;ivj'l iVM' '* t y. .■ ■ BMSt \M\ i! BHH U ■■■ (ihhl !' H hbh ml til —■I IS THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL BY ARTHUR C. PERRY, Jr., Ph.D. DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS NEW YORK CITY AUTHOR OF "PROBLEMS OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL," "OUTLINES OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION," " THE STATUS OF THE TEACHER," "DISCIPLINE AS A SCHOOL PROBLEM," ETC, REVISED EDITION Nefo gotfc THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1919 All rights reserved Copyright, 1908, 1919, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electro typed. Published March, 1919. « • e . «J ; • • • «/ « , 1 « « e • • « 4 t t 1 Notfoooto $r«« J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE Prior to 1908 there was no book on School Management that treated specifically the adminis- tration of a city school; there were, in fact, very few books that even distinguished between school management and class management. In that year the author's The Management of a City School was published, the first volume to deal exclusively with the specific problems confronting the principal of a city school. The gracious reception accorded the book has prompted the author, at the end of a decade, to undertake a complete revision. The plan of organization of the original edition has been retained; but the text has been liberally reappor- tioned and supplemented, the citations brought to date, and bold-faced topical headings introduced. It is hoped that the book may continue to interest those charged with the responsibility of managing schools, those preparing themselves for adminis- trative positions, and the teaching profession generally, and that, in its new form, it may render an increasingly helpful service. V 4 VI PREFACE The author wishes that it were practicable to name all those who ha,ve aided and inspired him in his study of school administration, and more particularly in the present work of revision, but that is rendered impossible by the fact that they are legion — associates in the practical work-a-day affairs of a city school system, teacher-students eagerly responsive in the lecture-room, and thinkers and doers in the profession everywhere. He must, therefore, content himself with acknowledging, thus broadly, his obligation, a debt none the less real and none the less appreciated. CONTENTS IAPTER PAGE I. Introduction . . i School management, i ; The city school, 2 ; System, 4 ; Official relationships, 5. II. The Principal and the State .... 8 Twofold relation, 8 ; General relation, 9 ; General obligations, 13 ; Special relation, 20 ; Contractual obligations, 21 ; Legal status, 25. . III. The Principal and the Public . . . .32 Parents, 32; Cooperation," 34; Correspond- ence, 53 ; Interviews, 59 ; Self-seekers, 65. IV. The Principal and the Authorities ... 69 Three authorities, 70 ; Principles of supervision, 76 ; Improper supervision, 81 ; Interpreting orders, 84. V. The Principal and the Teachers ... 88 Ideal teacher, 89 ; Assigning, 91 ; Relation, 93 ; New teacher, 94; Three kinds of teacher, 98; Teacher's authority, 102 ; Instructing, 104 ; Con- ference, 108; Course of study, in; Term's work, 112; Plan and progress records, 113; Daily time schedule, 118; Uniform methods, 124; Correla- tion, 125 ; Quality of work, 125 ; Model lessons, 129 ; Rating, 133 ; Substitutes, 141 ; Special teachers, 146 ; Assistants, 147. VI. The Principal and the Pupils: The Material Equipment 152 School building, 153 ; Heating and ventilation, 157; Supplies, 160; Decoration, 174. vii viii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE VII. The Principal and the Pupils' Physical Wel- fare 181 General responsibility, 181 ; Entrance and txit, 193 ; Physical care, 203. VIII. The Principal and the Pupils' Scholastic Progress 230 Admission, 230; Grading, 231; Grouping, 233; Departmental plan, 240; Rating, 250; Promo- tion, 256; Classroom work, 266; Standards and tests, 273 ; Three kinds of tests, 284. IX. The Principal and the Pupils' Moral Develop- ment 307 Discipline, 307 ; General principles, 309 ; Specific methods, 319; Teachers as disciplinarians, 320; Teacher's personality, 320; Specific cautions, 322; Specific aids, 328; Principal as disciplinarian, 331; School spirit, 332 ; Preventive measures, 349; Prin- cipal's legal responsibility, 361. X. The Principal and the Principalship . . 387 Qualifications, 387 ; Adjustment to position, 399 ; * Personal growth, 402 ; The principalship, 404. Appendix 413 Examination questions in "School Management." Index 427 Index of Names 433 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION School management. The states of the United States are a unit in decreeing that the establishment and maintenance of a system of public schools is a necessary function of modern government. The State administers its school system through a State department. It clelegates local administration to trustees, school boards, boards of education, etc., each directing the schools of a local unit. From these lay officers, in turn, is transferred the function of actual supervision of the schools to a technically equipped superintendent. From the superintendent is delegated the detailed administration of a single school, or group of schools, to the principal. The principal manages his school with the aid of the teachers, each of whom manages her class. Thus school administration divides itself into (i) school 2>. : Mritfc: •MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL • ..«•..•. « # . : ; ..: ••■• * ## * direction, by the school boards; (2) school super- vision, by the superintendents ; (3) school manage- ment, by the principals ; and (4) class management, by the teachers. This book concerns itself specifi- cally with the third of these departments of ad- ministration. Two attractive temptations have been resisted: to reach up into the problems of the school superintendent, and to reach down into the detail of the work of the class teacher. A discussion of the broader questions of school administration — such as the financing of systems, the coordination of schools, the functions of school boards, the construction of courses of study — would be interest- ing. But these are outside the range of the principal's daily work, and moreover they have already elicited an extensive and valuable literature which is at the com- mand of the thoughtful principal. The same may be said of the more intimate problems of the class teacher. What has been attempted is a statement of the more important principles which should guide the principal in the administration of his school. The city school. The conditions assumed are those which confront the principal of the city public school of elementary grade. The district school of a class or two, or the town school of four or five rooms with a teacher in charge, does not measurably INTRODUCTION 3 present the problems here considered. 1 But to the principal of from ten to one hundred classes, 2 en- 1 In a few cities there are duplicate or double-session schools, as a rule the result of failure to provide enough buildings to keep pace with increase in pupil enrollment. The enrollment in excess of normal seating capacity is provided for by having pupils attend in double shift. If classrooms only were used the school day would extend to ten hours in order that each of the two relays of pupils should have five hours. As this would necessitate working pupils too early in the day, or too late, or both, recourse is had to a program which utilizes auditoriums, playrooms, and playgrounds for mass activities. By working the whole plant to the limit, re- gardless of pedagogic considerations, the day can be shortened to seven or eight hours. The principal of a duplicate school meets many difficulties of administration peculiar to that type of organization. His special problems are not considered in this volume, however, because of the comparatively insignificant number of duplicate schools and because of their transitory character. Virtually no city adminis- tration, it would seem, would now dare commit itself to a parsi- monious program of establishing a makeshift duplicate school as its permanent ideal, and virtually no educational adminis- trator would claim that a duplicate school has inherent advantages impossible of attainment in a non-duplicate organization. 2 In this book, Grade is applied to a group of pupils doing the same level of work ; the grades are designated by numbers indicat- ing the pupil's year in school, with a literal suffix indicating the first or second half of the year, the successive grades being 1 A, iB, 2 A, 2B, 3 A, etc. Class is applied to the group of pupils under a single teacher, in a single room. Thus, in a large school, there may be two or more classes of any one grade, or in a small school two or more grades in one class. 4 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL rolling from 400 to 5000 pupils, there are continually presented perplexing problems which demand ma- ture thought and keen judgment. Of recent years there has been a tendency to place in the hands of a single principal a school or schools so large as to demand the ability and energy of a veritable " cap- tain of industry." It is not in order to discuss the advantages or disadvantages of the passing of the old-time school master and the advent of the modern school manager. It is sufficient to realize that such a transition is taking place, and to examine into the requirements of the new position. Frequent citations from the by-laws of the school boards of various cities are given to illustrate practice in respect to details of management. The figures following each reference indicate article, paragraph, section, etc., without specifying the title of the document — by-laws, rules, regulations — employed in that particular city. System. The principal of to-day must apply the same business principles to the handling of the business side of his school as are employed by any other manager of large interests. In order to exert the full measure of his influence, he must do his work systematically, accurately, and promptly. He must even be prepared to face the charge of INTRODUCTION 5 the jealous, the misunderstanding, or the incapable, of being too systematic. " Red-tape " will be the indefinite accusation. Red-tape, however, is un- justifiable system. System should be merely a means to worthy ends; never regarded as the end itself. When a system ceases to simplify and pro- mote efficiency, it becomes red-tape. When a system is followed for itself and not for what it can do, it becomes red-tape. Whenever system becomes red-tape it should be abandoned. If system along any line simplifies the work of the principal and thus conserves his energy, leaving him more to put into the professional side of his work, he should adopt it. Throughout these pages, systematic treatment of the various phases of ad- ministration is recommended, not because the par- ticular methods cited are unique or the best, but because they have tried advantages and may suitably serve as suggestions. With topics which permit of difference of opinion the aim has been to present both sides of the ques- tion with equal fullness and with sufficient sub- mergence of possible personal bias. Official relationships. The school here under discussion is but a part of a city or town system of 6 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL public education. The principal is thus brought into relation with higher authorities, — a School Board, a Superintendent, perhaps a Board of Super- intendents. Hence we must look into this relation- ship, which is done under the caption " The Principal and the Authorities.' ■ At his other hand are the principal's coworkers, the teachers. Upon the relationship which he establishes with them will his success in large measure depend ; therefore a chapter is devoted to this topic. Throughout the book I refer, for the sake of clearness, to the principal as he and the teacher as she, though I am not unmindful that there are many women principals and many men teachers in our schools. The reader will please not to take exception to the arbitrary selection of pronouns, but accept it as a simple convenience. In addition to these relationships there must be considered the relation of the principal to the legal entity, the State, and to the more concrete public which comes daily into his office on various errands, many legitimate and sincere, but alas! too many others mercenary or meddling. It is not to be forgotten, however, that the very existence and maintenance of the schools is in behalf ] of the pupils ; and the matters of detail growing out. INTRODUCTION 7 of the principal's daily responsibility for the welfare of the children under his charge demand extended treatment. The ultimate element of success in a principal's career is, after all, the principal himself. It will be his personality, his attitude toward duty and progress, that will make or mar his school. Hence the con- cluding chapter will consider the Principal and the Principalship. CHAPTER II THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE Public control of schools. The State, through its departments of education, lecture bureaus, public libraries, museums, and other institutions, gives a broad definition to the phrase " a system of public education " ; but to the average citizen the word education is limited in its application to his and his neighbor's children, and in its content to their formal instruction in the public school. It is the relation to the State of the administrative officer of a public school known locally by various titles, but most frequently by that of Principal, that com- mands our present attention. Two relations of the principal to his work. At the outset we must distinguish between two fundamental relations which the principal bears to his work, to confuse which is hopelessly to cloud discussion. The principal's twofold relation is, on the one hand, broad and general; on the other, narrow and specific. {His general relation is ill defined THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 9 because it concerns his obligations to society as a whole; his specific relation is well defined because he is under contract as an agent of organized gov- ernment. ~Ar: The principal's general relation. The prin- cipal's general relation to his work rests upon the fact that he is a professional man owing service to organic society in return for the benefits accruing from membership in the organized social group. The questionable epigram that "all men are created equal" has served noble purpose in its time. It has, however, given place in the public mind to a series of ideas which may probably be fairly expressed thus : it might be a comfortable though monotonous condition if all men were born free and equal ; they are not, and human ingenuity cannot reasonably expect to create this condi- tion ; we do not despair of the amelioration of present conditions ; we hope, not that every man shall be born into the world with equal equipment of body, mind, and material possessions, but that every man shall have a free and unhampered opportunity to make the most of such natural equipment as is his. When equal freedom and opportunity do become the heritage of all members of society, then presumably their obligations will be distributed equally. In the mean- while, taxes are levied in proportion to a man's wealth, — at least, that is the aim. When society has paid the io THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL laborer his dollar a day for digging a ditch, it considers the account practically closed ; if there were no " society," the laborer, alone in the forest, could by the output of equivalent labor support himself approximately a "dol- lar's worth." When society has paid the manufacturer a million dollars a year for supplying it with the products of his mill, it considers the account still open ; if there were no "society," the manufacturer, alone in the forest, could never, by the output of any conceivable labor, support himself a "million dollars' worth." Hence society says to the millionaire : You must make an extra return to us for the opportunity which by our very exist- ence we have given you to accumulate dollars. Many millionaires, themselves, recognizing the justice of so- ciety's claim, make voluntary payments far in excess of the formal taxes imposed. 1 The professions. Society is more and more urgently claiming the right to levy taxes not only upon the material wealth of its members but upon their mental and moral wealth as well. There are certain classes of persons upon whom this non- monetary tax falls heaviest, namely, the workers in the professions. Once limited to law, medicine, and theology, the present-day conservative use of the word profession is indicated by the Standard's 1 See Gerald S. Lee, Inspired Millionaires \ for development of the idea of a million dollars as an art form. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE n definition : an occupation that properly involves a liberal education or its equivalent, and mental rather than manual labor. A liberal education is a form of opportunity provided by society ; in return, society demands a general though not very sharply defined service from the members of the professions in addition to the specific services for which its individuals are paid by contract.. In its limited concept the idea takes concrete expression in the expectation that the physician shall serve in an emergency without preliminary stipulation as to his fee, that the clergyman shall respond to a | call " outside his own church, that the lawyer shall not instigate litigation for the sake of profiting by its settlement. The thought has, however, a broader and still more ideal content. The physician has his specific relation to his profession. With his individual patients he is virtually under con- tract to render a certain amount of service for a given financial reward. But he also has a general relation. Society demands of him that he shall use his liberal edu- cation along his special lines for the general good. He is expected to aid in the advance of medical science and to give his discoveries freely to society as a whole ; he is expected to advise society as to legislative measures necessary to its physical well-being and to agitate for 12 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL their enactment; indeed, he is expected to immolate his self-interest to the extent of so bettering conditions generally that he will be less needed specifically. 1 The pastor or priest has his specific contractual rela- tion to his church. But when his special duties toward his parishioners have all been performed, society still asks that he recognize and discharge his general obliga- tion. As the representatives of the institution whose aim is to lead in the paths of righteousness, the clergy are expected to advance the moral health of society just as the physicians are expected to protect and advance its bodily health. Similarly, the lawyer has a broader obligation than is implied by his contractual relation with his clients. In addition to meeting the specific demands of his profes- sion, he is expected to contribute freely of his learning toward civic progress and the betterment of organized government. 2 Teaching as a profession. A parallel to the three traditional professions is teaching. In proportion as the school man is liberally educated, society imposes 1 For instance, it is the physicians who see that our houses are disinfected after a case of contagious disease, notwithstanding that it might be, in a narrow sense, more profitable to them if they kept this secret to themselves. 2 Witness the fact that society "honors" one form of this service to the extent that a lawyer will gladly relinquish a $20,000 practice for a $10,000 judgeship. Also, note the influence of Bar Associations upon judiciary elections. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 13 upon him an extra-contractual obligation. 1 The president of any of our great universities, for ex- ample, obtains a general survey of the educational world and its needs, and thus gains a specialized equipment which it is his duty to use in public service. His specific duties toward his institution are performed on a definite basis of service rendered for cash paid. Yet such a baldly commercial state- ment must shock even a callous reader. The devoted service of many a college president to thousands of individuals and to society as a whole is immeasurably larger than the financial return which society gives him. It is the difference between the two norms that measures the " general " obliga- tion which he has fulfilled, based upon his liberal education and his membership in a profession — that is, upon opportunity. The principal's general obligations. All men are not created equal and all men are not created even with the same opportunity. It is not given to every lawyer to sit upon the Supreme Court bench, nor to 1 A crude though very concrete illustration is the way in which any teacher, especially in rural districts, is pursued by people who have no contractual claim upon him, and plied with intellectual puzzles, for the solution of which he, ex officio, is supposed to be especially responsible. 14 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL every physician to make a revolutionizing discovery, nor to every clergyman to initiate some great reform, nor to every educator to guide a university ; never- theless, every professional man, in proportion to his opportunity, has his own " general " obligation. And this brings us to the school principal. The education of the average principal is probably as " liberal " as that of the average lawyer, physician, or minister. Hence his general obligations are cor- respondingly great, and follow four main lines. i. To secure recognition of teaching as a profession. In any American community the " liberally " educated men are to be found chiefly among the physicians, lawyers, editors, and clergy, and it is to this group that the people look for guidance along lines relating to the general welfare. If the school principals are not found in this group, it must mean either that they are not liberally educated, or are not alive to their obligations. For that particular com- munity teaching is likely not to be regarded as a profession. Unfortunately the condition is widely prevalent. The needs of society require that teach- ing shall everywhere become a profession. 1 It be- 1 Any city that appointed as teachers only broadly educated and specially trained men and women, paying salaries to compare THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 15 comes a duty of every teacher to contribute toward bringing about this condition. The principals pre- sumably represent a selection from among the best teachers. It is preeminently their duty, therefore, both to convince society that it is to its interest to establish teaching as a profession, and to convince their fellow-teachers that it is to their interest to secure professional recognition. 2. To win professional recognition for himself. Even if society seems reluctant to put the business of teaching upon a professional footing, at least the individual principal can, in his own community, win personal recognition as to his fitness for professional consideration. This takes rank as one of his general duties. If he has not had a liberal schooling in the favorably with those of similarly equipped men and women in other lines, would, even on the large capital required, receive enormous dividends in the improved financial, physical, mental, and moral welfare of its rising generation of citizens. It would doubtless be impossible to establish this condition by other than a gradual extension of requirements. It is fortunate that the trend is in this direction, but equally unfortunate that so few teachers encourage the forward movement. The many seem not to realize that their very self-interest, if no higher motive, should make them sympathize with it. When it is proposed to raise the requirements of eligibility, it is frequently the teachers who protest . Rather should they indorse every such measure. Indeed, it should be they who take the initiative. 16 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL formal sense, he should get it ; or if he has had formal schooling, he should broaden and deepen it by continued study and reflection. Society will take him as it finds him and will estimate him much as he fairly estimates himself. If he rests snugly in a comfortable official position from which he cannot be disturbed so long as he renders some sort of service, perhaps no more than a perfunctory time- service, his fellow-citizens will class him, and that but casually, as an accident enjoying a public " snap," a " feeder at the public crib." If, on the contrary, he proves himself truly educated, if he regards his office as the agency through which he renders public service, if he identifies himself with professional men and women, the leaders of public thought, his community will award him professional credentials, and through him the teach- ing vocation will gain measurably in dignity and recognition. 3. To evaluate the school environment. The school is an institution for providing such artificial environ- ments as will short-circuit for the pupils the experi- ences of the race. In turn, the school is subject to the influence of the environmental forces playing upon it from all sides. The principal should cor- THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 17 rectly appraise these forces, particularly taking into account the correlated institutions. The family and the church, though universal throughout the civil- ized world, are subject to wide local variations. The family life of one American community differs con- siderably from that of another, so that the prin- cipal must make a close estimate of its local char- acter. Similarly must he measure and evaluate the particular religious influences at work in his district as well as such local forces as newspapers, libraries, charitable and benevolent foundations, in- dustrial institutions, and the more indefinite and subtle forces that weave themselves into the social life of the community. His duty toward these factors of institutional environment is not alone that he shall understand them and consider them in the management of his school, but also that he shall take his part as a man of liberal edu- cation in acting with them and reacting upon them. 4. To give " expert " service. It is as a professional expert that the principal has his chief general duty. Society may justly expect him to contribute his share to the philosophy and science of education, and to act, as it were, on its board of advisers when iS THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL it formulates its educational policies. 1 Like the students of other sciences, the student of education must be continually testing and retesting its prin- ciples. The principal, as a student enjoying pe- culiar opportunities, must maintain a scientific attitude, accepting new theories, not as laws of the Medes and Persians, but as hypotheses to be tested in the laboratory of his school and his own thought. 1 The general public is acquainted with education chiefly as an art practiced by the teachers it knows. Few realize that it is based upon sound principles which in their systematic collation constitute the science of education. The fact that it is not an exact science, and presumably never can become one, does not, of course, remove it from the scientific class ; as a science, it is most closely analogous to medicine. To the layman the work and the accomplishments of the astron- omer, for example, are picturesque and mystifying. The prophetic discovery of a Neptune is startling, and scents of wizardry. Astron- omy, says he, is indeed a science ! But the discovery of Neptune was little more than a patient study in the decomposition of forces, a process of deduction from established principles. Education is a study in the decomposition of the forces that produce the com- plete man. These forces are immeasurably greater in number and variety than those in the physical realm. The newborn babe is far more complex than a solar system ; the educated man is even more marvelously complex ; to convert the one into the other is a task beside which regulating the gear of the planets is play. Scientific treatment of the subject of education is not precluded by reason of the fact that the phenomena are complex, the data urilimited, and the generalizations tentative. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 19 This may at times bring him into disagreement with his fellow-educators, and he must conduct himself with fairness and courtesy, recognizing the rights of others to their opinions and maintaining his own right to his. It does not do to be too dogmatic even in the material sciences — we may yet discard the law of gravitation. The educator, working in the realm of psychological forces and mental complexes, must ever be a skeptic. When some pedagogic enthusiast or journalistic theorist, 1 with an air of finality, promulgates "the" principles of education, the conscientious and cautious student waits, waits and sees many of the "principles" utterly de- molished by scientific testing. Scientific generalization, of course, has its place, but it should be done by the scientifically equipped, and the results should be accepted only as working hypotheses. ■ Educational theory, mean- ing its tentative generalizations, shifts pendulously, and it is questionable whether it will ever reach a state of 1 "Opinion serves for information, and prejudice usurps the place of principle. The popular journals and the printed pro- ceedings of educational associations teem with perfectly prepos- terous contributions bearing the signatures of worthy and dis- tinguished men, who would not dream of writing dogmatically upon a physical, a biological, or a linguistic problem. For some recondite reason they face the equally difficult and unfamiliar problems of education without a tremor." — Nicholas Murray Butler, The Meaning of Education, p. 94. 20 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL equilibrium. The principal, of all school people, must not lose his balance and himself swing too far or too fre- quently. Above all, society expects the educator, as it expects the physician, in his capacity of professional expert, fearlessly and freely to contribute his honest convictions on technical questions. If the educa- tional policy of society is not to be molded by the practical educators, including the school principals, by whom, then, is it to be molded? Shall the school men shirk their plain duty to society, and leave it to be performed by the liberally educated men of the other professions, or, what so frequently and disastrously is the case, by unintelligent rep- resentatives of the people ? B. The principal's special relation. The fore- going outline of the principal's general relation to his work has been given with intentional sketchi- ness. It has been emphasized, however, in order that it may serve as a background against which the succeeding discussion of his special relation may stand out in bold relief. Society, through its organized institution of gov- ernment, establishes and supports schools. In America, education is a function exercised by the THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 21 State governments. We have no federal system; we have no municipal systems, properly speaking. The administration of its school affairs by the city is not an inherent right of the city but one which, like its other municipal functions, it receives at the hands of the State through statutory instruments. The State does not surrender its function as public educator, but, to secure economy and efficiency in administration, delegates the detailed exercise of that function to its corporate municipalities. This it does tentatively, reserving the right, which it frequently exercises, to resume functions previously delegated to the cities. Throughout the country the relation of State to city varies as to details. The principal should have a clear understanding of the particular relation that exists between his. State and his city. The principal's contractual obligations. The exact form of the contract which the principal makes is also a matter of local variation. The condition, however, is essentially this: The principal is under agreement whereby, in consideration of a stated salary, he is to administer the affairs of a particular school in accordance with the terms of his con- tract. These terms are usually in the main only 22 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL implicit, 1 but legally they are as binding as if explicitly stated in a formal documentary agreement. The chief sources of the " terms " are the State constitution, the State laws, the municipal charter, and the by- laws, rules, and regulations of the school board and the directions of its officers. With these the prin- cipal should be as familiar as he is with the other side of his contract — that which states the number of dollars and cents constituting his re- muneration. 2 Obligations fundamentally legal. The duties arising from the principal's general relation to the State are not included in his contract. It is assumed that he will meet the obligations of his contract and 1 Actual contracts, in general form, are used in several places. Virginia School Law prescribes : "Written contracts shall be made by the school board with all public free school teachers in a form to be prescribed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction before they enter upon their duties. Such contracts shall be signed in duplicate, each party holding copy." — page 66. "In all cases teachers must be elected and the terms of the contract prescribed at a regular or called meeting of the board, and such contract shall be executed on behalf of the board by the clerk, unless the board shall designate some other member thereof to execute the same." — page 174. 2 New Haven specifies in its rules : Teachers "shall make them- selves familiar with the rules and regulations of the Board, espe- cially those relating to their own duties." — sec. 223. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 23 perform his specific duties on a working basis of sound philosophy and in a spirit of progressive scholarship, but his fundamental relation to his school is not pedagogical, but legal. This distinction must be accurately apprehended and kept constantly in view. To illustrate, consider the case of a New York City principal who has certain well-formed administrative opinions, gained by fruitful experience and sincere think- ing, among them, for instance : (1) that once a term is as frequently as his school should be put through a fire drill; 1 (2) that the principal should not be required to have technical knowledge of the janitor's duties in run- ning the heating plant ; and (3) that the principal should have the power to reduce pupils in grade without refer- ence or report to his superiors. His obligations are, however, expressly defined for him, as follows : (1) a State law provides that he shall exercise his school in a fire drill once a month, subject to a fine of $50 in case of neglect; and the by-laws of the Board of Education provide (2) that he shall have responsible supervision of the janitor as to the operation of the heating apparatus ; 1 His chief argument would probably be that there is an element of danger even in the "drill," and that this risk should be incurred very infrequently. Such a position is not here defended. The subject of emergency dismissals is discussed later and the reference to it here, as to the other topics, is only to give point to the supposititious case cited. 24 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL and (3) that upon reducing a pupil in grade, he shall re- port the fact to his superintendent, who has the power to reverse his action. The principal may be sincere in his belief that the best interests of the schools require their administration in accordance with his opinions, but it is clear that he has no option in the matter. He is under contract to ad- minister his school contrary, if it so happens, to his own opinions — his pedagogy must yield to law. This is his special relation to his school, but, as we have seen, his duty does not end here. His general relation implies that, in proportion as he feels the unwisdom of the law, he shall exercise his extra-contractual obligation to society, and, while punctiliously complying with the law, strenuously advocate its amendment. Only by performing this general duty can he discharge his full obligation to the State. The principal must not betray emotion in per- forming his legal duties when they discord with what he considers good educational practice. The law is an impersonal expression, albeit it is the consensus of personal opinions. The place, if there be any, for strong feeling for or against a law is in the course of its enactment or in the advocacy of its repeal — never in its execution. An extreme case serves as an illustration. Capital punishment is administered by law. The hangman has THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 25 a citizen's — we might say an expert's — right to advo- cate the repeal of that law, but it is evident that in exe- cuting the provisions of the law he has no right to "half " hang his subject, to hang him with intentional bungling, to commiserate with him on the injustice of the law, or in any other way to permit his personal opinions to affect the discharge of his official duty. It is not to be forgotten, too, that he is privileged — indeed that he ought — to resign his office whenever the conditions im- posed are in such conflict with his personal views as to prevent his " obeying orders." The principal's legal status. The proposition that, when they are in conflict, the pedagogical opinions of the principal must yield to the provisions of his legal contract, supports the corollary that the principal must make a thorough study into his own legal status. In case of dispute, it is far better that the prin- cipal be justified by statute law than by pedagogic theory ; only when the law is silent may theory speak. It is of prime importance that the principal know, in the administration of his school, what, by law : (1) he may do ; (2) he must do ; (3) he must not do, — i.e. } his rights, his duties, and his limitations. As to his rights, he should exercise them without fear or favor ; as to his duties, he should discharge them 26 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL honestly and completely; as to his limitations, he should frankly admit them and respect them. The principal should exercise his rights dispas- sionately; he should perform his duties dispas- sionately; he should recognize his limitations dispassionately. This proposition seems axiomatic, yet it is so often violated in practice that further exposition may not be misplaced. i. The principal's rights. The legal rights of the principal will be questioned frequently by parents and occasionally by his official superiors ; but, con- scious only of the responsibility placed upon him, he will never " flaunt " his authority. The fact that he is right is all sufficient — it does not need obtrusive reiteration. He has but to cite the law, not to justify or vindicate it. Nor should he be- tray irritation that his authority has been called into question; that it should be is but a natural feature in the topography of his position — it is all in the day's work. 2. The principal's duties. The principal will perform his legal duties to the best of his ability and in the exercise of that judgment for which he is paid and which, it is to be assumed, he possesses. But he will always be subject more or less to petty THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 27 interference based upon the contrary assumption. Because, forsooth, he is a descendant of Ichabod Crane, his administrative judgment is assumed to be not quite so reliable as is that of the " business " man with equal responsibilities. It is a curious fact that members of a Board of Education, who, in private business, would not ex- pect a department head to get results without leaving him unhampered in working out the de- tails of his department, will appoint a man to the principalship of a public school, hold him respon- sible for results, and then seriously interfere with the detailed work of his office. Happily this state of affairs seems to be gradually bettering, probably through the increasing ability of school men to demonstrate their fitness for responsibility. The judgment of the best of business men occasion- ally goes wrong, and there is no reason why the prin- cipal should not be allowed his small percentage of " errors " without being condemned utterly. The point here emphasized is the attitude of the prin- cipal toward his own administrative mistakes. He must frankly recognize them, cheerfully acknowl- edge them, faithfully repair them, and progressively prevent their recurrence. If he indulge in any 28 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL irritation, he must be sure that it is directed toward himself, where it rightfully belongs. 3. The principal's limitations. The legal limi- tations of the principal are many, — in fact, it might be argued that in public positions generally, the higher the office, the greater the number of limitations which encompass it. His limitations should be recognized more promptly and more clearly by the principal himself than by any one else. He should be the first, when occasion arises, to point them out ; at least, he should be the last to show feeling because they exist. This, of course, does not preclude his questioning them intelligently and dis- passionately in his extra-contractual capacity as an educational expert, but this, again, belongs to his general relation. The following are specific instances, which could be readily multiplied, illustrative of the distinction between administration by personal feeling and administration by dignified execution of law. The New York State law provides that no pupil shall be admitted to a public school unless he has been prop- erly vaccinated. Many physicians and others agitate for a repeal of this law, sincerely disbelieving in the efficacy of vaccination. Protest is occasionally made by the parent to the principal that his child "ought" THE 'PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 29 to be admitted without having been vaccinated. The parent maybe openly vehement or insidiously persuasive. It is clear that the principal has no discretion in the matter. He is limited by the law and has the single duty of refusing to admit the child. He may agree with the parent as to the law, in fact may be an agitator for its repeal; or he may believe thoroughly in the law and deprecate the parent's fear as foolishness. But in his office he simply states the law, unmoved, by either vehemence or persuasion, to any display of emotion. The by-laws in a certain city provided that no teacher should leave the school building at the noon intermission without the consent of the principal. The rules were amended so that the teacher might leave unless expressly required by the principal to remain. This, it is seen, was a limitation placed upon the former power of the principal : formerly, the initiative and the burden of proof were upon the teacher ; latterly, upon the princi- pal. Some principals assiduously refrained from letting their teachers know of the change, not liking to acknowl- edge even this slight new limitation upon their authority. Others immediately notified their teachers of the new status. The questionable policy is well illustrated by the principal of one city school who, explaining a certain form he uses in rating teachers, says in reference to one item, "That is not official, but I make the teachers think it is." 30 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL General versus specific duties. Sufficient has been said to establish the broad distinction between the general, philosophic duties of the principal and his specific, contractual duties. It is the latter which come properly within the purview of this volume, so that henceforward little direct reference will be made to the larger field. Throughout the subsequent discussion, however, the reader will scan the author's prose of technical details to the rhythm of his own personal ideals. For, after all, the general duty of the school man is, in a word, to give concrete expression to his own ideals. It is a personal rite, determined by character itself; yet a matter of moment, for — and we may say it sanely — the future of the race depends upon the character and progressive ideals of its educators. Summary. The principal is the agent of the State and has a twofold relation to his work. He has a general relation, based on his debt to society as a professional man, which places upon him cer- tain obligations, among them four : to secure recog- nition of teaching as a profession ; to win for himself professional recognition; to evaluate the school environment; and to render expert service to the community. He has a special relation, based upon THE PRINCIPAL AND THE STATE 31 his position as principal of a particular school, which places upon him the obligation of meeting the terms of his contract. His obligations are funda- mentally legal rather than pedagogic, and the prin- cipal should familiarize himself thoroughly with his legal status, learning clearly his rights, his duties, and his limitations. CHAPTER III THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC The parents. It is a very concrete and personal public with which the principal comes into daily intercourse. Most numerous and most important of all the visitors to the school are the parents of the pupils therein. The spirit in which they are received, it must be confessed, varies considerably in different schools. One extreme type of principal assumes that, as he is the expert and the parents are laymen, the affairs of the school are his business alone, and consequently that the parent has com- pletely fulfilled his function when he has enrolled his child in the school. Some parents by nature, and many parents when brought to it, will accept this status. If Dorothy does not learn her lessons, " Well," say they, "it is the business of the school to teach her " ; if Richard misbehaves, it is no concern of theirs, — "Are not the teachers paid to discipline him? " Principal and parents. Technically and ab- stractly, this relation between school and parents 32 THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 33 is correct, and under certain idealized conditions perhaps tenable. But practically it cannot be maintained. A principal cannot successfully con- duct his school on a basis of consistently disregarding the parents. The attempt would imply that he would never enlist the cooperation of parents nor even report to them upon the standing of pupils. It would indicate, too, that he regarded his con- tractual limitations as few and that he but scantily recognized his general obligations. The type of principal at the other extreme is he who questions his own professional equipment, who, like some of his patrons, 1 as he would call them, believes that " anyone can teach/' and who 1 The word "patron" is of questionable use as applied to the parents of pupils in a public school. See author's The Status of the Teacher: "It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the public school is not a close corporation representing the private interests of the people of a local community. It is not an institution toward which the parents of enrolled children stand as patrons and all other citizens as unrelated and unconcerned aliens." — page 15. "It is clear, then, that the public school teacher is not in the employ of the parents of his pupils nor of the citizens of the community ; hence his authority is not derived from parents or community." — page 18. "The teacher's legal position in the school is entirely independ- ent of the parents and other citizens." — page 32. d 34 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL supinely surrenders to the exactions of unreasonable parents. Parents respond as readily to this attitude as to the other. If the principal questions his own technical ability, there is little reason for them to respect it. Moreover, there is something of the teacher in everyone. The average American father has " views " on teaching — which, of course, in the long run is good for the school as an institution — and many an American mother thinks that her child, at least, can be educated without training. It is natural that there should be occasional differences of opinion between principal and parent. Must the principal ignore the parents, or must he abdicate in their favor? Surely, neither. He may have their cooperation and at the same time maintain his own independence. Cooperation. The principal should seek the co- operation of parents because : (i) usually his con- tract either explicitly or implicitly requires it; (2) the legitimate interest of the parent in the school should be recognized and respected ; (3) the school should always endeavor to maintain in the minds of its pupils the sacredness of the home, and never, when avoidable, weaken the authority of the parent ; and (4) better results in instruction THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 35 and discipline can usually be obtained with it than without it. The principal should maintain his own inde- pendence because : (1) his contract holds him and not the parents responsible for the work and results of his school ; (2) he is better equipped technically than the parents, or else should not hold his office ; (3) the parents will the better respect him and the school as an institution; and (4) the parents will cooperate with him the more intelligently. To strike the balance between the demands of these two duties is one of the principal's chief problems. The maintenance of his own adminis- trative authority is dependent mainly upon his courteous but firm stand with the individual parent, as occasion arises. To the questioning parent he may explain exactly what his contractual obligations are, how necessary it is that any institution shall be consistently administered by a responsible executive, and how the interests of the parent and his children are much better conserved by vesting the principal with a considerable measure of independence than by surrendering the management of the school to the exactions of outsiders. Encouraging cooperation. On the other hand, the 36 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL principal and his school need the sympathetic co- operation of the parents. This cooperation will be attained largely by the principal's attitude toward individual parents as he meets them in the ordinary course of school business. By his manner and speech he may convince them that their interest in the school is welcomed and appreciated. But since most citizens have an inadequate comprehension of the work of the school, gained secondhand through the reports of their own or their neighbors' children, the principal cannot depend solely upon the influence he exerts through these chance meetings with the occasional visitor. If the cooperation is to be intel- ligent and fruitful, he must take formal means of soliciting it. i. Inviting visitation. The principal may con- stantly advertise — through the pupils, 1 at school 1 In most cities the report cards sent home to parents bear an invitation for them to visit the school. Detroit and Louisville carry the identic legend, which is typical of those generally in use : "The home and the school should work together for the good of the child. It is important that the teacher should be fully informed as to the child's physical condition, life outside of school, and previous history. Parents are cordially invited to confer with the teacher or principal." Freeport, N. Y., includes in its Teacher's Monthly Report the item " Calls at school by parents." Four other items are of interest, THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 37 exercises, at public meetings in the community — the fact that he recognizes that the school is a pub- lic institution and hence that it is the privilege of the people to familiarize themselves with its work. They must be made to feel that they have a stand- ing invitation to visit the school for the purpose of observation, and that when they arrive they will be welcome. 1 If the business man can be brought to spend an hour in the classroom observing the regular work of teacher and pupils, he is much more likely to become a sympathetic supporter of the school and of the cause of public education than if subjected to hours of academic argument. in passing : Calls at pupils' homes by the teacher ; Number of grade library books drawn for home use ; Number of grade library books drawn for school reading ; Date of last formal book inspection. 1 New Orleans incorporates its invitation in its by-laws : " Visitors interested in the schools are always welcome. They shall present themselves to the Principal upon visiting the school, furnishing their names and addresses and the reason for their visit. The Principal may decline the privilege to any visitor, provided the reason for such visit is not satisfactory, unless the visitor holds a permit from the Superintendent, or from the Medical Director, or from a member of this Board. In case of the refusal of this privi- lege to any visitor by any Principal, the said Principal shall im- mediately report the name, facts, and causes to the Superintend- ent."— IV, 4. New Orleans also requires visitors, "whether employees of the system or not," to register in the book kept for that purpose. 38 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL It may be objected that the business of the school should not be interfered with to this extent, that the classes should not be disturbed in their work, and that the principal cannot give time to visitors. In actual practice these objections are scarcely valid, because the response to the principal's invitation, however heartily and persistently it may be given, is usually anything but overwhelming. If each class had but a single visitor daily, a school of forty classes would receive nearly eight thousand visitors in the course of a year. The presence of a caller, or even of a number of callers, ought not to be a source of embarrassment to either teacher or pupils, who, with practice, would learn to welcome the visitor cordially, disregard him as a disturbing factor, and speed him on his way, enlightened and pleased. As to the de- mand upon the principal's time, if he found that the number of visitors reached a serious total, he could readily enlist the services of older pupils to act, grace- fully and with profit to themselves, as hosts and guides. 2. School exhibits and meetings. The principal may organize school exhibits, special exercises, and other meetings, to which parents are particularly and formally invited. The following general suggestions are submitted : (i) In a large school the visitors may be received in groups, those who are interested in pupils in THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 39 certain grades, for instance, being invited for certain different times and dates. Such meetings are easy to handle, says Mr. R. R. Savage, principal, Public School 7, Rochester, and adds that they " enable teachers to get better acquainted with parents than at the large gatherings. Parents, too, feel a common interest and ' loosen up ' in discussion of edu- cational topics." The meetings, instead of coming on different dates, one afternoon for each grade, for example, may be held "all at once; each parent going to the room or rooms in whose work he is most interested ; all rooms open at the same time ; an auditorium meeting for all to conclude the proceedings.' ' — Mr. F. M. Underwood, principal, Fanning School, St. Louis. 1 1 The following is a sample invitation sent home, one by each pupil: To the Parents: You are cordially invited and urgently requested to attend an open meeting at the Fanning School. THURSDAY EVENING, Nov. 2nd, at 7.30 p.m. 1. Come and see the work of the children, which will be ex- hibited in all the rooms. 7.30 to 8.15 p.m. 2. At 8.15 in the Kindergarten, the NEED OF A BOND ISSUE FOR NEW BUILDINGS will be presented by able speakers. Our friend, Assistant Superintendent C. G. Rathmann, will show by a very interesting set of lantern slides, the conditions and needs in our schools throughout the city. Mr. H. A. Rosskopf, Member of the Board of Education, and one of our own patrons, will give other angles to the proposition. COME ! FANNING SCHOOL FACULTY and PATRONS ASSOCIATION 40 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL (2) Evening meetings have the advantage of enabling more of the men to attend. Daytime meetings have the advantage of permitting the exhibit of regular class exercises, although certain forms of class work can be exhibited in the evening. Miss Anna L. Rice, principal, Lincoln School, Spring- field, Mass., makes the point that "Regular work in dancing, gymnastics, music, or dramatics can be shown evenings by having the youngest children first on the program and then excusing them. Fathers are greatly interested in these programs, much more than in the best of programs by adults." (3) A carefully arranged program should be provided. Particularly at an evening meeting the program should not be heavy, as hard-working parents are tired and will better respond to a program frankly entertaining than to one patently instructive. In the one case, they may come a second time; in the other, they are likely to give thanksgiving for their eventual escape. "It is also well," says Mr. Ernest Shawen, principal, Bellevue Junior High School, Richmond, " to have Visi- tors' Days, when the regular routine is followed, in order that parents and friends of pupils may see the child's real problems, in other words see what he is ' up against.' " Mr. Henry King, principal, Ashland School, Kansas THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 41 City, Mo., suggests that the program "should provide a place for patrons as well as for pupils. If the patrons as well as the pupils and teachers do, all will be engaged to- gether in a developing situation." The Brooklyn Model School prepares multigraphed circulars to be given to the parents. The following is a quotation from one of them : " These parents' meetings, which occur about once in two months, are for the pur- pose of letting the parents see the work of the school, and of making an occasion for conferences with the teachers about the work, conduct, health, and other matters affecting the children. It is often of great ad- vantage to the pupil for the teacher to learn what the parents have to say about his home lif e and home condi- tions. It may also be of advantage to the pupil for the parent to inform himself more fully, by a personal con- ference with the teacher, as to the school standing of his child." Some of the topics discussed in these circulars are : Shopwork ; Sewing ; Cooking ; Art and Construc- tion Work; Reading; Writing; Arithmetic; History and Civics — all pointing to means of cooperation be- tween home and school. (4) Addresses by men and women of local or other prominence are valuable, provided the speaker can talk interestingly and effectively. Particularly so, suggests Mr. H. S. Philips, principal, Alcott School, Denver, "if on topics directly related to 42 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL child life, talks on care of teeth, formation of habits, and like topics having to do with child training." The most successful address, perhaps, is one that is brief and snappy and leads to general discussion. (5) An exhibit of the regular work of the pupils usually proves an attraction. This work may in- clude not only the written and tangible products, but also oral, musical, manual, dramatic, and gym- nastic exercises. In this case, each parent should be brought as close as possible to his own child's work. One principal says, "Care should be taken to guard against 'show work' at an exhibit. Pupils and teachers are often overworked in the effort to put up a good show, which too often bears the earmarks of made to order." A principal in another city says, "The tangible, the spectacular, the showy things are what attract attention — cooking, sewing, woodwork, and other manual prod- ucts." (6) Teachers should not use the occasion to make adverse criticism of pupils to their parents. They should say only the commendatory things, leaving anything unfavorable for a special interview at some other time. Something may be said against this policy — that later on the teacher may be held to account for not hav- THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 43 ing reported the unfavorable points, and that parents as a rule appreciate criticism if it is given frankly and in a kindly spirit — but, on the whole, it is safe practice to follow. Miss Helen K. Yerkes, principal, Rudolph S. Walton School, Philadelphia, puts it well when she says, "I believe in a frank interchange of thought regarding the welfare of the child ; no stilted a priori decision on what shall be said." The attitude indicated of teacher toward parent should be reciprocated. Parents should realize that teachers are giving freely of their energy, interest, and extra time. No parent should be permitted to make a parents' meet- ing an occasion for upbraiding a teacher. The principal should make it his duty to protect his teachers. He should demand of parents that all criticism of teachers be made formally and during business hours. (7) Meetings gain in importance by coming not too frequently, and by being held on some significant date, such as the anniversary of the date on which the school was opened. There are arguments both for and against periodic meetings. A scheduled bimonthly meeting gives chil- dren and parents something definite to anticipate. On the other hand, added zest is given to a meeting held unexpectedly and in relation to some significant local or national event. It is well to have the first meeting early in the term, 44 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL so that parents may meet their children's new teachers, and people who have moved into the district during the vacation period may have an opportunity to get acquainted with the school. Miss Lydia R. Blaish, supervising principal, Indian- apolis, points out that "too many meetings dissipate the strength and interest of teachers." The effect may be the same on pupils and parents. (8) The duty of receiving the visitors on these occasions may be distributed among the teachers, committees of whom may attend to the different features of the meeting. Older pupils can serve as ushers, care for younger children brought by mothers, and help in other ways. This is valuable training in developing responsibility, and inculcates interest and pride in the school. Miss Estelle Purinton, principal, Holmes School, Spokane, testifies, "We have been most successful when the parents as well as teachers take a share in the responsibility. They are glad to do it. The pupils are also valuable, and it is a matter of pride with parents when their chil- dren are given positions of trust." 3. Parents' associations. The principal may in- spire the organization of Parents' Associations and act with them for the benefit of the school. The THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 45 meetings of such an association will differ from those called by the principal, in that he will cease to exercise his authority as principal and become only an incidental factor in the proceedings. The less conspicuous the part he takes in the meetings the better able will he be to maintain a position coor- dinate with the association as a whole. There is always the danger that, through ignorance of con- ditions or through personal ambitions or jealousies of members, the association may take some action which in effect is an interference with the principal's contractual authority. At such a time the principal must turn the enthusiasm of the association into more legitimate and profitable channels. He can do this more graciously and more effectively if he has previously refrained during meetings from discussing measures voluntarily from the floor. There has been a rapid advance within recent years in realization of the value of community interest in its schools. It is, in a measure, part of a nation-wide trend toward the development of com- munity self-consciousness. The public school is the one chief rallying point, the one institution at hand that has something by way of equipment and at the same time represents the maximum in com- 46 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL munal sentiment. 1 Typical of the broader city movements is that in Pittsburgh, whose Community Council is " designed to bring about community expression, cooperative purpose, and patriotic serv- ice by making every public school building a rally- ing center for organized activity, educational ex- tension, and national support." 2 Where the organization is more distinctly a local school affair, often the outgrowth of the one-time Mothers' Clubs of the kindergarten, it frequently includes the teachers in its membership and is known as a Parent-Teacher Association. In many cities these associations have been federated into a city organization. The Parent-Teacher Federation of Indianapolis issues a bulletin "as a means of communication between the Executive Board and the various Parent-Teacher Associations." Portland, Ore., says Superintendent L. R. Alderman, "is unusually fortunate in having a well-organized system of Parent-Teacher organizations . . . plans to district the 1 The National Community Center Association publishes, at Mount Morris, 111., a bulletin "The Community Center." For bibliography on "Home and School" see Irving King, Social Aspects of Education, p. 62. 