty reside, 
 • To 'scape the pressure of contiguous pride? 
 If to some common's fenceless limits strayed 
 He drives his flock to pick the scanty blade. 
 Those fenceless fields the sons of wealth divide, 
 And even the bare-worn common is denied. 
 
 If to the city sped — what waits him there ? 
 To see profusion that he must not share ; 
 
254 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 To see ten thousand baneful arts combined 
 
 To pamper luxury, and thin mankind ; 
 
 To see those joys the sons of pleasure know 
 
 Extorted from his fellow-creature's woe. 
 
 Here while the courtier glitters in brocade, 
 
 There the pale artist plies the sickly trade ; 
 
 Here while the proud their long-drawn pomps display, 
 
 There the black gibbet glooms beside the way. 
 
 The dome where pleasure holds her midnight reign 
 
 Here, richly deckt, admits the gorgeous train : 
 
 Tumultuous grandeur crowds the blazing square, 
 
 The rattling chariots clash, the torches glare. 
 
 Sure scenes like these no troubles e'er annoy ! 
 
 Sure these denote one universal joy ! 
 
 Are these thy serious thoughts ? — Ah, turn thine eyes 
 
 Where the poor houseless shivering female lies. 
 
 She once, perhaps, in village plenty blest, 
 
 Has wept at tales of innocence distrest ; 
 
 Her modest looks the cottage might adorn, 
 
 Sweet as the primrose peeps beneath the thorn : 
 
 Now lost to all ; her friends, her virtue fled, 
 
 Near her betrayer's door she lays her head. 
 
 And, pinch'd with cold, and shrinking from the shower, 
 
 With heavy heart deplores that luckless hour, 
 
 When idly first, ambitious of the town. 
 
 She left her wheel and robes of country brown. 
 
 Do thine, sweet Auburn, — thine, the loveliest train, — 
 Do thy fair tribes participate her pain ? 
 Even now, perhaps, by cold and hunger led. 
 At proud men's doors they ask a little bread ! 
 
 Ah, no ! To distant climes, a dreary scene, 
 Where half the convex world intrudes between. 
 Through torrid tracks with fainting steps they go, 
 Where wild Altama murmurs to their woe. 
 Far different there from all that charm'd before 
 The various terrors of that horrid shore ; 
 Those blazing suns that dart a downward ray, 
 And fiercely shed intolerable day ; 
 Those matted woods, where birds forget to sing, 
 But silent bats in drowsy clusters cling ; 
 
APPENDIX. 265 
 
 Those poisonous fields with rank luxuriance crowned, 
 Where the dark scorpion gathers death around ; 
 Where at each step the stranger fears to wake 
 The rattling terrors of the vengeful snake ; 
 Where crouching tigers wait their hapless prey, 
 And savage men more murderous still than they ; 
 While oft in whirls the mad tornado flies, 
 Mingling the ravaged landscape with the skies. 
 Far different these from every former scene, 
 The cooling brook, the grassy-vested green, 
 The breezy covert of the warbling grove, 
 That only sheltered thefts of harmless love. 
 
 Good Heaven! what sorrows gloom'd that parting day, 
 That called them from their native walks away ; 
 When the poor exiles, every pleasure past, 
 Hung round the bowers, and fondly looked their last 
 And took a long farewell, and wished in vain 
 For seats like these beyond the western main, 
 And shuddering still to face the distant deep. 
 Returned and wept, and still returned to weep. 
 The good old sire the first prepared to go 
 To new-found worlds, and wept for others' woe ; 
 But for himself, in conscious virtue brave. 
 He only wished for worlds beyond the grave. 
 His lovely daughter, lovelier in her tears. 
 The fond companion of his helpless years, 
 Silent went next, neglectful of her charms, 
 And left a lover's for a father's arms. 
 With louder plaints the mother spoke her woes, 
 And bless'd the cot where every pleasure rose. 
 And kiss'd her thoughtless babes with many a tear, 
 And clasp'd them close, in sorrow doubly dear, 
 Whilst her fond husband strove to lend relief 
 In all the silent manliness of grief. 
 
 O Luxury! thou curst by Heaven's decree, 
 How ill exchanged are things like these for thee 
 How do thy potions, with insidious joy. 
 Diffuse their pleasure only to destroy ! 
 Kingdoms by thee, to sickly greatness grown, 
 Boast of a florid vigor not their own. 
 
