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THE 
 
 FAULTS OF SPEEGtj::-..; 
 
 A Self-Corrector ••.• A :.. : :* *•. 
 
 AND 
 
 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL 
 
 SIXTH' EDITION 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 THE VOLTA BUREAU, 1601 35TH ST. N. W. 
 
 1916 
 

 Copyright, 1898, by 
 THE VOLTA BUREAU 
 
AlyRXANDER MELVII.LK BEUv, F.E.I.S.. F.R S.S A., F.A.A.A.S. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 HIS little work supplies a want of which 
 I have been frequently reminded dur- 
 ing my professional career. In revising the 
 ''Principles of Speech and Vocal Physiology", 
 for a new edition in 1863, a section of the 
 book was devoted to the "Cure of Stammer- 
 ing;" and in another section — the ''Diction- 
 ary^ of Sounds" — reference was made under 
 each consonant to the defects to which the 
 element was subject : but a complete separate 
 treatise on the Faults of Speech has not 
 hitherto been pubUshed. 
 
 I am glad to be able still, to add to my 
 professional publications one which, I hope 
 and believe, will prove not the least useful of 
 the whole. A. M. B. 
 
 TuTELO Heights, 
 Brantford, Ont., April, 1880. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Ele^ientaky Sounds 1 
 
 Corrective Training . 
 
 Organic Defects . . . , 
 Impediments of Speech 
 
 Nervousness . . . . , 
 
 Stammering a Habit . 
 
 Systems of Cure . . . , 
 
 Self-effort Necessary 
 
 Temporary Relief ... 
 The Cure of Sta:mmering 
 
 The Breath. — Atmospheric Pressure ; Air 
 Channels ; Inspiration and Expira- 
 tion 
 
 The Voice. — Exercise, Continuity of 
 Voice; How to learn Elementary 
 Sounds ; Difficult Elements 
 
 Organic Regulation. — The Mouth; The 
 Jaw; The Head; Spasmodic Ac- 
 tions .... 
 
 Self-Observation 27 
 
 Capricious Difficulties .... 28 
 
 Aggravants of Difficulty . . . .20 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 17 
 
 17-18 
 
 19-23 
 
 24-26 
 
 672799 
 
vi CONTENTS, 
 
 Minor Faults 30 
 
 Nasalizing 30 
 
 The Aspirate 32 
 
 Vocal Consonants 33 
 
 Thickness of Speech 34 
 
 Oratorical Faults 35 
 
 Conversational Slurring . . . .35 
 
 Sustained Voice 36 
 
 Mai-Respiration 38 
 
 Organic Substitutions 40 
 
 Postscript 61 
 
 Appendix .67 
 
THE FAULTS OF SPfefiCH. 
 
 ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 
 
 HE processes of speech are mechanical, 
 but they are intimately associated with 
 mental operations. Sometimes the mechanical 
 processes are mismanaged, and sometimes the 
 intellectual associations are imperfect. In the 
 latter case, expression is tardy or inexact ; in 
 the former, utterance is interrupted or vitiated. 
 The two kinds of defect may be combined, or 
 either ma}' exist separatel}'. Stammering, 
 stuttering, etc. are, for the most part, mechan- 
 ical defects; drawling, hemming, and — uh — 
 uh — hesitation are, in great measure, faults of 
 the intellect. The observations in this work 
 will have reference to failures in the mechan- 
 ical execution of speech. 
 
2 rilE FAULTS OF SFEECIL 
 
 The fact that "everybody speaks/' and 3'et 
 npt one person in a thousand knows how he 
 spf^^k^; and that children talk the language 
 oOf their nurses — be it English, French, Ger- 
 .maDjc Italian, Indian, Patois, or whatever else 
 — proves that language is normally acquired 
 by imitation. A child imitates with more or 
 less accuracy the general effect of the sounds 
 it hears ; but, in doing so, makes many sub- 
 stitutions of easier for more difficult actions 
 of the organs of speech. The lips and the 
 forepart of the tongue are the first of the ar- 
 ticulating organs to be brought into use ; and 
 "tum," "tat" and "tate" in most cases sat- 
 isfy the child's apprehension of the words 
 "come," "cat" and "cake." The action of 
 the back of the tongue is often not acquired 
 for years. Infantile defects are niiwisely en- 
 couraged by parents, who — with the requisite 
 knowledge — might enable their children to 
 pronounce correctly' as soon as they begin to 
 prattle at all. There can be no doubt that 
 the most serious blemishes and impediments 
 arise from parental neglect — or rather ignor- 
 ance — in this respect. When a child says 
 "turn" for "come," and "tin" for "king," 
 
ELEMENTABY SOUNDS. 3 
 
 ^he correct articulation will be induced almost 
 at the first trial b}' the simple expedient of 
 holding down the forepart of the tongue with 
 the finger. The effort to imitate the general 
 eflTect will then force the back of the tongue 
 into action ; and in a few da^^s at most, the 
 <;hild will, without any assistance, form ^', g 
 and ng where before it could only utter ^ d 
 and n. 
 
 The "shut" consonants. (p, t, k, b, d, g) are 
 the most easily acquired, and children conse- 
 quently pronounce p instead of the more dif- 
 ficult /, and t instead of tli, A few minutes 
 devoted to amusing exercise will conquer this 
 difficulty. Thus: tell the child to bite his 
 lower lip, and blow, and he will form a tol- 
 erable / at once ; or to bite his tongue, and 
 blow, and a passable th will be the result. 
 The sounds of s and sh are often for a long 
 time confounded ; also those of s and th. The 
 sound of s will be obtained from th by drawing 
 back — or, if assistance is needed, b}^ push- 
 ing back — the tip of the tongue till it is free 
 from the teeth. The teeth require to be very 
 close for s, but there will be room to insert 
 the edge of a paper-cutter to play the tongue 
 
4 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 into position. The sound of sh will be ob- 
 tained from s by drawing — or pushing — back 
 the body of the tongue till it is free from the 
 gum. The sibilation of sh is formed between 
 the middle of the tongue and the palate, modi 
 tied by a degree of elevation of the point oi' 
 the tongue also : that of s is formed between 
 the point of the tongue and the upper gum, 
 modified by a degree of convexity of the mid- 
 dle of the tongue : and that of th is formed 
 between the tip of the tongue and the upper 
 teeth, with the edges of the tongue flattened 
 against the side teetn to obstruct the breath 
 at all points but the tip. 
 
 The sounds of I and r are generally the last 
 to be mastered by a child. The I resembles 
 th in having the point of the tongue in con- 
 tact (preferably with the gum) , but the sides 
 of the tongue, instead of being flattened 
 against the teeth, are free from lateral con- 
 tact, so that the breath passes over the sides, 
 B resembles s in having the point of the 
 tongue raised to the upper gum, but the mid- 
 dle of the tongue, instead of being convex, 
 is depressed so that the breath strikes sharply 
 on the free tip of the tongue. The sound of 
 
CORBECTIVE TBAINING. 
 
 y resembles sh in .Uaving the middle of the 
 tongue arched tovrards the palate, but without 
 the elevation of the forepart of the tongue, 
 which is a necessarj- part of the modification 
 of sh. 
 
 Corrective Training, 
 
 A VERY little attention on the part of par- 
 ents would secure their children against artic- 
 ulative blemishes which otherwise disfigure 
 them for life ; and which are often the first 
 causes of the most painful impediments. In- 
 stead of being satisfied with the child's im- 
 perfect imitation of the general effect of 
 concrete utterances in words and sentences, 
 parents should require an exact reproduction 
 — however slowl}- — of s^'llables, and, if ncc- 
 cssarj^, of elementar}^ sounds. This of course 
 implies that parents can themselves analyze 
 their utterance into syllables and elements. 
 Few persons can do so with entire accuracy : 
 but the attempt, though imperfect, will put 
 the child in the right way to correct himself. 
 
 Some children manifest a degree of inapti- 
 tude for speech, probably from defective im- 
 itation, or it may be from intellectual dulness ; 
 
6 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 SO that a child of three or four years of age- 
 will be no farther advanced than an average 
 child of two or three. The faculty of imita- 
 tion becomes almost inoperative after the earli- 
 est years, and special care should be given in 
 such cases to estabhsh a habit of distinct 
 elementary and s^^llabic utterance so far aa 
 ability extends, and to prevent the formation 
 of a habit of defect. It is certainlj^ true that 
 a child who fails to pronounce the whole of a 
 word can be made to reproduce its syllables, 
 or its elements, one by one ; and as the long- 
 est utterance is made up of sj'llables, these 
 onl}' should be required of the learner. Fac- 
 ility of combination will infaUibly come with 
 practice, if patience and skill are displayed to 
 regulate the analytic utterance of the back- 
 ward child. 
 
 There is then no justification for allowing 
 lisping, burring, lallation and other elementary 
 defects to become fixed into habits. True, 
 the}' be corrected at an}^ time, with but little 
 trouble ; yet "prevention is better than cure," 
 and such elementary disfigurements of aduli. 
 speech ought to have been rendered impossible 
 by attention in the nursery and school-room.. 
 
OBGANIC DEFECTS. 7 
 
 Organic Defects. 
 