2 Mr. J. M. Berkey, Director of Special Schools and Extension Work, publishes an outline of the work, THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 47 city according to the high school centers. Once each half-year, the Parent-Teacher circles tributary to the nearest high school will come together at the high school building for a union meeting. A community sing, a talk, an exchange of ideas, and a social hour will usually make up the program. Music and readings will be supplied by the high school boys and girls. It is hoped that more of the circles may adopt the evening hour for holding their meetings, in order that both parents may attend." In Minneapolis the Parent-Teachers' Council is composed of delegates from all the parents' and teachers' associations in the city. 1 1 A printed form is supplied, as follows : Minneapolis Public Schools School Parents : The schools are for your children. You must show an interest in what is being done for them if you expect teachers and prin- cipals to do their best. We ask you, therefore, to sign this card promising to visit the schools. Yours for the schools and the children, Approved: Bent. F. Ward, Pres., B. B. Jackson, Supt. of Schools, Parent-Teachers , Council Principal I shall visit School at least once this year. [Parent or Guardian] 191 . . Address (To be returned at once to Principal) 48 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Parents' and parent-teachers' organizations may do much for a school, not alone in rendering moral support, but also in raising money for decorations A typical invitation form is : The Mothers' & Teachers' Association of THE Webster School Will hold a meeting on Wednesday at j p.m. in the school Auditorium. An interesting program will be given after which refreshments will be served. At the Lincoln School, Springfield, Mass., the following forms are used : I am in sympathy with the object for which the Lincoln School Mothers' Club is organized, and wish to be enrolled as a member. Signature P. O. Address Dues are payable in September and February or in full in September. Parents 1 Evening The Lincoln School Mothers' Club cordially invites the parents of to meet informally the Principal and Teachers of Lincoln School, Club Members and Each Other in the Assembly Hall of the School, on Tuesday evening, November sixteenth, from eight to ten o'clock. Eight to Nine Nine to Ten Social Hour Music and Dancing THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 49 and equipment supplementary to that officially provided. 1 The principal has only to encourage and guide the latent enthusiasm in the community in order to have one more force at hand contribut- ing to the best interests of his school. 4. Individual conference. The principal may on occasion formally request cooperation of the indi- vidual parent on behalf of his children. These occasions, arising chiefly from lapses of pupils in their work or behavior, are later discussed in their appropriate connections. He has here, however, an opportunity to invite the visitor, after he has fin- ished the special business concerning which he called, to visit classrooms and inspect the regular school work. The disputatious parent. Cooperation is not always the keynote struck by the parent in his song of the school. So long as children are incompetent witnesses, so long as it is a passion with some people 1 Minneapolis rules provide for bequests: "Pictures, statuary, musical instruments and records, stereopticons and slides, and such useful and ornamental apparatus and furniture as a school may need may be purchased by the Parent-Teachers' Association and presented to the school. All such memorials, apparatus, and furniture shall thereafter remain the property of the school and consequently of the Board of Education.' ' — IX, 16. E 50 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL to " shoot first and argue afterward," and so long as teachers are terrene, and share human frailties, just so long will misunderstandings arise between school and parents. Hence we must consider, however reluctantly, the case of the parent with a grievance. The schools, as we have noted, are an instrument of the State. The State supports the school. The State pays the salaries of its teachers for minister- ing to its children. The principal will receive the parent with a grievance, not alone with the respect due him as a gentleman, but also with the respect due a fellow-member of the great firm of The State, and will give him the attention necessary to secure justice for him, his child, and the school. But when the parent strives to secure for his child some specific consideration which is not his due and to grant which would be an injustice to the children of the other partners of the firm of The State, then must the principal stand steadfast, even against the parent's specious plea that he is a taxpayer and pays the principal's salary. The point that the relation between parent and teacher is one involving mutual consideration is well brought out by the New Orleans by-law : " A parent or guardian dissatisfied with the conduct of anyVteacher toward his THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 51 child or ward shall first lay his complaint before the Principal, and, if not satisfied, may complain in writing to the Superintendent, who shall investigate the charge, and, on demand of the parent or guardian, shall report thereon to the next meeting of this Board. Should the teacher be called to account or be reproved in an offen- sive manner in the classroom or elsewhere, verbally or in writing, by a parent or guardian, the child or ward of such parent or guardian shall, by reason of such conduct, be liable to expulsion." — IV, 1. It must not be supposed that all parents, or even any large number of them, who visit schools are unreasonable. The great majority of them are quite the otherwise, — intelligent, well-meaning, and helpful. But unfortunately the unreasonable parent exists and must be reckoned with, and as it is the exceptional case that makes the serious problem in school administration, the emphasis must be placed here, as elsewhere, upon the excep- tional occurrence. Many of the difficulties arising between school and home are based upon misunderstanding of school condi- tions and school requirements on the part of parents. The Department of Education in any city should give parents of pupils and all citizens widespread information concerning the schools. Kansas City provides a " Circu- 52 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL lar of Information to Parents," sent out from the princi- pal's office, dated and addressed to the individual, with the following preamble : Your attention is respectfully called to the information herein submitted, and I earnestly ask for your kind co- operation in regard to the same. If your child is not in good health, or a sufferer in any other way, please inform the teacher, if you think it necessary. Very respectfully, (Signed) Principal. This is followed by detailed information on each of twelve topics : School time ; the actual length of the school year; the compulsory education law; sickness; parents' visit to school; reinstatement; deportment; cleanliness ; injury of school property ; absence and tardi- ness ; excuse for absence ; leaving during school session. Dr. Frank K. Perkins, principal, Public School 26, Brooklyn, N. Y., sends the following Notice to Parents Children should be in their classes at 5 minutes before 9 and 5 minutes before 1 each day. When a child is absent or late, please to send a note of excuse. This is for the protection of the child. When a child is detained at home by reason of illness, please to notify the school, stating the length of time he or she will be absent. It is requested that parents do not give notes to children asking early dismissal, except in special cases. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 53 There is home study or home work every night. This is not always written work, but may be lessons to be recited in the class next day. If your child says he has no lessons to study or home work to do, call at the school to find the reason. If the monthly report card shows "C" or "D," your child has fallen below the class standard in the subject so marked. The teacher will be glad to consult with you as to the best means of securing improvement. To be returned with the parent's signature. Seattle publishes, by authority of the Board of School Directors, a monthly four-page bulletin "for increased cooperation between home and school." It is edited by the superintendent of schools and contains such items as summary of expenditures for the year, pictures of new school buildings, description and views of work in the classroom, and special articles of interest. Correspondence with parents. In dealing with an unreasonable parent it is well to assume that he is reasonable or at least that he is going to become reasonable. Acting upon misunderstanding or lack of understanding, parents write irritating letters to the teachers or principal. It is good policy to answer all letters from parents, including those that are critical or condemnatory. The temptation is strong to ignore the ill-tempered communication, or else to reply in kind. If it is ignored, the parent 54 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL is likely to follow the first letter with a second, written in great temper, and perhaps follow that with a visit to the school, which he makes in no pleasant frame of mind, and which leads to a time- consuming interview. It is wiser for the school to take the parent at his best, assume that he is sincere in his communication regardless of the language in which it is couched, and reply with moderation and dignity and in the spirit of evident desire to correct the wrong impression of the school which the parent in some way has gained. Teachers should be trained to refer to the prin- cipal all communications of this character received by them. 1 It is better for the principal to judge which communications should be answered and to decide upon the nature of the reply, than for the individual teacher, acting upon impulse, to dash off a hasty rejoinder. The parent who receives from the principal a dignified reply to a letter written to a teacher, realizes that he is being taken seriously; that the teacher is not reluctant to submit the matter 1 Omaha requires that principals "shall approve all notes sent to parents by teachers ; and no note shall be sent by a teacher to a parent or guardian in relation to the scholarship or conduct of any child unless such note has been presented to the principal for approval." — VI, 3. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 55 under dispute to the attention and judgment of the principal and that she has behind her the voice and authority of the principal ; and that the school is taking patient and sincere cognizance of his grievance, whether it be real or fancied. In most cases it is unreal, for it must be remembered that it is based upon the testimony of a child, — his child, — and such testimony is by the nature of the case biased and unreliable. " Despite the fact that the law has always recognized the total incapacity of children to see, to remember, and to express the truth, the testimony of children regarding teachers continues to be taken. Such testimony is almost worthless." 1 Usually but a few brief state- ments of fact are required to set the parent straight. These given, he becomes a friend and supporter of the school ; withheld or given in a highly colored or hot-tempered way, he becomes a critic of the school and an instigator of trouble. 1 William Estabrook Chancellor, Our Schools — Their Adminis- tration and Supervision, p. 341. He adds : " Whether favorable or unfavorable to the teacher, whether upon a special fact or a general matter, the testimony of one pupil or of several, is never to be taken. This is true even of high-school pupils. It is difficult for even well-educated men to know and to remember the truth of a conversation or of an event." 56 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Every teacher's experience assures her that parents do send hastily written notes, based on error. A few such letters, received in a city school, are here given, together with the replies in each case : d) Miss Smith, It is unusual for Victor to get such a low mark in deport- ment. I think you have made a great mistake. I have erased same on his card. Trusting you will reconsider this. You will oblige me very much. Mrs. I. T. Brown. Public School No. ioo, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, Oct. 5, 19 18. Mrs. I. T. Brown, 152 Fulton St., N. Y. Dear Madam: Miss Smith has referred to me your note in regard to Victor's rating in deportment. I think you are under some misapprehension as to the status of our report cards. The card shows a pupil's standing at the close of the month, and is copied from the official record. That record represents the work actually done by the pupil and not what we might wish he had done. I send you a duplicate of the card ; will you kindly sign the same and return it to the school ? If at any time you desire further information as to Victor's record than is indicated by the report card, I should be glad to have you call here for a personal conference. Respectfully yours, Henry Jones, Principal. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 57 (2) New York, Sept. 30/18. Public School No. 100 Mr. Henry Jones Dear Sir I think that my Dauther Martha studies her home work as hard as any pupil in the school room, and I do not see why these notes are sent to my home Hopeing I will hear no more complants about her hearaf ter I Remain verry Respectfully R.Haas Public School No. 100, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, Oct. 1, 19 18. Mr. R. Haas, 69 Division Ave., N. Y. Dear Sir: Your favor of Sept. 30th is at hand. It is evident that you are much interested in the welfare of your daughter. We are too, and communications in regard to her progress are sent you in order to further her advancement. I am sure that you will see it in this light. Respectfully yours, Henry Jones, Principal. (3) Oct 17th 1918 Miss Green Dear Madam If this Grammar is not satisfactory what my daughter Elenora has written, I will have to bring this matter to a higher authority, Resp' yours Wm White 58 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Public School No. ioo, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, Oct. 18, 1918. Mr. Wm. White, Dear Sir: Miss Green has referred to me your favor of the 17th. I do not understand your attitude. You certainly desire that Elenora may profit from her school work, and I believe that you wish to cooperate with us. Miss Green has your daughter's interests at heart. Shall we not leave it to her to decide what Elenora should or should not do ? Respectfully yours, Henry Jones, Principal. It is not presumed that the replies here given are the best that could be made, but they are submitted as illus- trative of the principle that dignified and courteous answers may be written even to provoking letters. The principal^ correspondence should be written in complete form, as to heading, superscription, subscription, etc. If typewritten, 1 so much the better, not only because of improved appearance but because carbon copies can thus be obtained, one for riling and one to be given to the teacher. 1 Mr. William Rabenort, principal, Intermediate School 55, Bronx, New York, has higher-grade pupils type his letters and rubber-stamp them: This letter was typed by a pupil of class . THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 59 It is but fair to the teacher that she should know what disposition has been made of a case that concerns her ; moreover, the policy of the principal is thus best brought to the teacher's attention. The typewritten letter also strengthens the parent's impression that straightforward business attention has been accorded him. The parent who in anger has picked up the sheet of paper nearest at hand and hastily scribbled a note " calling down " the teacher, is sure to be impressed by a reply from the principal that is serious, official, authoritative, neatly and carefully arranged, and couched in polite and respectful language; thus the parent is educated, and the pupil benefits through the higher ideal introduced into the home. Interviews with parents. Unreasonableness comes to the school not alone in written form but frequently as a visit from the parent. Again, it should be the principal who receives the parent and adjusts his complaint. It is wise for the principal to set aside certain times of the day for the reception of visitors. Some cities require it, for example, San Francisco : "Principals shall keep regular office hours on each day for the transaction of general school business. Notice of office hours shall be posted by principals on their office doors." — 32, 13. 60 THE MANAGEMENT OP A CITY SCHOOL In interviews the principal should avoid using such phrases as "I haven't any time." He should even meet the parent- visitor's apologetic "I am sorry to take your time" with "I am here for just this business." This attitude is not at all inconsistent with a scheme of limit- ing the total amount of time given to interviews by means of office hours or a system of appointments. The same respectful dignity which the principal puts into a written reply he will put into his personal interview. He must impress upon the parent his desire to secure right and justice, his readiness to set matters straight, and, at the same time, his intention to keep the argument to facts and to the point at issue. He will decide whether the best interests of the case demand that the parent and the teacher shall meet. Usually it is better that they should. All interviews of a controversial nature between parent and teacher should be held in the office of the principal. No parent should be permitted to interview a teacher at her classroom. Notice to this effect should be conspicuously posted in the hallways, and teachers trained to refuse to enter upon such an interview. 1 1 Mandatory in certain cities, e.g. Louisville : " Visitors to any school shall be admitted through the office of the principal only, THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 61 Many parents, innocently enough, go directly to the classroom to give their message to the teacher. The message may be merely that Jane cannot come to-day because she has a toothache. In this case the risk is that, once inside the room, the fond mother and sym- pathetic teacher will be led into an animated conversa- tion relative to Jane's career, the last time Will had the measles or Tom the mumps, and how it is that Jane inherits her temper from her father and her studiousness from her mother, — all subjects of legitimate exposition, but not when fifty pupils are losing valuable time. In other cases, however, the tone of the parent is anything but mild, and there is danger of a stormy scene being en- acted in the presence of pupils, despite the teacher's most skillful handling of the situation. So, in every case, the teacher should politely but firmly direct the parent to the principal's office immediately upon his appearance at the classroom door. and none shall be permitted to enter the classroom except by consent of the principal." — 10, 8. One of the few exceptions to this policy is in Indianapolis, whose rules provide : " Complaints of parents or guardians in regard to the discipline of pupils, or any matter affecting them, shall be made first to the teacher and then to the principal of the build- ing.",— XVIII, i. Several cities make a practice and some require by by-law that principals post the name of the teacher and the grade of the class on the outside of the door of each classroom. This is generally done, however, to meet the convenience of internal management of the school and not for the information of the public. 62 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL This rule enables the principal to dispose of a great many cases without referring them to the teacher and without taking her time from the class. Whether, during an interview between teacher and parent, the principal shall follow the conversation or even remain in the office, is a matter of judgment as to the individual case. If it is an amicable understanding between an intelligent parent and an experienced teacher, the principal may safely ignore its details ; if a storm seems imminent, the principal will do well to be on hand to pour the oil upon the troubled waters. The unreasonable parent. In spite of the utmost endeavor on the part of principal and teachers to present fairly the side of the school, occasionally an unreasonable parent remains unconvinced. His departure is made with the time-honored threat to " go higher " or to " report you to the Board of Education " or " to the Superintendent.' ' The principal may wisely indicate that he recognizes the parent's right of appeal ; that he welcomes the decision of disputed matters by those in higher authority; and that, if necessary, he will aid the parent to secure a hearing. Often this very atti- tude, astonishing to the complainant, leads him to THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 63 take a different view of the matter and prompts him to settle it without going beyond the principal's office. Other visitors. Although parents constitute a majority of the principal's callers, he has many other visitors, some who have a legitimate claim upon him and some who have not. The former present no particular problem, but to deal with the latter requires constant devotion to the letter and spirit of his contract. The essence of that contract is that the principal's time and energy belong, for value received, to the city and to the school; yet it is surprising how many people fail to grasp this fact, or, realizing it but vaguely, imagine that the principal can be induced on their behalf to prove false to his trust. In most cities such visitors are made the subject of a paragraph of the rules for the management of the schools. In some cases the prohibitory provision is couched in very general terms. In others it is more detailed and comprehensive, as in Louisville : " No subscription or contribution for any purpose whatever shall be intro- duced into any school without the special consent of the board. No person shall be permitted to visit the schools except on business connected with the schools. No ad- vertisements shall be read to the pupils of any school, on the premises thereof, or posted on the walls of fences 64 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL of any school building, and no petition of any kind shall be circulated for signatures in any school of the city ; and no agent or other person shall be permitted to enter any school premises for the purpose of exhibiting, either to teachers or pupils, any book or article offered for sale, or taking subscriptions for same. No list of pupils shall be given by principals or teachers to any person except on the order of the superintendent. ,, These prohibitions are allied to those which elaborate the theme that the school time of principals and teachers belongs solely to school work. Various regulations of this and related character are : "No principal or teacher or other employee shall be allowed to sell stationery, pens, pencils, tablets or other articles used in school by the pupils, except in behalf of the Board when authorized. No publication for adver- tising purposes of any kind shall be issued or distributed either in the school building or on school grounds/ ' — Minneapolis, IX, 3. " Teachers shall not give notice of entertainments not connected with the schools ; nor permit any of the time of themselves or their schools to be occupied by book or business agents, lecturers or exhibition men." Seattle, VIII, 16. " Photographers shall not be permitted to take photo- graphs of the school for the purpose of selling photographs to the school children." — VI, 17. "No voting contest shall be carried on in connection THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 65 with the public schools, nor shall any teacher be allowed to become a candidate in any such contest." — Minne- apolis, IX, 5. " Teachers shall remain in their own rooms and devote their energies to the discharge of their duties. Visiting each others rooms, except on business of the school which cannot be postponed, all reading and writing not imme- diately connected with the school, and all work not tend- ing directly to the advancement of the pupils, are for- bidden." — Seattle, VIII, 2. Minneapolis provides that "No teacher or principal, in or out of school, shall receive presents from pupils or the immediate friends of pupils, nor shall any teacher make presents to any pupil, principal, or other school official." — IX, 6. Portland, Ore., speaks more cau- tiously: "Teachers, as such [sic], shall not accept any present from pupils under their immediate supervision nor any compensation for any instruction given to pupils enrolled in their respective rooms." — Art. X. Self-seekers. Too much of a principal's time is spent in merely denying the requests of persons who seek to use the public schools for private ends. In many cases the purpose is so cleverly veiled that the principal may for the moment be deceived. For instance, the courteous actor who offers " at no expense whatever " to produce scenes from the Shakespearean play studied by the pupils in one of 66 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL the grades. Certainly here is a philanthropic soul, a devoted worker in the cause of public education, who would thus relieve the tedium of the school most pleasantly, and all " at no expense whatever." But in another five minutes it develops that the " consideration " is that printed programs shall be distributed to the pupils, and behold ! on their reverse side — or is it, after all, the obverse side — the advertisement of a private school bidding for pupils. Nice questions arise in some situations as to the propriety of complying with requests of visitors. For example, a lawyer demands to know the address of a certain pupil in order that he may further a client's interest in some court action. He may represent that it will be greatly to the advantage of the pupil himself if the information be provided. The principal will be following a safe and wise procedure if he declines to deliver such information except upon court order in due form, or upon the formal demand of a departmental superior. " Influence." Visitors also to be considered are those who, assuming to exercise some political or social influence, seek some special privilege which they know could not be accorded them on the THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUBLIC 67 intrinsic merits of the case. Such a one is the gentleman who presents his card indicating that he is Chairman of Something, or Second Assistant Secretary to Somebody, and who has just " stepped in to settle that little matter of the suspension of my friend's boy." The direct and probably the best method of disposing of the interloper is to refuse positively to treat with him on any matters which are outside his legitimate province. If the gentleman is jovially inclined, however, as is some- times the case, perhaps a sufficiently logical pro- cedure, and one which will show him the absurdity of his position, is to take him at his word, accept his guarantee that the boy in question will behave in the future, and then to keep him, instead of the boy's father, who has surrendered his control of his own affairs, posted as to the boy's conduct. If the principal bears in mind that he is in the high service of the pupils of his school, but of all his pupils equally, the problems relating to the troublesome visitor, like many others, pretty clearly indicate their own solution. Summary. The principal ought to enlist the cooperation of the parents of his pupils. He can do this without surrendering in any degree the inde- 68 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL pendence which his official responsibility makes it necessary for him to maintain. He establishes the right relationship with parents informally in his day-by-day intercourse with individuals and formally by means of parents' meetings and parents' associa- tions. He must deal firmly but courteously with all those who attempt to secure from the school some consideration to which they are not entitled. The disputatious parent must meet dignified and gracious decision both in the written communica- tion and in the interview. All visitors should deal directly with the principal, and teachers should be trained to aid in enforcing this rule. The prin- cipal must not be diverted from his service to pupils to serve private interests, however subtly they may be urged upon him. CHAPTER IV THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES Official allegiance. " Obedience alone gives the right to command/ ' says Emerson. In proportion as the principal accords respect, courtesy, and obedience to those in positions of official superiority will he command the respect, courtesy, and obe- dience of his official subordinates. No principal or teacher is expected to surrender his professional opinions for his monthly stipend; the exploitation of those opinions, however, is, as we have already noted, not a contractual privilege, but a general and extracontractual duty. As a citizen he has a citizen's right to be heard in the discussion of general educational policy. As a lecturer and as a writer he has freedom of speech and of press. But as the principal of a certain school in a certain school system he owes official allegiance to the legally constituted authorities of that system, how- ever much their views may differ from his own. 6 9 70 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL The ultimate source of authority is, of course, " the people," but this authority is exercised through organized government by way of the State to the municipality and thence to the school board. This last transfer is made by a variety of methods in the selection of board members : directly, by popular vote ; or indirectly, by appointment by the mayor or by some other official or elected body. What- ever the method of selection, the personnel of the school board indicates to a large degree the public estimate of its schools and the public purpose in regard to education. Three authorities. The function of the school board is practically limited to legislation. To secure the execution of its legislative acts a further transfer of authority is made to administrative officers. In most cities the duties of administration are separated into two departments, one managing the business affairs and the other supervising instruc- tion. Thus the principal is brought into relation, varying in directness, with three classes of author- ities: the board members, the business executives, and the supervisors of instruction. i. The school board. The direct contractual relation of the principal to his school board is THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 71 usually slight, orders emanating therefrom coming to him by way of the executive offices. 1 Neverthe- less, no principal should be ignorant of the personnel of the board or unacquainted with at least a few of its members. Whatever relation he may be fortunate enough to sustain with individual members, it should at least be reciprocal in its character ; in the highest sense he should give and take. His general duty to the State justifies his influencing such mem- bers in broad matters of educational policy, and that influence will be important and valuable in proportion as his specific administration of his school inspires confidence in his professional judg- ment. On the other hand, it is equally important that the principal himself shall profit from the relation. Board members almost invariably are laymen, as distinguished from school men, and represent the lay view of the schools. 2 The prin- cipal should evaluate the intelligence, integrity, and sincerity of each board member whom he knows, and thus intelligently equate his own views and those of the " spokesman of the people." His own 1 On the relation of the teacher to the school board and of the school board to the State, see author's The Status of the Teacher. 2 Professor Chancellor discusses very fully the personnel of school boards in Our Schools, p. 12 et seq. > 72 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL opinions are usually much in need of just such tempering as comes by blending them with the convictions of common-sensed, practical, everyday men of affairs, and more than one such man is usually to be found in every board of education. When based on mutual respect, the friendship of board member and school man cannot fail to result favorably to the State and to the particular schools in which both are interested. 2. The business executives. Separation of the duties of administration into two departments concerning respectively the general and the pro- fessional business, together with concentration of authority and responsibility in a single head for each department, has been effected in a number of cities. In general, the business side of the work brings the principal into contact with the heads of various bureaus — supplies, buildings, care of build- ings, etc. — and their subordinates. They rep- resent the department as concerned with its material needs, and frequently magnify that phase of the work. Rather, it seems that they occasionally suffer from mental lippitude which makes the motto " The schools exist for the pupils " read " The pupils exist for the schools." THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 73 It is but natural that people dealing with supplies instead of with pupils sometimes seem to feel that pupils should adapt themselves to supplies, and that the building bureau should expect pupils to grow to fit buildings ; just as other elements of the " system " sometimes err by creating the impres- sion that the schools exist for them, — for the janitors, or for the teachers, or for the principals, or for the superintendents. When in the material depart- ments there is this tendency to " put the cart be- fore the horse/ ' it is the duty of the principal to keep the true interests of the pupils before the official eye. Even if there be no specific rule to that effect, the principal will be following logical procedure if he conserves these interests of his pupils through his " instructional " superiors. There are advantages in presenting the claims of the school in the matter of equipment and supplies to the superintendent, and through him reaching the proper departments, rather than in dealing with them directly. If, for example, a sufficient quantity of needed supplies has not been delivered, it is logical for the principal to notify his superintendent that he is unable to comply properly with the require- ments of the course of study. 74 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL 3. The superintendent. The one official of the school system with whom the principal has the most direct and most frequent relations is his pro- fessional superintendent, who, in the language of Professor Chancellor, " is the representative of the schools, their accredited ambassador to the public, . . . the central officer of the school system.' ' * In the large systems this relationship is complicated by the existence of assistant superintendents. 2 Only by a proper balance of influence between the superintendent and the principal can the best results accrue. Presumably the principal has the grasp of local needs and detailed insight into the many corners of his school, while the superintendent has a clearer view of the broad needs of the system and an intelligent oversight of the many schools which, coordinated one with another, make up the system. Both viewpoints and forms of supervision contribute proportionately to the welfare of the pupils, and both are essential. The relation between superintendent and prin- 1 Our Schools, p. 133. 2 Known sometimes as associate, deputy, or district superin- tendents. New York has thirty-four; Philadelphia, sixteen; Chicago, thirteen ; Cleveland, six ; St. Louis, four ; San Francisco, five ; Seattle, three ; etc. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 75 cipal of necessity implies courteous consideration on both sides. The stronger the superintendent the larger the problems with which he concerns himself, and in their solution he is entitled to the earnest cooperation of all his subordinates. As the prin- cipals come into closer touch with the superin- tendent's problems than do the class teachers, it is from them that the superintendent may expect the most sympathetic assistance and loyalty. The principal owes his allegiance to his superintendent, and will consistently render it in full. The premise is, however, that the superintendent by nature and training so regards his office that for him supervision on any petty basis is impossible. His very largeness of attitude and action may lead him into minor errors of form and judgment, but his mental breadth will make these thoroughly forgivable, and in no way impair the devotion and loyalty of his subordinates. But if the superin- tendent is one who constantly violates the canons of supervision, then the position of the principal is indeed difficult, for loyalty can be founded only upon respect for official ability and personal char- acter. Hence there are two sides to the subject of loyalty ; if a superintendent is disloyal to his prin- 76 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL cipals, he can scarcely complain if he forfeits their loyalty to him. Three principles of supervision. It would be more convenient to assume that no superintendent ever strains the allegiance of his principals; but the facts do not support this assumption, and, as we are considering practical school administration, we cannot escape the subject. The situation fortu- nately is exceptional in its occurrence, but when it arises the principal confronts a puzzling but vital problem, and it is from the standpoint of his office that we must review the conditions. There are three chief principles of good supervision, valid for superintendent and principal alike, which a careless superintendent may violate. i. Avoid unnecessarily detailed supervision. The superintendent should not exercise unnecessarily detailed supervision. If he does, it usually implies that supervision of large problems is beyond his ability. If he is incapable of handling such matters as securing better school accommodations, raising the qualifications of teachers, attracting public opinion to the support of the schools, attacking some of the perplexing modern educational problems, then he must fill in his time showing principals THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 77 and teachers where to place the decimal point in a multiplication example. " The superintendent should have a large supervision over methods and over teaching, but he should be generous and liberal enough to leave all principals great freedom in working out their own problems. ,, x " The most current conception of an efficient supervisor or superintendent is one who claims freedom for him- self and grants it to others." 2 2. Respect administrative headship. The super- intendent should respect the administrative head- ship of the principal. In many cities this admin- istrative headship is specifically guaranteed by law. The principle is very clearly stated by the Boston School Committee in its annual report for 1906 (p. 20) : " The principals as the responsible administrative heads of their respective schools or districts are charged with the organization thereof, and the supervision and direction of their subordi- nates and pupils, and the general maintenance of order and discipline. Thus, in the administration of the school system, the teachers are responsible to the principals, the principals to the assistant 1 Earl Barnes, Report of Committee of Fifteen, p. 202. 2 Samuel T. Dutton, School Management, p. 13. 78 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL superintendents, the assistant superintendents to the superintendent, and finally, the superintendent to the board ; and this principle of direct account- ability on the part of subordinates to superiors exists throughout the entire code." ! A university president of large experience tells us that "... in dealing with the principal the superintendent should make his power just as little felt as possible. The consciousness of the principal as responsible head of the school should not be disturbed. On the other hand, the supreme power of the superintendent need not be abandoned." 2 1 New York: "Principals of schools are the responsible ad- ministrative heads of their respective schools. . . ." — 43, 1. Indianapolis: "Principals shall be held responsible for the general management of their several schools." — XV, 1. A type of succinct provision covering practically the entire duty of the principal is that of New Haven : "Principals shall be under the immediate direction of the Superintendent and his assistants. They shall be responsible for the general management, discipline and supervision of their schools. They shall see that the prescribed course of study is followed and that the rules and regulations of the Board, and all directions issued by the Super- intendent, assistant superintendents and supervisors are enforced. They shall direct and supervise the work of teachers, clerks and janitors. They shall have charge of their buildings and grounds and of all books, supplies, furniture and apparatus assigned to their schools." — 183. 2 J. G. Schurman, Report of Committee of Fifteen, p. 222. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 79 Translated into even more practical terms, this means that " the superintendent should supervise the principals, and the principals should supervise their own schools." ! In the practical application of this principle, the ultimate authority of the superintendent is never called into question; it is merely a matter of administrative method. The principle of direct administration should be strictly adhered to by the superintendent; and strict adherence should be expected by the principal, not because of any per- sonal feeling as to the importance of the principal's office, but solely because it is a valid principle, compliance with which conserves the best interests of the pupils. It is hardly necessary to defend the principle or even to illustrate it. Pupils should have consistent treatment from teachers; anything else is wasteful. It follows that teachers should receive orders only that are definite, consistent, and in accord with all correlated details. It is more probable that they will be such if they come through the principal than if the superintendent deals directly with the teachers. 3. Do not render ex parte judgments. The super- 1 Colonel F. W. Parker, Report of Committee of Fifteen, p. 219. 80 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL intendent should never render ex parte judgments. It is inevitable that complaints be made concerning principals. The principal deals directly or in- directly with hundreds or with thousands of people, and no executive, however competent, can please everyone. Indeed, there are many times when it would be maladministration for him to please. It must be remembered, too, that there is a difference between a complaint and a conviction. A super- intendent cannot justly condemn a principal merely because complaints are made of him. On the con- trary, it is the superintendent's duty to condemn the principal if investigated complaints convict him of wrongdoing. If a superintendent considers a complaint at all, he should do so seriously, and investigate it im- partially. For instance, a teacher should always have the right of appeal l from the decisions of the 1 The San Francisco method is so admirable that it is given here in full: "Any teacher, or other employee of the school department, act- ing under the jurisdiction of a principal, shall have the right to report in writing above his or her signature, in an unsealed communication addressed to the Board and placed in the hands of the principal for transmission to the latter, any and all violations of the Rules of the Board of which he or she may be cognizant ; in the same manner, to request from the Board an instruction or ruling for his THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 81 principal ; but this does not mean that the superin- tendent will gossip with a teacher about her prin- cipal, sympathize with her in her criticism of him, or give an offhand verdict against him. The prin- cipal, in this as in all cases, should be given due notice of the complaint and an opportunity to be heard. Only after all the evidence is in should the superintendent render any decision. Principal's procedure in case of improper super- vision. It is in one or more of these three directions or her guidance, in any matter of consequence concerning the discipline or welfare of the school department, not specifically provided for in the rules of the Board. "It shall be the duty of principals to acquaint themselves with the contents of all such unsealed communications addressed to the Board, which they may receive, indorsing same with the word 'forwarded,' and transmit the same to the Secretary of the Board within twenty-four hours from the time of receipt. " Complaints, reports or requests for instruction coming in this way to the Board of Education, will be dealt with on their merits, to the end that justice, harmony and good discipline may prevail throughout the school department, but in no instance shall the Board fail to condemn, censure, or subject to its disciplinary action, the maker of any false, frivolous, or malicious charge or allegation affecting employees of the school department or others." — 148. Superintendent Roncovieri states that they "feel that it is a good rule, although not used extensively, for the reason that it gives every teacher an opportunity to have her say." 82 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL that a superintendent is most liable to violate the rules of supervision. The occasional slip, unim- portant and clearly unintentional, the principal is under no obligation to recognize or resent ; but where the violations are made continually, the principal, for the sake of his school, cannot afford to overlook them. 1 In a case of this sort the principal's duty is to present his view of the matter first of all to the superintendent himself. If it concerns unneces- sarily detailed supervision, he will present the academic argument against it, reenforced by spe- cific instances of such supervision having impaired the work of his school and the progress of the pupils. If it concerns failure to recognize the administrative headship of the principal, he will show that such procedure is wasteful, and may cite, as an analogy, the discipline in well-ordered organizations other than school systems, and his own attitude toward his teachers (see p. 102). If it concerns the expres- 1 1 do not consider the extreme case, happily rare but unfor- tunately existent, where a superintendent, or anyone else in authority, brings personal animus into his dealings with a subor- dinate. Such a condition, like any other crisis in the life of an individual, simply throws him back upon his fundamental re- sources of personal and private philosophy. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 83 sion of ex parte judgments, he will present his appeal for justice and fair play and for judicial pro- cedure in the investigation of complaints. If the principal finds that the superintendent per- sists in ignoring his presentment, it is clearly his duty to appeal to the next higher authority, and, if neces- sary, by virtue of his general duty, to public opinion. He must be courteous, dignified, and dispassionate in his procedure. He will be guided by certain general considerations; he will take into account local conditions; he will balance his duty to con- serve the equilibrium of his school, which would lead him to postpone action until the strain ap- proaches the breaking point, against his duty to conserve the integrity of his school, which demands administration along lines of rational policy; he will stand upon the ground that " the right of appeal is an essential feature of democracy " ; l he will subordinate personal considerations, — such as his natural and legitimate ambition to win favor from his superiors, — to the conscientious performance of his duty toward his pupils ; and he will profit by 1 Seattle provides "The right of appeal to the Board of Directors shall in no case be denied to pupil, principal, teacher, or janitor.' 7 — XIV, 2. 84 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL the wrong attitude of his superior by reexamining himself to see that he, in turn, is maintaining the proper attitude toward his subordinates. 1 Two methods of interpreting orders. The prin- cipal, charged with carrying out the orders of his superior officers, finds two divergent methods of interpretation and action open to him: he may be either a strict constructionist or a loose con- structionist. The principal should adopt a con- sistent policy along one line or the other. If he is a strict constructionist, he will endeavor to obey to the letter every rule and every instruction from higher authority; if a loose constructionist, he will justify exercising his own judgment on the ground of the public interest. Following either course, he is likely to encounter trouble. In the one case, there will come a time when his obedience displeases his superior and he is accused of error in judgment in spite of his technical righteousness ; in the other case, he will be told that no exercise of his own judgment can condone official disobedience. The principal's predicament is somewhat analogous to that of the locomotive engineer under orders to 1 Cf. the principal's attitude toward his own mistakes (p. 27) and his attitude toward teachers (p. 102), THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 85 obey a hundred rules and regulations, compliance with which would make impossible his maintaining the schedule provided for his train : if he disobeys, he courts disaster and the wreck of his train; if he obeys, his train is always late and he loses his position. One superintendent censured his principals by circular letter because many of them, complying with the rules of the school board, dismissed their pupils at noon in the midst of a heavy storm. Part of his letter read : "Prin- cipals should use proper discretion in the interpretation of this [sic] by-law. The noon intermission could have been held from 12 : 30 until 1 : 30 p.m., or even from 1 until 2 ; and the afternoon session from 1 : 30 until 3 p.m., or from 2 until 3 p.m. The children should not have been sent into the street during a violent rainstorm.' ' With the censure omitted, the superintendent's letter could very properly have served as a ruling to cover future contingency. A rainstorm is not so rare an event as to be unforeseen by the framers of by-laws and regulations. 1 There was, however, no authority given to the principal 1 St. Louis, for example: "When at the close of a morning session there is unexpectedly a violent rain or storm, and there is danger that the health of the children might suffer if they were allowed to go home, the Principal may hold an 'Inclement weather session.' In such case there shall be a noon recess of twenty minutes, and the school shall be closed at half-past two o'clock p.m." — 3, XV. 86 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL by by-laws to change the session periods ; nor did the board, subsequent to the incident cited, amend its by- laws to give this authority to the principals. In the opinion of the superintendent the principals should have exercised discretion, but if they were to exercise discre- tion in the interpretation of certain other by-laws which are printed in the manual in type of the same size as the rule as to sessions, the superintendent would doubtless censure them for disobedience. The safest course. The principal cannot justify disobedience of instructions because his own opinion or his interpretation of public opinion does not indorse them. The responsibility rests upon those who issue the instructions, and the principal should permit them to carry the burden and be content in shouldering his own responsibilities, which are by no means few or unimportant. The principal's safest course is to reduce the problem to its lowest terms, and to act as a strict constructionist except under the stress of an emer- gency. He will give absolute obedience to all in- structions except when, in an emergency evidently unforeseen by the author of the instructions, it would endanger the pupils. This reduces the principal's responsibility to the justification of his judgment as to what constitutes an " emergency." THE PRINCIPAL AND THE AUTHORITIES 87 Summary. The principal's relationship with in- dividual members of the school board is indirect and informal ; with his educational superior officer, the superintendent, it is direct and formal. To the superintendent he owes allegiance, and he is justified in expecting a corresponding allegiance from the superintendent. The principal must be recognized as the administrative head of his school, he must be left free to deal with details, and he must not be prejudged on ex parte evidence. In his school the principal is the executive agent of the authorities above him. Directions to teachers and pupils must come through his office. He must obey orders literally except in the case of unforeseen emergencies. CHAPTER V THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS Securing the best teachers. No principal, how- ever competent, can make a success of his school unless he has a teaching force able to give his ideals actual classroom expression. It is essential that he gather around him strong teachers. This he can do only by being strong himself. He must establish for himself such a reputation for profes- sional ability and for just and considerate treat- ment, that teachers will, when they have an option, choose to work in the school over which he presides. Under whatever system of appointment the princi- pal works, whenever added effort will secure a better teacher, he must make the effort. The personal equation of course enters ; each principal will have his own teacher ideal. Teacher A may be excellent in the estimate of principal X, but not in that of principal Y. Teacher B may be as good a teacher, and yet not have the qualifications most esteemed by principal X, though she is entirely satisfactory to prin- cipal F. It is clear that X should get A into his school, 88 THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 89 and Y should get B ; yet frequently the reverse happens, by reason of the system of appointment or the difficulty of effecting transfers, or because of the neglect or indif- ference of the principals concerned. The ideal teacher. Even under the best of con- ditions, the principal seldom finds the ideal teacher ; yet he will, more or less consciously, have an ideal in mind, against which he measures all candidates. The subject of the ideal teacher has been a favorite theme with the pedagogical essayists. An extended chapter could scarcely encompass their mosaic manipu- lations of nouns and adjectives. A good idea of what is expected of a teacher may be gained by reading the forms provided for reports on teachers. In Richmond, for example, the principal reports on the following items : I. Physical Efficiency General impression; health; voice; energy; endurance. II. Morals — Native Efficiency Self-control ; optimism ; enthusiasm ; tact ; industry; earnestness; adaptability to situa- tions of administration ; sense of humor ; dis- cernment of motive in administration. III. Administrative Efficiency Initiative; promptness in response; accuracy (in school detail, in reporting incidents) ; econ- omy (time, property). QO THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL IV. Dynamic Efficiency Preparation (intellectual capacity, academic or foundational education, professional training) ; professional attitude and interest; apprecia- tion of intellectual, social, and moral values; instructional skill (attention and interest of pupils, vitality of instruction, organization and presentation of subject, eliciting pupil's contribution and participation, effective use of materials and apparatus, assignment of work, government — discipline). V. Achieved Efficiency Respect of pupils and community ; leadership — stimulation of individuals and community; school achievement. VI. Social Efficiency Visits to homes of pupils ; assisted in clubs, en- tertainments, games, etc., intramural interests ; extramural interests (cultural, civic, athletic, philanthropic, religious). The teacher is the product of the two factors, native ability and training. Her natural equip- ment consists of her physique, 1 and that " vague, 1 "Any person appointed teacher or principal must pass a physi- cal examination given by the Medical Director of the Board of Education, who shall certify that the person is in sound physical health. If such a certificate cannot be secured, a contract shall not be issued." — Detroit, III, 2. This is the practice in many cities. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 91 indefinite, spiritual quality/ ' which we call per- sonality ; her training gives her formal scholarship, general culture, and the more special equipment of professional and technical education. But it is only the actual test in the classroom that can demon- strate a teacher's value. Even an experienced super- visor, in forming his opinion of a teacher when limited to a conference with her, will occasionally err in his judgment as to her actual worth. Assigning the teacher. Having secured the near- est available approach to the ideal teacher, the principal must next see that she is assigned to the work for which she is best fitted. If the round pegs are in the square holes and the square pegs in the round holes, any organization will lack stability and effectiveness. Accordingly, the principal will study to place each teacher where she can give the most to the school and at the same time be content and cheerful through interest in her work. As a rule, the inexperienced teacher should be given neither the first-year pupils nor those of the higher grades; and if there are all-boys' and all-girls' classes in the school, she should be given a class of girls. Yet there is an occasional beginner who seems immediately fitted for service in a difficult class of 92 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL boys, in which case the school should not lose her service by reason of any rigid rule of assignment. It is often advantageous to consult teachers as to their preferences and their estimates of their own aptitudes. 1 Knowing the teachers. It is important for the principal to know his teachers. Kipling's subaltern in the Brushwood Boy is advised : " Get to know your men, young un, and they'll follow you any- where. That's all you want — know your men." The success of a school depends in large measure upon the intimacy established between the principal and his teachers. If the relation is merely the 1 San Francisco provides: "(a) At the close or at the beginning of the school year, principals shall classify their schools, assigning teachers to the class for which they consider them best fitted, sending reports of said classification within two weeks thereafter to the Board and to the Superintendent. Such assignments shall be subject to the approval of the Board." — 48. "Principals shall annually so assign teachers to classrooms that they shall alternate in the occupancy of desirable and undesirable rooms, avoiding as far as possible changes which will require moving desks." — 49. Portland, Ore., provides "Teachers in elementary schools shall be elected as assistants but shall not be assigned to grades or classes. Their assignment shall be left to the city superintendent of schools, who is hereby instructed to assign teachers so that pupils may remain with their respective teachers an entire year wherever practicable." — VII. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 93 formal business of the teacher rendering so many hours' service and the principal certifying that she has not shirked her work, the school may be well run, but it will lack that finer element which we call atmosphere. A cordial interest shown by the principal in the personal and professional welfare of his teachers — a personal friendship that knows their ambitions, hopes, and limitations, and a professional comradery that implies a sympathetic understanding of their daily problems — will bring about a maximum of effective result with a minimum of nerve strain for all concerned. Relation with teachers. The underlying duty of the principal toward his teachers is to help them serve their pupils; in proportion as he impresses upon them his ability and willingness to do this, he will have the loyal support of his staff, and, in con- sequence, his school will be recognized as doing much for its pupils. The formal assistance which he gives to teachers will be considered at some length later; let us first note the more informal phase of the relation between principal and teachers. "The principal's first duty is to his teachers, to help them grow professionally. ... In the performance of this duty he is subject to all the principles of method to which 94 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL they are subject, and should illustrate them continually in his contact with them. For that reason, he cannot be merely a judge of instruction, an inspector ; for, as such, he only passes upon the quality of a teacher's work, without aiding her greatly to improve. Nor can he be a dictator, merely giving her directions about what to do ; for as such he emphasizes obedience in intellectual matters, and thus puts restraint about her, while it is his duty to make her feel free. He is prevented from assum- ing these relations to his teachers, for the same reasons that they are prevented from assuming them toward their pupils. His general relation to his teachers, there- fore, is that of an adviser, basing his advice on reason, and granting their right to reject it. This relationship is especially worthy of emphasis in a great system of schools, where uniformity in matters not pertaining to instruction is of the highest importance." 1 The new teacher. The principal should have a conference with the newly appointed teacher in which he outlines the ideals for the school, indicates what her contributions may be, and gives her appropriate advice and caution. The new teacher for some time will need and will welcome detailed and specific practical directions for her classroom guidance. As she grows in professional skill and 1 Frank M. McMurry, Report on School Inquiry, New York, i9ii-i3,vol. i, p. 335. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 95 strength, the principal will less and less restrict her, and more and more urge and encourage her to express herself in her work. The result will be that as she progresses in years of service she makes a proportionate advance in personal growth and culture. 1 On one hand he will commend improve- ment in her work whenever he can, praise rather than censure, and by an example of cheerful optimism guide her over the rough places of her day's work. On the other hand, he will not let her settle into a smug conceit that she has " finished " her training and may spend the balance of her career running in one well-oiled groove. By example and precept the principal will encourage his colaborers to self- culture ; maintaining an up-to-date teachers' library, stirring teachers to develop outside interests that will enlarge their horizon and broaden their sym- pathies, leading them to recognize the need of out- door exercise, encouraging them to make profitable friendships, stimulating them to independent study 1 "All teachers will be diligent students of the science and art of education through the use of the pedagogical as well as other departments of the public library and the standard periodicals of the day. All opportunities for special or general culture which are within their reach and means should be employed for the furtherance of this end." — Cleveland, 12, 96 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL and thinking, and sending them to visit other schools. A few cities are advancing toward the idea of a sab- batical year. New York, Detroit, and some others, grant a leave of absence not exceeding one year, but without pay. Rochester makes more liberal provision. "Any teacher or principal who shall have served the city of Rochester for seven years, may, on recommendation of the Superintendent and with the approval of the Board of Education, be granted leave of absence for study or travel," on certain conditions. "Such leave shall not be granted for less than one full semester, nor shall it exceed one year in duration. It shall not be granted more than once in eight consecutive years." "Salary during such leave shall be one-half the applicant's regular salary, but in no event shall it exceed one thousand dollars." A few cities are getting the benefits of exchange of teachers. Superintendent Alderman, of Portland, Ore., in his Annual Report, 1916-17, says, "Our plan of ex- change of teachers with other cities was carried on last year with highly gratifying results. Last year we had exchanges with school systems in the states of Massachu- setts, New York and Ohio. This year we are to have an exchange with Chicago, the first city of its size to recog- nize our system of exchange." Visiting schools. Visitation of other schools by teachers should neither be neglected nor done THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 97 perfunctorily. The Board of Education of Roch- ester " deems it the professional duty of every teacher to visit other schools." A teacher may gain by seeing better work than she herself is doing, getting the stimulus to do better work herself ; or, if she is an excellent teacher and is in a temporary despair over her work, she may regain her self-con- fidence by learning that other teachers likewise suffer. In either case she should visit in the right spirit, knowing what she is going out for, getting it if she can, and if not, getting what she can. 1 1 Oakland calls for a report in the following form : Oakland Public Schools Teacher's Professional Visitation Report Date Teacher's Signature School Grade or Subject Grades or classes Names of teachers Time of visited visited Visits Suggestions for improvement and development from above visits. 