THE DIVINE LAW AS TO WINES. ESTABLISHED BY THB TESTIMONY OP SAGES, PHYSICIANS, AND LEGISLATORS AGAINST THK USB OP FERMENTED AND INTOXICATING WINES, CONFIRMED BY EGYPTIAN, GREEK, AND ROMAN METHODS OP PREPARING UNFERMENTED WINES FOR FESTAL, MEDICINAL, AND SACRAMENTAL USES. 1 BY DR. G. W. SAMSON, FORMER PRESIDENT OF COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, WASHINGTOV, D. C. PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 1885. COPYRIGHT, 1884, BY G. W. SAMSON, D.D. THE WRITER TO NEW READERS. THE work to which the attention of thinking men is here invited was the suggestion of child- hood's attestation ; and has been the study of a long life amid most responsible charges. The original volume was the result of five years' special investigation on behalf of the " National Temperance Society," whose publishing house is at 58 Reade Street, New York. The first Sup- plement was prepared at their request. The necessity for more extended and exhaustive statements of fact has led to its committal to the writer, and its adaptation to a new class of readers. Scientists are invited to an examination whose results have led to Pasteur's election as a mem- ber of the French Academy. Physicians are interested ; since the ablest men in their profes- sion are returning to the practice of ancient Greek medical men, who employed intoxicating wines only as an anaesthetic. Statesmen are awakened to new responsibilities ; since the rec- ords of pauperism and crime are causing a re- turn, in France, England, and America, to Grecian and Roman "prohibition," as the only safeguard from the perversion of " license ; " meant to be a protection to society, but really an invitation to prey upon the defenceless. Philanthropists are roused since the skeleton of iv The Writer to New Readers. inebriation, lurking in every palatial home that has its wine-cellar, is pointing its finger to this fact : that, from the era of Noah's fall, wise and good men have sought, and that in Egypt, Greece, and Rome they found, a method of pre- serving wines free from the poison of alcoholic ferment Religious leaders are reforming ; for the fact is now established that wine free from ferment was prepared for the religious rites of ancient Egyptians and Romans, Hebrews and early Christians ; that it was this wine Christ made, drank, and appointed for His Supper ; and that the conviction of the Reformers, seek- ing to return to the primitive ordinance, now rules opinion and practice in the " Church of England." Bacon, the restorer of Aristotle's method in scientific investigation, wrote on the theme of this volume : " As those wines which flow from the first treading of the grape are sweeter and better than those forced out by the press, .... so are those doctrines best and sweetest which flow from a gentle crush of the Scriptures, and are not wrung into controversies and common- places." Taught through a long life by com- muning with such minds, and assured that " the truth," as to this vital fact of the ages, should be maintained, the writer invites still, as he has long received, manly criticism ; only asking that it be open so as to be met. CONTENTS. THE WRITER TO His READERS, ----- EXPERIENCE A GUIDE TO LAW, ----- 7 LAWS OF NATURE, PROVINCE OF SCIENCE AND LAW, 10 AIM AND PRESENT CALL FOR THE SURVEY PROPOSED, 13 MATERIALS FOR SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION, - - 18 CAUSES OF DIFFERING CONCLUSIONS IN SCIENCE, - 20 ELEMENTS OF GRAPE-JUICE, AND SOURCE OF FERMENT, 29 NATURE OF FERMENT AND ITS PRODUCTS, - - 31 NATURE OF AL-COHOL AND ITS EFFECTS, - - 35 RESORTS TO ARREST AND TO PREVENT FERMENT, - 39 WINES IN THE EARLIEST HISTORIC RECORDS, 44 EARLY INDIAN AND EGYPTIAN LAWS AS TO WINES, 51 HEBREW PRODUCTS OF THE VINE BEFORE SOLOMON, 61 HEBREW "TIROSH," OR UNFERMENTED WINE, 70 HEBREW "YAYIN," GENERIC FOR WINE; MOSES' LAW, 79 WINES IN DESPOTIC ASIA; NEW HEBREW WINES, - 84 AGE OF ASIATIC REFORM AS TO WINES, - 100 EARLY GRECIAN WISDOM AS TO WINES, - 106 THE GREEK PHYSICIAN, HIPPOCRATES, ON WINES, - in PLATO'S THEORETIC LAWS AS TO WINES, - - - 113 ARISTOTLE'S SCIENTIFIC STUDIES AS TO WINES, - 121 WINES IN THE EARLY ROMAN REPUBLIC, - - 130 ROMAN MODE OF MAKING UNFERMENTED WINES, 132, 139 PLINY'S HISTORIC AND SCIENTIFIC TREATISES, - 140 WINES IN THE GREEK VERSION OF OLD TEST., - 146 WINES IN THE HEBREW-GREEK APOCRYPHA, - - 152 TERMS FOR VINE-PRODUCTS IN NEW TESTAMENT, - 157 USE OF WINE BY CHRIST, AND His EXAMPLE, - - 163 WINES IN THE WRITINGS OF LUKE AND OF PAUL, - 173 WINES IN JEWISH WRITERS AFTER CHRIST'S DAY, - 177 2 Contents. WINES IN LATER GRECIAN AND ROMAN LITERATURE, 189 WINES IN EARLY CHN. WRITERS SYRIAC VERSION, 196 WlNES UNDER THE FIRST CHRISTIAN EMPEROR, - 2O$ WINES IN UNDIVIDED EMPIRE LATIN VERSION, - 210 WINES IN THE KORAN AND AMONG MUHAMMEDANS, 217 WINES IN THE WESTERN CHURCH ARABIC VERSION, 222 WINES IN THE GREEK AND ORIENTAL CHURCHES, - 229 WINES IN VERSIONS AT THE REFORMATION, - - 234 WINE FOR THE SUPPER IN MISSION FIELDS, - - 240 AMERICAN STUDY OF BIBLE WINES, - 243 ENGLISH STUDY OF BIBLE WINES, - 252 LITERARY GENIUS AND THE LAW OF WINES, - - 260 MODERN ARTISTS AND WINES, ----- 267 MODERN FASHIONABLE SOCIETY AND WINES, - - 270 MODERN CHEMISTS ON THE LAW OF WINES, - - 274 MODERN ENCYCLOPAEDISTS ON HISTORY OF WINES, - 276 MODERN MEDICAL SCIENCE AS TO THE LAW OF WINES, 278 MODERN STATESMEN AND STATUTES AS TO WINES, 283 RECENT AMERICAN LEGISLATION AS TO WINES, - 290 RECENT CHURCH REFORM AS TO WINES, - 300 LAW TESTED BY UNIFORM FACTS AND CONVICTIONS, 306 UNIVERSAL SEARCH FOR UNFERMENTED WINE, - 307 UNIFORM MODE OF MAKING UNFERMENTED WINE, - 31:, COMMON TERMS FOR THE EFFECTS OF WINES, - - 314 HARMONIOUS TEACHING IN GOD'S WORKS AND WORD, 318 CONCLUSION METHOD OF AGASSIZ AND AIM OF HENRY 321 EGYPTIAN MFTHODS OF WINE-MAKING, - 324 SCIENCE IN HISTORY OF UNFERMFNTED WINES, - 327 Two PROPOSITIONS OF PROF. STUART, - 330 OBJECTIONS IN PRINCETON REVIEW, APRIL, 1841, - 331 DR. RICH'S SUPPORT OF STUART'S FIRST PROPOSITION, 332 OPPOSING ARGUMENT OF DR. D. MOORE, - 334 OBJECTIONS OF HORACE BUMSTEAD, - 340 STUDIES LEADING TO "DIVINE LAW AS TO WINES," 341 SCIENTIFIC LAW OF UNFERMENTED WINES, - - 343 PASTEUR'S EXPERIMENTS ATTESTING THE LAW, - 346 BERZELIUS' APPROACH TO THE LAW, - 348 UNFERMENTED WINE NOW IN SOUTH OF FRANCE, - TT-? Contents. 3 METHOD OF PHILOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, - - 358 METHODS OF RESEARCH IN ROMAN HISTORY, - - 365 ROMAN AGRICULTURAL WRITERS ON WINES, - - 369 CATO, THE FIRST ROMAN WRITER ON WINES, - - 370 VARRO, THE SECOND " " " - 372 COLUMELLA, THE THIRD ROMAN WRITER, - - 375 PLINY, THE ROMAN NATURALIST, ON WINES, - - 380 GENERAL ROMAN LITERATURE ON WINES, - - 398 GREEK WRITERS ON WINES, - 400 THE HEBREW, A UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE, ON WINES, - 408 HEBREW SEMITIC TERMS FOR WINES, - - - 413 HEBREW "TIROSH" A SPECIES WITH VARIETIES, - 415 HEBREW "YAYIN" THE UNIVERSAL TERM FOR WINE, 422 RABBINIC-HEBREW, AND ARABIC TERMS, - 424 JEWISH WEDDING AND PASSOVER WINES, - - 431 MISSIONARY REPORTS ON WINES IN BIBLE LANDS, - 434 CHARACTER OF RECENT WORKS ON WINES, - - 442 STUART'S Two PROPOSITIONS SUSTAINED, - 445 APPLICATION OF STUART'S PRINCIPLES, - 447 COMMON GROUND FOR THE HUMANE AND CHRISTIANS, 455 REVIEW CALLING FOR ADDED TESTIMONIES, - - 457 CRITICISM OF TESTIMONY OF CHRISTIAN FATHERS, - 461 PRINCIPLES RULING INTERPRETATION OF FATHERS, - 463 NUMBER OF WRITERS AND THEIR INTERPRETERS, - 466 JUSTIN AND IREN^US IN SECOND CENTURY, - - 468 CLEMENT, THE LEADING WITNESS IN SECOND CENTURY, 469 TERTULLIAN, LATIN WITNESS IN THIRD CENTURY, - 480 ORIGEN, ALEXANDRIAN WITNESS IN " " - 483 CYPRIAN, CARTHAGINIAN " " " - 490 ZENO, ITALIAN " " " - 494 ARNOBIUS, CARTHAG. WITNESS IN FOURTH CENTURY, 497 EUSEBIUS, CHURCH HISTORIAN IN FOURTH CENTURY, 499 LACTANTIUS AND ATHANASIUS IN " " 502 HlLARIUS AND EPIPHANIUS IN " " 506 AMBROSE OF MILAN, ITALY, IN " " 508 BASIL, CHRYSOSTOM, AND CYRIL IN " " 511 JEROME, THE COMMENTATOR OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, 515 AUGUSTINE, THE THEOLOGIAN OF " " 519 4 Contents. THEODORET, THE GREEK THEOLOGIAN OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, --------529 RECENT HEBREW CRITICISMS ON WINES, - 532 RECENT GREEK AND LATIN CRITICISMS ON WINES, - 537 RECENT MEDIEVAL CRITICISMS ON WINES, - - 547 RESULTS ATTAINED AND TRUTH ESTABLISHED, - 550 OBSTACLES TO ACCEPTANCE OF RESULTS, - 562 UNSCIENTIFIC CRITICISM OF HISTORIC RECORDS, - 567 WRITER'S RELATIONS TO DISCUSSION ON WINES, - 584 THE WRITER TO HIS READERS. IF the writer of the following treatise may judge from his own experience, the title-page of this volume will be met with both a pre-judgment and a prejudice. That pre-judgment will appear in the inquiry : " Has not advanced scholarship decided that there can be no unfermented wine ? " That prejudice will reveal itself in the question : " If Divine law has appointed the use of unintox- icating wines, why has not the law of their prep- aration been sooner brought out ?" It the prej- udice be groundless, the pre-judgment may per- mit an impartial meeting of writer and reader. Ruling minds in Europe and America are now agreed that stable and efficient government must be constitutional ; that servitude must be but minorage guardianship ; and that religious worship must be free. Thorough scholarship now finds that each of these modern reforms was embodied both in theory and practice in Hebrew, Grecian and Roman constitutions ; and that they are ever traceable in the connections of ancient literature. A clear and full understand- ing of the actual statements of ancient writers is attained only by the conspiring of two co- operating causes; first, an imperative popular demand which gives a clear eye ; second, a com- prehensive survey which gives a full view. (5) 6 The Writer to his Readers. The same writers whose records make distinct the existence of the rule of natural law, now ad- mitted as reform, reveal an unbroken succession of facts illustrating " the Divine law as to wines." In all ages of thought and culture, physicians, states- men and moralists have recognized the "poison " lurking in fermented wines ; and from sani- tary, social and religious convictions, they have sought to counteract and eradicate it. The Egyp- tians and Hebrews had an " unfermented wine ; " as a chain of authorities from Moses, the histo- rian and law-giver, to Fuerst, the latest Hebrew lexicographer, attest. The laxative, as opposed to the intoxicating effect of such wine, is stated by a succession of Hebrew, Grecian and Roman writers. The mode of preparing and preserving such wine is minutely described by Roman writ- ers from Cato, ac. 200, to Pliny, A.D. 100. The fact that such wine is referred to in the Gospel histories as that used by Christ at both the Pass- over and Lord's Supper, is confirmed by the words of the inspired writers, by the comments and translations of the early and of the Reformed Christian scholars, and by the prevailing, though ofttimes perverted, practice of the Jewish and Christian Churches. The demands of science, in medicine and jurisprudence, in social and Christian ethics, justify the attempt to trace impartially that history. THE EXPERIENCE AS A GUIDE TO LAW. EXPERIENCE, or personal history, is not only a part of, but an essential prerequisite to the study of universal history in each and all of its de- partments. The writer's boyhood-memories recall a child- hood-tasting of the sugary bottom of a glass on his mother's sideboard left by a guest of his father, who was a clergyman of great moral worth. The sensation as of worms crawling through his young brain, the " biting serpent " of Solomon, created a dread never overcome. Shortly after an extra glass led that father to insist that a closet-door should open the opposite way from that indicated by its hinges, and gave an added terror to that dread ; for it embodied Solomon's warning, " Wine is a mocker; Strong drink is raging." The temperance reform soon came ; that father was one of its earnest, but conservative advo- cates ; and an early Christian profession added to the convictions before formed. (7) 8 The Divine Law as to Wines. In school-days extremists were met. Some fellow-students, preparing for college, were so severe toward conservatives and so ascetic in their demands, that their mate of but fourteen years rose and proposed to add to the pledge " abstinence from cold water ; " since many lost their lives by intemperance in its use. Youth and early manhood passed without committal to a pledge, but in the strictest abstinence. A tour in the East, through Egypt, by Mount Sinai, through Palestine, was made in i847-'8, shortly after the scholarly investigations of Presi- dent Nott and of Professor Stuart had stemmed, though not turned the tide, counter to sound Biblical interpretation, which heated advocates of total abstinence had awakened by their attacks on the Christian Church and the Christian Scriptures as inculcating the use of wines. The counter and opposing statements of Rev. Messrs. Smith and Homes, coming from Syria and Constantinople, prompted personal observa- tion and inquiry throughout the entire Levant. The subsequent responsible charge of pastor to a congregation, many of whose members were leading statesmen, led to a frequent presentation of the evils arising from wine-drinking in fashion- able society ; which aided the determination then prevalent to banish wine from official entertain- ments. The equally responsible duty of a col- Experience a Guide to Law. g lege-president prompted consistent example, and teaching that entire abstinence was the only safe rule for personal guidance. Solomon's precept, " It is not for princes to drink wine," formed an efficient appeal to the ambitious student ; as Paul's allusion, " The athlete is temperate in all things," was an effectual incitement to religious devotion. Meanwhile the use of brandy pre- scribed by a physician as a tonic, gave personal assurance that far better, as well as less danger- ous prescriptions should be made by physicians. Moreover, to satisfy friends who pleaded fashion for the use of light wines, companions in travel were yielded to, that the experiment of their ef- fect might be satisfactory ; when a large com- pany of mature and youthful fellow-travellers returned to resist the introduction of European drinking customs into America. Seven years of college and pastoral life in New York have been made trying by appeals of anxious mothers whose sons were falling, by re- formed inebriates who so dreaded the tempta- tion of the Communion-cup, and of merchant- princes who despond because no American families can be perpetuated. The writer would have incurred the sentence against " buried talent," had he not, when invited, faithfully yet unassumingly traced the history which follows. io The Divine Law as to Wines. LAW IN ITS NATURE AND ESTABLISHMENT . Law is defined by the scientist, " An order of sequence ; " but by the jurist as " A rule of action." Both definitions are in accord. A law is the regular order in which events, in their relation of cause and effect, follow one another. Experience, or personal history, and observation which brings in many experiences, permit a decision of the observer as to what is law, or the uniform order of cause and effect. History, according as its range is extended, adds increasing confirmation to what by individual experience might have been conceived to be law. The " law of wines " is thus to be determined. If truth is sought, it is attained when the effect of wines on the human constitution is ascertain- ed as an " order of sequence." If duty is desired, the law of wines, once ascertained, becomes a M rule of action." Since law can not be imposed on man without a higher authority, since a majority, however numerous, have no authority to restrict the personal right of a single individu il, jurists add to their definition : " Law is a rule of action pre- scribed by an adequate authority.' As men never have submitted willingly to mere human authority, no legislature has ever dreamed of en- acting and enforcing law except as the manifest will of the Author of all, manifested either in nature or in His revealed Word. The search Province of Science and Civil Law. 1 1 for law then as " an order of sequence," and also " as a rule of action," will in vain make its appeal to the reason and conscience of men, un- less it is seen to be " the Divine law." In all the history of wines here to be traced, it will be seen that the wise and the good men of earth have been seeking the " Divine law of Wines." The maxim, " Experience is the best teacher,' thus extends and expands into the precept, " History is philosophy teaching by example." As science is " systematized " knowledge, as art is " applied " knowledge, as philosophy is " unified " knowledge, and as religion is " harmonized " knowledge, their varied yet conspiring voices should be listened to and comprehended, before the fields of history, which but echo their voices, are traversed. THE PROVINCE OF SCIENCE, OF ART, AND OF CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS JURISPRUDENCE IN DETER- MINING THE LAW OF WINES. It is the province of science to observe and compare, to analyze and classify phenomena, so as to reach essential principles of truth as to the nature and relations of man to things and beings around him. Though the means of observing and analyzing, as by the microscope and galvanic battery, have been improved, Aristotle was the guide of Agassiz in natural history ; and H ip- 12 The Divine Law as to Wines. pocrates and Pliny are teachers of modern phy- sicians and encyclopedists in analyzing the prop- erties and effects of various wines. It is the province of art to take up prin- ciples established by science, and apply them in works of utility and beauty. The ancient Egyp- tian artists could not, without a knowledge now lost, have invented arts now beyond human skill. The fact that the Greeks were inimitable in sculpture and in architecture is not more pal- pable than the fact that the profoundest study re- veals scientific methods inexplicable to modern students. It is equally noteworthy that the pictures drawn by Homer and Virgil of Calypso and the Sirens in their power over the sage and heroic Ulysses, and that the statues of Bacchus, conceived and executed by the earliest Greek sculptors, are an appeal to warn men against yielding to the first seduction of the intoxicating cup, such as modern art seldom approaches. It is the province of the statesman to observe in his own community and generation, and to trace in the history of all nations and ages, the nature and relations of men and things so far as these interfere with the welfare of men in society No modern statesman had studied more compre- hensively the social evils of wines than did Plato ; no military or republican leader has more rigidly enforced its laws than Lycurgus and Numa ; and Aim of the Proposed Inquiry. 13 no moralists ever taught the grounds for absti- nence more clearly than the wise men of Egypt, Chaldea, and India ; as did Moses, Solomon, and Daniel reared among them. It is the province of religion to gather, to systematize, and to impress on the popular mind the proofs that there is a Being who is the Author of all things and of all human relations ; that the laws which control man's relations to his fellows in the family and society are not made and imposed by civil rulers, but by his and their common Maker and Father; and that instead of rebelling, therefore, against restrictive statutes conformed to laws too deep for his personal study, he should gratefully recognize the superior wis- dom of men who have studied them for his good, and whose authority to enforce them has been given because the common welfare demands their observance. THE CHIEF AIM OF THE PROPOSED INQUIRY. The title-page of this treatise presupposes two existing facts : that men by nature have religious conviction, and that religious conviction prompts inquiry as to the law of wines. The essential nature of religious conviction and the two classes of practical duties to which that conviction prompts men were never better stated by Roman writers than when the " desire of all nations " was 14 The Divine Law as to Wines. realized in the Author of the Christian religion. Cicero derived the word religio from " relego " or " religo," meaning to review and retrace ; say- ing " Sunt dicti religiosi ex relegendo," they are called religious from retracing. The same comprehensive writer summed up the two duties prompted by religious conviction thus : " Religio est, quae superioris cujusdam naturae, quam di- vinam vocant, curam cserimoniamque affert;" which may be rendered : " Religion is that which prompts to moral carefulness and ceremonial de- votion to any superior being whom men regard divine." It is, now, religious conviction as to the moral propriety of using wines, both as a bever- age and in religious rites, to which Cicero's com- prehensive statement calls us. It will be found that as religious duty rests in all minds, and in all ages, on these two ideas, of carefulness as to personal moral habits, and of scrupulousness as to formal religious rites, so in all ages, distinct from all articles of diet and select among all offerings to deity, wine has been made the subject of special thought and debate. THE PRESENT CALL FOR THIS REVIEW. In everything that concerns man, in scientific survey, in moral reform, in religious progress, there is, as there was before Christ's coming, a " due time." In the gradual spread and power Present Call for Historic Review. 15 of Christ's Gospel, there was a time for Grecian wisdom, and then for Roman power to yield to its sway ; a time for frequent successive reforma- tions where Christianity prevailed, and then for missions abroad ; a time for moral reforms in civil and then in domestic associations ; and now, perhaps, a time for the true law of the use of wines in social customs and ecclesiastical rites to gain its legitimate sway. Men of science are now devoted with special earnestness to the re- covery of the victims of intoxication ; they are noting with all the appliances of modern chemi- cal research the effects of alcohol on the human body ; and they do not fear to be regarded un- scientific in maintaining the truth to which ob- servation leads them. They declare that, in ad- mixtures, alcohol is not only not nutritious, but more, that it is not even a stimulant, being, in fact, an irritant ; and they illustrate their idea by the different effects of food, some kinds and pro- portions of which are nutritive and others stimu- lating, while any surplus in proper proportions, and some ingredients in any proportions, only inflame and irritate, being not only .void of nu- trition, but unhealthful in their excitement. They agree universally in declaring that pure, unadulterated alcohol is as truly a poison as anti- mony. If now as early as the days of Hippoc- rates, the earliest medical writer whose records 1 6 The Divine 'Law as to Wines. are preserved, the same truth is found stated, and its recognition age after age is recorded, it must be the part of those who wish to be scientific to note this testimony of successive observers. Artists and men of letters are yet more ob- servant; and, as of old, they are embodying truth. Gustave Dore, the magical delineator of supernatural scenes, conceived a vase of strange device for the Paris Exposition of 1878. It is a Greek " amphora " or wine-tureen, on whose brim ruddy cupids are sporting in childish innocence ; but who, becoming gradually intoxi- cated by the mere fumes of the wine within, suc- cessively fall from the brim upon the project- ing bulge of the vase below, where toads and lizards, snakes and vipers, ravenous beasts and reptiles receive and prey upon them. Strange though it seem to modern view, it is nothing else than the reconstruction of the visions of Homer and Virgil, when nymphs and sirens seduced and betrayed the Greek Ulysses and the Trojan yEneas by the inflaming intoxication of the wine- cup. If men of genius are found even before the days of -Homer, long indeed before Moses' day, to have had the same vision, then it need not be wondered at that Mrs. Jameson has traced the preeminent success of the three great masters, Lionardo, Angelo, and Raphael, to their absti- nence ; and that the long-lived caricaturist, Artists, Jurists, and Churchmen Aroused. 17 Cruikshank. has enlisted in the ranks of advo- cates for total abstinence from all that can intoxi- cate. Dore has studied the spirit of the age, and sees its moral drift He leads only by yielding to the current. Yet again, jurists and churchmen are com- ing, not reluctantly, but with conscientious ardor, to weigh facts, arguments, and appeals that come from every civilized nation and their statesmen, and from every branch of the Christian Church ; which latter, where established Churches prevail, finds its ultimate appeal in courts of law. In Great Britain Presbyterian Synods and Wesleyan Conferences are agitated with discussions whether unintoxicating wines may not be furnished for the Lord's Supper ; and in the English Episcopal Church suit is actually brought to test the question whether the change may not be legally made. In America, the multi- plying number of communicants brought into churches from the ranks of former inebriates is prompting from policy, if not for conscience' sake, the use of unintoxicating wine at the Lord's Supper. Meanwhile, in the Roman Catholic Church Archbishop Manning is heard, at Lon- don, declaring that the great evil of English Christianity is the social drinking custom ; while Archbishop, now Cardinal, McCloskey, three winters ago, called on Irish Catholics to maintain 1 8 The Divine Law as to Wines. the virtue of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors, citing Christ's abstinence during his six hours of agony on the cross from the intoxicating wine offered Him, as the Divine call to that vir- tue. There seems, then, to come from every class of thinking men, scientists, artists, jurists, and moralists, a common call to review the ques- tion of wines in religious uses. THE MATERIALS FOR THIS SURVEY. It is remarkable that universal literature should be permeated by statements of facts and princi- ples relating to the use of wines ; an indication most manifest that mankind have found in it a theme worthy of consideration. Prior to the records of Moses, among the codes of law al- luded to by him as inferior to his own writings (Deut. iv. 8), in Chaldea, Egypt, and India, a learned class left records which indicate that men had, at that early day, so observed the effects of the use of wines as to make them the subjects of legislation. Thus the " Institutes of Menu," the last of the Indian Vedas, embody as statutes founded on "immemorial customs," laws pro- hibiting its use ; while also like Egyptian stat- utes are recorded. The Hebrew Scriptures of three special ages, the patriarchal history and body of laws written by Moses, the lyric and didactic poems of the early kings David and Historic Records to Guide. 19 Solomon, and the prophetic and historic records of the nation's decline, are full of pictures of the evils of wine-drinking ; and their statements are illustrated, as well as amplified, in successive Greek, Latin, and modern European translations, in the comments, during successive ages, of He- brew and Christian scholars, and by modern He- braists. The long line of Greek and Roman classic writers, poets and moralists, physicians and natural- ists, statesmen and horticulturists, present testi- monies as varied and as impressive as those of Byron and Cowper, yet all conspiring. The New Testament example and teaching of Jesus and of His Apostles, and the testimony of men in suc- ceeding ages and differing divisions of the Christian Church, such as Clement, Jerome, and Aquinas, as to the meaning of those teachings, is the central and authoritative Christian guide. The Talmud and later Hebrew traditions as to Old Testament customs, the statutes of the Arabian prophet, borrowed from Christian pre- cepts as well as from experience as a legislator, and the mediaeval corruptions of Jewish, Christ- ian and Muhammedan festivities, bridge over the dark period that ushers in modern progres. Lastly, the multiplied studies and encyclopedic treatises of modern English and American ad- vocates of social, moral and religious reforms, often controversial and even partisan, but pro- 2O The Divine Law as to Wines. found in thought and scholarly in research, de- mand long and calm consideration, that the balance of truth may give just weight to oppo- site opinions and to apparently conflicting state- ments of fact. CAUSES OF DIFFERING CONCLUSIONS. In the almost interminable labyrinth of his- toric records relating to the use of wines, not only the map of the field just outlined, but also some clues to lead the student out of the necessary intricacies in which some explorers have become involved, seem to be needed. A few hints, gathered through readings of nearly half a cen- tury from earliest childhood, may give aid to some perplexed inquirer. First. The broadness of the field of survey compels the selection of central points of ob- servation, and a grouping of minor details under leading principles. Many now ask, as if the suggestion were a new one, " Why, if the wine of Christ's employ were unintoxicating why has not the fact been sooner brought out and a purer practice been maintained ? " Among those familiar with the discussions on almost every point of Christian truth now existing, such as divorce, slavery, etc., which are but the rever- berating echoes of centuries and ages, this sug- gestion in the first place awakens a conception Causes of Differing Conclusions. 21 of the limitless field of survey. Modern science in every department invites division of labor ; a single branch of the great study, if exhaustive, demanding a life employ. It is the work of a collator of such multiplied and minute observa- tions to search for the common principles, and to aim at an analytic grouping of kindred facts, whose undigested presentation confuses instead of guiding. Second. The fact that the eye must furnish the only fully apprehended facts for reasoning on any subject, intimates that personal observation may modify impressions gained by mere reading. This is preeminently noteworthy in the profound researches of German scholarship. While Egypt and Syria were shut up by Muhammedan prej- udice, Von Bohlen argued the late origin of the books said to be those of Moses ; because, while these books refer to wine in Egypt, Plutarch states that the Egyptians did not drink wine before the time of Psammiticus, and at that time did not offer it in sacrifice. Hengstenberg, replying when the French invasion revealed the culture of the vine and the making of wine as existing in the days of Abraham, even Hengstenberg but half comprehends the import of Plutarch's statement, and positively denies an apparent statement of Herodotus that " the vine was not cultured in Egypt." Thorough personal obser- 22 The Divine Law as to W> ines. vation would have revealed the fact that in the Valley of the Nile, reaching like Italy and the American coast through hundreds of miles from north to south, with every variety of soil and product though not of clime, Herodotus is speaking only of lower Egypt ; while Plutarch refers specially to the priests, or learned class, and means by "wine," in that connection, intoxicat- ing as distinct from the unintoxicating products of the vine. Again, the limit of the special ex- plorer's field, the age in which he lives, and the local and popular meaning of terms, may restrict his view, and prevent the comprehensiveness of a conscientious reporter. The differing reports of Rev. Eli Smith, in the mountains of Leba- non, and of Rev. Mr. Homes, at Constantinople, made within two years' time, 1846 and 1848, re- call the fact that the ancient Israelites had varie- ties of wines ; that Jerome, living for thirty years in Palestine, describes intoxicating and unintoxi- cating wine (vinum] ; that the Arabic lexicog- rapher Freytag and the French vocabularies give the common name, " vinum " and " vin" to "khamreh," the fermented, and to "sherbet," the unfermented product of the vine. Third. The fact that the influence of social custom, and especially of personal habit, causes an unconscious overlooking of facts conflicting with prevalent opinions and observations, must Causes of Differing Conclusions. 23 be overcome before all the facts and principles brought before an inquirer's mind can be rightly judged. Any thoughtful reader of Horace, Athenseus, Byron, and kindred votaries of luxury and frivolity, must weigh against them the sober statements of Virgil, Plutarch, Young, and like calm reporters of truth for the sake of men's instruction ; or the spirit of recent English treatises on the use of wine will be sure to mis- lead. The important truth to note is, that both classes alike picture the law and its penalty : while the one class make the law their sport dur- ing the hour of indulgence, and its penalty their curse when too late it is fastened upon them. The recent meeting of such a mind as that of the Rev. A. M. Wilson, of Bathgate, England with such a testimony as that of Prof. Moses Stuart, of Andover, New England, is a markec illustration of the effect of different moods, the serious or sarcastic, in viewing the same facts. Fourth. The fact that the practical judgment of men of differing temperaments may fail to ap- preciate the extreme leanings to which conscien- tious conviction may lead wise and good men indicates the necessity of deciding what is the law of duty as to the use of wine. Without doubt the Nazarite vow of total abstinence not only from intoxicating wines, but from any nutritious product of the vine, appears at first extreme and 24 The Divine Law as to Wines. illegitimate. Yet, there may have been no ex- treme, but conformity to strict law in such ab- stinence. The profound ethical writer, Aristotle, who was merely putting into form the recog- nized principle of the wise in all ages, defined virtue as the medium between extremes. The virtue in physical indulgence is temperance, the medium between luxury and abstemiousness. His two rules for the application of this princi- ple, however, are the following : First, when the danger is all on one side, abstinence doing no injury, while indulgence might injure, it is virtue to keep to the extreme on the safe side. Sec' ond t when a wrong habit has been formed, a bent, as in straightening a bow, to the opposite extreme is absolutely necessary. The extreme of abstinence in John, Christ's forerunner, was as truly God's law for a man of his impulsive nature as was Christ's use of unintoxicating wine God's law for Him and His future follow- ers. Fifth. Since, in ancient as well as modern writers, established facts may be stated amid ob- servations and opinions only incidental and par- tial, which seem to be adverse to the main truth, no prejudice against the main truth should arise because of these apparently conflicting state- ments of a writer, or because of the careless over- statement and often unwise pride of scholarship on Causes of Differing Conclusions. 25 the part of those who have misquoted the writer. Thus the statements of Solomon, " Wine is a mocker," " At last it biteth like a serpent," " It is not for princes to drink wine," these are unqualified in their declaration ; and hence all qualified utterances that seem to modify their manifest assertion should not override, but be made to harmonize with these declarations. Again, the Hebrew wordyaym is without ques- tion generic, rather than special, including many species of wines that have more or less of the intoxicating quality ; and yet yayin is not, like the Greek oinos, the ultimate genus; for the Greek translators of the Hebrew Scriptures not only employed oinos to represent the Hebrew yayin, but also to represent the Hebrew tiros h, which is not included in the class yayin. Again, the masculine Greek adjective glukus applied to oinos, rendered "sweet wine," may be shown by the best authorities to indicate wines in which limited ferment has taken place, and in which, therefore, a small proportion of alcohol has been traced. But, on the other hand, the neuter noun glukos, sometimes written gleukos, contrasted as to its medicinal qualities by Hippocrates, the earliest Greek medical writer, with " sweet wine," is wine in which the first ferment has been pre- vented, so that it is the Latin mustum, or unfer- mented grape-juice. The fact that the failure to 26 The Divine Law as to Wines. make these distinctions, just named, has led to volumes of controversy, which only the distinc- tion here stated can reconcile, indicates the im- portance of this rule for the examination and citation of authorities. Sixth. The most subtle, because frequently the unconscious occasion of conflict in the esti- mate of facts relating to wines in religious uses, is the influence of professional etiquette, in ex- pressing, if not in forming, an opinion adverse to present customs and convictions. Physicians, who ought to be the best judges of the nature and influence of alcoholic drinks, seem often to regard themselves bound by fidelity to the princi- ples of their school or of their profession ; and are, therefore, indisposed to utter a scientific conviction adverse to that of their less thought- ful and conscientious associates. Indeed, even Christian missionaries, with special facilities for independent observation, may be balanced be- tween the question whether it is their duty to foster controversy by taking part in discussions which may seem to many not of vital moment. It is only by tracing the impartial judgment of medical men from Hippocrates down to our own day, and among physicians, noting carefully the testimony of " specialists," like the physician of Alexander the Great, and the superintendents of modern inebriate hospitals, that the real in- Causes of Differing Conclusions. 27 fluence of alcohol on the human system can be known as a science. Again, when the first glance impressions of devoted missionaries, as noble in spirit as Dr. Duff, of Calcutta, are ap- parently repressed by manifestoes placed before them for their signature, the humble searcher for truth must weigh the circumstances, if he would give proper weight to the missionary's un- biased first impressions as against his courtesy when discovering that unwittingly the truth has wounded those wedded to a social custom. Seventh. 'While professional etiquette may lead to the withholding of individual conviction as to the influence of alcoholic drinks, want of discrimination in observation or in statement may lead to a failure to distinguish between the nature and action of alcohol itself, which is but one of the ingredients in intoxicating wines, and the action of other ingredients of those wines which are nutritive, stimulating, or otherwise medicinal. Without question, the boiled wines of the ancients, from which the alcohol had been in part expelled by heat, and which were found to be so much less inebriating that a larger amount could be drunk with impunity without question, these wines had, in a more concentrated form, the nutritive and restorative qualities of the grape-juice from which they were made. So, in modern wines, burnt brandy, in cookery or in 28 The Divine Law as to Wines. medicine, from which the alcohol is expelled, is both nutritious and medicinal. When, therefore, the medical faculties prescribe wines and brandies as restoratives from the exhaustion of fever, it is reasonable to ask, as it was asked in ancient times, would not these wines and brandies thus prescribed be even more efficacious if the alco- holic quality were extracted? When from the days of Hippocrates this discrimination seems to have been made by Greek physicians, it is worthy of consideration whether more harmony in the prescriptions of modern scientific physicians would not be found to prevail, if the question were asked and answered, " Which of the ingre- dients in wines and brandies is the restorative ? Is it the portion of the natural grape-juice which has been converted into alcohol, or that which is not alcohol, that gives stimulating nutriment?" In the historic survey here attempted this last rule will be found of special importance. Guided now by these principles of judgment, the now acknowledged results of modern scien- tific investigation as to the nature and origin of alcohol, and its action on the human system, may be more intelligently considered. In the historic survey which is to follow that consideration, the leading principles of investigation above stated will be found to have been practically recognized. Hence the opinions deduced from the facts which Fermenting Ingredient in Grape-Juice. 29 have guided legislators and moral and religious teachers, may be the better appreciated ; and the weight to be given to these convictions of men of other ages, in their bearing on modern ques- tions as to the law of wines, may perhaps become more apparent. ELEMENTS IN GRAPE-JUICE WHICH GIVE ORIGIN TO FERMENT. In grape-juice are found two of the leading in- gredients which furnish nutrition to plant and animal organism : sugar, composed of the three chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxy. gen ; and gluten or albumen, composed of the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and ni- trogen, to which is also added a small amount of sulphur and phosphorus. The watery, sweet juice, flowing between the skin and the central seed-envelope, is chiefly sugar dissolved in water ; while the gluten is gathered in the pulp that lines the skin and in the seed-envelope at the center of the grape. Nitrogen, in all its com- pounds, is an unstable element ; ready to release itself from one union and to seek another. Hence it has a double office : to hasten the decay and decomposition of worn-out vegetable and ani- mal organisms ; and this, that it may fulfill its main mission of acting as the propelling agent in the composition and promotion of new organisms. 30 The Divine Law as to Wines. It is at once the destroyer of old and the organ- izer of new compounds. When the two classes of nutritious ingredients found in the grape-juice, namely, sugar and al- bumen, are in contact, the nitrogen of the albu- men is disposed to act on the sugar, and change it into new ingredients. In order to this action, two intermediate agents must be present : water and the oxygen of the air. The impenetrable skin of the grape excludes the oxygen of the air, and by the process of drying the water may be evaporated through the skin, so that the action of the albumen on the sugar will be permanently prevented. The dried raisin may be kept for years unchanged. If, however, the skin be rup- tured, and the approach of the oxygen of the air be secured, a chemical change immediately commences, which in a few hours will become apparent ; and which, if unarrested, will cause a series of transformations in the compounds suc- cessively developed. If, however, when the skin is thus ruptured, the watery, sweet juice be gently pressed out, so as to leave the glutinous albu- men in the skin, the sugar will be so separated from the albumen that the change produced will be very slight. On the contrary, if a heavy pressure be exerted on the grape, which shall expel the albumen as well as the sugar, and leave them mingled together in the open aii,the Nature of Ferment and its Products. 31 chemical changes will be both rapid and radical. The changes thus wrought are called " ferments; " changes whose laws have been practically known to mankind in all ages the records of whose his- tory are preserved. THE NATURE OF FERMENT AND ITS PRODUCTS. The word " ferment," from the Latin fervere, to boil, whence also the word " effervesce," calls attention to the rise and escape of bubbles, which soon appears when expressed grape-juice is exposed to the air. It is likewise observed in the action of yeast on rising bread, and in the effervescence of soda-water, beer, cider, and corked wines. This ebullition is but the visible indication of connected changes, by which the elements composing grape-sugar are converted into compounds including eight subdivisions ; two of which are alcohol, two water, and four carbonic acid gas, whose escape causes the ob- served effervescence. The following table indi- cates, first, the chemical elements in the grape- sugar ; second, their redistribution after the first ferment. Grape-sugar contains, and its three results, al- cohol, water, and carbonic acid, receive, the fol- lowing elements in the proportions indicated by their numbers: 32 The Divine Law as to Wines. COMPOUNDS. ELEMENTS IN THEIR PROPORTIONS Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Grape-sugar 12 14 14 Alcohol 8 12 4 Water o 2 2 Carbonic acid 4 o Total 12 14 14 The presence of a large proportion of water, mixed with the sugar in grape-juice, causes the propor- tion of alcohol in wines to be small ; although, as indicated, 24 parts out of 40 equivalents found in the grape-sugar itself have been converted into alcohol. It is the alcohol which forms the intoxicating element in wines. This ferment, however, called the "vinous or alcoholic fer- ment," is but the first stage tending to an ul- timate result ; which, if Nature be not interfered with in her law of action, will soon appear. In the vinous ferment, the change of grape- sugar into alcohol, water, and carbonic arid gas will go on till all the sugar is transformed ; while the exhaustion of the nitrogen in the albumen is but partial. The remaining albumen now be- gins to act upon the alcohol, diluted as it is in water. In this action, the alcohol is first decom- posed by the union of two atoms of its hydrj-^en with two portions of oxygen from the air; furnish- ing thus the two compounds, aldehyde and vater. Nature of Ferment and its Products. 