 Organic causes of diflSculty sometimes pre- 
 fcjent themselves. When the formation of the 
 jaws is such that the teeth cannot be brought 
 evenly in line, the sibilant sounds s and z will 
 be defective ; when the tongue is too closel}' 
 tied to the lower jaw, the sounds of ^, d, n, I 
 and r will be wanting in clearness. The den- 
 tist may do much to rectify the former mal- 
 formation ; and the surgeon, by the simple 
 operation of snipping the frsenum that binds 
 the tongue, may give the requisite freedom in 
 the latter case. 
 
 A more serious organic cause of defective 
 speech is cleft palate, when an opening exists . 
 between the mouth and the nasal passage. 
 The breath, which requires to be shut within 
 the mouth for p-b, t-d, Jc-g, escapes by the 
 nose, and a percussive articulation is impossi- 
 ble. In most cases a skilful dentist can cover 
 the fissure in the palate b}^ a suction-plate, 
 and the power of clear enunciation may thus 
 be obtained. Clefb palate causes all vowels 
 to be nasalized ; but frequently the fault of 
 nasalizing vowels is merely habitual, witliout 
 
8 
 
 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH, 
 
 any organic cause. As with the mechanism 
 of consonants, so with that of vowels : habits 
 of mal-pronunciation may be prevented more 
 easilj' than rectified ; and among other imper- 
 fections, that of nasalizing is perfectly suscep- 
 tible of preventive or corrective training. 
 
IMPEDIMENTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 ilAR more serious than any of the ele- 
 mentar}' defects hitherto noticed are 
 those affections of speech which create an ira- 
 : pediment to utterance. These are known by 
 the names of stuttering, stammering, spas- 
 modic hesitation, etc. Tiieir common charac- 
 teristic is invohmtar}^ action of the organs, 
 ivhich are not obedient to the will. In stut^' 
 tering, the articulating organs — the lips and 
 tongue — rebound again and again before the 
 sequent vowel can find egress. The mouth 
 opens and shuts in vain effort to act on the 
 throat ; and the throat opens and shuts in vain 
 effort to act on the diaphnigm. From the 
 rocking head to the fluttering chest there is a 
 general want of precision in the attempt to 
 articulate. In stammering, the breathing is 
 entirely deranged — the normal actions of the 
 schestand diaphragm are reversed — the breath 
 
 9 
 
10 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH, 
 
 is inspired in the attempt to speak ; the throat 
 is shut in the attempt to form sound ; the voice 
 is fitfully ejected or restrained ; and the ai-ticu- 
 lating organs when they meet remain insepar- 
 able, as if glued together. In spasmodic 
 hesitation there is a futile straining, often 
 silent and choking, but occasionally frightfully 
 demonstrative. The eyeballs protrude, the 
 veins of the neck start out, the face is suf- 
 fused and contorted, and the muscles of the 
 whole body are spasmodicall}- affected. 
 
 No sharp line of demarcation can be drawn 
 between these varieties of impediment. Loose 
 stuttering is apt to pass into compressive 
 stammering from the dread of ridicule in- 
 spired by consciousness of peculiarity ; and 
 the worst features of spasmodic diflSculty may 
 supervene, from the increase of sensitiveness 
 and the bitterness of disappointed effort . 
 
 Nervousness. 
 
 Notwithstanding the manifest nervousness 
 of the majority of stammerers, they are rai'ely- 
 persons of weak nerves under ordinary cir- 
 cumstances. Their nervousness is associated 
 only with speaking, and it is much more likely 
 
STAMMEBING A HABIT. M 
 
 po have arisen as a consequence of impedi- 
 ' ment, than to have been — as many imagine — 
 a cause of the malady. The true cause prob- ^^ 
 ably lies far back in childhood, when some 
 slight imperfection has been harshly corrected 
 or mocked ; or when weakness of the system ^ 
 after illness has made the child peculiarly sen- 
 sitive under ordinary difficulties. The slight- 
 est beginning at that period may lead on ta 
 the most, aggravated form of impediment. 
 I Even a casual example may exite imitation at 
 \the time when that faculty is the strongest in 
 Our nature, and so enslave the little mimic. 
 Many isolated cases are believed to have had 
 no other than this simple origin. 
 
 Stammering a Habit, 
 
 The frequent occurrence of stammering 
 among members of the same family has led 
 many persons to imagine that the affection 
 was transmitted hereditarily, and that conse 
 quently it was an incurable affliction of the 
 constitution. But there is no ground for such 
 a supposition, opposed as it is to the manifest 
 nature of the impediment — pertaining only to 
 speech, which is altogether artificial and na 
 
12 THE FAULT 8 OF SPEECH. 
 
 part of our physical endowment. A full con- 
 sideration of the subject and a wide experi- 
 ence with all varieties of the impediment lead 
 to the settled conviction that stammerino^ is 
 ^a habit onlj- — the formation of which may be 
 entirely prevented b}^ precautionar}' training 
 in childhood; the growth of which may be 
 easily checked before it is aggravated by the 
 excitements of school ; and the uprooting of 
 which ma}' be accomplished at any stage by 
 intelligent care and perseverance* 
 
 Systems of Cure. 
 
 The stammerer's difficulty is : where to turn 
 for effective assistance. Certainly not to any 
 pretender who veils his method in convenient 
 secrec}', nor to an}' who profess to ' ' charm " 
 away the impediment — or to effect a cure in 
 a single lesson ! Not to an}^ whose "system" 
 involves drawling, singing, sniffing, whistling, 
 stamping, beating time — all of which expedi- 
 ents have constituted the "curative" means 
 of various charlatans ; nor to any who bridle 
 the mouth with mechanical appliances — forks 
 on the tongue, tubes between the lips, bands 
 •over the larynx, pebbles in the mouth, etc., 
 
SELF' EFFORT NECESSARY. 13^ 
 
 etc. The habit of stammering can only be 
 counteracted b}' the cultivation of a habit of < 
 correct speaking founded on the application 
 of natural principles. Respecting these there 
 is no myster}^ except what arises from the little 
 attention that has been paid to the science of 
 speech. 
 
 Instruction must be sought from teachers^ 
 whose professional position is a guarantee 
 against deception. If no encouragement were 
 given by too credulous stammerers to the craft, 
 of unqualified ''professors," respectable teach- 
 ers would prepare themselves by special study 
 for this important department of work, and. 
 the stammerer's perplexity to find trustworthy 
 skill would be at an end. 
 
 Self-effort Necessary, 
 
 But with the best assistance the stammerer 
 must work out his own ciu-e. He cannot be ^ 
 passive in the matter. He must clearh' ap-^ 
 prehend the principles on which he is to pro- 
 ceed, and diligently appl}^ them. Nor must 
 he, in this, depend too much on the watchful- 
 ness of his instructor, but must learn to watch^ 
 over himself. His perfect release from the 
 
14 Tin: FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 habit will require time, patience, and hopeful |— 
 energetic effort. 
 
 Temporary Belief, 
 
 Immediatju temporar}' relief from the chok- 
 ing and spasmodic contortions of the impedi- 
 ment is generall}' obtained when the art of 
 > managing the breath is acquired — and this is 
 often in a single lesson. The stammerer is 
 apt to be unduly elated at this stage, and to 
 relax his watchfulness. A relapse is almo! 
 certain to be the consequence. Besides, other 
 functional difficulties will present themselves, 
 €ach of which must be encountered in a cour- 
 ageous spirit, and mastered separatel3\ 
 
 The following practical directions are de- 
 signed for the use of stammerers who may 
 attempt their own cure, as well as for the 
 guidance of parents, governesses and school 
 teachers. 
 
 .Sji_l 
 
 er I 
 
PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 CUEE OF STAMMERING 
 
 MINOR DEFECTS. 
 
THE CURE OF STAMAIERING. 
 
 The Breath, — Atmospheric Pressure, 
 
 N normal breathing the lungs are filled 
 by atmospheric pressure, to the extent 
 •of the cavity within the chest. There is no 
 suction — no effort. In deep breathing, as be- 
 fore a sigh, the inspiration is equally easy and 
 unlabored. The cavity within the chest is in- 
 creased by descent of the diaphragm — the 
 muscular base of the chest — as well as by 
 expansion of the bony framework — the ribs, 
 etc. — but atmospheric pressure fills out the 
 lungs to occupy the entire space created within 
 the chest. 
 
 Air Channels, 
 
 The external apertures for the entrance of 
 -ihe air are the mouth and nostrils. Both these 
 f)assages meet behind the mouth, in the puar- 
 fnx ; and the pharynx communicates with the 
 
 17 
 
18 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH, 
 
 windpipe. At the top of the windpipe, be- 
 tween it and the pharj^nx, is the organ of 
 Voice — the laiynx — through which all air 
 entering the kings, and all breath leaving 
 them, must pass. Tn order to make inspiration 
 silent and effortless there must be no obstruc- 
 tion or constriction in an}^ part of the passage. 
 Stammerers attempt to "draw" in air while 
 the aperture of the lar^^nx is either closed or 
 greatly narrowed, and even while the mouth- 
 passage is similarly obstructed by positions of 
 the tongue. The first point to be impressed 
 on the stammerer's mind, then, is that the 
 lungs j^ZZ themselves — that no effort of suction 
 is required ; but that if he merely raise the 
 chest, with the passage to the windpipe open, 
 he cannot prevent the lungs from filling . 
 