266 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 At every draught more large and large they grow, 
 A bloated mass of rank unwieldy woe ; 
 Till sapped their strength, and every part unsound, 
 Down, down they sink, and spread a ruin round. 
 
 Even now the devastation is begun, 
 And half the business of destruction done ; 
 Even now, methinks, as pondering here I stand, 
 I see the rural virtues leave the land. 
 Down where yon anchoring vessel spreads the sail, 
 That. idly waiting flaps with every gale. 
 Downward they move, a melancholy band. 
 Pass from the shore, and darken all the strand. 
 Contented toil, and hospitable care, 
 And kind connubial tenderness, are there ; 
 And piety with wishes placed above. 
 And steady loyalty, and faithful love. 
 And thou, sweet poetry, thou loveliest maid, 
 Still first to fly where sensual joys invade ; 
 Unfit in these degenerate times of shame 
 To catch the heart, or strike for honest fame ; 
 Dear charming nymph, neglected and decried. 
 My shame in crowds, my solitary pride ; 
 Thou source of all my bliss, and all my woe, 
 That found'st me poor at first, and keep'st me so ; 
 Thou guide by which the nobler arts excel, 
 Thou nurse of every virtue, fare thee well! 
 Farewell, and Oh ! where'er thy voice be tried, 
 On Torno's cliffs, or Pambamarca's side, 
 Whether where equinoctial fervors glow. 
 Or winter wraps the polar world in snow. 
 Still let thy voice, prevailing over time. 
 Redress the rigors of the inclement clime ; 
 Aid slighted truth with thy persuasive strain ; 
 Teach erring man to spurn the rage of gain ; 
 Teach him, that states of native strength possest, 
 Tho' very poor, may still be very blest ; 
 That trade's proud empire hastes to swift decay. 
 As ocean sweeps the labored mole away ; 
 While self-dependent power can time defy, 
 As rocks resist the billows and the sky. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 A 66 
 