33 The ferment proper here ceases ; but by oxida tion two more atoms of oxygen are absorbed by the new compound aldehyde, thus converting it into acetic acid or vinegar; the nutritive com- pound, which, as its name, derived from the French, indicates, is simply "sour wine." And yet Nature's end is not complete. The universally recognized chemical changes thus wrought in Nature by ferment may be traced in any one of the ordinary text-books, as those of Silliman, Wells, Youmans, Rolfe and Gillet ; they may be historically reviewed in the exhaustive articles found in the best English, French, and American encyclopedias ; or they may be analyzed in their scientific principles as they touch on philosophic theories, in such works as those of Liebig and Helmholtz. The important truth to hold in mind in all this ex- amination is, that we are not entitled to infer authoritatively what is the design of the Creator until we have reached the last of the series of the changes wrought by ferment. The three upon which attention is to be fixed are, first, the formation of alcohol ; second, of vinegar ; third, of food for new plants and animals. Liebig, of Germany, says, that " while the vi- nous ferment is going on, the acetous ferment can not begin ; " thus indicating that the form- ing of alcohol is but the first in successive 34 The Divine Law as to Wines. changes designed by the Creator. Colon, of France, more fully indicates the formation of alcohol as a transition change, by stating that acetous, or the second stage of ferment, is the " portant 1'alcool d'une liqueur spiritueuse & celui de vin aigre " the " carrying over the alcohol of a spirituous liquor to that of sour wine." Liebig, and others, again, call attention to the fact that cane-sugar must be converted into grape-sugar, and the starch of grain be transformed into the same sugar, before vinous or alcoholic ferment can take place. Hence, in obtaining spirituous liquors, such as beer, from grain, advantage is taken of the fact, that in the germination of any seed, as barley, the starch in the seed-envelope is by the moisture and heat converted into sugar as the germ sprouts and grows. Hence, malt for beer is prepared by moistening and gently heat- ing the grain ; then allowing it to sprout until the starch is converted into sugar ; and then de- stroying the germ and concentrating the sugar by drying and baking ; after which the glutinous ferment can be added, and made to act. Helm- holtz discovered that, as ferment proceeds, living plant - organisms are formed; and though it was at first overlooked that these organisms spring from germs of microscopic minuteness floating in the air, which the action of the nitro- gen in the ferment causes to develop into cell-' Mode of Concentrating Alcohol. 35 formations, Helmholtz reached the legit mate conclusion that ferment is ultimately designed to nurture new life. Certainly the mind that stops short at the first product of ferment, the alcohol, which will be changed into vinegar if left to pass into nature's second product, is not entitled to decide that alcohol is a product de- signed for man's use by his Creator. All putre- faction, of which ferment is one form, has as its ultimate design to start and nurture new forms of life. THE NATURE OF ALCOHOL, AND ITS EFFECT ON THE HUMAN SYSTEM. As already noted, but a portion of the ele- ments constituting sugar are converted by fer- ment into alcohol ; and as a large portion of grape-juice is water, in which the sugar is dis- solved, the alcohol in wine may be but a small ingredient. It is important to note what alco- hol, in its concentrated essence, is ; since its ef- fect on the system may be partially neutralized by other ingredients drunk with it. The name al-cohol is Arabic ; and is in itself most significant. As alcohol is converted at a heat of 173 F. from its fluid into a gaseous form, a heat of about 175 will cause the alcohol in wine to pass off in vapor ; while most of the water, which evaporates partially at any temper- 36 The Divine Law as to Wines. ature, but rapidly and completely at 212 R, remains with the other ingredients of the wine. This vapor of alcohol, thus driven off with some water-vapor accompanying it, may be made to pass through a cool pipe or still, and be con- densed again into a liquid, most of which is pure alcohol. Alcohol was thus obtained in the twelfth century by Al-Bucasis, an Arabian chemist ; in the thirteenth century, Raymond Sully removed the remaining water by quick- lime ; and in the latter part of the eighteenth century, Lavoisier and Saussure, French chem- ists, analyzed pure alcohol, showing the elements of which it is composed. The fact that the Arabian chemist who first concentrated alcohol, discovered by experiment that it was a most deadly poison, led to its des- ignation. The Arabic name for sulphuret of antimony, the mineral poison known to the Greeks as stimini, and to the Romans as stibium, is kohl. Known to the Egyptians in the earliest times, this compound was used by women, to paint the inner rim of the eyelids, so as to make a dark ring about the eyes, thus setting off the white of the eyeball by the strong contrast of color. This fancied decoration, continued in all ages on the east of the Mediterranean, after a time deadens the secretions of the skin, causing at last the eyelashes to fall out. In the tombs Al-cohol the Arabic for Antimony. 37 of Egypt, among other articles for the toilet deposited with the dead, were small wooden bottles of this sulphuret of antimony, with the sticks used to apply it to the eyelids ; and the Arabs recognize the article as the kohl of their bazaars and toilet-tables. The properties of this compound are fully described by Dios- corides, a Greek botanist and physician, who, in the time of Nero and of Christ's Apostles, trav- eled throughout the Roman Empire in Europe, Asia and Africa, and prepared five books " On the Materia Medica" (Peri Hyles latrikes), which became the standard authority for fifteen cent- uries. It is this work which gives clearness to the views of ancient Greek physicians as to the influence of " wine " as a medicament. The name kohl is derived from kahal, a verb mean- ing to " paint with antimony ;" with the second- ary meaning to " render sterile." The applica- tion of this term, al-cohol, the concentrated kohl, indicates its character as recognized by the first observers. All medical and chemical authorities agree that pure alcohol is a most active poison ; excoriating and deadening when applied exter- nally to the skin ; and yet more active and deadly when received inwardly upon the delicate mem- branes of the mouth, throat, and stomach. This universally recognized and admitted fact v that concentrated alcohol is an active poison, 38 The Divine Law as to Wines. prepares the way for a harmonizing of the state- ments of ancient and modern observers as to the action of diluted alcohol ; especially for the an- cient Grecian and Roman distinction between wines mixed and unmixed sweet, sour, and pure and between must and wine ; as also many other specific designations which have prevailed from the days of Hippocrates, the earliest Greek physician. It will especially show why Hippod-rates styled pure, unmixed wine as a medicament, pharmakon ; and why all through the history of Greco-Latin literature, Philo, the Hebrew, Pliny the Roman, Jerome and other Christian writers, designated pure or intoxicating wine as " venenum," poison. It explains, too, why the ablest English and American physicians, called to the self-denying, patient, and conscien- tious effort to cure inebriates, and resorting to every form of experiment to test the action of alcohol, in the minutest quantities, on the human system, have become more and more unanimous in their declared convictions. While the ingre- dients of wine and of malt liquors, as well as of brandies prepared from them, may have* valuable nutritive and medicinal qualities, it is quite otherwise with the alcohol that is intermixed with them. Alcohol imbibed by a healthy per- son passes undigested and unchanged through the system, exciting to a feverish action the tis- Resorts to Arrest Alcoholic Rerment. 39 sues, especially those of the nerves, which it touches ; and it is finally discharged unchanged mainly through the exhalations of the skin and lungs; being, in fact, expelled as an intruder. Alcohol imbibed in disease, as even Hippocrates discovered, instead of being a healthful stimulant, is rather an overacting irritant. Like the min- eral medicines used by truly scientific pharmacy, it may be resorted to as a choice of evils ; but it is a resort most ruinous in its effect if employed in any other than cases where a powerful irritant is necessary. RESORTS TO ARREST FERMENT IN WINES AND DIMINISH ITS ALCOHOL. In all the survey thus far followed, and in all the history yet to be traced, it should be dis- tinctly kept in mind that distilled intoxicants are modern inventions ; and it is not their nature or effects which is in question. It is the alco- holic property in fermented wines alone, which, mingled with other and nutritive properties in the juice of the grape, is the theme of ancient and medieval history ; and it is the nature and ef- fect of alcohol hidden in wines that is to be con- sidered. It might be expected that the early knowl- edge that alcohol is an irritant, and in that re- spect a poison, would prompt the wise and the 40 The Divine Law as to Wines. good, the men of science and of humanity, to seek some method of diminishing, if not of avert- ing, the tendency of human nature to use alco- holic drinks not only as a luxury, but as a relief, such as alcoholic liquors, doubtless, do temporar- ily afford, from the penalty of over-indulgence or overwork. For, universal observation has ad- duced these three as the causes which tempt men to the use of alcoholic beverages : first, those who indulge in the luxuries of the table, seek the stimulus of wine to counteract the natural law which should check overeating ; second, those who have overworked, either physically or men- tally, begin its use as a temporary recuperation, forgetting that true recuperation can only come by cessation from toil ; third, those whom disap- pointed hope or bodily disease prompts to seek relief for the hour by drowning thought and sensibility. The history of all ages shows that not only the responsible guardians of society, but even the victims of inebriation, have recog- nized that alcohol, or the intoxicating quality in wines, is one to be either restricted or diminished, if not entirely eradicated. It is a surprising con- firmation of the like promptings of human in- stinct and the like convictions of common ex- perience, that they have led to substantially the same resorts in all ages to diminish the intoxi- cating quality of fermented wines. Resorts to Prevent Alcoholic Ferment. 41 From the nature of grape-juice and the causes of ferment in it, various methods of preventing and also of limiting the formation of its intox- icating property have been suggested in ages ancient and modern. First. As the presence of water is essential to the formation of alcohol from grape-sugar, the simple drying of the grape before the skin is broken permanently arrests al- coholic ferment ; a fact which permits the Jews of modern times to produce from crushed and moistened raisins the original grape-juice in pre- paring their Paschal wines. Second. As the sugar in the grape is concentrated in the flowing juice, while the albumen which causes ferment is in the pulp lining the skin and inclosing the seeds, a separation of these two prevents ferment. This was effected by the Romans, and even by the Egyptians, in these two ways : first, by gently pressing the grapes so that the sweet fluid alone oozed from the skins ; second, by straining the juice in the vat so as to exclude the pulpy por- tions. Third. As a temperature above 50 F t> and thence to about 85, is essential for the ferment that raises bread, causes seed to germi- nate, and produces alcohol, the placing of grape- juice in cold water or in a cool cellar arrests fer- ment. Fourth. As the presence of oxygen in the air is essential to acetous, if not to vinous fermentation, exclusion of the air by tight cork- 42 The Divine Law as to Wines. ing arrests, if it does not entirely prevent, fer- mentation. Fifth. As artificial heating drives off water, whose presence is essential to fermen- tation, the. boiling of grape-juice to a syrup, the debhs of the Hebrews and the dibs of the Arabs, prevents the formation of alcohol. Sixth. As the increase of the proportion of sulphur in the albuminous parts of grape-juice is found to limit the action of its nitrogenous element, ancient ex- periment as well as modern science has attested that the addition of sulphur, found in the sul- phurous pumice-stone of volcanic Italy, arrests the alcoholic fermentation in grape-juice. The fact that by these processes throughout the Ro- man Empire before Christ's day, unintoxicating 'must formed from grape-juice, as well as sweet drinks, like the sherbets of modern Palestine and the Levant, were in common use, and were es- pecially employed in religious rites, must serve as a guiding light in tracing the law of wines in re- ligious uses. Since, however, another class of facts, in the ancient history of wines, has arrested the atten- tion of many modern scholars, the methods of limiting and diminishing the proportion of the intoxicating element in wines must also be enu- merated. First. As the action of the albumin- ous ingredients of grape-juice, when not excluded by straining, is gradual in the formation of alco- Resorts to Limit Alcoholic Ferment. 43 hoi, the arrest at any stage of the alcoholic fer- ment by either of the methods used to anticipate and prevent that ferment, would limit the amount of the intoxicating quality in wines. Second. Effervescing wines have in all ages been obtained by arresting at an early stage the ferment, and bottling wine in flasks strong enough to resist the pressure of still forming carbonic acid ; as sparkling beers, ciders, and the wines called " Champagne," are now preserved. Third. Sweet wines have been obtained by drawing off the sugary from the albuminous parts of grape-juice, and thus allowing but a limited portion of fer- ment to remain ; so that after the albumen is ex- hausted much of the sugar is unaffected ; when, by corking, the acetic ferment is also prevented. Fourth. Sour wines have been obtained in two ways in southern latitudes : by allowing the acetic ferment to follow and to correct, to a certain ex. tent, the alcoholic ferment, producing wines which are commented upon by Grecian and Ro- man writers ; or, in northern latitudes, from grapes not ripened fully by the northern sun, and retaining largely the acid of the unripe grape, as is seen in modern Rhine wines. Fifth. Mulled, or softened wines, have been prepared by being boiled at an early stage of fermentation, thus ex- pelling alcohol and deadening the albumen, and by adding sugar and spices. Sixth. Wines in 44 The Divine Law as to Wines. which the alcoholic ferment is complete have, in all ages, been diluted with water, so as, according to the ancient witnesses to be cited, to deaden the " poison " always to be dreaded in " unmixed wine." A careful fixing in mind that, for " relig- ious " reasons, wise and good men have, in all ages, used these varied and carefully - studied methods of limiting, and thus correcting the in- ebriating influence of pure wines, will help to harmonize the statements of those who contend that intoxicating wines are, and always have been, deemed appropriate in Jewish and Chris- tian rites. WINE IN THE EARLIEST HISTORIC AGES. The nations successively known in history have all had a traditional or prehistoric period The first developed peoples of Asia attained their historic period 2,000 years before Christ ; those in the successive European nations, Grecian, Roman, and German, came later and gradually to be known in written records ; while the tribes of Africa are still unknown in their rudeness. The period of earliest historic records here to be traced, so far as wine is concerned, extends from the age of Noah to Jacob ; during the latter part of which period Asiatic nationalities were begin- ning to consolidate. The records of this history are found in the first book of Moses' history and Wine in the Earliest Historic Records. 45 m the poem of Job ; while the representations on Egyptian monuments, and the allusions of Grecian and Roman historians to the earliest preserved traditions, add to the light of those written records. It is recorded of the pious patriarch who was preserved from the Deluge (Gen. ix. 20, 21): " Noah began to be a husbandman, and he planted a vineyard. And he drank of the wine thereof, and was drunken." Origen, the eminent Christian writer who, about A. D. 23010 270, was employed twenty-eight years in revising the text of the Greek translation of the Old Testament, makes this important comment on this record. The expression " began to be," indicating inex- perience, suggests a marked contrast between the sin of Adam, who, by express command, was warned against the forbidden tree ; while Noah, with a like temptation, was to learn only by ex- perience a law which, when learned, was to con- trol his future conduct. In harmony with this is the record of Lot ; who from worldly inclina- tions, fostered by corrupting female influence, was drugged, perhaps unconsciously, yet not without guilt (Gen. xix. 33). The curse on the son who indecently sported with his father's shame (Gen. ix. 24) ; and the debasing prosti- tution of the daughters who drugged their weak father, are Moses' own unmistakable comment 4.6 The Divine Law as to Wines. on this earliest illustration that " wine is a mocker ; " to be resisted as truly as the tempter in Eden. The terms in which Moses, comment- ing on his own record, characterizes the wine with which Noah was drugged, calling it " the wine of Sodom, the poison of dragons" (Deut xxxii. 32, 33), indicates the recognition of the two classes of wines, intoxicating and unintoxi- cating, which he makes throughout his connected writings. The comments of the Talmud will be seen in their place as the suggestion of their age. In contrast with this abuse of intoxicating wine, a series of records indicates an early knowl- edge of the mode of preparing the juice of the grape without those intoxicating qualities which destroy health, reason, morality, and piety. Mel. chisedek, the type of the Divine Redeemer (Gen. xiv. 18 ; Heb. vii. 1-17), is related to have brought forth, as " the priest of Most High God, bread and wine, " of which Abraham, the head of the family through whom Christ was to de- scend, was made to partake ; an incident so manifestly anticipatory of Christ's ordinance, first of the Passover, and again of the Supper, that Jewish and Christian scholars have remarked the parallel. Josephus calls attention to the resi- dence of Abraham at this era near Hebron, at the mouth of the valley of Eshcol, which had given a home to one of the military chiefs then confed- Early Names for Two Distinct Wines. 47 ate with him (Gen. xiii. 1 8 ; xiv. 24) ; a region which then, as ever after to this day, has fur- nished the purest and sweetest of products of the vine. In keeping with this fact are several incidents of Abraham's descendants for three generations. Isaac, in blessing his sons, after partaking of the wine brought by Jacob, asks for Jacob " plenty of corn and wine," and for Esau likewise, the same " fatness of the earth '' (Gen. xxvii. 25-39) '> a record which indicates that the grape, as universal a product as is grain, is, in its simple nature, as much a Divine and blessed gift as is the bread associated with it. The use of the word tirosh, as distinct from yayin, for the first time in this record indicates, as will be seen further on, the introduction either of a new product of the grape, or the era of more careful distinction among its products, which the patriarchs, by experience, had found to be im- portant. The record of the Egyptian butler's dream, interpreted by Joseph, indicates yet more the distinction in wines according to the mode of preparing, which guides the pen of Moses. In the dream, the whole process of the budding, blossoming, forming, and maturing of the grape- cluster on the vi^ie passes before the butler ; and then his own pressing of the juice into Pharaoh's cup. The full significance of this picture of that age will appear in our notice of wines in Egypt ; 48 The Divine Law as to Wines. and it is sufficient here to observe the explana- tion given by Josephus, the Jewish historian. "The butler related," Josephus writes (Ant. II. v. 2), "that he squeezed the clusters into a cup which the king held in his hand ; and when he had strained the sweet-juice (gleukos), he gave it to the king to drink." The mode of preparation, verified by the monuments of Egypt, the dis- tinction made by the Jewish commentator be- tween gleukos, sweet -juice, and oinos glukos, sweet -wine, soon to be noted, indicates that Moses, in this record of the patriarchal age, is preparing the way for the reception of his own laws as to the use of wine. It is to be noted that the word " wine " does not appear in this record ; a fact which guides Jerome, the early Latin translator and commentator, when he com- pares the wine of the Lord's Supper with this of Joseph's day. This record, too, is, without doubt, a guide to the allusion made by Moses to the entertainment given by Joseph to his brethren, when " they drank and were filled " (Gen. xliii. 34) ; the word " wine " here, as in the pre- vious statement, not appearing. Yet another and important fact appears in the contrasted mention of " honey," Hebrew, debsh, Arab, dibs, or grape-syrup, sent by Jacob 4 (Gen. xliii. n) as a present to Joseph ; this mention indicating that in the patriarchal age, as now under Mu- The Early Term, "Blood of Grapes" 49 hammedan rule, the grape-juice, so abundant in the valleys north of Hebron, was converted into a syrup which forms an important article of commerce. This connection, as well as the wording of Moses' record, explains Jacob's bless- ing on Judah, who was afterward to inherit the valleys which his ancestors from Abraham had occupied ; where the vines, besides yielding an abundance of grapes for man's consumption, would furnish food for the beasts of burden that bore the products of the vintage to the wine- vats; Judah "binding his foal unto the vine, even his ass's colt unto the choice vine ; " while " he washed " or saturated " his garments in wine and his clothes in the blood of grapes." No im- partial student of this record of history, which Moses made an introduction to his laws, can fail to learn the lessons which the laws of the Egyp- tians, Chaldeans, and Indians, as well as of Moses, are adapted to impress. In the poem of Job, whose life, extended to the age of the earlier ancestry of Abraham (Job xlii. 1 6), and whose residence was in or nigh to the land of the " Chaldeans," from whose chief city Abraham's father migrated (Job i. 17 ; Gen. xi. 31), the history of wine as used by religious men in the earliest patriarchal times is illustrated. At the opening of the history, preceding the poem proper, Job's children, sons and daughters, 3 50 The Divine Law as to Wines. are described as " drinking wine " at their birth day feasts ; while Job, watchful and anxious, fearing, "after their feast-days," that they may have " sinned " by indulgence, calls them to the sacrifices then offered in propitiation (Job i. 4, 5, 13, 1 8). The "grape," the products of "vine- yards, of vintage, and of the wine-presses," are reckoned among Divine gifts (xv. 33 ; xxiv. 6, 1 1, 1 8) ; while their perversion by those "drunken" with intoxicating wine, is pictured by Job as a debasement which the instinct of " beasts" avoids ; the beasts being more wise than " kings " when wine " takes away the heart of the chief of the people" (xii. 4, 7, 24, 25). Most important of all, in this record of an age among the earliest historically described, the modes of preparing and guarding wines in their ferment, as well as the import of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin terms, as explanatory of each other, is fixed for all fu- ture history. In the record (xxxii. 19), "My belly is as wine which has no vent ; it is ready to burst like new bottles," the Hebrew for "wine" is yayin, the Greek of the Hebrew translators is gleukos, and the Latin of Jerome is mustum ; thus establishing the fact that the Hebrew yayin is a generic word, including unfermented grape- juice as well as fermented wine. Again, in the statement as to the defrauder (xx. 15), that he who has "swallowed down riches shall vomit Wines Used in Chaldea and Egypt. 5 1 them up again God shall cast them up again," as we shall see, the word yarash, " cast up," from which tirosh is derived, gives the first and clear- est intimation as to the distinction made by the Hebrews between two kinds of wines the laxa- tive and the intoxicating. In fact, in all impor- tant particulars, these plain distinctions made in the patriarchal age as to wines, both in their wit- nessed effects and in the study of preparations by which intoxication may be prevented, give the key to solve the complicated statements of writers on Old Testament wines in all subse- quent ages. WINES IN EARLY CHALDEAN, EGYPTIAN, AND IN- DIAN USAGES AND LAWS Historians of all modern schools, alike the ra- tionalist, Bunsen, and the traditional Wilkinson, agree in making the early seat of Asiatic civili zation to have been in the valley of the Eu- phrates, and thence to have extended to the val- leys of the Nile on the west, and of the Indus on the east. Before the days of Abraham, as Chaldean and Egyptian historians, cited alike by the Greek Herodotus, ihe Roman Diodorus and Strabo, and the Hebrew Josephus agree, literature and laws had reached an advanced stage before Moses, the founder of the Jewish State, was " learned in all the wisdom of the 52 The Divine Law as to Wines. Egyptians." The marriage of Joseph to the daughter of the kohen or " president" of the Col- lege of On (Gen. xli. 45), two centuries before Moses lived, shows the Egyptian advance ; the use by Moses, and by subsequent Hebrew writers, of more than one hundred words more than one-tenth of all the roots, and one-third of all those expressive of spiritual conceptions com- mon to the Sanscrit or Chaldee, confirms the in- timacy of national intercourse then existing; while his frequent allusions to literary works then existing (Num. xxi. 14, 27; Deut. iv. 8), with which his own are compared, shows that not only Moses, but the Hebrew people at large, were familiar with Chaldean and Indian letters through an Egyptian culture. The usages and laws of these early nations as to wines will throw a light, therefore, on the records and statutes of Moses, written as they were with those prece- dents before him. The use of wine among the Chaldeans, the first known cultured nation of the earth, growing up at the earliest seat of civil- ization on the Euphrates, begins with the records already cited from the book of Job ; while their advanced culture is to be traced in later Hebrew, Grecian, and Latin historians. Modern explora- tions, begun by Layard, reveal the existence of implements for straining wine. Herodotus mentions the palm-tree as abounding in theii Apparently Conflicting Testimonies. 53 country, and the use of palm wine ; and Daniel refers to the drinking of wine at the feasts of their kings. The learned class, however, ac- corded in their ideas of the benefit of abstinence from wine with their Indian and Egyptian asso- ciates. The records of Greek and Roman writers as to the use of wine in Egypt have been construed as conflicting, especially by German writers ; but the calm judgment of such explorers as Wilkin- son, and the principles we have above considered, give consistency to their statements. Herodotus states (II. 77) as an eye-witness, that in "that part of Egypt which is sown with wheat .... they use wine made of barley, for they have no wine." The savans of Napoleon (Descrip. de 1'Egypt, torn, vi., p. 124), who found the walls of monuments in Upper Egypt covered with rep- resentations of the culture of the vine and the making of wines, think Herodotus unreliable ; an opinion shared by Hengstenberg (Egypt and books of Moses Introd.) Careful observers, however, find that the vine, like most products, cannot be indigenous to a soil covered three 'months in the year by the inundation of the Nile; that in Lowor Eyypt it is found only in gardens shut out from overflow ; while it is in Upper Egypt, five hundred miles south, that the precipitous river-banks make the Upper Nile 54 The Divine Law as to Wines. like the Upper Rhine, a natural wine region. Hercdotus mentions (II. 133) that Mycerinus, the builder of the third pyramid, whom Sir Gardner Wilkinson regards as having reigned from B. c. 2,043 to 2,00 T, nearly a century before Abraham's visit, gave himself up to luxury in the latter part of his reign ; and Herodotus uses the expression " he drank and enjoyed himself, never ceasing day and night;" the implication being, though the word wine is not used, that he drank intoxicating wine. The most impor- tant and harmonizing statement of Herodotus as to wine used by the priests, is the following (II. 37). Having said that " they are, of all men, the most excessively attentive to the worship of the gods," in a minute description of their dress, food, etc., he says : " Wine from the grape is given them." This mention confirms the view already taken of the king's wine in Joseph's day ; it illustrates the Greek use of oinos as including must, or fresh grape-juice ; and it aids in har- monizing other statements as to wines in Egypt supposed to be conflicting. Plutarch (Osiris and Isis,, sect. 6) says : " As to wine, they who wait upon the gods in Heliopolis' carry none at all into the temple Other priests use indeed a little wine, but they have vvineless purifications (aoinous hagneias) Even the kings themselves, being of the order of Wine Forbidden to Priests and Kings. 55 priests, have their wine given to them according to a certain measure prescribed in the sacred books, as Hecataeus states. They began to drink [wine] from the time of Psammiticus ; pre- vious to which they drank no wine at all ; and if they made use of it in their libations to the gods, it was not because they looked upon it as in its own nature acceptable, but as the blood of those enemies who formerly fought against them These things are related by Eu- doxus in the second book of the Phainomena, as he had them from the priests themselves." As Hecatseus,from whose history Herodotus quoted, though his work is now lost, lived B. c. 550, and as Eudoxus, whose studies of astronomy in Egypt are also lost, lived B. c. 360, while Psammiticus, the king referred to. reigned from B.C. 664 to 610, Plutarch had certainly reason to rely upon their statements. At any rate, any apparent discrep- ancy does not at all affect the truth here revealed, or the moral impression it must make on any sincere mind. There certainly was a deep con- viction on the minds of Egyptian kings, as well as priests, that intoxicating wines were injurious io the physical and moral nature of men account- able to God as civil and religious leaders ; and that intoxicating wines, man's invention and curse, were not accepted by the Divine Being as one of His gifts. 56 The Divine Law as to Wines. It may be added, in general, that Pliny and many later writers allude to various kinds of Egyptian wines. Athenaeus (Deipn. I. 25) men- tions especially " sweet, light, and boiled " Egyp- tian wines ; and states, that the Egyptians, like the Greeks, in worshiping the sun, the deification of pure light, "make their libations of honey (grape-syrup), as they never bring wines to the altars of the gods." Philo the Jew and Clem- ent the Christian indicate the religious spirit of the Egyptians, in describing the abstinence of the specially devout of their respective religions. Porphyry, about the same age, quotes from a lost work of Chaeremon, librarian at a sacred college in Egypt under the Caesars, this historic record : " Some do not drink wine at all, and others drink very little of it, on account of its being injurious to the nerves, oppressive to the head, an impediment to invention, and an incen- tive to lust." In modern explorations, Champollion notes, as at Beni-Hassan, the ancient representations of the preparations of wines, including " boiled wine ; " noting two kinds of presses, especially " that of forcing by mere strength of the arms " the strained juice through a cloth. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in explaining his own copy of a drawing of this mode of pressing and straining grape-juice by the hand, says: "This Roman Strained Grape -Juice in Egypt. 57 torcular or twist press was used in all parts of the country." These representations, which every traveler in Egypt may observe, indicate that the record of Moses as to the butler's pressing the grape-juice into Pharaoh's cup, was a reality. Its design, to furnish a fresh, unintoxicating bever- age, is verified by Egyptian, and still more by contemporary and associated Brahminic records. In the " Hieratic Papyri," or records of Egyp- tian priests, found on paper made from the stem of the water-lily (Anasti, No. IV., Let. xi.), is this record of the address of an Egyptian priest to a pupil who had become addicted to the use of the beer of Lower and the wine of Upper Egypt : " Thou knowest that wine is an abomi- nation. Thou hast taken an oath as to strong drink, that thou wouldst not take such into thee. Hast thou forgotten thine oath ? " This certainly indicates that aspiring, cultured young men were bound to abstinence from wine in the land where Joseph and Moses learned ancient science. The laws of the Brahmins of India, embodied in the twelve chapters of the Institutes of Menu, indicate that modern reform is behind the an- cients, who, in the earliest ages, had embodied in law the duty of abstaining from intoxicating liq- uors. The opening chapter declares that "im- memorial custom is transcendent law" (I. 108) ; intimating that the embodied precepts of the 3* 58 The Divine Law as to Wines. code following are not arbitrary enactments, but the suggestions of human experience, always rec- ognized as binding. The two succeeding chap- ters treat of the " education," or the youth of the " twice-born," or divinely-endowed caste, the Brahmins, and of " marriage," or their manhood ; in which precepts as to abstinence from alcoholic drinks are prominent. Among persons to be shunned in society is " a drinker of intoxicating spirits " (III. 159). Repeated lists of articles of food which may be presented as oblations to the Deity, and which the Brahmin may receive and eat, such as milk, clarified butter and honey, are given ; but no " spirituous liquor " is admitted. In the precepts for the " military class," or sec- ond caste, among whom kings are ranked, ab- stemiousness rather than entire abstinence is en- joined. Among the " tenfold set of vices produced by love of pleasure," lechery, " intoxication " and " dancing " are associated ; and it is declared that " a king addicted to vices " like these, " must lose both his wealth and his virtue .... and even his life " (VII. 46, 47) In the selection of " the four most pernicious of the set," that of " drink- ing " is placed first (VII. 50). In the two final chapters, containing laws of religion as distinct from morality, and entitled " Penance and Ex- piation," and " Transmigration and Final Beati- tude," the principles of these Brahminic laws are Wine Forbidden to Brahmins. 59 thus developed. " Inebriating liquor" is " of three sorts : " that " extracted from sugar, that from rice, and that from the flowers of Madhuca. As one, so are all ; they shall not be tasted by the chief of the twice-born" (XI. 95). The penance re- quired varies according to the knowledge or ig- norance of the drinker. " Any twice-born man who has intentionally drunk spirit of rice may drink more of the same spirit when set on fire, and atone for his offense by severely burning his body ; or he may drink boiling, until he die, the urine of a cow," etc. (XI. 91). While the penalty of intentional drinking is so fearful as well as disgusting, it is added, " Or, if he tasted it unknowingly, he may expiate the sin of drink- ing spirituous liquor by " a long list of humil- iating penances lasting " a whole year" (XI. 92). Farther on, wearisome penances are prescribed for a Brahmin who shall " even smell the breath of a man who has been drinking spirits" (XL 150) ; or shall "have tasted unknowingly . . . . anything that has touched spirituous liquors" (XI. 151). Proceeding then to the penalties to be followed in the future world, we read (XII. 56) : " A priest who has drunk spirituous liquor shall migrate into the form of a smaller or larger worm or insect, of a moth, of a fly feeding on ordure, or of some ravenous animal." It is impossible that any thoughtful student 60 The Divine Law as to Wines. of this early code, who recalls that these laws were founded on " customs " that were " imme- morial," and who, moreover, remembers that the men who sought to be rulers by mental and moral superiority were a fraternity accomplish- ing their aim alike in ancient Chaldea, Egypt, and India it is impossible that any sincere stu- dent of this age should regard those like convic- tions which are assuming shape and authority in modern days as unfounded in nature or the sug- tion of mere asceticism. That they reached the common people of India, and that even where this Code of Menu was unknown, is attested by Strabo; who himself -wrote about B.C. 10, and quotes from Megasthenes facts witnessed three centuries earlier, thus indicating the existence of a permanent " custom." Strabo says (B. xv. c. i. sect. 53): "All the Indians are frugal They never drink wine but at sacrifices. Their beverage is made from rice instead of barley." Hence, both Megasthenes and Strabo note a natural sequence : " They observe good order .... they are happy on account of their frugal life ; " they have " few lawsuits ; " they " confide in one another ; " " their houses and property are un- guarded." Megasthenes thought all this " worthy of imitation in a people who have no written laws and who are ignorant of writing;" and Strabo adds, as the chief source of their virtue. Wines in Moses Laws. 61 " These things indicate temperance and sobriety." The allusion to wine at sacrifices deserves special consideration. WINES AMONG THE HEBREWS AT THE GIVING OF MOSES' LAWS. The points to be noted in this survey are mainly three ; while two previous considerations must be recalled in order to their full understand- ing. The Hebrew words for wine used by Moses, the existence of an association pledged before his day to total abstinence, and the special laws of health and religion relating to wine framed by him, are successively to be considered ; and each of these points of consideration must keep in view the fact that Moses writes him- self the history of the Patriarchs as to wines ; and that, educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and using numerous words that be- longed to the school of the Brahmins, he calls the Hebrew people to note the superiority of his " statutes " to those of the several advanced " nations " of his day (Deut. iv. 6-8). THE VINE AND ITS PRODUCTS AMONG THE HEBREWS. In the Hebrew of the Old Testament the words for vine, for grapes, and also twelve terms 62 The Divine Law as to Wines. expressive of products of the grape, are to be noted. Of these twelve terms, four are familiar in the Patriarchal history ; four more are prod- ucts known in the early Hebrew of Moses' writ- ings; two more are found in Medieval Hebrew, or that of Solomon and the early prophets, and yet two more appear only in the later prophets. All these terms, excepting the last four, must be considered as connected with Moses' writings. The Hebrew for vine is gephen. The vine is found in Egypt in Joseph's day (Gen. xl. 9, 10) ; but Jacob recalls its greater plentifulness in Palestine, especially at his own and his grand- father's favorite residence nigh Hebron, at the mouth of the Valley of Eshcol, when in his pro- phecies as to Judah, to whom that section of Pal- estine was to be an inheritance, he declares : " Binding his foal unto the vine, and his ass-colt unto the choice vine, he shall wash his garments in wine and his clothes in the blood of grapes." That the entrance of the family of Jacob into Egypt brought increased propagation of the grape into Upper Egypt, is indicated by the fact that at Beni- Hassan, on the east bank of the Nile, and at a point most favorable for grape- culture, are found those full representations on tomb-walls of grape-culture which have excited the wonder of all travelers ; in which the vines are so abundant that goats and other animals are Hebrew Term, " Blood of Grapes" 63 free to browse on them ; and which are accom- panied by the representation of a train entering Egypt, which Wilkinson and others jegard the monumental record made by Joseph of the set- tlement of his father and brethren in the land. The special attraction of the land of Canaan, from first to last, is intimated in the early pro- vision of " wheat, barley, vines," and other fruits (Deut. viii. 8), and in the permanent promise that every man should both "sit under" and "eat of his own vine" (i Kings iv. 25 ; 2 Kings xviii. 31). The Hebrew word for c ' grape," the product of the vine, is anab. Its mention is found as early and as extensively as is that of the vine It is especially intimated, that while the puie juice of the grape was early employed as a bev- erage (Gen. xl. 10, n), its most natural was its simplest use, that of " eating grapes to the fill " (Deut. xxiii. 24). The first and simplest artificial product is that called the " blood " and " the pure blood of the grapes." As already noticed, the narrative of Moses and the mode of pressing the grapes seen on the oldest monuments of Egypt compels the view that the early Egyptian kings drank the pure expressed juice of the grape (Gen. xl. n). What Joseph recognized in the butler's vision his aged father certainly prophesied of: that " the 64 The Divine Law as to Wines. blood of grapes" should be the beverage of Judah (Gen. xlix. 1 1). Moses, again, evidently referred to his own training, so like to that of the Pa- triarch Jacob, when he wrote, " Remember the days of old. Ask thy father and he will show thee ; thy elders, and they will tell thee .... thou didst drink the pure blood of the grape " (Deut. xxxii. 7, 14). The second product of the grape, and next in purity, is doubtless the debsh. When, by English and other translators of the Reformation period, this word was rendered, according to the best lights of their day, " honey," the East was shut up to Christian scholars. It was a striking ordering of Providence that just before the ex- pedition of Napoleon into Egypt, about A.D. 1 800, which led on to the opening of the Bible lands to Christian exploration, a leader among German rationalists, replied to by Hengstenberg, maintained that the writer of the Book of Gene- sis could have known nothing of Egypt, or he would not have suggested that Jacob sent down a present of " honey " to Pharaoh (Gen. xliii. 1 1). The modern traveler finds everywhere in the an- cient land of Jacob's inheritance that the juice of the sweet grape is boiled down to a syrup, still called by the old name dibs, whose spicy and nectar-like sweetness makes i one of the most delicious of condiments ; while at the very loca- Hebrew Products of the Grape. 65 tion whence Jacob sent it to Pharaoh, at Heb- ron, it is prepared in great quantities and sent to Egypt as an article of trade. It is this syrup with which it is repeatedly de- clared by Moses the land of promise " flowed " (Ex. iii. 8), etc. ; and though the honey of bees, gathered mainly from the grapes, is, when flow- ing from the comb, called by the same name, be- cause it is substantially the same article (as Jud. xiv. 8, i Sam. xiv. 25-29), yet the debsh of Moses is almost always the product of the grape prepared by boiling. In only three cases, out of nearly fifty, does the word refer to the product prepared by bees rather than by man. The third product of the grape, prepared by man, in the order of simplicity, is probably tirosh ; which, as the more important word to be examined, is reserved for a separate consid- eration. The fourth product in order of preparation seems to be the chemer, or effervescing wine, prepared, doubtless, as are modern bottled wineSv by checking the fermentation at an early stage. The name is derived from the verb chamar, to foam or be agitated ; as is seen in Job xvi. 16 ; Lam. i. 20 and ii. 1 1 ; Ps. xlvi. 3. In Ps. Ixxv. 8 this meaning is specially illus- trated by the connection " yayin chamar ; " in the Greek translation, " oinos akratos ; " in the 66 The Divine Law as to Wines. English, " the wine is red." The added phrase, it is full " of mixture," in the Greek " kerasmatos/ ; indicates the contrast between the fresh, efferves- cing, light wine before admixture, and its inflam- ing character after the admixture ; a contrast which, in the Greek, is made clearer by the nega- tive "akratos," and the positive " kerasmatos." The effervescing wines, as we have observed, are obtained by arresting the alcoholic ferment in its earliest stages. Hence the chemer was mani- festly a light wine. In the earlier Chaldaic or original Hebrew the noun is only twice found; rendered " pure " before the expression " blood of the grapes," in Deut. xxxii. 14, and trans- lated " red " in Isaiah xxvii. 2 ; though " effer- vescing " is doubtless the more appropriate desig- nation. It is found again six times in the Chaldaic Hebrew of Ezra, vi. 9, vii. 22, and of Daniel v. i, 2, 4, 23, indicating that it was common among the Babylonians. The fifth product of the grape among the He- brews, was that called by the generic name yayin ; a word corresponding to the generic word " wine" found in all languages. Its special meaning, like that of " tirosh," requires separate consideration. The sixth product of the grape appears to be sode, the Roman sapa, the French vin-cuit ; or wine diluted with water and then boiled, thus Hebrew Products of the Grape. 67 driving off in part the alcoholic and concentrat ing the nutritive qualities. The verb saba t mean- ing to q^^>aff, or drink luxuriously, is used to in dicate guzzling drinkers, who are made heavy and stupid, rather than excited, by its use. All the connections in which the verb is found, as Deut. xxi. 20; Prov. xxiii. 