 Inspiration and Expiration, 
 
 Next, considering that air entering the 
 lungs and breath escaping from them must 
 pass through the same channel, it is obvious 
 that the acts of inspiration and expiration 
 must be alternate, and cannot possibly take 
 place simultaneously. Stammerers, however, ^ 
 endeavour to draw in air at the same time that 
 
THE VOICE. li> 
 
 they are making muscular efforts to expel the 
 breath. The first condition of free respiration 
 is, then, a silent pause to replenish the lungs 
 Again, in stammering, the chest is violently 
 heaved and pressed down, and the action of 
 the diaphragm is downwards instead of up- 
 wards. The action of the diaphragm may be 
 distinctl}^ seen in the motion of the abdomen. 
 When the diaphragm falls (in inspiration) the 
 abdomen slightly protrudes ; and when the 
 diaphragm rises (in expiration) the abdomen 
 falls inward. The chest should rise and fall 
 but little ; it should be kept moderately raised 
 throughout speech, and the principal action of 
 respiration should be in the diaphragm. The- 
 requisite motion, however, is very slight, and 
 entirely free from jerking. The stammerer 
 must practise the acts of inspiration and ex- 
 piration until they are practically, as well as 
 theoretically, faultless. 
 
 The Voice. 
 
 Voice is formed by the breath in its-out- ' 
 ward_j2assag^e setting in vibration the edges 
 *^)f the aperture of the larj'ux — the glottis. 
 Stammerers often endeavour to form voice with 
 
 i^ 
 
 -f 
 
20 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH, 
 
 ingoing air ; but in general they close the ^ 
 glottis in the effort to vocalize. This of course 
 stops the breath, and hence the , choking and 
 other distressing s3'mptoms of the impediment. 
 
 Voice is the material of Speech. This fact,^-^ 
 in all its meaning, the stammerer has to learn. 
 His efforts are alwa^'s directed elsewhere than 
 to the organ of voice. He moves the head, 
 he moves the jaw, he moves the tongue, he 
 moves his limbs, in the vain attempt to force 
 out sound, the production of which he is all 
 the time preventing, by closing the passage 
 through which onl}' voice can come. Voice 
 being the material of speech, the speaker must 
 have voice, whatever else he lacks. The stam- 
 merer must not stint himself of this material, 
 nor must he cut it into shreds and fragments ; 
 but he must acquire command of a full, strong, 
 unbroken stream of sound. 
 
 Exercise — Continuity of Voice, 
 
 Having mastered the art of regulating the 
 breath, the stammerer's next step must be to 
 practise the continuous production of voice. '^ 
 He should confine himself to this exercise 
 until he has become perfectly familiar with all 
 
 -f 
 
ELEMENTABY SOUNDS. 21 
 
 vocal elements ; repeating them first one by 
 one, then in long sequences, and then in com- 
 binations, but always without a break in the 
 continuity of the sound. 
 
 The following are the elements for this ex- 
 . ercise, all of which ma}- be prolonged ad lib- 
 itum : 
 
 ' a, e, i, o, u, ah, aw, oo, oi, ou ; 
 
 1, m, n, ng, v, dh, z, zh, w, y. 
 
 These elements are not to be considered as 
 ''vowels" and ''consonants," but simply as 
 voices^ each of which has precisely the same 
 sound in the throat ; their differences arising 
 solel}^ from the shape of the mouth-passage. 
 
 It must be carefully noted that the names 
 of the letters will be useless for this exercise ; 
 the actual sounds of the elements must be 
 pronounced. 
 
 How to Lear 71 Elementary Sounds, 
 
 The reader unaccustomed to phonetic anal}-^ 
 sis will have no difficulty in isolating the act- 
 ual elementary sounds, if ne will simply p?'o- 
 ^ong for some seconds the elements printed in 
 
"2."^ THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 capitals in the following words, as commonly 
 pronounced : 
 
 feeL, seeM, vaiN, soNG, leaVe, wiTH(dh), 
 iS(z), rouGe(zh) ; We, Yes, Ale, An, EEL 
 End, Isle(ahee), In, Old, On, Use(yoo), 
 Us, Arm (ah), All (aw), OOze, OAVl(ahoo), 
 Oil (awee) . 
 
 The use to be made of the power which will 
 be developed by this exercise is all-important. 
 The sensation of throat-action must never be 
 lost in speaking. When old tendencies in- 
 cline to false effort, the stammerer will feel 
 himself off the voice ^ like a locomotive off the 
 rails. Then, instead of plunging about wildly 
 at random, he must stop, and carefully put 
 himself upon the track again. 
 
 There are three elements of speech which 
 have obstructed vocality, and cannot be pro- 
 longed. These are B, D, and G (as in go) 
 They are often terrible stumbling-blocks to the 
 stammerer : but his never to be forgotten tal- 
 isman is ; Voice ! No mouth-action must be 
 allowed to interfere with throat-sound ! 
 
 There is another class of elements which 
 are entirely non-vocal^ and which therefore 
 tend strongly to thi'ow the stammerer "off the 
 
DIFFICULT ELEMENTS. 23 
 
 voice." These are P, T, K, F, Wh, Tli, S, 
 Sh, H. Each of these should be practised 
 separatel}', in connection with a vowel ; and 
 with the principle constantl}^ before the mind 
 that no mouth-action must he allowed to in- 
 terfere with the flow of throat-soxind. 
 
 Difficult Elements. 
 
 Elements that present special difficulty must 
 be made the subject of special exercise, thus : 
 Prolong any throat-sound, say the vowel a/i, 
 and without stopping the sound introduce the 
 mouth-action to be practised, say B, thus ; 
 
 ah — bah — bah — bah — bah, etc. 
 
 It will be found that the mouth-action does 
 not interfere with the continuity of the throat- 
 sound. The exercise must be continued until 
 the true relation between the two kinds of ele- 
 ments is distinctly felt and established in the 
 mind. 
 
 The relation between the throat and the 
 mouth in speech will be understood when it is 
 stated to be the same as that between the 
 sound-producing part of t\\Q flute — the mouth- 
 hole — and the sound-modifying parts — tlie 
 
24 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 fiuger-holes. The action of the fingers modi- 
 fies, without interrupting, the sound produced 
 at the mouth-hole ; and so the mouth-actions 
 in speech modify, without interrupting, the 
 sound produced in the throat. This relation 
 must be established practicall}', in connection 
 with the elements of speech, in cases of stam- 
 mering, and all diflSculty, and dread of diffi- 
 cult}^ will certainly- sooner or later disappear. 
 A few other directions will complete all 
 that is necessary to be attended to in overcom- 
 ing the habit of stammering. 
 
 The Mouth a Tube, 
 
 From what has been already said, it will be 
 understood that all effort thrown into the 
 mouth, jaw, lips or tongue, is futile. The 
 mouth should be as nearly as possible passive^ 
 a mere tube or funnel for the deliver}^ of throat- 
 sound. The mouth-tube is constantly varying 
 in shape ; but it is always a transmitter only,, 
 and never an originator of sound. 
 
 The Jaw, 
 
 A GREAT deal of the stammerer's difficult^' 
 will consist in subduing the upward pressure 
 
THE HEAD, 2h 
 
 of the jaw. Whatever action the jaw lias" 
 should be downward ; but there must be no 
 pressure, even in the right direction. The 
 practice of throwing the effort of speech back 
 to the throat will, however, speedily relieve 
 the tendency of the mouth-organs to cling to- 
 gether. 
 
 When mechanical assistance ma}' be ncces-^ 
 sar}', a paper-cutter held against the edges ot 
 the upper teeth will manifest an}^ undue up- 
 ward motion of the jaw, while it will not pre- 
 vent the mouth from opening. The paper- 
 cutter must not be held between, or bj-, the 
 teeth. When the maxillar}' dijfficulty has been 
 overcome, the lower teeth should not once 
 touch the paper-cutter, in reading or speaking. 
 A gentle contact will be almost unavoidable 
 in forming the hissing sounds, but even this 
 should be prevented in curative exercise. ^ 
 
 The Head, 
 
 A LOOSE rising motion of the head is almost 
 a universal feature in stammering. This must 
 be subdued before power can be obtained over 
 the organs of speech. The head should be 
 hold firmlv on the neck, so that even a con- 
 
 -h 
 
26 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 siderable pressure would not force it back 
 At the same time there should be no stiffness 
 to interfere with free motion. The fault con- 
 sists in lifting the head, as a part of the action 
 of speech ; and it is often a source of ver}" 
 great difficulty. The jaw cannot be controlled 
 while its fulcrum, the head, is unstable and 
 yielding. 
 
 Spasmodic Actions, 
 
 With reference to the spasmodic actions of 
 stammering, which sometimes extend over the 
 whole body, no specific directions are needed. 
 The}' invariabl}' disappear when the breathing 
 is relieved. 
 