 Abstract i88 
 
 Address i66 
 
 Adjectives 63-65 
 
 unnecessary 94 
 
 Adverbs 65 
 
 Agricola 241 
 
 Alchemy 31 
 
 Alembic 31 
 
 Alfred, King 247 
 
 Algebra 31 
 
 All 
 
 67 
 
 Allegory 124 
 
 Allied words 23 
 
 Altruism 14 
 
 Ambiguity 79 
 
 An 
 
 66 
 
 Analysis 52 
 
 Angles 240 
 
 Anglo-Norman period 257 
 
 Anglo-Saxon 243 
 
 derivatives 26 
 
 element in English 25 
 
 foundation of English 244 
 
 inflections 244 
 
 literature 247 
 
 period 249 
 
 relation of, to Norman-French 251 
 
 specimen of 245 
 
 strength in 95 
 
 Antecedent 19 
 
 Antecedent 78 
 
 Anti-climax 98 
 
 Antithesis loi 
 
 Any 67 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Anybody 57 
 
 Any one 57 
 
 Apostrophe, figure of speech 132 
 
 in possessive case 55, 234 
 
 Argument 212 
 
 chain of 217 
 
 Armadillo 31 
 
 Article 66 
 
 Artificial methods 209 
 
 Aryan languages 22 
 
 Ashame 14 
 
 Ashby .> 30 
 
 Augustine 246 
 
 Authority for use of words '. . 13 
 
 Auxiliaries 45, 62 
 
 Axis 51 
 
 Ballast 31 
 
 Bamboo 31 
 
 Bandanna 31 
 
 Basis 51 
 
 Basket 30 
 
 Beef 43 
 
 Benison 29 
 
 " Beowulf" 247 
 
 Bernicia 243 
 
 Biography 19 
 
 Blotting paper 162 
 
 Body 43 
 
 Books, essay subjects from 208 
 
 Boom 31 
 
 Both 67 
 
 Bow 30 
 
 Boy 44 
 
 Brackets 232 
 
 267 
 
268 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bravado 31 
 
 Britons 241 
 
 Brogue 30 
 
 Brother 23 
 
 Bulldoze 14 
 
 Bust 31 
 
 But 68 
 
 -by 30 
 
 Caitiff 29 
 
 Calf 43 
 
 Can 45. 62 
 
 Capitals 234-236 
 
 in letters 169 
 
 Caprice, capricious 32 
 
 Carefulness 161, 210 
 
 Carelessness 17 
 
 Cartoon 31 
 
 Celtic element 30 
 
 languages 246 
 
 Celts 241 
 
 Certain 45 
 
 Chain of argument 217 
 
 Change 28 
 
 Change of subject 81 
 
 Changes in meaning of words .... 20 
 
 Chant 28 
 
 Charles the Simple 249 
 
 Chaucer 253 
 
 Choice of words 95-97 
 
 Choosing a subject 204 
 
 Chronicles 247 
 
 Chrysalis 52 
 
 Church Latin 246 
 
 Clan 30 
 
 Clauses, punctuation of 224 
 
 Clearness 75-91 
 
 from figures of speech 120, 154 
 
 Climax 98 
 
 Cognate words 23 
 
 Coin 28 
 
 Coined words 36 
 
 Colon 219, 229 
 
 Comma 219, 222-228 
 
 Commerce 254 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Common ground 215 
 
 Comparative degree 63 
 
 Compare 40 
 
 Complex sentence 221 
 
 Complimentary close 166, 167 
 
 Composition 159-239 
 
 difficulties in 159, 175 
 
 exercises in 10 
 
 Compound sentence 221 
 
 punctuation of 225, 228 
 
 Conclusion 210, 216 
 
 Condensation 188 
 
 Conjunctions 69 
 
 Contrast 134 
 
 Conversion of Britain 246 
 
 Copy of letters 172 
 
 Cornish 243 
 
 Corpse 43 
 
 Correction of errors 10 
 
 in construction 50-74 
 
 in use of words 35-49 
 
 Crank , 14 
 
 Crisis 51 
 
 Danish Conquest 247 
 
 Dash 231 
 
 Debate 212-217 
 
 Declarative sentences 220 
 
 Definitions 17-19 
 
 Deira 243 
 
 " Deor's Complaint " 247 
 
 Depbt 31 
 
 Derivation 16, 32 
 
 Derived words 23 
 
 Description 192-201 
 
 Devil 28 
 
 Diacritical marks 15 
 
 Diaresis 52 
 
 Diction 35 
 
 Dictionary 13 
 
 information in 37 
 
 Difficulties in composition work. . 159 
 
 Direction 166, 168 
 
 Discover 39 
 
 Domesticated words 51 
 
INDEX. 
 
 269 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Each 57 
 
 E^st Anglia 243 
 
 Effluvium 51 
 
 Either 57. 67 
 
 Elements of English language 23 
 
 Ellipsis 227 
 
 English, classics 12 
 
 language, elements of 23 
 
 language, history of 240 
 
 middle 251 
 
 modern 253 
 
 old 251, 252 
 
 transition 251 
 
 words 13-34 
 
 Epigram 137 
 
 Errors. See Correction of Errors. 
 