20, 21 ; Isa. Ivi. 12 ; and Nah. i. 10, as well as the uses of the noun, Isa. i. 22; Hos. iv. 18; and Nah. i. 10, are in harmony with this view of the nature of sobe. The seventh product of the grape in the order of manufacture is chomets, or vinegar. This is, of course, the result of the second, or acetous fer- mentation. It is derived from the verb " cha- mets," to be sharp. The verb usually, and its first derivative noun, " chamets," always refer to leaven, used for raising bread. Unlike seor, meaning also leaven, which is used but five times, and only by Moses, and seems to be a word familiar to the Hebrews in Egypt, chamets, which is used by Isaiah (Ixiii. i), Hosea (vii. 4), and Amos (iv. 5), seems to be a word, and an article, belonging to the land of the vine. It is prob- ably a leaven made from sour wine ; as distinct from leaven made from other sources. This is indicated by Isaiah Ixiii. i ; in which passage it is rendered " dyed," with manifest reference to red grape-juice, turned sour by exposure. This 68 The Divine Law as to Wines. is made more manifest from the fact that the second derivative, chomets, is the only word used to designate vinegar ; its mention being found in Num. vi. 3 ; Ruth ii. 14; Ps. Ixix 21 ; Prov. x. 26, xxv. 20 ; in all which cases the connection shows that the vinegar is sour wine. The first of these six products has an interest in connection with the Nazarite's abstinence, and the second with the food of the common peo- ple ; while the seventh is the beverage refused by Christ on the cross. The eighth product connected with, if not al- ways derived from the grape, was shekar, ren- dered in the English translation " strong drink," probably including concentrated and drugged liquors. The verb, used in every age of Hebrew literature, from Gen. ix. 21 to Hag. i. 6, means to be inebriated or " drunken ; " the " earth," Jer. li. 7, and God's " arrows" (Deut. xxxii. 42) being poetically characterized as stupefied by strong drink. The noun, used nearly twenty-five times, is, in the law and history, contrasted with yayin> or wine (Lev. x. 9 ; Jud. xiii. 4) ; but in the poetical books, from Solomon to Micah, it is used separately, and seems a synonym for highly-intoxicating stimulants (Prov. xxxi. 6 ; Isah. v. 22) ; or more generally for intoxication itself (Prov. xx. T ; Isa. xxviii. 7). The Greek translators seem to have introduced the term Hebrew Products of the Grape. 69 sikera as a transfer, rather than a translation, of shekar ; since "sikera" is not found in classic Greek, and appears once only in the New Testa- ment (Luke i. 15). Jerome, translating "she- kar " into Latin, at points in the law and early history where it is contrasted with wine, para- phrases it thus : " Omne quod inebriare potest," all which can intoxicate (Lev. x. 9 ; Num. vi. 3 ; i Sam. i. 15) ; in the later history he transfers, rather than translates, rendering it sicera (Deut. xiv. 26 ; Jud. xiii. 4, etc.) ; in the poetry he usu- ally employs the abstract " ebrietas," intoxica- tion ; while in the second clause of Num. vi. 3, he renders chomets shekar, or " vinegar from strong drink," by " acetum ex vino," vinegar from 'wine. Jerome explains his own transla- tion in one of his letters (ad Nepot. Opp.) thus : " 'Sicera, in the Hebrew language is any drink which can inebriate (inebriare potest) ; either that which is prepared from grain or the juice of apples ; or when honey-comb (favus) is boiled into a sweet and barbarian drink ; or when the fruit of palm-trees is pressed out into a liquor, and when water is made thick and col- ored with boiled fruits' Herodotus (ii. 77), Diodorous (i. 20, 31), arnl Pliny (Hist. Nat. xiv. 19) speak of liquors thus made among the ancient Asiatic nations, especially in Palestine. Plutarch (Isid. vi.), Clement of Alexandria 70 The Divine Law as to Wines. (Strom, iii.), and Jamblicus (vit. Pythag. ep. xvi, 24), state that the Egyptian priests, Asiatic magi, and ancient Pythagoreans abstained from all drinks of this class. TIROSH, OR HEBREW UNFERMENTED WINE. Modern investigations lead to the conclusion that tirosh was must, or unfermented wine. This will appear for the testimonies to' this effect are numerous, and their study most instructive by the tracing of its Hebrew origin, of the cognate Arabic, of the Greek translation made about B.C. 300, of the Talmud comments, of the Latin version of Jerome prepared about A.D. 400, and of several later versions. The review of these authorities as cited, or overlooked, by modern German lexicographers, is a most striking example of the controlling in- fluence, first, of national customs ; second, of philological, as distinct from personal, investiga- tion ; and third, of the progress of modern inves- tigations in natural history. The word tirosh, as all agree, is derived from the verb yarash. The primary meaning is to '' seize," or " dispossess ; " whence, as that which is seized is held by the sexz&r, yarask signifies to '' possess." Gesenius, with rare power of philo- logical analysis, thinks there is but one root "Tirosh" Unfermented Wine. 71 these two meanings being necessarily associated. Fuerst, with less acumen, yet with a wider range of modern research, thinks that there are two roots, though of precisely the same form. To illustrate the meaning of the first root, which signifies " to drive out," or dispossess, and in the passive, or niphal, to "be robbed," and so to " become poor," he notes that it is " identical with (the Hebrew) rash (rush}, which means, in its fundamental sense, the same as (the Ara- bic) rash, to snatch away." To the English reader the derivation of " ya-rash " from " rash " is illustrated in such words as " be-get " and " be- guile," whose roots are " get " and " guile." The noun " tirosh," as its form shows, is from the hiphil or causative conjugation ; meaning therefore, an article which causes either posses- sion or dispossession. Three facts as to the meaning of the verb " yarash " are to be noted : First. In every case of its use in the hiphil or causative construction there are nearly sev- enty instances it invariably means to " drive " or " cast out," i. e., to dispossess. Second. In all the records, from Moses' day down, the word " yarash," used about two hun- dred times, is material, not moral, in its applica- tion ; referring, generally, to dispossession by the sword (e. g. Ex. xxiv. 24). 72 The Divine Law as to Wines. Third. In the primitive language of Job (xx. 15) only its action is internal. The mani- fest meaning of yarash, in this only case where it is applied to an operation on the human sys- tem, is in perfect harmony with the root-mean- ing of the word seen in the cognate Arabic. It is an effect produced on the body, not on the mind ; and it is the laxative influence ascribed to unfermented wines by the Greek and Roman writers. This early and only usage, therefore, shows that the patriarchs, familiar, from Abra- ham's experience certainly, with Chaldean and Egyptian discoveries as to wines, had selected intelligently the word tirosh to designate un- fermented wine. The idea of " purging " as the effect of tirosh, to which its derivation, thus attested by Job xx. 15, shuts up the Hebrew scholar, is confirmed by the meaning of the Arabic rash, rush, as given by Freytag; namely (i), multum edit, he eats much ; (2), debilitavit, it has debilitated him. Coming to the noun itself, tirosh, Gese- nius defines it, " must, new wine." Fuerst more fully renders the word, and illustrates its mean- ing thus : " Properly, what is got (yarash) from grapes, Gen. xxvii. 28, 37, etc.; hence, unfer- mented wine, Mic. vi. 15 ; different from yayin, Hos. iv. ii ; sweet mead, Zech. ix. 17 ; and juice of the gra.pe, Isa. Ixv. 8 : " and he adds, " Com- Reconciling of Lexicographers. 73 pare Syriac meritho, the same word from the same stem." Gesenius hints that tirosh is de- rived from yaras/i, " because it gets possession of the brain inebriates ; " while Fuerst suggests, as noted above, a very different idea. As illustrative of the influences which might have led Gesenius to such a conception of " tirosh," the differing statements of Gesenius and Fuerst as to the Hebrew word c kerne k de- serve notice. The noun " chemeh " is found eight times ; its root-verb once (Job xxix. 6). In the English translation it is rendered always " butter." Gesenius renders it : " curdled milk, Gen. xviii. 8; Judg. v. 25; compare Jos. Ant. v ; 5 ; 4 gala diephlhoros ede, milk in this state having an inebriating power, Isah. vii. 22 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29. Poetical also for milk, Job xx. 17; Isa. vii. 15; Deut. xxxii. 14." Here several difficulties arise. Curdled milk is not intoxicat- ing. The word diephthoros, used by Josephus, not found in classic Greek, is explained by Jose- phus himself as soporific rather than inebriating, in the added clause : " of which he (Sisera) drank so immoderately that he soon fell asleep." Again, it seems unnatural that " curdled milk," and that " inebriating," should be given by a careful nurse to a child (Isa. vii. 22); yet more, that the " sweet milk " (always indicated else- where, in Hebrew and in Arabic, by c/ialeb), of 74 The Divine Law as to Wines. Isa. vii. 15, is converted into "curdled milk" in Isa. vii. 22. That such a series of false con- ceptions should enter the mind of so able a scholar as Gesenius, is naturally explained by the utter ignorance of common matters of life, which the bachelor-scholar, Neander, watched over by his devoted sister, displayed in his own affairs. Fuerst, in a happier analysis, finds the natural product of " milk-cream " in Gen. xviii. 8, and Isa. vii. 22; "milk with its cream," in Judg. iv. 19 and v. 25 ; and "butter," the artifi- cial product, in Prov. xxx. 33. The student must have a dull mind who does not see how the ignorance, alike of the customs of other times and of the common matters of his own household, utterly unfitted the able Hebrew scholar to judge of the effects alike of the He- brew chemeh and tirosh. It is sufficient here to add, that while the Greek interpreters of B. c. 300 used the word oinos in a generic sense, including un fermented tirosh, as well as fermented yayin, in special cases they indicate its distinctive char- acter. They declare the specific meaning of the word tirosh by rendering it, in Isa. Ixv. 8, rox, or " burst fruit" ; indicating that the grapes have their skins burst by the pressure of the now flowing juice. It is proper here to insert the testimony of Hebrew lexicographers -vho preceded the pres- Early Definition of "Tiros k" 75 ent authorities, Gesenius and Fuerst ; the former of whom is more reliable in words relating to spiritual truth, while the latter had the advantage of superior resources in studying material things alluded to in the Hebrew history. Here it is important to recall the fact that Hebrew lexicog- raphers derived their knowledge from the multi- tudinous sources of information above referred to, as they met them in their day. As the lexi- cographers to be cited were contemporary with the modern translators of the Old Testament, hereafter to be cited, it is important to note that both in the derivation and in the cited significa- tions of " tirosh " as contrasted with " yayin," these lexicographers are in accord with the con- scientious translators of their day. In the Lexicon of Pagninus Lucensis, pub- lished at Lyons, France, in 1575, "tirosh" is thus defined : " Vinum novum in botro (new wine in the cluster) Hos. ii. 5 ; vinum novum (new wine), Deut. vii. 13." To indicate the der- ivation of "tirosh "its root in i Kings xxi. 15, " posside vineam," possess the vineyard, is cited to hint that the meaning of " tirosh " as " new wine," or grape-juice, " in the cluster," is inherent in the verb from which it is derived. In a later edition, published at Lyons, A. D. 1625, Pagninus farther considers the derivation of " tirosh." He says : " Some derive it from expelling (a expel- 76 The Divine Laiv as to Wines. lendo), because it comes fresh from the skins (recens a suis pelleculis), as if it were pushed out of its house and expelled." In the Lexicon Heptaglottorum of Edmund Castell, of which there were several editions pub- lished between 1669 and 1790, whose testimo- nies belong of course to the early scholarship of the Reformation, the testimony as to the deriva- tion and meaning of " tirosh " is to the same ef- fect, yet fuller. In his study, Castell included an examination of the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions and in- terpretations. In his edition published at Lon- don in 1686, considering "tirosh" under its root " yarash," Castell gives this derivation : "yarash from rush? He adds: " Hiphil, horish, possi- dendum dedit (he gives to be possessed), here- dem instituit (he establishes as heir), 2d Chron. xx. ii ; Num. xiv. 24." He adds: " But oftener he expels from possession he exterminates; he makes poor; for here (i.e. in the Hiphil) it is al- most always (fere) taken in a bad sense." In the issue edited by J. D. Michaelis in 1790, this defi- nition of " tirosh " is given : " Mustum, liquor uvarum primum expressus, Num. viii. 12 ; grape- juice, the liquor of grapes first pressed out." Here is a recognition of the custom alluded to by Moses as existing in Egypt in Joseph's day, hinted in Isa. Ixv. 8 where rox indicates that Greek Translation of " Tirosh" 77 the grapes have their skins burst by the pres- sure of the now flowing juice, and fully de- scribed by Roman writers from Cato to Pliny, or from B. c. 200 to A. D. 100. The custom of gently pressing out first the sugary " liquor " of the grape, which had in it no fermenting ingre- dient and would not intoxicate, is clearly seen to have been known to this lexicographer of the seventeenth century. Again, in the Lexicon of Leopold, published at Leipsic in 1832, "yayin" is derived, as by Gesenius, from " yavan," to ferment ; its very deri- vation showing its generic character. On the other hand, " tirosh," derived from " yarash," is associated with the shortened root-word " reshet," a net, to indicate a common derivation ; while the meaning of tirosh is given as " mustum," grape-juice. The thorough scholar, who knows how to appreciate the testimonies of such men at such ages as those in which they lived, will not only appreciate modern Hebrew lexicog- raphers, but will go back to their authorities, The comparison between yayin and tirosh in Hos. iv. n, requires special notice in the Greek translation made by Hebrews. The Greek trans- lators render " tirosh " by methusma ; a word de- manding careful examination. As lexicogra- phers agree, the root-noun, methe or methu, in- dicates excessive drinking, without regard to the 78 The Divine Law as to Wines. liquor used, and is the counterpart of gorman- dizing in eating. The Jewish commentators, Philo and Maimonides, hereafter directly quoted, representing two important eras in later Jewish history, regard the " tirosh " of Hosea iv. 1 1 as equivalent to the " debsh " of Solomon in Prov. xxv. 27 ; and they supposed that Hosea sums up in a single expression the warnings of Solomon against the three sensual indulgences licentious- ness, intoxication, and gluttony. This root-meaning is confirmed by the cognate root-words in Sanscrit and old German. It is il- lustrated by the English word " drunk," from " drink ; " which has only as a secondary mean- ing " to be intoxicated ; " and which does not in itself, but in its connection in the writer's mind, have this latter idea connected with it. The noun " methusma," used by the Hebrew-Greek translators in Hos. iv. n, is not found in classic Greek ; but it follows the analogy of its root in the later Alexandrine, Byzantine, and modern Greek, as the best lexicons indicate. The verb " me- thusko," frequent in classic Greek, is often used in the generic signification of its root. Thus Xenophon, (Cyrop. I. 3) uses the expression " pi- non ou methusketai," drinking, he is not filled with drink. Plato (Sympos.) employs the phrase "emethusthen nektaros," he was filled with Hebrew "Yayin," includes all Wines. 79 nectar ; a product of the grape which could not intoxicate. An important confirming as well as illustrative testimony as to the nature of tirosh is more- over found in the Latin translation of Jerome made about B. c. 400, during his residence of thirty years in Palestine ; where this thorough student sought special preparation for that work which gave all Western Europe their chief guide to the meaning of the Scripture records from the fifth to the fifteenth centuries. While Jerome uses frequently the generic word vinum, corre- sponding to the generic terms oinos in Greek, vin in French, and wine in English, he uses for "tirosh " in Deut. vii. 13 ; Neh. x. 37 ; Isa. xxiv. 7, where the fresh product required it, vindemia, grape-harvest or vintage ; in Isa. Ixv. 8 the yet more special term granum, or berry ; and in Mic. vi. 15 he uses the term mustiim, or unfermented wine. If any mind could settle both the mean- ing of the Hebrew tirosh and of methusma in the Greek translation, it was Jerome. "YAYIN" THE GENERIC HEBREW TERM FOR WINES, AND MOSES' LAW OF ABSTINENCE. The fact that yayin is a generic word, includ- ing many varieties of wines, is manifest from these considerations. It is used in more cases 8o The Divine Law as to Wines. than all the other special terms combined, occur ring more than one hundred and forty times ; it is found in the earliest and latest history (Gen. ix. 21 to Neh. xiii. 15) ; and it appears in the laws, the precepts, and the prophetic writings covering the three ages of Hebrew literature. In the early translations it is treated as a generic term ; being rendered by the Greek oinos and Latin vinum, which, like the modern French vin, the German wein, and the English wine, cover every variety of drink prepared from the grape. The vital practical questions connected with the present discussion are these : First, as a generic word, does yayin include unfermented and unintoxicating beverages made from the juice of the grape ? Second, in the offerings made to God, were intoxicating wines prescribed? Third, was intoxicating wine used at the feasts of the Jews, especially at the Passover ? Fourth, was the abstinence of the Nazarites a temporary or a permanent provision ? Fifth, how far was abstinence from intoxicating drinks taught by Moses to be a virtue required in all men ? That the generic term included all classes of wines, fermented and unfermented, is indicated by the following considerations. Its association, like tirosh, with corn, oil, and other natural products, implies that the natural as well as the artificial juice of the grape is referred to by Wine in Hebrew Offerings and Feasts. 81 "yayin" (see ist Chron. ix. 29; 2d Chron. ii, 15; Neh. v. 15 ; ^K^. 15 ; and Hag. ii. 12). Again, the allusion to the gathering of " wine " (Isa. xvi. 10) forbids any other interpretation of the word yayin than this ; that it includes the fresh grape-juice. Yet, again, the " wine " associ- ated with bread brought out by Melchisedek (Gen.xiv. 18) and the wine associated with milk in the figure of the Gospel provisions (Isa. Iv. i) naturally imply the fresh product ; the wine in which Judah was to wash his garment (Gen. xlix. 1 1) certainly refers to the juice of the grape in the process of pressing ; while the wine from which Daniel abstained while fasting is certainly not the intoxicating beverage of which, from boyhood, he refused to partake (comp. Dan. i 5, 8, 1 6, with x. 3). There is reason, however to conclude thai the Hebrew word yayin was not as comprehensive in meaning as the Greek oinos, the Latin vinum, and the French vin ; since in these languages an adjective qualifying the generic root is used, while in the Hebrew sev- eral distinct roots, as we have seen, are employed. Offerings of wine are required (Ex. xxix. 40 ; Lev. xxiii. 13; Num. xv. 510; xxviii. 14). These offerings, however, are in the two latter legislative acts restricted to the period after which they should have " come into the land given to them ; " and could there gather " harvests.' 82 The Divine Law as to Wines. The only historical reference to these offerings (Hos. ix. 1-4) plainly implies, that, as it was the new corn fresh from the " corn-floor " which was at the time of its gathering to be made the an- nual offering, so it was the " new wine " fresh from the " wine-press," which then, as now, in the same land, was to be gathered by the tithing- man. As to wine drunk at feasts, especially at the Passover, of special importance since it was as- sociated with Christ's use of the cup at the united Passover and Lord's Supper, the follow- ing facts must be weighed : First, no mention is made of " wine," or of any drink, in the many written statutes and recorded observances relat- ing to the Passover in the Old Testament his- tory. Second, there is but one allusion to the wine used at the feast of the Tabernacles (Neh. viii. 10). This drink is called in Hebrew " mam- thaqim ; " rendered in Greek "glukasma," in Latin, "mulsum," in English, "sweet;" and it is mani- festly the fresh juice of the grape, since the feast occurred at the season of grape-harvest. Third, the uniform statement of later Hebrew com- mentators, with the exceptions to be noted, ac- cord with the fact, that the wine used at the Passover, whenever the custom of the cup at this feast was introduced, was controlled by the pro- vision that nothing fermented should be used at that feast. Abstinence front Wine under Moses Law. 83 The abstinence of the Nazarites, for whom statutes are made by Moses (Num. vi. 1-21), was, without question, an extreme pledge ; since it includes every product of the vine, even moist grapes and dried raisins (vi. 4, 5). It was also, with some, at least, a temporary pledge when taken in this extreme form (vi. 21). With others, however, it was a permanent, life -long pledge. That life-long pledge was deemed es- sential in mothers, like the wife of Manoah, whose offspring, like Samson, were to be marked by eminent physical vigor (Jud. xiii. 4, 7), and, like Samuel, by moral integrity (i Sam. i. 15) ; and it was equally essential to men who, in each suc- ceeding dark era of their nation's history, were to be, like Jeremiah and Daniel, the hope of its re- stored prosperity (Judg. xvi. 17 ; Amos, ii n ; Jerem. xxxv. 6; Lam. iv. 7 ; Dan. i. 5-16). As to the general duty of abstinence from in- toxicating beverages taught by Moses, these facts are to be noted. Moses himself, trained, as his history shows (Acts vii. 22), among the learned class of Egypt, was accustomed to the laws of abstinence above cited from Egyptian history. Moreover, he found e*xisting among his country- men a band of " consecrated " young men, with whom the extreme of abstinence was made to confirm the law ; the word " nazar," to consecrate, giving origin to the title " Nazarites," or "sepa 84 The Divine Law as to Wines. ratists," as is indicated in their laws (Num. vi. 2, 3, 5, 6, 12). Farther, this "separation," or conse- cration, was required of the Levites devoted to the ministry (Lev. xxii. 2) ; abstinence from wine and intoxicating liquor being specially en- joined on those engaged in ministerial duties (Lev. x. 9). Yet more, this became a permanent obligation, suggested by moral conviction, in all subsequent Hebrew history (Prov. xxiii. 31 ; xxxi- 4; Hos. ix. 10-12 ; Ezek. xliv. 21 ; Zech. vii. 3; Dan. i. 5). No one can impartially trace this record, and not recognize that in the entire his- tory of the Hebrew nation, beginning with the founder and legislator of the State, the whole weight of law, morality, and religion is against the use of intoxicating drinks. WINES IN DESPOTIC AGES OF LUXURY IN WESTERN ASIA. A new era opened on Western Asia when, after the culmination of ancient civilization, des- potism brought in luxury and degeneracy. Dur- ing four centuries, from about B.C. 1,000 to B.C. 600, oppressive and luxurious monarchs reigned from the Nile to the Indus, alike in Egypt, Palestine, Assyria, Media and Persia. In Egypt the early influence of moral and religious convic- tion, leading to abstinence from intoxicating wine and the use of only the expressed juice of Wines in Asiatic Luxury. 85 the grape, or unintoxicating wines, passed away Plutarch intimates that a new era opened with Psammiticus, whose reign began about B.C. 664 ; his remark being that " the kings," not the priests, : ' began to drink wine from the time of Psam- miticus." Prior to that era, as the tombs of Thebes reveal, luxury had been growing ; women even at table being seen vomiting from exces- sive eating and drinking. This drinking, how- ever, must have been of the sweet unfermented juice of the grape ; since the persons vomiting are always sitting upright, supporting themselves, and showing no signs of being overcome by in- toxicating liquors. From the days of Psammiti- cus, however, we may well believe that kings defied the laws of their early training ; since this same result appears among the kings of Israel and the nations in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris. The testimony of Athenaeus (Deipn.) confirms both this increase of luxury, and also the stern effort of Egyptian wise men to counteract it. The varied kinds of Egyptian wines enumer- ated by Pliny and others, show that the pam- pering of the palate had assumed a new and con- trolling influence ; while the special mention of light wines is proof of the effort to resist the tendency to use intoxicating wines. Thus of one kind Athenseus says, that it is " not exciting to the head ; " and of another kind, that it is so 86 The Divine Law as to Wines. mild and nutritive, that it is not injurious to those " afflicted with fever." In Israel, too, a new era arose. Contrary to the remonstrances of both Moses and Samuel, kings were chosen ; who, among other evils, as had been foretold, introduced sensuality, luxury, and the resort to intoxicating beverages (Deut. xvii. 14, 17; i Sam. viii. 5, 13, 14). To this age, from David to Josiah, belong the writings of David, of Solomon, and of the prophets of Is- rael's degeneracy before the captivity in Baby- lon ; which are most instructive as to the moral and religious law of wines. The kinds of wine mentioned during this pe- riod are specially significant. The simple tirosh, or unintoxicating juice of the grape, is only twice mentioned: David referring (Psal. iv. 7) to the products " corn and tirosh," and Solomon (Prov. iii. 10) comparing to "tirosh" the simple and sweet fruits of virtue and piety. On the other hand, two contrasts appear. First, the artificial product shekar, strong drink, is fre- quently met, and the effects of yayin, fermented wine, are constantly pictured and condemned. ' Second, as if t were a new effort to resist the downward tendency, two new preparations of grape-juice are introduced. The first of these, dsis, is evidently a carefully-prepared must, or unfermented wine ; and the second, eshishah, is Wines in Solomon s Writings. 87 the juice of the grape boiled down to a solid cake. Each of these deserves notice. The verb shakar, to drink to intoxication, and the noun shekar, strong drink, are met in the writings of David and of Solomon the kings, and of Isaiah, Micah, and Nahum, the prophets. In the Psalm prophesying the insults heaped upon the Messiah on the cross, David foretells that He would have occasion to exclaim (Psalm Ixix. 12), "I was the song of the drunkards." In his song, Solomon represents his beloved as picturing the intoxication of impure sensual affection seen in her rivals and abusers (i. 6 ; v. 7) ; and she contrasts this false with true spiritual love by a comparison of simple country diet with court luxuries. Her language is, as Fuerst's defi- nitions indicate : " I have eaten my sweet-shrubs with grape-syrup (debs It) ; I have drunk my wine {yayin) with milk ; " then, in irony adding : " Eat, companions, swallow down ; drink to in- toxication, cousins." In his Proverbs Solomon declares (xx. i)," Strong drink is raging," and he makes Lemuel's mother say (xxxi. 4, 6), " It is not for princes to drink strong drink .... give strong drink to him that is ready to perish." Isaiah, the evangelic prophet, utters woes on them that " follow," and on them that " mingle strong drink " (v. 11,22); he declares it " bitter" (xxiv. 9) ; he pictures those " out of the way" and 88 The Divine Law as to Wines. " staggering from strong drink " (xxviii. 7 ; xxix. 9) ; he threatens men who " shall be filled with strong drink as with their own blood" (xlix. 26); who shall be " afflicted through intoxication " (li. 21); who invite others, saying "we will fill ourselves with strong drink " (Ivi. 1 2) ; and who, rejecting the Redeemer, coming in "garments dyed " with his own blood, will hear the curse : " I will make them drunk in my fury." Finally, Micah (ii. n), the echo of Isaiah, pictures the prophet of falsehood and " lies " as prophesying under the influence " of wine and strong drink." The destroying effects of yayin, wine, in this age, are also vividly portrayed. David, as a shepherd-boy, is sent by his father with the shep- herd's fare of bread, parched corn and cheese (i Sam. xvii. 17, 18), to the army; but in his later experience he meets Abigail, who brings to him " two bottles of wine," and has a husband who drinks wine to beastly intoxication (i Sam. xxv. 1 8, 37) ; while in his later life Ziba in false friendship brings to David bread, raisins, sum- mer fruit and " a bottle of wine that such as be faint in the wilderness might drink " (2 Sam. xvi. i, 2). Often in David's reign wine is mentioned with corn as a product of the field (i Chron. ix. 29 ; xii. 40) ; but David's own three allusions to it are pictures such as many a father in our modern society learns to appreciate. Absalom. Diluted Wine Commended. 89 brought up at the court of the king of Syria, his mother's father, makes a feast of " wine " foi David's sons ; and when Amnon is " merry with wine " he is murdered, while Absalom becomes a traitor (2 Sam. xiii. 27, 28 ; comp. iii. 3, and xiii. 37). No wonder that David's only allusions to yayin, wine, take this cast : " Thou hast made us to drink the wine of astonishment " (Ps. Ix. 3); " In the hand of the Lord is a cup, and the wine is red " (Ixxv. 8) ; " The Lord awaked .... as a mighty man that shouteth by reason of wine " (Ixxviii. 65). Solomon, however, writing from a yet deeper experience, brings out the real curse of the times ; for wine must have been doing a fatal work, or such pictures could not have been drawn, and such warnings would not have been needed. In the poem of his guileless youth there are six allusions to wine ; three declaring that " love " is better than " wine " ; and the other three refer- ring to light beverages, wine with " milk," the " best," and the " spiced " wine (Song i. 2,4; iv. 10; v. i ; vii. 9; viii. 2). In the poem of his manhood, his counsels for youth are full of warn- ings, not against excessive drinking, but against any use of wine. He designates it as " the wine of violence " (Prov. iv. 17), and a " mocker" (xx. i). He not only warns youth against becoming *" wine-bibbers " and " tarrying long at the wine,' go The Divine Law as to Wines. but also exhorts, "Look not on the wine when it is red, when it giveth its color in the cup, when it moveth itself aright : at the last it biteth like a serpent and stingeth like an adder " (xxiii. 20-3 1). He closes his poem with the counsel of King Lemuel's mother, " It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine." In this, as in all ages, experience taught that total abstinence is absolutely indispensable to any one who aspires to eminent success in life, or who attains to moral fidelity in a high trust. The equally important, and only other allusion to wine in this poem, calls attention to the " min- gled wine " which " wisdom " commends (ix. 2, 5). This recalls a resort most interesting in Gre- cian and Roman history and in the modern prac- tices of the Hebrews and of the Greek Church. Through the influence, without question, of Ger- man associations, the Hebrew mesak, to mix, is regarded by Gesenius and Fuerst as referring to the intermixing in wines of spices and other in- flaming ingredients. Gesenius thinks the He- brew mesak cognate with the Sanscrit mi's, the Greek . misgo (or mignumi}, and the Latin misco ; while Fuerst doubts this relation, " since the sibilant here is not original." Both overlook the fact that the Greek translators used the root kerao in rendering mesak ; a word used from Homer's day as distinct from mignumi, to indi- The Early Prophets on Wine. 91 cate a weakening of wines by admixture with water (see Liddell & Scott). Jerome in the Latin uses misceo ; and this term, as Leverett shows from Cicero, in allusions to mixed wine, indicates a dilution with water. The teaching of Solomon in this proverb, therefore, is the doc- trine of the Roman moralists and of the modern Greek Church ; that when wine is to be used medicinally and in sacramental service it should be diluted. In the poem of his old age, designed for those determined to try for themselves rather than ac- cept the experience of others, Solomon first cites his own youthful determination to test the pleas- ures of wine-drinking (Eccles. ii. 3). To youth deciding thus to act he says, " Go thy way .... drink thy wine with a merry heart ; " but he adds the caution (x. 19), "A feast is made for laughter and wine makes merry ;" and he closes by fore- warning the drinker of the certain penalty : "Know thou that for all these things God will bring thee into judgment" (xi. 9). Isaiah, the prophet, who looked for a purer day, like Solomon, is full of warning as to the temptations of wine. He pictures wine-drink- ing, which inflames men at feasts, as the evil of his age (v. n, 12, 22) ; he cites as the source of this corruption the adoption of the Epicurean maxim, " Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we 92 The Divine Law as to Wines. die " (xxii. 13) ; and he describes how the reveler's " song" and his " crying for wine " lead to error, misery, and quenchless thirst (xxiv. 9,11; xxviii. i, 7). Going further, he pictures the reeling of the emaciated toper when through poverty he can no more gain his beverage (xxix. 9 ; li. 21) ; and he closes with the scene of confirmed sots deter- mining to sit night and day drugged with wine (Ivi. 1 2). Finally, in contrast with this abuse of God's gift in the product of the vine, Isaiah pic- tures the Gospel provision of " wine and milk ;" to whose unintoxicating and healthy use the Re- deemer of man invites (Iv. i). Hosea, like Solomon, unites "wine" and "whoredom," as necessarily associated (iv. n); and he pictures the kings of his day as made "sick with bottles of wine" (vii. 5). Finally, and specially noteworthy, he declares the offer- ing of wine to Jehovah as "displeasing" to Him (ix. 4) ; a declaration which illustrates and con- firms the view of Moses' law, above stated, as ex- cluding alcoholic wines. Joel calls attention to the "howling" of wine- drinkers in their suffering after debauch ; and he pictures the fiendish as well as beastly sensuality of wine-sellers who will buy the daughters of their victims as prostitutes " for wine" (i. 5 ; iii. 3). Amos again pictures the wine-drinker as for- getting the claims of humanity in his thirst (ii. The Early Prophets on Wine. 93 8) ; as tempting the Nazarites to be faithless to their vow of abstinence (ii. 12); and as beastly as swine in drinking from " bowls." Most of all, he dwells on the promise of the purer day ; and as Isaiah, recalls the simple return to the use of the natural vintage (ix. 14). Micah denounces the people for accepting as authority lying proph- ets, prophesying under the influence of wine ; and warns the people of the desolating war which their corruption will bring, when they can secure only the tirosh, or fresh grape-juice, while invading foes will come in before their wine is matured (ii. n ; vi. 15). Finally, Ha- bakkuk, the sublimest of prophets, gives a fitting close to the uniform voice of Old Testament writers during this age ; pointing to the general fact that crime is committed under the influence of intoxicating drink ; warning the man who "transgresseth by wine;" and declaring, "Woe to him that giveth his neighbor drink ; that put- test thy bottle to him " (ii. 5, 15). In the prevalence of the use of strong drink and of wine, against which all the inspired He- brew writers of this age unanimously remon- strate, as above noted, two new preparations of the juice of the grape, in addition to the must and the diluted wine before employed, are in this age introduced, to utilize the product of the vine 94 The Divine Law as to Wines. and to forestall the temptation to make intcx< icating wine. The first of these, 'asis, a word derived from asas, to tread out, is the fresh juice, used as in Joseph's day. It occurs but five times, and only in this age ; in Solomon's Song (viii. 2) where it is the juice of the pomegranate instead of the grape; in Isa. xlix. 26, in Joel i. 5 and iii. 18 and in Amos ix. 13, where it is translated " new," or " sweet-wine." It is rendered by the Greek translators "wine, new wine, and sweetening" (glukasmon) ; and by Jerome, in the Latin " must," or " sweetness " (dulcedo). The second new preparation of the grape, eshishah, translated " flagons," as if it were the receiver, and not the article received, is by all authorities recognized as grape-juice boiled down to a thick jelly or cake. It is mentioned only four times : first, as a part of David's feast to the people at large on the bringing of the ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam. vi. 19 and i Chr. xvi. 3) ; second, in Solomon's Song (ii. 5) ; and third, in Hosea (iii. i), where the record is not simply "jelly," as in other cases, but "jelly of grapes." No thoughtful mind can fail to observe, as we shall remark in the later Roman history, the effort of discerning men to forestall, if they could not eradicate, the vice of habitual drinking of intoxicating wines. Passing eastward now to the broad valleys of Assyrian Intoxication with Wines. 95 the Euphrates and Tigris, we find among the nations rapidly succeeding each other in Assyria, Media, and Persia, a yet more marked passage from the use of the simple products of the grape in the vigorous infancy of nations, to the luxury which always is induced by wealth and ease. Plato marks the parallel between the early As- syrian and Grecian advancement; and Plutarch extends this to Rome. The near approximation of the three eras from which authentic history began its reckoning the Grecian era of B.C. 776, the Roman of B.C. 753, and the Babylonian of B.C. 747 marks a culminating point in the prog- ress of these associated nations ; while it is also a central point in the history of degeneracy pro- moted by intoxicating wines. The last of the Assyrian kings who ruled at Nineveh was Sardanapalus, who came to the throne about B.C. 771. Prior to that era, the As- syrians had been distinguished as leaders in science and art ; their rulers were taught the highest principles of justice, integrity, and self- restraint ; and their teachers were allied to the Brahmins of India in their abstinence from wine (Herod. B. I. ; Plato Apol. c. 35 ; Strabo B. XVI. ; Plut. Alcib. c. i). In the latter portion of this period, on the visit of the Hebrew prophet, Jo- nah, about B.C. 862, the religious spirit of the people is illustrated ; the more conspicuous be- 96 T/ie Divine Law as to Wines. cause the prophet seemed to anticipate its in- fluence (Jonah iii. 5-9; iv. 2). Sardanapalus, however, reaching the culmination of degrada- tion, gave himself up to effeminacy and intoxica- tion ; his example being so marked that Plato, Aristotle, and Plutarch comment upon it. His maxim was, " Esthie, pine, aphrodiaze, falla de ouc/en" (Plut. de Alexand. B. II.), " Eat, drink, and gratify lust ; all things else are of no ac- count." To the same purport he composed two lines for his own tombstone, beginning, " Kein echo oss epkagon" etc. ; " I still have what I ate ; " on which Cicero (Tusc. Quses. B. V. n. 101), remarks, "What else, said Aristotle, would you inscribe on the tomb of an ox, not of a king ! " Even the convivial Athenaeus has a moral on debauchery like this (Deipn. B. XII). It might be supposed that the nation succeed- ing to this king, that of Nabonassar, begin- ning with the era B.C. 747, and having Babylon as its capital, would beware of this fatal vice ; but the last of this second line, Belshazzar whose fate the Hebrew Daniel records, fell be cause he "drank wine" in the "sacred cups" (Dan. vi. 3, 4, 23). The Medes, succeeding to the Assyrian or Babylonian kingdom, began as a people strictly abstinent from intoxicating wine. Their de- generacy through luxury is portrayed by Xeno- Abstinence of the Persian Cyrus. 97 phon in his '' Training of Cyrus," in a picture which will ever be quoted as a gem of graphic sketching. Young Cyrus, coming from his Per- sian home to visit his grandfather, Astyages, king of Medea, came to have a mortal aversion to the king's cup-bearer, because of his office. The king remarking upon.it, Cyrus proposed to act the cup-bearer ; and with a napkin on his shoul- der presented the cup to the king with a studied grace that charmed the fond old man. When, however, the king observed that young Cyrus did not, before presenting the cup, first pour some of it into his left-hand and taste it a cus- tom rendered necessary as a safeguard against attempts at assassination by poison put into the king's wine-cup Astyages said, " You have omitted one essential ceremony ; that of tasting." " No," replied Cyrus, " it was not from forgetting it that I omitted that ceremony." " For what, then," asked Astyages, " did you omit it ? " " Be- cause," said Cyrus, " I thought there was poison in the cup." " Poison, child ! " cried the king ; " how could you think so ? " " Yes, poison, grandfather ; for not long ago at a banquet which you gave to your courtiers, after the guests had drunk a little of that liquor, I noticed that all their heads were turned ; they sang, shouted, and talked they did not know what. Even you yourself seemed to forget that you 98 The Divine Law as to Wines. were king and they your subjects; and when you would have danced,- you could not stand on your legs." " Why," asked Astyages, " have you never seen the same happen to your father ? " " No, never," said Cyrus (Cyrop. B. I). Who could have supposed that this same Cy- rus would himself be led to what was and still is called temperate use of wine, and have led the Persian nation into a habit from which to this day they have not even as Muhammedans been redeemed ! It is worthy of special note that the very point of the English controversy between Dr. F. R. Lees and Rev. A. M. Wilson turns on the early abstinence of Cyrus and his subse- quent yielding to the seduction inseparable from high position, ease and luxury. The same Xeno- phon records that Cyrus in his manhood said on a long march to his officers : " Collect wine enough to accustom us to drink only water; for most of the way is destitute of wine. That we do not, therefore, fall into diseases by being left suddenly without wine, let us begin at once to drink water with our food ; after each meal drink a little wine ; diminish the quantity we drink after eating until we insensibly become water- drinkers : for an alteration little by little brings any one to bear a total change" (Cyrop. vi. 2). Xenophon, himself, a little later in life, encour- ages his troops by saying, that their sobriety Asiatic Reform in Wine- Drinking. 99 made them an overmatch for their wine-drinking foes (Cyrop. vii. 5). The lesson is manifest. Herodotus farther states that Cyrus by strategy overcame the fierce Massagetae ; enticing the young prince and his officers, at a banquet given them, to drink deeply, while he and his generals only pretended to drink ; and then attacking their army while their officers were intoxicated. This unworthy act led the queen-mother to re- monstrate with Cyrus to this effect: "When you yourself are overcome with wine, what fol- lies do you not commit ! By penetrating your bodies it makes your language more insulting. By this poison you have con- quered my son ; and not by your skill or your bravery." The culmination of this same vice in these three successive empires, that of the Persian reaching its climax in XerxeS the Great, demon- strated the need of reform ; and doubtless stimu- lated the zeal of reformers in Central Asia, as it had the Hebrew prophets in Western Asia. Indeed, in the midst of this era, about B.C. 713, Nahum wrote "the burden of Nineveh;" and gave, this historic fact in the form of a prophetic warning : " While they are drugged with boiled wine (sobeJi) they shall be devoured as stubble fully dry" (Nahum i. 10). ioo The Divine Law as to Wines. THE AGE OF ASIATIC REFORM IN WINE-DRINKING. Du Perron, the French explorer, who devoted his life to seeking throughout India for the writ- ings of Zoroaster, called attention a century ago to the fact that the age of Zoroaster, or Zerdusht, in Persia, was the age of Confucius, or Confutsee, in China, of Daniel at Babylon, and of Pheri- cydes, the Greek instructor of Pythagoras. This historic coincidence is certainly indicative of a wide-spread and deeply-felt Asiatic need ; suggest- ing to many the personal association or corre- spondence of these great reformers ; suggestive certainly of a principle all the deeper in human nature, if there were no association between them. Zoroaster, of Brahminic origin, after a vain effort to resist the degeneracy of his own caste, left his home, went north to Persia, and there exerted an influence which the Persians have felt to this day. He sought especially to bring that people back to the abstemious life of their own ancestry and of his caste. A leading maxim with him was, " Temperance is the strength of the mind; man is dead in the intoxication of wine." Phericydes, the teacher of Pythagoras, educated at this era, in the East and in Egypt, sought to secure in Greece a reform in habits of luxury Roman Abstinence from Wine. 101 His effort became effective in his pupil ; who in the same school learned the law of abstinence and transferred it to Italy, where he established his school. Numa, the moral legislator, whose influence ruled the early Romans, and was revived and perpetuated in the Republic, was, as Plutarch says, called a Pythagorean, though his age pre- ceded that of Pythagoras at least a century. Of this age, Pliny (Nat. Hist., B. XIV. c. 13-21) speaks in strong commendation. He quotes Numa's law, that "wine should not be used in libations to the one spiritual god, nor in sprink- ling, as a religious act, the graves of ancestry." He states as a reason for this provision, " since it (abstinence from wine) is in keeping with (constat) a religious life, to offer wine to gods was held impious." Hence he adds: "The Ro- mans for a long time used wine sparingly ; " and " It was forbidden to woman." Again he adds : " The wines of the early ages were employed as medicine ; " and again, " wine began to be author- ized in the six-hundredth year of the city (about B. c. 153)." To this have been opposed Plu- tarch's two statements in the life of Numa. " His sacrifices, also, were like the Pythagorean consisting chiefly of flour, libations of wine and other very simple and inexpensive things ; " and the corresponding mention, " some of Numa's precepts have a concealed meaning ; as, not to IO2 The Divine Law as to Wines. offer the gods wine proceeding from a vine un pruned ; nor to sacrifice without meal." State- ments in immediate connection indicate a har mony between Plutarch and Pliny, and confirm the wondrous effort of reform attempted by Numa. The Romans proper were like the Brahmins in India, a small but ruling caste. The Romans at Numa's day, like the Brahmins, had no other deity than the one spiritual god ; and Numa's law forbade, as a matter of religious con- sistency, the use of wine as a beverage or as a libation. For the idolatrous and somewhat inde- pendent tribes held in subjection by the Romans, who worshiped other deities, his law required " simple " offerings ; especially the simplest prod- uct of the vineyard and of the wheat-field. In the midst of these efforts at moral reform, extending from China in Eastern Asia to Rome in Southern Europe, the Hebrew people, forced into Babylonia as exiles, exerted, at least through their prophets, a new and wide-spread influence. During this age three out of four of the prophets styled " greater," and six out of twelve of the " minor " prophets wrote ; while, moreover, the histories and chronicles of the nation, extending from Saul, the first king, to Nehemiah, a governor living a century after their return from captivity were all written. During this age the intoxicat- ing wine, yayin> is always mentioned with con- Later Hebrew Abstinence. 