 There is nothing to prevent a stammerer 
 who will thoroughly master the principles laid 
 •down jn this Treatise and diligentl}' and watch 
 fully excKjise his voice, from perfectly throw- 
 ing off the fetters of impediment. Many 
 exercises will be found in the Author's '^ Prin- 
 ciples of Speech," which will be of service. 
 But, while a study of the whole subject, and 
 a knowledge of all the organic actions, as ex- 
 hibited in "Visible Speech," are desirable, if 
 not nccessar}', for teachers, stammerers should 
 
SELF' OB SEE VA TION. 2 7 
 
 tQot allow the mind to be diverted from the 
 -direct and simple means of cure sufficiently 
 set forth in these pages. 
 
 Self' Observation, 
 
 One important hint remains to be given. 
 With all persons speech- actions are so purely* 
 habitual that without watchful observation 
 faults ma}^ long remain undiscovered. This 
 is especially true in reference to the minutiae 
 of the organic actions on the rectification of 
 which success depends in cases of defect or 
 impediment. The stammerer will therefore 
 find the use of a mirror a most valuable auxil- 
 iary in his efibrts at self-correction. In carry- 
 ing out the prescribed principles for the 
 regulation of the breath, the control of the 
 head and the jaw, the proper mechanism of 
 elementary sounds, etc., let the stammerei 
 seat himself before a mirror, and he will learn 
 man}^ things of which he might otherwise have 
 -continued unconscious. Even teachers, in 
 dealing with defects and impediments of 
 speech, should place their pupils before a mir- 
 ror, as the readiest means of giving them 
 command over the organs of articulation. To 
 
28 THE FAULTi^ OF SPEECH, 
 
 this use of the principle of "reflection" as an 
 aid to self-government, the poet's denuncia- 
 tion of 
 
 "Attitude and stare, and start theatric 
 Practised at the glass," 
 
 has no applicabuity. The vocal action of 
 singers, as well as speakers, would less fre- 
 quently offend the e3'e if students were taught 
 to exercise the voice before a glass, that the}* 
 might ''see themselves as others see them." 
 
 Capricious Difficulties, 
 
 It is a very curious circumstance that stam- 
 merers who are powerless in the presence of 
 friends or strangers, generally declare that 
 they can speak freely when alone. A child, 
 however, or even a cat, in the room is enough 
 to destroy their freedom. The proper use to 
 make of this fact should be to build on it as 
 a ground of hopefulness and confidence ; for 
 it proves that no organic cause exists to pre- 
 vent success, and thus disposes of the mj's- 
 terious dread of phj^sical entailment. But 
 stammerers are often the victims of man}" 
 equall}^ groundless fancies: — supposing their 
 Infirmity to be afi'ected by certain states of the 
 
AGGEAVANTJS OF DIFFICULTY. 29 
 
 atmosphere, the clu'ectiou of the wind, or the 
 phases of the moon ! Those who look for 
 such associations are pretty sure to find them. 
 But they carr}' the seekers back to the days 
 of witchcraft and the ' ' evil eye '' — to da3's of 
 ignorance ! 
 
 Aggravants of Difficulty. 
 
 The function of articulation — like ever}^ 
 other function — is, of course, affected by the 
 condition of the health — deranged digestion, 
 depression of spirits, ph3'sical debility, etc. ; 
 but these aggravants are not to be confounded 
 with original causes of the difficulty. The 
 former will disappear and still leave the latter 
 behind. The stammerer must cast off idle 
 superstitious fears and fancies, and se^ ^^ .JL- 
 worJc to stud}' and observe. He will undoubt- ' 
 edl}' find that ''Knowledge is power;" and 
 that, with knowledge, "Patience and perse- 
 verance will conquer all difficulties." 
 
 -4- 
 
MINOR FAULTS. 
 
 Nasalizing, 
 
 J HE sofl palate which hangs at the back 
 of the mouth acts as a valve on the 
 passage to the nose. When the top of the 
 soft palate is arched backwards from its point 
 of junction with the hard palate, it covers the 
 internal nasal aperture, and the breath passes 
 altogether through the mouth. When the soft 
 palate is relaxed and pendent from the edge 
 of the hard palate, the breath passes partly 
 through the nose and partly through the 
 mouth ; and vrhen the mouth-passage is closed 
 (by means of the back of the tongue, as in ng ; 
 the forepart of the tongue, as in n; or the 
 lips, as in m) the breath passes altogether by 
 the nose. A knowledge of these facts will 
 enable any person to correct the habit of na- 
 salizing vowels. 
 
 The chief difficult}- lies in the recognition* 
 30 
 
NASALIZING. 31 
 
 by the ear of pure oral and mixed nasal qual- 
 ity. The action of the soft palate ma}-, how- 
 ever, be seen, by opening the mouth very wide 
 in pronouncing the vowels ah and aiv. Then, 
 by pressing on the top of the soft palate with 
 the thumb, or with the india-rubber end of a 
 pencil, the internal nasal aperture will be cov- 
 ered, and the utterance of ah and aw will be 
 purely oral. Repeat these vowels with and 
 without the mechanical pressure, and after a 
 few experiments the ear will distinguish the 
 difference between oral and nasal. Practice 
 on other vowels, in forming which the soft 
 palate cannot be seen, will soon develop a 
 feeling of the difference. 
 
 But the readiest way to gain a perception 
 of the denasalizing action of the soft palate 
 will be by the following exercise : 
 
 Sound the consonants m h without separat- 
 ing the lips, as in pronouncing the word ember. 
 
 The change from m to 6 is nothing more than 
 the covering of the nasal aperture by the soft 
 palate ; and the change from h to m, without 
 separating the lips, as in the word submit^ is 
 merely the uncovering of the nasal aperture.^ 
 
52 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The tendencj" to nasalize vowels is most felt 
 when they occur immediately before or after 
 nasal consonants — m, n or ng — but many 
 persons nasalize every vowel. 
 
 The French elements an^ en, in, on^ un^ amy 
 £m, etc., are merety nasalized vowels. 
 
 The Aspirate, 
 
 The letter H represents a simple and nearly 
 silent emission of breath. The organs of 
 snepch are placed in the position for the sub- 
 sequent vowel before the emission of the aspi- 
 rate. Thus 7i in the words he^ Jiay, hie, hoe^ 
 hahy etc., has the oral quality of the vowel it 
 precedes. The aspirate is not the same as a 
 whispered vowel, for the words his and is, 
 hand and and, hold and old, hart and art are 
 clearly distinguishable when whispered. 
 
 H is sometimes roughened faultily by a gut- 
 tural quality. To correct this habit, breathe 
 out the aspirate silently. 
 
 The Cockney confusion of vowels and aspi- 
 rates is a remarkable fault which will disap- 
 pear when learners are taught phonetically in 
 the abecedarian stage of education. The same 
 person who says all for hall pronounces hall 
 
VOCAL CONSONANTS. 33 
 
 for aW, and so proves that the perverse habit 
 is due only to defective elementary training. 
 
 H is omitted in pronouncing the words Jieir^ 
 honest, honour, hour, humour, and their deriv- 
 atives. It should be pronounced in herb, hos- 
 pital, humble, and all other words. 
 
 H is heard instead of wh, before o, as in 
 who, whose, whom, whole. 
 
 Vocal Consonants. 
 
 The following consonants are respectively 
 pairs of vocal and non-vocal elements ; that 
 is, the consonants in the second column have 
 precisel}' the same oral formation as those in 
 the first column, but with the addition of 
 throat-sound or murmur. 
 
 non-vocal. vocal. 
 
 P B 
 
 T D 
 
 K G as in ^o. 
 
 F V 
 
 WH W 
 
 S Z 
 
 SH ZHasint?mon. 
 
 THasin^/ii;i TU(^dh)as\n 
 
 CR as in church J ^'*^'^- 
 
 X(^^ks) as in extend . . . X(=gz)&siu 
 
 exist . 
 
34 .THE FAUuTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 These pairs of consonants are confused by 
 Gaelic and Welsh speakers, who substitute 
 non-vocal for vocal elements ; and by German 
 speakers, who mix up the elements some tunes 
 by a similar substitution, but more frequentl}' 
 by the use of vocal instead of non-vocal ele- 
 ments. Careful exercise and observation will 
 ^intirely remove these difficulties. 
 
 Thickness of Speech, 
 
 The consonants ^, d, n, ?, r, are correct- 
 'y^ formed by the point of the tongue acting 
 against the upper gum ; but in "thick" speech 
 the tongue acts against the teeth, or the point 
 rests on the lower teeth and the above ele- 
 ments are imperfectly formed by the surface 
 of the tongue. This fault is unavoidable when 
 the tongue is so tied to the bed of the jaw that 
 the point cannot be raised. But "thickness" 
 has not alwaj's this excuse ;" it is often the re- 
 sult of a childish habit of sucking the tongue, 
 that should have been ' ' put away " with the 
 years of childhood. The more sharpl}' the 
 tongue can be pointed upwards, the better will 
 t^ d, n, Z, and r be formed. The tongue should 
 never touch the lower teeth in speech, and it 
 
CONVEBSATIONAL SLUBRING. 35 
 
 should never come between the teeth except 
 for the single element tli — d/i, and then to a 
 very slight extent. In fact, th is best formed 
 with the tongue behind^ instead of between, 
 the teeth. 
 