1 2 3 etc. The following suggestions as to visitation are offered by the Board of Superintendents, New York City : Time : Mondays and Fridays are not usually the best days for visiting. The first fortnight and the last fortnight of a term are valueless for this purpose, as is the day preceding or following a holiday. 98 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Three kinds of teacher. The principal finds that his teachers are of three kinds, — those who do, those who don't, and those who neither do nor don't. He will have to curb the first, prod the second, and labor with the third. i. The painstaking teacher. Many a painstaking, successful teacher contracts that disease which, Who : Inexperienced teachers should first visit classes taught by excellent teachers in their own school. If inexperienced teachers are sent to another school, it is advisable, at times, to send them with the experienced grade leader. Excellent teachers are frequently stimulated by visits to other schools. Attitude: The visiting teacher should disturb the regular work of the class as little as possible. All conferences should take place during intermissions, or after school hours. There should be a feeling on the part of both the class teacher and the visitor that the object of visiting is self -improvement. The attitude should be that of the student, and not that of the critic. Visiting teachers should be willing to observe the work of the class as it is being pursued. Report : When a teacher returns from a visit, an oral report should be made to the principal. If anything new or worth while has been seen, it should be made a part of the calendar of the next teachers' conference in that school. What to Note : It is suggested that each principal devise a form that will instruct and guide the visiting teacher in methods of observation or inspection of work. Such instructions may include a few or all of the following : i. Classes and subjects observed. 2. Outline of lesson, or plan of presentation and development. 3. Was the work observed primarily a teaching, drilling, or testing exercise? 4. What were the good points in the manner, methods, and spirit of the teacher visited? 5. Cooperation between teacher and pupils. 6. What good books, illustrative material, teaching aids and devices did you notice? 7. Helpful suggestions for work in your own class. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 99 for lack of a more expressive title, I must call " schoolitis." In her conscientious devotion and zeal she is eating, drinking, and sleeping " school." She takes home armfuls of spelling papers, composi- tions, and other written material, and pores over them into the late evening, coming to school the next day after a restless night. The principal must diagnose such a case promptly, and apply the remedies heroically. The teacher must be trained to stay in school after session long enough to finish properly the day's work and to prepare for the work of the following day. No papers are to be taken out of the building. When the teacher locks her desk, she must lock in it all the irritating details of the school day, and walk out into the open air with a mind free from anxiety for the morrow. She must get a complete change of atmosphere during the evening, seeking recreation and pleasure, and enjoy a night's wholesome sleep. Her value to her class the next day will, in consequence, be far in excess of what it would have been had she corrected five times as many papers at the expense of a serious drain on her vitality. 1 1 "Never take any work home from school ! What cannot be done at the desk should be hired out. The money will be more ioo THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL The time consumed and the labor involved in the teacher's correction of pupils' written work during what should be her recuperating hours are not the only counts against the practice. Perhaps the most serious feature is that the teacher is deliberately reliving the events of the day. Each paper she takes up, each blot, each crease, each erasure, is likely to recall an incident of the day's work that might better be forgotten. Once is usually as many times as any particular school day should be lived. 2. The neglectful teacher. Occasionally a teacher is willfully or carelessly neglectful of her work. profitably spent than if put into the contribution box of a church or the strong box of a lyceum lecturer. . . . Do not live or mix with other teachers. . . . Don't talk shop. Of all shop-talk, school-shop is the dullest to an outsider. "A teacher ought to know folks. Books will not do, even the best of them. You are not teaching little books how to become nice big books, but young humans how to become fine men and women." — Katherine Kingsley Crosby, " The Teacher and Herself " in Educational Review, November, 1914. Superintendent Carlos M. Cole, of Denver, circularizes his principals as follows: "Extra work after school is bad for the teacher as well as the child. The teacher cannot be in good con- dition for the following day's work if the custom of keeping school after hours is persistently maintained. Teachers should give classes the very best within their power during the school hours, and after school hours should be content to leave the buildings within an hour after the time of dismissal. Teachers owe it to the children to be in good physical and mental condition. Buoyancy of spirit and happiness mean much to the young, and such a con- dition obtains only when teachers are not overworked." THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 101 Usually her neglect is due to a lack of a sense of responsibility. A common type of the neg- lectful teacher is one who has merely stumbled into the vocation, and, consciously or unconsciously, regards it as a makeshift or means of temporary employment. She — more probably it is he — may be making teaching merely a source of income while preparing for some more congenial or more remu- nerative profession. Or her first interest may be in the social life, with teaching but a painfully neces- sary incident to be borne as lightly as possible until matrimony rescues. Such teachers almost always have positive native qualities, earnestness, energy, determination, cheerfulness, and the like. All that is necessary is to bring the teacher to a realizing sense of her responsibilities and the seriousness of her position. Then she must be dealt with un- flinchingly. If she does not come to put her ener- gies into the right direction the principal must move promptly to force her out. Neglect of duty is a generally recognized index of inefficiency, and is a form of incompetence that can most readily be proven when a formal charge is made. 3. The colorless teacher. The teacher who is negatively rather than positively good or bad, who ^02 #r .XH^'.MANApEMi:NT OF A CITY SCHOOL is passive, indifferent, and colorless, is a serious problem. Frequently, circumstances are such that she cannot be classed as incompetent and dismissed on this charge ; nor can she be regarded as a positive and profitable force in the school. With such a teacher the principal can only struggle as best he may, charging her to " profit and loss " on the school ledger, and reconciling himself, if necessary, by remembering that " the poor ye have always with you." Principal's attitude toward teachers. By way of approach to the more formal methods of assisting teachers, let us consider the official attitude of the principal toward them. Respect for the teacher's authority. The prin- cipal must make it a point at all times to respect the authority of the teacher. She must be recog- nized, and must be taught to recognize herself, as the administrative head of her class, just as the principal is the acknowledged administrative head of his school. Indeed, the principal should be, if anything, less jealous of his own administrative authority than he is solicitous to respect that of the class teacher. The concrete application of this principle in the presence of pupils does much, THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 103 through the creation of an atmosphere, to further the general good discipline of the school. For instance, in going into a classroom to make an an- nouncement to the pupils, the principal will interrupt the teacher and the work of the class only after saying, " Excuse me, Miss Blank ; I wish to make an announce- ment to the class," or using some similar expression. When he wishes to send a pupil on an errand, he will ask permission to do so of the teacher of the class, and pos- sibly leave it to her to decide which pupil is to be selected. If the principal wishes to know whether a certain boy is in a certain class, he will not bolt into the room with the inquiry addressed to the class. He will quietly ask Miss Blank if the boy is there ; if he is, and the principal wishes to speak to him, he will ask Miss Blank to call the boy to the front. Care about such apparently unimportant matters may seem like unnecessary nicety, but it is care which yields much in results. The principal sacrifices none of his authority. The teacher knows well enough that the principal has the " right" to do these things in the more direct and abrupt way. She must already have gained a respect for him through his demonstrated ability ; and these little courtesies in no way diminish that respect. The large man does not need to advertise his authority ; it is only the small man who is constantly parading his power. The pupils are keen to note 1 104 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL that the teacher has an authority which even the principal respects, and their own respect for that authority is thus enlarged. The consistent practice of formal courtesy in dealing with teachers is one means by which the principal gives notice to the pupils, and particularly to the pupils inclined to be unruly, that he stands constantly ready to support the teacher in maintaining discipline. Not only will the principal respect the teacher's authority when in the presence of pupils, but he will further recognize her individuality in all his official dealings with her. At conferences he will defer to her judgment and carefully weigh her contributions. He will encourage her to express herself in her class- room methods and defend her own ideas, even when they are at variance with his. Nevertheless, there is much that the principal can do in the planning of teachers' work, in the interest of both teachers and pupils. Carrying out plans involves instructing teachers, and this subject demands consideration. Instructing teachers. All instructions to teachers should be definite and to the point. The fewer they are, the more likely are they to be respected. They should not be hastily issued, but should be the THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 105 result of deliberation, and should be reasonable and justifiable. In any system the teacher should at all times have the right of appeal from the decisions of the principal. Good teachers will never appeal from reasonable orders. If an order' is likely to seem in any way mysterious, it is wise, whenever practicable, to explain the reason for issuing it. The right of principals to issue unexplained orders is not ques- tioned, but teachers appreciate the principal's taking them into his confidence, and respond more heartily to directions whose justification they thoroughly understand. Orders versus suggestions. Teachers should be trained to distinguish between orders and sugges- tions, and the principal's statements should be so phrased as to show clearly which they are. For example, the principal may order teachers to report for a certain duty at a certain time. If they willfully fail to comply with this direction, they are guilty of insubordination and may be treated accordingly. He may suggest that teaching a certain geography lesson with a globe is better than teaching it with a map. If a teacher fails to follow this suggestion, she is in no sense insubordinate, and, provided her preference for the other method is sincere, she should jo6 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL not be criticized for disregarding the principal's suggestion. If the principal should conclude that there are sufficient reasons why his method ought to be followed, then he may prescribe that method and direct its use, which would completely change the character of the action of any teacher who then insisted on using the contrary method. Written instructions. Instructions may be writ- ten or oral. If they need little explanation, or if they are of permanent value or of special importance even temporarily, they should be written, and their receipt acknowledged by each teacher. 1 The value of such receipt is that the principal can readily 1 Instruction sheets should never be circulated by means of a pupil-monitor except in the case of notices which are to be read by the teachers to their pupils. It is well to caution the teachers generally as follows: "Do not permit pupils to see notices to teachers. Do not take them into your confidence as to any of the limitations put upon school officers and teachers." Miss Kate Van Wagenen, principal, Public School 53, Man- hattan, New York, suggests the following practice: "When information is desired from each class, the teacher is requested to have this ready by a certain hour, when it will be called for. There are captains on each floor and each one understands that when a notice for information appears on the bulletin boards, she is to collect at the hour mentioned and transmit promptly to the office. If the information is not ready, the captain checks up the teachers and then the principal gets the information promptly without sending to the laggards for it." THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 107 check up the circulation of his instruction sheet, and also can convince the forgetful teacher who has failed to comply with a particular instruction that the fault is her own. The circular instructions should be kept by the principal for some time for reference and retrospective study. Their preserva- tion also provides against the rare but troublesome case of the willfully insubordinate teacher against whom the principal may have to prefer charges, in which event the written acknowledgment of the receipt of instructions becomes valuable evidence. The fundamental code of instructions may profitably be formulated in a multigraphed set of General Regula- tions with the preamble, "All teachers will please comply with the following regulations : — " and listing all the important rules of a permanent character that teachers are to follow, such as those applying to teachers' absence, records, visitation of other schools, correspondence with parents, classroom visitors, care of classroom, of equip- ment, and of books, detention of pupils, punishment of pupils, pupils leaving the room, etc. Each teacher, upon beginning service in the school, should be provided with a copy of the General Regulations. An effective method of calling the attention of a teacher to her violation of one of the rules is to send her a fresh and marked copy. Supplementary instructions, if issued in uniform size 108 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL and arrangement, can be conveniently kept by each teacher in a loose-leaf cover. 1 Oral instructions. Oral instructions are given to teachers individually, or to various groups. The teachers' meeting should be for either instruc- tion or conference, and it is well to emphasize the distinction. When it is for the giving of instructions only, the teachers should clearly so understand it. The principal should be careful in giving such instructions not to wander, and yet to take time enough to clear up any difficulties. The teachers' conference. As for the conference, suggestions to the principal are : i. Do not have too many meetings. 2 An occasional, enthusiastic conference is worth more than several formal meetings coming at stated and frequent intervals. 1 New Haven, however, provides that principals "shall main- tain, in every school building, in a place convenient of access for all teachers and pupils, a school bulletin board upon which shall be placed notices and information which are of general importance to the school. They shall not allow the circulation of notices of any sort from room to room or from teacher to teacher through the school, nor shall they allow pupils to pass from room to room giving notices, exhibiting articles that have been found or soliciting information about articles lost. All information, notices and in- quiries of this nature shall be placed upon the bulletin board." — 193. 2 Many cities prescribe the number of meetings. For example, New Orleans: The principal "shall hold a teachers' meeting THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 109 2. Encourage teachers to talk. Emphasize the thought that a conference is not a monologue, and that all are invited and expected to contribute. It ought not to be possible for a teacher to leave a meeting with the remark, justly made, "Another hour wasted." 3. Be patient with the diffident teachers or those of slower understanding ; get their viewpoint and sympa- thize with their limitations and their endeavors. 4. Do not let the subject get away. While general discussion is to be encouraged, it must be kept germane to the subject in hand. 5. Get something for yourself. It must be accounted an unsatisfactory meeting if you do not bring from it some new idea, some fresh impulse, or some happy in- spiration, which shall in time react upon your school. As to the comparative value of the different-sized groups, it may be said that (1) in the school con- ference the principal will exercise his larger influence, establish his standards, set forth his ideals, and create his atmosphere; (2) in the grade or group conference, he will do his most effective detailed within the week following the second Friday of each school month, and such other meetings as he may deem to be of advantage to the efficiency and discipline of his school." — XII, 17. Cleveland, on its "Teacher's Personal Report," has the items "Number Times Absent from Teachers' Meetings," and "Number Times Tardy at Teachers' Meetings" with the direction "State on reverse page causes of irregularities marked." no THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL work ; and (3) in the individual conference, he will correct the personal errors, encourage the faltering teacher, and inspire the strong to further suc- cesses. Criticism. This leads to that particular form of instruction, criticism. The principal should not criticize a teacher at all until he has carefully thought out the matter; but having decided that criticism is needed, he must administer it promptly and courageously. It must always be given in a judicial, dispassionate attitude; never should the shortcoming of the teacher be construed as an offense against the principal. Never should the principal make an ex parte judgment ; he should be sure of his ground before treading on it. Never should he criticize, and rarely should he instruct, teachers in the presence of their pupils. 1 The individual transgressor among the teachers should be dealt with individually ; she and her transgression should not be reached through a general criticism applied to all. Oral criticism is usually more satisfactory than 1 "Principals must at all times address their teachers in a courteous manner, and under no circumstances must they repri- mand, adversely criticize or do anything that will humiliate a teacher in the presence of the pupils." — San Francisco, 32, 9. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS in written. The written note is cold, formal, and often misleading. The conference gives opportunity for question and answer and a better understanding. Verbal expression can give a sympathetic color to criticism which the written word cannot convey. In such a conference the principal must be frank and truthful. He must make his appeal to the teacher as her official adviser and personal friend, and lead her to correct herself rather than dogmatically to superimpose his own formal instructions. By deliberate planning the principal may help teachers to improve their work (i) on the quanti- tative side and (2) on the qualitative side. 1. Improving work as to quantity. On the quantitative side, the chief lines of planning are : a. Uniform interpretation of the course of study. b. Subdivision of the work of the term. c. Teachers' records of plans and progress. d. Daily time schedules. a. Interpretation of the course of study. The principal works through a course of study established by higher authority for all the schools in the system. There can be great difference in the interpretation of the curriculum by different principals within the same system ; and the principal should, and usually 112 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL does, have the authority to interpret and modify the course to suit the peculiar needs of his particular locality. It is his duty to see that teachers empha- size the proper topics in the course and do not lose time by a disproportionate attention to the relatively unimportant items. Teachers should be encouraged, when in doubt as to how intensively they should consider a topic in any subject, to ask the principal for a ruling. The principal's rulings, in turn, should, through their consistency, bring about a well- balanced treatment of all subjects throughout the successive grades of the school. b. Subdivision of the term's work. The work of the term should be subdivided, perhaps into each month's work, — probably not to any finer subdivi- sion, — in order: (i) that the teacher shall not mismanage her term's work by an incorrect estimate of the time it takes to cover various topics, for without such a plan she is apt to give too detailed attention throughout the early weeks of the term, to discover too late that the required work left undone cannot possibly be completed in the remaining days ; and (2) that the pupils in different classes of the same grade may work along approximately the same lines, taking up topics in about the same order, thus THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 113 making easy the transfer of pupils from class to class within the grade during the term. Such subdivision of work should be planned by the principal and teachers of the grade working together. The teachers should be brought in, first, because they are intimately acquainted with the detail work and are usually able to counsel wisely ; and, secondly, because they will the more readily and successfully carry out a plan which they have helped to make. The resulting plan should be clear and definite, and yet not too detailed. Furthermore, it should be considered, as should all plans of the school, as tentative and subject to immediate change whenever such change is clearly advisable. At the begin- ning of each term the principal might well have a series of grade conferences in which the subdivision plans in each grade would be considered and amended to such an extent and in such manner as the expe- rience of the term past seemed to warrant. c. Plan and progress records. Teachers may be required to keep plan and progress books, the former by way of prophecy of the coming day's work, the latter to record fulfillment. In the plan book are to be set forth " in logical order from day to day the 114 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL various facts and principles to be taught under each subject, with sufficient detail to illustrate clearly what is meant.' ' The progress book, on the other hand, shows what has actually been accomplished. 1 The two records may be kept separately or to- gether. 2 The chief points of value of plan and progress records are: (i) for the pupil, a more profitable recitation, more forceful and vigorous teaching, and more carefully selected and prepared work; (2) for the teacher, freedom from anxiety 1 See " Progress Note Books and Group Teaching," by Charlotte E. Barnum, in Bulletin of the Brooklyn Training School for Teach- ers, January, 1918, presenting a plan by which is recorded the " progress of each individual child instead of attempting to state that of the class as a whole," "giving a maximum of information about each individual with a minimum of clerical work." Allied to this plan is the "Rabenort-Byrne Pupil Proficiency Chart" which "keeps before the pupil a graphic record of daily growth," "jmakes the pupil self-critical by revealing the strong spots and the weak spots in his term record," and "silently convinces [ the pupil that the teacher does not promote or retard, but, that the pupil by his own record retards or pro- motes himself." Dr. William Rabenort is principal, Public School 55, The Bronx, New York City. Miss Mary B. C. Byrne is model teacher, Summer School of Observation, Uni- versity of Pennsylvania. 2 Some principals require each teacher to file a monthly state- ment showing "Work accomplished" in each subject. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 115 as to what to do next, and the benefits that always accrue from careful preparation, since it is unwise for any teacher to attack a lesson trusting to the inspiration of the moment; (3) for the substitute, easy taking up of the precise work of the day; (4) for the principal, superintendent, or other visitor, a bird's-eye view of the teacher's and pupils' work. It is easy, however, to overdo the plan-book idea, as all other formulae, and a few cautions must be added as an offset to the above summary of ad- vantages. If the plan and progress books are in any degree elaborate in form and substance, (1) there is a tendency to regard the books as an end in them- selves instead of merely a means; (2) there may develop an indifference to class spirit and to the finer elements of class activity; (3) emphasis may seem to be placed on the pouring-in work of the teacher at the expense of response on the part of the pupils ; (4) the principal may be tempted to substitute an inspection of these books for an investigation of the actual work of the teacher and class. To secure the happy mean between no plan books and books which are too elaborate is an important Ii6 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL duty of the principal. 1 It is advisable to require different degrees of preparation by different teachers, demanding from the beginning teacher a more detailed plan and a more exact record of progress than from the more experienced teachers. For the experienced teacher the following form of plan book will prove sufficient. An ordinary memoran- dum book, about 4" by 6", with a horizontal ruling, indexed as shown, will give a line or two for each sub- ject and a double page for each day. 1 Philadelphia provides teachers with the following form in loose-leaf : Teacher Grade, Room No Lessons for week ending , 191 Topics for Week (Only for branches indicated) Arithmetic : Language : . History : . . . Geography : Physiology : Daily Lessons (Prepare and record lessons, including music, drawing, gymnastics, etc., daily in advance) Monday [Followed by ample space, ruled. Tuesday also on the obverse side of the sheet and the three following days on the reverse] THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 117 Throughout the day, as the work in any subject is completed, a concise note is made of what it is planned to take up the next day. By the close of the day the book is thus already written up for the following day. Entries in pencil are usually sufficient. The same book serves all necessary purposes as a progress book, because the difference between the work planned for any one day and for the day following will indicate the work accom- plished on the first of the two days. Emphasis on progress may be made by checking the items as the work is accomplished, or by checking in color, work which it was necessary to postpone to the following day. Ii8 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL d. Daily time schedule. A daily program or time schedule is needed as a matter of system for the teacher, in order that she may properly pro- portion the minutes of the school day to the separate features of the work in hand. The program should be the product of the work of both the principal and the teachers concerned. He should prescribe the general principles, and they should work out the detail, subject to his final review and approval. 1 The following principles should be observed in the construction of the time schedule : i. The time schedule must be mathematically correct. If the school time of the week or month is, by schedule issued by the school board or the super- intendent, allotted to the different subjects in the curriculum, the aggregate time for each subject on the daily schedule must agree with the authorized totals. 2. Unassigned time, if allotted by the author- 1 The required practice varies in different cities. Respon- sibility for the program is usually placed specifically upon the principal. Portland, Ore., however, provides that "The teacher of each grade shall prepare a program of daily exercises, a copy of which shall be kept posted on the inside and another copy on the outside of her schoolroom door." Some cities place the duty upon the teachers, with the proviso that the programs shall be ap- proved by the principal, and sometimes, too, by the superintendent. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 119 ized schedule, must be wisely distributed in the daily program, in accordance with local needs. 3. The schedules for the various classes must be so arranged as to avoid conflict of recesses, assemblies, and other group or general exercises. 4. The number of subjects daily and the length of time given to each must be regulated and varied according to the grade of the class. Pupils in lower grades need frequent change of occupation, with periods not too long to be exhausting. Higher grade pupils take longer periods, — up to forty or fifty min- utes, — which reduces the daily number of subjects. 5. There should be a proper distribution of subjects, an alternation, first, of those which in- volve different phases of effort on the part of the pupil, and secondly, of those which are taxing, including writing, spelling, basal reading, drill arithmetic, etc., and those which are relaxing. It would appear that there is in the human individual a fairly regular alternation of maxima and minima of vital energy ; and that the periods of maxima are ap- proximately from 9 : 30 to n : 00, both morning and afternoon, and the two periods of minima approxi- mately from 3 to 4, both morning and afternoon. Failure to take this fact into account may result 120 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL in pupils becoming fatigued beyond the point of normality. Fatigue is a physical matter, concerned with brain cells, motor centers, muscles, etc. It is not to be con- fused with weariness, ennui, or boredom, which is psy- chological. Weariness may cause a subjective feeling of fatigue and hence may be mistaken for fatigue. One might listen for an hour to a lecture, perhaps on peda- gogy, and be "bored to death." It means that the speaker has been dull and uninspiring and the listener, who has been under a strain trying to keep awake for ap- pearance' sake, has gone away tired out. On the con- trary, the lecturer might hold and inspire his audience and carry them through an hour of close thinking with the result that they would be physically, though happily, tired out from the strain of continued attention. Work, under proper conditions, is healthful and neces- sary to well-being. The strain resulting from complete reaction to work, proper in kind and amount, is normal fatigue. Only when the toxins produced by fatigue are allowed to accumulate by an undue proportion of work to rest, and, perhaps, too, as the result of worry and other factors, does the fatigue become abnormal and dangerous. It is then pathological fatigue. The proper alternation of school subjects in the daily program serves to create the cadence of stress and respite which prevents fatigue from running to abnormality. Several studies concerning the relation of school work to THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 1 21 fatigue have been made. The result is almost to con- vince us that the more we learn about fatigue the less we know. 6. The degree of rigidity of the schedule may- vary with the experience and ability of the teacher. The new teacher will need the detailed supervision that is involved in being required to adhere closely to an exact allotment of time and lessons. Such a teacher will have a schedule of the usual form, in which is indicated, for each day of the week, the exact order of all exercises and the time to be devoted to each. An excellent form is that in use in Worcester, Mass., shown on page 122. Liberal interpretation should be allowed to ex- perienced teachers. Conditions vary within a class from time to time. The physical environment, the weather, interruptions by visitors, special exercises, special absence of pupils in large number, and many other causes, contribute to make one Tuesday, for instance, quite different from another. The expe- rienced teacher may be trusted to evaluate these variations and to modify her day's program accord- ingly. For such a teacher a schedule may be pro- vided in which the number of minutes daily for each subject is prescribed and she is left free to make 122 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Mi Mil lis IH b i in Iff™ hi liilr i » * o o .5* 4) IS •fit &>s- a^ a e §-s s iif j-s -si §,- . |288^S [Sg 8 f | S 8 S ft S? U^^iss |Sgg^S| S8^S | 3 • * * 4 # S i i £*£4* i g 2 * I s THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 123 such distributions of the periods through the day as may seem best. The following is a convenient form : FLEXIBLE DAILY TIME SCHEDULE Class Room Showing number of minutes to be devoted to each subject daily Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Opening Exercises Physical Training Recess from . . . to . . . Games from . . . to . . . Shop, Cook- ing, Sew- ing, from ... to . . . Study Unassigned . Total. . . - Opening Exercises Physical Training Recess from . . . to . . . Games from . . . to . . . Shop, Cook- ing, Sew- ing, from . . . to . . . Study Unassigned . Total. . . — Opening Exercises Physical Training Recess from . . . to . . . Games from . . . to . . . Shop, Cook- ing, Sew- ing, from . . . to . . . Study Unassigned . Total . . . — Opening Exercises Physical Training Recess from . . . to . . . Games from . . . to . . . Shop, Cook- ing, Sew- ing, from . . . to . . . Study Unassigned. Total. . . - Opening Exercises Physical Training Recess from . . . to . . . Games from . . . to . . . Shop, Cook- ing, Sew- ing, from . . . to . . . Study Unassigned . Total. . . In determining the order in which these subjects are to be taken, the teacher will exercise her judgment, remembering (1) that pupils are influenced by conditions which may differ from day to day ; (2) that subjects which are taxing and those which are relax- ing should be properly alternated ; and (3) that the curve of fatigue shows a minimum amount of energy available between 11 and 12. Teachers applying this schedule must remember (1) that relaxation may take the form of either rest or rec- reation; (2) that gymnastics are not essentially relaxing, but, measured by the amount of normal fatigue produced, rank with the formal studies such as arithmetic and gram- 124 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL mar ; (3) that five two-minute periods of setting-up exer- cises are more valuable as relaxation than a ten-minute period of physical culture ; and (4) that rest may come from change of occupation, so that there is a certain degree of relaxation resulting from the proper alternation of the different phases of work. 2. Improving work as to quality. On the qual- itative side, the chief lines of planning are : a. Securing uniformity of methods. b. Securing correlation. c. Maintaining quality of pupils' work. d. Giving model lessons. a. Uniform methods. The principal will super- vise the work of teachers in such a way that the work of one grade will dovetail into the work of the next grade. Particularly will this be accomplished by prescribing uniform methods in those subjects which continue from grade to grade. For example, there are several methods of teach- ing problems in interest. Three teachers in three successive grades may each be expert in the handling of a different method. Yet it is better that the prin- cipal decide upon one method and prescribe its use in all three grades than that the pupil go from one method to the others, however excellent each may be. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 125 b. Correlation. Proper correlation must be ef- fected between the various subjects in each grade. Particularly is this necessary when the principal has administrative assistants with whom he shares the work of the school vertically, and in the depart- mental system, where the subjects of the same grade are taught by several teachers. c. Quality of pupils 7 work. Some system should be established for commending the good work of pupils and for condemning their poor work. For commendation, meritorious work may be sent to the principal's office, — at stated times of the day is probably best, — there to receive his personal approval, which, in addition to oral expression, may be indicated by his marking or stamping the paper Excellent, Very Good, etc., adding his signature. For work which should be commended but which has no tangible product, or which it may not be practicable to stamp, a commendation card, as shown here may Name FOR COMMENDATION Room For Date ...191... Approved . . Teacher 126 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL be issued by the teacher and presented by the pupil for his signature in approval. It is best to limit the use of such cards, perhaps to two per day per class. They may be used for a variety of cases : improvement, gen- eral or in some particular subject ; effort, specially ap- plied or general ; generally good deportment or lessons ; some particular exercise of marked excellence, as a good v composition, neat penmanship, a beautiful drawing, clean-cut gymnastics. Some cities provide a printed " Certificate of Merit " or " Reward of Merit " to be issued periodically to pupils "for correct deportment and diligent attention to studies/' or some other happily-phrased virtues, and to be signed by teacher, or principal, or both. Mr. Frederick W. Memmott, principal, Public School 2, Brooklyn, New York, uses a note form to the parent, reading, "Almost every day some pupil is sent to me with a particularly nice piece of work. You will be pleased to know that my visitor to-day was your . . ." Similarly, the teacher should have the opportunity of sending unsatisfactory written work to the principal. He may stamp the papers with some such form as : This work is below the average of the class. Kindly examine it and return it to the school, with your signature. Respectfully, [Signed] Principal. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 127 The papers are sent to the parent. It is not necessary that the receipted papers be returned to the office unless the teacher has doubt as to the genuineness of the parent's signature, in which case she should promptly refer it to the principal. He will investigate and, if the teacher's suspicion proves correct, dispose of it as a case of "discipline." There are certain advantages gained by sending papers home in this way: 1. It keeps the parents informed as to the pupil's progress, and most parents appreciate the information. 2. It spurs pupils to better work. 3. It helps establish the justice of a pupil's non-promo- tion at the close of the term ; a series of papers thus signed and returned by the parent precludes astonishment that his child failed of promotion. 4. The principal's stamp on a paper gives its reference to the parent added dignity and authority. If the parent wishes to reply in writing or by personal call, he knows that he must reckon with the principal, and naturally goes directly to him. The principal can best handle the interests of all concerned, and can best decide whether the teacher should be called to interview the parent. After a number of unsatisfactory papers of any one pupil have been sent home, with no material improvement resulting, or when the pupil's poor work is rather a matter of oral recitation, the"teacher should have the op- portunity of communicating with the parent by some such form as the following : 128 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Public School No. ioo, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, 19 M Dear : I am sorry that I must remind you that 's work in is still below the average of the class. Will you please to give the matter your attention and cooperate with us in securing better results? Respectfully, (Teacher.) This, and similar notes from teachers to parents, may, with good effect, be countersigned by the office thus : PLEASE SIGN AND RE- TURN TO THE SCHOOL [Principal] If necessary, this might be followed by other forms, read- ing 's poor work continues. It would be to h. . best interest if you would call here at your earliest convenience. or 's poor work still continues. Unless there is decided improvement immediately, . .he will be placed in the next grade below. It is well, too, to send such a form as : I am glad to inform you that has improved in THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 129 d. Model lessons. One of the most direct means of improving the teacher's work is the model lesson. The principal may often teach in the classroom with some other aim in view, 1 but when he is giving a model lesson he should keep in mind : 1. The lesson should be given in a constructive spirit and in an attitude that is in sympathy with the difficulties of the teacher. The aim is to help the teacher better her work ; there must be nothing of the " show off," no display of information or exploit- ing of ideas, but a straightforward demonstration to the teacher, either of general method or of the particular point that has baffled her, to help her in her actual difficulty. 2. The pupils should not be permitted to under- stand that the purpose of the principal is to teach the teacher. They should regard the teacher as thoroughly competent, and the principal's lesson as a mere incident in the day's proceedings. 3. The principal should, if possible, not interfere with the regular order of lessons, and should take no longer time with his model lesson than the teacher is expected to take in the same exercise. For the principal to drop into the classroom, become in- 1 See page 396, 130 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL terested in the work going on, take the exercise out of the hands of the teacher and display his own knowledge on the subject, is not to give a model lesson. In any such procedure he is likely to ramble away from the point of the lesson, to exceed the time scheduled, and to leave the subject in a worse condition than if the teacher had finished it in accordance with her own prearranged plan. 4. Teachers should be encouraged to ask for model lessons. Then, they should not always be given. The teacher should be expected to exhaust all other reasonable sources of assistance before appealing to the principal. That is, she should not be permitted to develop a weakness that would lead her to call for help before she had attempted to solve her problem herself. Even when she comes to the principal, if he, as is often the case, can help more by not giving a model lesson, then he should refrain. For instance, a teacher says : " Last term I had difficulty with the teaching of this topic. We have reached it for this term ; will you present the lesson to my class? " The principal replies : " In- dicate to me carefully the steps by which you presented it last term," and then attends to her demonstration of her own method. Upon her THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 131 completing it, he says : " At such a point you followed with such and such a point. Had you, instead, gone in this other direction and taken so-and-so, would it have been better? " The teacher grasps the idea, admits that her own method appears weak at just that point, and sees the better way. The principal then sends her back to her class to give the lesson herself in accordance with this new method which she herself has worked out. Such a disposition of the problem is of more value to the teacher than if the principal gives the lesson himself. However, if the teacher does not grasp the point made by the principal, or else does not agree that his method is an improvement on her own, he should try it in the class himself, with the result either that the inquiring teacher now understands the method, or that the teacher with doubts is convinced of its value. If the result of the lesson should indicate that the doubting teacher's skepti- cism was justified, the principal must frankly admit it and give the subject further study. 5. Every model lesson, given as such, should be followed by conference with the teacher. It may be pointed out to her that the principal, in giving the lesson, labors under a decided advantage in that he 132 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL brings with him novelty and authority, and under a decided disadvantage in that he does not know the individual pupils, their respective temperaments and abilities; and that these advantages and disad- vantages practically offset each other. The teacher should be asked to criticize the lesson just as the principal would criticize a similar lesson given by the teacher ; and the principal should take up each point of criticism or comment, and answer or explain it. Only by frank discussion can the teacher be led to see the better way and her pupils get the ulti- mate benefit of improved methods by the teacher. 6. Finally, the principal should keep a careful record of such service rendered to teachers, noting the teacher's name, class, general conditions, subject taught, length of lesson, results of conference, etc. This is frequently specifically required by by-laws of boards of education. The principal will remember that he is not the only one who can give model lessons. Every good teacher is pretty sure to excel in some points. The school should draw, for the common good, upon every teacher's special excellence. The principal should arrange for interchange of teachers in ob- serving one another's best work. It makes for the THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 133 finest professional good will if the principal some- times, in replying to the request of a teacher for a model lesson, says, " I should be glad to give such a lesson, but Miss X can do it much better than I ; we will ask her to give it." On the whole, as to the qualitative work of the teacher, if the principal will protect her from out- side interference, from parents, book agents, can- vassers, and even from himself and other supervisors, equip her with automatic aids such as have been indicated, and develop in the teaching corps a spirit of generous rivalry in sharing new methods, new devices, and new sources of inspiration, he may hold her responsible for quality and results, and in the majority of cases he will get them without further effort. Rating teachers. A school system must have some record of the quality of the work of the indi- vidual members of its teaching force. This con- cerns the principal, for it is usually upon his judg- ment, in whole or in part, that the official rating of his teachers depends. The rating of teachers, then, is a necessary but not very pleasant duty of the principal. He will determine his ratings by com- bining two factors: (a) the general day-by-day 134 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL impression which he has of each teacher, and (b) special consideration of her work. 1 a. By general impression. There are many op- portunities for the principal to gain a general esti- mate of a teacher without considering her work in detail. Her attitude toward her work, her general scholarship and culture, her personal tidiness, her attendance and punctuality, her willingness to cooperate for the good of the school aside from the required class work, 2 her influence on her pupils as 1 See "The Rating of Teachers by no Principals in Ten Hy- pothetical Cases," in Semi-Annual Report, July i, 1915, Division of Reference and Research, New York City, which showed " that even in the distinction between satisfactory and unsatisfactory there is little agreement of opinion." 2 In performing such services as the following, for example : Class work — 1. assisting backward pupils after school. School work — 1. yard duty — voluntary, in excess of regular assignment. 2. assembly — conducting music, play- ing piano, arranging program, etc. 3. motion pictures — operating ma- chine. 4. discipline — general interest as dis- tinguished from discipline of as- signed class. 5. clerical work — of office. 6. interpreter — in interviews with parents and others. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 135 shown by their bearing and conduct outside the classroom, her manner in interviews with parents, — all these, and more, are indications of the character of the work of the teacher, which the principal may observe without entering her classroom. Also, as he goes about from room to room on the routine busi- ness of the school, the principal, with whom alertness has become a second nature, makes observations which contribute toward his estimates of all teachers. He must, however, exercise great caution in general- izing. He must be extremely careful to distinguish between what he sees and what he thinks he sees. b. By formal inspection. The principal will not, however, base his official rating upon this one general factor ; particularly in the case of a teacher Extra-school activities — 1. athletics — directing. 2. pupils' organizations — presiding over, and assisting. 3. excursions — of pupils to parks, museums, games, etc. Supplementary aid — 1. visits — to homes of pupils. 2. parents' meetings, etc., — attend- ing, organizing. 3. alumni interest — organizing asso- ciations, employment exchange, etc. 4. relief work. 5. patriotic work. 136 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL whom he regards, on this general basis, as unsatis- factory, it is necessary that he should at certain intervals — longer in proportion as the teacher is the more experienced and has repeatedly demon- strated her fitness — make formal inspection of the work of the teacher. 1 In such an inspection the principal will examine the written work of both teacher and pupils. The record books kept by the teacher exhibit her ability to plan and proportion her work, as well as her accuracy and neatness. The pupils' compositions, arithmetic papers, and drawings tell a significant story to the intelligent inspector. The blackboard work of both teacher and pupils shows whether or not the teacher is making a pedagogical use of the blackboard; and, in lower grades especially, the teacher's own work should be judged on the basis of its being a model before the eyes of the pupils. More significant, however, are the teacher and the pupils themselves. The class in action is the Specifically required in many cities — e.g. Richmond, "In schools of eight or more classes it shall be the duty of principals to inspect some classes daily and all classes within two days," and Rochester, where principals "shall devote some portion of each day to visiting the various classes of the school for the purpose of supervising and directing the work of the teachers." THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 137 great criterion. Teaching in accordance with good method, intelligent and skillful questioning of pupils, logical and pedagogical development of subjects, unforced and effective correlation" of the various subjects, illumination of lessons with illustrative material, and finally, the clinching of a lesson and sufficient drill upon its main features, — all these are elements in teaching ability. The testing of the pupils may also serve as an index to the teacher's ability. 1 With these go certain other features which are distinguished rather as elements in disciplinary ability, although the wisdom or necessity of making such a distinction between " teaching " and " dis- cipline " is open to argument. Included are the teacher's poise and self-control ; her manner before the class ; her reaching the individual pupil in mass teaching; her power to secure a true interest and attention, not merely " cutaneous excitation " ; her use of expression and voice as pedagogical means, the voice effectively modulated and varied in its tone ; her executive ability in going from one activity to another ; in short, her control of her class. The mere fact that a class is under control, " in order," 1 See page 302. 138 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL is not sufficient ; the character of the control is of far greater importance, and the experienced principal will discount the control that is only apparently and superficially good, and credit the control that indicates finesse in the skill of the teacher. 1 Throughout every inspection the teacher must be impressed with the fact that the principal is 1 Each city has its distinctive rating code emphasizing particular qualifications. New York City periodically rates teachers on only two points, instruction and discipline, with three subtopics under each to be rated in case the main rating is unsatisfactory. Special reports to assist in determining promotion, salary increases, and renewal of license, are more detailed. New Orleans uses a particularly comprehensive report covering the following items : PERSONAL EQUIPMENT - Voice Speech, vision, hearing Initiative and self-reliance Adaptability and resource- fulness Accuracy Industry Promptness Self-control Tact Energy and endurance Judicial-mindedness Cheerfulness and optimism Neatness SOCIAL AND PROFESSIONAL EQUIPMENT — Academic preparation Professional preparation Grasp of subject matter Understanding of children Interest in lives of pupils Interest in life of the school Interest in life of commu- nity Ability to meet and interest patrons Professional interests and growth Daily preparation and plan Cooperation with principals and teachers Command of and use of English THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 139 present in a constructive, not destructive, spirit; that he is there to render her assistance in her SCHOOL MANAGEMENT — Attention to hygienic con- Care of routine ditions — light, heat, ven- Neatness of room tilation, seating Discipline (skill in governing) TECHNIQUE OF TEACHING — Definiteness and clearness of Teaching pupils to study aim Skill and care in assign- Skill in habit formation ment Skill in stimulating thought Attention to individual needs Skill in questioning Choice of method Organization of subject mat- Use of teaching devices ter RESULTS SECURED IN PUPILS — Attention and response of Improvement in self-direction the class and initiative Growth of pupils in subject Moral growth matter Love of school and ambition for Improvement in habits of education work A notable feature of this report consists of the following sup- plementary items : Special educational work done by teacher since last report (summer school, extension courses, correspondence courses, articles or books published, addresses delivered). Approximate number of times principal observed work of teacher. Approximate total length in hours of these observations. Number of conferences held with teacher. Special conditions not under control of teacher affecting un- favorably the efficiency of her work. The last item of this report is one that is too often not taken into account by principals when they evaluate teachers. 140 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL service to her pupils ; that his aim is not primarily to rate her, but to work with her for her betterment and that of the pupils. Every formal inspection should be followed by conference in which the condi- tion of the work is made the subject of frank and sympathetic discussion. 1 The teacher should be led to realize her shortcomings, if any have been dis- covered, — to convict herself, rather than to receive formal mandatory instructions. Notice of rating. Whenever ratings are made of teachers and forwarded to higher authority, justice at least demands, whether it is required by the~ rules or not, that a copy should be presented to the teachers concerned. 2 If the rating is unsatisfactory, it might be well to precede the formal written state- 1 The human teacher will read with feeling A Dominie's Log by A. S. Neill, and particularly the dominie's imaginary report of inspection of the inspector's inspection, beginning at page 134, and ending with " Mr. Beans's knowledge of dates is wonderful, and his parsing has all the glory of Early Victorian furniture." 2 One city prescribes that the third highest rating which it employs "is the highest mark given until the fourth half year here," and the fourth highest "the highest until the second." This seems nearly as questionable as the requirement of the Civil Service authorities in another city that not more than thirty per cent of its Department of Education employees shall be rated "above standard," thus advertising that it seeks mediocrity in service. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 141 ment with an informal conference in which the principal expresses regret that the teacher's work makes necessary such a rating, indicates the lines of possible improvement, and gives such encourage- ment as the case may warrant. 1 Substitute teachers. Every school must make some provision for the care of the classes of absent teachers 2 or pending the appointment of a regular teacher. Usually the school system provides regu- larly licensed substitute teachers to meet such emergencies. The principal must exercise judgment in assigning substitutes. He will be sympathetic with the difficulties with which most of them con- tend such as lack of experience, difference of aim and 1 Mr. Alexander Fichthandler, principal, Public School 165, Brooklyn, New York, invites his teachers to rate themselves. He gives them a form containing two columns instead of one, autorating as well as principal's rating. Each teacher enters her own ratings. The form is then given to the principal, who inserts his ratings and returns it to the teacher. If the two sets of ratings do not accord and the teacher desires to discuss them, a conference follows. 2 Portland, Ore., provides : "Any teacher finding it impossible to attend school on any day, must send timely notice to the prin- cipal, together with all school keys and such information as may assist the substitute to do efficient work. It shall be the duty of such absent teacher to give the principal timely notice of his or her intention to resume school work, subject to a deduction of one-half day's pay for failure to give such notice." 142 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL method in different schools, need to adapt themselves to different grades and various situations, ignorance of the histories and even of the names of pupils. The principal can anticipate and forestall some difficulties. He may, in advance of placing the teacher, temporarily transfer to other classes those pupils who have previously demonstrated non- pacifist tendencies. He may enlist a near-by teacher to keep a special sororal eye on the substitute, indi- cating to her and to her pupils that cooperation is at hand. He may plan his own day's work so that he gives more than usual time to the class. Moreover, he must, if possible, treat the situation in such a way that pupils gain the impression that the substitute is not inferior to the regular teacher and that any special solicitude for her that they may detect is but accidental. They should not be allowed to speak of her, officially at least, as " the substitute." The principal should introduce her to the class and induct her into the work of the day. Pupils must thereafter, in speaking to her or of her, call her by name. If a substitute teacher once becomes thoroughly established in a school she of course presents no further special problem. The absence of the teacher THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 143 of a difficult class often gives the principal the oppor- tunity to " try out " one of his less experienced regular teachers by assigning her temporarily to the more diffi- cult situation and giving her class to the substitute. In a large school it is often impossible for the principal to give time for a lengthy conference with a substitute teacher before she enters the classroom. Written in- structions may take the place of conference with the teacher who is to substitute in the school for the first time. The following has proven useful : Instructions to Substitute Teachers Do not permit any pupil to see this notice. You should find a plan book in the teacher's desk indicat- ing in brief outline the work which she had planned to have for the day. If this is not to be found please inform the principal of the fact. If you do not fully understand the work as thus indicated, consult the nearest teacher of the same grade, who will gladly explain it to you and advise you as to details. Follow this plan as closely as possible, except that : (1) Unless you feel strongly intrenched as to discipline, do not attempt drawing or construction work or any other exercise involving the extensive handling of materials, and (2) Unless you have permission from one of the offices, do not undertake any new presentation work in mathematics or science. As to discipline, insist upon a high standard of deportment 144 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL from the first minute of your appearance in the classroom. Do not overlook the first lapses — condemn them definitely and specifically. Do not, under ordinary circumstances, report a pupil to the office for the first offense ; but do not hesitate to report promptly a pupil guilty of willful disobe- dience or impertinence. In making such a report, do it with formality — fill out a " discipline" card, making the com- plaint specific, and direct the pupil to take the card to the proper office [offices indicated]. After reporting a pupil do not permit him to return to your room on any pretext whatever. He is to be readmitted only upon personal or written direction from the office. At an early opportunity note and carefully read the Fire- Drill card posted in the room. The names of pupils given permission to leave the room are to be recorded in the Time-Lost book. If the number be- comes unreasonably large, please report the fact to the office. Pupils who are late are to be sent to the general office. Make entries in roll book in pencil only. Superintendent Cole, of Denver, offers the following helpful suggestions to substitutes : See the principal upon arrival at the building and before leaving at the close of the session. Register your name, address, and telephone number in the office of the building. Be in the room at 8 : 40 and 1:15. Write your name on the blackboard so pupils may learn it. Familiarize yourself as soon as possible with the course of study. Keep an accu- rate account of attendance on a separate sheet, but do not make entries in the record book or on the monthly report sheet, until so directed by the principal. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 145 Do not have the pupil use the regular teacher's spelling and penmanship paper. Use fresh sheets for your day's lessons. Do not make entries in notebooks, etc. Super- vise all written work and inspect it. Do not give music, sewing, or drawing lessons, unless so directed by the princi- pal. After three days' absence, or less in case of throat trouble, pupils must present health certificates from the board of health or the family physician. Consult the principal about suspicious cases of absence. In case of illness or other emergency, notify the principal. Do not dismiss pupils before the close of the session, except through the office. Detain no pupil at recess, at noon, or later than 3 : 50. Do not alter or erase any work which has been placed on the blackboard for special purposes, such as honor lists, lesson plans, programs, etc. Do not change pupils' seats, nor alter room chart. Avoid criticism of regular teacher and her work. Do not give out books from the lockers. Be careful about giving out pens, pencils, etc. Watch the waste paper, and the frequent trips to the waste-paper basket; note writing, leaving the room too often, or without permission; staying out too long; mis- use of crayon; discreditable blackboard work; abuse of textbooks, untidy floors, desks, tables, locker-tops, window sills, etc. Should you need the principal's help in case of discipline, it may be welL toot to send the offender at once to the office ; but to send an explanatory note to the principal by some other pupil. Corporal punishment, shaking included, having pupils stand on the floor in hall or room, or sending pupils home without consulting the principal, are absolutely forbidden. Keep hands off the children. 146 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Be careful of personal carriage. It is not unimportant as to where, when, or how you sit or stand. Watch the temperature and air of your room. If neces- sary, send word to the principal with regard to ventilation. Do not open windows and doors when fans are running, without order from the principal. Leave the room in per- fect order, and a note concerning your day's experience for the benefit of the regular teacher. .. Special teachers. In most systems there is a class of teachers known as " special teachers/' those, that is, who have charge of so-called special subjects, such as music, drawing, sewing, shop work, and so on. Their status is usually somewhere between that of a class teacher and a supervisor; they visit classes, inspect the work and advise the teachers in regard to it, and give model lessons to enable the regular class teachers, ordinarily not specially trained in the subject, to teach it with some degree of skill. 