103 demnation ; the un fermented tirosh is frequently mentioned, and with commendation ; while two other products of the vine, as before mentioned, are brought to notice. The condemnation of wine by the leading prophets is universal. Jeremiah pictures "the man whom wine hath overcome " (xxiii. 9), and " nations drunk with wine " (li. 7). Ezekiel re- produces the law " neither shall any priest drink wine" (xliv. 21). Zechariah declares that the Israelites in their moral abandonment at Christ's coming would be like men "drinking" to drown sensibility, who " make a noise through wine " (ix. 15). In the histories then written, Jeremiah, the compiler of the books called Samuel and the Kings, rehearses the record as to David, his sons, and the future monarchs already quoted ; and Daniel pictures the abandonment of the Assyrian kings through wine. Nehemiah, cup- bearer at the Persian court, a century after the day of Cyrus, speaks without comment of the wine of the Persian court ; he alludes to the " wines of all sorts," especially mentioning the sweet juice of the grape as among the free-will offerings sent to him ; but he declares his refusal to receive this perquisite of " wine " as governor (ii. T ; v. 15, 1 8 ; viii. 10; xiii. 15). The writer of the Book of Esther, alluding apparently to the voluptuous Xerxes, pictures the sensuality and 104 The Divine Law as to Wines. passion displayed at the Persian " feasts of wine ; " citing the " law," which made it no discourtesy for any one to decline the wine-cup ; a law whose very existence reveals the rule of conscience prompting abstinence among Persian princes (i. 7, 8, 10; vii. 7). This higher law of absti- nence, ruling among the young men who were the hope of Israel in this dark day, is set forth in colors of radiant light by both Jeremiah and ^Daniel. Jeremiah, as the highest type of virtue yet lingering in Israel, calls out the Rechabites, and in the most public manner tests their con- stancy by offering them wine (xxxv. 2-14) ; and he records as a marked fact in his future " la- ment " over the fall of Jerusalem, that during its calamities, " her Nazarites were purer than snow, they were whiter than milk" (iv. 7). Daniel, during the same age, in the distant land of cap- tivity, and a descendant of kings that had been unfaithful, is a resolute leader of a little band who courteously yet firmly refused to drink the wine of the Babylonian king (i. 5-16). The allusion in Psalm civ., written in this age, a statement often perverted because the contrast is overlooked, is, from the fact that it is purely incidental, an index to the impression of men of this age as to the per- nicious influence of wine-drinking. The Psalmist representing the Creator as giving fertility to the soil so that man can " bring forth food " out of it Later Hebrew Unintoxicating Wines. 105 and citing "wine, oil, and bread," as the three chief products, makes this contrast between the first and last (civ. 15): " Wine to make glad the heart of man .... and bread to strengthen his heart." The word samah, rendered " merry " usually, is sometimes, especially in Solomon's writings, used in an ambiguous or double sense, as Prov. xv. 13 ; xvii. 5, 22 ; but in the writers of the later age it is used chiefly in a bad sense, as Esther v. 9, 14. The gift of wine in this representation of the Psalmist of the captivity is to be explained by the convictions of the men of that age, such as Daniel and Jeremiah. In their view, wine, as the Psalmist states, produces unhealthful exhil- aration, while bread gives healthful " strength," the Psalmist's statement being in harmony with essential truth, as well as with the conviction ot his age. Meanwhile, in this age, tirosh, unfermented wine, and mesak, diluted wine, again appear as antidotes against the use of intoxicating wines. Zechariah puts the healthful tirosh, " new wine," which maidens at the Messiah's coming will par- take, into direct contrast with the yayin, or in- toxicating " wine," which " noisy " brawlers will drink (ix. 15, 17). Haggai mentions it among the simple natural products of the land of Israel in the latter day (i. n). Jeremiah, as the com- piler of the Kings, and Ezra of the Chronicles io6 The Divine Law as to Wines. mention tirosh as an article to which there is a return after reformation under Hezekiah and Josiah (2 Kings xviii. 32 ; 2 Chron. xxxi. 5 ; xxxii. 28) ; and Nehemiah cites it in almost every allusion to the products of the field, as if the re- turn from their captivity brought a return among the Israelites to the use of simple unfermented wine (Nehemiah v. 1 1 ; x. 37, 39 ; xiii. 5, 12). THE LAWS OF WINE OBSERVED BY THE GREEKS. Aristotle, the crown-prince in the galaxy of Greek thinkers, defined philosophy as " the sci- ence of sciences and the art of arts." There could be no real philosophy of wine-drinking until science had exhausted its skill in compar- ing the facts as to the effects of wines ; nor until art had culminated in its efforts to counter- act the insidious and deadly poison in fermented wines. Among the Greeks, centuries before the age of the philosophers, poets had pictured wine- drinking as one of the vices of men ; and histori- ans had recorded their effects on society. Homer, writing of the Greeks who lived eleven centuries before Christ, alludes to wines of various colors and characters. The gods drank " nectar," but " drink no ruddy wine." The nature of the Greek " nektar " as distinct from oinos " seems to be like that of the Hebrew ' tirjsh " as distinct from " yayin." That it was made like wine from Greek Poets on Wines. 107 the juice of the grape, Homer indicates by de- scribing it, as "red like wine" (Iliad xix. 38; Odys- sey, v. 93). That nektar was, like " tirosh," derived from the strained, sugary ingredient of the fresh pressed grape, is indicated by its special sweet- ness, and more by Homer's designation (Odyssey ix. 359), " nektaros aporrox," or extract of the burst grape ; " aporrox " being a compound of the Greek preposition " apo," from, and the word ' rox," used by the Greek translators to designate ' tirosh " in Isa. Ixv. 8. That it was specially healthful, preservative of the bodily tissues as opposed to fermented wines, which the Greeks had learned were destructive of health, is indica- ted by the general statement that the drinking of nektar gave immortality to both gods and men ; while, also, we have the special statement of Homer that Thebis bathed the corpse of Patro- clus in nektar to preserve it from decay (Iliad xix. 38). Hector, the Trojan champion, remon- strates with his mother for offering him wine, lest it should " rob him of both strength and courage." The Greek heroes drank " diluted wine " only ; from the " same urn " of " diluted wine," drinking themselves and pouring out " libations to the gods." (See Iliad i. 598 ; ii. 128 ; iii. 391 ; iv. 3,207 ; vi. 266 ; xix. 38, etc.) In the poem of his old age, the Odyssey, Homer pictures the sage as obtaining from Maron, a priest of io8 The Divine Law as to Wines. Apollo, a " sweet (edus) wine," which needed when drunk, to have twenty parts of water added which wine given to the Cyclops, Polyphemus had a soporific rather than an intoxicating effect ; as the milk of Jael put Sisera to sleep. The reasonings of Trojans and of Greeks, ol Hecuba, Hector and of sage Ulysses, wrought by the poet into his sketches, show that at this early day the common reason and conscience ol observing men was quick and imperative as to the use of wine by men who sought to be all for which they were made ; while reverence for the Divine Being led the earliest Greeks to a resort in the religious employ of wine which is control- ling to this day among Christian Greeks. It had led to the invention of an unintoxicating product f the grape ; as among the Asiatic patriarchs. In the period between the early epic poets and the later philosophers, the historians and dramatic poets add much to show the history of Greok opinion as to wines. Herodotus (vi. 84) says that among the Spartans, trained to abstinence, it was believed that the "madness of Cleomenes," which led to their reverses, was due to the fact that their leader, through seduction of the Scy- thians, formed the habit of drinking " undiluted wine." The testimony of Herodotus confirms the fact important in subsequent history, that the meli, or Greek Physicians on Wines. 109 honey of the early Greeks, was, like the debsh of the Hebrews, a syrup made from grapes and other juicy fruits. Thus, among the Babylonians on the Euphrates, he says (i. 193) that, of the fruit of the palm " they make bread, wine, and honey." Again, of honey among the Lybians on the Nile, he relates (iv. 194): "Amongst them bees make a great quantity ; and it is said that the confectioners make much more." The meaning of the Greek meli, and of the Syrian debsh, is found in the " meli agrion," or " wild honey " of the Greek translation of the Old Testament (see Gen. xliii. 1 1 ; Judges xiv. 8) ; of the New Testa- ment (Mat. iii. 4 ; Mark i. 6), and of Roman writers such as Diodorus (xix. 94). ^Eschylus in his Eumenides (v. 108) alludes to " oblations without wine, unintoxicating pro- pitiatory offerings ; " showing the depth and per- manence of the Greek sentiment which forbid the use of intoxicating wines in religious rites. Sophocles, to the same effect, in his CEdipus Co- lonseus, commends his prayer to the avenging furies, by the mention, " I, abstemious, come to you who abstain from wine ; " thus implying that the vengeance they wreaked would be unjustifi- able if either he who asked for it, or they who in- flicted it, were excited by wine ; a sentiment emphasized by the chorus (v. 481), who warn CEdipus that he bring only oblations of honey, 01 1 10 The Divine Law as to Wines. grape-syrup, and offer no " inebriating beverage " (methu). This profound sentiment of the tragic poets is thrown into stronger relief by the half sincere, half censorious cavils of Aristophanes, the comic poet ; as when in his " Acharnanians " he represents the guests as saying, "we drank against our will .... sweet undiluted wine," when in another place he pretends to ridicule the women who " swear over the cup to put no wine in it," because " they like their own undi- luted ; " and when, yet again, he makes an ine- briated young Athenian say (Lysist. v. 1228), " When we are abstinent we are not in vigor." The testimony of the great Greek physician of his age, Hippocrates, is specially noteworthy. In his "Aphorisms," so permanently valuable in their correct analysis that they are still published as a pocket companion for French medical stu- dents, are numberless suggestions as to the value of abstemiousness in a variety of diseases ; while the suggestion of the use of wine (Aph. vii. 48) in a single instance leads to an important prin- ciple. The direction is : " Strangury and reten- tion of urine stupefaction and blood-letting re- lieve." The Greek thorexis (Latin translation vini potus) indicates that an anesthetic, essential in such a painful disease, was sought by the Greeks in stupefying alcoholic drinks. In his " Diate Oxeon," or Treatment of Acute Diseases Greek Philosophers on Wines, 1 1 1 Hippocrates' prescriptions of various products of the vine have called forth criticism in every suc- ceeding age. He minutely describes symptoms in fever which may determine when " sweet, strong, or black wines, and when hydromel (honey and water), or oxymel (honey and vine- gar), should be given." He says, " The sweet affects the head less, attacking the brain more feebly ; while it evacuates the bowels more," a fact made noteworthy in the statements of Ro- man and Rabbinic writers of later date. He says again, " There is a difference as to their nutritive powers between undiluted wine and undiluted honey (or syrup)." " If a man drink double the quantity of pure wine," he will find himself no more strengthened than from half the same quan- tity of " honey." Both the hygienic and nutri- tive effects of unintoxicating and of intoxicating products of the vine thus brought into contrast by Hippocrates, are discussed by his Grecian, Roman and mediaeval commentators. Alexander Trallienus says, that as the " use of wine '' is " attended with certain evil consequences .... it is the part of a prudent physician to weigh their good and bad effects." Athenseus quotes the following as a further direction of the great Greek physician: " Take syrupy-wine, (glukun, distinct from oinon edwi), either mixed with water or heated, especially that called protropos, the sweet ii2 The Divine Law as to Wines. Lesbian ; for, the syrupy sweet wine (glukazon oinos) does not oppress the head and affect the mind, but passes through the bowels more easily than sweet wine " (oinou edeos). The distinc- tion between the terms glukus and edus, as applied by the Greeks to wines, is here manifest. Protropos, or prodromes, as Dioscorides, the great botanist of a later age, explains, is the pre- mature oozing juice which bursts the grape skin and flows out spontaneously ; a product com- posed almost entirely of the saccharine or unfer- menting, as distinct from the albuminous 01 fermenting portion of the grape-juice. THE LAW OF WINES AS DISCUSSED IN GREEK PHILOSOPHY. Among the leaders in the now prepared ag'R of philosophy, Socrates the moralist, Democritus the materialist, Plato the idealist, and Aristotle the practical logician, are prominent. Xenophon in his Banquet (ii. 14-16) puts into the lips of Socrates this comprehensive statement : " I too, my friends, should be agreeably affected by drink- ing ; as the mandragora puts men to sleep, and as oil feeds flame If we, in like manner, pour into ourselves drink in too great quantities our bodies and minds will soon become power- less, and we shall be scarcely able to breathe, much less to articulate anything. But, if our Spartan Law against Wine-Drinking. 113 servants refresh us from time to time with small cups .... then, not being forced to become in- toxicated with wine, .... we shall arrive at more agreeable mirth." Two facts are to be observed in this statement. First, Socrates here, as was his wont, teaches a principle by appealing to its influence when uncontrolled ; and second, he alludes to the degrading idea that a wise man must be guarded by " servants," having no self- control, when " athletes " can restrain themselves and never touch wine. The spirit of Democritus, the materialist, is in- dicated by Pliny (Nat. Hist. xiv. 2) in his scath- ing irony on the pride of this philosopher in " professing to know all the kinds of wines in Greece," as if this were a triumph of science. The reasoning of Plato, the idealist, as to wine, though alluded to elsewhere, is chiefly found in his Laws. In this lengthy dialogue there are three chief speakers ; first a Cretan, from the isle where Minos made the first collection recognized as natural law by the Greeks ; second, a Spartan, wedded to the stern military code of Lycurgus ; and third, an Athenian, representing the repub- lican city where at an early day the philosophic code of Solon was elaborated, from which the Roman civil code derived its first germs. The Cretan is the inquirer, drawing out the advo- cates of the two extremes ; the rigid discipline of 1 14 The Divine Law as to Wines. Spartan military regimen ; and the free spirit of personal indulgence, spurning restraint, which at Athens made liberty lead on to license. The law as to drinking intoxicating wine is the first dis- cussed, occupying two whole evenings. It has this prominence, because on the one side it is urged that laws restraining the use of wine are sumptuary laws, infringing on individual freedom ; while, on the other hand, it is urged that these are civil statutes proper, because they are essential to protect families and society from trie injury brought by intoxication. The Spartan argues (Laws, B. I.,c. ix): " The laws at Sparta relating to sensual indulgence seem to me to be laid down most beautifully (kallista) of all. For, that by which men fall into the greatest sensual indul- gence, into insulting conduct, and into all kinds of folly, the law expels from our whole country. You would not see in the fields or in the cities over which the Spartans have control, banquets, or any of their attending associations ; which as- sociations excite by their inherent influence every kind of excess. There is not a man, who, meet- ing with a person reveling in intoxication, would not immediately inflict on him the severest punishment. Nor would he let the party go free, pleading as an excuse a Dionysiac festival ; as I once saw was the case with your people riding in carts and as, indeed, at Laurentum, Athenian License in Wine- Drinking. 115 among our colonists, I have seen the whole city intoxicated during the Dionysiac festival. But with us there is nothing of the kind." The point of the Spartan allusion to the Dionysiac festival is seen in the fact that Bacchus, or Dionysios, was the reputed introducer of wine-culture, prob- ably from India and Egypt, into Greece ; a cult- ure at first a blessing when Bacchus taught syrup-making, but perverted when intoxicating wines were invented. Hence Bacchus was pict- ured in early Grecian art as a modest youth ; but in later art as a drunken, half-naked reveler. Hence, too, the festivals in his honor were at first as simple as the Hebrew feast of the tabernacles held at grape-harvest ; but afterward they degen- erated into sceges of the most beastly and un- seemly debauchery. Hence, farther, the Spartans permitted these festivals only that their occa- sional lessons might deter their youth from touching intoxicating wine, and on the principle thus stated by Plutarch in his Lycurgus : " Some- times they made the Helots drink till they were intoxicated, and in that condition led them into the public halls to show the young men what drunkenness was." On the same principle the " ethical " painters, as Aristotle calls them, pict- ured Bacchus in his beastly drunkenness and nakedness to shock the sense of decency and of virtue in ingenuous youth. n6 The Divine Law as to Wines. The Athenian has now his argument, occu- pying two entire books of the twelve, and draw- ing the Cretan as well as the Spartan into sharp debate. The Athenian has beforehand stated the question at issue to be this : not " whether a person finds fault rightly or not with the La- conian or Cretan polity ? " but whether legislators " shall permit any youth to inquire which laws are well or ill established ? " not silencing inquiry by the arbitrary dogma " that they are all beauti- fully laid down, since the gods were the parties who gave them " (I. 7). Ruling out all question as to " drinking to intoxication," which excess (as all agree) law must repress (I. 9), he argues that " discipline " in any special pursuit, as for war, in which abstinence is requisite, tends to undue aspiration for superiority, which injures society at large (I. 10, n). "Instruction" of the mind, often repressed by mere " discipline," calls for "association" in which the effects of drinking may be learned "by experience;" an idea familiar to the Athenians, " fond of debate," though less appreciated by Lacedemonians, noted for " brevity of speech," and by Cretans, for "abundance in thought rather than in words" (I. 12, 13). "Reason says," that to allow the impulses, higher and lower, of a man's nature their conflict, till each man decides which should rule, "is the golden and sacred contest of the Athenian License in Wine-Drinking. 117 reasoning power which is called the common law of the State." " Passing one's time in drink- ing" is "too despicable to be considered." But it is only when the " pleasure " of the first cup is followed by dread and misery, that positive tem- perance is learned ; for " how will any one be perfectly temperate who has not fought with and overcome by reason, and effort, and art, in sport and in earnest, many sensual indulgences and lusts, that urge him to act with shameless- ness and wrong." There comes, indeed, the ques- tion whether one should test himself in " solitude," or " in the company of many fellow-drinkers ; ' among whom he might fail " before reaching the last drink that he could bear without intoxica- tion" (I. 13, 15). The first sitting thus ended, the second is taken up with an application of this principle to the 1 education " of the young ; education having as its office " the drawing and leading of youth to that which has been called by the law ' right rea- son,' and which has been decreed by the most reasonable and oldest men through their expe- rience." Here arises the question how "youth may be accustomed not to feel joy or sorrow in things contrary to the law" (II. 1-5). The laws relating to the parallel excitements of the dance and of the theater are associated always in legislation with wine-drinking; since 1 1 8 The Divine Law as to Wines. they are mutually seductive to youth (II. 5-8). The conclusion to which even the speculative Athenian is obliged to come is thus stated : " Shall we not lay down a law, in the first place, that boys shall not taste wine at all until they are eighteen years of age ; teaching them that it is not proper by a funnel to bring fire to ruin the body and soul before they are prepared to put forth efforts to resist ; thus exercising caution against the inflammable nature of young persons , afterward, indeed, to taste wine in moderation until they are thirty years old, though a young man is by all means to keep himself from intox- ication and much wine ; on reaching forty years, to indulge freely in convivial meetings called for the worship of the other gods ; later still, to in- vite Dionysios to the mystic rites and sports of old men, in which he kindly bestowed wine upon man as a remedy to the austerity of old age." The tendency of this reasoning, at which Soc- rates is not present, which forms a part of the legislation proposed for Plato's ideal Republic, where community of goods and of wives is ad- vocateda legislation which certainly is as arbi- trary as the Spartan, and utterly opposed to the natural law of the Creator nerds no comment in this day, as it fell powerless on the minds of the Greeks and of all other people that have ad- mired, yet shunned, Plato's speculative dream. Athenian Laws as to Wine- Drinking. 119 We do not wonder that, pushed still by the Spartan and Cretan, the Athenian " law-dreamer" admits that legislation as to intoxicating drink is not a sumptuary law ; for mere " agreeableness in food and drink " constitutes sensual indul- gence, while their contributing to health and the welfare of men is " rectitude and virtue " (II. 10). He admits that " there ought to be laws as to convivial drinking," restraining the man " who has become too confident, bold, and over-impu- dent, and unwilling to endure a regulation ; " that " leaders " in society must be abstemious, since it requires " sober leaders " to " fight against drunkenness ; " he allows that there is force in the tradition that Juno avenged herself on " Jupi- ter's bastard son, Dionysios, by making him in- sane, and that he, again, to avenge himself, intro- duced the Bacchanalian rites, and the whole of its mad choir; for which reason, also, (i.e., in fiendish revenge) he gave wine to man." He accords that wine-drinking " is an evil ; " and yet it is not thence to be concluded that it is to be excluded as " unworthy of the State." He ad- mits farther, that if legislation on wine-drinking takes a lower character than this ideal, namely, " that men may learn virtue by experience," if it were proposed that " it shall be lawful for any one to drink both when he pleases and with whom he pleases, and in connection with any 1 20 The Divine Law as to Wines* pursuit whatever, I would not give my vote in this manner." Opposing still the prohibitory laws of the Cretans and Spartans, he would sanc- tion enactments to the following effect : " That no one, when in camp, is to taste of that drink, but to subsist upon water during all that period ; that in the city neither a male nor female slave should ever taste it ; nor should magistrates dur- ing the year of their office ; nor pilots and judges, when engaged in their official business ; nor any one who goes to any council to deliberate upon any matter of moment ; " and he adds, what de- serves a place in modern thought, " when think- ing of begetting children." He farther adds, in conclusion : " Many other cases a person might mention in which wine ought not to be drunk by those who possess mind and share in framing laws ; so that, according to this reasoning, there is to no state any need of many vineyards ; but other kinds of agriculture should be required by law, and those providing every article of diet." Certainly this view of the field of legislation is wondrously instructive to all later ages and na- tions. For, the only really debatable question, according to Plato's Athenian, is whether it is wise to train mature men to see how much they can drink and yet resist intoxication. It would be strange if this dream should be deemed a guide in any modern community, when it Aristotle s Science as to Wines. 121 never commended itself to the ancient Grecian community, who only listened to Plato as a sug- gestive though fanciful dreamer. The last sug- gestion, like that of community of goods and of wives, in Plato's Republic, enacts the most arbi- trary of sumptuary laws, the arbitrary control over the crops each man may raise ; a commu- nistic regulation. Aristotle, the practical as well as logical rea- soner, profound in natural science as well as in moral philosophy, presents principles which sometimes directly and sometimes indirectly apply to the use of wine. In his " Meteorics," from whose acute analysis Sir Wm. Hamilton drew much that has been ac- counted as his own, Aristotle presents some of the properties of wines, which are special guides in deciding important questions as to Christ's teach- ings. Speaking of the influence of heat and cold on different liquids, he distinguishes between those which, like water, are wholly evaporated ; and those which, like milk, are resolved into two parts, as whey and curd ; and those which as wine are rendered viscid and glutinous ^IV. 3). He says (IV. 7), " There is a certain wine, the unfer- mented gleukos, which may be both congealed (pegnutai) by cold, and evaporated (epsetai) by heat." Again (IV. 8): "Those liquids are in- capable of being congealed that have no watery 6 122 The Divine Law as to Wines. element ; as honey (meli) compared with unfer- mented wine (gleukos)." Again he says (IV. 9) "Wine, indeed, that is the sweet (ho glukus) may be evaporated (thumiatai),forit is glutinous (pion) the same as oil. For, it is not congealed by cold and is inflammable. In name, indeed, it is wine, but not in operation (ergo) ; for, first, its taste is not wine-like (oinodes) ; again, for this reason, that it does not intoxicate (methuskei) ; which is the effect of wine generally." This cer- tainly settles the question whether the Greek " gleukos " is an inebriating beverage, if the Greek " methuskei " be taken, as often the En- glish term " drunk " is, in that sense ; while if its generic signification of " gorge " be in Aristotle's thought, the distinction between " gleukos " and wine proper is established. In his " Poetics " (XXV. 14), Aristotle con- demns the poets for picturing the gods as indulg- ing in wine, even though their representations are only figurative, to indicate that they are happy. In his "Ethics," in which he treats of the moral principles which are the foundation of government and laws, Aristotle makes " temper- ance " to be " the mean " between abstemiousness and indulgence ; as " courage " is the mean be- tween cowardice and rashness ; but he carefully distinguishes between the partaking of healthful food and simple drinks, and the use of mere lux- Abstinence Aristotles Temperance. 123 uries, and especially of intoxicating beverages ; indicating that abstinence from such indulgence is temperance. His words are, " By abstaining from sensual indulgences we become temperate ; and, when we have become so, we are best able to abstain from them ; " a double principle appli- cable to moral training (B. II., c. ii., sect. 6, 7,8). He admits the force of Plato's reasoning, in part, as to education ; but makes these profound sug- gestions. There are three classes of attainments important in education : the honorable, the ex- pedient, the pleasant ; which are the virtues severally of the moral, the intellectual and the bodily natures in man ; while their opposites, to be avoided, are the dishonorable, the inexpedient and the unpleasant, or painful. The latter, the training to " bodily virtue," is to be specially a matter of forcible restraint by law ; since the impulse to sensual indulgence is common to man and animals, and must, as in them, be restrained by the infliction of bodily pain ; and, also, because we " make pleasure and pain the rule of our action," and because " it is more difficult to resist the impulse to sensual pleasure than to resist anger," which is a moral impulse. In view of this he reaches the profound conclusion : " He who abstains from the bodily pleasures, and in this very thing takes pleasure, is the temperate man ; but he who feels pain at it, (i. e., at prac- 124 Tht Divine Law as to Wines. ticing abstinence) is intemperate." (II. Hi. 1-9). As it is difficult in some cases to find the " mean," which constitutes virtue, Aristotle gives these significant rules : " First, keep away from that extreme most contrary or dangerous ; " as Circe advised Ulysses (Odys. xii. 219) in steering between Scylla and Charybdis. " Second : let us consider the vice to which we are most inclined .... and drag ourselves away toward the opposite extreme .... as people do with crooked sticks to make them straight. Third : let us be most on our guard against what is pleasant, and pleas- urable ; for we are not unbiased judges of it. Just, then, as the Trojan elders felt respecting Helen (Iliad, iii. 158), must we feel respecting pleasure ; and in all cases pronounce sentence as they did ; for thus, by sending it away, we shall be less likely to fall into error." He adds, in conclusion : " By so doing, then, to speak in sum- mary, we shall be able to hit the mean " (II., ix. 3-5). Abstinence, according to Aristotle, then, is temperance. Discussing the " will " as an element of virtue in acts, Aristotle notes a principle of evil in the use of intoxicating drink. Stating the distinc- tion between doing wrong " through ignorance," i. e. t when there is no means of knowing what law requires, and doing wrong " with ignorance," i. e. Aristotle on Prohibitory Laws, 125 when some wrong feeling or habit blinds a man to what he might have known to be law, he illus- trates the principle thus : " He who is under the influence of drunkenness does not seem to act through ignorance ; but, under the influence of one of the motives mentioned, to act, not know- ingly; or, with ignorance" ("III., i- 15)- Comparing intemperance with incontinency, or licentiousness, Aristotle says : " The former is incurable, the latter curable. The former, as a depravity, resembles dropsy and consumption, but incontinency resembles epilepsy ; for the former is a permanent, and the latter is not a per- manent vice" (VII., viii. j). Americans have appreciated Greek wisdom ; and this suggestion deserves thought. Giving an entire book to the consideration whether " pleasure " is, as in the Epicurean philosophy, a main end to be sought in life, Aristotle urges the importance of this question ; since " when we educate the young we control them " by an appeal to motives of "pleasure and pain." He insists that "it is of the greatest consequence in laying the founda- tion of moral character that men should learn to take delight in what they ought, and to hate what they ought" (X., i. i, 2). He observes that, " The impulsions of the intellect conflict with the impulsions of the senses;" that each impulse is increased by culture ; and'that bodily indulgences 126 Thz Divine Law as to Wines. come to interfere with intellectual pleasures ; as is illustrated by " persons who eat sweetmeats in the theaters " when the " actors are bad," not appreciating the sentiment of the drama (X., v. 1-7). Returning to the importance of " right education in the path of virtue from childhood," and observing that " to live temperately and patiently is not pleasant to the majority, and especially to the young," he argues: "Therefore education and institutions ought to be regulated by law ; for they will not be painful when they have become familiar " (X., ix. 8). As a justifi- cation of the requiring by law " abstinence " as essential to temperance, he says : " The bad man desires sensual pleasure, and is corrected by pain, like a beast of burden. Therefore it is a maxim that the pains ought to be such as are most opposed to the pleasures that are loved." He adds : " Legal enactments and customs have authority in states, in the same way as the words of a father and customs in private families " (X., ix. 10, ii, 16). In his " Politics," in which moral principles are applied to government and laws, Aristotle mentions six essential provisions in a state on which it is proper to legislate ; first, food ; second, mechanic arts; third, arms for defense; fourth revenue to maintain law ; fifth, religion ; sixth, courts of law (vii. 8). Hence, " temples " and Aristotle s Physiology of Wine- Drinking. 127 markets with "public tables," i. e., licensed eating- houses, are alike matters for legislation (vii. 12). Again, as the soul of man has two parts first, that deriving knowledge through the senses and influenced by fleshly impulses, and, second, rea- son, and as the inferior ought to be ruled by the superior, so " he who composes a body of laws ought to extend his legislation to everything" requisite to " the superior nature and its ends ; " the Spartans, erring not in their prohibitory laws, but in constituting the State with laws to " make war, and victory the end of government ; " which laws when peace came were overridden by the spirit of indulgence (vii. 14). He adds: "The body, therefore, demands our care prior to the soul ; the appetites for the sake of the mind ; the body for the sake of the soul " (vii. 15). Applying these precepts to education, he in- sists that by law everything exciting sensual im- pulses, " the pleasures of the table," as well as "obscene stories, and pictures, and comedies," should be prohibited ; because " a good education will preserve youth from drunkenness, and from all the evils that attend on these things" (vii. 17). In his last Book, devoted entirely to the two parts of education called by Plato "gym- nastic for the body and musical for the soul," Aristotle indicates, as does Menu, the Brahmin, that while music proper may be perverted from its 128 The Divine Law as to Wines. high use, the theater, the dance, and the wine-cup are, as Socrates argued, all intoxicating in their very nature, and he notes that the poets, as Eu- ripides (Bacch. 382), have made this distinction ; calling "wine and the dance," in a different sense from music, " killers of care " (viii. 5). The extremest of modern advocates for " prohibition," as distinct from and opposed to " licensing," were more than anticipated by the profound and prac- tical Aristotle. In his " Problems," Aristotle alludes to the physiological laws of the action of intoxicating wines ; some of which are specially worthy of modern study. His suggestions are the more weighty, because, like Prof. Henry's published lists of " inquiries " for observers in almost every department of science, they hint at once the points to be observed, the methods of investiga- tion, and often the possible or probable solution ; many being repeated, with one or more sug- gested replies. Among the outward and com- monly noticed effects of wine awakening inquiry are these : Why are persons, much intoxicated, stupefied, while those slightly intoxicated are like madmen ? Why do men stupefied by wine fall on their backs, while men crazed by wine fall on their faces ? Why are wine-drinkers made dizzy and their vision affected ? Why are persons fond of sweet-wine (glukun-oinon) not wine- Roman Virtue Demanding Abstinence. 129 bibbers (oinophlyges) or overcome by wine ? Among hygienic inquiries are these : Why are persons given to wine subject to chills, to pleu-. risy, and like diseases ? Why are those who drink wine, slightly diluted, subject to headaches, while wine much diluted produces vomiting and purging? Why do those who drink undi- luted wine have more headache next day than those who drink diluted wine ? Why does wine greatly diluted produce vomiting, while wine alone does not ? Why does sweet wine counter- act the effect of undiluted wine ? Why is oil beneficial in intoxication ? To the latter of these inquiries the suggested solution is : Be- cause oil is diuretic and prepares the body for the discharge of the liquor. Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, who wrote on the " History of Plants," and on their " Effects," follows up the teachings of his master, both as to the hygienic and moral influence of wines. Thus he compares (Plut Ait. VI., xvii. 2) the effect of " myrrh " (smyrna), of honey-mixture, and of unfermcnted wine (glukos) ; declaring the former, in the case mentioned, preferable. He speaks also in his "Ethical " notes of the moral influence of wine-drinking. These minute observations of the great thinker of the ages, whose logic Sir Wm. Hamilton could not improve, whose discoveries in Natural 6* 130 The Divine Law as to Wines. History, Agassiz, up to the last course of lectures he delivered at Harvard University, declared not only anticipated those ascribed to himself, but were still a guide to new explorers, whose ethics and politics are the very foundations on which American and European Constitutions are now made to rest these minute observations on the " Divine Law as to Wines " certainly are timely for modern consideration. The early fall of Aris- totle's brilliant pupil, Alexander the Great, simply from wine-drinking, is a demonstration of the correctness of the philosopher's deductions from a wide range of observation. WINES, INTOXICATING AND UNINTOXICATING, IN THE DECLINE OF GREECE AND THE GRANDEUR OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. In no respect, mort fully than in its influence on wine-drinking, did the declaration of Horace prove true, " Grsecia capta ferum victorem ce- pit " captured Greece took captive its rude vic- tor. When Athens, B.C. 148, and Corinth, B.C. 146, were conquered by Roman armies, when Aristotle's library was among the most valuable treasures brought to Rome, and when three most eminent leaders in the Grecian schools of philosophy, came as ambassadors to Rome, a new era in practical wisdom as to wine- Roman "Must" or Unfermented Wine. 131 drinking, as well as in other customs, dawned on the practical Romans. The stern victor and the politic captive found their common affinities ; and they mutually influenced each other accord- ing to these affinities. The priceless treasures of Roman and Grecian literature in that age af- ford the richest lessons of the ages for the culti- vation of virtue which brings social prosperity. The grand old Roman integrity displaying itself in Stoics like Cato and Seneca, the opposite Epi- curean spirit in Horace and Athenaeus, and the middle-ground statesman-like reasonings of Cice- ro and Plutarch, gave a perfect charm to the study, in any point of view, of this age. The subject of wine-drinking was one prominent in thought and policy ; and the fact that the three tendencies of thought just alluded to, sponta- neously arising from three classes of human im- pulses, manifested themselves at this era, is an essential clue in threading the intricacies of the labyrinthine citations on wines and their law which opposing writers may readily draw from the writers of this age. As Judaism at this era had its Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, so Greeks and Romans alike had their practical conservatives, their pleasure-seeking liberals, and their stern ascetics. The important point is to find the common principles which all these classes, in their impartial statements, admit to be 132 The Divine Law as to Wines. established. These common convictions are " the truth " which ought to guide honest men. When Alexander, the cultured pupil of Aris- totle, transformed into the autocratic military conqueror, was seen at thirty to be in danger from wine-drinking, a physician named Andro- cydes, Pliny tells us (Nat. Hist xiv. 5), wrote to him, begging him to avoid wine, since it was " a poison." This clear conviction pervaded the no- ble men under whose guidance the Roman Re- public was coming to absorb under its sway all Western Europe and Northern Africa, in addi- tion to all Alexander's conquests. Cato, the earliest of the so-called " rustic," or agricultural writers, about B.C. 200, describes specially the mode of preparing must, or unfer- mented wine, thus : "If you wish to have must all the year, put the grape-juice in a flask (am- phora), seal over the cork with pitch, and lower it into a cistern (piscina). After thirty days take it out ; it will be must all the year" (De Re Rustica, c. 120). It is worthy of note, that the word " mustum " first appears in Latin literature in the age of Cato, about B.C. 200 ; after which it is often met till Pliny's day, three centuries later. The word appears during this period as an ad- jective, meaning "fresh, new, young;" Cato using the expression, " agna musta," a young ewe- lamb. Its indirect meaning of " sweet " is seen Roman "Must" or Unfermented Wine. 133 in Varro's expression, " mala mustea," sweet-ap- ples. Sometimes in allusion to grape-juice " vinum mustum " is used, showing that the un- fermented juice of the grape was regarded and called wine ; just as in modern times fresh apple- juice, before ferment begins, is called " new cider." Other suggestions indicate how the stern patriot was seeking methods of utilizing the pro- ducts of the vine so as to prevent the use of intoxicating wines. These are omitted, because more fully described by Pliny. The poet Plautus in the same age pictures the vice of wine-drinking, and compares its influence with that of those who drink only " mustum " or unfermented grape - juice. Thus in his " Pseudolus " or Liar (Act. V. 1. 6-8), he makes the hero of his comedy say " Ah, saeviendum mihi Hodie est. Magnum hoc vitium vino est, Pedes captat primum ; luctator dolosus est." "Ah, I must get angry to-day. There is this great vice in wine : it first seizes a man by the feet ; it is a tricky wrestler." Yet again, Polybius, the philosophic historian, called pragmatic, i, e., systematic or business-like, writing as a Greek, about B.C. 160, to explain to his then unconquered countrymen Roman cus- toms, makes this statement (Hist. Kath. I, ii. 8) : ' Among the Romans the women were allowed 134 The Divine Law as to Wines. to drink a wine which they call passum, made from dried grapes ; which drink very much resem- bled ^Egosthenian and Cretan glukos, which men use for the purpose of allaying thirst." He adds that for two reasons a wife could not violate this law of custom ; first she was not entrusted with the keys of the wine-vaults ; and second, as " it was necessary that she should kiss (philein) her own and her husband's relatives every day when she first meets them," her breath would betray her had she been drinking (VI. ii. 3). This record establishes the fact that the glukos of the Greeks of this day was like the Roman " pas- sum" in properties if not in its mode of manufac- ture ; the passum being made of raisins soaked in water. A century and more later, Cicero, writing in the last days of the Republic, intimates that even the rude Gauls had by observation learned the danger of drinking intoxicating wines. He says (Orat. pro M. Font), "After this they would drink their wine more diluted, because they thought there was poison in it ; " this state- ment implying that to counteract its alcoholic poison they always had diluted wines, and that they had learned to add a larger quantity of water when fitness for active service forbade indulgence. . In this oration Cicero specially defends his client, Fonteius, then provincial governor in Gaul Virgil and Horace on Wines. 