 Oratorical Faults. 
 Conversational Slurring. 
 
 When a person unaccustomed to public 
 speaking has occasion to address an audience, 
 his words seem to run together, and it is only 
 with the greatest difficulty that their purport 
 can be gathered by a hearer at a little distance. 
 He is called on to ''speak out" and "speak 
 up," but increase of force is of little avail. 
 He has to learn the ditference between speak- 
 ing and mumbling. 
 
 Conversational speech is, in general, verj- 
 slovenl}'. Could it be written down exactly 
 as we hear it, the speaker would not recognize 
 the unintelligible jargon. Thus : 
 
 Convsashnlspeech zngenlveslovnly. 
 
 This is not an exaggeration of the kind of 
 utterance that passes current in social life. 
 The chief element of distant audibilit}-— 
 
36 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 throat-sound, or voice — is so curtailed and 
 slurred out. that little more than mouth-actions 
 remain. 
 
 Sustained Voice, 
 
 The very reverse must be the relation of 
 throat to mouth in oratorical speech. Conso- 
 nants may be softened to any degree, but 
 vowels must be given fully and with swelling 
 clearness. Thus : 
 
 cOnvErsAshUnAl spEEch Is In gEnEr- 
 Al vErY slOvEnlY. 
 
 But it is possible to soften the consonants 
 too much ; to soften them away altogether, as 
 we hear from some yaw-yaw-yaw speakers 
 whose utterance is 
 
 Vox et preterea nihil. 
 
 In good delivery every element should be 
 heard in its proper relation to other elements ; 
 every syllable in its proper relation to other 
 syllables ; every word in its proper relation to 
 other words ; every sentence in its proper rela- 
 tion to other sentences. 
 
 Sustained vocality is the secret of good 
 oratorical speech. This quahty has perhaps 
 
SUSTAINED VOICE, 37 
 
 never been better illustrated than in the case 
 of the Rev. Mr. Spurgeon, who, with no ap- 
 parent effort, in the vast Agricultural Hall, at 
 Islington, London, made himself distinctly 
 heard by an assemblage of twenty-five thou- 
 sand persons.* There could, of course, be no 
 undue softening of the consonants in such 
 delivery, nor, on the other hand, was an}' 
 harshness or prominence of consonant-action 
 perceptible even to the nearest auditor. 
 
 Some coarseness of effect to ears in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of a speaker is almost un- 
 avoidable in order to secure effectiveness at a 
 distance. Oratory is in this respect analogous 
 to scene-painting : the canvas which charms 
 by the softness of its depictions when viewed 
 from the proper standpoint, is often incredibly 
 rough to a close inspector. The speaker, then, 
 
 * I was present on one of the occasions. I got as near 
 to the speaker as possible, with the view of studying his 
 management of the vocal bellows; but I could discover no 
 tmusual labour or straining. All was easy and natural. 
 I was within five feet of the speaker; and a friend with 
 whom I was to compare notes took the most distant seat from 
 the platform. We counted the audience by means of the 
 uniform sections into which the seats were arranged, and 
 found the number of hearers was upwards of 25,000. The 
 nearest ear was not offended by bellowing : the most distant 
 lost no syllable. 
 
38 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 may without offence lay on his vowel lights 
 and shades in masses^ and give corresponding 
 strength and firmness to his consonant out- 
 lines, in order to produce the right effect in 
 the farther corners and galleries of his audi- 
 torium. 
 
 It is to be noted that the percussiveness of 
 good oratorical speech is not due to chest- 
 action — which would be laborious — but ta 
 expansibility of the pharynx, the cavity at the 
 back of the mouth and above the throat. Dis- 
 tension of the pharynx ma}^ be plainly seen in 
 the neck of a player on the bugle or cornet-a- 
 piston. 
 
 Mai * Respiration, 
 
 The exhaustion after vocal effort from which 
 many public speakers, especiall}^ clergymen, 
 suffer; the ''clerical sore-throat," which hj 
 its frequency has won for itself a place in 
 medical terminology ; and the wild outbursts 
 of vociferation which throw the whole physical 
 frame into violent action, are due to misman- 
 agement of the "vocal bellows." 
 
 The principles of easy, natural, powerful 
 respiration are fully explained in the earlier 
 
MAL'BESPIBATION. 39 
 
 sections of this work. Let public speakers 
 develop the solidity of chest and mobility of 
 diaphragm prescribed for the enfranchisement 
 of stammerers from their spasms of difficult}', 
 and the oratorical defects associated with mal- 
 respiration — and which are so often painful in 
 their consequences — will be unknown. 
 
 Oratorical defects in the expressive manage- 
 ment of the voice, by inflection and modula- 
 tion, are extremely common. In reference to 
 these the reader is referred to the Authoi-'s 
 ^'Principles of Elocution."* 
 
 * Fo'jrth edition, 1878. Salem, Mass., J. P. Burbank. 
 
 
ORGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS. 
 
 GREAT variety of the minor defects 
 of speech arise from the substitution of 
 one part for another of the oral organs. The 
 correction of such defects presents no diflSculty 
 to one who is familiar with the true formation 
 of the elements of speech. The following 
 classification embraces all ordinary defects of 
 this kind. The directions given should render 
 self-correction a hopeful undertaking in any 
 case, however long-established may be the 
 habit. 
 
 One plan of exercise should regulate teacher 
 or self-corrector in all cases. The attempt to 
 introduce a new element at once in reading or 
 speaking will never succeed. Awkwardness 
 and habit will defeat the best efforts of unac- 
 customed organs. Elementary power must 
 first be gained. Thus : 
 40 
 
OBGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS, 41 
 
 I. Pronounce the element separately again and 
 again, until it becomes easy of formation. 
 
 II. Practise its combination with a single vowels 
 and continue this form of exercise until 
 rapid reiteration becomes easy. 
 
 III. Practise separately all the consonant com- 
 binations into which the element enters. 
 
 IV. Pronounce words or sentences containing 
 the element — repeating each quickly. . 
 
 V. Introduce the corrected element in read- 
 ing, by slightly holding or prolonging it at 
 each recurrence, until the habit is formed 
 of articulating it correctly without special 
 effort. 
 
 One hour of systematic exercise regulated 
 as above, will do more than a week of desul- 
 tory effort. 
 
 h—D for G. 
 
 This is generally an infantile defect, and 
 easily corrected (see page .3) ; but if no efforts 
 are made for its removal at an early age, it 
 will continue to disfigure even adult speech. 
 When we hear a grown-up boy or girl saying 
 *^dood" for good, and ''dive" for give, the 
 very natural assumption is that there must be 
 
42 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 a congenital cause for the defect. But this is 
 a mistake. The action of the back of the 
 tongue only requires to be developed. Hold 
 down the forepart of the tongue, and the back 
 will be compelled into action. Give this me- 
 chanical assistance in pronouncing the words 
 
 gay, guy, go, gawk, gag. 
 
 An hour's exercise should cure this defect. 
 
 It is a cm*ious fact that perhaps three-fourths 
 of all speakers unconsciously substitute d for 
 g in the initial combination gl, as in glad, 
 glide, etc. Indeed, the resemblance in sound 
 is so close that only a watchful ear will dis- 
 cover the difference. Try : 
 
 dlad, dlide, dlow, dlove, dlory, dloom, 
 glad, glide, glow, glove, glory, gloom. 
 
 The formation of » as that letter is pro- 
 nounced before a vowel, requires the tip of the 
 tongue to be pointed towards the upper gum. 
 In this defective substitution the tongue lies 
 flat, and acts forward against the teeth, giving 
 the sound of a soft dh (= th as in tJien) , instead 
 of r. Thus : 
 
OBGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS. 43 
 
 ^'Apdhetty intedhesting bdhide" 
 A prett}^ interesting bride. 
 
 Inability to raise the tongue is generall}' the 
 cause of this defect. To effect a perfect cure 
 the tongue may require to be loosened ; but 
 careful exercise will, in most cases, develop 
 sufficient .power to make a good — though un- 
 trilled — r without an operation. 
 
 III.— I^' for S. 
 
 This is one of the man}^ forms of defect 
 arising from inactivit}^ of the forepart of the 
 tongue. Sometimes a slight s-ward motion is 
 made by the tongue at the same time that the 
 lip's movement gives sharpness to the sibila- 
 tion. To correct this defect, hold down the 
 lower lip, and see the teeth, while pronounc- 
 ing s. 
 
 IV,— F for Til. ' 
 
 This defective substitution arises from the 
 same cause as the preceding — sluggishness 
 of the tongue. To correct it, hold down the 
 lower lip and see the teeth while pronounc- 
 ing th, 
 
 F and th are so much alike in phonetic effect 
 
44 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 that this substitution might almost pass un- 
 noticed by one who did not see the speaker's 
 mouth. The resemblance will be manifest in 
 the following experiment : 
 
 free^ firty^ Jirty-free^ featre^ fimhle. 
 
 three, thirty, thirty-three, theatre, thimble. 
 