1 The duties of the principal toward these special teachers are chiefly (1) to arrange for cheerful and effective cooperation between them and the class 1 A number of cities prescribe that regular teachers shall not be absent from the room during the visit of a special teacher, but shall give all possible assistance, with the further provision, not highly complimentary to the special teachers, that they shall "preserve order and discipline." THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 147 teachers ; (2) to curb the specialist in her natural tendency to overdo her own specialty; and (3) to see that the time schedules are respected as regards special subjects. Most special teachers are artists of one sort or another, and often have the artist's temperamental distaste for mathematical limitations and systematic observance of schedules. The principal will make certain that all the special subjects are given their full time and that the time allotted to them is effectively devoted to the subjects ; but he must see, too, that the other subjects of the curriculum, those which have no special staff of enthusiasts to exploit them, do not suffer loss of time at their hands. Assistants. In schools having a large number of pupils, the principal is usually given one or more assistants who have no classroom duties. These may be clerical assistants or administrative assistants. Clerical assistants. If the principal's assistant is a clerk, licensed to perform clerical work only, and paid on that basis, her duties must be clearly under- stood to include nothing of a supervisory char- acter. She must not be permitted either deliberately or unconsciously to become a pedagogic adviser 148 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL of the teachers. If a principal is neglectful, it is very easy for the clerk, even unwittingly, to drift into a position where she is directing teachers. Such a state of affairs is wrong to the teachers and the pupils. Administrative assistants. If, however, the as- sistant is licensed as an administrative assistant and classed as a supervisory expert, then she has a very different relation to principal and to teachers. In some cities such an assistant has clearly denned duties; in others, her duties are by assignment of the principal, subject to the approval of his su- periors. Where the rules do not provide in detail for the service to be rendered by the assistant prin- cipal, the principal himself should make careful assignment of such duties and have it clearly under- stood by her and by the teachers what her respon- sibilities are. If the principal has entire freedom in the delegation of part of his own duties to the assistant, he has a choice between two methods of assignment, a horizontal or a vertical, or he may combine the two methods. a. Horizontal supervision. By a horizontal as- signment the principal divides the supervisory work horizontally, across the school, by grades or by THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 149 floors of the building. 1 The advantages are: 1. Assistants of a certain temperament like it, possibly thinking it easier ; and some are not quali- fied to supervise higher-grade work: 2. It gives each teacher fewer supervisors to please. 3. It leads to good correlation in each grade. 4. Re- sponsibility seems more fixed and definite. b. Vertical supervision. By a vertical assign- ment the principal divides the work vertically by subjects. 2 The advantages are : 1. It adds dignity to the position of assistant, and tends to encourage her personal growth, particularly if the assignment is occasionally changed. 2. It gives teachers the advantage of a variety of help and a chance of a more equitable rating, assuming that the principal rates only after consulting with his assistant. 3. It gives the principal the benefit of counsel. His assistant is probably especially well qualified along 1 For example, a division of work horizontally might give his assistant grades I-V and himself grades VI-VTII. Or if the school occupied a four-story building, his assistant might have the lower two floors and he the upper two, regardless of the grades that came in such a division. 2 A vertical division might be made as follows : Principal — mathematics, history, nature, science, drawing, discipline, throughout the entire school; assistant — English, geography, penmanship, music, lateness, supplies. ISO THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL certain lines, and particularly if these are the lines she supervises, her value to the principal as a counselor is enhanced. 4. It understudies the prin- cipal so that in his absence some one competent temporarily to perform his duties becomes the acting head. 5. It secures proper development of each subject of the curriculum from grade to grade. 6. It aids school discipline, in that the pupils are discouraged from supposing that there may be one kind of deportment when the principal is in the building, and another kind when he is not. 7. It gives the principal a better opportunity to know all his teachers; particularly is he better able to rate them by direct personal knowledge. Summary. The principal can conduct his school well only through good teachers. Hence he must make every effort to secure the best teachers avail- able and then study their individualities so as to assign them most effectively to classes and subjects. The principal must train his inexperienced teachers, encourage the faithful, prod the neglectful, and minimize the damage of the unreformable. He must respect the administrative headship of his teachers in their several classrooms ; instruct them by means of orders or suggestions, distinctly dif- THE PRINCIPAL AND THE TEACHERS 151 ferentiated, given in writing, or through individual or group conference; and criticize them frankly, judicially, courteously, firmly. He will serve the teachers in their service to pupils (1) by mapping out the work to be done in accordance with proper time schedules and requiring proper records of plans and progress; and (2) by securing co- ordination and correlation, providing devices for the systematic commendation and condemnation of pupils, and giving model lessons or having them given. In rating his teachers the principal will be guided both by the general impression he gains of each teacher's work and by formal inspec- tion of classroom conditions. Substitute teachers must be considerably assisted; special teachers must be brought into effective cooperation with the class teachers ; clerical assistants must be kept to the exercise of clerical functions; and admin- istrative assistants must be wisely assigned, either to horizontal or to vertical supervision. CHAPTER VI THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUPILS — THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT Responsibility for material conditions. Before considering the responsibility of the principal for the physical, mental, and moral upbuilding of his pupils, attention must be given to the material side of the school. By the school is meant, of course, the organization of pupils and teachers ; but in modern practice the school is housed in a special building and environed with material aids to instruction and learning. Occasionally a principal is concerned with his school from the time that plans are first made for its building ; but in the great majority of cases he is assigned to the administration of an organization already occupying a building, for the design and original equipment of which he is in no way re- sponsible. In either case, given the school plant, he is directly responsible for its care and maintenance. Hence he should know what good equipment is, so that at least he may intelligently advocate im- 152 THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 153 provements and extensions. Again, " Where we are perforce obliged to teach in conditions not ideal, we should be all the more careful to see that every favoring condition possible be given the children.' ' x The principal is responsible, too, for proper super- vision over all materials used in the school. This chapter, then, will consider very briefly: (1) The School Building, (2) Heating and Ventilation, (3) Supplies, and (4) Decoration. 1. The school building. The general subject of school buildings and schoolrooms has been so fully treated in educational literature 2 as to make super- 1 Stuart H. Rowe, The Physical Nature jj Me Child , p. 12. 2 For example, Edward R. Shaw, School Hygiene; Fletcher B. Dresslar, School Hygiene; W. E. Barry, The Hygiene of the School- room; J. A. Moore, The School House, its Heating and Ventilation; Severance Burrage and Henry Turner Bailey, School Sanitation and Decoration; W. F. Briggs, Modern American School Buildings; W. G. Bruce, School Architecture; A. C. Ellis and H. Kuehne, School Buildings; W. T. Mills, American School Building Standards; E. M. Wheelwright, School Architecture. A typical building requirement is that of Syracuse : "All such school buildings shall have at least two separate and distinct stairways located as far remote from each other as practicable. All stairs, stairways, and stair halls shall be constructed of abso- lutely fireproof material. All stairways and stair halls shall be enclosed on all sides with walls of solid masonry, self supported and carried from the foundations. All doorways opening therein shall be protected by fire doors and all window openings, except 154 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL fluous any detailed presentation of the subject here. One point especially must be brought out, however, in any current discussion of the subject; namely, that the development of the modern three-story or four-story building with its scores of rooms has been accompanied by a demand for many other features than classrooms. Assembly rooms, gymnasiums, workshops, baths, kindergartens, science rooms, and music rooms, are coming to be regarded as universal necessities rather than exceptional luxuries. The ideal assembly room is a room distinctly designed for the purpose and reserved for general assemblies of pupils. It has an ample number of exits, a sufficient supply of light from windows properly placed, and wall surfaces which lend themselves to artistic treatment. It is furnished with seats arranged so that not more than four or five pupils occupy a single bench (individual seats are still better), and so that ample aisles are pro- vided. It is further equipped with platform, reading desk, and piano. With the growing tendency to use the from the outside, shall have fireproof or wired glass set in metal- lic frames. All halls, doors, stairways, seats, passageways and aisles, and all lighting and heating appliances and apparatus shall be so arranged as to facilitate egress in case of fire or accident, and to afford the requisite and proper accommodations for public protection in so far as practicable, and shall be improved so as to comply with the foregoing requirements." - THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 155 auditorium more constantly throughout the day, for study and for other group activities, there has come an increased use of seats with tablet arms which serve as desks sufficiently well for writing exercises. The in- creased use of the auditorium has been brought about in part by the necessity of providing for a number of pupils in excess of normal accommodation, and the consequent development of duplicate-school organizations. Another factor in modifying the character of the auditorium is the growing use of the building for community activities, community council meetings, political and patriotic exercises, recreation centers, etc. The gymnasium occupies the space of at least two class- rooms, and is furnished with the usual heavy apparatus, together with racks containing the light individual apparatus, dumb-bells, clubs, wands, hoops, etc. Workshops and cooking rooms are usually fitted for classes or sections of between sixteen and twenty-eight, and on this basis require at least half as much more space than is usually allotted to a regular classroom. The kindergarten of not more than forty pupils re- quires a room the size of a regular classroom, and there is no limit to the amount of artistic furnishing which may be devoted to it. Regular classrooms. Probably the greatest need for improvement is in the design and equipment of the regular classroom. In certain cities kinder- garten rooms are furnished in hard wood and plate 156 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL or leaded glass, with open fireplaces, engravings, and many other luxurious appointments, in addi- tion to the traditional kindergarten equipment. When the taxpayers are ready to spend on the furnishing of the regular classrooms as much as they now spend, in some places, on the kinder- garten rooms, the administrators of their educa- tional money will be able to provide a class-indi- vidual instruction that comes far nearer our ideals than anything yet provided. The development of a profitable technique of individual and group instruc- tion will be greatly hastened by the development of a material equipment for individual and small-group instruction. The possibilities of such equipment can only be hinted at : a room 50 per cent larger than our present average classroom; a class register limited to forty, perhaps thirty, pupils ; adjustable and movable seats and desks ; a place devoted to molding boards ; a shop for making models, maps, charts, and other devices ; a corner for a museum, a herbarium, a reference library, etc. Vandalism. The principal has the duty of pro- tecting the building against vandalism. Pupils must be trained to respect every part of the school building and equipment. Any defacement should THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 157 be repaired as speedily as possible, so as to remove suggestion from other pupils. Every effort should be made to discover offenders and they should be dealt with in such a way as to impress upon them the seriousness of the offense as well as to secure reparation. 1 2. Heating and ventilation. A prime necessity for the proper conduct of school activities is that pupils work under favorable conditions as to tem- perature and ventilation. Heating. When the temperature of the outside air falls below the normal requirement of 68°-7o° F., some artificial means of maintaining such a normal 1 The Syracuse provision is comprehensive: "No pupil shall mark, cut, scratch, chalk or otherwise disfigure or injure any portion of a school building or anything connected therewith. He shall not use tobacco in any form at or going to or from school, use any profane or indecent language, throw stones or other missiles, annoy or maltreat others, nor do anything that may disturb the school or its neighborhood. Any pupil materially injuring, destroying or losing any school supply shall replace or pay for the same. Any damage done to a school building or any of its equip- ments or surroundings such as trees, shrubbery, flowers, fences, outbuildings, etc., must be repaired at the expense of the offender, and in case of his refusal or neglect to do so, he may be suspended from the school. The money for injuries to property shall be pay- able by the parent of the child to the principal of the school, who shall attend to the repairing of the property." — 64. 158 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL condition inside the school must be resorted to. The present practice, in replacing old systems and in installing new ones, seems to be to use a steam- heating plant, the heated coils usually being placed within the room to be heated. This involves the use of radiators, with valves to regulate the inflow and outflow of steam. In most modern systems this regulation, either as to the entire plant or as to the radiators in each room, or both, is automatically secured by means of thermostats, which are capable of maintaining the temperature of a classroom with a variation of not more than two degrees from standard. One form of thermostat, placed on a wall at a conven- ient height, has direct connection by compressed air or other means of control with the valve regulating the in- flow of steam. When the temperature of the air falls below normal, the mechanism releases the control and the valve is opened, permitting the flow of steam into the radiator, thus heating the room. Contrariwise, when the temperature rises materially above the normal, the mechanism initiates the control, and the valve is closed. There are various other forms. If there is no auto- matic control of some sort, the valves must be regu- lated by hand, requiring constant attention by teacher or janitor. THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 159 Ventilation. The heating of the air is only part of the requirement; there must be a constant replacement of old air with new, i.e. ventilation. This means that (a) there must be a sufficient supply; (b) it must be maintained at the normal temperature; (c) it must be humid to about 55 per cent of saturation ; and (d) it must be of proper purity. (a) The two methods of maintaining circulation, vacuum and plenum, are the reverse of each other in action. In the former, the air is drawn or sucked out of the room ; in the latter, it is pushed or forced into the room. The modern plant secures circulation by means of a fan, the operation of which at a speed of from 120 to 250 revolutions per minute draws or forces the air through the ducts and into and in the classrooms. The speed of the air in its circulation about the room must not be too great, otherwise a draft is created which may discomfort or endanger the pupils. Each pupil should have 30 cubic feet per minute of fresh air. 1 1 Dresslar, School Hygiene, in an extended discussion of venti- lation, places the requirement at 2000 cubic feet per hour for primary pupils, 2500 cubic feet for upper-grade pupils, and 3000 cubic feet for high-school pupils. "Of course," he reminds us, "pupils will not perish if they get less than these estimates, but they will not be able to do their work easily and effectively, without fatigue and lassitude, unless they are furnished with approximately these amounts." — page 136, 160 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL For a class of fifty, then, 1500 cubic feet will be needed. It has been found that a speed greater than 400 feet per minute is a draft. Hence, to bring 1500 cubic feet per minute into a room at a speed of 400 feet, requires an inlet — and of course, too, an outlet — whose area is ap- proximately 4 square feet. The best position for these openings seems to be, for the inlet, about 8 feet above the floor, and for the outlet, about 1 foot above, with the two openings in the same wall but not directly in the same vertical line. (b) By passing the air over steam coils before it enters the ducts, the normal temperature is secured ; (c) by passing it over water pans or through a screen kept con- stantly moist, proper humidity is established ; and (d) by taking it from out of doors at a distance from the surface and screening it to keep out flying papers, leaves, etc., the supply is kept fairly pure. 1 3. Supplies. Whether the principal has much or little to do with textbooks and other materials used by pupils depends upon whether or not his city 1 See note in Educational Administration and Supervision, vol. 1, p. 283, calling attention to "the investigations of the last half dozen years" which have discredited "the theory upon which existing systems and standards of ventilation are founded." "It is improbable that present standards as to quantity of air to be introduced into a schoolroom will hold." "We may discover that frequent small variations in temperature — up and down — in a mildly 'churning' body of air will do much to relieve the depressing effects of crowding and 'bad air.' " THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 161 has a free-book system. If it has, then the requisi- tioning of supplies usually within a definite appro- priation becomes one of his important duties; if not, his responsibility is limited to seeing that his pupils supply themselves with the proper materials and that the few indigent pupils are supplied in accordance with the provisions usually made for them. In either case there is generally a restriction as to the particular textbooks and supplies which may be used in the schools. Some cities have what is known as a " closed " list, where, for instance, only one title for the study of geography in each grade is permitted. Other cities have an " open " list, including a large number of titles for each sub- ject in each grade. Upon the principal is imposed the duty not only of requisitioning the proper quantities of books but also of choosing which books shall be used in their respective schools. Whatever the conditions, the principal should know good books and good stationery, just as he should know good buildings. If the list is a " closed' ' one, it is not closed forever; and the principal should, at least as a general duty, in- fluence the retention of good books and the rejec- 162 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL tion of poor ones. It is assumed, therefore, that the principal is concerned with (a) the selection of supplies, (b) the requisitioning of supplies, and (c) the care of supplies. a. The selection of supplies. The selection of other supplies is usually not a very perplexing problem, but in choosing textbooks the principal must exercise particular discretion. He will not depend entirely upon his own judgment, but will elicit the cooperation of his teachers in making his selections. 1 The principal considerations in the selection of a text- book are : (i) Its mechanical make-up. Its general appearance should be considered. Other things being equal, pupils should have placed before"them books which are good examples of the bookmaker's art, rather than those of inferior, uninstructive, or unattrac- tive appearance. The bindings should be substantial and appropriate. It is economy to buy a book that is well bound. Par- ticularly, it is an injury to the pupil to study a book so put together that he cannot use it without straining his eyes in the effort to read the print along the inside margins. 1 In Albany the form for principal's rating of teachers includes the item "Familiarity with texts in use." THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 163 The paper, in quality and tone, should contribute to the pupil's comfort ; it should be of good quality, non- transparent, dull finish, and not embossed by type. The type should be of simple style and sufficient size and widely leaded. The size, of course, decreases with the maturity of the pupil. "If every book, no matter what its merits, were rejected if its type were too small, the makers of such books would very quickly bring out new editions with a proper size of type." ! The illustrations should be clear-cut, unambiguous, artistic, and accurate. (2) The text. The vocabulary and style should be appropriate to the work in hand for the pupils of the grade. The presentation of the subject matter should be in accordance with good pedagogic methods. The text should be adequately supplemented and re- enforced by illustrations, maps, diagrams, etc., such as really illustrate and explain. b. The requisitioning of supplies. The principal is usually given a definite appropriation for supplies of all kinds for the fiscal year. He is expected to exercise care and economy in its expenditure, and he will do well, at the outset of the year, to sub- divide his allowance, allotting definite amounts for the purchase of different classes of material. He 1 Shaw, School Hygiene, p. 177. 164 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL is more likely, in this way, to order supplies judi- ciously and in proportion to the different activities of the school. 1 1 The following are suggestions which were offered by District Superintendent I. E. Goldwasser, of New York City, to his principals : "Hold conferences with grade teachers and with assistants with a view to determining how many written exercises should be taken up in the various subjects or division of subjects in the course of each week, for example, how many written arith- metic lessons ; spelling lessons ; dictation exercises ; compositions ; theme- writing in history, geography, etc. ; drawings ; penmanship exercises. Be sure that in establishing this norm there is no curtailing of the right of the teacher to vary her method as the need arises. "Determine what quality and kind of paper will be best suited to each exercise in question. "Multiply the number of exercises by the average register of the class, add fifteen or twenty per cent for wastage and vari- ance in register, and establish the number thus arrived at as the average to be furnished to the teacher in the course of the term. "Adopt a form of order slip which will show at a glance the total amount of supplies under each item that has been used by the teacher since the beginning of the term. "A similar procedure should be followed with pencils, pen- holders, rulers, etc. "Principals should establish a division of the total amount of money allowed per capita per year so that the proportion used for textbooks, for stationery, and for other purposes shall be fairly fixed." THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 165 The following is offered as a suggestive scheme to be used as the basis of allotment : * I. Textbooks: Grade by grade and subject by subject, as required by the curriculum. II. General Supplies : a. Stationery : blank books, pads, envelopes, . . . b. Writing materials : pens, penholders, pencils, ink, chalk, . . . c. Records : books, blanks, cards, . . . d. Miscellaneous: book covers, mucilage, rulers, rubbers, pointers, paper fasteners, . . . III. Special Supplies : a. Drawing : paper, crayons, colors, models, paste, compasses, . . . b. Cooking : utensils, chinaware, cutlery, . . . c. Sewing : needles, scissors, thread, gingham, . . . d. Carpentry : tools, wood, screws, nails, paint, . . . e. Kindergarten: gifts, yarn, paste, needles, weav- ing materials, . . . IV. Apparatus : a. Science: chemicals, physical apparatus, . . . b. Gymnastic : bells, clubs, wands, . . . c. General : globes, maps, charts, stereoscopes, . . . 1 The entire appropriation is generally based upon the number of pupils of each grade. It might properly consider another factor, viz. : the kind of pupils as to their home environment, etc., as in some districts and under certain conditions, books are subjected to a "wear and tear" that is not normal to another district or condition. 166 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL This will, of course, be modified by local and temporary conditions, such as the necessity for providing for newly formed classes, for revisions of the curriculum, and the like. Supplies used by the janitor in cleaning and caring for the building are usually charged to a separate account. Some cities have a Library Fund against which are charged books which make up Class Libraries or the Teachers' Reference Library. If this is not the case these items would be interpolated in the foregoing scheme as subdivisions under I. c. The care of supplies. The first consideration in caring for supplies is to keep proper account of them. In some cities the method of accounting is prescribed in detail; in all, some method is pre- supposed, as is shown by the regulations regarding requisitions, 1 inventories, 2 etc. As the principal must give an accounting to his superiors for supplies, so he must require some sort of accounting from the teachers to whom he forwards 1 "Principals shall issue to each room on the written requisition of the teacher thereof the textbooks and supplies needed for such room. ..." — St. Louis, 39, vii. 2 "He [the principal] shall ... at the end of each school year . . . furnish an inventory of all the books and stationery belonging to the school." — Jersey City, Principals, ix. THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 167 those supplies. It is an extreme method that takes the view that teachers know what they need, should be given free access at all times to the stock room and permitted to help themselves, thus leav- ing the principal nothing else to do than to keep the stock room constantly supplied. The other extreme is to require from the teachers a written receipt in detail for all supplies sent them. Between these two extremes there can be found some profit- able middle course, determined by conditions. The following system for the handling of textbooks is submitted : When books are sent from stock to a class, a Charge Slip is filled out and sent with them, thus : To be kept by the teacher fa*,. 7, 19/9 To the teacher of Class 8 (Z. M. I Charge your Book Account with /J? tfrntth /fat. o{ U. £ (No.) (Author) (Title) Your number on hand was . 32 Your number now is . . . ¥■¥- If this is correct, please keep this half of the sheet, and sign and return the other half. Principal To be sent to the ojfice fori,. 7, 19/^ Class 8 j PQ THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 171 Beyond accounting for supplies, the principal is responsible for their proper care by teachers and pupils. 1 In proportion as he holds teachers re- sponsible, they in turn will hold pupils responsible. Each pupil upon receiving his books must be re- quired to protect them by an outside paper or cloth cover; and to label them with a memorandum showing the name of the pupil, school, date, condi- tion of the book when issued, etc. 2 It is necessary 1 Paterson prescribes the "life" of its schoolbooks, "to make allowance for wear, tear, and loss," e.g. readers, three years; grammars, four years ; music books, five years ; etc. 2 Such labels are usually supplied by the city department of education for uniform use. E.g.: RULES — FREE TEXTBOOKS Property of the Board of Education Dayton, Ohio . Building Name of Book No Rules for the Care of Books Rule 1 — After approval by your teacher, write your name in proper place below. Rule 2 — This book must not be marked with pencil or ink, and it must be kept clean. Rule 3 — If a pupil loses or injures this book he must pay for it. Condition : if new when issued, full cost price ; if good, 3-4 price ; if fair, 1-2 price ; if poor, 1-4 price. Rule 4 — This book must not be taken from the school except by permission of the teacher, for the purpose of study at home. 172 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL for the principal each term personally to examine books to see that this has been done, or to require the teachers to file statements that they have ex- amined the books and found them properly labeled and covered. Teachers may be shown their relation to the matter of damage to supplies by a specific regulation to this effect : " You are responsible for the proper care by the pupils of books and other school property. Report promptly any cases of neglect which you cannot adequately discipline." How to treat pupils who damage or lose textbooks or other supplies is rarely a problem. If the pupil is ready and willing to make good the damage or loss, the difficulty adjusts itself. If he does not voluntarily do so, Rule 5 — This book must be returned to the teacher when the pupil leaves school. If you are wise you will make good books your friends. Wise people always treat their friends well. Learn to love good books. When Loaned Teacher's Name Name op Pupil Date Condition [a] (a] New, Good, Fair, and Poor indicate condition of book when loaned to you. THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 173 the specific rights and powers of the principal, usually defined by the rules, although varying in different cities, are quite sufficient to cover the case. Typical requirements are : Payment. "If a pupil willfully injures or destroys any book or article of stationery belonging to the Board, or if he loses through negligence or carelessness such property of the Board, his parents or guardians shall be required by the principal to pay for the same." — St. Louis, 39, IV. Suspension. " Pupils are required to take proper care of all textbooks and materials furnished by the Board for their use, and in case any pupil shall have lost, de- faced, injured, or destroyed any book belonging to the district, he shall be required by the principal to replace the book or pay in full for damages to the same, and may be suspended until such damage has been made good." — Seattle, XII, 19. Fine. " Pupils shall be held to strict account for proper care of books and supplies. Books must be kept clean and not marked with pencil or ink, or otherwise defaced. Fine may be imposed by the principal in accordance with general direction from the Superintendent's office." — Minneapolis, V, 9. Replacement. "If a pupil needlessly injures or loses a school book, his parents or guardian shall, on the demand of the principal, furnish a new book in its place." — New Haven, 251. 174 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Richmond uses the following form to parents :] I find on examination of the books loaned to your that the following have been damaged beyond reasonable wear and tear. The rules of the School Board require that such damage be made good. The damage in this case amounts to $ Please give this matter your immediate attention and oblige, Yours very respectfully, $ , Principal. 4. Decoration. Although it is quite impossible to reduce to any mathematical ratio the extent to which pupils are affected by the quality of their material environment, it is certain that they are distinctly influenced by their surroundings. Hence it becomes a duty of the school to provide some- thing more than mere " housing." Even the most wretched of schoolrooms admits of some decorative treatment which reduces the ill effects of the cheer- less atmosphere. 1 Even cleanliness and order con- stitute an essential foundation and beginning in decoration. 1 A look-out must be kept to prevent such inconsistencies as flowers in milk bottles and coffeepots. Yet, cans and bottles may often be successfully camouflaged by means of a strip of cartridge paper and paste or paper fasteners. A simple class exercise will supply a border of straight line or mass design. THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 175 Mr. Edward Mandel, principal, Public School 188 B, Manhattan, New York, uses the following form : GRADE TEACHER ROOM REPORT OF CONDITION OF CLASSROOM Have you attended to the following details? Please write "Yes" or "No" after each item. DATES i. Room Decorations. a. Pupils' Work. b. Pictures. c. Plants. 2. Closets in Order. 3. Teacher's Desk Tidy. a. Records (U. R. Drawer). b. Lesson Plans (U.R. Drawer). c. All Syllabi. 4. Blackboards. a. Rec. of Reg. and Att. b. Posture Per Cent. c. Fire Signals. d. Exit Used. 5. Library List on Wall. 6. Program on Wall. 7. Up to Date. a. Roll Book. b. Report Cards. c. Record Cards. d. Plan Sheets. 8. Pupils' Books. a. Covered. b. Name in Each Book. 9. Pupils' Desks. Free of Papers. 176 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL The duty of the principal lies in both directions, the positive and the negative. He may encourage teachers, pupils, and parents in their praiseworthy efforts to decorate the schoolrooms; and he may restrain them in any mistaken zeal which finds expression in the mediocre, the unfit, or the unin- spiring. 1 Ten commandments for successful schoolroom decora- tion given by Mr. Frank H. Collins, director of drawing, New York City, are : 1. Doors and cabinet walls should not be used as bulletin boards. 2. Do not decorate the blackboard. It should be kept for the purpose it is intended for. 3. Do not allow wall displays of class work to become stale. Change the scheme of decoration once a week if only by changing one object. 4. If you desire to display something on the class- room wall, do not stick it up anywhere; find a place for it. 5. Keep the window shades balanced. 6. Make the teacher's desk a model of good design in balanced decoration. Try always to have flowers on the desk. 1 The subject of schoolroom decoration is extensively discussed in Chapters VI- VIII, Burrage and Bailey, School Sanitation and Decoration. THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 1 77 7. Keep the windowsills free from litter. If you have plants, see that they are well arranged. 8. Have pictures hung a little above the eye level. 9. Quality and quantity should be the characteristic feature of display. 10. Remember that the most effective method of teach- ing is by example. Have the room speak for itself. The principal can use his influence toward having proper wall surfaces provided by the building department. "Avoid glaring white walls. Broken colors (i.e. colors modified by gray) are advised. For north and west exposures, use warm colors. For south and east ex- posures, use cool colors. The natural lighting of the room should govern the depth of color used." The wall surface, properly prepared, is itself a suggestion of artistic treatment by means of pictures, and the principal can encourage their acquisition. In some cities, pictures and casts are subject to requisition as general supplies. In others, certain methods of raising money for their purchase, or certain restrictions placed upon selection, are officially recognized. 1 Parents may cooperate with 1 "At the first meeting of the board in September of each school year, a committee shall be appointed to be known as the committee on school decoration. This committee shall consist of one member of the board of school commissioners, to be appointed by the president of said board, the superintendent of schools, the director of the art department. The supervising principal of the district in which the gift is to be placed shall serve on the committee in the work for his district. N 178 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL teachers in subscribing funds, or school exercises may be held to which an admission fee is charged. Some firms of art publishers loan exhibits of standard pictures on a basis of a commission on the sale of tickets of admission. The following suggestions concerning pictures for wall decoration are based upon considerations both of art and of public and pedagogic policy, and are a digest, in the main, of circulars issued by the New York State Educa- tion Department, Division of Visual Instruction. 1. "The subject must be of recognized artistic value and appropriate to the use of the grade or department for which it is selected." 2. Those subjects should be avoided which are ob- jectionable: (1) "on religious grounds, as tending to irreverence for things held sacred, or as tending to dig- nify and enforce or to ridicule or antagonize particular doctrines" ; (2) "on ethical grounds, as tending to make vice or questionable habits familiar or attractive, or as disregarding prejudice against the nude in art," or (3) on emotional grounds, as portraying the painful. " It shall be the duty of this committee to consider all gifts pro- posed for the schools. The committee shall have the power to accept or reject any or all such gifts and may act in an advisory capacity respecting all such proposed gifts. The committee shall also act in an advisory capacity respecting the decorating and coloring of walls of school rooms. " Trees or vines. No living tree or climbing vine shall be killed or removed except upon the formal approval of the committee on buildings and grounds or of the board." — Indianapolis, XXVIII. THE MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 179 3. The best type of picture is a high-grade photo- graphic reproduction; engravings, etchings, and poor color prints are to be avoided. 1 4. "The impression made by one large picture, and the effect it produces on the mind and thought of the pupil, is far greater than that made by several small pictures." 5. "The frame should be of hard wood, preferably 1 Miss Mary Walsemann, principal, Public School 8, Brooklyn, has, in the primary rooms, a graded series of blackboard pictures. The front blackboards are left free of all decoration but in those about the sides and back of the room the upper foot or so of space is given over to permanent decoration. The border varies in width by grades according to the space available above the ordi- nary reach of the pupil. The decoration consists of a repeat, with minor variations, in colored chalk, and a series of different pictures, cut from discarded books and charts and from new inexpensive prints, pasted on the board and placed appropriately in accordance with a unified scheme. A narrow paper strip is pasted on the lower edge of the border to catch the accidental upward sweep of the eraser in the regular use of the blackboard. The present series consists of the following subjects : iA Dutch children iB Reading-chart rhymes 2A Mother Goose 2B Stevenson : Child's Garden of Verses 3A Children in Art 3B Eugene Field (Parrish pictures) 4A Industries of the United States 4B Children from other lands Pied Piper of Hamelin 180 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL well-seasoned quartered oak, three or four inches wide, without grooves or other devices for collecting dust. The color of the frame should tone into the picture. French glass of first quality should be used. Framing with mat or margin should he avoided unless such treat- ment is essential to the effectiveness of the picture." Summary. The principal is responsible for the material conditions of his school. He must under- stand good building and equipment, secure the best he can, and make the best use of what he has. He must understand the heating and ventilating system and secure their proper management. He must select supplies wisely, handle them economically, and hold teachers and pupils responsible for their care. He must secure some decoration of rooms and corridors and make sure that it is appropriately artistic. CHAPTER VII THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE The principal has a broad responsibility for the care of the pupils of his school : he must protect and develop them along physical, mental, and moral lines. The first of these responsibilities will be considered in this chapter, under three heads : (i) General Responsibility, (2) Entrance and Exit, (3) Physical Care. 1. General responsibility for pupils. A pupil duly sent to school by parents is under the respon- sible care of the principal until he is formally dis- missed at the close of the session. How far the principal's authority over his pupils extends beyond the portals of the schoolhouse and the time-limits of the daily session is but loosely defined in many states and cities. In general, while pupils " are going to and returning from school, the teacher's authority is concurrent with that of the parent. . . . When the child has returned to his home, the authority of the teacher ceases absolutely and 181 182 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL the parent once more becomes solely responsible for the conduct of the child. ,, * "It shall be the duty of the teachers to cause the pupils, after the closing of the schools, to leave the neighborhood immediately and in an orderly manner. Playing in the street in the vicinity of the school shall not be allowed." — Baltimore, XV, 8. "The Superintendent of Instruction is directed to have principals and teachers give adequate and frequent in- struction to all children in elementary grades relative to the dangers of street traffic, crossings, etc., and how to avoid them." — Cleveland, VII, 10. Permitting pupils to leave the building. It is evident that the school can be held to a strict ac- countability for the pupils while they are in the school building and on the school premises. The principal cannot lightly permit any of them, while the school is in session, to leave the building or school grounds. In groups, under school auspices. A number of pupils — in fact the whole school — may leave the building for some exercise related to the regular school work. The school may take part in a parade or patriotic exercises, or it may go to a park or athletic ground for a " field day," or a class may go 1 The Status of the Teacher, p. 34. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 183 on some excursion connected with the work in geography, history, etc. In every case, the author- ity, and consequently the responsibility, of the school is continued. The principal must be sure that every pupil is under the definite responsible protection of some teacher. Pupils will ordinarily require a larger amount of supervision under these circumstances than when in the classroom; each teacher should have fewer pupils under her guidance. It is wise for the principal to share with the parents responsibility for the care of pupils when they are taken outside the school. Participation in extra- mural exercises should be conditioned on parent's consent. 1 Individually. There are circumstances under which individual pupils may be permitted to leave the school building during a session. They are 1 Mr. William P. McCarty, principal, Public School 55, Bronx, New York, uses the following printed form : I give my consent for my ^ ghter To go on an excursion to On Parent's Signature 1 84 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL chiefly (a) on the request of the parent, (b) in case of illness, (c) in case of discipline, and (d) for messenger service. a. On parent's request. Parents frequently re- quest the dismissal of their children before the close of the session. Whatever the principal's legal rights in the matter he may well exercise discretion. It is important that the child respect the authority of his parents, and yet careless or thoughtless parents are prone to make unnecessary requests for the dismissal of their children. In the interest of the child concerned and of the school as a whole, the securing of such dismissal should be made as diffi- cult as possible. There are various degrees of rigidity which may be maintained : i. Pupils may be permitted to leave at any time during a session, the pupil on his return to bring a note of explanation from the parent. 2. Pupils may be permitted to leave only upon the written request of the parent. The objection to either of these rules is that parents are thoughtless in the matter, and the earnest or pouting plea of the child to go along on a shopping expedition, for instance, is not resisted. Writing a note to the teacher or principal is regarded THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 185 as a small price to pay for freedom from the child's vexatious insistence. 3. Pupils may be dismissed only upon the per- sonal application of the parent at the school. Two distinct advantages accrue from this rule : the parent is less likely to make the request on any but serious accounts; and the presence of the parent gives the principal the opportunity to discuss the matter and emphasize the fact that the parent is taking upon himself the responsibility for the loss of school work which the child suffers. 1 4. All requests for dismissal may be refused on the ground that if it is important that a pupil should be out of school any part of the session, it must be important enough for him to remain out the entire session. Such a rule is justified by the fact 1 Louisville : " No pupil after entering school in the morning, shall leave the grounds without the consent of the principal ; nor shall any pupil be dismissed except on the written request of parent or guardian. All such requests, however, shall be dis- couraged by the principal as much as possible. ,, — 14, §. New Haven: "No pupil shall be excused from school during the regular sessions to take music, dancing or other lessons, to carry dinners, to sell papers or regularly for any purpose." — 254. Baltimore : " No pupil shall be permitted to leave school before the regular hour of closing, except for some extraordinary reason, of which the Principal shall be the judge. If the Principal is in doubt he shall consult the Superintendent/ ' — XV, 7. 186 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL that when a pupil leaves the classroom during a session, gathering and packing up his books and getting his hat and coat, he usually distracts the attention of the class for at least one minute, and that it is fairer for one pupil to forego fifty minutes than to get it at the expense of the loss of one minute by each of fifty pupils. The release of attention may not be apparent ; the pupils may, by all outward signs, seem to be following the work at hand when, in reality, they are following the envi- able comrade to his extramural joys. b. In case of illness. Frequently a conscien- tious and ambitious pupil comes to school when his physical condition demands that he should have remained at home. Teachers should be trained to detect such cases and refer them to the principal, who may in turn refer them to the Department of Health nurse. The principal will exercise his judg- ment as to whether the pupil should be sent home. Sometimes a pupil becomes suddenly ill during the session. 1 It is best to give teachers authority, in advance, to dismiss the pupil and report the fact, rather than to require her to refer the case to the 1 " Pupils reporting at school on inclement mornings shall be sent home, if there is evidence of severe exposure to rain or flood or both." — New Orleans, II ? 13. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 187 principal with the chance of delay resulting from his not being in his office at the time. Sometimes it is wise to send an ill pupil home under the escort of some other pupil of sufficient maturity and judgment. On the other hand, for many cases, especially of accident, it is better to make the pupil comfortable in the school, and to send for the parent, to whom the responsibility for the child may then be transferred. In case of accidents, the principal should not only care for the pupil but should also protect the school depart- ment by noting the testimony of eye-witnesses. New Haven provides that principals " shall, whenever a pupil meets with an accident at school sufficiently serious to require the services of a physician, or when- ever a pupil is taken suddenly ill and a physician's serv- ices are necessary, immediately report the case to the office of the Board and a physician shall be sent to the school. Principals may, if in their judgment the necessity of the case requires it, immediately send for the nearest physician. In such cases the physician shall give l first- aid' and the Board will be responsible for payment of his service. The meaning of ' first aid • is that temporary relief be given until the pupil can be sent home and the services of the family physician obtained. The prin- cipal shall immediately report the case in writing to the Superintendent. ,, — 202. 1 88 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Spokane uses the following form : REPORT OF ACCIDENT — PRINCIPAL'S STATEMENT School. Date of accident Hr. of day Where on premises did accident occur? If not on premises, where did accident occur? Name of injured person in full Age Sex Address Name of appliance in connection with which accident occurred. . Was accident due to want of care on part of injured person? Was accident due to want of care of any person? If so, how ? Was accident caused by removal of any safeguard? Describe in full how accident happened How could accident have been prevented ? State fully nature and extent of injury What physician attended injured person ? Address To what hospital sent ? If not sent to hospital, where ? Probable length of disability (give your own opinion) If injured has already returned to school, on what date? How many days did he lose on account of accident? Signed this. . . . day of , 19 . . . , Principal Witnesses to accident : Addresses (Additional remarks may be written on reverse side of this paper.) c. In case of discipline. It is very questionable whether a pupil referred to the principal for dis- cipline should ever be sent out of school during a session, except in the case of one who is willfully insubordinate to the principal and defiant and menacing. Usually, in such a case, the eviction of THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 189 the pupil should be the outward and visible sign of a formal and official suspension under the rules of the department. Any such hasty and exasperated command as "Get out and don't come back without your father " has a detrimental effect in every way. It is an undignified expression of school authority. It is unwise in that the school cannot compel the father's appearance and there is an anticlimax if the pupil returns without him. There is danger of acci- dent to the pupil outside the school for which the principal might conceivably be held personally liable. In all ordinary cases of discipline, even if the pupil is temporarily withdrawn from his class, it is wiser to keep him under school control until the time of the regular dismissal. Yet, if a pupil willfully and unequivocally dismisses himself without permission, it is questionable whether the principal should attempt to prevent him by any physical compulsion. It would seem unwise, under any circumstances, for a teacher or principal to " run after " a boy who thus disposes of his own case. Left to himself, he is sooner or later brought to a realization of the fact that such a dismissal was but one more link in the chain of misconduct which he had been forging for himself. iqo THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL d. For messenger service. It is sometimes neces- sary to send a pupil out of the building on an errand. It is unwise to select pupils at random for such service. The personal safety of the pupil is en- dangered, and however slight may be the chance of a pupiPs meeting with an accident, the principal should not take even that chance when it can be avoided. The principal may be guided by the following rules: 1 i. A pupil should not be sent out except on a necessary or emergency errand. 2. Teachers should not be permitted to send pupils without the special authority of the principal. 3. Only a pupil of sufficient maturity and discretion should be so employed. 4. The consent of the pupil should be obtained. 5. A systematic handling will enable the principal to secure also the consent of the parent. The following system is suggested. At the beginning of each year, each teacher of upper-grade boys is re- quested, by means of the following form, to submit the names of pupils eligible for messenger service. 1 Regulations govern in many cities, e.g. Baltimore: "Pupils shall not be sent on a personal errand of any kind, nor be required to do any service not connected with their duty in the school- room." — XXIV, 2. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 191 191- M Please write below the names of five boys who are willing to do occasional errands for us outside the building, and whose class progress, in your judgment, will not be affected thereby. 1 4 2 5 3 The pupils thus selected are given notes to their parents in this form : Public School No. 100, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, 191 . . M Dear : It often happens in connection with our school work that there are errands to be done outside the school building. has expressed a willingness to be of service to us in this manner. His class work seems to be of such average excellence as to allow of whatever loss of time it might involve. If you are willing that he should be sent on such occasional errands, kindly signify your permission by signing the accom- panying note. Respectfully yours, (Principal.) IQ2 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL The inclosure is as follows : New York, 191 . . . To the Principal, Public School No. 100, New York. Dear Sir: I am entirely willing that my son, , should occasionally be sent on errands outside of the school building so long as his class progress permits. Yours truly, (Signed) From the returns of these authorizing notes, a mes- senger list may be made up, showing names of messen- gers and their classrooms. When a boy is sent on an errand, it may be noted on this list ; or better, the pupil may fill out a memorandum to be kept on file, as protec- tion to the principal and for future reference : * Messenger Name Room , 191 Sent to For Time of leaving Of return 1 A credential may be given a pupil messenger for protection against suspicion of truancy. A New York principal uses this form: The bearer is absent from school by permission, 19. . . from William A. Kottman, Principal, P. S. 147, Man. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 193 2. Entrance and exit of pupils. Careful super- vision must be given to the entrance and exit of pupils, to the end that they may be effected in an orderly manner and with safety. It is wise to have some one in authority responsible, at all times, for the supervision of pupils. This necessitates the assignment of teachers or janitors to special duty in playgrounds, playrooms, corridors, etc. If there is a sufficient number of men teachers in the school, they may be assigned to all of this duty as regards the boys, leaving to the women teachers the super- vision of the girls' playgrounds only. An assign- ment of teachers to this duty in weekly or semi- weekly shifts is probably most satisfactory. It is not an attractive form of service, and three or five days in succession is usually sufficient to satisfy the most aspiring teacher, for it means her presence in and about the playgrounds and corridors for the half hour or so preceding the opening of both morning and afternoon sessions. The number of teachers assigned to such duty will depend upon the size of the school, the number of pupils, and the area to be supervised. As a general rule it may be expected that from about one sixth to one eighth of the teachers will be required for such duty ; that 194 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL is, the duty will recur for each teacher about once in six or eight weekly or other periods. The rigidity of the discipline to be maintained at these times may vary in degree with conditions. If there is ample playground area, great freedom may be allowed the pupils, permitting them to play games, run about, shout, and otherwise disport themselves as is natural to the genus. If the play- ground area is limited, such freedom might result in serious accidents to pupils, and hence greater restriction must be placed upon them. It is better, however, to set a standard of less rigid deportment and have it conformed to, than to make rigid rules which are disregarded. For instance, it is better not to have a rule of "no talking " than to have such a rule and then allow whispering as a common occurrence ; on the other hand, it is better to require " no talking " and get it, than to allow " whisper- ing " and have it grow into boisterous conduct. As to conduct in halls and on stairways, there is something to be said in favor both of a laissez-faire condition and of its opposite, — rigid military dis- cipline. 1 When adults attend a concert, church 1 In French schools pupils always enter and leave the school- room in double file, often singing as they march. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 195 service, or other gathering, they enter the edifice about as they please, certainly with no military restrictions, upon their conduct. Hence, it may be argued, if we are to train pupils for life, we should train them to enter the school building in an orderly manner, but without restraint, not prohibiting them from conversing in ordinary tones, but allowing them to saunter in as they would at any other public building. Military training, however, learning to act and march in unison, learning to carry one- self with proper posture and poise, are also valuable accomplishments. The forming of pupils on lines, maintenance of these lines, and marching in step, with an absolute requirement of "no talking," give valuable training and lead to orderly and well- mannered, not to say " showy/ ' passage of pupils. The various stairways and exits should be num- bered or lettered and plainly designated by placards, and in each classroom there should be posted a statement of the procedure for regular dismissals. Emergency dismissals. In most cities emergency dismissals, by way of drill to provide for safe exit in case of actual danger, are required periodically by law or by board rules or both. Even when not specifically required the principal should have them 196 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL at least monthly or semimonthly, both for the sake of the actual drill and for the confidence such drills inspire in the public, which feels that it may trust the school authorities in an emergency. Fire-drill plans. Other emergencies may arise necessitating speedy exit, but the chief source of danger is from fire. Planning for drills to be used in case of fire serves sufficiently to guard against the other dangers. In planning for fire drills : i. The principal should study the lay of the land about the school building, noting the location of the fire hydrants, the nearest fire alarm station (there should be one in every schoolhouse), and the nearest fire house. 2. The principal should figure the route that is likely to be taken by the fire engines in coming to the building, and determine the locations for the best disposition of the pupils when they are out of the building. The pupils should travel a minimum distance from the school to a place of safety. Each class may be given a fixed position as related to certain landmarks, — posts, trees, etc., — or, if convenient, to houses by their numbers. Where this is impracticable, the pupils first out from a given exit may go to a stated THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 197 point and the remaining pupils form a continuous line from the exit. In this case it is especially necessary that some one be assigned to the duty of keeping the sidewalk about the exit free from pupils, and of preventing crowding by other people. 3. The principal should schedule the exact route to be taken by each class to its position of safety, providing for the non-intersection of files of pupils, and, where possible, arrange for the marching of pupils to music. 4. The principal should devise a code of signals for emergency dismissal. The larger the building, the less elaborate and complicated it should be. The simplest code is to have two signals, one for emergency dismissal under ordinary circumstances, in which the pupils take with them their hats and coats and perhaps their books; the other for an immediate exit without waiting to get outer clothing. The two signals, whether by classroom electric bells, hall gongs, or central bell, should be sufficiently distinct so that they will not be confused with each other or with the signal for regular dis- missal. Two strokes of a gong, as distinguished from five strokes, is much better than signals of one and two 198 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL strokes, of two and three, etc. If the two signals differ by only a single stroke the teacher may have difficulty in determining which is meant. More- over, if there are several gongs located at different points, more than one of them is likely to be heard by each teacher and the strokes merge one into another. To obviate the danger which might arise from the signaling apparatus failing to work, l the regular signals may be supplemented by a " still alarm," in which monitors pass quickly from room to room, displaying some form of signal card. 2 1 Rochester requires the principal to test the fire alarm system each morning before the opening of school. Many cities pre- scribe this as a duty of the janitor. Detroit provides him with the following form: JANITOR'S EXIT REPORT Date 8 : 45 a.m. In accordance with Rule No. 114 of the Board of Education, I have personally examined all exits and hereby report them to be unlocked, clear and free. Signed Engineer- Janitor. School. 2 San Francisco provides that "The general alarm shall consist of the cry of fire, or of the cry of fire followed by a quick and violent ringing of bells." — III. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 199 5. The principal should make provision for an inspection of each floor after a drill to make sure that no persons are left in the building. He should also make special provision for the care of physically incapacitated pupils during a drill. 6. The principal should post in each room a placard showing exactly what is required of teachers and pupils in case of drill, for example : Emergency Drill Signals : Five strokes of hall gongs, Pupils go without wraps and hats. Two strokes of hall gongs, Pupils go with wraps and hats. (Note : Signals are to the teacher and not to the pupils.) Order : All pupils in Room 75 use stairway and exit B, following pupils of Room 25, and preceding pupils of Room 35, and line up in front of 282 Fulton St. (Note : Pupils start from the room in double line and maintain this double formation throughout the entire drill.) (Note : There shall be absolute quiet throughout the en- tire drill.) Return : Upon signal, pupils return to the classrooms in the reverse order of that in which they went out. 200 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Conduct of drill. In the conduct of drills the following rules are suggested : i. All drills should come unexpectedly to teachers and pupils. 2. Do not have drills in unfit weather. Especially do not drill pupils in immediate exit except when it is warm enough to make it safe for them to go out without hats and wraps. 3. Test signaling apparatus frequently. 4. Make provision for pupils who may be in the basement, in the toilet, or in rooms other than their classrooms at the time of the drill, so that they may join the nearest line. 5. Have drills under varying conditions : (a) At various hours during the regular class work. (b) During an assembly. (c) During a recess. 6. Occasionally block off a stairway, hallway, or exit, or imagine them blocked off, so that safe exit might be made were such difficulties real. 7. On the first day of the term make sure that janitor, teachers, and pupils understand the fire- drill regulations and have a drill within a few hours. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 201 Precautions. Certain general precautions should be taken : i. Train the janitor not to permit the accumu- lation of rubbish or waste, and assign him and his assistants specific duties in case of drill, such as promptly fastening open the various doors and stationing themselves at a certain position or in charge of a certain territory, to protect pupils from street traffic. 1 2. Confer with the fire and police authorities. They will usually exhibit genuine interest in school drills and often make valuable suggestions. In Denver the Fire Department is requested to call fire drills at the schools without notification any time after the first week. 3. Train teachers to keep themselves under good control during a drill. Discuss frankly with them the actual chances of danger. 2 If the building is a modern, fireproof structure, point out how difficult it would be to organize a fire in it that would injure the pupils, showing that the sole danger is from 1 Pupil monitors may be stationed at necessary places on the street and display placards reading "Stop. School Fire Drill." 2 "The principals shall give such instruction to assistants and teachers as will prepare them to act prudently and promptly in case of fire. ..." — Indianapolis, XV, 3. 202 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL panic. If the building has certain defects of struc- ture from the fire-risk side, explain the conditions and the means of minimizing the dangers. 1 A single exit from each room is better than more than one. In case of emergency, the teacher should quickly gain this single exit, command it, and from this vantage point control her class and forestall panic. 4. Assure teachers that during a drill they are authorized to exercise military law if necessary. If a pupil should call out "Fire," or make similar outcry, he should be dealt with summarily. Cor- poral punishment, however unjustifiable at any other time, will be condoned by public sentiment and school authorities when employed to prevent serious panic among little children. 5. Have teachers instruct pupils in advance ex- plicitly as to their duties in case of drill. Warn pupils that the signals are for the teacher and not for them, and that they are to make no move until ordered to by the teacher. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the fact that they have but a single duty in case of a fire drill, namely to give 1 Teachers may be assigned in committees to report on con- ditions along the several routes of exit, e.g. an unprotected gas- jet, a door not swinging readily, a slippery step or broken tread. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 203 prompt and explicit obedience to the teacher. It is probably best to direct pupils to keep one hand on the hand rail while going downstairs. 6. Aim, first, for good order and freedom from panic; only after these are secure put emphasis upon the element of speed. 1 The principal should determine, from the character of his particular building, the approximate ratio of fire hazard to speed hazard. If the building is old and of faulty construction, the important consideration is to train pupils to get out of the building in the speediest fashion possible. On the contrary, if the building is of modern fireproof construction speed is not a factor of the same importance and the principal will not deliberately create an unnecessary speed hazard at the expense of lessened order. 3. Physical care of pupils. Principal and teachers must, in many ways, minister to the physical wel- fare of pupils. The building must be (a) kept clean and (b) properly heated and ventilated. Pupils must be (c) instructed in physical culture. They must (d) have regular recesses and (e) be per- 1 "System, order, and obedience, and steady and firm control shall be the points of merit in fire-drills, instead of extreme rapid movements and shortening of time." — Omaha, VI, 18. 204 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL mitted to leave the room when necessary. The school must take preventive measures against (/) the spread of disease, (g) body strain, (h) eyestrain, and (i) pathological fatigue, (j) Home study must be regulated. Pupils who have (k) physical or (I) mental defects must be discovered. Finally, (m) adolescent girls must be given special con- sideration. a. Keeping the building clean. The janitor, in some places called " custodian," should have definite instructions as to the extent and frequency of his cleaning of the classrooms. 1 The principal 1 The prevailing duties required of janitors may be summed up as follows : i. Attend for stated period daily; responsible to principal. 2. Responsible for school property — against fire, theft, damage, freezing, etc. 3. Protect against idlers and trespassers. 4. Present neat appearance — uniform. 5. Receive fuel and other supplies. 6. Operate heating and ventilating system. 7. Keep exits properly open or closed. 8. Sweep rooms, halls, sidewalks, yards, etc. (daily). 9. Dust furniture, woodwork, etc. (daily). 10. Scrub floors (monthly). 11. Clean windows (monthly), blackboards. 12. Clean and disinfect toilets (daily) ; clean drinking cups. 13. Remove snow from sidewalks and paths. 14. Collect waste paper and dispose of (burn, etc.) and other rubbish (daily). 15. Wind clocks regularly. 16. Examine roof (monthly) ; keep gutters clean and clear. 17. Make minor repairs, apparatus, locks, doors, fencing, etc. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 205 must impress teachers with their responsibility to notify him of derelictions on the part of janitors. They must not expect him to make a constant in- spection of rooms or to be clairvoyant. The condition ought to be that every teacher can have her room in just that standard of order and cleanliness that she may choose. Pupils cannot be encouraged to keep the classroom in order if they do not find it in a cleanly and orderly condition when they arrive. Teachers should not be permitted to give direc- tions to the janitor. All orders to the janitor should issue from the principal. This applies to all forms of janitorial service desired by any teacher; she should be required to submit her 18. Adjust furniture. 19. Report major repairs needed. 20. Display national flag (daily). 21. Be respectful and obliging. 22. Sharpen pencils. The Worcester Quarterly Statement Relating to Services of Janitor made by the principal contains the following items : 1. Does the janitor of your building faithfully perform his duties as set forth in the Rules for Janitors? 2. If not, in what particulars has he failed during the term just closed? 3. Is he cheerful in his service? 4. Does he assume responsibility necessary to his position, as called for under the Rules for Janitors? 5. Offer any suggestions looking to an improvement in the regulations laid down for janitors. 6. Remarks. 206 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL requests to the principal. It is but fair to the janitor that he should be subject to the orders of but a single authority, whose directions are likely to be consistent and uniform. 1 Teachers and pupils should learn to take such pride in the condition of their classrooms as to make impossible any serious accumulation of dirt, even in out-of-the-way corners of the rooms or wardrobes, thus reducing the chance of contagion through microbe-assimilating dust and dirt. 2 b. Heating and ventilating. The principal must instruct teachers in the operation of the apparatus with which they are directly concerned, showing how the temperature and ventilation are to be regulated. If, in a steam heating system, the radiators are controlled by hand, they must under- stand the use of the valves ; if controlled by ther- 1 The time at which the janitor should have "right of way" at the close of the session should be definitely settled upon. Re- quired, for instance, in Minneapolis: "They (principals) shall permit the janitors to begin their work twenty minutes after the close of school." — VII, 5 (e). 2 Sanitary squads of pupils may be selected, by appointment or pupil-election, to make periodic patrol of the buildings inside and out, noting violations of rules as to proper disposal of paper, rubbish, etc., derelictions of janitor, improper use of drinking places, toilets, and school apparatus. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 207 mostat, the necessity for leaving the apparatus alone. Teachers must report promptly any defect of operation. 1 If there is a system of ventilation by means of fans, the teacher must understand the necessity for keeping the windows of the room closed while the system is in operation. Opening windows causes a circulation of air from the inlets to the windows in a zone above the level of the pupils, thus leaving the impure air in the lower part of the room as the only supply for the pupils. Keeping windows or doors open in one room leads to the disturbance of the proper circulation throughout the entire tier of rooms which depend upon the same duct for their fresh supply. A chief danger is that the teacher will regulate the temperature and ventilation to suit herself and not to suit the The foregoing may be compared with the following, which are some of the conclusions based upon a ques- tionnaire sent (191 5) to 616 superintendents, principals, and class teachers, by a committee of the New York Academy of Public Education : 564 out of 616 voted in favor of home study. Compulsory home work should be prohibited below the fourth school year. In seventh year classes, the maximum home lessons should be one hour ; in eighth year classes, one hour and a half. There is substantial agreement that home study, properly explained and carefully supervised, will de- 1 Dr. Frank Crane, The Globe, New York, tfov. 23, 1916. 222 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL velop self-reliance, neatness, concentration, accuracy, industry, responsibility, thoroughness, and the study habit. 476 out of 564 replies agree that proper home study becomes not only a function for the improvement of the school, but for the home as well. Careful measures must be taken by all principals and teachers to secure the honesty and effectiveness of home work- Systematic plans must be made for the efficient super- vision of all home work, so that it may not become an undue strain upon the energy of the class teacher, or take time which should be devoted to instruction pur- poses. The fact that 98 per cent of the 4252 boys, and 97 per cent of the 4483 girls who attend the evening study room, in social and recreation centers, were promoted, justifies their work, and proves the necessity for its continuance and extension. A careful analysis of the time limits set by 515 princi- pals and teachers shows that in assigning home work, actual "study" should require one half the additional time which is given to the " written work." Principals have no more important duty than the task of carefully supervising both the assignments of home study and the methods of determining the honesty and efficiency of the results. No home studies should be permitted, unless adequate explanations have been given in school by the teacher. THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 223 The object of home work should be educational, not preventive. Its chief aim should be to supplement the school work, and not a means of keeping the children off the streets. To a great degree, home work will vary according to neighborhood conditions. Every principal must, there- fore, be held strictly accountable for the needs of his or her particular school. Quality ', not quantity, should be the standard of effi- ciency in judging the results of home work. k. Discovering physical defects. In some cities this is done by agents of the Department of Health. Teachers can, however, by frequent tests of vision and hearing, discover cases requiring professional attention. 1 In these cases, formal reports should be made to the parents. Affections of nose and throat are frequent causes of serious mental defects in pupils, and removal of these causes almost in- variably results favorably to the mental condition of the children. /. Discovering mental defects. Pupils with seri- ous physical defects — the blind, mute, deaf, etc. 1 For directions for testing hearing and vision, for stigmata of various defects, and for full discussion from the teacher's stand- point, see Lewis M. Terman, The Hygiene of the School Child. Also, Dresslar, School Hygiene. See, too, Walter B. Smith, Speech Defects in School Children. 224 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL — do not as a rule attend public school. Pupils mentally defective, however, are frequently ad- mitted. In the case of such a pupil, his defect often remains undiscovered, or if considered at all, is summarily disposed of as misconduct and treated as a case of discipline. In those cities that have established psychological clinics or bureaus (see page 237) there is systematic direction of the work of discovering mentally defective pupils. Whether such a bureau exists or not, teachers should learn to detect these pupils' cases, or at least to be sus- picious that certain pupils are defective, and the principal should consider such cases carefully and diagnose them, with the aid, when it is possible to secure it, of parents and professional experts. The following criteria are given by the Acting Super- intendent of Schools, New York City, Elementary Cir- cular Number 1, 191 7-18, for Children who may be defective. a. Children who have gross conduct disorders : — truants ; those who seem to be incorrigible ; those who seem to show criminal tendencies ; those who are habit- ually absent from school even for a half day at a time ; those who have " tantrums." b. Children who seem nervous: — those who cry easily ; those who are easily frightened ; those who con- THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 225 stantly move about ; choreic children ; those who have unusual anxieties ; epileptics. c. Children who seem psychopathic : — those who do not play ; those who play with children much younger than themselves; those who are overconscientious, hypersensitive, etc. ; those who are extremely reticent, suspicious, etc. ; those who avoid companionship, those who are irritable; those who have shown a marked change in disposition. d. Children whose progress is unsatisfactory : — those who show defect in general information about the home, the school, and the street environment ; those apparently unable to learn, to reason, to calculate, to plan, to con- struct; those who show marked muscular incoordina- tion; those who show defect in judgment, foresight, language, suggestibility, output of effort. m. Giving special consideration to adolescent girls. The care of girls at their critical periods is commonly neglected, especially in the elementary schools. There are several reasons. 1. The matter is gen- erally regarded as a high-school problem, whereas the fact is that more than a majority of schoolgirls mature while yet in the elementary school. 2. Teachers are careless or inattentive because of ignorance as to the importance of the subject. 3. In many schools the attendance record is over- emphasized, and, in consequence, teachers urge Q 226 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL their girls, and the girls urge themselves, to attend school when it would be better for them to absent themselves. 4. Physical adolescence is accom- panied by mental characteristics, 1 one of which in many cases is the development and refinement of the sense of duty. Overconscientiousness and fidel- ity to the requirements of the school lead the girl to neglect her physical well-being. 5. There is prevalent conviction that the subject is a delicate one to discuss and that consideration of it would be resented by parents and the public. 2 1 The Adolescent Girl "I wish there were Someone Who would hear confession ; Not a priest — I do not want to be told of my sins ; Not a mother — I do not want to give sorrow ; Not a friend — she would not know enough ; Not a lover — he would be too partial ; Not God — He is far away. But Someone that should be friend, lover, mother, priest, God, all in one. And a stranger besides, — who would not condemn or interfere. Who, when everything is said from beginning to end, Would show the reason of it all And bid you go ahead And work it out your own way." — Jeanne D'Orge, quoted in Journal of Education, Nov. 16, 1916. 2 See author's Problems of the Elementary School, Chap. X, on "The Care of Adolescent Girls," descriptive of experience in endeavoring to solve the problem in one school. "In five years' THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 227 Teachers should be brought to a proper under- standing of this subject. Their indifference, when it exists, is usually only apparent and not willful and is the result of ignorance or of loyalty to conventional school traditions. Teachers should know that a girl who has reached maturity will accomplish a larger total of mental work by working steadily through all but two or three days of her month than by work- ing at high pressure throughout the entire month. Moreover, she thus considerably lessens the chances of suffering serious disorder later in life. A clear and frank understanding should be had between the teacher and the mothers of her girls. As a result, the mothers realize that the school recognizes in- stead of disregards the matter, and prefers that the girls shall periodically ease up in their work, either by absenting themselves or by coming to school unprepared in their lessons and free from the neces- sity of performing all the school exercises. Teachers should also be encouraged to refer special cases of threatened breakdown to the prin- cipal. In any class of girls, toward the end of the school year there are usually two or three brighter time and in hundreds of cases" there was "no single case of resent- ment shown by a mother." 228 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL than the average, whose ambition and fidelity have outrun a reasonable expenditure of physical energy. Many days before the end of the term they have reached a standing which the average member of the class will not reach by the term's end. They may be profitably advised to absent themselves for a few days to reestablish their physical equilibrium by free play and exercise in the open air. Summary. The principal's responsibility for the physical welfare of his pupils takes three main directions. He must assure their personal safety while they are in school; he must safeguard them against the danger of fire and other emergencies ; and he must manage the school so that it ministers to their physical care and development. If pupils leave school in a group during session they must be under the responsible guidance of teachers; if individuals leave it must be only under exceptional circumstances, such as a parent's request in an emergency, illness, serious disciplinary offense, or for messenger service. Teachers and pupils must be drilled in safe and speedy exit from the building in case of danger. The physical welfare of pupils will be furthered by a clean building, properly heated and ventilated; instruction in physical cul- THE PUPILS' PHYSICAL WELFARE 229 ture ; regular recesses and opportunity to leave the room at other times ; measures to prevent the spread of contagious disease, strain of body and eye, and pathological fatigue; regulation of home study; attention to physical and mental defect ; and special consideration for the adolescent girl. CHAPTER VIII THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS The responsibility of the principal for the scho- lastic advancement of his pupils presents problems in organization and supervision concerning : (i) the admission of pupils, (2) the grading of pupils, (3) the departmental plan, (4) the rating of pupils, (5) the promotion of pupils, (6) the classroom work, (7) standards and tests. 1. The admission of pupils. In admitting a new pupil the principal must assign him to that grade where he will find a fair balance between his capacity to work and the necessity of his working. If the pupil presents a certificate of transfer from some other school within the same system, profes- sional etiquette,' if not a specific rule of the depart- ment, demands that he be placed in the same grade as he was in the former school. If he comes from another system, the principal has to take into con- sideration the difference in the curricula of the two systems. 230 THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 231 If the pupil has no documentary evidence of his previous school record, the principal must be guided by the individual circumstances. By a simple oral or written test he may ascertain approximately both the pupil's accumulated stock of knowledge and his ability to take up new work. If he is farther advanced in some subjects than in others, he may be assigned to such a grade as will credit him with the advanced knowledge and yet make him put forth considerable effort in the other subjects. Assignment should be on trial, and clearly so stated. It is better, as a rule, to put a pupil in the higher of two possible grades with the understanding that he will have a certain number of days in which to prove his ability to stay there, than to put him in the lower grade on the assumption that he needs the " foundation " work. When he is given such a trial, he should understand that no disgrace will attach to his reduction in grade if later it is found that he has been graded too high. 2. The grading of pupils. The proper grading of pupils is one of the unsolved pedagogic problems of the day. The " district school " represents the extreme type of individual instruction, each pupil practically in a grade by himself. The large city 232 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL school with four or five classes — two hundred or more pupils — in a single grade, represents the extreme type of mass instruction. How, in a large school, with large classes inevitable, shall the happy mean be reached between individual and mass teaching? The principal should recognize the broad features of the problem, especially the fact that the size of classes and the quality of the teaching is at root a financial matter. He should, therefore, exercise his influence in urging the public to more liberal expenditure. 1 The practical administrative problem before him is how he shall get the most effective teaching for the individual through the mass, under the actual conditions and with limited equipment. If a teacher had but one pupil, it would be pos- sible for her to give him instruction adapted one hundred per cent to his needs. With two pupils, she would have to " average " her teaching so that it would reach both pupils. Unless both pupils 1 There is probably a limit, however, to the reduction in size of classes, fixed by pedagogic considerations. If twenty-four pupils in a class is twice as good a condition as forty-eight pupils in a class, it does not follow that twelve pupils would be again twice as favorable. The value of society membership, of development along lines of social efficiency, of the friction of mind on mind that produces polish, is not to be underestimated. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 233 had identically the same degree of intelligence and amount of preparation the teaching would unavoid- ably fall below one hundred per cent of adaptation to either pupil. With a class of forty or fifty the percentage of course falls far below, and the class teaching must be directed toward a more or less imaginary " average " pupil. Grouping pupils. The greater the extremes of ability among the pupils in a class the less effective the mass teaching. Conversely, the more homo- geneous the class the more effective the teaching. The principal's problem would seem, then, to be to make the unit-groupings of pupils as homogeneous as possible. The measure of intelligence. The beginning of the solution of the problem is to eliminate the pupils who represent the extremes of variation. To do this necessitates some means of measuring intelli- gence and accomplishment. 1 It is only in recent 1 These two measures are not the same. For example, a child of intelligence beyond the normal may happen not to have studied long division; another child, comparatively stupid, may have mastered the topic at the age of fifteen. In the first case, intel- ligence is high and achievement of this particular knowledge low ; in the second, intelligence is low, achievement high. The ac- complishment of school tasks is measured by the usual standards, examinations, and tests, which are discussed later (p. 275). 234 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL years that scientific tests of intelligence have been devised. The test now commonly used is the Binet. 1 This test provides a scale of standard nor- mal development of intelligence, year by year, in the age of the individual. By it a person's intelli- gence year, or " mental age," can be determined. The ratio of his mental age to his chronological age is known as his intelligence quotient (I. Q.). 2 An I. Q. of ioo is, of course, theoretically normal ; anything less would indicate subnormal, and any- thing more, supernormal, intelligence. Practically, an I. Q. of from 90 to no is regarded as average or normal. In any ordinary classroom group it is inevitable that the intelligence quotients of the pupils vary to some extent. For effective teaching all pupils of extreme variation in either direction 1 The original tests have been subjected to successive revisions, some by Professor Binet himself. The test is now usually known as the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for Intelligence. For de- scription of the Stanford revision and extension, and guide for its use, see Terman, The Measure of Intelligence. 2 Yerkes — Bridges — Hardwick, A Point Scale for Measuring Mental Activity, presents a scale consisting of "a single series of tests ... in connection with which credit should be given according to the merit of the subject's response.' , The authors are "fully convinced that" the Binet Scale "has served its most important purpose and must shortly give way wholly to a superior method." THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 235 should be taken out of the group and, if possible, placed in new groups more nearly homogeneous. Feeble-minded pupils. An I. Q. of below 70 indicates definite feeble-mindedness. " Of the feeble-minded, those between 50 and 70 I. Q. include most of the morons (high, middle, low), those between 20 or 25 and 50 are ordinarily to be classed as imbeciles, and those below 20 or 25 as idiots. . . . School defectives are practically all of the moron and border-line grades, and these it is impor- tant teachers should be able to recognize.' ' ! Pupils of extreme subnormal intelligence are now, in many cities, being systematically discovered and segregated in special classes under specially trained teachers. 2 1 Terman, The Measure of Intelligence, p. 79. 2 Philadelphia uses a very compact printed form, summarizing the tests and affording blanks for records "grouped according to final revision by Binet and Simon, 191 1 ; arranged for convenience of examiners in Philadelphia public schools." Providence, the first city in the country to organize a class for defective children, in 1894, uses a card "Pupil's Record of Intel- ligence — Terman Revision." In Grand Rapids, 1916, of 210 pupils in special classes, 49 were imbeciles, 118 morons. In Oakland the examiner's estimate was that of 1700 pupils examined, 9 per cent were imbecile and idiot and 23 per cent moron. Of 361 pupils in ungraded classes in the Bronx, New York City, there were 189 imbeciles, 164 morons, 8 doubtful. 236 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Bright pupils. In our school organizations, un- usually gifted pupils have received less recognition than the subnormal. Frequently they are, in fact, the most retarded of all groups of pupils. Occa- sional plans have been tried to enable the bright pupils to pursue the school course more rapidly than the average. If the school is large enough special rapid-advancement classes can be organized in which pupils accomplish three units of work in two units of time. To the unthinking teachers and others, these classes seem particularly easy to handle. On the contrary, they present special problems which, in the interest of the exceptional pupils, must be intrusted only to skillful teachers par- ticularly adapted to the work. Average pupils. When provision has been made for the special instruction of the unusually sub- normal and the unusually supernormal, there re- main the great bulk of the pupils, those whose I. Q. ranges from 70 to, say, 120. 1 Here is a varia- tion among pupils neither feeble-minded nor very bright which is wide in extent. Many schemes of 1 For studies of variations in pupils' abilities, retardation, elimination, etc., see George D. Strayer and Edward L. Thorndike, Educational Administration. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 237 grading have been devised with the view of enabling these pupils to progress at differing rates of speed. Among them are: (a) More frequent regular pro- motions, three or four times a year, or even as often as every six weeks, (b) Grading within grades. Grouping pupils of a certain grade into subgrades for the study of those subjects in which the rate of progress is most likely to vary with different pupils. (c) Promotion by subjects, enabling pupils to continue studies not yet mastered without at the same time repeating work already accomplished. (d) Special small classes under competent teachers for slow-moving or for fast-moving pupils. 1 (e) Or- ganization of classes into parallel courses of differ- 1 "Our system provides for double promotions, elastic pro- motions, and for special classes within a school. These special classes are presided over by a coaching-teacher whose special function it is to help both bright children and retarded children. The classes are not large. We try to limit the number which a coaching- teacher shall have in her room at any one time to eight. ... At present we have 62 coaching-teachers in our elementary schools for which we pay a total salary of some $70,000. Our expense for the Psychological Clinic may total $5000 more. We feel convinced that every dollar we are investing in this depart- ment of our schools is an economy rather than an expense. Our Board of Education indorses it heartily without a question." — Supt. Wm. M. Davidson, Pittsburgh, quoted by Elizabeth L. Woods, " Provision for the Gifted Child," in Educational Admin- istration and Supervision, vol. 3, p. 143. 238 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL ent speeds so that pupils may cross over from one speed to another at frequent points. 1 One of the most important duties of the prin- cipal is to place each pupil in the class in which the greatest service can be rendered him. The large 1 Notably the Cambridge plan, whereby pupils can do six years' work in either four, five, or six years. For description of the " new Cambridge plan," as well as of other plans and of "fundamental reorganizations," see Ellwood P. Cubberley, Public School Adminis- tration. Fundamental reorganizations, such as the "six and six plan," are not here discussed because of their broader scope and the fact that there is a rapidly growing literature on the subject. Mr. Frank B. Spaulding, principal, Public School 48, Brooklyn, New York, organizes his classes so that each grade has two divi- sions. The advanced-division class of each grade spends little time in reviewing the work of the preceding grade, covers the work of the regular grade in about fourteen weeks, and spends the remaining time in the work of the succeeding grade. This organization enables the brightest pupils to advance one and one half grades per term. Thus the exceptional pupil may make six years' work in four. His progress would be : 1A2, 2A1 ; 2B2, 3B1 ; 4A2, 5A1 ; 5B2, 6B1. On the other hand, the dull pupil may progress at least by half steps and feel that he is moving. The plan facilitates promotions during the term as the differ- ence between successive grades is so slight that a small amount of extra help may easily bridge the gap. At the end of the term the pupil has four alternatives instead of two, e.g. from 3A1, the very dull or much absent pupil remains in 3A1 ; the dull goes to 3A2 ; the normal to 3B1 ; the very bright to 3B2, THE PUPILS* SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 239 number of pupils per teacher makes teaching in mass inevitable ; nevertheless the individual must ever be kept in mind in all teaching and in all school and class management. Teachers must be constantly re- mindedithat their classes are made up of individuals and that they must not lose the pupil in the class. Mr. Frank B. Stevens, principal, Public School 94, Brooklyn, New York, during the term receives from each teacher a graph which clearly presents the class situation and emphasizes the fact that the class is composed of individuals. The following is a sample : 5"B" Kay f | n n ! J ■" ' • T, ^^<11H ' : : ... ,<■■ \ P j | V n -- 7/ H- ^ - < : X /.' J/77 a ;■-■ -i"~ ~ j H : ^ t 1 -'> ;± I r j . TIM E 'IN school ■ ' ■■ ' 1 i : : . lu !•; f 4 t ^ z HI t • • \ ■ .' • r ; ! ! l-'l ' ■ i 1 {■■■■■•■I; '! ■■{ •■ ~ 88TT ' ' « H " ' • :$, I— ' b^ -J r J ^ . s K k . S' P' ^* '•\ 0? «j t- 'n fn S p > N N \ ■j h ti a k s s>' 4 „',> -:- | ,v >! V < ! : S Pi E r' r? N A | 6 '-•" d K '■■' K :■■ 1" i- ? : z •: c < fi '.. ••':" --. i- , r s h f 3 X, ( .8 t- fi i -": £ u 5 ,s $ C •*' t c ; : -;■ .« ■■ t! ■^ \ ■r< 1 | i \ :> r- 1 sf •j £ £ s ^ £ ^ s ^ •§ 3 ■-; 1 5i •n % <3 ^ K 4 3 s $ < '^ ^ $ «| ^ ^s ) N V/o '.■ ! 1 5 ?. ? s ] - '■'a ■u Ar :- ■U % /r v- 6* /,/ A ',:■. /Vo -•-, Mb Sm /Vo S.Y ,% Ru -',„ th fiu U /Vo /Vo k, ■- .;„• •' h, - Ar Oe En Vo /t Vc Sw ',: Wo •r, .',: jV /Vo Sm Sd fa Ru e* ftr H) Mo Ru Sm /Vo ♦fc lr ■ An. ■'• ~~t V; 1 ^ .J & u B th & > !/- Eta ■jit •-■ 4 i J" y y £T /n m v • - *r t s m r> ca 1 r t fe r I r# f *a a Sfil S 5vT h it cc 1 CO CO a z 5 z I CO 1- z CO cc s3 S.|. CCy-V UJ o cc Z fc o 3 5 Z o o Z^ o.|. cc.^ lu m cc §3 z tgS CC < i > ■ z Q z LU -» fc CO o o > o z o UJ a z < CD K < Z < > < s Ml z 3 -• 256 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL ratings at the beginning of each new term. The pupil is promoted with a maximum rating, and then his new teacher, in order to impress him with the fact that now that he is in her class he must work, gives him a low rating the first month, whereas he has actually worked more faithfully and effectively than in the previous month. The strange environ- ment of the new class has made its impression on the pupil and he has probably made a more or less con- scious effort to adjust himself to it ; the rating which seems to fail to appreciate this effort affects the pupil as an injustice and discourages continued effort. Where the system provides a separate mark for effort and proficiency, the principal must look out for such cases as a pupil with excellent effort and very poor results, or a pupil with unsatisfactory effort and excellent results. In either case it would seem that the pupil is misgraded, — too high in the former case and too low in the latter. 5. The promotion of pupils. Certain uniform regulations regarding the promotion of pupils are in force in every system of schools. Promotions may be made regularly at the end of a " term " varying in length in different cities ; the most general practice provides for two terms in each year. There are THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 257 arguments for and against a short term, but as the principal has little to do with fixing the period, they are not considered here. The method of determining promotions is in some systems fixed even to details, but usually considerable latitude is allowed the prin- cipals and teachers. A few suggestions are offered on the general subject. a. Promotions should not be based solely upon final examinations or tests, either written or oral. Many a hard-working, conscientious pupil of nerv- ous temperament is less able to pass successfully a written examination than some happy-go-lucky, careless classmate. b. The " educational value " of the various sub- jects of the curriculum should be taken into account and the pupiPs work in each given proportionate credit. An arithmetical average of a pupiPs results in English, mathematics, history, geography, draw- ing, and music, for instance, might not fairly repre- sent his all-round ability, for a high music rating due to native talent in that particular direction might more than offset a low rating in English with its subtopics of composition, reading, memorizing, spelling, and grammar. 258 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL c. Probably the best plan of promotion is to forward all pupils whom the teacher regards as unquestionably ready, and to give a written ex- amination to settle the cases regarding which the teacher is in doubt. Even if the practice is to promote upon the teacher's estimate alone, the pupil should have the right of appeal and the right to demand a formal test of his fitness. It is, there- fore, wise for the principal to anticipate such appeals by giving a formal examination to all pupils regarded by the teachers as deficient. The record of such examinations, together with the pupils' answer papers, should, of course, be preserved, so that when an appeal is made the principal is armed with documentary evidence. d. A pupil should be promoted: (1) when he has satisfactorily completed the work of his grade ; (2) when he is prepared to do the work of the suc- ceeding grade. A pupil may not have complied with (1) on account of absence or other circum- stances, and yet comply with (2). Whether misconduct should operate to prevent the promotion of a pupil is perhaps a debatable question. It is safe to say that it should not, but that it does ; that is, as a matter of record a pupil THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 259 who has misbehaved and nevertheless has been proficient in his school work should not be kept back by his misbehavior; as a matter of fact, his mis- behavior if at all serious will operate to prevent his reaching satisfactory proficiency. 1 It is also a question as to whether a pupil should ever be officially promoted on " length of service " alone. 2 It may be said that a pupil who has already spent two half-year terms in a grade without getting satisfactory results ought, for his own good, to be held back to attempt the work of that grade until he succeeds in mastering it. If he has spent two terms in a grade where learning to read is the chief business, probably he should stay the third term in order to attend to that business. If, how- ever, he has spent two terms in one grade, and has accomplished satisfactory results in some subjects and has fallen behind in others, he probably should 1 Cincinnati recognizes conduct as a factor: "A satisfactory standing in daily work, with good deportment, shall be accepted as evidence of the ability of pupils to do successfully the work of the next higher grade." — 34, sec. 1. 2 " Any pupil having been twice over a course shall be permitted to pass to the next grade, provided his record shows that he has been present at least 75 per cent of the days of the term and his application and deportment have been satisfactory." — Syra- cuse, 74. 260 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL go ahead. If he is an all-round dull pupil who has already lost interest in the subject matter of the grade and who has gotten from that grade and from that teacher all that he can ever get, he prob- ably should be promoted to a new field. He may be passed along in this way without serious injury until he reaches the legal age for leaving for work, but a diploma or certificate of graduation ought not to be given him on such a basis of continued promotions. The word probably has been used advisedly. The individual case should be considered every time. The formulation of any inflexible rule that no pupil should remain in a grade three terms, or the contrary rule that no pupil should be promoted who has not rigidly qualified for promotion, would react un- favorably upon the life of the school, and should be avoided. A pupil who is much over age and has not earned promotion may properly be put forward on the ground that a large factor in his failure is his sensitiveness to the fact that he is out of his social set, a sensitiveness which is natural and more commonly present than many teachers recognize. Such a pupil may be kept officially in a certain grade and permitted to share the activities of one or more higher-grade classes. He and his fellow pupils will un- THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 261 derstand that he is not gaining a standing to which he is not entitled. He will, however, be getting the most that the school can give him, without compromising with his " record.' ' e. A pupil may be promoted " on trial " on the ground that his shortcomings were due to unavoid- able absence and that his general ability is such as to warrant the belief that he can make up his defi- ciency and maintain standing in the new grade. 1 1 The principal of Public School 9, Brooklyn, New York, uses the following form to parent : Your has been promoted to on "condition," being deficient in and weak in This advance is with the understanding that if does not give evidence of earnest effort to become proficient in these subjects will be returned to former grade. We ask your hearty cooperation in securing regular habits of home preparation and attendance at school. Home work in the 7th and 8th years should take from one hour to an hour and a half, and in the 5th and 6th years not less than one hour. This work is assigned for each day in the week. Any failure to bring home this amount of work should be promptly reported to Yours respectfully, William M. Rainey, Principal. Class Teacher. Please acknowledge receipt of this or return with your signature. Parent's Signature. 262 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL /. It should be possible to promote pupils occa- sionally during a term, but under normal conditions this should be done sparingly. It is better to pro- mote a bright pupil at the beginning of the term on trial than to keep him in the lower grade and then later in the term " jump " him ahead. g. It should be possible to reduce a pupil in grade at any time, but this, too, should be a measure largely of a disciplinary character (disciplinary in the broader sense of the term), and to be used spar- ingly. It should be done only (i) after ample evidence, written the best, that the pupil's lack of effort justifies it, (2) after conference or, at least, attempted conference with the parent, (3) with the parent's consent, or better, at his request. A good plan is to make " trial " promotions of all doubt- ful pupils at the beginning of the term, so that it is clearly understood that promotion has not been earned, and that if the pupil's further effort does not justify his retention in the advanced grade he is to be replaced in the lower grade without question. h. In promoting pupils, even in a large school, the best disposition of each pupil should be made. It is often the case that the best interests of a pupil THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 263 demand that, after promotion, he shall be in a certain class of his grade: he may have friends who are a source of inspiration to him and with whom he should be continued ; he may have com- panions from whom it is wise to detach him; he may have a temperament that will be better under- stood by one teacher than by another ; he may be better off in a mixed class than in a class composed only of his own sex, or vice versa; etc. Similarly, if he fails of promotion, his best interests may demand that he should remain with the teacher he has had, or that he be transferred to another class and teacher in the grade. All of these individual matters should receive attention; but in a school of hundreds or thousands of pupils this can be done only by careful and systematic planning. The following plan is suggested : Teachers enter rec- ords of promotional examinations on sheets arranged thus: EXAMINATION FOR PROMOTION Class 19 NAME Days Absent Age Grades Repeated Term Rating Subjects Exam. Av. Dispo- sition 264 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL 1 Each teacher files this record with the principal only after personal conference with him ; together they decide, as to each pupil, whether he shall be promoted regu- larly, promoted on trial, or held back. The decision is entered in the last column. The completion of this record determines the promotion figures for each class. Each teacher files two sheets, printed, let us say, in black, the first of which is arranged thus : PROMOTED JBoys, Girls, from Room. No. Name According to Term Rank Av. No. Name According to Rank Term Av. The second of the two sheets has the same arrange- ment but is headed Non-Promoted. If the teacher thinks a particular disposition should be made of a pupil, such as not promoting him to a mixed class or keeping him in her own class instead of leaving him back with another teacher, she notes her suggestion opposite the name on the Black Sheet. From the Black Sheets, the principal makes entries in columns 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, and 14, in the following THE PUPILS* SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 265 SCHOOL PROMOTION RECORD .19. a Sal ass 3 B a ago Promoted Boys Girls Left Back Boys Girls 14 15 16 Register after Promotion Boys 18 19 Girls By adding the total Non-Promotions in all the classes of a given grade to the total promotions from all the classes of the grade below, he obtains the total new register x for the grade. He apportions this equally among the classes of the grade and thus gets entries for columns 17 and 20. He then apportions the boys in 5 to the differ- ent rooms to which it is possible to send them and makes the corresponding entries in 6 and 7 ; the girls in 8 are 1 In many cities the term "belonging" is used instead of register. Each city has its own definition of the terms, e.g. Baltimore: "The number of pupils 'belonging' shall be determined in the following manner : A child who has been absent six consecutive half -days (three in case of half -day pupils) shall on the seventh or fourth half-day be marked 'dropped' on the class teacher's records. When he returns he shall be marked 'reentered' on the records. Absence caused by death, removal or transfer shall cause the name to be dropped at once." — VT, 13. 266 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL similarly apportioned and entries made under 9 and 10, etc., completing the record. He next checks the names on the Black Sheets from the figures on the School Promotion Record, indicating the rooms that they are to be sent to, and returns the Black Sheets to the teachers together with a set of, say, Red Sheets arranged thus : Boys, PROMOTED .Girls, from Room. to Room_. No. Names. Alphabetically Born Residence Parent's Name and the same, headed Non-Promoted. There will be one sheet for each different transfer of pupils, making, in practice, from two to perhaps eight sheets for each set. The teacher keeps the Black Sheets and returns the Red Sheets. The Principal reassembles the Red Sheets, pasting all of those of the same "To Room' , together, and sends these, which show the rolls of the new classes, to the respective teachers. At pro- motion time each teacher promotes from her Black Sheets and receives and checks up her promotions from her Red Sheets. 6. The classroom work. The direct factor in the scholastic progress of pupils is, of course, the THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 267 work of the teacher with her class. The following suggestions may serve to summarize the classroom problem from the standpoint of the responsibility of the principal. Training the new teacher. In these days of professional training it might be thought that a licensed teacher, once secured and placed in charge of a class, would be foreordained to certain success. As a matter of fact, not only will she need practical guidance along the lines discussed in the foregoing chapters, but, constantly during the early years of her teaching and occasionally throughout her entire career, she will need encouraging reminders as to the fundamental principles of classroom management. Presumably the incoming teacher has been trained in pedagogy, but rarely can she, unaided and unin- spired, immediately carry that training intelligently into the daily detail of practical work with a class. Presumably, too, she has studied the history of education, familiarized herself with the significant world movements, and learned the secrets of the great masters of the art of teaching; vanquished all the perplexities of psychology and laid bare the secret processes of the human mind; educed and induced and deduced all the known methods of 268 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL teaching. But fortunate indeed is the teacher who, face to face with a concrete class of fifty in the days of her novitiate, can constrict world movements within the limits of her room, recall even the names of the master pedagogues, discover any psychologic principles permeating her environment, or put method into the prevailing madness. In time, with more or less aid, the beginning teacher will reduce chaos to order and arrive at the point where her professional progress really begins. The principal may then lead the teacher to review the literature she studied while in training, but which she is now prepared to appreciate with a background wholly lacking in the earlier days. She is prepared to perceive more clearly the full significance of education and the purpose of the public school, to understand aright the needs of pupils and the function of the teacher, and to apply native ingenuity to daily routine with increasing skill. The principal may assign one of his experienced teachers to act as special adviser to the new teacher. The older teacher, having an inspiring interest in the new teacher, will benefit by the contact and will find a professional satisfaction in having been selected. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 269 The new teacher will be more ready to confess her difficulties to her mentor than to the principal. Classroom standards. It is a chief duty of the principal to lead the teacher, in the performance of her detailed work in the classroom, away from obsolete and inadequate standards. She must not regard education as merely a pouring-in and pump- ing-out process, or the recitation, important as it is, as the chief aim or sole activity of the school. Particularly must she appreciate the necessity for eliminating waste in her administration of the class- room. 1 1 See Bagley, Classroom Management, Part I, with which every teacher should be familiar. " Violations of the laws of mental development and crude class administration lead to losses of time and effort which would not be tolerated in a properly managed business — losses resulting from : poor grading; poor grouping; awkward distribution of material; teaching form divorced from thought; teaching unrelated ideas; waiting for slow pupils; combating wrong habits resulting from poor initial teaching. These and other sources of subtle waste exhaust the energy of the average teacher and leave her over- whelmed, discouraged, while twice the work required of the grade is done with ease and pleasure by the teacher who can either in- stinctively or reflectively apply to every phase of her problem the" principle of economy." Miss Margaret McCloskey, General Supervisor, Newark, in Fiftieth Annual Report of the Board of Education, p. 204. "Before beginning class exercises teachers must get all necessary 270 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Inattention. A fruitful source of waste is " in- attention." Inattention when it concerns only a single pupil or two, during a development lesson, for instance, cannot, be regarded as a serious matter ; but when it shows signs of becoming general, the teacher should rapidly apply the following criteria : 1. Note the ventilation : if improper, regulate it; if apparently satisfactory, then, 2. Note the temperature: if abnormal, rectify it ; if normal, then, 3. Note whether the pupils are fatigued : if they have been working too intensively or too continu- ously along one line and consequently are physically tired, change the subject ; if not, then, 4. Note whether the pupils are wearied: if the teaching method has been dull and uninteresting and the pupils consequently are mentally bored, change the method, or give up the lesson until a supplies, as pencils, chalk (also maps, etc.), from the principal and library, and by so doing prevent wasting school time for this pur- pose." — 71. "No work whatever pertaining to the making of reports, or to the compilation of any school records, shall be done during teaching or school hours." — 77. "Teachers must not leave their rooms to converse with one another during teaching hours, except by permission of principals." — San Francisco, 81. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 271 better method can be prepared, and in the mean- time change to an occupation that will command attention. Work. The prevailing atmosphere of the class- room should be that of work. There is a value in play and it has its place in the school program, but we know that it cannot take the place of work. " Teachers and parents who do not teach the children under their control to work diligently, even to the point of normal fatigue, are doing them a serious injury. . . . Wise guidance is necessary in reaching that golden mean where the spirit re- sponds with readiness to the demands of labor, and with equal delight to the opportunity for play." * There is a certain amount of work that a pupil must do in order to increase his capacity for work as well as to develop and maintain his self-respect. Some of the causes for pupils' failure to gain in capacity for work, which the principal must strive to remove, are: 1. Teachers talk too much ; they occupy the center of the stage when many times they should be in the audi- ence or at most in the prompter's box. 2. Pupils are not allowed sufficient time for thought and expression, but are ruthlessly interrupted by the 1 Dresslar, School Hygiene, p. 18. 272 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL teacher and other pupils. Cooperation gives way to com- petition. The promiscuous raising of hands by pupils anxious to help the one reciting is a prevalent habit which is usually unnecessary, disconcerting, discourteous, and altogether unjustifiable, and which, once in vogue, re- quires persistent attention before it is effectively re- pressed. There are times, of course, during a recitation when the raising of hands may legitimately and profitably be called for or permitted, but there must be intelligent control. The teacher also must guard against interrupt- ing the pupiPs train of thought by nagging reminders and unnecessary remarks. 3. The study period is neglected. Pupils* study, either in school or at home, may be for two purposes : (a) preparatory, to gather material for a subsequent lesson ; and (b) supplementary, dealing with the results of a previous lesson. In either case, this study should be independent of the teacher or other helper. Yet the pupil can reach complete independence only through the directive guidance of the skillful teacher who gradually and adroitly withdraws her support. 4. Lessons are unwisely assigned. If too much or too difficult, a premium is put upon the pupil's getting help which weakens rather than strengthens him ; if too little or too easy, the pupil is left untrained in self -effort. The balance is struck when the work assigned can be accom- plished by the pupil in the time at his disposal, yet necessitates his making deliberate and honest effort. THE PUPILS* SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 273 5. Motives are neglected. Pupils are set at work which they regard only as a task because they see no immediate pleasure or future benefit which can possibly accrue from its performance. 6. Textbooks are misused. Either they become a form of fetish, encouraging pupils in their natural help- lessness, or they are neglected and the pupils are de- prived of their rational aid. 7. Standards and tests. The Binet and other scales make it possible to estimate the mental ability of the individual. It is equally important that the school should have some means by which to measure its accomplishment. Every teacher knows that it is not sufficient for her to undertake the teaching required of her by the official curricu- lum. She must make sure that she is meeting some success by frequently measuring her accomplish- ment as it is reflected in the accomplishment of her pupils in response to her instruction. At a glance it might seem a simple matter to make such meas- urements, but in truth it is complicated. 1 1 Mental measurements "are subject to certain special difficul- ties, due chiefly to (1) the absence or imperfection of units in which to measure, (2) the lack of constancy in the facts measured, and (3) the extreme complexity of the measurements to be made." — Edward L. Thorndike, An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements, p. 4. • 274 ?he management of a city school If the business of the teacher were to teach a number of girls, let us say, to sew on buttons, a simple and complete measure of performance for each girl would be the ratio of buttons to minutes. When we consider the teacher's index of efficiency, however, we immediately encounter complications. If the business of the teacher were merely "to teach the girls how," then her work was over when every girl had learned how, regardless of speed. But how shall we measure the teacher ? Should she have taught twenty girls how in twenty minutes? If it took her thirty minutes is she only two thirds efficient? Suppose she teaches the next group of twenty girls how in ten minutes. Has she become 200 per cent efficient, or does it mean that these twenty girls are three times as apt as the others ? Or is there a combination of factors operating, — the teacher's ability and the respective aptitudes of the girls? Suppose the teacher's business is not only to teach the girls how, but also to follow that by training them to speed. If an untutored girl's natural rate of speed is twenty buttons per hour and the teacher trains her to do twenty-five, the girl has evidently become 25 per cent more efficient. If another teacher had trained the same girl to do thirty buttons per hour, the girl would have become 50 per cent more efficient. How about the two teachers ? Would the second be rated twice as efficient as the first ? Suppose one teacher trains a girl with a rate of twenty to do twenty-five and another teacher trains a girl with THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 275 a rate of thirty to do forty ; how do the two girls compare in accomplishment, and how do the two teachers ? All these questions are simple compared with those which arise when we attempt to measure the work of pupils and teachers in the ordinary affairs of school life. Consider the memorizing of spelling : pupils are of differ- ing degrees of mental intelligence; some of practically equal intelligence have a differing index of ability in learn- ing to spell ; each word presents its own peculiar difficul- ties of recognition. Moreover the class may be tired one day, cross another, six of them ill, nine of them worried, five of them thinking of the coming evening's party — how much is the teacher to blame ? Suppose thirty spell all the words correctly to-day, but next month only twenty. Suppose in another class only fifteen spell the same words correctly to-day but twenty-five of them can do it next month. Which class measures the higher, and is it the class or the teacher ? These considerations only hint at the difficulties en- countered when we try to devise measuring scales for pupils' endeavor which shall be in any way accurate and fair to pupils and teachers. Standardized tests. For years, through rain and snow and fair weather, teachers have tested pupils and principals have tested pupils and teachers by examinations in every conceivable subject of the curriculum. To-day there is a distinct movement 276 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL to check up this practice with questionings as to the scientific validity of many of our traditional tests. The effort is being made to replace sub- jective opinion and guess as to what ought to be with objective measures of accomplishment based on scientific investigation. It is probably too early to attempt any definite judgment on the standards already devised or upon the whole movement to establish such standards. 1 Nevertheless the prin- cipal must be familiar with the spirit and purpose of the movement and he should have a practical familiarity with the leading standardized tests. By their use in his school he may at least approxi- mately measure his work with that in other schools and school systems. 1 Professor Cubberley says that the movement is so important "in terms of the future of administrative service that it bids fair to change, in the course of time, the whole character of school administration." — Public School Administration, p. 325. P. W. Horn, in Supplementary Portland Survey, April, 191 7, says: "It should furthermore be kept in mind that there are many things about a school system which can never be definitely meas- ured or stated with mathematical accuracy. Just where the line is to be drawn between the measurable and the non-measurable elements that enter into a school is a matter concerning which there is much difference of opinion. In other words, the element of opinion enters to some extent even into the matter of the pos- sibility of measurement." THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 277 "The great problem of measurement in education, therefore, is to construct objective or universal scales, about the use of which there can be no misunderstanding when they are placed in the hands of competent teachers. Every such scale must fulfill at least three essential re- quirements: (1) It must measure a desired product; (2) it must be so simple in its application that it is suit- able for ordinary classroom use ; (3) it must not require an undue amount of time in administration." * "Standardized tests are not ' playthings/ Neither are they teaching devices. They are instruments whose function is to reveal the conditions which exist so that the teacher's efforts to instruct her pupils can be made more effective. " 2 1 J. C. Chapman and G. P. Rush, The Scientific Measurement of Classroom Products, p. 5. Contains summary of scales in various subjects. 2 W. S. Monroe, J. C. DeVoss, and F. J. Kelly, Educational Tests and Measurements, p. 288. Contains a concise account of various standardized tests and scales, including: arithmetic — Courtis, Cleveland Survey, Woody, Stone; reading (silent and oral) — Thorndike, Haggarty, Starch ; handwriting — Free- man ; language — Hillegas, Harvard-Newton, Breed and Frostic, Willing ; high-school subjects. A Brief Tabular History of the Movement toward Standardization by Means of Scales and Tests of Educational Achievement in the Elementary School Subjects appears in Educational Administration and Supervision, vol. 2, p. 483, in which thirty-two investigations are tabulated under the headings: name of investigator; subject investigated ; date of study ; general method employed ; results. 278 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Examinations. Whatever is to be the develop- ment of standardized tests and measurements, it is probable that for a long time to come principals and teachers will make profitable use of the examination of the usual form, whether retaining the long and severe term or substituting the shorter and softer word test. In the discussion following, the words test and examination are used synonymously to include all kinds, oral and written, of formal investi- gation into the ability and achievement of pupils. The use of tests. Certain principles must be observed in using tests, or examinations. 1. Tests must be regarded as a means to an end, and not be mistaken for the end itself. Like fire, the examination is a good servant but a bad master. 2. Teachers and pupils must not work solely or even primarily for results on examinations, both because of the superficiality of the work thus en- couraged and because of the fret and worry that are produced in the minds of teacher and pupils. Daniel Starch, in Educational Measurements, reproduces several of the leading scales. A Bibliography of Educational Surveys and Tests appears in Universityhf Virginia Record, Extension Series, vol. 11, no. 3. New York City has adopted a Writing Scale devised by C. C. Lister and G. C. Myers. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 279 fc* 3. Every test should be given with some definite aim or purpose in view, and this usually should be constructive in motive. 4. As a logical consequence of its purposeful character, the results of a test should be analyzed and generalizations carefully drawn which may be applied in subsequent teaching. In order to make accurate analyses, the principal should understand the elements of statistical method. 1 He should realize that in order to secure worth-while results from examinations, "conditions must be 'con- trolled ' by the investigator, measurements must be made as minutely as possible, records of results must be kept, and the data which have been collected must be syste- matically organized through the utilization of valid statistical methods. " 2 Principals, and teachers also, should be familiar with the more common statistical terms. 3 "If a number of similar objects are placed side by side in order of their size, they are said to be arrayed. . . . "If any group of objects is thus arrayed, the middle one is known as the median item. ... If there is an 1 See Monroe, Educational Tests and Measurements, Chap. VIII, "Statistical Methods." Also King, Thorndike, Rugg, who are quoted in what follows. 2 Harold O. Rugg, Statistical Methods Applied to Education, p. 3. 3 The quotations which follow are from Willford I. King, The Elements of Statistical Method. 