 in the use of figures 152 
 
 Essays 203-211 
 
 Essay writing, necessary 175 
 
 Essex 243 
 
 Etymology 19-23 
 
 Etymology 30 
 
 Everybody 57 
 
 Exclamation point 219, 231 
 
 Exclamatory sentences 102, 221 
 
 Expire 19 
 
 Extracts, exercises from 175-191 
 
 Fail 28 
 
 Famine 28 
 
 Farther 44 
 
 Fashion 29 
 
 Figures of speech 1 19-15 1 
 
 errors in 152-157 
 
 trite 155 
 
 First 67 
 
 Force 91-103 
 
 in figures of speech 120, 154 
 
 Foreign languages, study of 31 
 
 words 38 
 
 words, plural of 51 
 
 Former 67 
 
 Frail 29 
 
 Franks 249 
 
 Fraternal 23 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Frigu 240 
 
 Further 44 
 
 Gaelic ar^ 
 
 Galleon 31 
 
 Gathering information 201/ 
 
 Gauls 248 
 
 Genius 51 
 
 Genus 5I 
 
 Germanic group 240 
 
 Glen 30 
 
 G )od style 75 
 
 use 13 
 
 Grammar and punctuation 220 
 
 and rhetoric 50 
 
 twenty rules of 51 
 
 Grammatical terms 220 
 
 Greek element 29 
 
 words in English 254 
 
 words in Latin 29 
 
 Grime 30 
 
 Hardly 68 
 
 Harmony 91-106 
 
 Heading 166 
 
 History, exercises from 189 
 
 Honesty in work 211 
 
 Hyperbole 133 
 
 Hyphen 233 
 
 Hypothesis 52 
 
 Imperative sentences 221 
 
 Improprieties 39 
 
 Indefinite pronouns 67 
 
 Indo-European language 21 
 
 Infinitive mood 61 
 
 Information, for essays 176 
 
 gathering 206 
 
 Ink 162 
 
 Interrogation point 219, 230 
 
 Interrogative sentences 102, 220 
 
 Introduction 210 
 
 Invent 39 
 
 Inversion 101 
 
 Irony 134 
 
270 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Jaspar 31 
 
 Julius Caesar 241 
 
 Jutes 240 
 
 Kent 243 
 
 King Alfred 247 
 
 Lad 30, 44 
 
 Lasso 31 
 
 Last 67 
 
 Latin element 27 
 
 words 245, 251 
 
 Latter 67 
 
 Letter writing 163-174 
 
 Like 69 
 
 Logic 213 
 
 Long sentences 50 
 
 words 95 
 
 Loose sentence 99 
 
 Lunatic 16 
 
 Luxuriously 39 
 
 Major premise 216 
 
 Mango 31 
 
 Manx 243 
 
 Many a one 57 
 
 Marry 28 
 
 Maxifnum 52 
 
 May 45, 162 
 
 Mercia 243 
 
 Metamorphosis 52 
 
 Metaphor 122 
 
 Metaphors, mixed 154 
 
 worn out 155 
 
 Method employed 10 
 
 Metonymy 130 
 
 Middle English 251 
 
 Mile 27 
 
 Milton's vocabulary 24 
 
 Mininmm 52 
 
 Minor premise 216 
 
 Mint 28 
 
 Miscellaneous element 30 
 
 Misrepresentation 214 
 
 Modern English 253 
 
 Modifiers 'j'j 
 
 Monosyllables 96 
 
 • 43 
 
 Mutton 
 
 Narration 201 
 
 Naturalness 159 
 
 Neatness 161 
 
 Nebula 52 
 
 Neither 57, 67 
 
 None 57, 67 
 
 Norman Conquest 249 
 
 Normandy 249 
 
 Norman-French 248 
 
 in English 28 
 
 Normans in England 250 
 
 Norse element 30 
 
 Northmen 249 
 
 Northumbria 243 
 
 literature of 247 
 
 Oasis 52 
 
 Object, rule for 54 
 
 Observation, power of 192 
 
 Old English 251, 252 
 
 Omission of words 79 
 
 One 57, 67 
 
 Only 68, 77 
 
 Order of words 98 
 
 Originality 152 
 
 Orn 14 
 
 Outline 208 
 
 Ox 43 
 
 Parables 128 
 
 Paragraph 107, 234 
 
 Parentheses 232 
 
 Parenthesis .'. 52 
 
 Parenthetical clauses 81 
 
 Pauses 218 
 
 Perceive 28 
 
 Period 219, 230 
 
 Periodic sentence (period) 99 
 
 Personification 128 
 
 Phenomenon 52 
 
 Philology ax 
 
INDEX. 
 
 27J 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Philosophy 30 
 
 Phrases 221 
 
 punctuation of 224 
 
 Picts 242 
 
 Pleasure in work 204 
 
 Polite 32 
 
 Poor 29 
 
 Pork 43 
 
 Port 16 
 
 Possessive case 55> S6 
 
 Potato 31 
 
 Pound 28 
 
 Precision 41-47 
 
 Predicate, case of 53 
 
 definition of 220 
 
 Prepositions 40, 68 
 
 Prestige 31 
 
 Prevent 20 
 
 Priest 28 
 
 Pronouns 57 
 
 position of 78 
 
 possessive case of 55 
 
 Pronunciation 15 
 
 Propriety 39-41 
 
 Punch 31 
 
 Punctuation 218-234 
 
 clearness from 78 
 
 of letters 166-169 
 
 Purists 36 
 
 Purity 35-39 
 
 Quotation marks 232 
 
 Quotations, punctuation of 226, 229 
 
 Quoting 211 
 
 Ranch 31 
 
 Rank of punctuation points 219 
 
 Ransack 30 
 
 Ray 29 
 
 Reading 11 
 
 Redundancy 94 
 
 Reef 31 
 
 Relative clauses, punctuation of . . 225 
 
 Relatives 69 
 
 Repetition 92, 104 
 
 PAG» 
 