 V.— Gh for B. 
 
 This is the defect commonly called ' ' Burr- 
 ing," in which the back of the tongue is 
 brought into action instead of the point. The 
 sound has all the varieties of the front-lingual 
 vibration — smooth, when the soft palate is 
 merely approximated to the back of the 
 tongue ; and rough, when the uvula is rattled 
 against the tongue. 
 
 This defect sometimes arises from tongue- 
 tiedness, but is very often a mere habit ac- 
 quired by imitation. The cure is by no means 
 difficult. To bring the point of the tongue 
 into action, prolong the vowel aw and lift the 
 tip of the tongue till it almost touches the 
 edge of the palatal arch. Repeat the action 
 a number of times without stopping the vowel 
 sound. In this way the characteristic vibra- 
 tion of r will be gradually developed. 
 
OBGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS. 45 
 
 The tongue in this exercise may be raised 
 so close to the palate as to produce the effect 
 of d — but softl}^ and without pressure, thus ; 
 
 aw — daw — daw — daw — daw , etc. 
 
 Gradually endeavour to maintain the tongue 
 in this close approximation to the palate all 
 the time that a continual vocal buzz is heard. 
 This is a rudimental r. Practice on this new 
 element, according to the directions on page 
 41, will complete the cure. 
 
 When the tongue is too much tied to the bed 
 of the jaw, the true vibration cannot be per- 
 fectly acquired without an operation ; but the 
 "burring" may at least be discontinued, and 
 an approximately distinct r substituted. 
 
 VL—L for E. 
 
 This substitution is common among child- 
 ren, the articulation of I being easier than that 
 of r. The Chinese never pronounce r, but 
 substitute L The two sounds are produced 
 by the action of the same i)art of the tongue 
 — the point ; at the same part of the palate — 
 the upper gum : the difference being that the 
 voice passes over the tip of the tongue for r 
 
46 THE FAULTS OF SPEECIL 
 
 and over the sides for I. The alternation of 
 these letters in words and sentences presents 
 -a difficult}^ to most persons; as in ''Truly 
 rural.'* ''Rob ran along the lane in the rain." 
 "A lump of raw, red liver," etc.* 
 
 VIL~Lli for S or Sh, 
 
 The sibilants s and sh are produced by the 
 breath passing along a central channel over 
 the tongue arched towards the palate, and 
 with more or less elevation of the point. This 
 defect consists in passing the breath over one 
 or both sides of the tongue, as in forming I 
 without voice. The I apertures are narrowed 
 so as to cause a hissing, not unlike that of the 
 true sibilants. To correct this fault, the first 
 point is to concentrate the breath in a single 
 central channel. The channel of r may be 
 used as a guide ; and the channel of y will also 
 be available. Substitute r without voice for 
 the defective "cluttering" s ; and y witliout 
 voice for the defective sh. By arching the 
 middle of the tongue while the point is in the 
 position for r, s will be produced ; and by 
 
 * Many exercises on these and other difficult combinations 
 will be found in the Author's " Principles of Speech and 
 •Dictionary of Sounds.'* 
 
OBGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS. 47 
 
 raising the front of the tongue while the mid- 
 dle is in the position for 2/, sli will be produced. 
 The sounds obtained may at first be very im- 
 perfect, but they will work into form. Per- 
 haps — as often happens — some experimental 
 or accidental shift may strike the true position 
 and end all difficult}'. The hisses must, how- 
 ever, be perfected as elements before an}- at- 
 tempt is made to introduce them into words 
 and sentences. 
 
 VIIL—N for Ng. 
 
 Children who pronounce d for g and t for 
 jfc, of course sound n instead of ng. But the 
 substitution is ver}' common also among care- 
 less speakers in pronouncing the termination 
 ing : as in meetin^ eatin^ and drinkin^ for meet- 
 ing, eating and drinking. This substitution 
 is universal in Scotland. In the words length 
 and strength the ng is very apt to be changed 
 into n for ease of pronunciation. The sounds 
 of k, g and ng are pronounced by the very 
 same organic action — contact and separation 
 of the back of the tongue and the soft pal- 
 ate : the differences being that k is non- vocal, 
 g vocal, and ng naso-vocal. 
 
48 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 IX.—Ng for L. 
 
 This substitution is a not uncommon accom- 
 paniment of burring, arising from the same 
 inability — or habitual difficult}' — in raising 
 the point of the tongue. The effect of ng at 
 the beginning of a syllable is ver}' peculiar, as 
 that element is never initial in English. Thus : 
 
 ngove^ ngord^ ngady, nget weng angonc. 
 love, lord, lad}', let well alone. 
 
 The formation of Z has been explained above 
 (see page 45) . Some assistance in correcting 
 this defect will be obtained, at first, b}^ holding 
 the nostrils, to prevent emission of sound by 
 the nose. 
 
 X.— Ng for N, 
 
 This is an allowed assimilation, not a defect, 
 when n occurs before k in the same syllable,, 
 as in 
 
 ingk^ rangk, mongk^ trungk, 
 ink, rank, monk, trunk. 
 
 It would be difficult to articulate n in these 
 words. 
 
 The same substitution of ng for ?i taxes 
 
OBGANIC SUBSTITUTION'S. 49 
 
 place but not uniformly — ^^ before g; as in 
 
 angger^ Jingger^ longger, langguage, 
 anger, finger, longer, language. 
 
 Foreigners are unnecessarily puzzled b}^ the 
 Anomaly between such words and hanger, sing- 
 er, wronger, etc., where the ng represents a 
 single consonant. 
 
 XI, — Ngg for Ng. 
 
 This is a Cockney peculiarity, occurring 
 chiefly where ng is followed by a vowel, as in 
 
 singging^ sing-g-a song. 
 singing, sing a song. 
 The correction of this defect will be assisted 
 at first by a slight stop between the ng and the 
 vowel. 
 
 XIL Nil for S. 
 
 The efiect represented by nh is n without 
 voice — a simple breathing through the nose 
 while the tongue is in the position for n. This 
 defect is generally attributed to a congenital 
 organic cause ; but when it occurs as the sin- 
 gle nasal peculiarity of a speaker, it may be 
 confidently pronounced to be merely a correc- 
 
50 rilE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 tible habit. Assistance will be derived at first 
 from a mechanical prevention of nasal emis- 
 sion — b}^ pinching the nostrils ; and also by 
 blowing a feather off the hand held before the 
 mouth. 
 
 When oral emission has thus been obtained 
 the means already prescribed for acquiring the 
 s sibilation (see page 46) , will be effectual in 
 curing the ungainly sniffling of this defect. 
 
 XIIL S for Sh, and Sh for S. 
 
 These two forms of defective sibilation will 
 be connected by the means pointed out in pre- 
 vious' sections. The shades of difference in 
 hissing sounds are numerous : man}^ sibilations 
 are heard of an intermediate kind, and which 
 partake more or less of the characteristics of 
 one or the other of the representative sibilants. 
 Organic malformation sometimes prevents a 
 perfect rectification — as irregularit}' of the 
 teeth ; inability to close the jaws ; projecting 
 or retreating jaw, etc. — but even in the worst 
 of such cases, improvement will follow intelli- 
 gent effort. In all cases where no malfonna- 
 tion exists, the sibilants may be adjusted to a 
 normal standard. 
 
ORGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS. 51 
 
 The teeth require to be very^ close in pro- 
 nouncing s and sli. They should not touch, 
 but theu' separation can not be greater than 
 the thickness of a paper-cutter without produc- 
 ing some peculiarity. 
 
 The alternation of s and sli — like that of r 
 and I — presents a difficulty to most persons, 
 as in "Such a sash." "A shot silk sash.'* 
 "A shabby sash," etc.* 
 
 XIV.— S for Til and Z for Dh. 
 
 This substitution is made by French speak- 
 ers, whose native language does not contain 
 the sounds of th and dh. Imitation might be 
 expected to teach the foreigner so obvious an 
 articulation ; 3'et those who have spoken Eng- 
 lish for years may still be heard sajdng "I 
 sink" for I think, and ''zat" for that. A few 
 minutes' exercise suffices to cure this defect. 
 
 XV.— T for K. 
 
 The directions given on page 41 for the cor- 
 rection of the defect " i> for G^," apply equally 
 to the kindred elements t and Zc, which are. 
 ** See note, page 46. 
 
52 THE FAULTS OF 8PEECIL 
 
 merely the non- vocal forms of d and g, (See 
 page 33.) 
 
 The unconscious use of t instead of c (=» A;) 
 in the combination cl is also as common as that 
 ofdfovg. Thus: 
 
 tlay^ tlaw, tlew, tlaim^ tlever^ tlose. 
 clay, claw, clew, claim, clever, close. 
 