280 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL even number of items the median item does not actually exist, but it is assumed to be located between the two middle items." — p. 127. The mode 1 . . . "is invariably denned as the most frequent size of item, the position of greatest density. ..." — p. 12. The arithmetic average, 2 in distinction from the geo- metric average which is not in common use, "may be definitely located by a simple process of addition and division, and it is unnecessary to draw diagrams or ar- range the data in any set forms or series." — p. 136. "The sum of all the items in a group is known as the aggregate. The arithmetic average may be denned as the sum or aggregate of a series of items divided by their number." — p. 132. il A weighted average is one whose constituent items have been multiplied by certain weights before being added, the sum thus obtained being divided by the sum of the weights instead of by the number of items." — p. 136. 1 "The mode is the type that to the ordinary mind seems best to represent the group. It is more intelligible to say that the modal wage of workingmen in a community is $2 per day than to say that the average wage is $2.17 when not a single man actually receives the latter amount. " —- p. 126. 2 "The arithmetical average is often unwisely used as the sole measure of central tendency." — Thorndike, An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements, p. 37. "The median is more easily determined than the average. It is not so precise as the average, is very little influenced by extreme or erroneous measurements and is unambiguous." — King, p. 38. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 281 The results of a test may be expressed in tabular form or in graphic representation. As a concrete example consider a test in spelling, consisting of twenty words, given to a class of forty-three pupils. A complete report gives the names of all pupils and opposite each his score, the number of words he spelled correctly. A tabulation would summarize the results thus : Number Number Score of Pupils Score or Pupils 20 5 12 3 19 3 II I 18 4 IO 2 17 2 9 I 16 7 8 I 15 6 7 I 14 3 13 4 Total pupils 43 A glance at this tabulation shows a mode at score 16. • The median score is the 2 2d of the 43 scores when they are arranged in order — 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 19, 19, 19, 18, 18, 18, 18, etc., — which proves to be 15. There are 21 scores at or above 15 and the same number, 21, at or below 15. The arithmetic average, for school use sufficiently de- scribed as the average, is found by multiplying each score by its respective number of pupils and dividing the sum of the products by 43. This proves to be 14.9. In this case the average and the median are nearly the same. There are many combinations which would 282 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL prove otherwise. The principal should discriminate be- tween the two and know the circumstances under which either is the fairer estimate of the work of the class and teacher. Results may be shown graphically by the use of qua- drille paper. 1 In the foregoing case, the distribution graph would be : 9 5 m -- J- -- or, perhaps, better: 1 An extensive use may be made of graphs of various forms in many of the activities of the school. See Willard C. Brinton, Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts, particularly p. 82 for features of plotted curves; p. 360 for checking list for graphic presentations ; and p. 361 for rules for graphic presentation. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 283 A progress graph is also of interest. Suppose the per- formance of this class on successive tests yielded aver- ages of 14.9, *$>1, *5-3> x 5-6, 15-8, iSSj *S7> *4-8, 15-6, 16.4, the graph would read : ■ 16 15 'br lip 7 t » /h ~V' life th iti i & Ml )ct. • <■ j ^ » c 3 3 | i i J 1 j c J I 1 s F M se 1 UM «? & sea 8. — ■— or, better, asa" curve " / / / J \ / \ / I / / \ / > s \ / / \ r \ / / \ / 1 \ / )rt. 2 -« £ 1 1 1 '. 1 1 1 7 1 ) 2 1 284 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL 5. There should be a judicious distribution of oral and written tests. The written is so commonly the prevailing form that it is unnecessary here to argue for it. The oral test has certain advantages over the written test : for the teacher, it develops her skill in questioning, helps her in discovering pupils' ability in use of oral language, and relieves her of the task of marking papers ; for the pupil, it relieves him from constant use of the pen, and holds him at a keener point of attention. 6. Tests should be varied in their character as to the kind of ability tested. Particularly should there be a due proportion of (a) habit tests, (6) memory tests, (c) judgment tests. Three kinds of tests. Exception might possibly be taken to this classification of tests, but as we are considering the matter from the administra- tion standpoint and aim at broad and practical distinction, no extended defense is offered. We distinguish primarily between the two functions of habit and judgment. (a) The habit test. Doing and Making are the two forms of " testable " habits. Reading — that is, learning to read, not reading to learn — is a habit yielding of itself no tangible product. It is THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 285 true that in the course of acquiring it the pupil must have made many psychologic judgments ; but in testing a pupil's ability to read, we test something which, if it is not already a matter, of habit, must become such before the pupil has command of this chief tool of his mental workshop. If he has to per- form a conscious judging anew at every word as he sees it on the printed page, he has not yet learned to read in any practical sense. Gymnastics and singing are other forms of the Doing habit. The testing of this class of habits presents certain difficulties arising from the fact that there is no permanent product. Two are obvious : much time is consumed in formally hearing each pupil read or sing a selection, or observing him go through a gymnastic exercise; and there is apt to be wide variation in the criteria employed by different teachers, and even by the same teacher at different times, in determining the " rating " of the pupil's work. On the other hand, there is an advantage in the teacher's being able to get, as it were, a view of the class as a whole, against which the short- comings of the individual stand out in relief. Writing (and written spelling), and the working elements of drawing, sewing, and constructive work, 286 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL are habits of the Making order, yielding a tangible product which may be filed for future reference. As in the Doing habits, a simple form of judging is involved in their acquisition, but once acquired the resulting products come largely as a matter of habit — " largely," because it is clear that in the ad- vanced work of drawing and construction there is much " judgment " to be tested. But no pupil has learned to write or to draw who is obliged to consider, in a judging attitude, each letter of the alphabet as he forms it, or every stroke of his pencil as he makes a line. (b) The memory test. In addition to effecting the acquisition of habits, the educative process involves the exercise of judging and the storing up of judgments. As these two functions are distinct, the one dealing with process and the other with product, we test both memory, which concerns the product, and judgment, which concerns the process. Judgments are the results of the process of judging; and the process and the product must be sharply dis- tinguished. A judgment is a judgment, whoever may have performed the judging which produced it. You may judge and thus arrive at a judgment ; I may accept the judgment without any judging, For instance, I may THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 287 be curious as to the name of the tree before me. I might go through the various stages of judging, consulting bo- tanical classifications, etc. ; instead, I ask you, for I know you have made many judgments of this sort. You tell me that it is an aspen. My curiosity is satisfied. I have acquired the judgment: This tree is an aspen. The only judging I have done has been incidental : I have correctly judged that I can accept your statement with confidence ; I may have erred in not realizing that had I done the judging myself I should probably retain the judgment longer than I shall by taking it ready-made — nevertheless, I have the judgment, and I got it without judging. It is necessary to note a further distinction. A judgment may be either a fact or a principle; a fact is the statement of a relation between particular units, a principle is the " statement of a relation that is constant in a number of separate facts"; 1 a fact is special, a principle is general. The act of judging, then, may be either the determining of a statement of fact 2 or the working over of facts until a common relation is discovered and expressed as a gen- eralization. For instance, to revert to the former illus- tration, having learned that this tree is an aspen, I am 1 Bagley, Educative Process, p. 166. Also, "the terms 'gen- eralization,' 'law,' and 'principle' may be looked upon as synonymous." 2 In which we may include for present purposes the application of generalizations to particulars, i.e. deduction. 288 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL told that that other tree is an aspen, and a third, and a fourth, and so on, until I know a score of particular aspen trees. By careful observation I discover that all these have a common peculiarity in the shape of leaf and stem. From this I reach the generalization : Trees having round leaves and long stems flattened in planes perpendicular to each other are aspens. In this case I have done my own judging ; but you might, as before, have given me this judgment as the result of your own judging. I then would have been in possession of the same judgment, but would not have had the exercise in judging. Thus judging may be concerned with either generalized or par- ticularized judgments, with principles or with facts. In school work, the amount of judging which the pupil exercises in the acquisition of judgments depends largely upon the " method " of his teacher. She, with her techni- cal skill, will sometimes place before him ready-made judgments and force him to acquire them, and at other times compel him of his own effort to reach judgments for himself. In either case he learns a judgment: to recall the judgment at some future time is presumably * an act of memory; to arrive at a judgment de novo is an act of judging. The ability to perform each of these acts can be, and in the interest of good results should be, tested independently. 1 "Presumably," because in a memory test a pupil might fail to remember a judgment and yet be able to recall it by repeating the process of judging by which originally he reached the judgment in question. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 289 Testing Memory is to test the extent of the pupil's fund of judgments ; testing Judgment is to test his abil- ity to judge. Memory tests concern the products of judg- ing ; Judgment tests concern the processes of judging. | Of the several forms of activity which the child is in school to exercise, one of the simplest is the memorizing of facts and generalizations. This form lends itself most readily to a test of results. Has the pupil learned, with a sufficient degree of surety, the facts, isolated or related, which it is his business to have acquired? This is the easiest question to answer by test, and it is well to settle it before testing the ability to judge, which in many respects is of higher grade than the ability to memorize. It is sometimes urged in criticism that a test of this kind is necessarily partial because the exami- nation shows only whether the particular questions have been correctly answered. It does not indicate whether other questions equally important could be answered. Yet if the particular questions are carefully selected, the law of averages operates so that the percentage of correct answers to those questions sufficiently approximates the percentage of correct answers which would result were the 290 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL pupils asked all the possible questions on the subject under review. 1 The study of every subject in the curriculum involves, at some stage at least, the memorizing of certain facts or generalizations. It is quite true 1 By way of experiment, spelling was selected as the subject which best lends itself to mathematical consideration, and a special exercise was taken in classes of the 5 B-8 A grades. In each case the teacher compiled a list of one hundred words of ordinary difficulty, the spelling of which, to the best of her knowledge, the pupils had not theretofore formally studied. She assigned ten of these hundred to the class for study on each of ten consecutive school days. At the beginning of the eleventh day, ten words — one from each block of ten — were given as a spelling test ; later in the morning another ten, similarly selected, were given ; and in the afternoon the entire hundred words were given. The results in average per cent correct were : First Ten Second Ten Average of First and Second Ten Entire Hundred 5B 98.O 98.0 98.O 96.I 6A 85.O 85.0 85.O 92.O 6B 95-2 97-5 96.4 95-o 7A 88.0 94-7 91.4 92.0 7B 95.0 95-0 95-o 96.0 8A 98.4 97-5 98.0 97.6 Allowing for the impossibility of securing exactly the same conditions for each of the three tests, the results on the selected groups and on the entire hundred are sufficiently in accord to justify the practice of using the former as a substitute and equiva- lent for the latter. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 291 that in certain subjects, notably the sciences, most of the " judgments " will not be given outright to the pupils, but will be developed by them through the guiding genius of the teacher. But the fact that some judgments are the product of the pupiPs own judging does not justify substituting the judging exercise for the pupil's mastery of the resulting judgments. The most skillful teaching can never relieve the pupil from the obligation of acquiring a fund of judgments to be drawn upon in the constant emergencies of life, most of which allow no time for the making of those judgments afresh. (c) The judgment test. We test the pupil in his ability to remember or to recall those judgments which have been previously presented or worked out. But we also may test his ability to exercise the judg- ing function, which we do by requiring him to make judgments de novo. Every subject, under good teaching, requires occasional, if not frequent, de- velopment of judgments by the pupils themselves. The necessity for testing this function and noting the advance of pupils therein is not, as a rule, ade- quately recognized. It is not to be accepted, it is true, as a substitute for either of the other two 202 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL forms of test, but should be used particularly in grades above the third, regularly and with increasing frequency. The mere repetition of a judging exercise by the pupil, through memory alone, does not test his judgment. For example, he may have taken his part in the class in the development of the solution of a particular problem in mathematics. Later, in a test, given that same problem, he may respond creditably without in any measure indicating his ability to develop the situation, but merely his ability to remember the successive steps in the solution. Ordinarily, in arithmetic, the development of rules and the solution of problems ; in grammar, the development of rules of syntax and their applica- tion to new sentences; in the content subjects, the making of new inferences; are all judgment tests. The same lesson, or topic, or series of lessons usually permits of both memory and judgment test ; in such cases the result of each kind of test may be quite at variance both for individuals and for the class — which may or may not have significance. Memory and judgment test questions. The fol- lowing suggestive question papers are submitted to indicate the difference between a memory test and a judgment test, in each case upon the same lesson THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 293 or series of lessons. It is hardly necessary to add that a single examination may, and usually should, include both kinds of questions. 1. "The Courtship of Miles Standish." Grade Seven A 1 (a) Memory (1) Who was Miles Standish? (2) Why had the Pilgrims come to this country? (3) In what relation did John Alden stand to Miles Standish? (4) Whom did Miles Standish love? (5) Who else loved her? (6) What errand did Miles Standish ask John Alden to perform for him ? (7) Why did not Miles Standish do this errand him- self? (8) Why did John Alden go? (9) How did John Alden deliver his message? (10) What did the lady say ? (b) Judgment (1) In what way were St. Gregory and his monk, St. Augustine, like Miles Standish and John Alden ? (2) How could Miles Standish be a " shield " and a "weapon"? 1 By Miss Gertrude A. Price, Public School 85, Brooklyn, New York. 294 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL (3) What is the meaning of : "Turned o'er the well-worn leaves, where thumb marks thick on the margin, Like the trample of feet, proclaimed the battle was hottest "? If you have any books in this condition, name them and the parts answering to the above description. (4) How could Priscilla throw away John's heart? (5) Why should Priscilla mention the fact that reli- gion was dear to her ? (6) Why did not John Alden deliver his message at first in the beautiful language that Miles Standish ex- pected he would ? (7) Why did he talk so eloquently later on? (8) How can a pen give away a secret ? (9) Why, do you think, did John Alden not suspect Miles Standish's love for Priscilla before he was asked to go on the errand ? (10) Why did Miles Standish talk so much about him- self as a soldier before asking John Alden to go to Pris- cilla? * 2. United States History. Grade Eight 1 (a) Memory Make ten historical sentences from the material presented below. The subject on the left must agree historically with the predicate on the right. 1 By Mr. Walter Gidinghagen, principal, Humboldt School, Kansas City, Mo. THE PUPILS SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 295 3. The Monroe Doctrine 4. The "Spoils System" 5. The first railroad 1. Missouri appeared in 1829. 2. Louisiana proposed the Kansas- Nebraska Bill. was admitted as a state in 1821. was purchased from France for $15,000,000. was annexed to the United States in 1845. 6. William Lloyd Garrison said, "A house divided against itself cannot stand." originated in Jackson's time, was proclaimed in 1823. was settled in 1846. established the Liberator in Boston. 7. Texas 8. The Oregon boundary 9. Stephen A. Douglas 10. Lincoln (b) Judgment 1 . Why was the construction of the Erie Canal of great importance ? 2. Give two arguments against slavery. 3. On what did the United States base its claim to Oregon ? 4. Was the United States justified in going to war with Mexico ? Give reasons. 5. Show that the reaper did as much to develop the West as the cotton gin did to develop the South. 296 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL 3. United States History. Grade Eight 1 (a) Memory 1. Give date of the beginning of the Civil War. State how many years it continued. 2. When did the present World War begin? When did the United States enter it? 3. Write 5 lines of Gettysburg Address. 4. Name an important battle of each year of Civil War. 5. What did the Civil War cost the country? Compare with present war. 6. Draw a map to illustrate the 3 objective points of the war. 7. When and where was the first shedding of blood in the Civil War? 8. What were the provisions of the Emancipation Proclamation? 9. How was the cost of the Civil War met? How are we meeting the cost of the present war? (b) Judgment 1. How and why did the North have the advantage on the ocean in the Civil War ? 2 . How did the Appalachian Mountains affect the war ? 3. In what ways were rivers harmful to the South? 4. How did a blockade affect the South? How would a blockade affect us in the present war? 1 By Miss Margaret Strahan, principal, Lexington School, Grand Rapids, Mich. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 297 5. Why did Sherman devastate the Shenandoah Valley ? Of what advantage were the railroad and tele- graph to Sherman ? 6. In what ways was McClellan a great leader ? Why was he then not successful? 7. What was Grant's strongest characteristic as a general ? Give proofs. 8. Write an article for a paper that an anti-slavery man of the North might have written after the Emanci- pation Proclamation, also one that a slave owner might have written. 4. Geography. Grade Eight A 1 (a) Memory (1) Describe Africa as to its location in zones, the character of its coast line, the location and extent of its mountain ranges, and the chief characteristics of its river systems. (2) Describe the feeding of the* Nile, the character of its upper and lower courses, and name three kinds of ruins peculiar to the section. (3) Name the four largest lakes of Africa. Describe their general size, source of water supply, and use to commerce. (4) Name two animal products and two mineral prod- ucts in the output of which Africa excels the world. 1 By Miss Mabel F. Jones, assistant to principal, Public School 2, Brooklyn, N. Y. 298 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL (5) What effect have the trade winds on northern Africa ? Account for the Desert of Kalahari. Why does the northern slope of the Atlas Mountains get plentiful rainfall ? (6) What is the common peculiarity of the ownership of the African countries? What has England done for Egypt? (7) How does Africa rank among the continents in development of resources, commerce, progress? What section has least chance for advancement? In what sections is there most progress ? (8) Locate three of these cities : Johannesburg, Cape Town, Alexandria, Cairo, Khartoum. Tell for what each of the other two is noted. (b) Judgment (1) Give several reasons why Africa has been explored and settled so much later than either North or South America. (2) "The Nile River, after flowing through thousanc of miles of desert region, makes Upper Egypt one of th( most fertile sections of the world." Explain how this is possible. What section of Africa would you prefer visit, and why? (3) Victoria Nyanza and Lake Superior are of about the same size. Give some reasons why one is of greatei commercial importance than the other. (4) How do you think the price of diamonds is affecte THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 299 by South Africa's control of ninety per cent of the world's output of diamonds ? Why ? (5) Why is not a large part of northern South America a desert like northern Africa ? If the mountains of South Africa lay in the direction of the Atlas Mountains, what difference, if any, would it make in the climate of South Africa? Give your reasons for your preference, if you were to choose between the two slopes of the Atlas Moun- tains for a home. (6) Give two possible interpretations of Stanley's title, " In Darkest Africa." Examine a map of Africa for the location of the principal railroads. Account for their distribution. (7) Explain why the number of large cities in Africa should differ from that of Europe. Give three reasons, from its location, for the development of Alexandria into a city of importance. Use of tests by teachers. The principal must supervise the use of tests by teachers, who must realize- their true value for herself and for her pupils. (a) For the teacher. (1) The test gives the teacher an important measure of the response of individual pupils to the requirements of the school, one which is somewhat more tangible and exact than the pupils' day-by-day activity. 300 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL (2) The test may serve as a factor in helping the teacher to rate pupils accurately, though it will be but one of several factors. (See rating of pupils, P- 253-) (3) Perhaps the chief value of the test is that it shows the teacher the quality of her own teaching. It may indicate her own successes and her own failures. The wise teacher will not always charge up against her pupils their poor showing on a test, but will frequently review her own method, ques- tioning whether it is not that which may be held responsible for the delinquencies of the pupils. (4) By a careful study of the results of tests, the teacher is guided in her subsequent teaching, both as regards quality and as to details in respect to quantity. (b) For the pupil. (5) Tests have a disciplinary value in showing pupils exactly what they know and what they do not know, and in forcing upon them the idea that they have a responsibility for results and are to be held to account. (6) A simple test may be used occasionally to encourage pupils who are disheartened over difficult work, showing them that they have already ac- THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 301 complished something and may be expected to accomplish yet more. (7) Tests help to fasten important topics in mind. The emphasis placed upon a topic when it is made the subject of a test-question usually makes a lasting impression upon the pupiPs mind whether he answered the particular question successfully or not. (8) Tests may be made a means of valuable train- ing along lines outside the subject matter of the test. (a) To analyze the meaning of an examination question and to state clearly the answer thereto is an excellent language drill. Indeed, much of the difficulty pupils have in solving problems in mathe- matics, for instance, arises from failure to under- stand the question — lack of ability to interpret the English language. (b) A written examination demands from the pupil careful though incidental attention to matters of penmanship, arrangement, form, etc. (c) A written examination in which all the ques- tions are placed before the pupil at once calls for the exercise of judgment on his part in apportioning time to questions and determining the extent to which each question should be answered. 302 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL (d) A written examination in which the questions are placed before the pupil one at a time, and he is required to answer one question before going on to the next, calls for concentration of thought and effort under conscious limitation of time. (e) Pupils, by reading and rating their own or one another's answer papers, as they should occa- sionally, get valuable training in judgment and in the finer qualities of courtesy and tact. Use of tests by principal. In making use of the test himself l the principal may have at least three different purposes : (i) To test the teaching. When this is the aim, he must be sure that his test is a " fair " one. His right to give an examination at any time to any class on any subject is not to be questioned, but if he is to use the results in his estimate of a teacher's ability he must limit his questions to those which cover the ground taught by the teacher in the given period. 1 "In the making and using of educational measurements four steps may be recognized. First, giving the tests ; second, tabulat- ing the scores and calculating the central tendencies, variabilities, etc. ; third, interpreting the scores ; fourth, modifying instruction to meet the needs revealed. The supervisor can render valuable service in each of these steps." Measurements, p. 285. Monroe, Educational Tests and THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 303 For instance, the principal might give an examination in trigonometry to a fifth-year class. He might have good pedagogic or administrative reasons for doing this ; and so long as he merely gave the examination and of- fered no criticism of the teacher because her pupils did not "pass" it, she would have no cause for complaint, although no doubt she would appreciate it if the principal explained what his purpose was. On the other hand, if the principal, on account of the results of such an examina- tion, charged the teacher with doing poor work, she would certainly have cause to protest. When the prin- cipal is examining in order to test the teacher it should be understood that such is his purpose; and his teachers should be trained to point out to him any unfairness on this basis, of the questions he asks. (2) To " take stock" This at times is as impor- tant for the school administrator as for the mer- chant. A good way to ascertain the relative condi- tion of the classes from grade to grade is to give simple tests in the various subjects, using the same questions in all grades throughout three or four years of the course. The tabulated results by grades and by classes then show with fair accuracy the location of weak spots, and consequently the places at which the maximum of corrective teaching and managing must be applied. 304 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Results of tests in each class may be entered on blank forms, such as the following : Test in. Date 19 Class- Number of Pupils in Attendance Question Number Pupils Correct % of Pupils Correct I 2 3 4 etc. Total : Teacher The results for groups of classes can then be tabulated thus: % CORRECT Class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total 8BB 8BG 8AB 8AM etc. (3) To settle appeals at promotion. The principal should have documentary support for his final deci- sion as to the promotion or non-promotion of a pupil, even though the examination may not have been the controlling or even the chief factor in determining his decision. THE PUPILS' SCHOLASTIC PROGRESS 305 Additional principles. A few additional prin- ciples applicable to examinations, whatever their purpose, are noted : 1. Questions should be stated as clearly and as briefly as the subject permits. 2. The form of questions should be varied from time to time. Avoid stereotyped forms, to meet which teachers and pupils waste time and effort. 3. An examination may consist of optional ques- tions, optional either by choice of the teacher or of the pupils. If a teacher is given her choice of, say, ten questions out of fourteen, her objections that some questions are out of grade or otherwise un- suitable are anticipated and forestalled. 4. A question paper should be so worded as to permit of easy reading of the answers thereto. A set of questions may be so loosely arranged and so vaguely expressed as to necessitate an inordinate amount of labor by the teacher in reading the answer papers ; by the exercise of a few minutes' care the same questions can be organized into such form as will save the teacher a large percentage of her time and energy. 5. Examinations should frequently if not usually come unheralded. 306 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL 6. Extreme care should be exercised in drawing conclusions from the results of any given examina- tion or set of tests. Hasty generalization may work injustice to some teacher or class of pupils; all factors that enter into the results in any case should be diligently sought after and accurately taken into account. For example, one class may have a disproportionate number of pupils handicapped by illness, over-age, home conditions, recent transfer from another school, prolonged absence, physical or mental defect, or ignorance of English. Summary. The principal is responsible for the scholastic progress of his pupils. He must so grade them as to insure each pupil's receiving a maximum of possible service from the school. He must de- termine the forms of organization best adapted to local conditions, selecting appropriate methods of grouping pupils and deciding the degree to which departmental organization should be employed. He must secure equitable rating of pupils by teachers and must systematize promotions so that the truest interests of pupils are conserved. He must direct and inspire classroom teaching so that it may attain a high degree of efficiency. He must use measure- ments of accomplishment judiciously and super- vise their use by teachers. CHAPTER IX THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT " Discipline " a problem. The problem of " dis- cipline/ ' ! the term used to encompass the whole range of the pupils' moral development, scholasti- cally considered, is probably the most perplexing that confronts the principal. In his successful experience as a class teacher, which it is here as- sumed the principal has had, he has learned that " discipline " cannot be detached from the general current of activity and made a particular feature, and he has learned and applied the other important principles underlying the proper government of a class. But as principal he is in command in a broader field, and he finds among his lieutenants a large proportion who are untrained in practical class management. The principal must secure, in each class, a rational system of class government and, throughout the school as a whole, a unified 1 For a more extended discussion see author's Discipline as a School Problem. 307 308 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL system of school government. This government he must develop and maintain in spite of the fact that several of his teachers are in that stage of their experience when their presence retards rather than strengthens the fulfillment of his plans. An ever-present problem. Discipline, moreover, is a natural, to-be-expected, and ever-present school problem. The discipline of a school should, under ordinary conditions, improve from year to year; but as the work of the school means a continuous process of admitting to the school register hundreds of pupils in their infancy and discharging them in their youth, just so will the problem of discipline be a continuous one. The corollary to this proposi- tion is : Be not discouraged. The principal, after five years in a school, rinding that he is expending time and energy on the same old disciplinary prob- lems, is prone to feel disheartened; but he must not forget that while the problems are much the same, the personnel of the subjects is different — he is treating a new generation of pupils. His methods of treatment, it is to be hoped, are con- stantly improving; but he is dealing all the while with the same human factors, the same child nature. In meeting this problem, as all others, in fact, THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 309 the principal must both have in mind a body of general principles and express those principles in specific methods. In a practical discussion of school discipline it is difficult to set principles off to one side and applications to the other. The dis- tinction serves, however, and we shall discuss the whole topic under (A) general principles and (B) specific methods. A. General principles. Before the principal can successfully administer his school as to its disci- plinary details he must establish certain principles in his own mind and in the minds of his teachers. His relation to his school, in every phase, is both pedagogic and legal. He will carry this distinction throughout his handling of the discipline problem. He must follow a rational pedagogy as to moral development and he must exercise the authority vested in him by law. A philosophy of moral development. The prin- cipal must have some philosophy of moral develop- ment. It may be a borrowed philosophy or it may be the outgrowth of his own thinking based on his reading and experience. Whatever its source he must have some well-grounded collection of funda- mental principles to guide him in his treatment of 310 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL the general problem and to serve as the background against which he will set each individual " case " of discipline as it comes before him. The following philosophy of discipline is briefly set forth, merely by way of suggestion, and without claim that it is novel, complete, or final. "Discipline" of a class or other group of pupils is equal to the sum of the "disciplines" of the individual pupils. 1 If every pupil were properly and completely disciplined, the school would be in perfect discipline. For the indi- vidual, discipline is not merely a school problem ; it is a life problem. Indeed, the content of the word might be extended to indicate the end and aim of all education. All sciences are interdependent. Pedagogy as a science is chiefly dependent upon the sciences of sociology, biology, and psychology ; others, of course, make material contributions. The most significant generalization com- mon to these three sciences is the doctrine of evolution : i. In sociology. Civilization (the present state of discipline of society) came late in the historic view of the human race. Even within the period of civilization, we see that Despotism gives place slowly to Democracy; government from without gives place slowly to gov- ernment from within. The school — the class — is a society ; and the growth in the character of the discipline of a school group is a matter of time. The class, as One 1 Except as the class introduces certain new factors in mass psychology and mass control. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 311 A, corresponds to the infancy of the civilized race, and is governed largely by absolutism ; the same class, become Eight B, corresponds to the maturity of the race, and should be governed as a democracy. There is danger in giving a society in its infancy self-government for which it has not developed capacity ; there is equal dan- ger in restraining a society by absolutism when it has reached a maturity that qualifies it for democracy. Likewise it is dangerous to force self-government upon a One A class and equally dangerous to withhold it from an Eight B class. 2. In biology. Again, in the development of the in- dividual the law of evolution applies. In the physical life of the individual, at least during his school career, the most important stage is adolescence. In the elementary schools we deal with pupils on both sides of the crisis of adolescence, and throughout a considerable part of the period. In school administration we must give due con- sideration to this fact. 3. In psychology. Again, evolution. Here we see adolescence as a mental phase, characterized by the efflorescence of activities previously dormant, as, for example, the religious sentiment. By a very rough classification it may be said that we deal with pupils in school grades 1-3, in their infancy ; in 4-6, in preadoles- cence ; in 7-8, in adolescence. Of the three stages the second is the most difficult to treat. The infant is an infant and is to be treated as such ; as a youth he is to be treated as a youth ; but at the critical stage of preadoles- 312 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL cence, he himself knows not whether he is child or youth, feels, but cannot analyze, the inward strife be- tween the two conditions, and taxes the skill of the most experienced of teachers. Whatever the other sciences involved, discipline is essentially a concern of psychology. Let us look into it from this viewpoint. Reduced to its lowest terms, discipline, in its popular school sense, means that process which leads the individ- ual to do the right thing. Psychologically, discipline is a threefold matter of intellect, of feeling, and of will. (I am not unmindful that psychology has long since dropped the use of these terms to indicate distinct facul- ties of the mind ; but the words may be retained as a con- venient terminology to apply to the most notable phases of consciousness . ) Formal education has quite uniformly overtrained, and is yet overtraining, intellect. But we should train the whole mind, not merely one of its phases, intellect. We do right only when three conditions are satisfied : (i) we know what the particular right is; (2) we feel that we ought to do the right in any case ; and (3) we will to do the particular right. No two of these phases will suffice : (1) one may have a fanatic fervor for right doing and an iron will, but if he cannot decide the purely intellectual question as to what the right is in the particu- lar case, he will fail to do the right in that case ; (2) one may know clearly what the right in a particular matter is, have the will to do anything he sets out to do and yet THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 313 lack the feeling , the compelling motive, as, for instance, the sense of duty, and thus fail to do the right in the par- ticular case ; or (3) one may both know clearly and feel fervently as to a particular right conduct, and yet lack the necessary will-power and again fail to do the partic- ular right. How shall we train intellect, feeling, will? We have pretty thoroughly learned the method of intellect train- ing. "Exercise strengthens faculty" is still the old reliable rule. It is the law of training of all kinds. We have long recognized the necessity of drill of intellect; we train memory by memorizing ; we train judgment by judging ; we train reason by reasoning, etc. 1 The same principle must be applied to feeling and will. Modern pedagogy, it is true, has developed many corollaries to this fundamental law of drill, but it is doubtful if there is any successful "method" which does not stand upon this foundation principle. How then shall we train for dis- cipline ? 1. Train intellect. The child must know what is the right thing. Be sure that he does know before you ex- pect him to act. Many "cases" of discipline originate in innocent ignorance on the part of the pupil as to what is the right in a particular situation. The teacher, as the instructor of her pupils in what constitutes the right, 1 These statements may be taken in a large or in a limited sense, according to whether one believes or disbelieves in the possibility of "generalized" habits. In either case the funda- mental principle holds. 314 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL has a heavy responsibility. She must distinguish be- tween " conventions " and " laws of right." She must be sure, especially in the higher grades, that she is not over- emphasizing mere school conventions and leading pupils to a belief that they are more important than the vital forms of righteousness. She must have a correct, or at least a sane, definition of "order," remembering that order, after all, is but a means, not an end, though some- where along the line it may rightly enough be made an end as a necessity in training. " Whispering," for example, as Dean Balliet aptly puts it, "is not a disease, but a symptom." But the knowledge of right and wrong is a growth. In infancy the child knows what is right only so far as he is told that it is right. He may often appear to know the right when the truth is that he merely has had no experience with the wrong. The teacher will not de- mand from pupils compliance with, false conventions, yet in dealing with pupils in the infancy stage she will not attempt to have them distinguish between conventions and moral laws. The child must be taught with equal insistence that he must not steal and that he must not put his knife into his mouth at meals ; for, while one is a matter of morals and the other is a matter of manners, it would be a violation of good pedagogy to emphasize this distinction with him, or to get into any discussion concerning the "rightness" of the acts. Broadly con- sidered, to steal, to lie, to kill, may be justifiable, that is, under certain circumstances, right ; at any rate, adults THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 315 may with comparative safety discuss the question as to whether or not they are ever right. The child must be taught emphatically, unequivocally, that these things are wrong — they are wrong because you tell him so. In due time he will reach adolescence and maturity, gain his intellectual freedom, and take his turn at arguing metaphysical questions. 1 Through all the subjects of the curriculum the pupil may be led to see what is and has been for ages considered right in the various and detailed relationships of life. In The Moral Instruction of Children, Dr. Adler shows 2 how the teaching of science, history, literature, etc., can develop the knowledge of right. As the pupil matures he may be taught to reason concerning the wisdom of these rights. Probably no better rule can be given him than the time-hallowed golden rule of considering the "other fellow." 2. Train feeling. The ultimate aim is the attainment of the sentiment of Duty, the sense of Right for Right's sake ; but this condition is the climax reached only after years of development. This sense of duty is derived slowly through the years from infancy to adolescence, from the lowest motives through an ascending series of feelings. Fear, respect, love, ambition, are some 1 "The first thing the child has to learn about this matter is, that lying is unprofitable, — afterwards that it is against the peace and dignity of the universe." — Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, p. 117. 2 P. 27, et seq. 316 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL of the milestones on the road to the terminal Sense of Duty. The fundamental proposition is that the child must do right. It is only by doing right that he learns to do right. If the child of four were able to do right through a dependable and sustained sense of duty, then the appeal should be made to that motive. Actually he has no such lofty sentiment, consequently he must be brought to do the right because of some feeling lower in the scale — he must do right. If fear is the only motive that reaches him then fear must operate ; soon, through con- stant practice in doing right, fear will yield to something higher, love perhaps, or ambition, and thus in time there will be a growth to the climax. There are many opportunities in the classroom for training feeling. As in the case of intellect, it may be trained without passing from the feeling phase to the willing; that is, without the particular act of doing always following the exercise in knowing and feeling. In training the child the teacher must constantly and consistently emphasize the crime, and not the criminal. It is not that the murderer is a bad man, but that he com- mitted a bad deed. It is not that John is a bad boy, but that he did a wrong thing. We hate the wrong, but we love the child. Many a teacher forgets this principle and treats the misdeeds of pupils as affronts directed against her personally. The pupiPs offenses are to be regarded, not as offenses against the teacher, but as offenses against himself or against law and society. The THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 317 pupil, it is true, may have the personal feeling of antag- onism against the teacher, but by the time adolescence approaches, he should have outgrown the habit as the result of consistent training in which his teachers have refused to accept his misdemeanors in this spirit and have uniformly treated his offenses impersonally. Moreover, when the teacher takes the personal attitude of having been affronted by the pupil's misdemeanor, it enhances the notoriety which the pupil has thus cheaply acquired and which he, and some of his classmates, mis- take for fame. 3. Train will. This "I will do right" is also a matter of growth and can be developed through drill. There are many more classroom opportunities to train will than the average teacher appreciates. Before the pupil can be expected to exercise even a little self-control in big things, he must first be taught to exercise large control in little things. His will must first be taught to function in the less important matters. Most teachers delay disciplining the pupil's will until some crisis is reached which they cannot afford to disregard. If the pupil were trained to meet minor matters of grad- ually increasing strain upon his will power, he would reach the major stresses with a will prepared to meet them. To summarize: Discipline is a matter of growth; we must not expect too much too soon ; we must sympathize with failure, for failure has been a not uncommon ex- perience with us ; we must respect physical and psycho- logical changes from infancy to adolescence ; we must 318 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL train for discipline — train intellect so that it shall know the right, train feeling so that it shall come instinctively to prefer right to wrong, and train will so that it shall, by force of habit, act promptly in accordance with the dictates of trained intellect and feeling. Whatever the detail of his philosophy, the principal will undoubtedly accede to the proposition that discipline should be a matter of growth from implicit to rational obedience. Principal's legal authority. Every pupil in the school must feel the ultimate authority of the prin- cipal as the administrator of the law. This does not mean that the principal flaunts his authority or even refers to it. But the principal's personality is one of the most potent factors of moral influence in the school, hence his influence for right and against wrong must be quiet, unobtrusive, but sure. Teachers will maintain such a standard of dis- cipline as they are sustained in enforcing, or which they are required to enforce. Teachers and pupils must both, therefore, feel that the principal stands ready fearlessly, whenever occasion arises, to exer- cise his legal authority to the limit, whether that limit be corporal punishment, suspension, or expulsion. The sensing by the pupils that legal authority is THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 319 vested in the school must be extended from the principal to every teacher in the building. Pupils must feel that they are at all times responsible to any and every teacher in the school. 1 A pupil of a higher grade, for example, who shows any dis- respect to a teacher of some other, and probably of a lower, grade, should, as a matter of logical con- sequence, be temporarily transferred to the room of that teacher until she is convinced that he is ready to act with proper respect and obedience. The constant deference on the part of the prin- cipal to the administrative headship of the teacher, previously referred to (p. 102), is of immense value in impressing upon pupils the fact that the teacher, as well as the principal, is the embodiment of legal authority. B. Specific methods. With general principles to guide him, the principal will attend to the more specific methods of discipline involved in school management. There are two chief personal dis- 1 "Teachers shall hold pupils to a strict accountability for any- disorderly conduct on their way to or from school, or on the school premises." — San Francisco, 112. "Every teacher is hereby especially empowered and enjoined to command order on or about the school premises, on the part of every pupil connected with the public schools.'* — 58. 320 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL ciplinary forces in the school, (i) the teachers and (2) the principal. 1. Teachers as disciplinarians. As the principal must work through the agency of his teachers, he must train them to become good disciplinarians, in the proper sense of the term. The new teacher, generally, needs more encouragement and attention and more detailed instructions than does the_ expe- rienced teacher, and in no respect more than in the matter of discipline. The teacher must (a) be led to see how important a factor is her own personality ; then she must (b) be given certain specific cautions embodying the usual maxims ; and she must (c) be given specific aids in discipline. a. The teacher's personality. The teacher must remember that " the very atmosphere of the class- room should be such as to encourage moral refine- ment; it should possess a sunny climate, so to speak, in which meanness and vulgarity cannot live." 1 This atmosphere is primarily a matter of the teacher herself, for the class reflects the teacher. 2 1 Felix Adler, The Moral Instruction of Children. 2 "The first duty of the teacher is to expand and enlarge his own limited personality so as to take in and appreciate the rich variety of character with which the boys and girls surround him." — Charles A. McMurry, Conflicting Principles in Teaching, p. 34. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 321 Hence she must cultivate those personal qualities that are necessary in order to insure decorum and right behavior on the part of her pupils. The most valuable of those personal qualities are: (1) A calm and quiet manner. Quiet begets quiet. The teacher's self-control impresses pupils with the feeling that the teacher has inexhaustible reserves which it would be useless for them even to attempt to fathom. (2) Firmness and decision. These attributes are in no way inconsistent with kindness and kindliness. Pupils respect the firm hand and the decisive will. (3) Industry and energy. The spirit of work is contagious. The working teacher has working pupils. (4) Cheerfulness. Work is not invariably related to solemnity. 1 A cheerful spirit induces productive 1 "Many teachers overdo the serious attitude. They are too constantly strenuous. The face, the manner, and the inner spirit acquire a fixity that is too hard and unyielding. The teacher needs above all things a mobility and flexibility of spirit that fits easily into a great variety of moods." — McMurry, Conflicting Principles in Teaching, p. 220. Also, "Humor is a solvent of stiff mannerism. It takes the rigidity and cramp out of one's mental habits. It releases the strain and gets the children back into a wholesome attitude in readiness for a new and stronger effort. Humor is the natural antidote to austerity and harshness." — p. 221. Y 322 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL work where a " soured " disposition can at best get only time service. (5) Sympathy. By this is meant the deep, true sympathy with boy-nature and girl-nature; no " molly coddling/ ' but a sincere desire to visualize the pupils viewpoint, to appreciate his problems, to get into his life, and to help him to help himself. (6) Vigilance. Alertness of eye and ear, and trained perceptions permit little that occurs in the class to escape notice. On the other hand, judgment must be exercised as to what to recognize and refer to on the moment, and what to stow away in mem- ory to be drawn upon later if needed. (7) Fairness and justness. Pupils forgive almost anything else in a teacher but unfairness or partiality. (8) Order, system, and neatness. These virtues in the teacher reflect themselves in corresponding virtues in the pupils. (9) Scholarship. This alone will not discipline a class, but the teacher who has it may with it com- mand the respect of her pupils, and this respect is the best f oundation upon which to rear the super- structure of class control. b. Specific cautions. The inexperienced teacher, particularly, needs help in details of class control. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 323 She frequently understands the maxims of good management better when they are presented as " Don'ts " than when in positive form. Teachers must be warned against (1) Neglecting physical condition. The teacher must appreciate the value in successful class man- agement of normal physical environment for the pupils. She must secure proper conditions: as to the room, its lighting, equipment, and adjustment ; as to the air, its temperature and circulation; and as to the program, its results upon the pupils as to fatigue and relaxation. (2) Not preparing work. The teacher must thoroughly prepare her work. Good, honest en- deavor gained from pupils by well-prepared teaching is a certain preventive of disorder. In every form of class exercise, the more skillful the method em- ployed by the teacher, the less opportunity is there for the pupils to develop habits of misconduct. 1 1 Dr. Frederic L. Luqueer, principal of a Brooklyn school, frequently circularizes his teachers by means of printed cards. One of these reads: Glenwood Road School Why not begin a card catalog? Questions, hints, methods, lesson-plans, inspirations, — all are readily filed and found. The unused may be discarded. Growth is invited; the intellectual house put in order. F. L. L. 324 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL (3) Not working pupils enough. It is far more difficult to do nothing than to do something; par- ticularly is it more difficult to make pupils do nothing than to make them do a specific something. (4) Not maintaining good order at the start. The teacher passes over the early infractions with the thought, if she thinks about it at all, that she will discipline when there is something more serious to consider. Every teacher must understand what " order" is. She must have a definite concept of the term, as broad as circumstances permit, and then she must demand and get that kind of order. We hear much of secondary motives; and prizes, 1 marks, merits, and the like are condemned wholesale. There is danger in following this line of theory too far. The motives of highly-trained adults frequently, on close analysis, prove to be sub- ject to the influence of more or less artificial rewards. There is, after all, no intrinsically " secondary " motive; motive is secondary only in relation to some primary motive which for the moment may be regarded as loftier and less egoistic. For one person under a certain con- dition that motive may be basely secondary which for 1 Syracuse provides: "No teacher or other person shall be allowed to present in the public schools, any prize, premium or gift to any pupil, except such as are permitted by order of the board of education. ..." — 44. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 325 another person might be relatively high and primary. In managing a class the teacher must remember that order must be maintained. If it can be secured by appeal to high motives, then those are the motives to use; but if these motives do not reach the class, the teacher must promptly use motives progressively less high until she comes upon one that does reach. She must have order. From this level she may then begin to work up through the scale, carrying the class to higher and higher ideals. 1 (5) Not having a carefully planned system for the changing of activities. Good teaching method 1 "There are at least four fundamental principles necessary to good discipline : (1) it must harmonize with social ideals outside the schoolroom; (2) it must be positive and constructive rather than negative and restrictive ; (3) it must be indirect rather than direct in method ; and (4) it must be administered on the highest plane which the pupils can understand." — p. 246. "The final principle of good discipline is that it should be ad- ministered on as high a plane as the pupils are able to respond to. This requires a clear understanding on the part of the teacher of the planes or levels of human control. These planes are deter- mined both by the means used to secure control and the motives appealed to in the governed. There is a steadily rising series of these methods and motives, but for clearness' sake they may be reduced to three — the plane of force, the plane of personal domination, and the plane of social pressure. The discipline on these levels may successively be called the military, the personal, and the social." — p. 250, Walter R. Smith, An Introduction to Educational Sociology. 326 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL carries the class along safely during the lessons, but the " between times " are bothersome. The teacher must learn both to merge one exercise into another so that there are few " breaks," and also to plan the inevitable breaks, e.g. the distribution of materials, the changing of seats, the dismissals, etc., so that they may be executed without confusion. (6) Giving unnecessary directions and commands. It is far better to give one carefully thought out, rational order and see that it is obeyed by all, than to give half a dozen different and probably conflicting directions in the same time. (7) Threatening. The quiet teacher who gives orders and tacitly but clearly expects them to be obeyed, leaves the pupils to " guess " what will happen to them in case of disobedience, until such disobedience occurs, when the punishment comes surely, promptly, and unmistakingly. (8) Scolding and using sarcasm and epithets. The teacher should use these weapons very rarely, and then only as deliberate and judicially applied punishments. 1 1 "No punishment shall partake of the nature of torture of body or mind. All modes of punishment calculated to degrade a pupil, and the use, on the part of any teacher, of abusive THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 327 (9) Cultivating the picturesque and bizarre. It seems to be a perversity of substitutes and inex- perienced teachers to run off into spelling matches, tactics, and other exercises entirely legitimate in their place and in the hands of experienced teachers, instead of keeping down to business. (10) Driving the willful child into obstinacy. Instead of avoiding conflict, the teacher is apt to think it her duty to raise issues and " conquer " the pupil's will. (11) Assigning school exercises as punishments. The wrong of doing this needs no demonstration, yet it is a mistake made by nearly every new teacher. 1 (12) Punishing a group for the offense of an individual. Far better is it to let a dozen guilty language toward the pupil or his parents, are expressly forbidden." — Indianapolis, X. "Civility and politeness to pupils is commended to teachers. No teacher shall wound the feelings of any pupil by distortion of names, or by slighting or disparaging allusions to parents or friends. Violation of this rule will be cause for instant dismissal." — Seattle, VIII, 21. 1 "In no case shall resort be held to confinement in closet or wardrobe, or to other cruel or unusual punishment as a mode of discipline. Pupils shall not be required to copy any part of any textbook or to write any word or sentence a great number of times as a punishment." — Louisville, XVIII, 3. 328 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL pupils escape than, in punishing them, to punish a single innocent pupil. c. Specific aids. It is not sufficient for the principal to give his teachers these specific sug- gestions and cautions. He must aid them, new and experienced alike, by automatic provisions for treating disciplinary situations themselves. They must be given definite disciplinary powers in such matters as punishment of pupils, appealing to parents, and so on. The teacher should clearly understand how far she may go in the administration of punishment: what limits she should put upon her use of reproof and reprimand ; what privileges 1 may properly be withheld from pupils; to what extent systems of merit and demerit may be used ; how long pupils may be detained after sessions, etc. 1 The following is a self-explanatory form : Public School No. 50, Brooklyn Pass Card Name Class Room Nature of Privilege Granted To be retained during good behavior. Expires John F. Harris Principal THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 329 Wholesale detention of pupils is of little good effect; indeed, it is apt to be demoralizing rather than reforming. It is limited in many cities: e.g. Paterson and Rochester, to one hour; San Francisco, to forty minutes; New York and Seattle l to thirty minutes ; Cleveland, to twenty minutes. 2 1 Seattle uses the following form : Seattle Public Schools detention blank Explanation as to Detention. — Pupils who have been absent or who from any cause have failed to prepare their lessons satisfactorily may be required to recite them after school. Pupils may also be detained for leaving the room, not as a punishment for so doing, but as a pledge of good faith that such a request is necessary and una- voidable. TO THE PARENT The bearer was detained by me until minutes after .... o'clock for Dated. ,191 Teacher. I C/3 2 Baltimore requires that "in no case shall any teacher leave the schoolhouse while any pupil under his care shall be detained after the regular school hours." — VII, 8. San Francisco has a similar provision. 330 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Whether or not teachers should enter into direct communication with parents in regard to the dis- cipline of pupils, it is clear that there should be no misunderstanding on the point between principal and teachers. The limit of responsibility and the limit of restraint put upon the teachers should be accurately denned. One extreme is for the principal to permit teachers to communicate directly with parents on any matters con- cerning the welfare of pupils. He may go further and refuse to take part in such communication, or to assist teachers and parents in coming to an understanding, thus throwing the teachers entirely upon their own re- sources. The opposite course is to prohibit teachers from writing notes to parents, having all communications go directly from the principal to the parents. A middle course is to permit teachers to write notes, but to have all such notes countersigned or indorsed by the principal. Such a plan has certain advantages * and in following it, it is helpful to prescribe certain note forms to be used under all ordinary conditions. If " blank' y forms can be furnished to the teachers for use in each case, the result is economy of effort for the teacher, and a guarantee of good arrangement of the note that is sent. 1 Cf. pp. 54, 128. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 331 A suggested form is : Public School No. 100, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, 19. .. M Dear : I am sorry to tell you that is disorderly in the classroom. Naturally this is affecting h . . school work. Will you please to give the matter your attention, and oblige, Respectfully, Teacher, or body of note as follows : I regret that I must inform you of 's misconduct. To-day I am sure that you do not approve of such behavior and trust that you will cooperate to prevent its recurrence. Where such forms are supplied the teacher is not to feel hampered by their use ; if she wishes to send a note not in accordance with a form, she should be free to do so with the approval of the principal. 