135 from the charge " ut portorium vini instituerit, ' that he had levied a tax on wine (Orat. pro. Font, x.) ; the allusion showing that the licenS' ing of the sale of intoxicating liquors with taxes for revenue on that sale, was a Roman custom. Virgil, the sweet poet of nature, writing under Augustus, pictures (Georg. i. 295) the delight of the winter evenings in his own rural home ; when the laborer sat by the fire sharpening his tools, and his wife, beguiling their common toil with her song, was boiling the " flowing sweet must " (dulcis musti humorem) ; this picture revealing how the product of the grape was used by the simple children of nature at that day. In the same age the opposing tendency of fashion, pride, luxury, and its attendant inhuman trifling with female virtue, is seen in Horace; himself rather the Burns, than the Byron of his day. More heartless than Burns, how the ser- pent shows his fangs as well as his glistening scales in the ode (I. 11) to Leuconoe, whom he would seduce ! He writes, " Thou should'st not seek to know it is wrong to ask what end the gods have fixed for me and thee Thou mayest taste and strain out the wines. Cut short deferred hope, since time is brief. Carpe diem" seize the day. Horace, like Burns and Byron, knew well that it was a demon that possessed him, when thus he wrote. In other The Divine Law as to Wines. hours Horace pictured the dread approach of the avenging deity, inflicting the penalty foi violating known law. Indeed the Athenian's theory in Plato's Laws seems in the case of Horace to have a show of truth ; since men of genius in their hours of remorse for yielding to sensual indulgence, bring out with a vividness which only experience could give the dire ef- fects of wine-drinking. With a vein of irony Horace pictures (Sat. II. viii. 30-50) the parade of wines by a pretentious host, from the syrupy- sweet (meli mela) to the vinegar-sour (aceto). With more of seriousness he pictures (Epis. I. xviii. 31-38) the vain young man, in debt for his fine clothes, " tortured both with wine and rage " at his exposure by the unpaid tailor. With sober criticism he writes (Epist. I. xix. 1-6) : " If you trust ancient Cratinus, learned Maecenas, no songs can please long, nor live, which were written by water-drinkers (aquae potoribus). As soon as Bacchus enrolled poets scarcely sane with satyrs and fauns, soon songs, but partially sweet, smelt of wine. By praises of wine Homei is proved to be fond of wine " (vinosus, see Iliad VI. 261). Finally, with philosophic fidelity to truth in his " Ars Poetica" Horace pictures the rural poets, simple and natural, because of their plain diet on " fruit " ; while in the age of arti- ficial luxury genius is wooed " by daily wine " Roman Historians on Wines. 137 (1. 209). Yet more frank is the poet's confession, when farther on (1. 412-414) he says: "He who studies to reach the desired goal, from boy- hood bears and works much, endures heat and cold, and abstains from lust and wine." At the very time when, at the court of Au- gustus, Horace was flattering to seduce, and Virgil, by his inspiring Pollio and ^Eneid, was stimulating a purer aspiration, the profoundest of historians and the most analytic of medical writers were called out. Strabo and Diodorus as historians, are chief authorities as to wine- drinking in their own and former ages. At the same day Dioscorides, the authority in materia medica from that age till after Bacon wrote his " Novum Organum," was prosecuting his com- prehensive investigations. In his " Peri hylcs iatrikes" "Of Materia Medica," he describes vari- ous kinds of wines, differing as to age, climate, taste, color, etc. He says, *' Old wines are dead- ening (blaptikoi) to the nerves, and to the other instruments of the senses, hence they are to be avoided by those having any internal organ weak" (V. 7). Again he says (V. 9), "Sweet wine (glukus oinos) disorders the bowels, as does unfermented wine (glukos, Lat. mustum) ; but it surfeits (methuskei) less." The use of the ^erb metlmsko, by Dioscorides confirms again the fact, that it is a general word, like the En- 138 The Divine Law as to Wines. glish " arink " ; or a designation referring to any of the several effects of wine either as surfeiting stupefying or crazing. A century later, under emperors of varied character, from Nero to Trajan, a cluster of writers are met whose testimony as to wines is most instructive and impressive. Among these are the historians Tacitus and Plutarch, the naturalist Pliny, the physician Galen, the agri- cultural writer Columella, and the moralist Seneca. Plutarch, writing of the past, illustrates and confirms the Egyptian, Grecian and Roman history already traced. Tacitus, writing of his own, as well as of earlier times, pictures not only Roman, but German habits. He says of the Germans : " To pass day and night in drinking is a disgrace to no one." . ..." At feasts, mainly, they consult as to being reconciled to enemies, as to making trea- ties, as to approving their chiefs, and in fine as to peace and war ; as if at no time did the mind so lay open its simple thoughts, or warm up to great deeds. A race, neither astute nor ardent, reveals at such times the secrets of the heart under the license of a jest. Then, the thought of all, detected and naked, is the next day taken up again ; and decision from both occasions is safe. They deliberate when they know not how Roman Agriculturists on Wines, 139 to dissemble ; they decide when they are not able to err." Politicians of all ages have ap- preciated this method of accomplishing an end through a banquet ; a custom whose science, as well as its art, was practiced, Herodotus relates (I. 133), by the early Persians; whose philoso- phy, as here shown by Tacitus (Germ. 22), was conceived by the rude ancestry of nations now leading in modern civilization ; yet needing a deeper study of a custom still barbarian, which rather mars than makes, if Tacitus rightly judged. Columella, the rural writer, more fully than Cato at an earlier age, describes (XII. 29) the mode of preparing unintoxicating wine. He says : " That must may remain always sweet, as if it were fresh, thus do : before the grape-skins have been put under the press, put must, the freshest possible from the wine-vat, into a new flask, and seal and pitch it over carefully, so that no water can get in. Then sink the flask in cold sweet water, so that no part of it shall be uncovered. Then, again, after the fortieth day take it out ; and thus prepared, it will remain sweet throughout the year." Galen, the great authority in general medical science, as Dioscorides was in materia medica down to Bacon's day, describes different kinds of wine : and he states the effects of sweet and 140 The Divine Law as to Wines. sour, of new and old, of must, fresh or boiled on the human system. He agrees with Hippoc- rates, whom he cites, and also with Dioscorides, as to the deleterious as well as medicinal prop- erties of the various fruits of the vine, whether diuretic or stimulating ; giving special place to their action on the nerves and on the mental faculties. Seneca presents the moral lessons of his age as to wine-drinking. In his Epistle (16) on "General Dissolution of Manners," he speaks of the "general complaint" of his age, that "fashion" rules vices; now making "scoffing," now " drinking " respectable ; saying as to the latter, " he shall be accounted the bravest man who makes himself the veriest beast." Speaking of " the two blessings of life, a sound body and a quiet mind," he asks, " Who was greater than Alexander?" And yet "his lusts tarnished the glory of all his victories ; " and he says : " When the blood comes to be inflamed with excess of wine and meats, simple water is not cold enough to allay that fever-heat ; and we are forced to make use of remedies, which remedies them- selves are vices." He adds, " Even women have lost the advantage of their sex ;" for " they sit up as late as men and drink as much." Pliny, however, is the most comprehensive as to the history, the physical and the moral evils of wine-drinking, and as to the resorts of wise and Pliny, the Naturalist, on Wines. 141 good men in all ages to check its corrupting in- fluence. Five of the thirty-seven books of Pliny's Natural History (i2th to i6th) treat of plants, and five more (i;th to 2ist) of their medici- nal properties ; and in these, as well as in three subsequent books (23d, 3oth and 36th), wine has a large place. He mentions incidentally (B. XII.) that spiced wine at funerals was for- bidden bylaw; the statute reading: "Murrata potio mortuo ne inditur," "let not spiced drink be placed on a corpse." In the next book (XIII. 5) he mentions that in Egypt wines (vina) were made from plums (myxis),figs and pomegranates ; showing the wide application of the Latin word vinum, illustrative especially of the Greek word oinos, also illustrated in the French term " vin." The next book (XIV.) is largely devoted to the subject of wine. He alludes to the de- grading pride of the materialist Democritus ; that he boasted that he was familiar with all the kinds of wine produced in Greece (c. 2). He cites (c. 5) the address of the physician Andro- cydes to Alexander ; in which occurred the ex- pression, " The hemlock is the poison of men, the poison of wine is hemlock." He mentions (c. 9) fourteen kinds of sweet wine, invented to diminish the intoxicating influence of wine ; and he defines " defrutum " as wine boiled down to half its consistency. He especially states that 142 The Divine Law as to Wines. among sweet wines is that which the Greeks call aeigleukos, or "semper mustum," always must, or unfermented grape juice ; another link in the chain of testimonies as to unfermented wines. Stating that this aeigleukos is made by prevent- ing the grape-juice from fermenting (fervere), he defines fermentation thus : " So they call the passing over of must into wines " (musti in vina transitum). He states that fermentation is ar- rested in Greece by tightly corking the grape- juice fresh from the press-vat ; or by drying the grapes, as in Narbonensis on the vines, and at any time preparing from them, soaked in water, the " aeigleukos." Fie mentions (c. 10) three wines called by the Greeks deuteria, second- quality. The first is the lora of the Romans ; made by grinding up grape-skins in water ; the second, also described by Cato, is wine boiled with half water ; and the third is lees-wine, made of the settlings of the wine-vat, called by Cato * faecatum." Coming to the religious bearing of wine- drinking, Pliny says (c. 12) : "That Romulus of- fered libations of milk, not of wine, is proved by the sacred rites which he instituted ; which till this day preserve the custom " (morem.) Numa made yet more stringent laws ; citing as a reason that Romulus, his predecessor, was fed by Divine interposition " on milk, not on wine/' Numas Laws as to Wines. 143 He ordained, " Do not sprinkle a grave with wine ; " and he taught substantially that it was " wrong to make wine." The Old Latins, who preceded the Romans, used wine in religious of- ferings ; but they offered " milk to Mercury," the god of eloquence, indicating that no public speaker should be under the influence of wine. He says (c. 18), "The wines of the early ages were employed as medicine," .... "Wines began," he continues, " to be authorized in the six hun- dredth year of the city." He adds that even then it was used " sparingly ; " that women never drank it except " for health ;" and that " since this is con- sistent with religion (constat religione) it was held impious (nefastum) to offer wine to gods." He adds that the Greeks indicated the same rev- erence in the fact that the wines they offered as Hbations were diluted (aquam habeant). Pro- ceeding farther on to describe the methods in- vented to secure unintoxicating wines, he ex- claims, after tracing (c. 22) the fearful effects of intoxicating wines, " Alas ! what wondrous skill ! and yet how misplaced ! Means have even been sought for becoming inebriated on water-prepara- tions." Among the counter-methods of prevent- ing intoxication (c. 24, 25) he describes, as Cato and Columella, the preparation of must ; he notices the Greek protropos as the " must which flows of its own accord before the grapes are 144 The Divine Law as to Wines. trodden;" he further mentions " a mode (ratio) of preserving musts in the first stage of ferment " (in primo fervore) ; and again shows how to arrest ferment, when by carelessness it arises in must, by the use of anything that has sulphur in it, as pumice-stone (pumice) or lava, the yolk of eggs, or sulphur fumes. Pliny closes this book (c. 28) with one of the most eloquent of total-abstinence appeals ever penned or uttered. " How strange," he exclaims, 4 that men will devote such labor and expense for wine, when water, as is seen in the case of animals, is the most healthful (saluberrimum) drink ; a drink supplied, too, by nature ; while wine takes away reason (mente), engenders in- sanity, leads to thousands of crimes, and imposes such an enormous expense on nations." He says that confirmed drinkers " through fear of death " resulting from intoxication, take as counteractives " poisons such as hemlock " (cicutam,) and " others which it would be shameful to name." "And yet," asks he, " why do they thus act ? " " The drunkard never sees the sun-rise ; his life by drinking is shortened ; from wine comes that pallid hue, those drooping eyelids, those sore eyes, those trembling hands, .... sleep made hideous by furies during nights of restlessness , and as the crowning penalty of intoxication (premium summum inebrietatis) those dreams Pliny on Abstinence from Wine. 145 of beastly lust whose enjoyment is forbidden." He adds that many are led into this condition " by the self-interested advice of physicians (medi- corum placitis) who seek to commend themselves by some novel remedy." It was this " that led to the cruelty of Tiberius ; this corrupts youth, as was even the son of Cicero ; " while, he adds, " as I think, the great evils brought on us by Antony, came through his intoxication." In later allusions new and important light is thrown on Roman experience as to wine. Closing up in the opening of his 23d book his statements as to wine, striking the balance between those who extol and those who con- demn it, he says (xxiii. i) : "All must is useless for digestion (stomacho), but is a gentle aid to circulation " (venis). As to intoxicating wines, professedly taken as a medicine, he ex- claims : " Moreover, how uncertain the result, whether in drinking there may be aid or poison (auxilium sit aut venenum"). " In the history of medicine," he continues, " differing views have been held ;" some saying," by the moderate use of wine the muscles are strengthened, but by its excess they are injured, and so with the eyes." Among others, the physician Asclepiades ex- travagantly remarked : " The virtues possessed by wine are hardly equalled by the gods them- selves." As the result of all testimonies Pliny 7 146 The Divine Law as to Wines. makes these notes : " Sweet wines are less use- ful for digestion (stomacho) ; old wine mixed with water is more nutritious ; for while sweet wine is less inebriating it floods (innatat) the stomach." As to its effects on the mind, he notes, " it has passed into a proverb ' Sapientiam vino adumbrari/ that wisdom is beclouded by wine." As to its unnatural influence on appe- tite, he declares, " We men owe it to wine that we alone, of all animals, drink when not thirsty." Many like suggestions are added. If any age was ever advanced in its cleai views of the nature of wine as " the fruit of that forbidden tree " which " brought death into the world," and much of " human woe," it was this climactic age of Roman-Grecian culture. It should be observed that the language then per- fected was chosen for the embodiment both of the first translation of the Old Testament and also of the New Testament. This climactic age, moreover, of the practical Romans, was the one Divinely chosen for the mission of Jesus and of His apostles ; who taught the permanent law of duty as to intoxicating wines. WINES IN THE GREEK TRANSLATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. In the century following Alexander's Grecian Empire, Hebrew translators prepared the Greek Wine in the Greek Old Testament. 147 version of the Old Testament Scriptures which was used by Christ and His apostles ; to which was added the books called " apocryphal " or " deutero-canonical ; " containing valuable illus- trations of Hebrew history and sentiment, writ- ten in the Greek of the Alexandrine age. These indicate how Hebrew terms for wine were trans- lated into Greek ; and what ideas as to wine were held by Hebrews associated with Greeks. As to the Greek terms used for Hebrew terms for wines and their differing effects, a careful re- view of the authorities already cited is, for two reasons, demanded. First, the Greek language itself took on special modifications, when after the death of Alexander the Greeks who dwelt in Asia came to use Asiatic words and forms of speech. Second, the nature of those modifica- tions is not so fully manifested in the Alexan- drine Greek writers as it is in the Hebrew au- thors of the Greek translation of the Old Testa- ment, and in the New Testament writers. As, in Canada, the French natives have one class of provincialisms, and the English, speaking French, another class, so was it in Syria and Egypt from B.C. 250 to A.D. 100 ; the era of the Greek Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. With two noteworthy exceptions, the Hebrew term tirosh, as well as the word yayin, is ren dered by the general term oinos, wine. This, for a 148 The Divine Law as to Wines. double reason, was natural. First, foreigners usually learn, in a new country, general terms before they fully comprehend specific terms. Second, the Greek specific term for unferment- ed wine, gleukos, was of late invention ; it was when invented, like the Latin " mustum," but an adjective slightly changed in form to be used as a noun ; and yet more, as Aristotle intimates, it was, though a special term, ranked under the general term oinos. In two cases, however, as we have noted, the Greek translators are specific in their translation of tirosh. In Isaiah Ixv. 8, it is rendered rox, or burst-fruit ; the connection, as heretofore mentioned, indicating that the refer- ence of tirosh is to fresh grape-juice, still in the grape, and so abundant as to burst the skin. In Hosea iv. n, however, where the English translation is, " Whoredom and wine (yayin) and new wine (tirosh) take away the heart," the Greeks make the object the subject ; and bring- ing forward from v. 12, the words "my people" they render : " The heart of my people takes to (exdexato) fornication and wine (oinon) and methusma? The English translators agreeing with all mediaeval versions, saw reasons for em- ploying the words " new wine" to render tirosh; those reasons have already been indicated ; and the ordinary Greek rendering of tirosh elsewhere was one among those reasons. The only re- Methuo and Methusko" 149 maining inquiry here is this : What prompted the Greek translators to this unusual rendering in this single passage ? Since much of the modern controversy as to the nature of tirosh has turned on a manifestly mistaken view of this exceptional rendering of the word by the Greek translators it is appropriate that it receive due consideration. As already noticed, the root word methe, in Greek, indicates "surfeit." In the verbal root methuo this signification is more fully preserved than in the derivative methusko. The noun "methusma," not found in classic, but only in Byzantine and modern Greek, is derived from the root verb methuo. The tendency to this dis- tinction in the two verbs is specially observed in the New Testament ; and it has been preserved in such translations as the Latin and German where the distinction could be indicated. The verb "methusko" is met three times: in Luke xii. 45 ; Eph. v. 8 ; i Thess. v. 7. The verb " me- thuo " is found seven times : in Matt. xxiv. 49 ; John ii. 10 ; Acts ii. 15 ; i Cor. xi. 21 ; i Thess. v. 7 ; and Rev. xvii. 2,6. In each of the former cases intoxication is indicated ; but in i Cor. xi. 2 1 , the contrast between " hungry " and " drunk- en " shows that it is surfeit, both with food and drink, that is indicated ; while in John ii. 10, and Acts ii. 15, the same meaning is apparently indi- cated. 150 The Divine Law as to Wines. Coming to the Latin language, the same dis- tinction is found between ebrio and inebrio. The former is used for distinctiveness when sur- feit is specially to be indicated, and the latter when intoxication is to be made prominent ; as the mere English student may learn from Web- ster under the word " inebriate." This usage is seen in Pliny ; whose age, from A.D. 23 to 79, is specially illustrative of the Greek of the Old and New Testaments, as well as of the early Latin versions, and of Latin annotations on both the Old and New Testaments. Thus Pliny says of an apple excessively juicy and luscious : " rumpit se pomi ipsius ebrietas," the very juiciness of the apple bursts it ; and again, " Uvae vino suo ine- briantur," the grape-clusters are inebriated with their own wine. In the Latin of Jerome "me- thuo " in the distinctive passages alluded to is rendered "ebreo" and " methusko" by " inebrio." Jerome renders Hosea iv. n, after the Greek version : " Fornicatio et vinum et ebrietas aufert cor." That by " ebrietas " he means " surfeit," and that he so understood the Greek " methusma," is evident from his added comment : " For as wine and surfeit (ebrietas) render impotent (impotem) the mind (mentis) of him who shall have drunk, so also fornication and luxury (voluptas) destroy the sensibility (sensum) and weaken the energy (animum). Reformers View of the Greek "Methuo" 151 Coming to modern translations the distinction between " methuo " and methusko " is made by Luther, where definiteness seemed requisite in the German renderings. In Luther's translation the word " trunken " is found in John ii. 10 ; Acts ii. 12; i. Cor. xi. 21; while " saufen " is used in Luke xii. 45, and Eph. v. 18. In Hos. iv. n Luther translates from the Hebrew, rendering " tirosh " by " most ; " as the English translators rendered it " new wine." Among other able scholars who have made this special Greek root, and its derivative "methusma" used in Hos. iv. ii, an exhaustive study, was John Cocceius, Professor of Hebrew in Holland, from A.D. 1636 to 1650, and trans- ferred as Professor of Theology to Leyden, at the latter date. His voluminous and exhaustive stud- ies in both these departments form an era in the modern progress of Biblical learning. In com- menting on John ii. 10, Cocceius remarks : " It is not to be overlooked that methuein, as the Hebrew shekar, is not to be taken in an equally broad sense ; " and he refers to the following three passages as illustrating his meaning: Ps. xxiii. 5; Ixv. 10; Isa. Iviiin. In Ps. xxiii. 5, for "my cup runneth over;" the Greek is "to poterion sou methuskon," thy cup is brimming. In Ps. Ixv. 10, for "Thou waterest the ridges thereof," the Greek has "tous aulakas autes 152 The Divine Law as to Wines. methuskon," drench the furrows thereof. In Isa, Iviii. 1 1, for " thou shalt be like a watered garden," the Greek has " estai 6s kepos methuon," thou shalt be as a garden saturated. This manifest use of the verb, rendered " drunk- en " in English, by the Greek translators of the Old Testament, will be found to have prepared the way for the study of the New Testament wines. WINES IN THE APOCRYPHAL BOOKS. The books styled "deutero-canonical" by schol- ars of the Roman Church such as Jahn of Vienna. Austria, but generally regarded and styled " apoc- ryphal," were written evidently under the Greek successors of Alexander. They consist of tra- ditional and partially fictitious representations of events in former ages of Hebrew history ; records in which more fully than in the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, the meeting and mingling sentiment of both races is revealed. In the book of Judith (xii. i to xiii. 8), the scene of which is laid in old Assyria, the beautiful Jewish maiden who plotted the assassination of the tyrant Holofernes then oppressing Israel, thus meets the counterplot of the oppressor who wishes to seduce her. Versed in his art, knowing the inflaming influence of wine, Holofernes seeks to persuade her to "drink of his own Wine in the Apocryphal Books. 153 wine ; " but Judith pleads religious scruples, and urges that she has provision of her own. Pressed still by Bagoas, the king's eunuch, she is firm. She waits till the king, intoxicated already by anticipated gratification of his lust, " drank much more wine than he had drunk at any time in one day since he was born." When, sunk in stupid unconsciousness on his bed, for " he was filled with wine," the maiden took down his fal- chion from its nail, swung it high, struck two blows, and levered his neck. The forbidden fruit, the serpent, the tempter's failure with the heroine, and her conquest over the tyrant, are all wrought to the life into this picture. In the Book of Esdras, whose scene is also laid under Darius, during the Jewish captivity in Babylon, when three young men, the last of whom was Zorobabel, who became the leader of the restored captives, speak successively of the four powers, that of wine, of the king, of women and of truth, the champion of wine suggests these among others of its triumphs (i Esdr. iii. 18-24) : "It causeth all them to err who drink it It turneth every thought into jollity and mirth. .... When they are in their cups men forget their love both to friends and brethren ; present- ly they draw their swords ; bufr when they are out of the wine they remember not what they have done." The facts as to the effects of wine- 7* 154 The Divine Law as to Wines. irinking, thus pictured, were the same in that age as in all others. Whether men learn wisdom from experience is another question. In the supplement to the Book of Esther, whose scene is an imaginary picture like the other two men- tioned of the Assyrian sojourn, queen Esther is represented as making this plea in her prayer : " I have not from desire eaten the king's feast ; nor have I drunk the wine of the drink-offer- ings ; " thus intimating that as want of appetite for the feast excused her not eating of the king's viands, so her conscience should excuse her from drinking of the wine impiously made an offering to idol gods. Finally the Book of the Maccabees, which describes the deeds of those later resisters of Greek tyranny, has this final record, closing the volume of these Hebrew-Greek traditions and histories (2 Mace. xv. 39) : " For, as it is hurtful to drink wine or water alone, and as wine mingled with water is pleasant and delighteth the taste, even so speech finely framed delighteth the ears of them that read the story. And here shall be the end." The custom of diluting wines to limit their injurious effect is well compared to the half-intoxicating influence of historic fiction. In addition to'the lessons inwrought into this instructive though fancy-framed history, the Book of " Ecclesiasticus," an imitation of Solo- Wine in the Apocryphal Books. 155 men's Ecclesiastes, as the so-called " Wisdom of Solomon " is an imitation of his Proverbs, is full of hints as to wine like to those of Solomon, This comparison, oft misinterpreted (ix. 10), is like that of Christ equally perverted in Luke v. 39 : " Forsake not an old friend ; for the new is not comparable to him. A new friend is as new wine ; when it is old thou shalt drink it with pleasure." The point of the writer is overlooked when the statement preceding is separated, as it often is, from this declaration. The " old friend " referred to is the wife of one's youth ; as in Prov. v. 18, (also Eccles. ix. 9) ; the influence of wine alluded to is its inflaming of lust ; and the result of that inflaming is that pictured by Solomon in Prov. vi. 29 ; as is apparent to any one who reads the preceding verse (Eccles. ix, 9). This warning is strengthened by allusion to the virtue of the true wife (xv. 3) ; who gives to her husband " the water of wisdom to drink." It is confirmed as Solomon's parallel by the declaration (xix. 2), " wine and women (i. e., women who themselves are wine-drinkers) will make men of under- standing to fall away." The kindred sentiment is more fully brought out in the expressions (xxxi. 25, 26): "Show not thy valiantness in wine, for wine hath destroyed many. The fur- nace proveth the edge by dipping ; so doth wine the heart of the proud in battle." Then follows 156 The Divine Law as to Wines. the drinker's plea (vs. 27, 28) : " Wine is as life to man if drunk moderately. What is life to a man lacking wine ? for it was made as a delight to men. Wine drunk in season moderately brings gladness to the heart and delight to the soul." The offset response to this plea is (vs. 29, 30) : " Bitterness of soul is in much wine drunk with brawling and quarreling. Drunken- ness makes the wrath of the senseless swell unto stumbling; it takes away strength and inflicts wounds." In counsel like that of both Solomon and Jesus, the wise method of meeting the drunkard is added (v. 3 1 ) : " Rebuke not thy neighbor at the wine-table, nor provoke him while in mirth ; utter no reproachful words to him ; nor press him by a demand." The mention of the fresh grape-juice in this list of things truly good for man is most significant (xxxix. 25-27): " Good things for the good are created from the beginning. The beginning of all need in the life of man is water, fire, iron, salt, wheat-flour, honey, milk, blood of grape-clusters (aima staphules), oil and raiment. All these things by the pious are turned into good things, so by sinners they are turned into evil things." A marked recog- nition of the offering alone acceptable to God is recorded of Simon the high-priest, the son of Onias, when he repaired and rededicated the temple, thus (1. 14, 15): "finishing the service Wine in the Histories of Christ. 157 at the altar, that he might adorn the service of the Most High, the Almighty, he stretched out his hand to the cup and offered a libation of the blood of the grape-cluster (espeisen ex aimatos staphules) : he poured out (execheen) at the foot of the altar an odor of sweet savor unto the most high King of all." This record of such an age, which links Asiatic to Grecian sentiment, is a key of Old Testament truth fitted to unlock the treasures of the New Testament. WINE IN THE HISTORY OF CHRIST AND IN THE WRITINGS OF HIS APOSTLES. As the Hebrew Scriptures of the Old Testa- ment were written in the acme of Asiatic science and philosophy, so the Greek Scriptures of the New Testament were written just after the Au- gustan age, at the era when the influence of Greek wisdom had culminated in its recasting of thought. As the inspired Hebrew writers did not fall behind the spirit of their age in their teachings as to the influence of wine, it is incon- ceivable that the perfected revelation of the New Testament should on the same evil fall below the standard of Grecian philosophy and of Ro- man law. Three classes of words relating to wine and its law, in the New Testament, require consider- ation. There are, first, words recognizing the 158 The Divine Law as to Wines. vine and its products as healthful and precious gifts of God; and here the words for "vine, grape-cluster and branch " are to be noted. There are, second, words mentioning the products of the vine ; and here the terms " fruit of the vine, must, new wine, vinegar and wine " are to be dis- tinguished. There are, third, words indicating the effects of wine ; and here the terms " wine-bibber," " drunken," and its opposite, " sober," are to be analyzed. The word " vine," ampelos, occurs but in two places in the life of Christ ; in His last discourse (John xv. 1-5), where He compares Himself to the vine, and in the allusions of Matthew (xxvi. 29) to " the fruit of the vine " used at the Lord's supper. The term vine is also met twice else- where; as in James' question (iii. 12), whether " the vine can bear figs ; " and by John (Rev. xiv. 19) in the figure of the vine's fruit gathered and trodden. The " vineyard " is alluded to but three times in the later parables of Christ ; as Luke xiii. 6-9; Mat. xx. 1-8, and Mat. xxi. 28-41, repeated, Mark xii. 1-9, and Luke xx. 9-16 ; and a like allusion is found i Cor. ix. 7. The word for "grapes," staphule, is used but once, Mat. vii. 1 6 and Luke vi. 44, in Christ's life, and once by John, Rev. xiv. 18; that for cluster, botrus, is but once used, Rev. xiv. 1 8 ; and the term "branch," klema, specially limited to the New Testament Products of the Vine. 159 vine, is also but once put in requisition, John xv. 2-6. This very infrequent allusion to the vine, as compared with other products of Western Asia in the New Testament, is naturally ob- served to be in contrast with the secular Grecian and Roman literature of the age. The terms for the first and simplest product, "the fruit of the vine" (gennema tes ampelou), used by Jesus to indicate the contents of the cup drunk at the close of the passover (Luke xxii. 1 8), and again to. designate the same cup at the close of his own added appointment of the supper to be perpetuated in the Christian Church (Mat. xxvi. 29 ; Mark xiv. 25), demand special consideration. The natural leaning, of course, is, that it is the fresh product of the grape. This is in harmony with all the history cited from the Old Testament, beginning with the Egyptian custom alluded to in Joseph's life. This is directly affirmed by Jerome ; who, only three centuries after the apostles wrote, spent thirty years in Palestine, specially studying everything illustra- tive of the Old and New Testament histo- ries. Finally it is demonstrated by the passover- custom of all subsequent purer ages of Jewish history, and by the universal modern Jewish usage in our country. The second product, gleukos, only once met (Acts ii. 1 3), already found in Greek usage to be dis- 160 The Divine Law as to Wines. tinct from oinos ghikos, or sweet wine, has from such writers as Hippocrates and Aristotle been shown to be must, or preserved grape-juice. The third and next product of the vine is " vinegar," oxos of the Greek, vin-gar of the French. This was proffered to Christ, and rejected as He was nailed to the cross ; called " vinegar " by Matthew (xxvii. 34), but called "wine," oinos, by Mark (xv. 23). This was again proffered and received in His final agony ; when it is called " vinegar " by the three writers : Matthew (xxvii. 48), Mark xv. 36), and John (xix. 29). This peculiar statement indicates an important transition in the products of the vine, all of which are called by the general name 1 " wine." When. in fermen- tation the acetous triumphs over the vinous fer- mentation, under the circumstances already de- scribed, the alcohol is decomposed and is thus removed from the wine. And yet, in the New Testament as in other Greek records, the general word " wine " is not only, as we have seen, applied to " must," in which no ferment has occurred to create alcohol, but also to vinegar, in which the alcoholic property has been destroyed by the second or acetous fermentation. The word oinos, or wine, is used in all thirty- three times in the New Testament. Of these thir- ty-three allusions to wine, twenty cluster about six points; John's abstinence (Luke i. 15), and Greek term " oinos " in New Testament. 161 Christ's allusion to it (Luke vii. 33) ; Christ's making wine for a wedding (John ii. 2-10, and iv. 46) ; the proffering to Christ on the cross of vinegar called by Mark wine (Mat. xxvii. 34 , Mark xv. 23) ; the parable of the new wine in old bottles (Mat. ix. 17, Mark ii. 22, Luke v. 37, 38), to which must be added the parable (Luke ix. 39), in which the word wine is understood though not expressed ; and the good Samaritan's medic- inal use of wine (Luke x. 34). Of the remaining thirteen cases in which the word " wine " occurs, five are found in Paul's epistles, and eight are met in figurative allusions made in the writings of the apostle John. The word rendered " strong drink," sikera, often met in the Old Testament, occurs only once in the New Testament ; and there before the birth of John (Luke i. 15). It is certainly significant that allusions to wine, or any product of the grape, should be so infrequent in the New Testament. The words which allude to the effects of wine deserve also special consideration. The word "wine-bibber," oinopotes, once used by Christ (Matt. xi. 19, and Luke vii. 34), means, as in classic Greek and in the Greek translation of the Old Testament (as Prov. xxiii. 20, etc.), a habitual drinker of wine ; the habit, rather than the effect of the habit, being prominent in its 1 62 The Divine Law as to Wines. signifi ;ation. The words " methe," used three times (Luke xxi. 34; Rom. xiii. 13 ; Gal. v. 21), "methuo," used seven times (Matt. xxiv. 49; John ii. 10 ; Acts ii. 15 ; i Cor. xi. 21 ; i Thess. v. 7 ; Rev. xvii. 2, 6), " methusos," used twice (i Cor. v. ii ; vi. 10), and " methuskomai," used three times (Luke xii. 45 ; Eph. v. 18 ; i Thess. v. 7), have, in all cases, a meaning as indefinite as the English words " drink " and " drunken " ; while the special root meaning of " methuo " is simply that of surfeit. The special and definite term " nepho/' used six times, and its adjectives nephalios, used three times, have the signification of " sober," with the special idea of abstaining from intoxicating drinks. It is the opposite of sophroneo and its derivatives, also rendered " to be sober " as a cause ; though it is correlate as an effect. The word sophroneo and its derivatives indicate freedom from nervous and mental excitement produced by moral causes ; while nepho and its derivatives indicate the same condition as produced by exemption from out- side influences, especially by abstinence from in- toxicating liquors. Following now the gradual development of the New Testament teaching as to the use of intoxicating wines, its significant principle is in as marked contrast to that of the cotemporary Greek and Latin authors as are the New Testament allusions to the vine, its pro- Johns and Christ 's Different Mission. 163 ducts and their injurious effects. The evils of wine-drinking are seen alike by Matthew and Plutarch, by Mark and Pliny, by Luke and Galen, by Paul and Seneca. But, while Greek and Roman critics, historians, physicians, and moralists suggested outward restraints as a remedy, the Gospel of Christ looked to the " power of an endless life " within, begotten by the Divine Spirit's in-dwelling. The forerunner of Christ, the link between the contrasted Old and New Testament dispensa- tions of law and promise, true successor in ab- stinence as in moral influence to Elijah, was kept from ever tasting anything intoxicating, not by the power of a personal will like that of Elijah ; but, as is recorded, by a double safeguard : first, "he was filled with the Holy Spirit from his birth " (i Kings xvii. i ; 2 Kings i. 8 ; Mai. iv. 5 ; Luke i. 15, 17 ;) and second, he was guarded by his father's priestly office and by his desert life in food and raiment from temptation to in- dulgence (Matt. iii. 4 ; Mark i. 6 ; Luke i. 39, 80). There can be no question that this absti- nence, as in the case of the ancient Brahmins and Egyptian priests, as also in the Naza rites of Israel from Samuel to Daniel, and as yet more in the youthful Cyrus and Alexander, was the secret of mental power and moral stability. In Jesus, however, sinless in nature, whose mission 1 64 The Divine Law as to Wines. was " to succour the tempted " by becoming " tempted in all points like as we are," a different life from that of John is seen. He was often at feasts; He was constantly associated withjnen given to wine-drinking, and women seduced by lust ; and yet " without sin." Willful cavillers and honest moralists, then, as now, misinterpreted His course ; and contrasting Him with John, who, because he was an ascetic they said had " a devil," they called Jesus a " gluttonous man, a wine-bibber, a friend of publicans and sinners " (Matt. xi. 1 8, 19). It is to be observed that the "eating" of Christ was made prominent by His critics; while His association with "publicans" who gave feasts was more in thought than H is intercourse with " sinners." Luke's mention (vii. 33, 34) of John's abstinence from wine, and especially of abandoned women as the " sinners " who were sometimes at the table where He feasted (vii. 37), shows, as the best interpreters have agreed, that the charge that Christ drank intoxicating wine was as unfounded as the charge that He was sensual and lascivious. To argue that Jesus must have drunk intoxicating wine because He was at a table where wine was drunk, compels also the admission that He yielded to gluttony and to lust. No one who reverences the person and the history of Jesus can accept any such view of this statement ; all know that Unfermented Wine Drunk by Christ. 165 the three charges were alike a calumny ; and the legitimate and necessary inference is that as a sinless being Jesus was, though not an ascetic, as pure in life as was John. The conviction that Jesus did not use intoxicating wine grows with every new development in tracing His life and teaching. There must be significance in the fact that the first miracle of Jesus' is the making of wine for a wedding feast ; that John at a later day is the one to record this ; that he twice alludes to it (ii. i-ii ; iv. 46, 54), as a specially significant in- dex to Christ's Divine spiritual mission ; and that his special comment as to the impression made by it is so emphatic : " This beginning of mir- acles did Jesus ; and manifested forth his glory, and his disciples believed on him." The making of the wine illustrates three fun- damental truths : first, the nature of miracles ; second, the character of the wine Christ used ; and third, the moral principles of His teaching. A miracle is an unusual exhibition of God's or- dinary working in nature. A mir icle is not, as Hume and other sophists have suggested, an interposition "contrary to " established natural law. The miracles of Moses were of two kinds. His first were acts of real, as opposed to pretend- ed supernatural power ; those of the magicians being ar exercise of but natural power ; 1 66 The Divine Law as to Wines. while those of Moses were at last confessed by them to be not oro/fa-natural, but sufier-nztural (Exod. vii. 11,22; viii. 7, 18, 19). His later were natural scourges, common to Egypt ; but coming and going, restricted or removed, at the word of M oses (viii. 21,22,31, etc.) The opening miracle of the New Testament, like the first wrought by Moses, was a most perfect exhibition of the real nature and design of Divine interpo- sition for man. Wine is nothing else than water, having in solution the sugar, spice and gluten which form grape-juice ; and the product which, in the natural development, is slowly made, was by Christ's interposition instantane- ously formed. Again, second, the wine made was manifestly the simplest product of the grape ; as is indicated by the exclamation of the Gover- nor of the feast on tasting it : " Every man at the beginning doth set forth good wine ; and when men have well drunk, then that which is worse ; but thou hast kept the good wine^ until now." The universal custom of a banquet is to use, at the beginning of a feast, light wines, cider or beer ; whose influence is aperient and permits greater indulgence. The heavy and specially intoxicating wines are always and everywhere reserved to the last. The light wines of the land of Palestine have been sufficiently indicated. The sherbets of modern times, called wines now, The New Wine mentioned by Christ. 167 as we shall see, have succeeded to the unintoxi- cating wines of Christ's day as the beverage of the first courses at a banquet. Thus, thirdly, the character of the wine made, as well as the nature of the miracle, set clearly forth the character of Christ and the nature of His mission. The Cre- ator of Eden and of all earth's healthful products had come to give to those who should " seek first the kingdom of God and His righteousness" " an hundred-fold " of blessing in this world ; one of these healthful products being the unintoxi- eating wine used at the commencement of a feast. The next allusion of Christ to wine is in the comparison of the moral influence of His teach- ing in the excitement it produces, to wine. At the feast made for Him by Matthew the publican, afterward one of His inspired apostles, in reply to a question of John's disciples, "why the dis- ciples of Jesus did not fast," Jesus replies by three or four comparisons ; the third of which is this (Matt. ix. 17; Mark ii. 22; Luke v. 37): " No man putteth new wine into old bottles ; else the new wine doth burst the bottles, and the wine is spilled and the bottles perish. But new wine must be put into new bottles and both are preserved." Here two questions have arisen ; first, the vital one as to the nature of the M wine " here referred to ; and second, a sub 1 68 The Divine Law as to Wines* sidiary question as to the nature of the " bottles'* mentioned. That the wine here called new, " neos," was unfermented, no student who seeks only truth would think of denying; and no one who has followed the Greek usage as to the meanings attached to " oinos," wine, will think of denying that in Christ's day unferment- ed must as well as fermented wine was called oinos. This is certainly the case in this passage ; since the ferment, expected after it is put into the bottles, is that which will burst the bottles. The suggestion has been urged that the Roman custom of using new flasks in preparing and preserving wines permanently unfermented, lest the remains of ferment adhering to the inside of an old wine-flask should cause ferment in the corked and sealed must, is here referred to. There is, as the best ancient interpreters agree, an allusion to the fact, as the word " old " indi- cates ; but not to the custom, as the word " bottles' proves. The " bottle," askos, here mentioned, as in all classic and later Greek, is the skin-bottle called by the Latins " uter ;" while the earthen " amphora " of the Latins, the Greek " keramos," was alone used to preserve must sunk in cold water for thirty or forty days. Luke records (v. 39) an added illustration of Christ's principle : " No man having drunk old" the word wine being understood "straight- Old and New Wine compared by Christ. 