 Reproduction 177 
 
 Resemblance 12a 
 
 too remote 154 
 
 Restrictive clauses 225 
 
 Rhetoric 30 
 
 Rhetoric x »-i58 
 
 and grammar 50 
 
 object in studying - 9 
 
 Rivals 33 
 
 Rolf 249 
 
 Roman conquest of Britain 241 
 
 Romans in Britain 246 
 
 Royal 28 
 
 Ruffian 31 
 
 Rugby 30 
 
 Salutation 166, 767 
 
 Saxon Conquest 241 
 
 Saxons 24a 
 
 Scandinavian element 30 
 
 words 248 
 
 School essays 205 
 
 Scots 24X 
 
 Scratch iH 
 
 Screech 3^ 
 
 Semicolon 219, 22? 
 
 Sentence 22<r 
 
 exclamatory 10? 
 
 interrogative 109 
 
 loose o 99 
 
 periodic 99 
 
 rule 70 
 
 Shakespeare's vocabulary 24 
 
 Shall 45, 62 
 
 Shame 14 
 
 Sheep 43 
 
 Short sentences 50 
 
 words 95 
 
 Should 45. 63 
 
 Signature 166, i63 
 
 Simile 120 
 
 Simple language 197 
 
 sentence 221 
 
 Slang yt 
 
 expressions ,.,.., i^ 
 
2/2 
 
 SCHOOL ENGLISH. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sloop 31 
 
 Smoothness 105 
 
 Soiree 31 
 
 Somebody 57 
 
 Something -. 57 
 
 Somnambulist 19 
 
 Sound, disagreeable 106 
 
 Specific terms 80 
 
 Spelling 161 
 
 Standard authors, usage of 13 
 
 Stimulus 52 
 
 Style 75 
 
 Subject 59 
 
 for essays 203 
 
 rule for 52 
 
 Subordinate clauses 60 
 
 Substitution , 182 
 
 Summary 217 
 
 Superlative degree 63 
 
 Superscription 166, 168 
 
 Supplementary clauses 99 
 
 Sure 45 
 
 Swiftly 18 
 
 Swine 43 
 
 Syllogism 216 
 
 Synecdoche 131 
 
 Synonyms 41 
 
 Synthesis 52 
 
 Taboo 31 
 
 Taste in choice of words 37 
 
 Tautology , 94 
 
 Telegraph 29 
 
 Telephone .* 29 
 
 Tenses 60 
 
 Terminus 52 
 
 Teutonic group ._. 240 
 
 That 70 
 
 Thesis 52 
 
 Thor 240 
 
 Thoughts for essays 177 
 
 Titles, punctuation of 233 
 
 To 61 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tobacco 31 
 
 Toddy 31 
 
 Transition period 251 
 
 Translation 189 
 
 " Traveler's Song " 247 
 
 Trench, " Study of Words " 33 
 
 Tribulation 16, 33 
 
 Tropes 120 
 
 Unity 80 
 
 Unnecessary words 93-95 
 
 Urbane 32 
 
 Valor 17 
 
 Veal 43 
 
 Verbosity 95 
 
 Verbs 59-62 
 
 Vertebra 52 
 
 Welsh 243 
 
 Wessex 243 
 
 West Saxons 243 
 
 Whisky 30 
 
 Whitby 30 
 
 Wiclifs translation 96 
 
 Wigwam 31 
 
 Will 45,62 
 
 William, Duke of Normandy 249 
 
 Woden 240 
 
 Wordiness 95 
 
 Words, borrowed 36 
 
 choice of 95 
 
 English 13-34 
 
 in same construction 223 
 
 long 95 
 
 of nearly the same meaning. . . 44 
 
 order of 98 
 
 originally of one meaning 43 
 
 short 95 
 
 standing of 37 
 
 unnecessary 93-95 
 
 Worriting 14 
 
 Would 45-62 
 
VB 36439 
 
 '^ . il^u 
 
 54! ;70 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY 
 
■rM.