 XVI. — Th for S. 
 
 This is the defect commonly called "Lisp- 
 ing." The relation between th and s is the 
 same as that between I and r. The breath 
 escapes by a central aperture for s — as for r; 
 and by lateral apertures for th — as for I, In 
 forming r and I the middle of the tongue is 
 concave and the point sharply raised : in form- 
 ing s and th the middle of the tongue is con- 
 vex, and the point flattened out. The central 
 '^channel for s is over the top of the point of 
 the tongue ; that for r is over the end of the 
 tip. The lateral apertures for th are between 
 the edges of the point of the tongue and the 
 •teeth, or the upper gum ; those for I are be- 
 tween the body of the tongue and the side, or 
 Iback, teeth. The apertures for th are inter- 
 
OBOANIG SUBSTITUTIONS, 53 
 
 stitial, and so cause hissing of the breath ; 
 those for I are wide, and allow the voice to- 
 pass with vowel purity. The I channels may^ 
 however, be narrowed so as to produce sibila- 
 tion, and this is one form of defective substi- 
 tution for s. (See page 46.) 
 
 Lisping is easily cured. But some persons 
 affect the lisp as a symbol of childish artless- 
 uess, and, like Orlando of his love-disease, 
 "would not be cured." A better means of 
 displaying simplicit}^ and innocence might be 
 suggested; but 
 
 *'(2e giistihus non est disputandum." 
 
 The correction of the habit of lisping will 
 be facilitated at first b}^ mechanicall}^ prevent- 
 ing the tongue from touching the front teeth. 
 The edge of a paper-cutter may be used to 
 push back the tip of the tongue. 
 
 The tongue should be altogether out of sight 
 in forming s. 
 
 XVIL—V for Dlu 
 
 The remarks on "Ffor TW equally apply 
 to these, the vocal forms of the same articu- 
 lations. (See page 43.) 
 
64 THE FAULTS OF SPEECIL 
 
 XVIIL—Vfor Z. 
 
 Tub directions on page 43 apply equally to 
 these elements, whieb *^re merely vocal forms 
 of / and s, 
 
 XIX.^V for W and W for F. 
 
 There is a tendenc}' to confound these con- 
 sonants when the}' occur in alternation, a? 
 manifested in the Cockney's "werry veil" for 
 very well. 
 
 French and German speakers, whose ver- 
 nacular recognizes no sound exactly corre- 
 sponding to the English w^ pronounce v instead 
 of it. The French, however, use the true 
 sound of w in pronouncing their diagraph oi, 
 as in soir^ boire, oiseaux, etc. 
 
 The German w has the same labial action as 
 the English element, but with a difference in 
 the position of the tongue, which is advanced 
 for the German and retracted for the English w. 
 
 Foreigners can be taught the knack of the 
 English element perfectl3\ Imitation is obvi- 
 ously worthless for their direction. Mechani- 
 cal assistance will overcome the difficult}'. 
 Thus ; sound the vowoi oo for some seconds 
 
ORGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS, 55 
 
 find during the continuance of the sound gently 
 approximate the centre of the lips with the 
 finger and thumb a number of times. The 
 vowel 00 will be changed into the word 
 
 woo^ tvoo, woo, woo, woe, 
 
 and the consonant w in its most difficult com- 
 bination will be the result. 
 
 English readers ma}', in the same wa}^, per- 
 fectly acquire the knack of pronouncing the 
 Oerman lu. Thus : sound the vowel ee for 
 some seconds, and during the continuance of 
 the sound gently approximate the centre of the 
 lips with the finger and thumb a number of 
 times. The vowel will be changed by every 
 action into a true German pronunciation of the 
 word 
 
 wie^ wie, wie, wie, wie. 
 
 The phonetic resemblance of the German w 
 to the English v will be recognized in this ex- 
 periment. The articulative actions are, how- 
 ever, different, and the English student of 
 German should profit by the lesson and dis- 
 tinguish in future between Enorlish v and Ger- 
 
50 THE FAULTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 XX.— W for L. 
 
 This substitution is due to lingual laziness- 
 The tongue lolling on the bed of the jaw sur- 
 renders its proper functions to an}^ part of the 
 organs that can be got to undertake them. In 
 this case the lips are obliging, and we hear : 
 
 " Wet the wady wait a wittoo." 
 Let the lady wait a little. 
 
 The existence of such defects is a disgrace. 
 No difficulty attends their correction, and they 
 should never have quitted the nurser}'. 
 
 XXI.— W for R. 
 
 R IS the most difficult of all the consonant* 
 for children to learn, and it is, of all elements 
 of speech, the most variously pronounced in 
 languages and dialects and among individual 
 speakers. When the r is trilled — as in Scot- 
 land — the sound is nearly uniform, but the 
 less definite varieties heard in England and 
 America differ greatly. The American r 
 scarcely uses the point of the tongue at all, 
 but has a glide- sound approximating to that 
 of ^, while, between vowels, the r is modified 
 by the lips, as in '^ve^.'* 
 
OBGANIC SUBSTITUTIONS. 57 
 
 In England the r — final or before a conso- 
 nant — has the vocality of a vowel ; and even 
 the initial r has little of the frieativeness of a 
 consonant. 
 
 The substitution of w for r is a favourite 
 dandyism in English speech, and generally 
 accompanies the aw — aw — aw of 
 
 ^'Awistocwatic dwawL" 
 Aristocratic drawl. 
 
 Those who have acquired the habit of using 
 lu for r, otherwise than as an affectation, or of 
 mixing the sounds of iv aud r, may easih^ cure 
 themselves by the means recommended on 
 page 43 for the delabialising of s, namel}' : 
 Hold down the lower lip with the finger, and 
 see the teeth while pronouncing 7\ 
 
 XXII.— Wfor Wh, 
 
 Wh IS to w precisel}' what /is to i?, or s to 
 z — the non- vocal form of the same articulative 
 action. Speakers who make no difference be- 
 tween these elements confound ''whe}'" with 
 way, "which" with witch, "whale" with wail^ 
 "whether" with weather; and put their hear 
 era to unnecessary trouble to unriddle theii 
 
5b THE FAULTS OF SPEECIL 
 
 ambiguities. Refinement consists in the pre- 
 servation of nice distinctions ; and no speaker 
 with any pretensions to refinement will willing- 
 ly forego such a source of distinctiveness as 
 the proper pronunciation of these and all ele- 
 mentary sounds. 
 
 Cockney speech has no wli. 
 
POSTSCKIPT 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
POSTSCRIPT TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 NEW Edition of this little book having 
 been called for, the opportunit}' is pre- 
 sented for adding any further observations or 
 directions that may seem necessary. The highly 
 condensed matter in these pages could easily be 
 expanded so as to fill a volume ; but the pre- 
 cision of the Treatise in its present form is 
 one of ts chief recommendations for the actual 
 work of rectifying the "Faults of Speech." 
 Some little peculiarity in the action of a single 
 organ, or in the mode of pronouncing a single 
 elementary sound, has the effect of rendering 
 the whole of speech peculiar ; and the work of 
 coiTection is incredibly simple when the fault 
 is merely traced to its mechanical cause. The 
 list of such mechanical causes of defects in 
 speech, herein contained, is not only extensive 
 but complete. 
 
 61 
 
62 POSTSCRIPT, 
 
 The effect of ignorance on this subject i» 
 often serious and painful. On one occasion a 
 gentleman came to the author with a defect 
 which greatly marred his whole utterance, yet. 
 it arose simpl}" from the habit of substituting 
 nasal for oral emission in forming the sibilant 
 consonants — the "fault" described in Section 
 XII, page 49. In this case a surgical opera- 
 ation had been performed, which had subjected 
 the patient to months of suffering, while the 
 defect arose from no organic malformation, but 
 merely from a mechanical habit which might 
 have been checked in childhood, as it was per- 
 fectl}^ checked within a week of instruction. 
 
 Stammerers have been bewildered more than 
 benefitted b}^ the theories of cause and cure of 
 their impediment, and the extensive terminol- 
 ogy given to its man}^ varieties. In nearly all , 
 cases, the source of difficulty is a failure in 
 some simple principle of phonation or organic 
 action, to which alone attention requires to be 
 directed. The chief points for the stammerer's 
 consideration and exercise — whatever peculiar- 
 ity any case may seem to present — will be 
 found set forth in the preceding pages. Let 
 
POSTSCRIPT, - 63^^ 
 
 these be carefully studied, and the principles 
 perseveringly applied, without thought of 
 "consentaneous nerve actions" or any other 
 recondite theories, and in the vast majority of 
 cases relief will be certainly attained. 
 
 The principles of vocal respiration are all- 
 important, not only to stammerers, but to pub- 
 lic speakers, readers and singers. Claims 
 have been set up to the recent discovery of the 
 proper function of the diaphragm in breathing ; 
 but this ^'discovery" will be found fully em- 
 bodied in the Author's I^ew Elucidation of 
 the Principles of Speech and Elocution^ 
 published in 1849. The simple fundamental 
 principles of breathing cannot be too clearly 
 apprehended. The reader is referred to pages 
 17-19 for definite instruction on this subject. 
 
 Teachers who undertake the rectification of 
 faults of speech should study the mechanism of 
 articulation as exhibited in the symbols of 
 "Visible Speech." The phonetic elements of 
 languages, and their mutual relations, are so 
 depicted in these symbols that all difficulty 
 is removed from this otherwise difficult study. 
 The text book Sounds and their Relations^ ex- 
 
 10 
 
U POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 hibited in Visible Speech^* msLj be obtained 
 through any bookseller. The Visible Speech 
 Reader ^■\ (adapted for children) may also be 
 used with advantage to facilitate the acquisi- 
 tion of English sounds by teacher or pupil. 
 