169 way desireth new ; " the idea being that neither the Jewish Pharisees, nor even the disciples of John, accustomed to the Old Testament dispensa- tion, were prepared at once, " straightways," to appreciate fully the principle of the New Testa- ment. This fact, thus stated by Jews, in the very particular here referred to, that of sharing in social feasts, was still a stumbling-block, when seventeen years after Christ's death, A.D. 50, the council at Jerusalem (Acts xv. 20) discussed it ; and, indeed, yet later, when Paul, by inspiration, instructed both the Roman and the Corinthian Christians as to its principle (Rom. xiv. 2, 3, 21 ; i Cor. viii. 4-13). Three important princi- ples here are clearly revealed : first, the religion of Christ is opposed to asceticism as well as to luxury ; second, the distinction between ferment- ed or alcoholic and unfermented wines is estab- lished ; and third since in comparisons the nat- ural truth in the one part must correspond to the spiritual truth in the other that, though the Old Testament type of purity could be realized by those who drank fermented wines, the New Testament type cannot be realized except in those who restrict themselves to the use of unin- toxicating beverages. This latter principle the early students of these words of Christ declare. The next New Testament allusion to wine is the incidental mention by Luke (x. 34), that the 8 1 70 The Divine Law as to Wines. Good Samaritan used it as a healing application with oil in binding up the wounds of the way- laid traveler. As a Greek physician (Col. iv. 14), Luke was familiar with the action of remedies in his day ; the external application of wine and oil following substantially the law of their inter- nal action, the one soothing and the other stimulating. It should be specially recalled that among the Greeks, as in modern medical science, the alcoholic property in wine was an irritant poison ; a fact recognized by the Greek physi- cians in its external applications, as well as in its internal action. The wine of the Good Sa- maritan must have had very little, if any, of the alcoholic property ; otherwise Christ could not have commended the act as worthy of imitation, nor would Luke, the physician, have been the one to record it as commendatory. The next allusion, and that a vital incident, is the mention of the cup at the institution of the Lord's Supper. As already intimated, the word wine is not employed. It is to be here recalled that in the Old Testament mention, and that in frequent and full descriptions, wine is never men- tioned as used at the Passover ; and that the only wine mentioned at any Jewish feast is " the sweet," or juice fresh from the wine- vat, employ- ed under Nehemiah (viii. 10), at the Feast of Tabernacles in the autumn, at the time of vin- T/ie Cup Drunk by Christ at the Supper. 171 tage. In the times of Christ a cup was drunk at the close of the Passover supper by Jesus and the twelve (Luke xxii. 18, 19); while, also, evidently the same cup was again partaken after the broken bread of the Lord's Supper (Matt. xxvi. 27-29; Mark xiv. 23-25 ; Luke xxii. 20; i Cor. xi. 25). The care with which all three writers (Matt. xxvi. 29, Mark xiv. 25, and Luke xxii. 18) have used the expression " fruit " or product of the vin%, must be supposed to have arisen from an emphasis put upon it by Christ. The word "gennema" both in classic Greek (as Polyb. i. 71, i, and Diod. Sic. v. 17), and also in the Greek Old and New Testament Scriptures (Gen. xli. 35 ; xlvii. 24; Exod. xxiii. 10; and Luke xii. 18), is applied without ex- ception to the natural product as it is gathered and stored. The expression " gennema tou am- pelou," the translation of the Hebrew " peri hag- gephen " (Deut xxii. 9, and Hosea x. i), unmis- takably refers, not to the artificial product, but to the fresh juice of the fruit. We shall see how the early Christian interpreters, studying Christ's meaning in the land where He spoke, and while the Greek of His day was still its language, men- lion, as if no one then thought otherwise, that Jesus used this expression because the conse- crated cup at the Supper contained the fresh 172 The Divine Law as to Wines. juice of the grape as distinct from the wine, its artificial product. The last incident in the life of Jesus is so im- pressive, that earnest men down to Archbishop, now Cardinal, McCloskey, of New York, have urged this dying testimonial as proof that Jesus abstained from intoxicating wine in life, as in death ; and that He thus left an example through all ages for His most aspiring followers. Matthew relates that when Jftus had arrived at the place of crucifixion, there was offered to Him " vinegar (oxos) mixed with gall " (choles). Mark calls the same mixture " wine mingled with myrrh " (esmurnismenon oinon). Vinegar is sour wine ; gall is the product of the gall-nut, whose proper- ties are now known to be of insect, and, there- fore, of animal origin, having the properties of the bile or liver secretion ; while myrrh is the resinous gum of a plant. Both gall and myrrh are narcotic in their influence ; as the allusions of the Old Testament, of Dioscorides and of Pliny, abundantly indicate. The mingled stimu- lant of the vinegar or sour-wine, and the narcotic of the bitter admixture, deadened the nerves as the nails were driven. The fact that Jesus re- jected this relief indicates certainly His purpose to suffer, without any alleviation, all that man could suffer of bodily agony ; while to most minds of high thought and of elevated devotion Lukes Medical Knowlenge of Wines. 173 it seems to be His call on His followers, who would be like Him, to abstain from intoxicating beverages. The fact that at the close of His ex- piring agony, when all was finished, Christ " re- ceived," instead of rejecting the " vinegar " as is recorded alike by Matthew (xxvii. 48), Mark (xv. 36), and John (xix. 29, 30), is an intimation that when the mission of earthly life is fully over, the last struggle may be properly soothed by nar- cotics and stimulants. The aversion with which the most thoughtful of sufferers reject modern intoxicants, and beg to be allowed the full use of reason to the last, shows how unnatural is the resort of men in health to the deadening spell ; and Christ's rejection of any such relief till He knew His end had come, is in this respect in- structive. Luke, the historian of Jesus, who writes with the skill of a physician, alludes in his second nis- tory to a product of the vine calling for notice. The mocking crowd, who had derided Christ in H is dying agonies, when the apostles, under th'j in- fluence of the Divine Spirit, were speaking with tongues, said (Acts ii. 13), "These men are full of gleukos; " a word which, as we have 3een, means not " sweet wine," oinon glukon, but grape- juice. Peter, the leading speaker, responds, " These are not drunken as ye suppose " (hypo- lambanete), or suggest. The very use of the 174 The Divine Law as to Wines. word "grape-juice," and their implication that the Apostles were " drunk," is a part of the ridi- cule thrown upon their utterances ; the inade- quacy of the cause to produce the effect being designed to add point to the derisive jest. This view is confirmed by the early commentators, as we shall see. The apostle Paul makes three allusions to wine. The first is found, Rom. xiv. 21: " It is good neither to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor any- thing whereby thy brother stumbleth, or is of- fended, or is made weak." Paul here alludes probably to the attendance on idol feasts ; as the whole chapter (Rom. xiv. 123), indicates, and as the like direction to the Christians at Corinth (i Cor. viii. 4-13 ; x. 14-33) shows. Since Jews who had become Christians were as a national duty bound still to attend their country's festivals, the Gentile Greeks and Romans would natu- rally feel it a social and civil obligation not to sep- arate themselves from their countrymen in their national festivities. Since Jesus went to the feasts, yet persistently abstained, as even the most conscientious Jew would abstain, from that which might seem gluttony or to be intoxicating, hence also the Greek or Roman for a stronger reason should guard against indulgence : first, he might be the cause of leading his brother into injurious excess ; and second, his feasting in an The Apostle Paul on Wine. 175 idol's temple, though designed by him only as a social courtesy, might be construed into rever- ence for an idol. The perversion of the Lord's supper that had arisen in the Corinthian Church seems to indicate that, as Jesus partook of His appointed ordinance at the close of the Jewish feast, so the Corinthians partook of the Lord's supper in connection with a social feast. The generic meaning of the word here rendered " is drunken " (i Cor. xi. 2i,methuei), is to " surfeit," either in eating or drinking, as has been noticed. This usage is here both proved and set off by the contrasted word " is hungry " (peina), or is in want. The main lesson of the connection is found (i Cor. x. 31), "Whether, therefore, ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." In attaining this end two subordinate aims are secured ; first, self-mastery and the " ath- lete's" reward for abstinence (i Cor. ix. 24-27); and second, the guarding of the conscience and conduct of a fellow disciple (i Cor. x. 28). The second allusion of Paul to wine is found in the expression (Eph. v. 18), " Be not drunk with wine wherein is excess." The word asotia, literally " without salvation," rendered " excess," implies in its derivation abandonment, which makes one hopeless of salvation. The noun is elsewhere (Tit. i. 6 ; i Pet. iv. 4) rendered " riot ; " and its adverb " riotous " (Luke xv. 13, lit. " living 176 The Divine Law as to Wines. riotously "). The question might arise whether it is drunkenness with wine, or simply the use of wine in any quantity, that is declared " excess " or hopeless abandonment. Grammatically the words rendered " wherein " (or " in which ") refer only to the word wine ; and so Jerome in his early translation, made in Palestine, renders and comments on the word ; stating that Paul de- clares that the use of wine is in itself the road to hopeless abandonment in a Christian. The third and last allusion by Paul to wine, is in his pastoral epistles. One of the qualifications of a " bishop," or pastor, is that he should " not be given to much wine " (i Tim. iii. 8 ; Tit. ii. 3) ; an expression which Jerome explains by refer- ence to i Tim. v. 23. This latter is a pregnant hint of inspiration, giving the key to the whole New Testament teaching as to the use of wine. The expression is, " Drink no longer water, but use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmities." H ow counter to the almost pro- fane perversion of this counsel, sometimes heard on the flippant lips of one seeking an excuse for self-indulgence, is the necessary conclusion sug- gested by thoughtful and devout minds like Jerome ! Timothy has manifestly understood, that, like the " athlete " seeking success, abstinence from intoxicating wine is essential to him who would without fail gain the Christian's crown Jewish Writers after Christ on Wines. 177 and he abstains from even that wine, destitute of the poisonous alcohol, furnished by the laws of social morality, and especially by the materia medica, of his day. It requires a direct apostolic counsel to prompt Timothy to use even this wine ; and the apostolic direction, as Jerome observes, has two characteristics : first, it is prescribed only as a medicine ; second, he is to take only " a little " as a medicine. WINE IN THE JEWISH WRITINGS OF THE AGE NIGH THAT OF CHRIST. The three centuries from B.C. 100 to A.D. 200 produced eminent Jewish writers of four classes : historians, philosophers, paraphrasts and com- mentators. All these writers throw light on the Divine law as to wines, as recognized by the Jewish people and by Asiatics at that age ; and they illustrate both the Old and New Testament teachings as to wines. Among historians the works of Josephus are prominent ; who wrote about A.D. 75, and who records facts illustrative of the Old Testament narratives. Among the philosophic thinkers of this age, Philo, who wrote about A.D. 40, presents principles as well as facts connected with the Jewish faith. Both Philo and Josephus wrote in Greek ; but the terms they use as translations of the Hebrew are all the more instructive. The paraphrasts, 8* 1 78 The Divine Law as to Wines. or writers of " Targums," or paraphrases of the Old Testament, and the " Talmudists," or com- mentators, wrote in the Hebrew of their age, which was Aramaic, or Hebrew modified by the kindred Semitic dialects of their time ; and their writings are important links in the chain of testi- mony as to the meaning of Hebrew terms. The historian Josephus but confirms allu- sions already noted in the Old Testament his- tories. Philo is full of important statements. In his treatise on "Monarchy" he cites, as indicating the duty of entire abstinence from wine, the prohibition to the priests ; and says it was given for " most important reasons ; that it produces hesitation, forgetful ness, drowsiness and folly." Dwelling on each of these bodily, men- tal and religious evils, he says : " In abstemious men all the parts of the body are more elastic, more active and pliable, the external senses are clearer and less obscured, and the mind is gifted with acuter perception." Further : " The use of wine .... leaves none of our faculties free and un- embarrassed ; but is a hindrance to every one of them, so as to impede the attaining of that ob- ject for which each was fitted by nature. In sacred ceremonies and holy rites this mischief is most grievous of all, in proportion as it is worse to sin with respect to God, than respect to man." Speaking of the ascetic sect of Therapeutse, he Philo and Targums on Wines. 179 says, "They abstain from it (wine) because they regard it a sort of poison that leads men into madness." On " Drunkenness " he cites the case of Noah, the second head of the race ; and says (c. 36, 38) " it is evident that unmixed wine is poison." Alluding to Aaron's name as indica- ting "loftiness of thought," he says, "No one thus disposed will ever voluntarily touch un- mixed wine or any other drug (pharmakon) of folly." Again (c. 52) he describes the varied in- ventions in wines, " in order to provide some whose effects shall speedily go off and not produce headache, but on the contrary shall be void of any tendency to heat the blood, .... admit- ting either a copious or a scanty admixture with water." The effort, perceptible in all ages, still seen in all Oriental religionists, to secure, espe- cially in religious rites, an unintoxicating wine, finds here a link in the very days when the New Testament records were completed. The principal Targums or paraphrases are those of Jonathan on the sixteen prophetic books, written about A.D. 250, and those of Onke- !os on the books of Moses, written early in the second century after Christ. These Targums ue utilized in the invaluable Polyglotts of Cas- tel and of Walton, brought out by the spirit of revived learning at the Reformation. The words "yayin" and "tirosh" are usually rendered by 180 The Divine Law as to Wines. the common term "chamra," corresponding to the Hebrew "chemer;" which, as we have seen, is doubtless an effervescing or light wine. In this the usage of the Greek translators, who used " oinos " for- both " yayin " and " tirosh," is fol- lowed. Yet, in test cases, the writers of the Tar- gums make the same distinction which was made by the Greek translators. Thus Onkelos on Num. vi. 3, paraphrases the Hebrew " yayin v shekar," by the Chaldaic " chamra chadath v'attiq " ; wine, new and old; the term " chadath," new, being found in the older Hebrew of Josh. xv. 25, and in the later Hebrew of Ezra vi. 4 ; while the term "'attiq" is found Prov. viii. 18. This language of Onkelos shows that the Chaldaic " chamra," like the Greek " oinos," was a generic term, cov- ering the simplest of products of the grape and the concentrated intoxicants made from it. Again, at Prov. iii. n another paraphrast uses the verb " thamriq" as to " tirosh "; a word which from its use, Prov. xx. 30 and Esther ii. 2, 3, 9, 12, was evidently an aperient, used internally, thus illustrating the effects of " tirosh " already cited, as also of the unfermented Greek " gleu- kos " and of the Roman " must." Yet more : Jona- than paraphrases in the important passage, Hosea iv. ii, the words "yayin" and "tirosh" by "chamra" and "ravyetha." The Hebrew verb "ravah," used fourteen times by writers from The Talmud on Wines. 181 David to Jeremiah, always means to " drench"; while its adjective " raveh," used three times, and its noun " raveyeh," used twice, have also the same signification. They never refer to the effects of intoxicating wine ; they are usually figurative ; and in the three cases where a physical ingre- dient is introduced and where the English trans- lators use the word " drunk," the effect described is that of an aperient or purgative, such as " waters of wormwood" (Deut. xxix. 19; Jer. xlvi. 10; Lam. iii. 15). The Targums, therefore, confirm in every respect the view of " tirosh '' to which all authorities compel the Bible scholar. The collection called the Talmud or " Teach- ing," includes both the Jerusalem Talmud, writ- ten in Palestine, and the Babylon Talmud, written on the Euphrates, styled the Mishna or " text," originating in the second century after Christ, and the Gemara, or "commentaries" appearing in successive centuries down to the seventh after Christ. To these must be added the writings of Rabbis down to the thirteenth century. All these records illustrate precedents in Hebrew history and customs maintained down to the present day, and thus aid in show- ing the Divine law as to wines. In the chapter of the Talmud on " Offerings," sweet v;ina is mentioned, In the chapter on " Vows " it is stated : "If any one has vowed that 1 82 The Divine Law as to Wines. he will abstain from wine, then there is per- mitted to him boiled must in which is the flavor of wine, .... also cider of apples " ; indi- cating that the distinction between intoxicating and unintoxicating beverages from the grape was preserved from the ancient to the later Jewish history. Again, in the chapter on " Vows " it is stated : "If any one has said, ' Let wine be to me an offering because it is injurious to the bow- els' (visceribus noxium), and it should be said to him ' old wine is good for the bowels,' then old wine, or wine of any kind, which is injurious to the mind (cordi) is permitted." Here three facts, already established as recognized in the Old Testament writings, are found to be perpet- uated in Jewish customs and sentiment. First, the distinction is preserved between old wine and new wine, so-called in the Old and New Testa- ments. Second, the action of the former on the nervous system and of the latter on the digestive organs has one more confirmation. Third, the peculiar duty of offering as an oblation or token of <:elf-denial the wines which from their intoxi- cating qualities are injurious to the human sys- tem, is that of self-sacrifice on the part of those addicted to their use. While the ceremonial law is thus illustrated, the principle of the civil law restricting the use of in- toxicating wines is unfolded and brought out in The Talmud on Wines. 1 83 the following allusion found in the " Sanhedrim " (c. viii.), to the Mosaic statute as to the rebel- lious son " who is said to be " a glutton and a drunkard" (Deut. xxi 18-21). Attention is called by the writer to two facts ; first, that the noun " tirosh " has its root in the primitive verb " rash," whence the three nouns, " rash " (with aleph\ "rish" (with yod), and " rosh " (with or without vav), are derived ; and second, that while the noun " rash." means " head," or leader, the noun " rosh " without vav means poor. The Talmudist adds this comment, which, however much of fancy be involved in the rendering of the word, indicates he principle taught by experience to the Hebrews of later days as to the effect of wine-drinking. " By taking a little " even of this wine of the lightest and of unintoxicating charac- ter, a young man " may become rash, a head or leader "; while " in ninety-nine cases out of a hun- dred, youths who drink wine will become rosk" " poor," or good for nothing, in pocket, intellect and religious worth. The careful student will note here, that " tirosh " in the books of Moses, with three exceptions only (Num. xviii. 1 2 ; Deut. xxviii. 51 ; xxxiii. 28), is written without vav ; that in a single allusion of Jeremiah (xxxi. 12), it is also written without vav ; while in all the other and later books it has vav. There may have been a reason for this, known to Moses as 184 The Divine Law as to Wines. well as to the later Jewish writers; it seems rather to have been but an earlier and a later method of spelling; but the comment of the Talmudic writers confirms, to say the least, the etymology of " tirosh " given by Fuerst. An instructive hint is found in three con- nected comments in the " Hadrash Rabbi " (c. 36), on Noah's fall, on its cause and on its re- sult (Gen. ix. 20-25). In the first place, the Talmudist notes that the verbal connective and prefix " vay," which with the slight guttural aleph means " woe," and which without the gut- tural has substantially the sound of natural wailing this prefix occurs fourteen, or twice seven times in the brief record. Again, the utter fall of Noah is indicated by the use of the words which designate the highest or most spe- cial, and the lowest or most general grade of humanity, in the opening statement : "And Noah, the ' intellectual or the noble ' man (ish), became the ' low or earthy ' man (adam) " ; the word " adam " being rendered in our English version " husbandman," equivalent to laboring man. Yet again, the Talmudist pictures Noah as a second Adam, directly approached, not, as was Adam, through his wife, but by the tempter himself of Eden ; and the arch foe is represented as sim- ply coming and watching the patriarch's planting of his vineyard, while he forecasts the result ; and Talmud on Wine at the Passover. 185 thus soliloquizes : " My boy, I am your partner. Take heed you do not trespass too much on my ground. If you do, I shall surely hurt you. I need not trouble myself any more about you." This historical citation, and the comment on it, indicates that the parallel between Adam's fall and that of Noah has been logically, not fanci- fully, noted by intelligent students in former ages. The fruit of the " forbidden tree," by whose taste " the knowledge of both good and evil " came to tempted man, is seen alike in the Grecian legend of the steps by which Bacchus was led from unin- toxicating " must" to intoxicating " wine"; and it is perpetuated in the temptation of Noah, the second head of the human race. The tyranny, as well as the fascinating seduction of " custom " and " fashion," have perpetuated Eden's tempta- tion. In the Book of the Talmud on the " Passover " (de Paschate, c. x, sec. 7), occurs this statement : " Between the first and second cups, if he wish, let him drink ; but between the third and fourth let him not drink." This historic Hebrew men- tion of wine-drinking at the Passover is subse- quent to the mention made in the histories of Jesus in the New Testament ; and it is strikingly in accord with those New Testament allusions. The word wine is not used ; but the general term " cup " is employed as in the New Testa- 1 86 The Divine Law as to Wines. ment mention as to Christ's last Passover. The only Old Testament mention of the beverage at feasts is, as we have seen, that of Nehemiah (viii. 10) ; where it is the sweet juice of the grape, which the people are directed to drink. We have seen the unmistakable mention by Christ that the contents of the cup was the fresh " fruit of the vine," both at the Passover and at his ap- pointed supper. With this fact in view, this connected train of facts should be noted. In the twelfth century, in Spain, Maimonides, and with him Bartenora, eminent Rabbis of their day, make this almost coincident state- ment : " Wine which is drunk while eating will not inebriate ; but after eating it only inebriates." This seeming interpretation of the writers whose statement was made one thousand years before, 2S proved to be gratuitous and suggested by the perverted custom of the degenerate Middle Ages, by these facts. This same Maimonides in his " Yad Hachazakah," or " Handbook of Help," presents the following views in his " Pre- cepts as to Temper" (c. III. sec. 1-9): "The Nazarite was an extremist in asceticism. But all men should be abstemious ; and men of delicate constitution or of ardent temperament should abstain entirely from luxuries as well as from wine." The duty is thus stated : " He that is of a sanguine (' ham ' 01 hot) temperament ought Rabbi Maimonides on Wines. 187 neither to eat meat nor to drink wine; yea, more, as Solomon said (Prov. xxv. 27), ' To eat much syrup (debsh) is not good ' ; but he ought rather to drink water with bitter herbs" ('olshim). Maimonides adds : ' His object in all this is to obtain that which is necessary for him, to the end that his mind may be perfect to serve the Lord ; " as proof of which Maimonides cites the following : " Solomon has said in his wisdom, 'In all thy ways acknowledge Him' (Prov. iii. 6)." It is impossible to suppose, then, that Maimonides could have taught that at the sol- emn feast of the Passover men would honor the Lord by drinking intoxicating wine to excess, when at any other time they would dishonor the Lord if they did not abstain entirely from in- toxicating wine. It is manifest that the princi- ple of Maimonides is akin to the Greek and Christian idea found in Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians ; a principle which Spanish, t. e., Old Gothic, custom at that age had perverted. The more important fact to observe is this : that though in different ages and localities in- toxicating wine may have been used at the Passover, the prevailing, if not the universal conviction of the Jews has been that if intoxi- cating wine be used it should be greatly diluted ; but that in all cases where it is possible, a wine i88 The Divine Law as to Wines. made of the fresh juice of the grape, unfer- mented, or of raisins or dried grapes, should be employed. The case cited by Rev. E. Smith (Bib. Sac. Nov. 1846), is, according to his own statement, an isolated one. Jahn, the eminent Hebrew archaeologist, familiar with the numerous communities of Jews who flocked from Catholic Europe as well as from Asia into Germany for protection after the Reformation, gives the fol- lowing testimony. Quoting from the custom of his day and from the " Sepher al Pesah." Hav- ing described (Arch. P. III., c. iii. sec. 354) the drinking of the third " cup of benediction," after which Psalms cxv. to cxviii. are chanted, and then the fourth cup, after which Psalms cxx. to cxxxvii. are sung, this careful writer adds : " The wine is mingled with water." In visits to the synagogues of Cairo, Jerusalem, and other Orient- al cities, in inquiries at Washington, D. C., from eminent Rabbis resident in the East as far as Bagdad, and in familiar acquaintance with Rabbis and merchants who are Israelites in New York, the writer has found one universal testimony ; that conformity to the law requires abstinence, if possible, from fermented wines at the Passover. In the metropolitan city of the New World where representatives of every Hebrew com- munity and sect are met, the Passover wine is The Poet Lucian on Wines. 189 prepared from crushed raisins or dried grapes, steeped in water, pressed and made into a sweet but unfermented wine. WINE IN THE LATER GRECIAN AND ROMAN LITERATURE. The Romans, even under their declining em- pire, retained their pride as to laws and religion; as to customs and fashions ; the majority of the patricians declining to accept of Christianity under Constantine A.D. 306, and maintaining their distinctive character as a people down to the Gothic- conquest, A.D. 476. The Greeks like- wise lost little of their ancestral spirit after Macedonian Byzantium became Constantinople, the city of Constantine. The slumbering Greek fire continues to flash along the whole chain of Byzantine or later Greek literature down to the fall of Constantinople into the hands of the Turks A.D. 1453. Lucian, of the second century, has been quoted in the line of authorities in modern discussions as to intoxicating wines. A Greek lawyer, of Antioch, in Syria, philosophic in thought, poetic in sentiment, genial and often humorous in tem- perament, professing to respect the religious convictions of his ancestors and also the newly introduced Christian faith, his allusions to wine in his famed dialogues are both interesting and 190 The Divine Law as to Wines. valuable. In his " Nigrinus," or habits of philosophers, he represents one of his speakers as saying that he is "excited by philosophy somewhat as the impulsive Indians," who "rave excessively on undiluted wine " (akratou). In his "Juno and Jupiter," he represents the queen of gods commenting severely on one who " leads the dance " and is " intoxicated," as bringing " re- proach on sacred things ;" and, referring to what Jupiter had said in praise of Bacchus, she says: " You seem to me to extol his discovery of the vine and of wine." To this Jupiter responds in explanation : " Nothing of this which you affirm ; for it is not wine nor Bacchus that oc- casions these things, but unlimited drinking of undiluted wine." In his " Mercury and Lucina," or the god of eloquence and the guardian of midwifery, Mercury says, that if Lucina is troubled by his excessive drinking she should have " poured water " into the wine-jar. In his " Saturnalia " a priest is warned by the god, that if any one is "gorged with sweet-scented wine (methuskesthai anthosmiou), " this law has been enacted " for him; that "his belly be distended till rent with unfermented wine" (glukous). In his enco- mium on Demosthenes, Lucian says, that, unlike ^Eschylus, of whom Callisthenes said that " he wrote his tragedies under the stimulus of wine," M this Demosthenes elaborated (sunepithei) his The Compiler, Athenceus, on Wines. 191 reasonings (logous), drinking water " (hydor pinon). No thoughtful reader can fail to see that Lucian sustains the wisdom of the old Greek physicians, moralists, orators and philoso- phers, who thought nature's stimulus in mental action the only one needed, who warned against intoxicating stimulants in critical disease, who saw the inconsistency of their use in religious devotion, and who sought the antidote in diluted wine, in unfermented wine, or in water drinking. The principal writer of this age to claim atten- tion, is Athenaeus of the third century ; a com- piler of varied knowledge, regarded by enthusias- tic admirers, such as his French translator, a sec- ond Pliny. Unlike Pliny, he merely brings together without scientific order scattered state- ments of numerous Grecian and Roman writers as to various subjects discussed ; while Pliny is an independent thinker, analyzing for his readers the facts and literary treasures which he has collected. Hence it is, doubtless, that many modern writers have largely quoted Athenaeus as they have Plato and Pliny, without giving any connected view of his real sentiment. In his " Deipnosophistai," or Banquet of the Sages, some twenty lawyers, physicians, poets, rhetoricians, artists and critics are represented as meeting in the mansion of a rich Roman named Laurentius ; at which, among every conceivable 192 The Divine Law as to Wines. subject commented upon, that of wine-drinking finds, as in all ages among thinking men, a prominent place among practical yet debatable issues. In his opening citation (B. I. c. 24), Theo- phrastus is quoted as mentioning a wine of Achaia which caused " miscarriage " in females ; and another, which if drank by women, " they have no children." In Thasos, one kind causes sleep, and another the opposite effect. Dion (B. I. c. 25), an academic philosopher, re- proaches the Egyptians for being fond of wine, and says : " They make a liquor of barley," under the influence of which " they sing, dance, and act like those overcome with wine." Aristotle is said to have remarked that " those drunk with wine fall* on their faces, while those overcome with barley-liquor fall on the back of their head "j and he gives as the reason, that " wine causes frenzy, and barley-liquor is stupefying (karoti- kos)." To prevent drunkenness, the Egyptians drink a decoction "of cabbage" (krambas)- Plato (B. II. c. i), in Cratylus, to indicate his double idea, suggests that the derivation of oinos, wine, is from oiesis, conceit, or from oinests, utility. In the table discussion (B. II. c. 2, 3), Mnesitheus, a physician, says: "The gods made men acquainted with wine as a very great good for those who use it with reason, but as very in- The Compiler y Athen&us, on Wines. 193 jurious to those who use it with indiscretion." Hence they directed that " Bacchus be invoked as a physician (iatrori), and as a healer (Jiygia- ten)" He adds, that wine brings " cheer when mixed with fitting quantities of water " ; that "one-third wine" makes the drinker "impudent," that " one-half" " produces madness," and that" all wine .... destroys mind and body." Eubulus represents Bacchus as saying, that at feasts, when " three " glasses of wine are mixed with " nine" glasses of water, making twelve in all, the effects of these glasses, if drunk successively, will be as follows : The first gives " health " ; the second stimulates " sensual desire" (eros) ; the third in- duces " sleep " ; and at these three " wise men " will retire from the banquet and " return home in peace." If they drink on, the fourth awakens " insolence " ; the fifth, " uproar " ; the sixth, " quarrel " ; the seventh, " blows " ; the eighth, "reckless injuries"; the ninth, " bitter hatred"; the tenth, " madness, slaughter and death." Pan- yasis, in yet stronger coloring, paints substantially the same successive pictures of the wine-drink- er's progress. Over "the first glass the three graces preside." On the second, which " exhila- rates the heart, Bacchus and Venus smile," and they bid the drinker " return home in peace." But, adds the delineator, if their voice be not heeded, " who can tell what excess, waste, wrongs, o 1 94 The Divine Law as to Wines. insults, conflicts will follow ! " Hence the ad- vice : " Be content, my friend, with the two glasses, and return to your home and tender wife " ; and he adds, " Then, too, your associates led by your example, will go to their beds with unaching heads." A fit closing reference of Athenseus as to the law of wine-drinking, is his allusion to the Greek idea of its religious aspect (B. XV. c. 48). " Among the Greeks, those who sacrifice to the sun, make their libations of honey, as they never bring wine to the altars of the gods ; they affirming, that it is fitting that the god who keeps the whole universe in order, regulating everything, and always going round and super- intending the whole, should in no manner be connected with drunkenness." This striking statement as to the first 'day of the week, and the unfitness that intoxicating wine should mar its solemnities, calls attention to the association at this era of old Roman and of early Christian sentiment "and practice. At the very time when the scene of this " Banquet of the Sages " is laid by Athenseus, the immemo- rial custom of the ancients, who divided days into weeks, devoting the first to worship of the sun, the second of the moon, and the remaining five to the then known planets the immemorial custom of making " Sunday " the first and chief Dio Cassius on Sunday Festivities. 195 of the week was revived ; and, as many suppose, to offset Christian influence. In his history (xxxvii. 81), Dio Cassius, the Roman historian and senator, states, that this division was derived from the ancient Egyptians, and that a little be- fore his time it was re-introduced by the emperors. He declares that this restoration of Sunday as the day of special devotion, was but a com- pletion of the work begun by Claudius, the fourth emperor ; who, perceiving how the work- days of the people were broken in upon by the observance of festivals in honor of generals, among which class of men emperors were su- preme, and that wine-drinking and debauchery were thus fostered, issued an Imperial edict re- stricting the numbers of such festivals (Ix. 17). From this time the days of the week were styled " Dies Solis, Lunae, Martis, Mercurii, Jovis, Veneris, Saturni," names still preserved in the modern languages of Europe ; being derived directly from the Latin in the Spanish, the Italian, and the French, and translated into the kindred Saxon names in the German and the English tongues. Since it was one of the con- vincing appeals of the Christian apologists of this age, that by inheritance, through the Old Testament Scriptures, the believers in Christ then observed the very day on which the sun's light first broke in its full radiance on the earth, 196 The Divine Law as to Wines. would it not be strange, if Christians, keeping that day from a higher and purer sentiment than Greeks ever knew, as the day when the Spiritual "Sun of Righteousness" arose from the tomb, 11 with healing " as well as " light " in His beams- would it not be passing strange if followers of the spotless Jesus were behind their Greek an- cestry and contemporaries in the light they de- rived from the New Testament, on the law of wine - drinking ? We may well turn to the records they have left, that we may learn their sentiments, directly drawn from the teachings of Christ and His apostles. WINE IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITERS BE- FORE CONSTANTINE'S REIGN. In the age between the last of Christ's apos- tles and that of Conntantine, the first Roman em- peror who became a Christian, a period extend- ing from about A.D. 102 to 306, there was an in- fluence coming from both philosophic accepters and rejecters of the Christian faith, controlling Christian leaders in their views as to social cus- toms of doubtful moral propriety. Truly spirit- ual Christians read and followed the inspired apostles as their guides in morals except so far as the influence of education and of association misled them in their interpretation of the exam- ple of Christ, and of the statements of His apos- The Syr me Terms for "Tirosh" 197 ties. On the propriety of wine-drinking, how- ever, the secular sentiment, as we have seen in the Hebrew, Grecian and Roman writers just quoted, was specially enlightened. As a link indicating the connection between Hebrew and Greek, Roman and Asiatic convic- tion in this age, the Syriac translation of the Old and New Testaments is an important testimony as to the " fruit of the vine." The Syriac term for the Hebrew "yayin" is "chamro," corresponding to the Hebrew " che- mar," the Chaldaic "chamra," and the modern Arabic " chamer." The Hebrew " tirosh " is also usually rendered " chamro " in the Syriac ; "chamro," like the Greek " oinos," and the Latin " vinum," being- the generic term. The real nature of " tirosh " as unfermented wine ap- pears in the special terms employed when its specific character must be indicated. In Judges ix. 13 and 2 Kings xviii. 32, it is rendered " odsho," fruit ; in Isa. xxiv. 7, " eburo," grain or berry ; in Isa. Ixv 8, " tutitho," grape or cluster; and in Hosea iv. n, its nature is illus- trated by the term "ravyetha." Again, the Hebrew " 'asis " is rendered, Song of Sol. viii. 2, by " chalyutho," must or unfermented grape juice; in Isa. xlix. 26, by " meritho," juice of unpressed grapes, the Syriac term cited by Fu- erst as. of the same root with "tirosh." In the 198 The Divine Law as to Wines, Syriac New Testament the rendering of the phrase "fruit of the vine" (Luke xxii. 18) is " ildo da gephetho," offspring of the vine ; and that of "gleukos" (Acts ii. 13) is "meritho," juice of unpressed grapes. The meaning of the Syriac verb "rawoyutho," whose noun is used in Hoseaiv. n, is " madefactus, inebriatus, satiatus est," he is drenched, inebriated, glut- ted. This confirms the view taken of the same term in the Hebrew and the Aramaic of the Tar- gums ; the idea of "inebriation " being second- ary, and but an inference from the seen fact that the drinker is gorged and over-filled with drink. This also illustrates the use of the word " tham- riq," used by Jonathan, in his Targum, Prov. iii. n, for the English "be weary"; evidently designed by him to explain the natural effect of " tirosh " ; as has been observed in citing the Targum on Prov. iii. 10. For these Syriac renderings the writer is indebted to Prof. C. H. Toy, D.D., LL.D., the eminent Semitic scholar. Two important facts are here to be noted : First, the same view of the nature of the Hebrew " tirosh," and of the mode of its prep- aration, is found among the Syriac interpreters which has been traced in the Greek and Latin translations. Second, the terms illustrating the nature of products of the grape as indicated to Clement of Alexandria on Wines. 199 the eye are common to the Semitic and Aryan languages ; " chemer " in the Semitic, and " fer- vere " in the Latin, referring to the effervescence seen in ferment; and "ravyetha" in the Sem- itic, and " methuo " in the Greek, referring to the excess in the drinker. Clement of Alexandria is the first to claim es- pecial notice in this age. He presided, from A.D. 191 to 202, over the earliest Christian school es- tablished at Alexandria, the seat of Greek learn- ing, made illustrious from the days of the second Ptolemy, whose library had invited the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures nearly five centuries before Clement lived. Trained in a complete knowledge of Egyptian science pre- served in hieroglyphics, thoroughly versed in the whole range of Grecian wisdom, and learned in the Old and New Testament Scriptures, Clement has enriched all subsequent ages by his works. Their value was realized when the Greek monks, who in 1828 entertained Champollion, showed him on a single page of Clement the cor- rectness of his system of hieroglyphic interpre- tation; by the earlier reading of which single page he might have been saved years of ex- haustive study. In his treatise on " Education " (Paed. L. II. c. i., ii.), Clement dwells at length on the natural and revealed law as to wines ; and yirge$ abstinence on youth. He gives a list of The Divine Law as to Wines. wines of different kinds ; mentioning among them a sweet (edus) Syrian wine. He describes the effects of these different wines on the brain, heart and liver ; he says men do not seek wine when really thirsty, but pure water ; and he de- clares : " I admire those who require no other beverage than water, avoiding wine as they do fire. From its use arise excessive desires and licentious conduct. The circulation is accele- rated, and the body inflames the soul." He cites the fact that men who need unim- paired energies, as kings, must be abstemious. Following up these teachings of reason by Script- ure references, he glances over the entire Old Testament, Apocryphal and New Testament testimonies. He quotes Prov. xx. i, as showing that wine is not a fit companion (akolouthos). He cites the wisdom of Seirach (Eccles. xxxi. 22-31), as the summary of worldly wisdom as to wine-drinking. Coming to the New Testament, he challenges those who perverted the New Testament statements as to Christ. Hinting what was the wine He blest, and then citing the special statement of Luke as to the Pass- over wine, and the words of Matthew and Mark as to the wine of the Lord's Supper, he makes their meaning more specific for his Greek read- ers. In the words of Mark and Luke, " of the fruit of the vine," (tou gennematos tes ampelou) Clement on Bible Wines. 201 and i i those of Matthew's fuller statement, " of this fruit of the vine " (toutou tou gennematou tes ampelou), Clement regards Christ as point- ing to Himself, as He did in His declaration, " I am the vine ; " and in order to bring out Christ's emphatic thought, he quotes as if they were Christ's, this fuller statement, "of the fruit of the vine, even this " (tou gennematos tes ampe- lou, tes tautes). To add yet greater force, he asks: "How drank He?" thus indicating the wine drunk by the Lord when they said, " behold a gluttonous man and a wine-drinker." His re- ply implies that it must have been the same " fruit of the vine " used at the supper. Coming to the case of the Corinthians who preceded the Lord's Supper by a common feast, as the supper insti- tuted by Christ was preceded by the Passover, Clement contradicts the suggestion that intoxi- cating wine was there used. He indicates that it is the food, rather than the drink of the feast, to which Paul refers, and that he reproves them for " clutching at the delicacies," for " eat- ing beyond the demands of nourishment." He farther intimates that servants brought into the Christian Church, and to the table set for Chris- tian masters, unaccustomed to a common and well-furnished table, would naturally be ignorant of the laws of propriety. That Paul refers to the food rather than intoxicating wine, he think? 9* 202 The Divine Law as to Wines. manifest for these several reasons : that women are present, to whom, according to Greek sen- timent, wine was prohibited ; that unseemly ea- gerness " in eating " is the fault reproved ; and that the contrast made is between those " hungry " and those " surfeited." The main point, there- fore, of the apostle, he thinks, was to rebuke the more wealthy contributors to the feast for tempt- ing their weaker brethren to gluttony. While these comments of Clement, living only a cen- tury after John had closed his teachings, are, in many respects, interesting and instructive, they are especially confirmatory of the fact that intox- icating wine was not used by Christ, or intro- duced at the Lord's Supper in the early Church. Origen, at the head of the same Alexandrian school in the next generation, A.D. 228 to 254, is equally explicit. He asserts that Noah did not, and could not, beforehand, know the intoxicating influence of wine, as is proved by the word " he began (erxato) to be a husbandman." He dwells on the fact that, as in the case of the forbidden tree, only experience reveals the fact that " wine takes away the mind." Referring to Rom. xii. 1 6-1 8, he says that the Encratites, who abstained from wine, were accustomed to cite the fact that the word wine does not occur in all Paul's in- structions to the Corinthians, and that it is only incidentally mentioned in his later epistles. Origen and Irenceus on Wines. 