2. The principal as disciplinarian. There is a greater duty placed upon the principal than simply that of training his teachers to become good dis- 332 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL ciplinarians. He must himself be the chief disci- plinary force in the school. He must not content himself with assigning a teacher to her classroom, telling her what is expected of her, and then leaving her to work out her own salvation entirely. The morale of the school should be something more than what is brought out by the sum of the inde- pendent efforts of all the teachers. The principal should be the disciplinary leader, the counselor and guide to teachers and pupils. In respect to dis- cipline he has a threefold function : (a) To establish school spirit, (b) to take precautionary and pre- ventive measures against misconduct, and (c) to exercise his legal authority as disciplinarian. a. School spirit. A school "atmosphere/' school loyalty, school morale, esprit de corps, — all these, so essential to securing the best results in the development of a school organization, cannot be gained in a day. School spirit, pride in the school and thought for its name and honor must become a matter of tradition and, once established, be handed down from one set of pupils to another. The influence of the older pupils upon the younger ; of the graduates of the school upon their younger brothers and sisters, and their friends ; of the parents THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 333 and other citizens in the community, — all are of immense direct value in their effect upon the con- duct of pupils. It counts for much if the parents advise their friends, " Get your boy into No. 100 if you can ; it is a great school " ; if the alumni think that it is a special honor to graduate from the school; and if the older pupils correct the young offenders in the name of the school. Many agencies factor in the development of a traditional school spirit. We shall consider the most important of them. 1 Ideals and habits. In a sense it is true, of course, that we are but a bundle of habits. Much of the educational process is given over to the establish- ment of correct habits. The school must train pupils in habits. Aside from the purely scholastic habits, school as well as home training deals chiefly with manners and morals. Few distinctions can be drawn between manners and morals ; but from the practical pedagogic standpoint the two are inevitably interdependent. For the child, morals is largely a matter of manners ; for the intelligent adult, man- 1 For general discussion of the socialization of the school, see King, Social Aspects of Education, on such topics as the school garden, school festival clubs, morning assembly, playgrounds, etc. 334 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL ners is largely a matter of morals. Hence, while we would make the adult mannerly through his moral sense, we reach the young child's morals largely through his manners. We have, therefore, a deep reason for teaching manners, — as a means to moral ends, — as well as the important reason of teaching them for their own intrinsic value. To run the gamut from manners to morals is to go from the mere social conventions such as saluta- tions, public deportment, table etiquette, and the like, through the hygienic requirements of cleanli- ness, exercise, sleep, posture, dress, and so on, up to the recognized commandments as to truth telling, chastity, and reverence. The initial influ- ence of the home upon these habits is not to be underestimated, but we know that we cannot assume that they are irrevocably settled in the first six years of the child's life, either for good or for bad. The law of growth must be recognized: as the pupil grows out from under dogmatic government up to self-government, from obedience perforce to obe- dience to right, he will find for both his manners and his morals increasingly intelligent motives. Never- theless, the aim of disciplinary education is to con- THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 335 vert all these virtues into habits, so that politeness, cleanliness, and honesty equally become automatic expressions of a symmetrically developed character. The school, as it takes over the young child from the preponderating influence of the home, must both strengthen the good habits it finds and combat the wrong ones, whatever their origin and what- ever the force of contending influences. Prin- cipal and teachers must all at every point do their utmost to inculcate good habits in manners and morals among pupils. Discipline of pupils, meaning their training to do right, is frequently construed by the teacher to mean training them to do what she wants them to do. If her wants are broadly intelligent, all is well; but many teachers attend chiefly or solely to those habits which most directly affect the pupils' accomplishment of intel- lectual tasks. It is quite possible for a boy with soiled hands and face to master his geography lesson ; a girl can write an interesting composition regardless of careless coiffure or slovenly attire; a pupil who is daily becoming more and more of a liar can yet do keen work in arithmetic; and thus the teacher may overlook the moral in her education of the intellectual. 336 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL One New York City principal puts in the hands of her pupils the following printed schedule : HABIT FORMATION Home Duties At Home Be courteous. Be obedient. Prepare your lessons. Speak correctly. Rise without Being Called Rise with regularity. Bathe thoroughly. Dress rapidly. Dress neatly. Regularity of Meals Eat proper food. Eat slowly. Use knife and fork. Be tidy at table. Retire without Being Told Retire with regularity. Undress rapidly. Arrange clothing neatly. Clean teeth and nails. Home Employment for Boys and Girls Air rooms. Make beds. Brush floor. Dust rooms. Wash dishes. Wipe dishes. Help with younger children. Run errands. School Duties Be courteous. Be industrious. Be attentive. Be trustworthy. Speak correctly. Civic Duties Be courteous on the street. Observe safety laws. Help to keep the street tidy. Respect public buildings. Speak gently and correctly. Katherine D. Blake, Principal, P. S. No. 6, Manhattan. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 337 It is the business of the principal not alone to emphasize the work of moral education, but also to be careful not to nullify this emphasis by holding the teacher and her class too constantly to purely intellectual standards. To preach to teachers the necessity for moral training, and then to rate them solely on the absolute results their classes show on written examinations, is to make a pretense and a farce of character building. Good habits, it scarce need be said, must be taught first of all by example. The Cleveland Board of Education puts it well : "It shall be a duty of the first importance on the part of teachers to be models in personal appearance and in conduct, for the pupils under their care. They are especially en- joined to avail themselves of every opportunity to inculcate neatness, promptness, politeness, cheerful- ness, truthfulness, patriotism, and all the virtues which contribute to the effectiveness of the schools, the good order of society, and the safety of our American citizenship.' ' The establishment and sustenance of moral habits is dependent upon the development of proper ideals. As " the emotional element is dominant," and as " art, literature (including poetry, the drama, and 338 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL fiction), music, and religion are the great media for the transmission of ideals and as such fulfill an educative function far more fundamental than our didactic pedagogy has ever realized," x it is evident that this phase of the school life must be deliberately enforced and constantly reenforced. Principal and teachers should at every convenient opportunity hold before the pupils stirring examples of loyalty, of " team-work," of sacrifice, as discovered in his- tory, geography, and literature, and in the daily events in school life and in the great world-life, occasionally leading the pupils to make the direct inference as applied to school spirit. Letters of recommendation. That school counts in business may be brought home to pupils by keeping before them the fact that school ideals are business ideals and that if they would cultivate the worthwhile business habits they must first cultivate those habits in the school life. An established and advertised policy in issu- ing letters of recommendation to pupils leaving school can be made to contribute toward their good conduct while they are yet in school. These letters may be in accordance with certain forms, copies 1 Bagley, Educative Process, p. 224. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 339 of which are kept posted in the classrooms as a constant reminder to the pupils that the school record "counts" in this practical way. The following set of forms is suggested : Letters of Recommendation Issued from Public School No. 100 Form One Public School No. 100, New York, I9-- To Whom It May Concern: I take pleasure in recommending , who has been a pupil of this school for years. He (she) has been punctual and regular in attendance, industrious and successful in his (her) work, and courteous and well- behaved in every way. He (she) has been one of our very- best pupils, and I am confident merits your most favorable consideration. Respectfully, > Teacher. I am very glad to indorse the above statements. > Principal. Form Two Public School No. 100, New York, I9-- To Whom It May Concern: I take pleasure in recommending to your favorable notice, , who has been a pupil of this 340 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL school for years. He (she) has been punctual and regular in attendance, industrious and well-behaved. Respectfully, I am glad to indorse the above statements. > Teacher. Principal. Form Three Public School No. ioo, New York, *9- To Whom It May Concern: I hereby recommend , who has been a pupil of this school for years. He (she) has been passably punctual and regular in attendance and fairly well-behaved and industrious. Respectfully, I indorse the above. > Teacher. > Principal, Form Four Public School No. ioo, New York, 19 ••• To Whom It May Concern: I am asked to recommend , who has been a pupil of this school for years. I regret THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 341 that I can only say that he has been irregular in attendance and punctuality, poor in his work, and generally ill-behaved. Respectfully, > Teacher. I am sorry that I must indorse the above. y Principal. In case of graduates, the words " and who was grad- uated 19. . " are added to the first sentence in either One or Two. It will be noticed that all of the above are addressed to whom it may concern, and hence are designed to be given to pupils upon their own request. It is suggested that requests by mail from outsiders for information con- cerning pupils be replied to in the following form : Public School No. 100, Broadway and Fulton St., *9 • M Dear : Replying to your favor of , requesting information regarding , I beg to state that the following is a transcript of h . . record for the last years ( terms) in which ... he was a pupil here : 342 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Term Grade Days Absent J Feb.-June, 19. . . Sep. \ . -Jan. \ . Feb.-June, 19. . . Sep. \ . -Jan. \ . Feb.-June, 19. . . Lessons Conduct Our record, further, shows that ... he was born 19. . , admitted to this school , 19. . , and dis- charged, (graduated) , 19. . . Respectfully, Principal. The assembly. The school assembly, and in lesser measure the class " opening exercises/ ' l is a valuable instrument for the fixing of ideals and the establishment of esprit de corps. The individual is sensitive to the sentiment of the group and the principal should use every means to make the school sentiment, which will influence every pupil, of the right character. Schemes for making the assembly an occasion of profit and interest and the means for the culti- 1 The following is a typical provision : "Each school, either collectively or in classes, shall be opened by the reading, without comment, of a chapter in the Holy Bible and the use of the Lord's prayer. The Douay version may be used by those pupils who prefer it." — Baltimore, XVI. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 343 vation of ideals are innumerable. 1 A few are here noted suggestively : (1) Recitations by pupils. Avoid show work of the gifted; better the successful effort of the dif- fident pupil to overcome his embarrassment and develop his self-respect than the exploitation of the students specially trained in elocution. In the subject matter, keep closely to the regular work of the classes. There is ample material that relates to or supplements the subjects of study, without bringing in popular recitation " pieces." (2) Discussions by pupils of current events. (3) Studies of pictures and other objects of art. (4) Musical studies of all kinds, again omitting disproportionate individual exploitation. (5) Celebration of special days, such as birthdays, battle days, anniversaries of inventions, discoveries, etc. (6) Flag drill and other distinctively patriotic exercises. (7) Outside speakers. Not every one can talk interestingly to children, but there are many who can bring to the pupils words of practical everyday 1 See The School Assembly, published by the Bureau of Reference and Research, Board of Education, New York City, 191 7. 344 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL wisdom and inspiration. Pupils will give close attention to policemen, firemen, or other familiar city personages who address them on the technical- ities of their special professions as related to schools and school children. Addresses by alumni, giving tangible evidence of what schooling means in results, are welcome. Pupils are interested also in hearing of the records made by graduates of the school in their post-graduate careers. 1 (8) Motion pictures, when equipment can be secured. The motion picture as an educational instrument must be taken into account by the principal. Its use as a medium of entertainment is naturally exploited by those whose motives are solely commercial. The school has the grave duty of counteracting the unwholesome effects of the com- mercialized " movie " both by the general develop- ment of taste and ideals and by the even more effective method of competition, using the motion picture in the school with selected material. 2 1 Cf. New Haven, "No person, not connected with the school, shall be invited or allowed to address pupils or teachers of any school or take part in any entertainment at any school building without the approval of the Superintendent." — V, 145. 2 See two articles on the subject by Lawrence A. Averill in the Educational Review, November, 191 5, and May, 1918. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 345 Athletics. School athletics, especially those branches which develop team play, may, if properly organized and carefully supervised, promote physical development, reenforce the scholastic effort of pupils, and stimulate school spirit. " Every one believes that ample opportunity for physical exercise should be afforded all school children, but there are limits to the indulgence of this taste, and it is impor- tant that neither the moral standards of the par- ticipants should be debased by improper practices nor should their health be impaired by overexertion. Neither should athletics be allowed to assume too important a place in the minds of the pupils to the disadvantage of academic subjects." l Pupil organizations. Organization of the pupils within the school, along somewhat social lines, may be possible under certain conditions, and thus con- tribute to school spirit. Musical clubs, photographic clubs, literary societies, scientific meetings, and so on, practically without limit, are all within the range of possibility. It is wise, however, not to permit too great a diversity of interest and dissipation of energy. 2 1 Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston, 1906, p. 34. 2 All organizations must, of course, be kept under the strict control of the principal. Covered by regulations in several cities, 346 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL School publications. A school journal may, with supervisory aid, be conducted by pupil editors and managers, and give a legitimate expression to intelli- gent interest on behalf of a large number of pupils. A sufficient amount of advertising matter to support the publication of such a paper may usually be se- cured by a little enterprise. 1 e.g. Minneapolis: "No organization or society of pupils of any kind, or for any purpose, either secret or open, shall be allowed to exist in any elementary or high school, except by written request of the principal indorsed by the Superintendent and approved by the Board of Education. Any pupil becoming a member of such organization or society in violation of any of the provisions of this rule may be suspended or dismissed, or prevented from graduating or participating in school honors." — IX, 7. 1 Public School 73, Brooklyn, publishes a semi-annual journal, The Comet. Mr. Ambrose Cort, principal, gives the following sum- mary of the proposition : "It is published in January and June, sells at 10 cents the copy. We sell 700 or 800 of the 1000 printed largely to pupils and alumni. "We get about $40 worth of ads., thus raising in all about $110, from which w T e pay the expense of $90 for printing, and have a surplus for the School Fund. "Older boys get the smaller ads. The principal gets the larger ones. Every class has a Comet representative, who assists the teacher in sales and in getting literary or news material from the class. "The assistant principal and her board of teachers do most of the work of gathering material; viz.,class*notes, honor rolls, com- positions, news of school activities, etc. "The principal writes the editorials, including a message to y THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 347 Alumni organizations. An enthusiastic alumni association can give material support to a school. It is better to have no association, however, than to have one that is weak or uninterested in the school itself. In a new school, an association can be organized with the first graduating class. The principal may inspire this organization and for a while direct its energies, but as the years go on, he should gradually withdraw his prompting, leaving the work to be done entirely by the graduates them- selves. They may give material donations to the school from time to time ; but nothing of this kind, excellent as it is, can equal in value the more intangible moral influence of an organized body of alumni who themselves reflect in their speech and conduct the high ideals of a school which has won their devotion and loyalty. children or parents or both, on an important phase of the school's life. "This month's issue we propose devoting largely to a description of our war work; pictures of soldiers, once boys of the school; letters from soldiers ; appeals to patriotism, etc. "I believe that this paper helps 'school spirit,' furnishes in- centives to endeavor, and helps to form enlightened community sentiment through children and parent readers. We tackle such questions as children's diet, sleep, amusements, employment, daily speech, and habits in general." 348 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL School savings banks. Many schools, in a number of different cities, have instituted a banking system by which pupils are encouraged to make deposits even of one cent, thus inculcating ideals and habits of thrift and adding another factor in emphasizing school spirit. 1 School gardens. There are many arguments in favor of establishing and maintaining gardens as a recognized adjunct to the school life, if not, indeed, as a recognized part of the curriculum. They may be regarded, too, as a school unifying force, one more agency for the inculcation of school spirit. Many cities officially recognize the school garden as an integral part of the school organization, and the United States Bureau of Education maintains a Division of School and Home Gardening. For practical counsel on the subject, see the publica- tions of the " School Garden Association of America " of which Mr. Van Evrie Kilpatrick, principal, Public School 1 Board of Education, City of New York, Document No. 6 — 1914, School Savings Banks, presents a report made by Dr. Edward B. Shallow, Associate City Superintendent, in which is outlined "a plan under which such banks should be organized and managed." Minneapolis uses a system of stamp accounts. Kansas City gives prizes to the schools and classrooms having the largest number of school savings bank books in proportion to number of pupils enrolled. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 349 26, Manhattan, New York, is president. He says : "The school garden should be first placed on the school grounds and then at the homes of the school children. A school garden that does not surely increase the home gardens is not worth a moment's consideration. Better home gardening should follow school gardening in the same way that better accountancy in the counting house follows arithmetic in the classroom. There should be a school garden at every schoolhouse in the land, how- ever small that garden may be. It may be a greenhouse on the roof, it may be a lawn in the front of the school, or it may be a vegetable plot beside the school. The work that is not good enough for teacher to do is not good enough for pupil to do. To plant a garden at school and not properly take care of it may justly be termed an educational tragedy." "In every graded school there should be at least one teacher who is able to teach the sciences and gardening. The equipment and supplies necessary for that work should be supplied directly by the Board of Education." Frederick L. Holtz, Nature Study, has a chapter on "The School Garden." b. Preventive measures. The principal cannot let the question of the morale of his school rest solely on the expression of school spirit, no matter how many factors may contribute to the establishment of 350 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL high ideals. There will always be the certain proportion of untrained or unreformed individual pupils. Precautionary and preventive measures must be taken at every point to anticipate and forestall difficulty. A few definite school regulations, general in their application, may be issued, so that certain classes of offenses may be clearly dealt with as violations of specific school rules. Fixed responsibility. Constant responsibility for the conduct of pupils must be placed upon teachers. A teacher, upon leaving her pupils in the classroom, should always notify the teacher of the nearest room of her temporary absence. The other teacher there- upon becomes responsible for the safety and conduct of the first teacher's pupils in addition to her own. This does not imply a too detailed supervision of these pupils, but it does mean that the pupils real- ize, as a matter of course, that they are always answerable to some person in authority in the school. Moreover, in case of emergency such as a fire drill, pupils are protected, and in case of accident or other unfavorable occurrence, the public has the assurance that reasonable effort was made by the school administrators to prevent it. Some supervision of pupils leaving the class- THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 351 room individually during the session is a preventive of disorder (see p. 214). 1 Prevention of forgeries. The attempts of misbe- having pupils to thwart the cooperation of parents and teachers by clever forgery of signatures, etc., must be met by cleverness in their detection and punishment. 2 The whole effort of the principal will, of course, be in the direction of developing in pupils the habit of right doing for right's sake, and of fostering the highest possible ideals as motives for good conduct. Nevertheless, throughout the long process of development of these lofty ideals, the pupils must always feel that wrong conduct will be detected and punished by those in authority and that it is useless to try to " win out " along wrong lines. Attendance of pupils. Irregular attendance of pupils is a source of difficulty in many directions. In addition to the disastrous consequences to progress in scholarship there is the establishment of a bad 1 "No mail shall be delivered to pupils at school buildings, except in connection with authorized publications and athletics." — Syracuse, III. 2 "Any pupil who forges the name of any parent or guardian, or other person authorized to sign excuses or requests, or knowingly presents a forged paper, may be suspended." — Portland, Ore., 11. 352 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL habit, a lessening of respect for the school as a serious occupation, and a tendency to disorder due to the loss of continuity in lessons. 1 Regular attendance should, of course, be secured through the pupil's liking for school. In the early years he attends chiefly for the immediate interests created and satisfied by the school. Later there is added the response to a sense of duty. He realizes the value of education and obligation to society. The pupil must feel that absence from school is a loss, his loss ; and part of the duty of the principal is to make his school something that pupils cannot afford to lose. But even with the most attractive of schools, using the word attractive in its best and broadest sense, many pupils will be unnecessarily absent and tardy. It then becomes a matter of discipline, and as such must be governed by the law of growth. At first, the attendance of the child is a matter of obedience: he must go to school. If in no other way, he must be brought daily by some one at home, until the habit of school-going has been established. 1 A word of caution may be given to the effect that absence may be too severely emphasized, particularly in the case of higher-grade girls. (See p. 225.) THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 353 Later, he should attend as a matter of reason : He ought to go to school. Practically everywhere the law puts clearly upon parents the duty of sending their children to school. It correspondingly gives teachers the right to demand satisfactory accounting from parents when their children are absent. Kansas City uses the following printed form : Notice of Absence Kansas City, Mo., 191 . . School M Will you kindly inform me why t was absent from school ? The following are the Rules of the Board governing such cases : [Five paragraphs follow] Respectfully yours, Teacher. There is a corresponding form for tardiness. Rochester provides : "Parents are required to furnish a written excuse for each absence. This excuse must state the specific reason for the absence. A general statement that the parent has kept the child at home cannot be accepted." — V, 5. The Portland, Ore., board " explicitly delegates to 2 A 354 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL teachers the right to judge of the sufficiency of all excuses not otherwise especially provided for. In case of doubt, the teacher will consult the principal.' ' Some cities require that written excuses shall be pre- served by the teacher until the end of the term. San Francisco provides that "Each pupil shall have a particular desk, and shall keep the same, and the floor beneath, in a neat and orderly condition," and that "Any pupil who shall be absent one week, without giving notice to the teacher, shall lose all claim to his particular desk for the remainder of the term, and shall not be considered a member of the school." — 57, 120, (&). Indianapolis provides that "Absences which occur when the attendance of the pupil would occasion a serious and imprudent exposure to health shall be regarded the same as absence occasioned by sickness." — XX, 6. Albany, on the reverse of its report card sent to parents, includes the statement : "A written excuse for absence and tardiness is re- quired. The only legitimate excuses under the Com- pulsory Education Law are : a. Personal illness. b. Illness in the family requiring the child's services for a day or two. c. Weather conditions that make it unsafe for a child to be out." Truancy. In spite of continuous efforts there are still baffling cases of willful, persistent absence THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 355 which we call truancy. Compulsory education laws in most States provide attendance officers whose duty it is to carry the authority of the State into the homes and on the streets in a search for and capture of truants. The principal usually has certain definite duties of cooperation with these officers, varying in the different States, which affect his pedagogic treatment of truancy. Among general propositions may be noted the following : 1. Eternal vigilance is the price of freedom from extensive truancy. Teachers must be trained to notify parents promptly of absence of pupils and to secure satisfactory excuses from pupils upon their return. They should err, if at all, on the safe side, and be over-careful rather than not cautious enough. They must feel their responsibility, and not permit unexplained absence to run without reporting it. 2. To deal effectively with the truant, the prin- cipal must sympathize with him and understand his temptation. It is certainly not difficult to understand the truant. Two factors enter into the make-up of the human indi- vidual, heredity and environment. Heredity is twofold, general and special. In general, the boy inherits from centuries of the race 356 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL the nomadic instinct. For millions of years his ances- tors were living out of doors; it is for but a compara- tively brief period that any of them have been going to school. The "natural" instinct, then, is to listen to the call of the wild ; the call to the schoolroom is a modern and conventional one. What is more natural than that a child, even though he has been drilled for several years in the conventional habit of school-going, should occa- sionally lapse into the ancestral state for a day or two ? Indeed, what adult is there with red blood in his circu- lation, who does not at some time rebel against the restraints of that conventionalism, which, as Dr. Van Dyke says, "transforms the rhythm of life into a loga- rithm.' ' Specifically, the boy has a more immediate inheritance which may make or mar his natural equipment. A very few generations of ill-nurtured or disease-succumbing parents suffice to launch the child into life with a severe handicap in the form of serious physical defects. To persist in going to school when school offers no appeal, and when to stay out of doors is to follow the path of least resistance, demands of a boy a certain amount of dynamic force. When, however, the immediate inherit- ance of the child is a defective body and unresisting will, the result is a mental inertia which must be over- come before the conventional school can hold him against the natural out-of-doors. The environment factor is manifold, but chiefly, for the truant, it is of the home and of the school, and it THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 357 behooves us to consider both. The home conditions may be squalid and the home forces may be against the in- fluence of the school and in favor of driving the boy to the bad. On the other hand, the school itself, at least the particular class and teacher that represent the school environment of the truant, may be such as to repel rather than attract. 1 All of these factors must be given consideration by the principal in dealing with the individual truant before he can meet him on a basis of sympathetic understanding. If the truant feels that the principal knows what he is "up against/ ' he is much more likely to listen to argu- ment and appeal. 1 Of eighty-five truants examined by the Bureau of Child Hy- giene of the New York City Department of Health, "In nine in- stances the family history appeared to have a definite bearing on the truancy, the father being alcoholic in five cases, insane in one, and tuberculous in one. In two cases the brother of the truant was epileptic. In two instances the truant himself gave a history of convulsions. In eight instances the examining physician reported ' stigmata of degeneration present.* The blood pressure showed nothing abnormal." "There were 64 truants with some obstruction to nasal breath- ing. Many of these obstructions were of traumatic origin. Eye- sight was defective in 27 out of 77 truants, not being tested in 8. The proportion of bony deformities was high, as witness the following number of cases found in 84 truants: bowed legs, 2; lordosis, 3 ; kyphosis, 3 ; scoliosis, 10 ; flat foot, 6 ; rachitic chest, 2. An irritable heart was reported in 7 cases, and endocarditis in 10. The heart was normal in 68 cases. Pulmonary tuberculosis was encountered in only one individual." 358 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL 3. If the principal can get into sympathetic relations with one truant, he can often successfully use him as a means of influence with other truants, for the truant infrequently travels alone. 4. Discipline cases of pupils inclined to truancy must be handled with particular skill, lest in reach- ing the lesser offense the pupil is prompted to com- mit the greater one of staying away from school altogether. Punctuality. Lateness for younger pupils is usually the fault of the parents, whose cooperation must be secured ; for older pupils it can be made a matter of duty, and with them the emphasis may be. placed upon the training for life, and especially for business. Louisville provides: "Any pupil who shall not be present punctually . . . before being allowed to take his place in his class shall, if the principal request it, pre- sent an excuse signed by the parent or guardian stating the cause of tardiness.' ' — 14, 6. It would seem, how- ever, that no pupil should ever be excluded from the school building for lateness, either by rule or by spirit ; the stimuli to truancy are sufficiently plentiful without adding this one. Many forms of notes to apply to attendance and punc- tuality could be devised, but local conditions will so far THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 359 govern the exact wording as to make inadvisable the suggestion of more than the following : (1) Public School No. 100, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, 19. .. M Dear : I am sorry to inform you that has been late times this By seeing that . . he is punctual in the future, you will oblige, Respectfully, Principal. (2) Public School No. 100, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, 19.. . M.... Dear. has been late times in the last weeks. It is extremely important that the habit of punctuality shall become fixed in a pupil's school life. Will you therefore kindly cooperate with us in our effort to secure 's punctual attendance. Respectfully, > Principal. 360 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Many schemes for securing attendance and punc- tuality are variously popular. 1 To appeal to class spirit and to class rivalry is a favorite method; to designate by some decoration, a flag, for example, the class having perfect attendance and punctual- ity is another; and so on. Such plans usually produce results, but even in their use there should be a constant struggle to get away from this to some higher motive. By some it is thought logical to reward a class which has made a record for a stated period by dis- missing those pupils some minutes earlier on the last day of the period ; but it would seem as though such a reward were based upon a wrong conception of school. Should pupils be encouraged to regard 1 Dayton uses a card of honor : Dayton Public Schools Card of Honor Earned by who has not been absent one-half day nor tardy once this semester *?i v . Frank W. Miller, Superintendent of Instruction. A similar card is used for "not less than 90% in any subject this semester." THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 361 school as something to be avoided, and exemption from participation in school exercises something to be desired and striven for? Would it not be more logical to reward all pupils who have met the condi- tion of a perfect record in attendance — or, in fact, any other desirable condition — with the privilege of remaining beyond the time of the regular school session? It would be a poor teacher indeed who could not make an extra half hour or hour, indoors or out, once a week or once a month, so interesting that pupils would strive to earn the privilege of sharing it with her. c. Principal's legal responsibility. The principal is the ultimate authority in the school. He is the court of appeal before which teachers present their cases against pupils. He should constantly strive to establish such a school spirit and to exercise such precautionary supervision as will make ex- ceptional a serious outbreak on the part of any pupil. Nevertheless there will be cases where the teacher exhausts her pedagogic skill and her authoritative measures with an individual pupil. The best way of regarding it is to claim not that the teacher has exhausted her skill, but that she has expended all of it that any one pupil is 362 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL entitled to. 1 The well-behaved pupils of the class have a superior right to her time and attention. Principal as counselor. The teacher ought to be made to feel free to seek the counsel of the prin- cipal in an informal way at any reasonable time. The principal ought to advise with her in regard to a disturbing discipline case, sometimes in the class- room directly, sometimes in office conference. 2 He 1 "Each teacher shall be held responsible for the order and discipline of his own room, practicing such discipline as would be expected of a kind, firm, and judicious parent in his family. Teachers shall avoid corporal punishment when good discipline can be preserved by milder means." — Indianapolis, XIX, 10. 2 The following analysis slip is used in a Brooklyn school : The Glenwood School Pupil Class Teacher Date Needing Reformation 1. Late. . . .times, since. . . . 2. Absent days, since 3. Does not seem to care 4. Disobedient : refusal ; neglect 5. Argumentative 6. Impudent 7. When corrected, smiles 8. Lies , cheats , steals 9. Has the habit of 10. Lacks "class honor" feeling 11. Acts in a silly manner 12. Interrupts by 13. Does little or no work 14. Inattentive 15. Fusses with things. 16. Annoys, pushes, trips, strikes THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 363 will seek to have her rather develop her own disci- plinary art than to depend on him for set rules. Such conferences ought to be regarded as quite distinctive from formal appeals from teacher to principal for the exercise of authority. The fact that a teacher solicits the professional counsel of the principal, provided she uses ordinary common sense, ought not to be held by the principal as an indication of disciplinary weakness. On the contrary it signifies a professional ability that is lacking both in the teacher who gives no special thought to her disciplinary problems but hastily " sends to the office " all troublesome cases, and in ~the teacher who has good surface control of class but gains it by passing over the real problems. The discipline " case." When the teacher has exhausted the resources upon which she should reasonably draw in the discipline of a pupil, she should refer the case formally, officially, legally, to the higher disciplinary authority, the principal. 17. Hinders the class work 18. Talks ; talks out 19. Throws things 20. Makes noises , hums 21. Chews gum in class 22. Marks books ; cuts desks 23. Sulks ; procrastinates 24. Cuts recitations ; truant 364 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL She should not send the pupil from the room with the peremptory order "Go to the principal." Time spent in writing a formal complaint is com- pensated for by the added dignity and seriousness l which the complaint assumes, and by the evidence thus given to the accused pupil and all the others that the teacher acts only in a calm and judicial manner. For the adoption of a formal system, the following suggestions are offered : A card of some such arrangement as this — DISCIPLINE Case Settled Date By. Public School No. 100 Room No Date iq. Name._ Reason. .Teacher ( No pupil reported should be permitted to return without credential from the office.) 1 Psychological "vividness," one of the factors of recall, is thus employed. Cf. Bagley, Educative Process, p. 171 : "If the child is to be corrected for a serious fault, it is necessary to make the experience of correction as vivid as possible in order absolutely to insure an inhibitory effect in the future." THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 365 — should have entered on it all the necessary informa- tion as to the items indicated. The complaint should be specific. General charges, while they may be understood by the principal, are not readily handled. The principal realizes that a boy whose misconduct takes the form of petty disorders and sly meannesses is more of a problem for the teacher than one who deliberately assaults an- other or willfully breaks a pane of glass ; but this is not so well understood by the layman, particularly by the parent or by the board of education committee before whom the case may ultimately come upon an appeal. Hence the principal cannot accept a charge of " general disorder " because that is too indefinite; nor of " talking.' ' because that is usually regarded lightly by laymen ; nor of "in- attention " because that is a psychological matter and chargeable to the teacher and her method. But " will- ful disobedience," " impudence/ ' "insolence," are recog- nizable offenses. It is better to make even these more specific, and to frame charges thus : " I told him to change his seat and he refused to do so." "He told me 'I will not' when I ordered him to pass to the line." "Mali- ciously kicked William during a recitation." The cases of general disorder can usually be reached by reducing them to their lowest common denominator, namely, a specific instance of willful disobedience. A pupil thus reported should not under any circum- stances be permitted to return to his room without au- thority from the principal. He is not to return with a statement that "the principal is not in his office," or even 366 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL to get his hat or his books — these can be sent to the prin- cipal by the teacher or sent for by the principal. Once formally reported, the pupil must feel that he has taken himself out of the class society, to which only a satis- factory settlement can restore him. It is almost needless to say that when a pupil has been reported to the principal, he must receive no consideration, pending the settlement of his case, which tends to make his isolation in any way agree- able or interesting : he must not be sent on errands because he is handy ; he must not even be a witness of the routine work of the office, for this may have a passing interest ; he must be kept, so far as may be, alone with his thoughts. Frequently the principal may consider the case one which the teacher could have handled ; when so, he may place his own ideas before her and ask if she still wishes the formal complaint to stand. If she does, the principal will take her at her word and continue the case ; on the contrary, if she sees that she might have drawn further on her own resources, she may make an excuse for hunting up the pupil and securing from him some satisfactory assurance of his good intentions. She may then on behalf of the pupil ask the principal to cancel the formal THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 367 charge, thus perhaps winning over the pupil by her intercession for him. Disposition of case. By observing certain rules the principal may dispose of disciplinary cases promptly, unhesitatingly, and yet satisfactorily and with due regard to the individuality of the pupil. (1) He must maintain a judicial attitude and temper throughout. He must avoid the personal element and keep the issue to the point, namely, that the pupil has violated the law. (2) He must bear in mind the progressive char- acter of proper discipline, varying with the age and understanding of the pupil. (3) His treatment must be proportioned to the magnitude of the offense, the spirit in which it was committed, and the past record and personal equa- tion of the offender. (4) He must state the complaint to the pupil and hear his defense. (5) If possible he must lead the pupil to convict himself. (6) He must remember that reformation, correc- tion, settlement, and not revenge, are sought; punishment is to be applied only if necessary. 368 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL "A public punishment is fearfully unequal in its inci- dence : one boy feels the publicity so much more than another; moreover, it either hardens the offender and destroys his self-respect, or else, if he takes it gamely, it makes him a hero ; as for the onlookers it makes them insufferably self-righteous." * (7) He must endeavor to get the desired result by working with the pupil alone. The older the pupil the more effective the appeal to his sense of manhood, his sense of right, the " square deal," etc. (8) When the pupil admits his error, at least on his first offense, it remains only for him to give some tangible evidence of his contrition and his intention to do right in the future. This he may do in a variety of ways, for instance : (a) If he has damaged property he may repair or re- place it. (b) If he has taken time from his class which did not belong to him, he may forfeit his own time. (c) If he has committed an offense against the class, he may apologize to them ; or if against his teacher, to her. If it is a class matter, his reinstatement might depend upon a favorable vote of the class. If a teacher matter, he may be given the privilege of writing a letter of apology and of assurance as to his 1 J. L. Paton, Educational Foundations, vol. XVIII, p. 529. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 369 future conduct, which the principal may send to the teacher for her consideration. If a boy H dodges " the issue and is inclined to charge his own misconduct to " the other boys," he may, very logically, be transferred to a girls' class where there are no boys to disturb him. When he is returned to his class, he may be rein- stated on probation. i9-- M In view of 's desire for a trial in his class, I reinstate him on PROBATION. Please send him to me daily at M. with a report as to his conduct : Day No. Day of Week Conduct Teacher Noted (9) Under certain conditions a principal will report a discipline case to the pupil's parents: (a) if it is a repeated offense by a pupil too young to reason clearly in the premises; (&) if it is an offense by a pupil old enough to reason, who refuses 2 B 370 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL to carry the reasoning to its logical conclusion ; (c) if the offense points to physical defect as its cause. The chief reasons for referring to the parent are to secure cooperation x of parent and teacher, or to insure adequate punishment of the pupil. The principal may take the position of assuming that the parent desires his child to do right and to respect laws and rules. He may point out, when punishment is required, that the parent has greater resources at his command than has the school, and that the parent may use whatever form of punishment seems best fitted. If the child in question were the only pupil the teacher had, — the principal may explain to the parent, — then it would be an easy matter for her to handle the case without appeal to the parent. As she has a constant duty to some forty 1 So stated in the rules in some cities, for example, St. Louis : "For the purpose of securing the cooperation of parents or guar- dians, any pupil may be sent home from school by the Principal ; provided, however, that such temporary suspension shall not extend over a longer period than two days. A written notice must be sent to the parent or guardian in each case, stating the cause of such temporary suspension. If the pupil has not been reinstated at the expiration of two days, a regular suspension notice shall be sent to the parent and the Superintendent. The Principal shall keep a list of temporary suspensions, together with the date of each* and report the same to the Superintendent at the close of the quarter." — 49, Sec. 7. THE PUPILS* MORAL DEVELOPMENT 371 or fifty other pupils, it must be clear that in justice to them she should not be required to devote an unreasonable amount of time to his child. On this basis the parent may be required to deal with his child in such manner as shall guarantee the pro- priety of his reinstatement to his class. In referring to the parent, the principal must be " sure of his case." He must have a sound case in order to guard against a just appeal from his decisions by the parent — a case so clear that, if the parent does appeal it, the principal and the school are sure to be upheld and vindicated. The following form is suggested for the reference of a case to the parent : Public School No. 100, Broadway and Fulton St., New York, 19. .. M Dear : I regret I must inform you of 's misconduct in school. . . e has been reported to me by M for I have been obliged therefore to withdraw h. . from h. . class until you call in regard to h . . reinstatement. Respectfully, Principal. 372 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL This is not a suspension of the pupil, for he is kept in the school awaiting the parent's attention. Of course, in most cities, the attendance of the parent cannot legally be demanded by the principal, so that the principal should never use a note of this form unless he is ready to follow it up, if the parent fails to respond, with formal suspension of the pupil in accordance with law. 1 Corporal punishment. If corporal punishment is permitted, as it is in many cities, the principal 1 Philadelphia furnishes principals with two Request for Inter- view forms : First Request School, District No 191. . . Mr Dear Sir : We regret to state that circumstances have arisen which render it inadvisable to permit to return to school until, with your cooperation, satisfactory arrangements for the future have been made. We earnestly request you, there- fore, to call at the school not later than 4 p.m. on in order that we may agree upon the best course to pursue. We wish to readmit as soon as possible. Yours respectfully, Principal. The body of the Second Request reads : We regret that you have not called in response to our note of recent date, which requested an interview concerning Principals are required to refer to the District Superintendent for settlement, cases of this kind which are not adjusted promptly. Believing that, with your cooperation, the matter can be satis- factorily adjusted in the school, we would urge you to call at once. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 373 must exercise considerable discretion in its admin- istration. a. He should reserve this form of punishment for a general emergency, or as a "last resort " in the case of an individual offender. Almost without exception, the adolescent pupil should never be so punished. 1 b. He should always have witnesses to the pun- ishment. It is a decided advantage to have the teacher-complainant present. c. It is well to have the written authority — or better, request — of the parent. In some cities this is required by the rules. When the parent protests against concerning himself with his child's behavior, and intimates that they did things better when he went to school, meaning that the switch was more in evidence, the principal may slip for- ward the following form for him to sign : I9-- To the Principal, Public School No. 100, Dear Sir: In view of the repeated misconduct of my son, , I hereby request you to apply such corporal punishment in his case as in your judgment may seem advisable. Respectfully, (Signed) 1 Providence: "No pupil above the primary grades shall be liable to corporal punishment." — XIV, 1. 374 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL By refusing to sign, he convicts himself of not having meant what he said ; by signing, he minimizes the effect of any protest he may make subsequent to the adminis- tration of the requested punishment. Most cities require a report on number of cases of corporal punishment. Several provide forms to be filed for each case. The Spokane form is : Corporal Punishment Report, Spokane Public Schools, Building, iQi-. Corporal punishment has been administered to to-day by in the presence of On account of Instrument of punishment was Result Teacher. Principal. The Seattle report calls for certain other items : 1. For what offense was the pupil punished? 2. What is the general character of the pupil ? 3. What other means did you employ before resorting to corporal punishment ? 4. What do you know of the home influences ? 5. Were the parents notified of the bad conduct before you resorted to corporal punishment ? 6. Has the pupil ever been referred to the principal or the Superintendent ? THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 375 It also adds : "This blank is to be filled in and mailed, without delay, to the City Superintendent by the Teacher or Principal inflicting the punishment." A "warning notice" is used, informing the parent "Personal appeals and mild means have been used but without effect, and we now request your attention to' the matter in the hope that your influence may prevent more serious trouble. Should it become necessary to resort to extreme measures, corporal punishment may be inflicted or the pupil denied permission to continue in school. Will you please communicate with us so that, should such emergency arise, we may have had the benefit of your counsel. " Hoping for your aid and cooperation, we are — " If corporal punishment is prohibited by statute or by rule, the principal may, when a parent wants the principal or teacher to whip his child, show him that, as the school cannot do it and he can, it is clearly a matter for him to attend to. No discussion of the merits of the corporal punish- ment question is undertaken because : (1) for principals in a large number of cities it is an academic question; (2) it has already been amply and ably treated in peda- gogic literature; and (3) we are dealing with the ad- ministrative phase of school problems. However, the following general propositions are submitted. 1. The great majority of teachers and principals who 376 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL deal with boys, those who are closest to the problems of the school and who are held most directly responsible for the education of the pupils, doubt the wisdom of ab- solutely prohibiting corporal punishment. This does not prove that they are heartless or cruel or unthinking or unfit. 2. Those who believe in prohibiting corporal punish- ment are generally educational theorists or else educators who are not directly concerned with or responsible for the discipline of boys. This does not prove that they are insincere or unthinking or unfit. 3. The theorists, appealing to popular prejudice, and succeeding in having corporal punishment legally pro- hibited in places, have not demonstrated that there has been a gain in the moral development of pupils. The practicalists, who have the technical insight and experi- ence, but not the popular side of the question, can readily demonstrate that in most cities the education of hundreds of pupils is thereby seriously hampered. 4. The opposition of the two forces, the theorists and the practicalists, must eventually result either in the defeat of the theorists or in the discovery of some more satisfactory substitute for corporal punishment than any that has yet been advanced. Pupils must be trained to respect law. Law must have a sanction. The sanctions thus far offered as substitutes for corporal punishment seem inadequate. If adequate sanctions can be found, every practical school man will rejoice as sincerely as the most enthusiastic reformer. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 377 Suspension. The principal must not hesitate to use his power to suspend a pupil when the case reaches that stage. If the parent proves weak, or indifferent, or obstructing, and fails to cooperate with success, if there is no parent or competent guardian, or if it is a case of emergency that brooks no delay and demands drastic or dramatic atten- tion, the principal must suspend. He should make a suspension with all formality and make sure that pupil and parents clearly understand the situation. Many cities use forms of notices to parents. Detroit on its notice quotes " Extract from the Rules of the Board of Education,' ' citing the provisions apply- ing to suspension. The form concludes : This is to notify you that has vio- lated Rule Section , by and accordingly has been suspended from the privileges of the school. If you desire to have reinstated, kindly pre- sent this notice in person to the Superintendent of Schools at his office, No. 50 Broadway, between 3.30 p.m. and 4.30 p.m. on a school day. Principal School. 378 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Atlanta adds to its form the statement: "When . .he returns, . . he will be required to stand a satisfactory ex- amination on the work done by h. . . class during h. . . absence, otherwise . .he will not be allowed to reenter h. . . class." , Systematic records. In order that he may handle each case promptly, speedily, and intelligently, the principal must have some system of keeping a record of his discipline. A card system with a five-by-eight card of the follow- ing form is convenient : DISCIPLINE Father's Name Name , Address Date of Birth Business Address. Date of Admission Date Room Teacher Complaint Disposition Date Settled The mere filling out of this card in the presence of the pupil and in response to his answers to the principal's questions lends an impressive dignity and seriousness THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 379 to the situation. In filling in for Disposition, the principal may use a simple code of abbreviation : p 5/18 m postal sent to parent on May 18; 1 mm 5/19 = note form No. 1 sent to mother by mail May 19 ; f c 5/20 = father called May 20 ; pr 5/22 = placed in class on pro- bation, May 22, etc. The original card of complaint by the teacher is attached to this record card until the case is settled. Upon settlement, the record card is filed alphabetically, with all correspondence, probation sheets, etc., attached thereto. If the same pupil comes before the principal on a second complaint, reference to this card immediately recalls to the principal all the cir- cumstances of the former complaint and enables him to act with greater intelligence than if he but trusted to his memory. It is well, too, to have a corresponding record of merit. A card of the same size, but of distinguishing color, might be kept clipped to the discipline record. On this card can be entered all items of special com- mendation concerned with the pupil, to be taken into consideration when he becomes a disciplinary case. Pupil self- government. A number of schools have experimented with so-called self-government systems. These schemes sometimes build up a school and class government organization along lines parallel 380 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL to federal, state, and municipal government. In other cases, a more simple form of elected class officers and school officers suffices to gain the same end of giving pupils a voice in the management of the school. A concise argument for the general proposition of pupil self-government is given by Superintendent Maxwell : l "The temptation is always present and is generally over- whelming, for the child culprit who suffers punishment ... at the hands of an autocratic authority such as the principal or the teacher, to pose as a hero or a martyr. If, however, the same punishment were inflicted by a jury of his peers, the consolation of strutting as a hero or posing as a martyr would be entirely removed. The ef- ficacy of the punishment would be reenforced by the whole strength of the public opinion of the class or the school. The ridicule or the pity of his fellows is what the child finds it hardest to endure and what he will strive most earnestly to avoid. In this psychological fact lies the chief reason for the success, such as it is, that has at- tended the different forms of pupil self-government that have been tried at various times in the history of edu- cation. Add to this, that the exercise of governmental powers by the pupils in the administration of a school is an excellent training in executive ability and an unsur- passed preparation for the duties of citizenship, and an 1 Annual Report, 1905, p. 121. THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 381 exceedingly strong case is made out in favor of pupil self-government." 1 There is also something to be said on the other side of the subject. There is danger of overdoing any system of this sort to the extent that low motives of desire for "show" are being employed. Pupils should be brought to behave themselves without any "display" of good be- havior. Reduced to its lowest terms, any plan of this kind is a form of monitorial supervision, and as such shares the disadvantages of the monitorial system. There is a particular disadvantage in employing moni- tors to supervise the conduct of pupils when left alone in their rooms and when on corridors and stairways. There is always the danger of accident to pupils in their school life, and at such a time the monitorial system is highly unsatisfactory. To illustrate, suppose a girl falls down stairs at a dismissal and is seriously injured. Such an accident is likely to happen under whatever system of supervision may be employed, but it is the school which is held responsible by the parents. The father calls at the school to investigate. The principal must send for the person who was responsible for the supervision of the pupils as they were dismissed. Under a pupil-government system, that person proves to be a twelve-year-old boy ; and the principal explains to the parent that the pupils were "governing themselves." 1 A more extended presentation, together with bibliography, is given in King, Social Aspects of Education, in Chapter XVI, Democratic Government of Schools. 382 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Might not the parent reasonably take exception to the condition ? * Under the teacher-government system the person who appears is a responsible adult, a paid em- ployee, a person in a position of authoritative supervision. The assurance to the parent that the accident to the child was unavoidable, and occurred in spite of the most care- ful supervision by legally constituted school authorities, would tend to allay any feeling of animosity which the father brought with him. 1 Louisville settles the question of monitors emphatically : "Pupils shall not at any time be required or permitted to act as monitors." — 2. Worcester, Mass., provides: "No monitor shall be appointed to act in any capacity in any school building, except in such in- stances as the superintendent may in the exercise of his judgment deem desirable." — VTII, 19. "In an eighth year class of boys in a New York City school, 42 out of 46 voted against the establishment of a system of monitors. Some of the reasons are here quoted in their pristine but forceful simplicity : "Boys learn to be more trustworthy without them." "Boys are apt to behave themselves only when the monitors are there." "Monitor might have a grudge against some boy, etc. . . ." " Pupils get jealous of monitors. . . ." "Boys ought to learn to take care of themselves." "Causes ill-feeling between boys." "Monitor can't fight a big boy, and if he reports him he gets him outside. . . ." "Some monitors go a little too far and think they are It. . . ." "If his friends do anything, he doesn't report it. . . ." THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 383 There is also the administrative phase of the sub- ject. It is admitted that any " plan " needs constant supervision by teachers and principal. Hence we must estimate the entries on both sides of the energy account and figure the balance. The teaching of civics, at least as much as the pupil can understand, is readily accomplished with- out the aid of any formal pupil-government schemes. The classroom discipline does not need reenforcement by a uniform school plan. The individual teacher, if competent, will have good order without recourse to an artificial motive of this kind, or if she wishes to use one can readily initiate and administer a simple plan of her own. The unsatisfactory teacher, if she cannot secure classroom order without a super- imposed plan, is not likely to get it with such a plan. The problem, then, from the administrative point of view, would seem to reduce itself to this : Any scheme of pupil government requires the expense of a large amount of supervisory energy by principal and teachers ; the chief, if not the sole, practical income from such a scheme is a monitorial supervision of the school territory outside the classroom ; question — Does the income exceed the expense? The deeper criticism of pupil government schemes 384 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL rests on the question as to what constitutes self- government. We must all believe in self-govern- ment. We might stretch its definition so that it would be synonymous with education itself. For each individual to learn the great secret of self- government, to learn to control himself in every direction, is the great aim of moral education. It is a question whether these " systems " of self- government teach ^//-government, or do not, rather, teach each pupil to govern the other pupil. To learn to obey the law because one must, perforce, is not as high an ideal as to learn to do right regardless of statutory requirements. Transferring responsibility. The child begins his career with a high sense of his rights as an individual. As he matures he learns that individuality must in many directions be submerged for the social good. Parents and teachers in training young children work on the assumption that the child is not com- petent to determine completely his own individual- ity. They assume a vicarious responsibility. They hold the child's responsibility for himself in trust for him. Every time they command and compel him to act contrary to his own view of his own individuality they assume a tremendous responsibil- THE PUPILS' MORAL DEVELOPMENT 385 ity. If they sufficiently realize the gravity of the trust they will be most eager to transfer their responsibility to its rightful possessor, the child, just the moment he can, with safety to himself and society, carry it himself. The teacher should be ever watchful for oppor- tunities to make this transfer. She will progres- sively lead each pupil in her class to shoulder his own responsibility to govern himself and fit himself properly into the social order. She will not, how- ever, move too rapidly ; she will never let the pupil fall back into anarchy because neither he nor any one else is governing him. Every school activity may be made to contribute to the rapid democrati- zation of the pupil. This being so, it seems wasteful to introduce an artificial, non-essential " scheme " in the attempt to bring about the same ideal. Summary. The problem of discipline is, perhaps, the most serious and perplexing one the principal faces. To handle it successfully he must ground himself with certain general principles and then apply these in specific methods. He must have a serviceable philosophy of moral training and under- stand his legal function as disciplinary authority. He must train his teachers as disciplinarians, de- 2 c 386 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL veloping their personalities, advising and caution- ing them, and giving them specific aids. He must himself be the chief disciplinary force in the school, maintaining a helpful school spirit, taking pre- cautionary and preventive measures against mis- conduct, and, when necessary, exercising to the full his legal authority as disciplinarian. CHAPTER X THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPAL SHIP It remains only to consider the principal himself and his personal relation to his office. This will be done under four heads: (i) the principal's quali- fications for the office; (2) his adjustment to his position ; (3) his personal growth ; (4) the position itself. 