 A. M. B. 
 
 We?t Washington, D. C, 
 
 October, 1883. 
 
 * Price S2.00, post-paid, from the publisher of this Work, 
 t Recently issued ; price 40 cents. 
 
 Note to Fourth Edition. 
 
 No alterations were made in the Third Edition of this work, 
 published in 1889; nor are any required in this Fourth Edition^ 
 issued under the auspices of the Volta Bureau. The little 
 book has done good service during the seventeen years since 
 its first publication; and it is now hopefully committed to a 
 new generation of students. 
 
 A. M. B. 
 Washington, D. C, 
 1525 35th Street, 
 Dec. \st, 1897. 
 
 Sounds and Their Relations Exhibited in Visible 
 Speech and The Visible Speech Reader are out of print. 
 But the Volta Bureau offers Visible Speech and Vocal 
 Physiology, at 50 cents, as one of the most helpful 
 of A. Melville Bell's works. (See page 72.) 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 TABLES AND EXERCISES. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Table of Consonants, 
 
 I HE following table contains all English 
 
 elements, and others referred to in the 
 
 preceding page^. 
 
 Oral. 
 
 Nasal Emission. 
 
 non-vocal 
 
 Oral f^ • 
 Obstruction 1 ,^ 
 
 Central 
 Emission 
 
 vocal non-vocal vocal 
 
 . . . B (Mh) . . M 
 
 . . . B Kh . . . N 
 
 . . G (Ngh). . Ng 
 to cool) W German. 
 . . . W 
 Z 
 
 (K. . 
 
 (Blowing 
 Wh . 
 S . , 
 
 Sh . . . , Zh « in vision, 
 (= tsh) as in t _ ^^t, 
 church, J -««'*• 
 
 (Yh){ i,,,,. 
 (Ch) German. Gh 
 
 S German ch 
 
 Y 
 
 German g in aug€\ 
 emootb burr. 
 
 Lateral 
 Emission 
 
 Lax 
 
 Vibration 
 
 F . . . . . 
 
 Th in thin. 
 
 Lb Fr. I in tahle. 
 
 V 
 
 Dh th in then, 
 L 
 
 f (Snarl.) 
 t(Rb) 
 
 (Burr.) 
 R trilled. 
 
 67 
 
68 APPENDIX. 
 
 Table of Initial Consonant Combinations. 
 
 Bl . as in blade 
 
 Fr . as in fright 
 
 Br . . . bride 
 
 Fy . . . few 
 
 Bw . . . buoy 
 
 Vy . . . view 
 
 By . . . beauty 
 
 Thr . . three 
 
 ri . . . . place 
 
 Thw . . . thwart 
 
 Pr . . . price 
 
 Thy . . thews 
 
 Py . . . pure 
 
 SI . . . sleep 
 
 Dr . . . draw 
 
 Sm . . . smile 
 
 Dzh . . . jew 
 
 Sn ... snarl 
 
 Dw . . . dwell 
 
 Sf . . . sphere 
 
 Dy . . . due 
 
 Sp . . . spy 
 
 Tr . . . try 
 
 St . . . sty 
 
 Tsb . . . chain 
 
 Sk . . . sky 
 
 Tw . . . twelve 
 
 Sw . . . sway 
 
 T3' . . . tune 
 
 S}^ ... sue 
 
 Gl . . . glad 
 
 Shr . . shrink 
 
 Gr . . . great 
 
 Spl . . . spleen 
 
 Gw . . guelph 
 
 Spr . . . spring 
 
 Gy . . . gewgaw 
 
 Sp3' . . . spume 
 
 Kl . . . climb 
 
 Str . . . straw 
 
 Kr . . . crime 
 
 Sty . . . stew 
 
 Kw . . . quite 
 
 Ski . . sclerotic 
 
 Ky . . . cure 
 
 Skr . . . screw 
 
 lijy . . . muse 
 
 Skw . . squint 
 
 2sy . . . new 
 
 Sky . . . skewer 
 
 Fl . . . flight 
 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 69 
 
 Consonant Exercises. 
 For rapid reiteration. 
 
 non-vocal. 
 pata patapa 
 tapa tapata 
 paka pakapa 
 kapa kapaka 
 taka takata 
 kata kataka 
 pataka pakata 
 tapaka takapa 
 kapata katapa 
 
 pafa pafapa 
 fapa fapafa 
 fawha fawhafa 
 whafa whafawha 
 pawhafa pafawha 
 fapawha fawhapa 
 whapafa whafapa 
 
 fatha falhafa 
 thafa thafatha 
 thasa thasatha 
 satha sathasa 
 rsasha sashasa 
 
 shasa shasasna 
 thasha thashatha 
 sliatha shatbasha 
 thasasha thashasa 
 sathasha sashatha 
 sliasatha shathasa 
 
 vocal. 
 bada badaba 
 daba dabada 
 baga bagaba 
 gaba gabaga 
 daga dagada 
 gada gadaga 
 bagada badaga 
 dabaga dagaba 
 gadaba gabada 
 
 bava bavaba 
 vaba vabava 
 bawa bawaba 
 waba wabawa 
 vawa vawava 
 wava wavaw^ 
 bawava bavawa 
 
70 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 vabawa vawaba 
 vrabava wavaba 
 
 larana lanara 
 nalara narala 
 
 >^atha vathava 
 thava thavatha 
 thaza thazatha 
 zatha zathaza 
 vathaza vazatha 
 thavaza thazava 
 zavatha zathava 
 
 thazha thazhatha 
 zhatha zhathazha 
 zazha zazhaza 
 zhaza zliazazha 
 thazhaza tliazazba 
 zatbazha zazhatha 
 zbazatha zbathaza 
 
 rala ralara 
 lai-a larala 
 rana ranara 
 nara narana 
 lana lanala 
 nala nalana 
 ralana ranala 
 
 combinations. 
 blabra blabrabla 
 brabla brablabra 
 plapra plaprapla 
 prapla praplapra 
 flafra flafrafla 
 frafla fraflafra 
 glagra glagragla 
 gragla graglagra 
 clacra clacracla 
 cracla craclacra 
 tbwaswa thwaswathwa 
 swathwa swathwaswa 
 thrasbra tbrashratbra 
 sbratbra sbratbrashra 
 slasna slasnasla 
 snasla snaslasna 
 tradra tradratra 
 dratra dratradra 
 cbaja chajacba 
 jacha jacbaja 
 spasfa spasfaspa 
 sfaspa sfaspasfa 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 71 
 
 staska staskasta 
 skasta skastaska 
 
 splaspra splaspraspla 
 spraspla sprasplaspra 
 
 Words and Sentences, 
 
 Beef-broth. 
 
 Three sixths. 
 
 Literally literary. 
 
 Knitting needle. 
 
 Quit quickly. 
 
 Such a sash. 
 
 Puff up the fop. 
 
 A velvet weaver. 
 
 A cut of pumpkin. 
 
 A knapsack strap. 
 
 Coop up the cook. 
 
 A school coal-scuttle. 
 
 Veal and white wine vinegar 
 
 Geese cackle and cattle low. 
 
 Cocks crow and crows caw. 
 
 A shocking sottish set 
 
 She sells sea-shells. 
 
 Cloud-capp'd. 
 Laurel wreath. 
 Linen lining. 
 A comic mimic. 
 Rural railroad. 
 Scotch thatch. 
 Statistics of sects. 
 Portly poultrj'. 
 A wet white wafer. 
 Pick pepper peacock. 
 I snuff shop snuff. 
 
 THF END. 
 
The Volta Bureau's Book 
 Department 
 
 A. MELVILLE BELL'S BOOKS 
 
 Science of Speech $0.50 
 
 Facial Speech-Reading 25 
 
 Visible Speech Charts. 8 fof wall 60 
 
 Visible Speech Cards. 12 in set 20 
 
 Visible Speech Cards. 44, larger L 00 
 
 Visible Speech and Vocal Physiology 50 
 
 Visible Speech in 12 lessons. German 50 
 
 Visible Speech in 12 lessons. Italian 50 
 
 Visible Speech Class Primer 10 
 
 Visible Speech. Inaugural Edition. . . , 2.00 
 
 Principles of Speech. Paper, $1.00. Cloth, 1.50 
 
 Elocutionary Manual (Principles) 1 .50 
 
 Principles of Elocution 1 . 50 
 
 Essays and Postscripts on Elocution 1 . 00 
 
 Address to Elocutionists 10 
 
 Notations in Elocutionary Teaching. 10 
 
 Emphasized Liturgy 1 .00 
 
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 Sounds of R , 10 
 
 World English: Universal Language 10 
 
 World English, Handbook of 10 
 
 Popular Shorthand 10 
 
 Elliptical Steno- Phonography 10 
 
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 Line W riting, Universal 10 
 
 Line Writing, Vernacular and Orthoepic 10 
 
 Line Writing Exercises 40 
 
 Line Writing Cards, set 25 
 
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