203 This allusion of Origen to the Encratites, or " abstinents," calls attention to the fact that in the earliest Christian ages, two tendencies were developed one, extreme ; the other, legitimate in avoiding the use of intoxicating wine at the or- dinance of the Lord's Supper. The statements of Clement show that in Egypt the lower portion of which, as we have seen, is not a wine-growing country it was known that neither Christ nor the apostles used intoxicating wine, especially at the Lord's Supper, and that because Palestine was a country furnishing the " fruit of the vine." Hence two resorts, prompted by Christian con- viction, grew up in Egypt. Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, in France, from A.D. 177 to 202, in a country unlike Egypt in wine- culture, opposing many corrupt practices of his time, speaks of the cup of the Lord's Supper as a " mingled cup " (kekrammenon poterion, Haer. L. V. c. 2). This phrase is explained by writers of the following ages. In the spread of Chris- tianity, just after the apostles' day, to Spain, north- ern Italy, and France, the first of which countries Paul meant to visit (Rom. xv. 24), water was mingled with the wine ; and that because wines made of the grapes of the north had more acid- ity than those of southern regions, and were pre- pared with less care to prevent alcoholic fermen- tation ; a custom which was but a continuance 204 The Divine Law as to Wine,'!;. of the old Greek sentiment already referred to, and which rules in the Oriental Church to this day. Justin Martyr, the master-scholar who met the objections to Christian truth urged by learned Jews, and by philosophic Greeks, in his day, martyred at Rome A.D. 165, alludes (Apol. II. p. 97) to ascetic Christian believers who, like the early Hebrews and Egyptian Nazarenes and like the Jewish Nazarenes of their day, abstained from both flesh and wine ; successors to those alluded to by the apostle Paul, Rom. xiv. 1-3, These, as Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. vi. 38), quoting from a work of Origen now lost, states, were so strict in abstaining from any product of the grape, that they had come to use water instead of wine at the Lord's Supper. This extreme sentiment growing out of a deep and legitimate, though misguided conviction, beginning at this early day, could not be obliterated from the Christian conscience in succeeding ages. It found expres- sion in the writings often attributed to Justin, but now called " Pseudo- Justin," because ac- knowledged to have been by another hand, which, however, because kindred in view to his, are still bound up with the works of Justin. This writer, reflecting the sentiment of the second century, says (Epist. ad Zen. et Seren. sect 12): " Wine is not to be drunk daily as Wines Under Constantine. 205 water. .... Water is necessary ; but wine only as a medicine." He shows the absurdity of the plea that wine heats the body in winter and cools it in summer ; and says : " It is admitted that wine is a deadly poison " (pharmakon than- asimon). In using it, he adds, " We abuse the work of God." The wide-spread prevalence of this conscien- tious abstinence from wine in religious services is indicated in the allusion of Cyprian (Epist. 63, ad Caecilium, bishop of Carthage, in Africa, A.D. 24-8, martyred A.D. 258), who mentions some Christians who used water in the morning and wine only at night. He argues in the spirit of his day : " The wine and water can not be re- ceived alone ; for wine alone, represents Christ without the people, and water the people alone without Christ." These extreme views are legiti- mate links in a chain of common human convic- tion. The matching leaves of a volume thus complete in all its parts, must have had a com- mon source. WINES AT THE ERA OF CONSTANTINE, THE FIRST CHRISTIAN EMPEROR. Success in military conquest had, under other religions, introduced luxury and moral degener- acy. It was to be seen whether, when Constan* tine, ruling as the first Christian emperor, from 206 The Divine Law as to Wines. A.D. 306 to 337, came to power, the monarch leading Christian customs would, like Cyrus, Alexander, and Augustus, fall from his youthful promise, and thus the use of intoxicating bever- ages pervade the Christian world. Eusebius, the great historian of the early Church, an intimate friend and adviser of Con- stantine, a native of Palestine, in his treatise on the preparation of the world for the Gospel (De Prep. Evang.), cites this fact: that the convic- tion as to intoxicating wine held by Grecian and Roman moralists, specially prepared them to accept the Old and New Testament principle as to abstinence from its use. He quotes the views of Plato in his Republic, the statutes of Car- thage, of Crete, and of Lacedaemon, bringing out especially the facts that both custom and ex- press law forbade women and servants, also sol- diers while iii the army, and magistrates during their term of office, to use intoxicating wine ; citing also the reasons urged by observing men in all ages for this abstinence. Tracing, then, the Old Testament principle, he finds the same prin- ciple in the special vow of the Nazarites, ap- proved by Moses as already existing (Num. vi. 3), while he made this voluntary pledge of the Nazarite a positive requirement imposed on all the Levites because of the sacredness of their of- fice (Lev. x. 3). He finds the point of the New Roman Virtue under Constantine. 207 Testament teaching to be that recognized by Timothy in his instinctive youthful abstinence, from all wine, and in his adherence to what he regarded Christ's law so strictly, that it required an apostle's injunction to use but "a little even as a medicine" (i Tim. v. 23). Certainly, at the era when civil law, for the first time, began to be controlled by New Testament principles, prohib- itory legislation and abstinence as -a Christian duty lost none of the old Grecian wisdom and Roman virtue when regulations as to wine- drinking passed from the moral conviction of Christian churches to the civil control of Chris- tian communities. Yet another influence growing out of old Grecian and Roman religious sentiment now arose. The ablest Christian apologists, in de- fending the Christian faith as rational, had ap- pealed to the teachings of Grecian poets and sages, and of Roman poets and statesmen, on questions of religious doctrine and moral prac- tice. Under Constantine, this power of appeal was made most effective. Constantine himself, as Eusebius in his life of Constantine shows, used the arguments of Cicero and appealed to the religious spirit of Virgil. Lactantius, the instructor of Crispus, the elder son of Constan- tine, in his Divine Institutions (Lib. I. de Relig. Fals.), quotes Virgil, called " Maro, first of our 2o8 The Divine Law as to Wines. poets" (Georgics ii. 3 2 5, and iv. 231,^ j^.),as de- scribing the direct and good hand of the Divine Being in Creation and Providence. Many Chris- tian scholars of that and subsequent ages, alluded to Virgil's Pollio, the Fourth Bucolic, as a proph- ecy of Christ. Artists placed him among the Old Testament prophets, and his verses were quoted as Christian epitaphs in the catacombs. The impartial judgment of modern scholarship decides that Virgil was to the Romans the fore- runner of the Gospel to the Gentiles, as was John to the Jews. His Bucolics, or pastorals, present the shepherd's simple faith and life, and his Georgics, or agriculturals, that of the Roman husbandman ; as unlike as were the shepherds of Bethlehem to the courtiers of Rome at Jerusalem. His ^Eneid presents the power of a " religious" hero, recognized by his brother, Hector, as the re- storer of his fallen country from its vices, and the founder of the State whose pious laws as to wine Romulus and Numa afterward framed. Virgil's Georgics are all studded with the blessing of the wheat and vine, of the grape (uva), its juice (humorem), and its unfermented wine (must- urn), while intoxicating wine has little place. His Fourth Bucolic, " The Pollio," pictures a " Redeemer" to come ; in whose time (l. 21-40), the "milk" of the flock and the "ruddy grape" among the hedges will need no labor, and the Athanashis on Law as to Wines. 209 "vine endure no pruning-hook." His Fifth Bu- colic, fitting successor to the fourth, pictures as the purer worship of his country's rural population (1. 65-71), altars reared to Daphnis and Apollo, the gentle shepherd and the sage in youth ; while the offerings at their festivals are " new milk," fresh " olive-oil " and abundant gifts of " Bacchus/' whose quality is described in this line : " Vina novum fundam calathis Arvisia nectar \" in English paraphase: "I will pour from goblets, fresh -strained sweet grape-juice, equal to the choice Arvisian wines of Chios' isle." Athanasius, again, the stern theologian who ruled at the Council of Nice, A.D. 325, in his view of the law of wines, agreed with Roman and Christian ; like Eusebius, urging entire absti- nence from intoxicants as temperance. Allud- ing to the custom then prevailing among Chris- tians, of abstaining from intoxicating wines, in his appeal to the many men in high position who, after Constantine's conversion, still re- mained pagans, Athanasius cites as justification of the Christian's scrupulousness as to wines this fact (Orat. ad Gent. I. c. 24) : " Some Egyptians, indeed, pour out wine in their libations to their gods, but others only water." Again, urging purity of life in all relations, he cites (De Virg.) Paul's injunction to the Roman Christians (xiv. i, 23) : That he who "doubts as to the influence 2io The Divine Law as to Wines. of wine-drinking on himself or on others, should abstain from its use;" and he regards this in- junction of Paul as necessarily implying the duty of abstinence. In the latter part of this age, Epiphanius, the ablest writer of that day as a critic in theology, intimates (Haer. 19 to 46), that the success of various ascetic sects, successively appearing from the second to the fourth centuries, is to be ascribed to the strong sentiment opposed to the use of intoxicating wines. Among these were the Ebionites, the Tatians, and the Manichees ; who used either syrup and water, milk, or simple water, in observing the Lord's Supper. On account of this peculiarity, the Greek title " Hy- droparastatoi," or " Water-band," and the Latin soubriquet "Aquarii," or " Waterers," was applied to them. The conviction which leads to ex- tremes, in this, as in every age, is testimony to a vital truth. WINE UNDER CHRISTIAN EMPERORS TILL THE DIVISION OF THE WEST AND EAST. Till the division of the Roman empire, virtu- ally accomplished A.D. 395 under Honorius at Rome and Arcadius at Constantinople, though not fully realized till the fall of Rome before the Goths, A.r. 475, a community of sentiment, de- Basil and Cyril on Bible Wines, 211 spite varied differences, prevailed, which showed itself in testimony against intoxicating wine. Basil, the recognized head of the ancient as well as modern Greek Church, bishop of Cappa- docia, in Asia Minor, A.D. 370 to 379, in com- menting on the songs of deliverance "of men redeemed," as was David when he wrote Psalm xxxii. 7, as contrasted with the songs of mid- night banqueters, cites this allusion of David as illustrating Christ's spiritual principle in the figure of the " new wine in old bottles ; " and he follows it with severe denunciation of those who seek pleasure from the use of intoxicating wine. On Isaiah v. 22, after dwelling on the "woe" that falls on a people when their rulers drink wine, he cites the duty of abstinence taught in Moses' Law for the Nazarites, and in Solomon's counsel, " Look not on the wine." Applying this truth to ministers of the Christian religion, he says : " It is becoming (prepei) that ministers of the New Testament, in like manner, abstain from wine." Going farther, he states this as a fact in Grecian history : " Rulers (hoi dynastai), do not drink wine ; " and he adds : " We who are rulers (dynastai) likewise, to the people, should not yield in the least to vice." Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem A.D. 381 to 386, another light of the Greek Church, urges absti- nence from wine on catechumens looking for- 212 The Divine Law as to Wines. ward to reception into the Christian Church, and referring to Psalm civ. 15, and John ii. 9, he uses this remarkable expression. After stating (Cataches. IX. 9), that God is the author of all good things, he says : " Water, indeed, is wine in vines " (To hydor oinos men en ampelois) ; thus implying that the pure juice of the grape is refer- red to in Psalm civ. 1 5, since that pure juice alone is of God's formation ; and also directly stating that the wine created from water by Christ at the wedding feast, was the same pure product. On Acts ii. 13, referring to the expression "gleukous memestomenoi" (Latin translation, " musto ple- ni "), Cyril says : " They spoke not sincerely, but ironically (chleuastikos) ; " and adding his own spiritual comment, he remarks : " New (neos), indeed, was that wine (oinos) ; the grace of the new covenant." Alluding again (Cath. IV. 27) to Paul's direction to Timothy (i Tim. v. 23), he says that the use of " a little wine " is " not to be condemned, if used for infirmity ; " but, hinting that this plea is often but a pretence, he adds : " Yet the sick are often to be denied, when they ask the appointed nurse (prokathezomenon)." These specially clear testimonies of Cyril are the more important, because he was one of the ablest scholars of his day, and wrote in the very home of David and of Jesus, on whose words he com- Theodoret and Jerome on Bible Wines. 213 mented, and only three centuries after the apos- tles wrote. Theodoret, one of the purest lights of his own, or of any Christian age, a winning representative of the early Greek Church, commenting on the laws of bodily health, and of moral purity, indi- cated in the Mosaic statutes, as to diet, in Lev. chap. xi M cites the kindred provisions of the New Testament, found in the teachings of Paul, as to luxuries of the table. He specially urges absti- nence from intoxicating wines. The great Bible student of this and all ages was Jerome ; one who has already, in part, been cited. As a representative of the early Church at Rome, yet spending half his life in the land of Jesus and of the first apostles, his translation of the Greek New Testament into Latin became the foundation of the Latin Vulgate ; while his volu- minous commentaries and epistles are an inval- uable treasure in every department of Biblical science. On Hosea ii. 9, he defines tirosh as " the fruit of the vintage " ; his comment cor- responding with his translation already noted. In commenting on Amos ix. 15, he compares the " blood of Christ " to the " red must" flowing into the wine-vat. Upon Matt. ix. 17, he says that new skins (utres), must be used for wine that is to be preserved as " must," because the re- 214 The Divine Law as to Wines. mains of former ferment attaches to old skins ; and he regards this to be the essential point in Christ's comparison ; that the soul (anima) in which His truth will be safely deposited, must be entirely renovated and freed from all remains of former corruption, so as to be " polluted with no contagion of former vice." In commenting (Matt. xxvi. 26-29) on Christ's choice of lan- guage : " I will not drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine" he takes for granted, as understood by all, that " must " is referred to ; and he cites as illustrative of the wine at the supper, the fresh grape-juice of Gen. xl. 1 1, and the " noble vine" of Jer. ii. 21, as indicating the character of the " vine" as well as of its product, which is referred to in Christ's words, " I am the vine." On Gal. v. 16-21, among the " lusts of the flesh," Jerome mentions wine-drinking, and urges the duty of abstinence from wines. He says: " In wine is excess ; as taught in Eph. v. 18, youth should flee wine as they would poison." Alluding to. the plea that Christ used wine at the supper, and that Paul recommended the use of wine to Timothy, Jerome says : " Elsewhere, we were made ac- quainted with both the wine to be consecrated into the blood of Christ and the wine ordered to Timothy that he should drink it." The Latin of Jerome is " Alioquin sciebamus, et in Christi sanguinerrrvinum consecrari et vinum Timotheo Jerome on Abstinence as Temperance. 215 ut biberet imperatum." Some prefer to make ' vinum " the subject of two infinitives rather than the object of" sciebamus ;" but the laws of grammatical construction in the use of a subject- accusative, seem to forbid any other rendering than that given. The practical bearing of the statement is not affected, however, by a change of rendering; since Jerome has elsewhere stated what he here seems to refer to ; namely, that the wine used at the supper, and as medicine, was the wine without alcohol commended by Roman and Greek physicians. On Eph. v. 18, Jerome al- ludes to Aristotle's principle that the virtue of temperance hinges on two rules : first, in using food and drink that are in themselves nourishing, temperance is the mean between gluttony and abstemiousness ; second, that entire abstinence from all that is injurious is temperance. He says that Paul declares that wine in any quan- tity, used merely as a beverage, is an " excess." Paul's teaching, he says, is Christ's principle ; " Ye can not serve two masters " ; " ye can not be filled with the Spirit and with wine." Hence, he argues, " I would say that wine is to be en- tirely abstained from in youth ; " according to the warning of Moses, Deut. xxxii. 32, 33: " Their wine is the poi.son of dragons," etc. He concludes : " To this wine, that is contrary which the Lord promises that He will drink 216 The Divine Law as to Wines. with us in His kingdom." Yet again, in his let- ter to Eustochius (xxii. 8), Jerome urges the duty of entire abstinence from wine, and replies again to the two objections above referred to. As to the wine that " is consecrated into the blood of Christ," he refers to the statements of Matthew and Luke, that it was the fresh " fruit of the vine." As to the wine ordered by Paul to Timothy, it was as a physician's prescription ; " a little," and that " as a medicine." Of the good Samaritan's surgical application he says (Horn, in Luc. xxxiv.) : " By the oil the swellings of the wounds were soothed (sedarentur) ; but by the wine he also cleansed (mundat) the wounds." That Jerome was not swayed by ascetic tend- encies in these comments is indicated by his per- fect accord with other eminent men of his day, in their remonstrances against the use, at the Lord's Supper, of any other liquor than wine ; commending " wine diluted with water " where the fresh juice of the grape, or preserved unfer- mented wine could not be obtained. As Am- brose, at Milan, in northern Italy (De Sacram. Liv.),Chrysostom at Constantinople (Homil. in Matt. 82), and Augustine at Carthage, in Africa (Sermons IX. to CCCLXX 1 1.), representing the most extreme outposts of the Christian Church, all accorded in commending the use of unintoxi- cating wine at the Lord's Supper, diluting it Muhammed on Wine-Drinking. 217 when essential to this end, yet never changing the element typical of Christ's blood, so Jerome indicates his balanced conviction on Mark xiv. 24, 25. Having apparently in mind the Latins of the north for whom Mark wrote (as the Latin words used by Mark indicate and all history con- firms), Jerome refers to the "wine and water" used in countries where the fresh product of the vine could not be obtained ; and he remarks that the water in grape-juice is the emblem of Christian " purification," and the nutritive element of his "salvation." The modern cus- tom of the Jews residing out of Palestine indi- cates that Jerome here refers to raisin-wine as now made by Jews. WINES IN THE KORAN, AND IN MUHAMMEDAN HISTORY. The breaking down of the Roman empire in the West, and the many corruptions of the State Church, prepared the way for the Arabian proph- et; while his respect for the Old and New Testament records, as well as some of his own teachings, gave currency to his professed revela- tions. Yet more ; the teachers of Muhammed were his wife's uncle, a learned Jew, and a Greek Christian, who led him especially to the study of Jerome, whose statements as to intoxicating wines we have just considered. IO 218 The Divine Law as to Wines. Muhammed's teachings as to wine are illustra- tive of the purely human origin of his professed revelations ; since they show the same early con- viction, the same mature purpose amid struggles for power, and the same seduction of fashion and lux- ury after success, which characterized the careers of Cyrus, and of Alexander. In his first vision (Sura ii.), impressed with the experience of older men, and of earlier ages, he writes : " They will ask thee concerning wine and lots ; answer, In both there is great sin, and also things of great use to man ; but their sinfulness is greater than their use : " in which the influence of Old Testa- ment precepts is apparent. At a later period, at Medina, after his flight from Mecca, when his followers, gathering from interest and partisan ri- valry, were to be disciplined as soldiers (Sura v.), Muhammed thus wrote : " O true believers, surely wine, and lots, and idols, and divination are an abomination of the work of Satan ; therefore avoid them that ye may prosper " ; a precept which, from its combination of prohibitions, Sale, the learned English translator and com- mentator on the Koran, traces (Prelim. Disc. c. v.) to Jerome. Finally, amid the luxury of his later life, which led to his disgraceful fifth mar- riage (Sura xxxiii.), Muhammed shows that his advocacy of abstinence from wine had been only a prudential suggestion, that he might have a well MuhammtcTs Inconsistency as to Wines. 219 disciplined and hardy soldiery ; for to those who by abstinence fit themselves to " fight valiantly for the true faith," he promises a Paradise fur- nished with every luxury for the palate ; among which is a " wine," manifestly the unintoxicating juice of the grape, since it is mentioned among other simple products of nature. His picture is thus worded (Sura xlvii.) : " A description of Paradise which is promised unto the pious,; therein are rivers of incorruptible water ; rivers of milk, the taste whereof changes not ; rivers of wine pleasant unto those who drink ; rivers of clarified syrup ; and therein with these, all kinds of fruits." Again, at a later day, and in a different mood, as the surrounding associations of his own debauchery, as well as of his increasing luxury and licentiousness alike indicate, Mu- hammed promises a Paradise of drunken rev- elry. Set over against the most fearful pictures of hell, we have (Sura Iv. and Ivi.) these glimpses of Paradise : " They that approach near unto God shall dwell in gardens of de- light ; reposing on couches adorned with pre- cious stones, whose linings are of silk interwoven with gold thread. There shall attend them beauteous damsels, having large black eyes, whom no man shall have before deflowered, lying on green cushions and beautiful carpets, a reward to the faithful for that which they shall 220 The Divine Law as to Wines. have wrought. Youth, who shall be in perpet- ual bloom, shall go round about to attend them, with goblets and beakers, and a tureen of flow- ing wine. Their heads shall not ache by drink- ing the same, neither shall their reason by it be disturbed." It is not surprising that these three phases of Muhammed's life and teaching have had their separate and distinct effect on the three leading nationalities and races brought under the forced sway of Muhammedan military despotism. The Arabian Muhammedans, of the Semitic or true Asiatic type in features, language, and mental cast, in whose native tongue the Koran is writ- ten, and from whose ranks the learned class or " men of the book " are chiefly drawn, adhere to the letter of Muhammed's second precept in the day of his own trial and discipline ; and they abstain entirely from wine. The Persians, of Aryan stock, in language and mental cast philosophic, artistic, and enterprising, follow generally Muhammed's first and balanced pre- cept ; and while using wine, are not, as a people, given to it. The Turks, of Turanian stock, whose language is of a family not yet sufficiently elaborated to be fitted for finished literature, the " men of the sword " may be abstemious from compulsion ; but naturally, and from the very spirit of the last teachings of the Koran, they Arabic for Unintoxicating Wine. 221 drink to excess when at ease after conquest ; the present reigning family being noted for use of absinthe. It is especially to be observed that in all ages, the Arabians, as their language attests, have pre- served the customs which prevailed among all the great nations bordering on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, among whose people they have mingled. They have always, like the Egyptians and Hebrews, the Greeks and the Romans, prepared two kinds of wine, intoxicat- ing and unintoxicating. The former class is styled " chamreh " from " chamar," to effervesce or inebriate ; inebriation giving effervescence of spirits. The latter class, called " sherbets " from " sherab," to drink, are unfermented. The dis- tinct character of these two wines in Arabian history and literature, can be traced by the aid of Freytag's Arabic Lexicon, in which both are rendered by the Latin term " vinum." Their modern acceptation in the spoken language, may be seen in the pocket vocabularies published at Paris for French settlers in Algiers ; in which both " chamreh " and " sherbet " are rendered " vin." Though the sherbets drunk in western Asia, especially at Constantinople, the Turkish capital, are made of syrups expressed and de- cocted from the juices of varied fruits, the orig- inal and the present rural " sherbet," in vine- 222 The Divine Law as to Wines. growing regions of the Levant, is the old Latin must and Greek gleukos, or unfermented grape- juice. WINE IN THE MEDIAEVAL ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. The acceptance by Muhammed of most of the leading facts, doctrines, and precepts of the New Testament, in part as a support to his own claims, exerted a double influence on the Christian world, over so large a portion of which his military power extended. It also pointed out errors of Christian interpretation and conse- quent departures from Gospel faith and practice ; making the study of Christian doctrine and precept in this age especially instructive, since it led to that more comprehensive scholarship which was developed under Alfred, of England, and Charlemagne, of France. The increased ecclesiastical authority of Roman bishops, who claimed patriarchal sway as popes, or supreme fathers, to which, under Pepin and Charlemagne, was added acknowleged supremacy in matters of religious doctrine and duty, stimulated in Italy the same spirit of inquiry that had found a new life north of the Alps. As in all ages of advanced culture, the study of wines in their influence on health and morals had its place This can be traced in several lines of inquiry. Classic Arabic for Unintoxicating Wine. 223 The prevalence of the Arabic language after the Muhammedan conquests, the high place the New Testament history had been made to take in the third and following " Sura " of the Koran, and the scholarly conflict of the two systems of religion, led to the preparation, in Spain, about the middle of the eighth century, of a finished translation of the Old and New Testaments into the language of the Koran. The term by which the Hebrew tirosh is translated is 'etsir, from the verb 'etsar ; whose three consonants are " ain, sad, ra." The first and fundamental definition of this verb in Freytag's Lexicon is " pressit (uvas), expressit (succum)"; he presses (grapes understood), he presses out (juice). The defini- tion of the noun is " succus expressus," juice pressed out ; a definition confirming the entire list of Hebrew and Rabbinic, of Greek and Latin authorities thus far cited. In the New Testa- ment the words "new wine," in Mark ii. 22 and parallel passages, is rendered " el-chamer el-je- did," or " wine newly prepared ; " Freytag's ren- dering of " el-jedid " being " novus et hinc .... noviter confectus," new, and hence newly made. In John ii. 10, the words "good wine" are ren- dered " el-chamer el-jid " ; " el-jid," indicating that which is " new " in excellence of preserva- tion ; the verb having as a leading meaning " ce- pit novum, renovavit," he takes as new, he re- 224 The Divine Law as to Wines. news. The rendering of " the fruit of the vine,' used at the close of the Passover feast (Luke xxii. 18), is " themer el-kerim," " fructus uvae" in Freytag, or " fruit of the grape." The rendering of the kindred expression of Christ as to the cup at the supper, is made yet more definite by the words " 'etsir el-keremeh," " the expressed juice of the generous grape." In the mocking expres- sion in Acts ii. 13, whose derisive character is in- dicated clearly in the Arabic, the word for new wine is " selafeh " ; which Freytag thus defines : " succus primus, qui ex uvis nondum pressis, fluit ; inde, vinum optimum," the first juice which flows from the grapes not yet pressed ; hence, the best wine. The entire correspondence of this view of the eighth century with the descriptions of the Roman Cato, Columella and Pliny as to the selection of grape-juice for the best preserved must or unfermented wine, is perfectly apparent. The character of the wine commended to Arabic Christians as that selected by Christ for the supper, is equally apparent. Indirectly, and therefore the more satisfactorily, the expression " best wine " as that made from water by Christ (John ii. 10), is demonstrated. As above intimated, this translation, designed to be true, and to commend the truth to the then dominant Arabian intellect, is indicative of a spirit prevailing throughout the Roman Church Mediceval Wine at the Lord's Supper. 225 for centuries. Bersalibi, an Arabian Christian* in an Arabian tract on the Eucharist, says : " When good wine " (referring to the Arabic version) " is not to be obtained, the juice of grapes may be taken ; or the liquor expressed from dried grapes or raisins." At this age, also, when the effort to make the ordinances adapted to all climes became a Christian necessity, per- mission by papal authority was given, to use not only grape-juice, when unfermented wine could not be obtained, but also syrup of other fruits, and even milk. When, at a later period, the cup was withheld from the laity, its propriety, among other things, was based on the danger, which even Augustine had admitted, that it might be a temptation in case of men " given to wine " (vinolentorum). In meeting also the "heretics," or " separatists " from the Catholic Church, who would substitute some other liquor for wine at the supper, the language of Jerome, and of the Latin Vulgate as to the nature of the wine used by Christ at the supper, was recalled and re- stated. In later controversies with the Greek Church, in which wine greatly diluted was used, the same truth was recalled in defence. The full development of this Mediaeval Roman Church history, may be traced in Bingham's exhaustive " Origines Ecclesiasticse " (B. XV. c. ii), London, 1 8 10. 10* 226 The Divine Law as to Wines. Another phase of the same fundamental truth came up in the decrees of councils and decisions of popes as to monks, who were regarded as the guardians of the intellectual life of the Church, but whose scholarship and high moral aim led them to the abstinence of the Hebrew Nazarites ; an abstemiousness which often led to scruples as to the use of any fruit of the vine, even at the Lord's Supper. Any one disposed to an ex- haustive study in this line, can trace it in the nu- merous folios of the " Acta Sanctorum," or "Acts of Saints," compiled by the Jesuit Bol- landus, and published at Antwerp, A.D. 1643. The late period to which this discussion was extended, as well as the results to which it in every age led, is finally indicated in the writings of Thomas Aquinas, the so-styled "Angelical Doctor," the eminent Italian Dominican of the thirteenth century. His masterly comprehen- siveness in research, shown in his " Summa The- ologica," has a present interest, because it is commended as authoritative in questions of modern philosophy by Pope Leo XIII. in his Encyclical Address to the nations of Catholic Europe, and of the world, issued Aug., 1879. The essential question as to the wine to be used in the Lord's Supper, is indicated by the title of his tract (B. IV. Qusest. 74), " Utrum mustum in Sacramentis"; Whether must should Aquinas on Must at the Lord 's Supper. 227 be used in the Sacraments. Having personally adopted the philosophy of the Grecian Aristotle as the highest wisdom and law, having as a popu- lar preacher at Paris, north of the Alps, become familiar with the practical difficulty in obtaining wine for the Lord's Supper that was in all re- spects appropriate, and being then called to Rome as special counsellor, A.D. 1261, by Pope Urban IV., under whom the present belief and practice of the Roman Church as to the wine in the cup took permanent form, the Angelical Doctor sought to harmonize the necessity of the law of nature with the authoritative decisions of the Pontiff He recurs to the decree (decretum) of " Pope Julius I.," as he styles him, Bishop at Rome A.D. 337 to 352, issued when, just after Constantine's reign, the spread of Christianity to remote regions called for a liberal, yet consistent interpretation of the " fruit of the vine " required for the Lord's Supper. He says that Christ used fresh " wine of the vine " (vinum vitis) ; he urges that " true wine can be carried to those countries where there are no vines ; as much as is sufficient for this sacrament." He thinks that vinegar proper, should not be employed, " be- cause wine is made vinegar through corruption." He says, however: "Nevertheless it (true wine) can be made (confici) of wine when turning acid (de vino acescente), as also (the wafer, or unleav- 228 The Divine Law as to Wines. ened bread of the supper) of the bread which is on the way to corruption." Alluding to wine of wild-grapes (agreste), he says that the wild- grape, always acid, is " in the way of develop- ment" (generationis), "and hence is not, in that state, fitted for the sacramental service." Refer- ring to fresh grape-juice (mustum), he says : " Must has already the nature (speciem) of wine. Therefore this sacrament can be performed (con- fid) with must. But whole grapes (uvse integrse)" i. e. t the glutinous or fermenting pulp united with the saccharine juice, " should not be mixed for this sacrament, since there would be something else in it than the wine. It is forbidden, also, that must just pressed out be offered in the chalice ; for this is unfitting (indecens), because of the impurity of fresh grape-juice (mustum). Nevertheless, in necessity, this may be done; for it is said by the same Pope, Julius, that if it should be necessary, the grape cluster may be pressed into the chalice." How manifestly Ju- lius of the fourth century, and Aquinas in the fifteenth, are bearing testimony to the real nat- ure of the " fruit of the vine " used by Christ. Aquinas is equally elaborate in treating of the use of diluted wine, as distinct from simple water in the cup. Communion Wine in the Greek Church. 229 WINE IN THE GREEK AND ORIENTAL CHURCHES. * As already intimated, in the Churches of the Eastern clime, the home of Jesus, and among Christians to whom the Greek of the New Tes- tament was vernacular, there was, from the first, an impression that when unfermented wine was not to be obtained, the cup at the Lord's Supper should be of wine diluted with water. How far this may have been an impression derived from ancestral tradition, or from the abstinence of athletes and of sages, it is impossible, perhaps, to decide ; as also, it may be of little moment. The universal conviction, however, which has prevailed at all ages in the Greek Church, and which controls its present practice, is of value to those who wish to reach the truth, and to secure the grace which is dependent 911 that attain- ment. That the t aditional opinions of their ancestry as to the use of wine in social convivialities and in religious observances, permanently influenced the Greek mind, is indicated by the selections from Greek poets as to the effects of wine pre- served in Anthologies. Of these, no less than five collections were successively made by native Greeks ; namely, in the first, second, third and fourth centuries by Greeks some of whom were not yet Christians, and finally in the tenth and 230 The Divine Law as to Wines. fourteenth centuries by Christian Greeks. Of these only the two latter are known to be in existence, those of Cephalas and of Planudes. The quotations from these Anthologies made by such modern writers as Wilson, reveal partial truths which require the connections of history to show their real lesson. Many of the writers whose preserved frag- ments are collected by Planudes, refer to the diluting of wines drunk at social banquets, the citations being kindred to those made by Athe- naeus. One writer, for instance, advises : " Water your wine " to secure " moderation," since, if too strong, it produces either " grief or madness," i. e., dejection or exhilaration. It would be a need- less repetition to quote at length kindred utter- ances. The fact is significant that these utter- ances are republished by a native Greek who, as an intelligent and earnest Christian worker at Constantinople, a century before its fall, also re- published "yEsop's Fables " because their moral lessons were needed by Christian Greeks. The early Christian Fathers, already cited, who lived on the Asiatic and African border of the Mediterranean Sea, the region brought afterward into the field of the Eastern or Greek Church, had been, from their location, best in- structed, and therefore most emphatic in their opposition to intoxicating wines. Cyprian, Greek Fathers on Bible Wines. 231 bishop of Carthage, Africa, from A.D. 248 to 258, argued at length (Epist. 63 ad. Csecilium), for the use of wine diluted largely with water at the Lord's Supper. Bingham (Orig. Eccles. B. xv. c. ii.) cites the canons enacted at Car- thage, and in Africa, specially the third at Car- thage (Cone. Carthag. III. can. 24), at which Augustine was present, (also Cone. Afric. can. 4), as presenting these facts. The bread and wine for the great communion at Easter was prepared from the fresh products brought by the agricul- tural people then gathered. The law required that these offerings should be of unground wheat and unpressed grapes (de uvis et frumen- tis) ; of these the bread and wine were to be prepared ; and, of course, the cup was furnished with unfermented grape-juice, as the bread was of unleavened flour. For the supper at inter- vening seasons of the year, and in all locations, the canon of the Council at Carthage prescribed " That in sacraments of the bodv and blood ol ^ the Lord, nothing else be offered but what the Lord commanded ; that is, bread and wine mixed with water " (vinum aqua mixtum). Basil and Theodoret, already quoted as lead- ers in the Greek Church before its separation from the Western or Roman, were specially clear and emphatic in their statements as to wine in social and religious uses. Photius, 232 The Divine Law as to Wines. again, one of the leaders at the division of the two churches, from A.D. 858 to 886, is equally suggestive. His comments on the New Testa- ment are the more important from the fact that the original Greek was native to him. On Mat. ix. 17, after giving the statements that the "new wine" is wine yet unfermented, and which should always be so kept, Photius illus- trates the natural law by which Christ indirectly taught the spiritual purity of His doctrine as fol- lows : That the old wine represented the law (nomos), the new wine the gospel (evaggelion) ; and the point of Christ's lesson is, that the new wine must be kept in new bottles ; intimating that the Gospel rule as to natural wine is kindred to the Gospel rule as to spiritual truth ; or that a pure spirit must have a pure body as its earthly abode. As already noted in all the long controversy between the Roman and Greek Churches, which ended in their separation, the Greek writers contended for the use of unfermented, or greatly diluted wines at the Sacrament. Hence Photius commended the Severians ; of whom he says : " They were averse to wine as the cause of drunkenness." Yet more, the Greek Church were specially scrupulous in avoiding the iise of intoxicating wine at the eucharist, for two reasons ; first, they insisted that the Early Reformers on Bible Wines. 233 cup should be given to the laity, and opposed the Roman Church for withholding it; and second, they maintained that the cup should also be administered to infants. Hence, to this day, in every branch of the Oriental Church, including the Greek and the Russian Churches, the wine used at the supper is diluted largely with water. In the case of infants, directly after baptism, the priest administers the two elements of the supper together ; placing a mi- nute bread-crumb in a spoon, touching it to the wine till it is saturated, and then putting the wine-saturated crumb into the child's mouth. The custom of thus administering both elements together, to adults as well as children, seems to have grown out of the desire to limit to a few drops the amount of wine received ; and so to prevent the possibility of any intoxicating effect arising from the sacred ordinance. The testimonies of travelers in the African branches of the Oriental Church are uniform as to this fact. In Abyssinia, Egypt, and Ethiopia, where Christianity was planted in the apostles' time, where the first Christian schools grew up, and where to this day its principles have with- stood all the corruptions both of heathen idola- try and of Muhammedan intolerance, the literal "fruit of the vine" is used in the Lord's Sup- per. In regions where the grape is not found, 234 The Divine Law as to Wines. dried grapes, that is, raisins, brought from afar, are chopped, soaked in water, and pressed ; and the sweet grape-juice thus obtained is used in the sacred rite. It is an echo, heard yet from Central Africa, of the voice of the primitive days, when the first Ethiopian convert returned riding in his chariot from Jerusalem ; whose unmistakable testimony as to the wine which Christ consecrated has thus been perpetuated. WINES AMONG THE EARLY REFORMERS. A marked feature of the Reformation was the preparation of Bible translations in the modern tongues of Europe ; which, like the Latin trans- lations of the earlier centuries, were designed to give to the people of every language the Scriptures in their own tongue. These transla- tions are the unmistakable index to the views of that age, and of many lands in that age, as to the wine consecrated by Christ. In Luther's translation the Hebrew tirosh is rendered in Gen. xxvii. 28, 31 " wein ; " but after this, as Num. xviii. 22, and onward in the history, as Judges ix. 13, and also in Isa. xxiv. 7 ; Ixv. 8, and other passages where the con- nection seemed to compel, it is rendered " most." Here is a clear recognition that the Hebrew tirosh was a "wine ; " and, at the same time, but an " unfermented wine." This trans- Protestant and Catholic Translators. 235 lation is especially noteworthy as occurring in Hosea iv. n. The use of the word "most" in this passage by Luther, aided as he was by the best scholarship of his time, is an index to the fact that the German, like the English translators, did not regard as inconsistent the view hereto- fore taken of the Greek term methusma, and of its root methe. In the New Testament allusion to "new wine in old bottles" (Mat. ix. 17, and Luke v. 37), Luther also uses the word " most " for new wine. The word gleukos, in the English expression, Acts ii. 13, "full of new wine," is rendered by Luther " voll sussen weins." The expres- sion of Christ as to the wine of the Passover and of the Supper (Luke xxii. 18; Mat. xxvi. 29), is rendered " gewachse des weinstocks ; " "or product of the winestock " or vine. In his religious writings, Luther was as earnest as any modern advocate for abstinence as tem- perance. Opposing the German habit of beer- drinking, in his rough form of statement he said, that the German people were possessed by the " sauf-teufel " or tippling-devil. Had the spirit of Luther prevailed, and the plain teaching of Ger- man lexicographers been pondered, the " unfer- mented wine," which he saw in the cup of both the ancient Jewish and the primitive Church, would now be sought both in social entertain- 236 The Divine Law as to Wines. merits and in religious ordinances. For, here it must be recalled, that Luther had the exhaustive scholarship of men like Castell, in his Heptaglott Lexicon, and of Cocceius to sustain him, as had also the modern German Hebrew lexicographers, Leopold and Fuerst Amid the same scholarship the Spanish Re- former, De Reyna, performed his high mission ; catching the same new light to guide him in h's Spanish translation published A.D. 1569. The Hebrew "tirosh" De Reyna renders by the Spanish " vino " where specificness is not re- quired ; as in Neh. x. 39 and xiii. 5, 12 ; Isa. xxiv. 7 ; Hag. i. ii ; Zech. ix. 17; thus showing that he regarded it as true wine ; but he renders it " mosto," or unfermented grape-juice, Judg. ix. 13 ; Isa. Ixv. 8 ; Joel i. 10 ; Micah vi. 15. Yet more, in Hosea iv. 11, he renders "tirosh" by 11 mosto ; " and, most instructive of all, in Gen. xxvii. 28, 37, he has both "vino" and " mosto." Again, in the New Testament, De Reyna trans- lates the words, Matt. xxvi. 29, and Luke xxii. 1 8, by " fruto de vid," and " gleukos " in Acts ii. 13, by " mosto " ; a fact which reveals, again, the prevailing conviction, as well as the scholarship of the Reformers. In the Italian of Diodati the "fruit of the vine " is rendered " frutto della vigna," and the " gleukos " or " new wine," is rendered " vin dolce." English Bible Translators and Wines. 