1. The principal's qualifications for the office. The qualifications to be sought in a principal, as derived from returns to a questionnaire, are sum- marized as follows : 1 " 1. He should be able to direct and supervise the detail of teaching procedure. 2. He should be able to organize and maintain a good school. 3. He should have an intelligent understanding of the school system of which his school is a part, and of its peculiar service to the local community, 1 Article by Percy E. Davidson in Educational Administration and Supervision, April, 1 9 1 8 . 387 388 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL and should have a sense of responsibility to it as an official member. 4. He should be able to understand the economic, political, religious, and general social character of his community, and to determine its educational needs in consequence. 5. He should be able to appraise the community and its institutions with reference to ideal standards of American life. 6. He should have the personal qualities of a leader in order that he may be a potent influence in the community." We shall consider in detail some of the more im- portant necessary qualifications of the principal. Classroom experience. Every principal should have had actual experience as a class teacher — this is imperative. However scholarly, however sincere and earnest, the principal who has never held the position of class teacher cannot put himself in the teacher's place. He may delude himself into think- ing that by his sporadic visits to the classroom, or even by " taking a class " for a long period, he is getting the viewpoint of the teacher but he is not. Without this viewpoint he lacks the basis for sym- pathetic and effective supervision. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 389 Teaching ability. Moreover, the principal must be an excellent teacher. On the whole, he should be as capable a teacher as the best on his staff. This does not imply that he is the best teacher of every subject in every grade. The leader of the orchestra understands the playing of every instru- ment and can probably play one or two instruments better than any member of his corps. But he is not expected to be a virtuoso in the playing of every instrument. So, too the principal ought to be particularly expert in teaching some subjects in some grades, but it is natural that there should be several teachers who have developed superior skill in teaching certain other subjects and other grades. Executive ability. The principal must have teach- ing ability plus executive ability. Those teachers who demonstrate organizing and administrative aptitude should seek promotion along the lines lead- ing to the executive positions. But teachers who lack this aptitude should not make the mistake of attempting administrative work. They should direct their efforts to preparing themselves for the teaching positions of the higher ranks, for the sake of their own happiness and the strength of the school system. 390 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL Executive ability has its intrinsic advantages, as we shall note, but there is, in addition, an inci- dental gain made by a principal who is a good executive. The average citizen has little upon which to base his judgment of the principal, whom he meets only on rare occasions. He has few op- portunities to estimate the principal's professional ability. He is, however, impressed with the fact, from his occasional dealings with the principal, either that he is a good " business " man or that he is a poor one. The impression thus gained is apt to be carried over by the citizen when he forms his judgment of the principal as a schoolmaster. Executive ability for the principal consists not alone of the generic ability which applies equally to the command of a regiment and to the superin- tendency of a factory. In addition, the principal must possess the specific ability to adapt general principles to the administration of a school. The executive in any office should possess (a) good working habits, (b) a, grasp of detail, (c) a sense of proportion, (d) system, (e) certain personal vir- tues. These will be considered in order, and in their special application to the work of the principal. a. Good working habits. The executive must THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 391 develop such habits as will dispose of his work in an orderly and regular manner. Chief among these habits are promptness, speed, and accuracy. Work must be done promptly because procrastination is the thief of time. 1 Work must be done rapidly in order that it may be adequate in amount. Work must be done accurately that it may not have to be done over again. The work of a hat factory is tangible and definite ; the aim is to turn out in a given time a maximum number of hats at a minimum expense. The work of a school is tangible only in part ; the aim is not, as many would have us believe, to turn out so many pupils in a given time at a minimum expense. It is rather, in a given time, to render to pupils a maximum service, at a proper expense. The ele- ment of time enters into the calculations of both factory and school. In either case it is a constant and measurable factor. But beyond this there is a decided difference between the two problems: hats may be counted and the ratio of hats to min- utes determined; but education and minutes are 1 Many cities refer specifically and effectively to promptness. Some of them provide a penalty of a cash forfeit or deferred pay- ment of salary for laxness in submitting reports. 392 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL incommensurable. That is to say, the hat maker, working with increased rapidity and accuracy, computes his gain in hats ; the principal, improving his habits of speed and accuracy, makes gains uncounted and unaccountable. There is a limit to the profit in the things called hats; there is no limit to the profit in the things of the spirit. The principal, therefore, among all executives, has the highest of motives impelling him to put forth effort in perfecting his working habits. To the develop- ment of his own habits he applies the same psychol- ogy as he uses with pupils in the mechanizing of their habits. b. A grasp of detail. The principal must have a good memory, together with a well-developed ability to forget. He must note, and recall when necessary, the whole gamut of minor matters, which, combined, constitute the life of his school. It is equally important, however, that these details should not depress him, or even impress him except in his marginal consciousness. So far as it is possible for him to do so, he will give over direct supervision of many details to subordinates. In such cases he will continue to exercise a certain oversight but it will be of such a nature as to reenforce the work of THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 393 his assistants and not hamper them by petty inter- ference. c. A sense of proportion. An elaboration of this theme might well lead us into the exploitation of a philosophy of life. A lack of a sense of proportion, whereby one attempts to repair a watch with a crowbar or to remove a mountain with an orange spoon, is all too common among people otherwise very estimable. It is a trait unfortunate in any walk of life and particularly disastrous in an execu- tive position. The principal whose chief concern is to ring electric bells, carry messages from room to room, or file reports that are models of the en- grosser's art, may be sincere, industrious, and, in a way, successful ; but he certainly is inefficient in any true estimate of intelligent supervision. In the large, two converse principles should con- trol the principal's administration : (1) never to do, himself, what some one else can do just as well as he, and (2) to concern himself mainly with those things which he alone can do, or which he can do better than others. He must do the im- portant things, even if many matters intrinsically serious but relatively unimportant have to wait or even have to be neglected entirely. If there 394 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL are not enough important things which he alone is fitted to do, then either he or his school is in a sad state. The practical application of these two principles leads immediately to a consideration of the fourth qualification. d. System. The principal's intention to do things proportionately can gain concrete expression only by the aid of systematic management. This sub- ject has already been referred to (p. 4), and has been exemplified at many points throughout the extended discussion of technical details. In saving himself for the important duties, the principal will put as much as possible of his routine work upon others. If a twelve-year-old girl is available who can push electric-bell buttons, if a ten-year-old boy can carry a message from room to room, if a teacher can file a statistical report, it is wasteful for the principal to put his energies into these directions. If he has supervisory or clerical assistants, it is comparatively easy for him to get relief from rou- tine. Without such assistants, he can yet secure relief by proving to his teachers that he can help them better if he is free from clerical and routine duties. He ought to be able to show any teacher that if she will volunteer to act as his clerical assist- THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 395 ant for, say, an hour a week outside her regular time, the help which he will thus be free to give her in her work will amply repay her. To perform the mechanical work of his school the principal must establish as perfect a machine as possible, not because he admires machinery as such, but because mechanization makes it possible for him to devote himself to the broader phases of his work. A machine is not always easy to build, but it should be easy to run. The school which requires the hand of the principal unceasingly on the helm is sailing too close to the wind. Occasional absence of the principal should not ripple the surface of the school life. To insure a stable equilibrium in the school organization the principal must understudy himself and his associates. On occasion, he will deliberately neglect certain duties which he ordinarily performs, making sure that they are properly attended to by some one else. Then when the principal is unex- pectedly off duty, the work of the school proceeds automatically. The principal in the classroom. Much of the time which the principal gains by systematic han- dling of routine he will spend in the classroom. In 396 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL fact, many school systems require a certain amount of teaching from the principal. 1 There are several reasons why he should get into the classroom and teach. We have already considered three, namely : (i) to evaluate the work of the teacher; (2) to discover the bright or exceptional pupils whom the teacher, through daily familiarity, is less apt to note ; (3) to give a " model " lesson. There are other reasons : (4) Class teaching enables the principal to main- tain his technical skill. Without continued practice he will cease to be an excellent teacher, which he should be to the end of his career. (5) It helps him to maintain sympathetic under- standing of the teacher and her problems. (6) It helps the pupils by introducing them to variety, and in some cases, superiority, and by increasing the feeling of personal friendship between principal and pupils. (7) It relieves the principal from the monotony of office work. In the first months in the supervisory position, he may welcome as a relief the change from 1 As, for example, New Haven : "They shall regularly give such personal instruction in the prescribed work of the school as may be required by the Superintendent, but in no case shall a principal teach less than five hours a week." — 184. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 397 classroom experience. As he continues in adminis- trative work, however, the office routine becomes tedious. It will be actually deadening unless offset by constant classroom association with teachers and pupils. e. Certain personal traits. The principal must possess certain attributes which depend chiefly upon innate personality. Yet if they are lacking they may be acquired, or if weakly present, may be materially strengthened. To begin with, the principal must possess those personal characteristics that distin- guish the excellent teacher. But the principal has to meet situations outside the range of the teacher's work ; he must solve problems which she does not face and deal with people to an extent that she is not called upon to do. Hence the principal has an even greater need than has she to exercise the par- ticular virtues of courtesy and courage. Courtesy. Courtesy, for the principal, must in- clude that true kindness which relieves official acts of the terrors of officialism. It also demands the equable temper which is unbroken by the severest strains, so that the principal's attitude toward pupils, teachers, and others shall be the same yester- day, to-day, and to-morrow. This attitude is at 398 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL once the cause and the effect of rational patience and true sympathy. Courage. Courage, the outward expression of an innate and basic integrity, operating positively through firmness and negatively through reserve, is a virtue constantly drawn upon by the principal. The principal's position is not usually regarded as one requiring anything akin to militant courage. Yet many times daily in a quiet way and occasionally under more dramatic circumstances the principal must choose between easy acquiescence and rigid determination. It is easy to let the refractory dis- cipline case slip along undecided; easy to refrain from correcting the pathetic, the argumentative, or the political teacher; easy to let the school board member have the unwarranted special privilege he demands. It requires courage to take prompt, decisive, and correct action in these matters. There are constantly recurring instances when the principal must choose between serving his school and serving his personal comfort and ambition. For the principal to use his school in such a way as to win favor with the " powers that be " is a cheap but too often effective method of securing official advancement. For the principal to remember first THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 399 and always that his oath of office is to his pupils is frequently to seal before him the doors of promotion. To do this deliberately calls for stalwart courage. 1 2. The principal's adjustment to his position. The principal will adjust himself to his principalship in either of two ways, according to whether he is appointed to organize a new school, or to succeed a competent principal in the management of an already established school. In the one case, he must pursue a policy of masterly activity ; in the other, a policy of artistic inactivity. Organizing a new school. To organize a new school demands painstaking planning and energetic execution. As much as possible of the organizing must be done before the pupils appear for admission : the selection of teachers, their assignment to grades and rooms and to duties outside the classrooms, the 1 Los Angeles puts itself on record, in its Circular of Information, thus: "All promotions as well as appointments shall be made upon the basis of merit to be ascertained by length and character of service and marked fitness for the work to be done. Education efficiency demands that school work be organized upon the basis of merit alone, and the employment of political, personal or social influence of any sort to secure advancement will be regarded as unprofessional and forbidden." In this connection, the Code of Ethics adopted by the Mis- sissippi State Teachers Association, 191 7, reprinted in Journal of Education, January 17, 1918, is of interest. 400 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL delivery of supplies, the outlining of at least the first few weeks of work, the promulgation of a few well- considered rules, etc. It is better to organize along all of these lines tentatively, even if many changes have to be made later, than to postpone planning until there is the added problem of actually having the pupils on hand. The principal will gain the respect and confidence of his teachers through his evident command of the many difficulties involved. Conscious of his mastery of the situation, they will follow his leadership willingly and loyally. His influence with the pupils will soon be felt, and the entire school will become an expression of his thought and his ideals. Succeeding another principal. Quite different is the problem of the principal who begins his work in a well-organized school as the successor of a respected principal. It will be a serious and far-reaching mistake for him to attempt to gain control by strenuous remodeling of the school to conform with his ideas. Teachers are fearful of change; if they have adjusted themselves to the methods, expecta- tions, and ideals of a principal whom they admire, they will react resentfully toward a rough and sudden overthrow of their accustomed routine. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 401 Whether or not the new regime is more able or more just, has little to do with it ; the mere fact of ruthless change will stir the teachers to a contra- riety that it will take years to overcome. Hence the principal must proceed cautiously. Even if the school, according to his judgment, has been woefully mismanaged by his predecessor, he must remember that it has pulled along for some time and that a few weeks more can make no great difference. The best course for the new principal to follow is to spend several weeks in patient but keen observa- tion of conditions. He will study appreciatively the good points of the organization, administer details as nearly as possible in accord with the methods of his predecessor, and, in general, try to convince the teachers that, after all, he is harmless. One after another of them will come to view him as conservative, will note his ability in the settlement of daily difficulties, will regard him as thoroughly competent, and will be eager to follow his leadership. Only when the teaching staff, in the main, has attained this confidence in the principal can he safely begin to reconstruct according to his own ideas. His subordinates will now carry out his instructions intelligently, enthusiastically, and helpfully. 2D 402 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL To the new principal, this looks like a program of delay. In following it he is inclined to chafe under the restraints it imposes upon his initiative. In reality it is a program which gains time immeasurably for the ultimate accomplishment of his purposes. His teachers with him at last, he can, in a week, successfully make transformations, install systems, and institute experiments, that it would take years of struggle to accomplish were his teachers in a state of passive indifference or studied opposition. 3. The principal's personal growth. The prin- cipal must not permit himself to remain at any one level, however high, but must consistently and con- scientiously study to refresh and replenish the sources of his own personality. His personal growth will take place along two main lines, professional development and general culture. Professional growth. It has all along been as- sumed that the principal is prepared for his work, although no preparation can ever be regarded as completed. He must recognize the defects in his original preparation and study to remedy them. The very exercise of his specific school duties in a spirit of honest endeavor will lead him to overcome THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 403 many of those defects, but he must not be content with this measure of correction. Education is science, and science is always advancing. The prin- cipal must keep pace with the progress in the science of education by systematic reading, study, and independent thinking. Education is art, and art is nourished by inspiration ; the principal must seek the companionship of his fellow-artists, through associations and visitation, and profit by their influence and the work of their hands. 1 General culture. The principal's professional competency must emerge from a background of general culture. He must be more than a scientist in education ; he must relate his science to the whole body of organized knowledge, becoming a thoughtful student of the science of sciences, which is philosophy. " To be an educator is not, then, to be a man merely conversant with the customs and conventionalities of the schoolroom. It is to be a man with a defen- sible social creed. . . . Unless we are courageous enough to work back to this firm ground, the phil- osophic idea, we can have no assured position on any question of human import, and surely nothing 1 Milwaukee allows a principal 'five days per year for the visita- tion of other schools ; New York, three days ; etc. 404 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL to say about education that will be at all worth saying." l The principal must be more than an artist in education ; he must relate his art to its fellow arts and crafts, so that he never ceases to be a man among men. The most serious reproach made of school men is that they are pedantic and provincial. The principal must study to avoid meriting this reproach. He can fulfill his " general " obligations to society only if he seeks and acquires the beneficent attrition which accompanies association with men of other arts, of other crafts, of other professions, with men of breadth, of balance, of energy, of purpose, and of accomplishment. 4. The principalship. " In almost every aspect, except that of salary, the principalship of a school is the most desirable of all educational positions, unless one desires to pursue in a professorship some par- ticular line of study." 2 Let us consider the main proposition of this statement, together with the two exceptions noted, beginning with the exceptions. Salary. The phrase " except that of salary " should be frankly considered by every one who con- 1 C. Hanford Henderson, Education and the Larger Life, p. 6. 2 Chancellor, Our Schools, p. 176. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 405 templates enlisting in the service of education. Financial advancement for elementary school teachers lies mainly along the line of promotion into the principalships. Positions of greater remunera- tion are relatively few. The real question for the teaching aspirant, therefore, is: Can I be satisfied with the salary of a principalship as the maximum financial reward? The salaries of principals vary greatly in different cities and towns, according to the local cost of living, size of school and con- sequent responsibility involved, and the standard of qualifications for the position. As compared with the financial returns in other vocations, preparation and qualifications considered, the average income of educators is undoubtedly considerably less than that of the other workers, except perhaps the ministers. To say that the average income of educators is about two thirds that of men of similar equipment in other vocations, is probably a fair statement. It is, however, an inadequate statement, in that the ambitious man is not willing to start out in life call- ing himself the " average " man. The chances, it is true, are all in favor of his turning out to be an average man, but he would fail to become even that 406 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL if he lacked the determination to excel the average. In most vocations he sees almost limitless opportu- nities for financial success. He may enter medicine and aspire to thousand-dollar fees; he may enter law and aspire to a fifty-thousand-dollar practice; he may enter business and aspire to untold wealth. There is nothing in the premises to make his aspira- tions impossible of fulfillment. If, however, he enters educational work the financial limit of his ambition must be a three- or four-thousand-dollar principalship or a ten-thousand- dollar superintendency or college chair or presidency. He cannot look forward to a twenty-thousand-dollar position, for the reason that there is none. It is quite evident that the young man eager for the chase of dollars will not pursue his quarry in the open fields of school teaching. If he lacks the sporting and speculative instinct and prefers a fairly assured and steady income, though a meager one, to the chance of unlimited wealth, then he may turn his attention to teaching. If he reaches a principalship in a city system, he will be fairly well paid, but not exactly paid. It may be of interest to inquire why the principal's pay is but moderate and why it is inexact. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 407 Salary moderate; State school monopoly. The organizing and administering ability of the thor- oughly competent principal of a large city school is not rated at its full commercial value because the principal is the subject of one of the greatest mo- nopolies of the world. The State has taken over the bulk of the schooling " business." If government kept its hands off entirely, as in the case of other businesses, there would be the same opportunity to " make money " as there is in those other vocations. For instance, were it not for this monopoly, an enterprising principal of a school of two thousand pupils, now paid, say, three thousand dollars, could capitalize his " plant," give better satisfaction to his " patrons " than he can give as the head of a public institution, return a liberal interest on the invest- ment, and earn for himself from ten to twenty thousand dollars. The qualifications that make the principal a good school manager would also, as a rule, make him a good administrator in commercial lines where the income is much greater; he is, however, outside these paths of competition. By the time he has reached an administrative position, he has spent too many years in technical training to be able to 408 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL get into active competition with executive men out- side his profession. Hence he is appraised, not at what he could have earned had he gone into the commercial field from the first, but at whatever sum he can wrest from a not over- willing board of alder- men or board of education or State legislature. Salary inexact; size of school system. The salary of a city principal is inexact both because of the State monopoly of education and because of the size of the city system. In a large organization salaries are necessarily fixed by schedules, and flat rates have to be made to cover a class. All the principals in a city organization may be paid two thousand dollars. In reality, one of them may be worth to the city ten thousand dollars, and another, something with a minus sign before it. Thus, in the evening-up process, the best principals are underpaid and the poor ones overpaid. Were the same men employed in a competitive system, or in a large corporation within which competition pre- vails, they would be rewarded more nearly in accord with their relative merits. The average citizen regards the teacher's annual salary as ample because he is prone to divide it by " working " hours, which makes the hourly pay THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 409 seem a respectable amount. His initial mistake is in comparing this amount, not with the fee of the physician or lawyer, but with the wage of the mechanic or day laborer. He overlooks the fact that good teaching is not a matter of " hours," and perhaps, too, the fact so important to the teacher, namely, that he has to live, at some expense, during all the hours of the year. The educator, when this critical estimate of his salary is made, is tempted to try to reduce his service to an hourly basis and to supplement his income by employing, for financial profit, the extra hours he is supposed to squander. But this is unsatisfactory from every standpoint. It results in a strain and a division of interest which must react unfavorably upon his school work. To relieve him from the temptation is one of the duties of salary-schedule makers, and is, after all, a strictly " business " proposition. It is evident, then, that the desirability of a principalship cannot wholly, if at all, depend upon its financial attractiveness. Having faced this un- feeling fact, let us next turn to the other " exception." Principalship and professorship. " Unless one desires to pursue in a professorship some particular line of study." Financially considered, the college 410 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL instructorship and the principalship are about at a parity. The maximum salary may be reached in fewer years in the case of the principalship and attainable salaries in the case of a few professorships exceed those* within reach of the principal. The factor of monetary reward may practically be elim- inated in comparing the two offices. What remains is chiefly the element of personal preference. The professor works more intensively, the principal works more extensively; the one works more logically, the other more pedagogically ; the one works nearer the ideal, the other works nearer the people ; each is peculiarly restricted and circumscribed, and each is peculiarly free. There is no disputing as to tastes ; and hence the choice between the two careers is a matter of personal coefficient. The main proposition of our quotation concerns the attractiveness of the principalship; and it is " the most desirable of all educational positions " on several counts. Principal's influence. " No other person in the school system can do so much good at first hand." ' The influence of the principal is extensive and yet direct. Within the limits of his school, he reaches 1 Dutton, School Management, p. 241. THE PRINCIPAL AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP 411 each and every teacher and pupil, and reflects him- self in them. His influence with the pupils is not so direct as that of the teacher, nor does it extend to so many pupils as does that of the superintendent; yet it is more satisfactorily direct than the super- intendent's, and more satisfactorily extensive than the teacher's. His influence extends, too, through his school, into a wide circle of community life. The opportunities for intelligent service to pupils, teachers, and the community are unlimited. Principal's rewards. The principalship yields, too, a more personal and, if you will, a more selfish satisfaction. The principal, presumably, is a stu- dent, with the instincts and habits and aspirations of the student ; there are few other vocational posi- tions wherein these instincts can be given freer rein, these habits better trained, and these aspirations more nearly satisfied. The conscientious and ob- servant principal will greatly appreciate the cultural value of his position. He touches life at many points and thus enjoys many privileges. He daily looks into the minds of hundreds of children and renews his own youth. He studies closely the personalities, inspiring in both their diversity and their unity, of many teachers. He conducts him- 412 THE MANAGEMENT OF A CITY SCHOOL self with loyalty and courtesy, yet without syco- phancy and deceit, in his dealings with officialdom. He exhibits, in his intercourse with the visitors to his office, the spirit of unaffected democracy which keeps acute his sensitiveness to the social solidarity. In short, the view of the school principal epitomizes the whole range of human experience, and the comprehension and sympathy of his insight are the measure of his own gain in true culture. APPENDIX QUESTIONS IN "SCHOOL MANAGEMENT" GIVEN IN VARIOUS CITIES IN EXAMINATIONS FOR LICENSE AS PRINCIPAL, SU- PERVISING PRINCIPAL, ETC. APPENDIX Questions in "School Management" Given in Vari- ous Cities in Examinations for License as Prin- cipal, Supervising Principal, etc. Newark December, 191 7 (Answer eight) 1. Show the advantages and the disadvantages of coeducation in the elementary school. 2. How far may students cooperate with the teachers in the discipline of the school ? 3. Show how the methods of instruction and the dis- cipline may be utilized in the formation of good habits. 4. What is meant by "training for efficiency"? Discuss fully the purpose and work of the schools with reference to efficiency. 5. Which is of greater importance in a teacher, knowl- edge of the subject matter or skill in teaching? Give reasons for your answer. 6. What can the school do in the way of vocational guidance of pupils who are not going to a higher institu- tion? 7. Discuss the means of maintaining the health of school children. 8. Discuss the question of the six-year elementary 4*5 416 APPENDIX and the six-year high school (the six and six plan), giving reasons for or against. 9. Show how history, physical training, manual train- ing, art, and sports may each be applied in teaching morals. 10. What is the purpose of school supervision ? Show the relation that should exist between supervisor and teacher. New Orleans August, 191 3 1. What are the principles and controlling facts that should guide in the making of an elementary course of study ? 2. What is meant by "the district the unit," "the township the unit," "the county the unit," in school administration? Which of these plans is in operation in Louisiana? Is it the best of the three? Reasons for your answer. 3. What are the characteristics of a good recitation exercise ? 4. Name and give the meaning of six of the more important elements which determine the efficiency of teachers. 5. What are the principal functions of a school prin- cipal? 6. What different types of schools are now found in the school system of our best cities? What has caused this multiplicity of schools ? APPENDIX 417 7. Discuss the "Grade Meeting of Teachers." In- clude in the discussion the following topics : What it is, need for, content of, how conducted. 8. One function of the school is to protect and pro- mote the health of the child. Give the duties of the teacher in this matter. 9. Describe what you consider to be the best method of determining the eligibility of a candidate to teach. 10. Discuss : "How to build up a good school spirit." New York September, 191 3 (Time- — ■ Three Hours) Years in Age School 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 3--.. 1 4.... 21 4 1 5--.. 3 24 42 17 3 1 1 6.... 2 36 45 21 4 7.... . . . . 8 24 30 6 1 8.... 8 19 15 3 2 9.... • • 3 10 4 .. 10. .. . 6 1 , The above chart represents the condition existing in the sixth-year classes of a certain system of schools. The course covers nine years, including a "connecting grade." 2 E 418 APPENDIX (a) What can you say of children represented by the figures (i) on the right-hand side of the vertical line? (2) below the heavy horizontal line? (3) in each of the four quarters ? (6) (b) What difference exists between "over-age'' and " retardation " ? Is a repeater necessarily a laggard ? (6) (c) What practical measures are indicated for the children in the lower right-hand quarter of the chart? (6) 2. Assume throughout a large school a very high per- centage of non-promotion from Grade iA in a given term. (a) Give some indication as to how to find the cause (i.e., the data you would collate, etc.). (8) (b) What, according to the best available data, are the probable causes ? (4) (c) Suggest remedies according to the several probable causes ? (4) 3. "Any scheme of pupil government requires the expense of a large amount of supervisory energy by prin- cipal and teachers ; the chief, if not the sole, practical income from such a scheme is a monitorial supervision of the school territory outside the classroom ; question, Does the income exceed the expense?" — Perry. Discuss this position. (12) 4. Give some account of the present movement toward measuring accurately the results of instruction by stand- ardized tests, describing and criticizing the Courtis and the Binet tests. (15) APPENDIX 419 5. "To develop control of the feelings and emotions is an important direction of will culture.' ' Outline the course of such development, indicating basal principles . (15) 6. Explain briefly the meaning of the following terms, and indicate their significance for the school principal (or assistant to principal). (20) (a) "Minus distance." (b) Scoliosis. (c) Physiological age. (d) Vocational adjustment. (e) Cretinism. New York September, 1913 (Assistant to Principal) (Time — Two and one-half hours) 1. "The amount of moral injury which results from constantly demanding less of children than they are capable of doing, and from keeping them on work that has grown stale to them, cannot be estimated." (a) Comment on this statement. (8) (b) Suggest practical measures designed to minimize the injury here referred to. (16) 2. "Penmanship in a certain school was assigned 15 minutes daily throughout the grades. The exercises were performed in a half-hearted, ineffective manner. . . . The pupils were then told that as soon as any one could write a plain, legible hand with fair rapidity, he would be 420 APPENDIX excused from further penmanship exercises. ... A similar plan was adopted in spelling. . . . Whenever the individual instead of the class was made the basis for promotion, the results were excellent." What is the principle here involved, and how far is it applicable? (10) 3. "The central point in moral education is the de- velopment of a sense of responsibility in pupils." (a) Discuss this position, mentioning other possible central points in moral education. (12) (b) Show how the sense of responsibility may be developed in school children. (12) 4. Formulate a series of directions intended to help young teachers who have trouble in keeping order. (16) 5. What "first-aid" measures should be employed in a case of fainting? (6) 6. " Children used to write with their sides toward the desk, the right arm wholly and the left partly supported by it." Criticize this position, and describe the correct position, giving reasons. (8) 7. Explain briefly the meaning of the following terms, and indicate their significance for an assistant to princi- pal: (12) (a) Chorea. (b) "The Group System." (c) Stigmata of degeneration. (d) The Binet tests. APPENDIX 421 New York July, 191 8 (Assistant to Principal) (Time — Three Hours) 1. Discuss the problem of grading under the following heads : (a) Statement of the problem and its conditions. (5) (b) Difficulties of the problem. (5) (c) Suggestions and experiments that have been made for its solution. (Describe briefly at least three plans.) (9) 2. Write on topic : "The model lesson, its functions, its limitations, and the proper method of conducting it and making use of it." (14) 3. (a) Specify four ways in which the ability to study may be developed in elementary school pupils. (8) (b) Give definite practical directions as to pupils for the study of each of four of the following assignments : (12) The chief physical features of South America. The causes of the Mexican war. Ten words in spelling, such as medicine, separate, con- trolling, vaguely, etc. A memory gem, e.g., " Breathes there the man with soul so dead," etc. The multiplication table of 7's. 4. Mention two specific sources of information of five of the following, to which teachers may be referred for intelligent study and appreciation : (10) 422 APPENDIX (a) Phonetics of the English language. (b) The Constitution of the United States. (c) The concept of numbers. (d) The kindergarten. (e) The teaching of defectives. (J) Elementary design (drawing). (g) Gymnastic games. 5. (a) Summarize the attempts that have been made to formulate standards and scales for the measurement of pupils' progress. (6) (b) Show the need and the value of such standards and scales. (6) (c) Describe some standard test or scale in number or composition and tell how properly to use it. (6) 6. Answer A or B. A. As for one or more teachers' conferences write a synopsis in two or three pages of a talk on the subject of punishments and rewards. (15) B. It has been suggested that the teaching in ele- mentary schools is weak in "thoroughness." Give your opinion, your reasons. Show in detail how a proper degree of " thoroughness' ' can be secured. (15) Philadelphia February 6, 191 8 (The time on this paper must not exceed three hours.) 1. The daily program. Tell what part the class teacher, the principal, and the superintendent's depart- ment should have in it. Defend the position you take. APPENDIX 423 2. The present war condition has seriously affected labor supplies and leadership. What can the city school organization do to meet these conditions? 3. In a school the enrollment is as follows : 8th Grade — 100 ; 7th Grade — 120 ; 6th Grade — 140 ; 5th Grade — 160 ; 4th Grade — 100 ; 3d Grade — 120 ; 2d Grade — 160 ; 1st Grade — 160. The teachers are the following : Misses A, B, C, D, — Excellent Misses E, F, G, H, I, J, K — Good Misses L, M, N, O, P — Untried — New Messrs. Q, R — Untried — New Misses S, T — Poor instructors Misses U, V — Poor disciplinarians Miss W — Poor health, should retire Show by a diagram how you would distribute the pupils amongst the teachers named, giving your reasons for the assignments you make. Los Angeles In Los Angeles no formal written examination for prin- cipalship is held. The candidate is judged on (1) his record in teaching or executive work or both ; (2) training and post-graduate study; and (3) oral examination. The examination counts one fifth. The candidate is given fifteen or twenty minutes to look over a question in Administration. He may make notes if he desires. Then he appears before the examiners and discusses the subject. 424 APPENDIX The following are sample questions used : i . Suggest one or two ways in which a principal should, without question, help his teachers in professional growth. Enlarge somewhat upon the method of pro- cedure as you see it. 2. How far should principals encourage teachers to express themselves frankly? Or, what limits, if any, should be put upon the freedom of teachers to say and do what they believe to be best in the classroom? Are there general principles that may be laid down for guidance in such matters ? 3. If teachers fail to see the relation of the several studies of the curriculum to actual life and are doing their work in a formal, dead fashion, suggest some ways by which such relation may be shown. Illustrate by spe- cific instances. 4. Some facts in every lesson are of more value than others. What suggestions could you offer teachers which would help them to determine the relative value of facts ? Illustrate by specific subjects. 5. In the care of buildings, it sometimes happens that conditions are unsatisfactory. The janitor seems willing, is apparently industrious, though he complains that there is too much to do for the amount of help employed. (a) In a building of twenty teachers, how would you proceed to learn whether it was a fact that the help was insufficient, other than by expression of the janitor's own statement ? (b) If you believed that the janitor were willing, but APPENDIX 425 not competent to deal with the situation, how would you help him to improve his methods ? 6. It is the business of a school Administrator to follow the directions of the Board of Education, or the sugges- tions and interpretations thereof, made by the Superin- tendent of Schools. This fact is never questioned, but in practice it frequently happens that such directions or suggestions are not followed, either because nothing is known of them, or they are misunderstood, or they are forgotten. (a) In order to obviate the possibility of disregarding such directions, what provisions would you make in the administration of your school ? (b) If, in your opinion, some order or suggestion was apparently contrary to the welfare of the children, or to the principles of common sense, how would you deal with the situation ? (Give illustration.) 7. It is generally admitted that one of the important administrative responsibilities of the principal is an intelligent and economical method of ordering, distribut- ing, and caring for supplies. Frequently some method of standardization is found valuable in doing these things. (a) What method of ordering supplies and determining their selection seems to you best? (b) Describe the method of distributing supplies to a school with twenty teachers. (c) What precaution would you take for the care and safety of supplies not immediately in the teacher's charge ? INDEX Accidents to pupils, 187. Administrative assistants, 148. headship, 77, 102. Admission of pupils, 230. Adolescence, 311. Adolescent girls, 225. Adviser teacher, 268. Allegiance, official, 69. Alumni, 347. Assembly, 154, 342. Assigning teachers, 91. Associations, alumni, 347. parents', 44. Athletics, 345. Attendance, 351. Authorities, principal and, 6, 69. Authority of teacher, 102. Average, 280. pupils, 236. Binet tests, 234. Biology and discipline, 311. Board, school, 70. Body strain, 216. Bright pupils, 236. Building, bureau, 73. keeping clean, 204. school, 153. Business executives, 72. Cambridge plan, 238. Care of supplies, 166. Case, discipline, 363. Certificate of merit, 126. Class in action, 136. Classroom, principal in, 395. regular, 155. standards, 269. work, 266. Clean building, 204. Clerical assistants, 147. Closed book list, 161. Colorless teacher, 101. Commendation, 125. Community council, 46. Complaints against principal, 80. Conduct and promotion, 258. Conference, parent and principal, 49- teachers, 108. Contagious disease, 214. Cooking room, 155. Cooperation, 34. Corporal punishment, 372. Correlation, 125. Correspondence, 53. Council, parent-teachers', 47. Counselor, principal as, 362. Courage, 398. Courtesy, 397. Criticism, no. Culture, principal's general, 403. Daily lesson plan, 113. time schedule, 118. Decoration, 174. Defects, mental, physical, 223. Departmental plan, 240. Detail, grasp of, 392. Disciplinarian, principal as, 331. teacher as, 320. 427 428 INDEX Discipline and dismissal, 188. a problem, 307. case, 363. general principles, 309. preventive measures, 349. specific aids, 328. cautions, 322. methods, 319. Disease, contagious, 214. Dismissal during session, 184. emergency, 195. Disputatious parent, 49. Duplicate school, 3. Duties, principal, 26. Education as a science, 18. Emergency, 86. dismissals, 195. Entrance of pupils, 193. Environment, school, 16. Equipment, material, 152. Errors, principal's, 27. Esprit de corps, 332. Examinations, 275. and promotion, 257. Exchange of teachers, 96. Executive ability, 389. Executives, business, 72. Exhibits, school, 38. Exit of pupils, 193. Ex parte judgment, 79, no. Expert, principal as, 17. Eyestrain, 217. Fatigue, 120. pathological, 218. Feeble-minded pupils, 235. Feeling training, 315. Fire-drill, 196. Flexible time schedule, 123. Forgeries, prevention of, 351. Form letters, 56, 128, 191, 192, 331, 339, 37i- Gardens, school, 348. General regulations, 107. relation, principal's, 9. Girls, adolescent, 225. Grading, 231. Graphs, 239, 282, 283. Grouping pupils, 233. Group punishment, 327. Growth and discipline, 314, 334. principal's personal, 402. Gymnasium, 155. Gymnastics, 208. Habit test, 284. Habits and ideals, 333. principal's working, 390. Headship, administrative, 77, 102. Health, department of, 214. Heating, 157, 206. Home study, 219. Home work, credit for, 253. Horizontal supervision, 148. Ideal teacher, 89. Ideals and habits, 333. Illness, dismissal, 186. Improper supervision, 81. Inattention, 270. Influence, 66. of principal, 410. Inspection, formal, 135. Instructing teachers, 104. Intellect training, 313. Intelligence, measure of, 233. Interpreting course of study, in. orders, 84. Interviews with parents, 59. Judgment test, 291. Kindergarten, 155. Knowing the teachers, 92. Lawyer and his profession, 12. INDEX 429 Leaving building, pupils, 182. room, pupils, 212. Legal authority, principal's, 318. obligations, principal's, 22. responsibility, discipline, principal's, 361. status, principal's, 25. Letters of recommendation, 338. Liberal education, 11. Limitations, principal's, 28. Loose construction, 84. Material equipment, 152. Measure of intelligence, 233. Median, 279. Meetings, parents*, 38. Memory test, 286. Mental defects, 223. Merit, reward of, 126. Messenger service, 190. Methods, uniform, 124. Mistakes, principal's, 27. Mode, 280. Model lessons, 129. Monopoly, State school, 407. Moral development, 307. Mothers' Clubs, 46. Motion pictures, 344. Neglectful teacher, 100. New school, organizing, 399. teacher, 94. Normal fatigue, 120. Obligations, principal's contractual, 21. general, 13. Open booklist, 161. Oral instructions, 108. Order, 324. Orders and suggestions, 105. < interpreting, 84. Organizations, alumni, 347. Organizations, parents', 44. pupils', 345. Organizing new school, 399. Painstaking teacher, 98. Parents and principal, 32. associations, 44. meetings, 38. Pathological fatigue, 120, 218. Patron, 33. Pediculosis capitis, 215. Personality, teachers', 91, 320. Physical care of pupils, 203. culture, 208. defects, 223. welfare of pupils, 181. Physician and his profession, n. Plan and progress records, 113. Plenum system, 159. Preventive measures, discipline, 349- Priest and his profession, 12. Principal and authorities, 6, 69. parents, 32. public, 32. teachers, 88. as counselor, 362. disciplinarian, 331. expert, 17. contractual obligations, 21. duties, 26. general obligations, 13. relation, 9. influence, 410. legal authority, 318. obligations, 22. responsibility, 361. status, 25. limitations, 28. mistakes, 27. personal growth, 402. relations to work, 8. rewards, 411. 43° INDEX Principal's rights, 26. salary, 404. special relation, 20. Principalship, 387, 404. Principles of discipline, 309. supervision, 76 Prizes, 324. Probation, 369. Professional growth, 402. Professions, 10. Professorship, 409. Promotion of pupils, 256. Proportion, sense of, 393. Psychology and discipline, 311. Publications, school, 346. Public control of schools, 8. principal and, 32. Punctuality, 358. Punishment, corporal, 372. Pupil organizations, 345. self-government, 379. Pupils, accident to, 187. admission of, 230. as messengers, 100. attendance of, 351. average, 236. bright, 236. discipline of, 307. dismissal of, 184. feeble-minded, 235. grading of, 231. grouping of, 233. leaving building, 182. room, 212. moral development, 307. physical care of, 203. welfare, 181. promotion of, 256. punctuality, 358. rating, 250. responsibility for, 181. scholastic progress, 230. suspension, 372, 377. testimony of, 55. Qualifications of principal, 387. Quality of pupils' work, 125. Questions, test, 292. Rating of pupils, 250. teachers, 133. Recesses, 209. Recommendation, letters of, 338. Records, discipline, 378. plan and progress, 113. promotion, 263. Red-tape, 5. Reducing grade of pupil, 262. Regulations, general, 107. Report cards, 251. Requisitioning supplies, 163. Responsibility, adult and child, 384. fixed, discipline, 350. for pupils, 181. Reward of merit, 126. Rewards, principal, 411. Rights, principal, 26. Sabbatical year, 96. Salary, principal, 404. Sarcasm, 326. Savings banks, school, 348. Schedule, daily time, 118. Scholastic progress of pupils, 230. School and State, 1, 50. board, 70. building, 153. duplicate, 3. environment, 16. exhibits, 38. gardens, 348. publications, 346. savings banks, 348. spirit, 332. "Schoolitis," 99. Science of education, 18. Scolding, 326. Securing teachers, 88. Selection of supplies, 162. INDEX 431 Self-government, pupil, 379. Self-seekers, 65. Sociology and discipline, 310. Special relation, principal's, 20. teachers, 146. Specific aids, discipline, 328. cautions, discipline, 322. methods, discipline, 319. Spirit, school, 332. Standards and tests, 273. classroom, 269. State and schools, 1, 50. school monopoly, 407. Strain, body, 216. eye, 217. Strict construction, 84. Study period, 272. Subdivision of work, 112. Substitute teachers, 141. Suggestions and orders, 105. Superintendent, 74. Supervision, horizontal and verti- cal, 148. improper, 81. principles of, 76. Supplies, 160. bureau, 73. Suspension, 372, 377. System, 4, 394. Teacher, administrative headship, 102. as disciplinarian, 320. assigning, 91. ideal, 88. new, 94. Teachers, conference, 108. inspection of, 135. Teachers, instructing, 104. principal and, 88. rating, 133. securing, 88. special, 146. substitute, 141. three kinds, 98. visiting schools, 96. Teaching as a profession, 12. Testimony, pupils', 55. Test questions, 293. Tests and standards, 273. Binet, 234. Textbooks, 161, 273. Threatening, 326. Time-lost book, 214. Trial promotion, 261. Truancy, 354. Uniform methods, 124. Unreasonable parent, 62. Vacuum system, 159. Vandalism, 156. Ventilation, 159, 206. Vertical supervision, 149. Visitation by parents, 36. Visiting schools, teachers, 96. Visitors to school, 63. Water hammer, 207. Weariness, 120. Weighted average, 280. Will training, 317. Work, 271. Workshop, 155. Written instructions to teachers, 106. INDEX OF NAMES QUOTED OR CITED Adler, Felix, 315, 320. Albany, 162, 354. Alderman, L. R., 46, 96, 253. Atlanta, 378. Averill, Lawrence A., 344. Bagley, William C, 269, 287, 338, 364. Balliet, Dean, 314. Baltimore, 182, 185, 190, 210, 265, 329, 342. Bancroft, Jessie H., 217. Barnes, Earl, 77. Barnum, Charlotte E., 114. Barry, W. E., 153. Berkey, J. M., 46. Blaish, Lydia, 44. Blake, Katherine D., 336. Boston, 77, 345. Briggs, W. F., 153. Brinton, Willard C, 282. Brooklyn, 362. Brooklyn Model School, 41. Bruce, W. G., 153. Burrage-Bailey, 153, 176, 214. Butler, Nicholas M., 19. Byrne, Mary B. C, 114. Chancellor, William E., 55, 71, 74, 404. Chapman-Rush, 277. Chicago, 74, 96. Cincinnati, 259. Cleveland, 74, 95, 109, 182, 210, 213, 215, 329, 337- Cole, Carlos M., 100, 144. Collins, Frank H., 176. Cort, Ambrose, 346. Crane, Frank, 221. Crosby, Katherine K., 100. Cubberley, Ellwood P., 238, 276. 2F 433 Davidson, Percy E., 387. Davidson, William M., 237. Dayton, 171, 360. Detroit, 36, 90, 96, 198, 377. D'Orge, Jeanne, 226. Dresslar, Fletcher B., 153, 159, 208, 219, 223, 271. Dutton, Samuel T., 77, 410. Ellis-Kuehne, 153. Fichthandler, Alexander, 141. Freeport, 36. Gidinghagen, Walter, 294. Gilbreth, F. D. and L. M., 218. Goldrich, Leon W., 248. Goldwasser, L. E., 164. Grand Rapids, 235. Hall-Quest, A. L., 220. Harris, John F., 328. Heck, William H., 219. Hein, Henry, 254. Henderson, C. Hanford, 404. Holmes, Oliver W., 315. Holtz, Frederick L., 349. Horn, P. W., 276. Indianapolis, 61, 78, 201, 327, 354, 362. Jersey City, 166, 208. Jones, Mabel F., 297. Kansas City, 51, 348, 353. Kilpatrick, Van Evrie, 348. King, Henry, 40. King, Irving, 46, 333, 381. King, Willford I., 279. Kipling, 92. 434 INDEX Kottman, William A., 192. Lee, Gerald S., 10. Lister-Myers, 278. Los Angeles, 399, 423. Louisville, 36, 60, 63, 185, 327, 358, 381. Luqueer, Frederic L., 323. Mandell, Edward, 175. Maxwell, William H., 380. McCarty, William P., 183. McCloskey, Margaret, 269. McMurry, Charles A., 320, 322. McMurry, Frank M., 94. Memmott, Frederick W., 126. Mills, W. T., 153. Milwaukee, 403. Minneapolis, 47, 49, 64, 65, 173, 206, 346, 348- Mississippi, 399. Monroe-DeVoss-Kelly, 277, 279, 285, 302. Moore, J. A., 153. Newark, 415. New Haven, 22, 78, 108, 173, 185, 187, 344- New Orleans, 37, 50, 108, 138, 186, 187, 240, 416. New York, 28, 74, 78, 96, 97, 134, 138, 210, 221, 224, 235, 278, 329, 343, 357, 381, 403, 417. Oakland, 97, 235. Omaha, 54, 203. Parker, F. W., 79. Paterson, 171, 329. Paton, J. L., 368. Perkins, Frank K., 52. Philadelphia, 74, 116, 215, 235, 255, 372, 422. Philips, H. S., 41. Pittsburgh, 46, 237. Portland, Ore., 46, 65, 92, 96, 118, 141, 276, 351, 353- Price, Gertrude A., 293. Providence, 235, 373. Purinton, Estelle, 44. Rabenort, William, 58, 114. Rainey, William M., 261. Rice, Anna L., 40. Richmond, 89, 136, 174. Robinson, L. A., 219. Rochester, 96, 97, 198, 329, 353. Roncovieri, Supt., 81. Rowe, Stuart H., 153. Rugg, Harold O., 279. Sacramento, 220. St. Louis, 74, 85, 166, 173, 208, 370. San Francisco, 59, 74, 80, 92, no, 198, 210, 270, 319, 329, 354. Savage, R. R., 39. Schurman, J. G., 78. Seattle, 53, 64, 65, 74, 83, 173, 327, 329, 374- Shallow, Edward B., 348. Shaw, Edward R., 153, 163, 214. Shawen, Ernest, 40. Smith, Walter B., 223. Smith, Walter R., 325. Spaulding, Frank B., 238, 251. Spokane, 188, 374. Springfield, Mass., 48. Starch, Daniel, 278. Stevens, Frank B., 239. Strahan, Margaret, 296. Strayer-Thorndike, 236. Syracuse, 153, 157, 220, 259, 324, 351. Terman, Lewis M., 223, 234, 235. Thorndike, Edward L., 273, 280. Underwood, F. M., 39. Van Dyke, Dr., 356. Van Wagenen, Kate, 106. Virginia, 22. Walker, Francis, 214. Walsemann, Mary, 179. Wheelwright, E. M., 153. Woods, Elizabeth L., 237. Worcester, 121, 205, 252, 381. Yerkes-Bridges-Hardwick, 234. Yerkes, Helen K., 43. Printed in the United States of America. HP HE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. Outlines of School Administration By ARTHUR C. PERRY, Jr., Ph.D. Author of " The Management of a City School " Cloth, i2tno, viii + 452 pages, $1.40 This is a necessary book for the intelligent teacher or student of school affairs. It may be called a comparative anatomy of present-day educa- tion, for while it exploits no theories it gives in clear statement the results of the observations of a broad-minded, truth-seeking, candid observer. These observations are not limited to America, but include the leading nations of Europe and South America as well. Dr. Perry's aim is to show exactly how educational forces are organized in the leading countries of the world to-day. There are here present carefully gathered facts, statisti- cal and otherwise, which are found in no other single volume. Though encyclopedic in character, this book is not large in volume. Altogether it is an indispensable handbook for the educational student. The Work of the Teacher By SHELDON EMMOR DAVIS, Ph.D. Director of Department of Education, State Normal School Maryville, Missouri In preparation This book is for the training of teachers or their improvement while in service. It is the result of a wide acquaintance with schools, teachers, and the immediate problems encountered by most of those who teach. Abundant new illustrative material chosen from class and school situations gives it a human touch without in the least sacrificing educational princi- ples. A special feature of the book is the comprehensive problem-ques- tion exercises attached to each chapter, and the entire book is so organ- ized as to render it teachable. It should prove an acceptable textbook for use in teacher-training schools, Normal schools, and other institutions which train teachers. For reading-circle use it provides excellent material for discussion and a great amount of practical work to be carried on in connection with the teacher's schoolroom activity. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue Hew York The Textbook, How To Use and Judge It By ALFRED L. HALL-QUEST Professor of Secondary Education and Director of School Affiliation University of Cincinnati Cloth, i2mo, xiv + 265 pages, $1.40 The textbook is peculiarly an American agency of Education. While its use needs to be modified, it cannot be wholly dispensed with. For this reason it is important to know how textbooks should be organized and how selected. This volume furnishes a complete and thorough analysis of good textbook-making as found in a long, selected list, covering practically the entire program of studies in the public schools. Tables of recent analyses of contents in Science and History are included. It is a volume for teachers and school administrators. Written in sim- ple, untechnical language, and having comprehensive bibliographies and practical questions at the end of each chapter, it is excellent material for reading circles, Normal schools, and Colleges of Education. Supervised Study By ALFRED L. HALL-QUEST Cloth, i2tno, xvii + 433 pages, $1.25 " Supervised Study " is the only book on this subject. It is a discussion of the technic of supervised study written for teachers in service. It is a clear, practical, and inspiring manual, and to some extent a source book on this fundamental method of teaching. It has been widely used throughout the country. By reading it scores of principals have been per- suaded to adopt supervised study as the controlling method of teaching in their schools. It is a system of study adaptable to any course in the curriculum. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Supervised Study in American History By MABEL E. SIMPSON Principal of James Whitcomb Riley Grammar School. Formerly in charge of Supervised Study in the Washington Junior High School, Rochester, New York. Edited by Professor Alfred L. Hall-Quest in the Supervised Study Series Cloth, i2tno, xiv + 278 pages, $1.20 This is a detailed outline of suggestive lessons touching upon many of the great questions in American History. Each one of the model lessons shows a careful organization of social matter and a detailed description of methods of procedure in applying the principles of education to the " New Administrative Vision." Topical outlines, and the various devices that can be used successfully in classroom practice are here presented. The volume provides for the teacher and supervisor of history the directions necessary for the effective supervision and teaching of history in the elementary grades. Schools with a Perfect Score By GEORGE W. GERWIG, Ph.D. Secretary, the Board of Education, Pittsburgh, Penn. Cloth, i2tno, xi + IQ4 pages, $1.10 Here is a setting forth of the ideals of the American public for its schools and its young people. The American public school, as the best loved of the institutions of democracy, is also the most effective agent in existence for human betterment. With this thought in mind, the author interprets the ideals of educators and thinking men and women as they apply to the betterment of our country through its school system, and makes excellent suggestions for carrying out these ideals of democracy. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Recreation for Teachers By HENRY S. CURTIS, Ph.D. Author of " Education Through Play," " The Practical Conduct of Play," etc. The Home and School Series. Edited by Paul Monroe Cloth, i2ino, xi + 288 Pages, $1.60 In his practical treatment of the importance of play to our American teachers, Dr. Curtis is of the opinion that play has been considered a vital factor in winning this war. He points out that with the teachers rests the problem of remedying the general physical unfitness that has been brought to light by the selection of men for our army. By developing an enthusiasm for recreation our teachers not only will benefit the students but will be furnished a relief from the monotony and strain of teaching, thereby making themselves more success- ful as individuals and members of society. The Psychology of Childhood By Naomi Norsworthy, Ph.D. Formerly Associate Professor of Educational Psychology Teachers College, Columbia University and MARY T. WHITLEY, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University Brief Course Series in Education. Edited by Paul Monroe Cloth, i2tno, ix + 375 pages, $1.60 A Normal school instructor looking for a text to use in the Child Study course will find in this book an organization of material presenting a parallel to a psychology written from the functional viewpoint. Though in some in- stances suggestions for teaching are made, yet the greatest space is devoted to a descriptive study of children as differentiated from adults. Besides the value of this treatment, and to the end that the book may be used as a textbook, the student is led to make practical acquaintance with the facts described by means of exercises, problems for discussion, observation, and field work. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. AUG APR 4 1932 50m-7,'27 YB 44597 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY H muuU iiiHi'SHjhHiHiiijf !}J?{j{«mi{j rim