237 In the French translation of the Abbe de Sacy, of the Roman Church, the rendering of " fruit of the vine" is "fruit de la vigne" ; and that of new wine " is " vin doux." In the Spanish 01 De San Miguel, also of the Roman Church, the words for " fruit of the vine " are " fruto de vid." The new wine or gleukos of Acts ii. 13, in this Spanish translation is " mosto." These several translations made at the same era, two by adherents of the Roman Church and two by its opposers, are a remarkably significant testimony to the view which prevailed among all Christian scholars at that era of the special re- vival of thorough study of the inspired originals of the Old and New Testaments. They confirm at every point the fact that the Hebrews had a wine which was virtually " must " or unfermented grape-juice ; that this was known in different lands where the Gospel ordinances were ob- served, from the apostles' day down to the Ref- ormation. They show farther, that the testi- mony of modern scholarship as to the wines of the Bible, have been reached through a history whose uniform facts are the foundation of an absolute and scientific demonstration. The history drawn from English translations, inasmuch as it extends back to an earlier era and embodies the revisions of many generations, is yet more decisive. The principal English 238 The Divine Law as to Wines. versions of the Bible are those of Wickliffe, A.D. 1360; Tyndale, 1532: Coverdale, 1535; Matthews, 1537; Taverner, 1539; Cranmer, 1540; the Genevan, 1560; the Bishops', 1568; and that of James I., 1611. Of these nine ver- sions, the first, that of Wickliffe, was made about 172 years prior to any other ; and it remained unprinted in several manuscript copies until published late in the present century. Wickliffe generally renders " tirosh " by wyne ; but in Neh. x. 37 and Isa. xxiv. 7, he uses " vindage," and in Isa. Ixv. 8 "grapes." For "gleukos," Acts ii. 13, he has "must." In I Cor. xi. 21, he has " drunken," which some of his copyists explain by "confounden " and " schamen," from v. 22. The next five were associated in translation, more or less directly. Tyndale has " new wyne " in Acts ii. 13; Coverdale has " swete wyne"Jud. ix. 13 and Acts ii. 13, and in Isa. Ixv. 8, " holy grapes." Matthews has " holy grapes," z. e. whole or unpressed, Isa. Ixv. 8 ; and " new wyne " Acts ii. 13, as have also Taverner and Cranmer The Genevan, prepared under the guidance oi Swiss scholarship, for the first time follows the Hebrew in Hosea iv. n, rendering "tirosh "new wine, whereas, former versions from Wickliffe to Cran- mer follow the Greek and Latin version ren- dering it " drunkennesse." The Bishops' Bible, prepared in England, but with new influence Old and New Testament Wines. 239 from continental scholarship, has " new wine " in Isa. Ixv. 8, Hosea iv. n, and Acts ii. 13. The version of King James renders " tirosh" by " new wine," Neh. x. 39 ; xiii. 5, 12 ; Prov. iii. 10; Isa. xxiv. 7 ; Ixv. 8 ; Hosea iv. 1 1 ; ix. 2 ; Joel i. 10 ; Hag. i. 10 ; Zech. ix. 17 ; and by " sweet wine," Micah vi. 15 ; while "gleukos," Acts ii. 13, is ren- dered " sweet wine." These renderings recog- nized the permanent conviction that the Hebrew " tirosh " and the Greek " gleukos " were wines, and yet unfermented grape-juice. It should be added here that Walton's Poly- glott, published at London, 1657, in the interlin- ear translation of the Hebrew, has the Latin " mustum " for " tirosh." The master-work of Poole, in his "Synopsis Criticorum," published in 1673, is in accord; "tirosh" being rendered " mustum " even in Hosea iv. n. That the same questions now discussed, as to the nature of the wines referred to in the Old and New Testaments, and as to the effects of wines, were made a thorough study by the lead- ing Reformers is indicated frequently in other records than their Old and New Testament trans- lations. The comments of Cocceius (on John ii. 10), already quoted, are but specimens of critical notes on Old and New Testament wines. Those comments show that not only the " tir- osh " of the Old Testament, but also the wine 240 The Divine Laiv as to Wines. made by Christ at the wedding, and the wine of the Passover and of the Lord's Supper were, by the scholarship of the Reformers, declared to be the Latin " mustum," the German " most," the English " new " or unfermented wine. WINE FOR THE SUPPER IN REMOTE MISSION FIELDS. The extension of Christianity to remote re- gions, in some of which the vine is not known, and where, moreover, wine is not furnished by importation, has revived in our day the same practical question which arose at different ages in both the Eastern and Western Churches ; a question that in all ages has been met by the practical good sense which Christian men of clear intelligence will always exhibit. Reason finds that three facts have conspired to relieve the difficulty some have conceived might arise from the impossibility of always obtaining the ' fruit of the vine " for use at the Lord's Supper. First. The difficulty is the less when it is understood that it was the simple " fruit of the vine," not a carefully prepared artificial wine, re- quiring length of days and skillful arrest of fer- mentation at a certain stage, which was to serve as the element employed by Christ. The dried grape can be carried to any region, and from it, as now by all American Israelites at their Pass- Communion Wine in Mission Fields. 241 over, the " fruit of the vine," substantially that used by Christ at both the Passover and the Sup- per, can be supplied. This, as we have seen, has often been sanctioned in former ages of the Church. Second. " The fruit of the vine " was specially employed by Christ without question, because the grape was the common fruit of the land of His abode. Hence, in the Roman and Greek Churches, it has been decided by men of the highest wisdom and piety men who had reached that eminence because of superior intellectual and moral worth that in the case of emer- gency, where the product of the vine could not be obtained, the juice of any other fruit, as that of the apple, is within the direct scope of the Divine requirement. Indeed, by order of Roman pontiffs, it has been allowed that where the fruit of the vine can not be obtained, even milk which, indirectly, is the product of vege- table juices, may be employed. Distinction has, at the same time, been always made between the occasional " necessity " which " knows no law " and the extreme view of ascetics, that at any lo- cation, and under any circumstances, any other liquor than wine meets the requirements of Christ's appointed ordinance. A long succes- sion of cases in point could be cited to illustrate this familiar occurrence in Christian history. 242 The Divine Law as to Wines. Any one disposed to trace this entire history, may find the materials in the citations of Bing- ham (Orig. Eccles.), of Bolandus (Act. Sanct.), and in the references found in the Notes of Giesler (Eccles. Hist.) to original documents. The very prohibitions found in the reported can- ons of such Councils as those of Braga, and of Auxerre, show that the use of milk, of syrup and water, etc., had, in necessity, been temporarily allowed ; and that the decisions of Councils only required a return to the use of " the fruit of the vine" when it could be obtained. The cases often occurring in the work of modern American and English missionaries in Asia and Africa, are in the line of this succession. Third. The spread of modern missions, in which all the appliances of translating, printing and distributing the inspired scriptures have been employed, has always/0//0zeW, rather than preceded the openings made by commercial intercourse. Hence the necessity for resort to the use of anything else than the fruit of the vine, easily and almost everywhere provided by the importation of the dried fruit, has been obviated. More than this. Few countries have been found, so numerous are the varieties of the grape, and so hardy are many of those varieties, where the grape-vine has not been American Study of Bible Wines. 243 found, or where it has not been early introduced by immigrants. The history of America is in point. In its earliest colonies, the fruit of the vine, either in imported wines or raisins, was seldom wanting" ; in the rare exceptions which required it, relig- ious wisdom found a ready substitute ; while very soon the native and imported grape be- came an abundant product. Any careful stu- dent of the successive authorities above cited, if he has not been himself an independent explorer in the folios of universal Christian literature, will see how in every age the Chris- tian Church has been called to record like ex- periences occurring in remote regions where Christians have been called to observe the Lord's Supper without wine. AMERICAN STUDY OF BIBLE WINES. It was natural that reform and a return to early Roman and Christian views as to the evils of intoxicating drinks, and to efforts for their arrest, should begin in the United States of America. Those evils were perpetuated, not from intelligent purpose, but from the blinding and enslaving influence of custom or fashion. The American people, in beginning their new national existence, had been compelled to re 244 The Divine Law as to Wines. solve back Society into its primitive simplicity of life. Hence, in organizing new communities and Churches, they were led to seek for " the laws of nature," not of mere custom, in framing their political constitutions and civil laws, and in forming their social, moral and religious con- victions and customs. Just so far, therefore, as the drinking of beverages, more or less intoxi- cating, has been pressed on their consideration as an evil, they have been prepared to examine and act upon the issue ; no thralldom of custom shackling their free purpose. Old Roman virtue and primitive Christian purity, found ready audience, when they rose again, in a new land to utter their voices. During the last fifty years, from the time of the awakening of thought first in America, and then in England, to temperance reform, a large class of writers have been called out on differ- ent departments of the general subject of intox- icating drinks ; that of Bible Wines becoming prominent. As was to be expected, different views have been expressed ; and that for three reasons. When any change in popular customs is pro- posed, the suggestion for reform implies, first, that the common opinion is erroneous ; second, that interests involved are imperiled ; and, third, that conduct before unchallenged is cen- Nott and Stuart and their Opposers. 245 sured. This three-fold difficulty is to be met and overcome ; pride of intellectual oversight ; sacrifice of personal interest ; and admission of faults in practice. It is easy to make, in gener- al, the admission that no mind can have taken in the whole field of truth ; that no man is wholly free from the promptings of self-interest; and that no human being was ever perfect in life. It is hard, however, to bring one's self up to the point where without prejudice, selfishness or preference, the rule of newly-discovered truth, duty and Christian humility can be made dominant. If this be hard to attain in minds specially thoughtful and conscientious, it is yet harder to bring a community, or an age, up to the full spirit of reform. There has never been a great reform in social habits, in politics, in morals, or in religion, that has not required many generations to make the new view and new life thorough and pervasive. In the very opening of the American Tem- perance reform, such men as the practical Dr. Eliphalet Nott, President of Union College, Schenectady, N Y., and Prof. Moses Stuart, of Andover Theological Seminary, Massachu- setts, took their stand as scholars with the re- formers. Dr. Nott in his " Lectures on Bible Temperance," led the way in tracing the his- tory of opinions as to intoxicating liquors ; while 246 The Divine Law as to Wines. Prof. Stuart started inquiries as to Biblical in- terpretation which have prompted and guided subsequent inquiries. Taking but a limited range into his survey, Stuart affirms as his "final conclusion," that, whenever the Scrip- tures commend directly or indirectly the use of wine it is " only such wine as contained no alcohol, that could have a mischievous tend- ency ; " that to suppose the contrary intimates that God's " word and works are at variance ; " while, moreover, " facts show that the ancients not only preserved wine unfermented, but re- garded it as of a higher flavor and finer quality than fermented wine." A new stage in the progress of the American reform began about 1840. Many Biblical scholars, especially those educated in Germany, began to dissent from the views advocated by Dr. Nott, Prof. Stuart and their companions ; and the following causes prompted this dissent : First, many good men became severe in con- demning Christian teachers and church-mem- bers who did not accord with their views, or rather with the reasoning by which they main- tained them. Second, special assaults were made by earnest Temperance advocates on the Christian Church ; many of whose ministers maintained that the teaching of the Old Testa- ment and the example of Christ, favored the Missionary Testimony. 247 use of wines. Third, not only the habits, but the scholarship of Germany, the resort of advanced American philologists, were indirectly opposed to the American reform ; and many, whose education or studies in Bible literature were drawn from Germany, both by precept and example dissented from the leaders in that reform. Prompted by this spirit of sincere opposition, Missionaries of the American Board in the East were called on to make investigations and specially report on the wines of the East. Chief, and first among these reporters, was Rev. Eli Smith, who in 1837-8 had accompanied Dr. Robinson in his explorations ; who, in an article published in the Bibliotheca Sacra for Novem- ber, 1846, gave the result of his inquiries. Among others he makes the following state- ments. As to the field of his inquiry, he says : " My information is derived from seven districts of Mount Lebanon, extending from Tripoli to Sidon." As to the artificial products of the grape met, he mentions three ; first, simple fer- mented grape-juice ; second, juice boiled before fermentation ; third, sweet wine from grapes partially dried in the sun before pressing. No custom of purifying the juice, by straining or arresting fermentation, was found " practiced by natives." Of the wine used by Jews of Pales- 248 The Divine Law as to Wines. tine, in the Passover week, he makes this single note : " In 1835, I called on the Chief Rabbi of the Spanish Jews in Hebron, during the feast, and was treated with unleavened bread and wine." When asked how this was consistent with abstinence from all ferment, the Rabbi re- plied that " the vinous ferment had passed, and no sign of acetous ferment had appeared ; other- wise it would be rejected." From Roman and Greek priests, inquired of as to the wine used in their Sacraments, Mr. Smith heard the com- mon statement that " unfermented wine would not answer ; nor wine if acetous fermentation be commenced." In general, he says : " I have not been able to hear of unintoxicating, or un- fermented wines." Every thoughtful reader must believe Rev. Mr. Smith a sincere reporter ; but he will note these facts. He was, as when he accompanied Dr. Robinson, an observer, but not a scholar ; for the customs of the simple " natives " of Mt. Lebanon are entirely unlike those of the cult- ured Jews, Greeks and Romans, who supplied products of the grape in Christ's day. Again, the field explored is as different from Southern Palestine, in its wines, as are the Rhine lands from Southern Italy. At the single passover feast observed at Jerusalem, Mr. Smith's natu- ral conviction suggested that fermented wine Rev. Messrs. Smith and Homes. 249 was opposed to the Mosaic Law ; it was a Spanish Jew who was acting in violation, as he reasonably supposed, of that law ; and as we have abundantly seen in the history cited, a Spanish Jew in Hebron, and Roman and Greek priests in Palestine, are certainly not represen- tatives of the great nationalities whose history and present customs we have traced. Yet, more; the Jewish Rabbi contended that the wine he drank was without ferment, because one stage had passed and the other was not begun ; and the Greek priests presented the same view. It was then unfermented wine, which Jew and Greek sought for their sacred rites ; and, the question whether they mistook in seeking such wine is the point at issue. The extremely limited survey, aside from the want of historic comparison, and especially the lack of logical reasoning in this report of Rev. Mr. Smith, is seen in the report of the second witness called to confirm the conclusions sought. In an article on " Produce of Vine- yards in the East," furnished for the BibliotJieca Sacra of May, 1848, Rev. Henry Homes, Mis- sionary at Constantinople, reports no less than twelve artificial products of the grape found in the vicinity of Constantinople ; in place of the "three" reported by Rev. Mr. Smith from the " natives of Mt. Lebanon." Among these 250 The Divine Law as to Wines. twelve, three may be noted as specimens. The fifth is " preserves made with fresh grape juice ; " in whose preparation, Mr. Homes says, the manufacturers " check the tendency to fer- ment by throwing in calcareous earths ; " a statement, certainly recalling Pliny's notes gathered from this and other regions. The ninth is " boiled must reduced to one-fourth its bulk" by a boiling for "four or five hours." Of the beverage thus obtained, called " nar- denk," Mr. Homes, says : " It ordinarily has not a particle of intoxicating quality ; " to which he adds, " if not sufficiently boiled it may fer- ment." Here, again, is met both the "must" and the " boiled wines " of Grecian and Ro- man history. Though a young man, with lim- ited study of authorities, Mr. Homes remarks of this beverage : " It seems to correspond with the recipes and description of certain drinks included by some of the ancients among wines." The twelfth is, " Rais : n-drink ; " prepared as a " domestic drink," and used in large quantities, obtained by boiling the raisins, or dried grapes, for two or three hours ; called by the Turks, " sherbet." No one can read Mr. Homes' statement after the historic survey above presented, without remarking: First, the conclusions of any ob- server ought to be, and will, by scientific readers, Testimony of Way land and Lewis. 251 be limited to that observer's range of investi- gation ; and that, whether his observations be personal, on the field, or collective, i. e. t derived from all historic fields. Second, no comprehen- sive and demonstrative conclusion is attainable except by harmonizing the valuable observa- tions of all sincere and intelligent men gathered from every field and from every age. All un- conscionsly, Mr. Homes' statements are in en- tire harmony with all history. Another era began when American youth in college, statesmen in halls of legislation, officers in the army, and even esteemed clergymen, be- gan in theory and example to sow broadcast the seeds of another degeneracy. Among edu- cators, such men as President Wayland of Brown University, and Professor Tayler Lewis, led the way to a new position. Dr. Wayland, eminently conscientious and practical as a teacher of Moral Science, when told by Chris- tian gentlemen whom he esteemed that his ex- ample in providing wine-sangaree at his annual receptions was misleading and betraying to their ruin, young men in fashionable society, Dr. Wayland promptly said : " If my wine makes my brother to offend, I will have no more of it." Prof. Lewis, scholarly and logical, re- versed his opinions and practice, when he per- ceived, as he himself states it, that " on the 252 The Divine Law as to Wines. subject of Temperance there has been com- mitted the same error of interpretation that for so long a time confused the slavery question." To these testimonies was soon added that of Professor Geo. Bush ; who, when first appealed to, quoted Old and New Testament declara- tions to sustain the custom of using intoxicating wines in fashionable society and in Christian rites ; but who, when asked, resolved to examine the original Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, and then, after examination, confessed the error into which neglect of thorough investigation had led him, and declared to the advocates of total ab- stinence : " You have the whole ground ; and in time the whole Christian world will be obliged to adopt your views." The New York Observer, of August, 1869, adds to this testi- mony. ENGLISH STUDY OF BIBLE WINES. Though behind the young spirit of America, where some of the most progressive representa- tives of all European nationalities have for a cen- tury been gathering, the power of truth and duty is moving upon all Western Europe. And here it should be noted, in order that prejudice be re- moved, that " reform " in Western Europe on each and all modern questions, implies simply the answer to this demand : " Shall the earlier English Study of Bible Wines. 253 and purer, or the later and perverted spirit of our Church and people prevail ? " Everywhere therefore, thoughtful minds are yearning fol " the old ways " which were trod when the usurpers of the present day were unknown to history. The reflex of American thought and practice, or rather the return to better days and ways, has naturally been first witnessed in the land whose blood, laws and language are the chief national inheritance of Americans. As a leading modern English writer on Bible Wines, Peter Mearns, of Leeds, England, is a worthy pioneer. His treatises on " tirosh " and other Hebrew products of the vine, and on the wine of the "Jewish Passover and Christian Eu- charist," show an intelligent and earnest search for the truth in the inspired Scriptures. Next to the works of Mearns, and prominent before all others, come the numerous writings of Dr. F. R. Lees. His " Temperance Bible Comment- ary " is replete with scholarly research, and intel- ligent conclusions. The disadvantage necessary to a commentary, which can not give chronolog- ical or logical connection and consistency, has subjected it to minor criticisms, which have been met by special treatises and personal re- plies. His " Wines, Ancient and Modern," and his "Text-Book of Temperance," are of historic and statistical value ; while his occasional tracts 254 The Divine Law as to Wines. in reply to critics are scholarly, though perhaps, from necessity, they are sometimes caustic. With Dr. Lees is associated Rev. D. Burns, whose fin- ished style in his " Christendom and the Drink Curse," gives point to the researches of Dr. Lees, in whose main work Dr. Burns had a share. The treatises of Rev. Wm. Reid, of Edinburgh, on the " Communion Wine Question," and of several other Scotch and English writers, indi- cate the strong sweep of Christian sentiment awakened in the English and Scotch Churches, and a return to look for the truth, clear though covered, in the Old and New Testament Scrip- tures. When these utterances demanded a scrutiny of social customs, and of Church usages, and were in some measure, perhaps, extreme, and cer- tainly in advance of the spirit of the age, a series of opposing writers appeared. The reactionary party prepared themselves, as did the American scholars of thirty years before, by bringing into service the reports of missionaries in foreigA lands. Rev. J. Chalmers, missionary among a rude people, had written: "The bread used at the Communion was the inner growth of the old cocoa-nut, cooked in the native oven ; the wine was the water of the new cocoa-nut." Rev. Wm. Wright, a Scotch missionary returned from Damascus, had alluded at a meeting of the Gen- Testimony of English Missionaries. 255 eral Assembly in Scotland, held June, 1875, to a distinction between chamer, intoxicating wine f and sherbets as unintoxicating wines ; which dis- tinction, as we have seen, the general Arabic Lexicon of Freytag and local Arabic vocabula- ries confirm. The venerable Dr. Duff, of India, had also publicly made this statement : "In vine-bearing districts the peasant has a basin of pure unadulterated blood of the grape in its native state, not an intoxicating, but a nutritive beverage." In the earlier ages of the Church of Christ, devoted missionaries of the Divine Master would hardly have been denounced for heresy in thus stating what their eyes had seen, and their conviction as to the spirit of their com- mission had prompted under necessity in their practice. All history, as we have seen, would have confirmed the facts stated, and have justi- fied the exceptional practice. But these utter- ances were made in a land and at a day of special controversy as to the wines to be used at the Lord's Supper. Letters were sent to mission- aries in Syria asking for statements confirmatory of the partial testimony, true in his field, made thirty years before, under similar circumstances, by Rev. Eli Smith ; which partial testimony was, as we have seen, overshadowed two years later, by the fuller examination, in another field, made by Rev. Mr. Homes, at Constantinople. The 256 The Divine Law as to Wines. following card was thus obtained, signed by eight American and English residents, and by two na- tives in Syria : " We, the undersigned, missionaries and residents in Syria, having been repeatedly requested to make a distinct statement on -the subject, hereby declare that during the whole time of our residence and traveling in Syria and the Holy Land, we have never seen nor heard of an unfermented wine ; nor have we found among Jews, Christians or Muhammedans any tradi- tion of such a wine having ever existed in the country." An impartial review of this paper calls atten- tion to the following facts : First, it was a pre- judged and formulated statement, prepared in Scotland by interested parties, and sent to Syria for ex parte testimony. Second, it was sent to the very region, the Lebanon district, where Rev. Mr. Smith's thorough investigation re- vealed so few facts on which residents could form a judgment. Third, the traditional records of the ignorant Muhammedans as to ancient customs of Romans and Christians in Palestine, were as defective as was their knowledge of Arabic literature, whose testimony we have already traced. Fourth, the Christian people of the Lebanon district were as ignorant of the Greek and Roman Christian Fathers as were the Muhammedans of Arabic literature. Fifth, Rev. Dr. Laurie on Syrian Wines. 257 the Jews of the same region were ignorant, as are the Jewish people generally, of the Talmud and other Hebrew records, read only by chief Rabbis ; while the traditional customs, now ob- served by intelligent Israelites from Bagdad on the Euphrates to New York on the Hudson, were naturally lost to the Palestine Jews, princi- pally Spanish ; as they were unobserved when Maimonides wrote. In the Bibliotheca Sacra of Jan., 1869, is an article from Rev. T. Laurie, D.D., a former mis- sionary in Syria, entitled " What Wine shall we use at the Lord's Supper?" The author quotes Dr. J. Perkins, who mentions three pro- ducts of the grape used in Persia : first, the fresh juice drunk as our new cider ; second, the juice boiled to a syrup ; third, distilled fermented wine called "arak," or Asiatic brandy. He quotes Rev. B. Larabee, seven years a missionary among the Nestorians, who had not learned of unintoxicating wine ; and he cites the Syriac term " chamor," written " hamrah," as the name for all wines ; the verb " chemar " meaning, to intoxicate. He quotes Rev. E. Smith, already noticed, and Dr. C. V. A. Van Dyck, for twenty- five years a missionary in Syria, as stating that ''nothing called nebid or khemer (chemer) is unfermented." He states, from his own observa- tion and study, the following : " In Syria, and 258 The Divine Law as to Wines. as far as I can learn, in all the East, there is no wine preserved unfermented, and they never make wine of raisins ; but they do make dibs, or molasses, of raisins, and they ferment them and make arak of them by distillation ; but they could not keep grape-juice or raisin-water unfer- mented ; it would become either wine or vinegar in a few days, or go into the putrefactive fer- ment." He adds : " The native Evangelical Churches, also the Maronite, Greek, Coptic and Armenian all use fermented wine at the Com- munion. They have no other ; and have no idea of any other." Again, he states : " The Jews not only use fermented wine at their feasts, but use it to great excess, especially at the Feast of Purim. At the Passover only fermented wine is used." Quoting again Dr. Van Dyck, he says : " As the result of extensive and protracted in- quiry, he is decided in the opinion that such a thing as unfermented wine was never known in Syria." In reviewing the products of the grape he quotes Gesenius' derivation of " tirosh," but not his definitions ; which are inconsistent, as we have seen, with his derivation. No one who knows Dr. Laurie, can help es- teeming his piety and sincerity. It will at once occur to his readers that the few Persian products of the grape, like Rev. E. Smith's statement thirteen years before as to Syria, show the same Literary Genius and Wines. 259 degeneracy in the arts ; that the Syriac language and customs now existing are to be compared with the earlier day of the Syriac translation ; that the customs of the degenerate Spanish Jews and Oriental Churches are in perfect harmony with the survey taken in this historic treatise ; and es- pecially that the " opinion " as to the past and primitive customs of the Church planted by the apostles in Syria, has been formed without knowledge of the historic facts, which have been so overlooked since the era of the Reformation. It was natural that this paper, of such a character and so obtained, should be noticed by the three professors of the College at Belfast, Ireland, in 1875, under the title " Yayin, or the Bible Wine Question." Subsequently to this, in 1877, Rev. $.. M. Wilson, of London, wrote a volume on " The Wines of the Bible," designed to refute the " Unfermented Wine Theory." It is stored with unarranged quotations from authors cited in this volume, and indicates great patience not only in gathering from other collators, but also, in personal translation. It lacks, however, the three unities, of time, place and logical con- nection ; and its citations are so confused, and often contradictory in sentiment, as any schol- arly student will on every page observe, that the ordinary reader can form no opinion as to 260 The Divine Law as to Wines. the point at issue. Most of all, it entirely omits the citations from Hebrew, Greek, Roman and early Christian authors, which demonstrate the existence and careful use of unfermented wine, and the avoidance of fermented wine in relig- ious rites, so generally recognized in human history. The writer's favorite author is Athe- nseus ; and he, certainly, is like that busy Greek, an untiring and learned gatherer ; quite in con- trast, however, to the practical Pliny ; who, in the century succeeding Christ's Apostles, and preceding Athenaeus, had recognized principles in his study of wines far in advance of modern Christian attainment. LITERARY GENIUS EXEMPLIFYING THE LAW OF WINES. The ancient Greeks and Romans regarded poets as prophets. Paul, the Christian apostle, recognized the force, if not the full truth of this impression, when he appealed to the Greek poets as the specially inspired teachers of truth in natural religion ; calling them, in his address to the cultured Athenian Senate (Acts xvii. 28), by the name " poets " or creators, and in writ- ing to the head of the Christian Church, among the rude Cretans (Tit. i. 12), giving them the title of " prophets," or inspired teachers. As there have been inconsistent in- Epic Poets and Wines. 261 terpreters of the revealed law of God, men con- trolled now by the " law of the mind " and now by the " law in the members," so it has been among men of true literary genius, the special moral guides of nations and ages. Little do the admirers of such writers as the Roman Horace, and the English Byron, of the Scottish Burns, and Irish Moore, fathom the depth of their profound convictions ; since they do not even study the drift of the current that appears on the surface. The higher poets, and men of genius, who have left the more lasting gems of literature, must be first understood, and then these supposed anomalies will assume consistency. The epic poets, and even the dramatists, as distinct from the lyric bards and romancers, have always been prophets pointing out the real law of wines. The poems of Solomon, as we have seen, were parables, veiling truth as to wines. All through the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, the careful student may trace the deepest phi- losophy ; which comes out especially in their pictures of the two vices, against which Solo- mon anticipated the blind old Grecian bard in warning men who seek eminence by superior merit. The power of the intoxicating cup, pre- sented by Circe, made brutes of the companions of the wise Ulysses, while he stood firm ; but 262 The Divine Law as to Wines. the wooing song of the Sirens would have tempted him to effeminacy, the sister vice, but for his own injunction to his companions to bind him fast to the mast before they passed the isle of the enchantresses. Virgil but repeats the counsel for the ages taught in his experience, like that of wise Ulysses ; while he also, as we havq seen, pictures the happy home where " the must is boiled," that it may not ferment. The hero, who is also a sage, may, indeed, by his own power of self-control, resist the temptation of the cup, when proffered by women vainly aspiring amid the seductions of fashion to maintain the claim to virtue ; and by this same inward power he may resist, when coming in this open form, the temptation to make himself a brute by drinking of the intoxicating cup. That same man, however, falling gradually into inaction, lapses into lust, like Solomon, the noblest of the Hebrew kings, and thence into effeminacy; and then nothing but bonds im- posed from without, by comprnions, will save him from being " drowned in destruction and perdition." This seems to be the secret of the power of Temperance Associations, and of the Total Abstinence pledge. Among the higher poets, in the epic and drama, Shakspeare is a discerner and embodier of the law of abstinence taught in history. Shakspeare and Wines. 263 That oft quoted, but usually misinterpreted allu- sion of Hamlet, in the phrase " to the manner born," opens a vista in the history of customs, as seductive as they are oppressive and ruinous. Horatio is from the South ; from Italy, whose effeminacy, as opposed to conviviality, was noted in the days alike of Horace, and a thousand years before him, in the days of the Trojan Eneas, and as it now is marked. Hamlet, on the other hand, is of the old German race ; among whom marriage infidelity, as Tacitus pictures, was almost unknown, while intoxication, the most beastly, prevailed. Down to the times of Shakspeare and of his Danish hero, the habits of the two regions, as in the Italy and the Ger- many of to-day, showed the same characteristic contrast. When Horatio is roused by the midnight noise of drunken revelers, coming from the pal- ace of the newly-installed king, and is told by Hamlet of the " swaggering upstart " draining his " draughts of Rhenish wine," and when, with wonder, this novel scene of brutal drunkenness prompts from Horatio the inquiry, "Is it cus- tom ? " Hamlet's reply shows, not his own, but the poet's recognition of the law of wines. Says Hamlet in response : "Ay, marry, is't : But to my mind, though I am native here, 264 The Divine Law as to Wines. And to the manner born, it is a custom More honored in the breach than the observance ; This heavy-headed revel, east and west, Makes us traduced and taxed of other nations. They clepe us drunkards ; and, with swinish phrase, Soil our addition ; and, indeed, it takes From our achievements, though performed at height, The pith and marrow of our attribute." If that German habit of drinking, from the days of Tacitus to Shakspeare, made other na- tions call them drunkards and swinish, and one " to the manner born " had to confess that it took from their " achievements the pith and marrow of their attribute " an attribute so worthy, in many an age, and worthiest now it should hot surprise the scholarly Germans, that the same ineradicable impression as to the unnatural in many of their modern aesthetic and literary achievements, still lives in the breasts of other nations. High art in ideal poetry, as in sculpture and painting, pictures ever the true law of wines. . Here the line of distinction between men who have united genius and constant virtue, and their opposites, is specially instructive. The former always teach the lesson of abstinence. Shaks- peare, Milton, Pope, are constant in their utter- ances like these : " Bacchus that first from out the purple grape Crushed the sweet poison of misused wine." Poets Inconsistent as to Wines. 265 " Oh, that men should put an enemy in Their mouths to steal their brains 1 " " Oh, thou invisible spirit of wine, If thou hast no name to be called by, Let us call thee devil ! " " In the flowers that wreath the sparkling bowl, Fell adders hiss and poisonous serpents roll." "The brain dances to the mantling bowl." 41 They fancy that they feel Divinity within them breeding wings." The fact that Milton, like Shakspeare, notes that one class of the tempted fall a prey to one, and another to the other of the two " youthful lusts," prepares the thoughtful student to esti- mate rightly the utterances of inconstant genius. In his " Samson Agonistes," Milton draws out at length, in the colloquy between the fallen hero and his parents, his confession, that though temptation to licentiousness has led him into sin, and brought its penalty, he could repress " desire of wine," " Which many a famous warrior overturns." " His drink was only from the liquid brook." Coming then to the apparent contradiction found in men like Horace and Byron, we find that same poet of the sensual and voluptuous, in company with the abstemious and even dys- 12 266 The Divine Law as to Wines* peptic Virgil at the banquet table of Mecaenas and Augustus. We find more : that his seductive pictures of pleasure in the wine-cup, are not the serious, deep and real convictions of the man when he is himself. They have but half read Byron, who only revel in his " Don Juan " ; when intoxicated the poet is not himself. Byron's sublime genius, the poem that will outlive his age, is " Childe Harold." There he is himself, and not another, and a deluded man. There, his reason and his conscience the man, speaks ; not the beastly " law in the members," which always, as in Paul, " wars against the mind." Let any young man who thinks Byron was great, or Burns, or Moore, because they drank intoxicating wine, turn and witness the hours in the lives of these very men, when, like the youth, in Jesus' parable, it could be said " he came to himself." Read all such men wrote, or none ! " Drink deep " at the fount of their thought, or " touch not the Pierian spring ! " No men ever taught the law of wines as have men like these. Their " mourning at the last," is like that of the French popular leader, Mira- beau ; who, but for the weakening of his phys- ical and mental power by his early drinking habit, might have ruled France by his intellect, in place of Napoleon with his sword. Modern Artists and Wines. 267 MODERN ARTISTS AND WINES. The true idea of art, as applied to science, brings within its field that class of men of high endeavor, who, in every department, seek to make the discoveries of men of science minister to human utility, or to cultivate the love of beauty. Higher artists, like poets, lead men of science, as well as follow them. Even the men of superior mechanical genius, inventors in the useful arts, have been noted for quick observation of the law of intoxicating drinks, and for their resoluteness in fixing their own laws of fashion as to their use. Especially exposed to temptation by the proffer of the lux- uries which success invites, it would be strange if some did not fall. No class of men, however, more quickly recognize the law of their own easily excited constitution ; no men are more humiliated when self-conviction yields to the insidious suggestion of meretricious fashion ; and no men, in the main, are more intelligently abstinent from all intoxicants, even from light wines. QW'>: The men of higher art, in its various depart- ments, are next in their witness as to the law of wines. The aspirants for fame as athletes., who school themselves to attain superior strength and elasticity of muscle, have always 268 The Divine Law as to Wines. known that abstinence from intoxicants is abso- lutely essential to success. Alike among the Greeks, at the Olympic games, and among modern contestants, though in seasons of re- laxation the tempting wine-cup may be in- dulged in, when the season for training comes, a self-imposed abstinence is the first rule to be enforced. As the commander of an ocean steamer will soon lose his place if he can not, during the entire voyage, practice abstinence, so the stroke- oar of a college boat-club would soon pass to another hand if the man who holds it could not abjure wine. Law will utter its mandate, and put in its claim ! Happy the youth who from preference keeps its command ! In the yet higher walks of the plastic arts, history repeats itself. Mrs. Jameson has simply recorded what beforehand might have been anticipated ; that the great masters, Lionardo, M. Angelo, and Raphael, were noted for their strict, moral habits ; among others, for absti- nence from intoxicants. To this class, the yet greater master, Correggio, adds a yet brighter testimony. In later days, the English Cruik- shank, now brought into prominence for his ab- stinence, illustrates the law, and the reason why many artists do not adhere to it. When he resolved to save his power as an artist, by ab- stinence from drinking habits, by so doing he Cruikshank on the Law of Wines. 269 was forced to sacrifice the patronage of many of his former flatterers. About 1845, he drew and published from conviction of duty, his de signs of " The Bottle,'' published at New York in 1848, with poetic comments by Grattan. It sketched eight steps in the wine-drinker's downward career ; first, the husband presenting the w/W-glass to his wife ; then that husband discharged from employ, for occasional intoxica- tion ; then the confirmed drunkard, pawning books and furniture for strong liquors ; then the sot sending his children to beg ; then the swine-like beast, burying some of these chil- dren through sickness induced by want ; then the dog-like brute, quarreling with his half-in- toxicated wife ; then the raging demon, killing the idol of his youth in a fit of passion ; and last, the raving maniac in a felon's cell. In this picture of the law of wine, Cruikshank simply took a stand which Murillo, Durer, and even Rubens confessed was the true one ; while they knew, too, they would have been wiser, hap- pier and more successful, had they been firmer in maintaining it. Twenty years later, in the success which followed his " Worship of Bac- chus," presented to and patronized by Queen Victoria, at Windsor, in 1867, Cruikshank could, in the climax of his well-earned fame, re- joice in the progress of a reform he had aided 270 The Divine Law as to Wines. to advance. And when now, in declining age, this popular artist is devoting time, property, and talent to a work which he has proved to be England's greatest modern boon, the virtue of abstinence from intoxicating liquors, he can, with the joy of the great " Master," in a higher work, exult that in old age he is bearing his ripest fruit. Cruikshank is not an exception among the men of kindred genius. Such well know that the secret of their strength lies, like that of the famed Hebrew Samson, in the virtue of absti- nence from every intoxicant. Gustave Dore is but indicating the common conviction of higher artists. The power in controlling society designated by the term " fashion," has been a study since the days of Aristotle. That clear thinker finds an important .principle in the manifest relation of the two Greek words so similar in sound ; ethos with a short penult, and ethos with a long penult. The former means a custom that has grown out of a natural and, therefore, permanent moral conviction that has established -uniform law ; the latter means a custom that, has origi- nated in some whim, often in some folly of the day- The men of genius in literature and art, Wine Destroys Family Succession. 271 above cited, rose above the latter through the power of the former. The origin of customs of luxury, in what is called " good society," is made clear by uniform history. It was distinctly seen and stated be- forehand by Samuel, the last of the Republican rulers of the Hebrew nation, what the fashion" of a court, with a king as ruler, would be ; wine- drinking- being prominent in the decline. It has been continuously illustrated in all nations, when the plain and frugal habits of self-made men, like Cyrus, Alexander, Augustus, Charle- magne and Napoleon, have succumbed to a coterie of inferior satellites, who talk of " fash- ion " as lord of all. Under the doubly seductive spell of flattery and sycophancy, the truly great leader is made to think himself a hero where he was not made to lead ; and, led himself under the leash of professed masters in the world of fashion, he is dwarfed to the level of those \vhose only merit is their guile. The wine-cup comes in the line of the sedu- cer's arts, both male and female ; Cyrus imitates Belshazzar in spite of his youth's better convic- tions ; Alexander listens to courtesans, instead of to Aristotle, his teacher, and to Androcydes, his physician ; Augustus is swayed more by the voluptuous Horace than by the intellectual Vir- gil, and yields more to the wine than to the wis- 272 The Divine Law as to Wines. dom of Mecstnas ; and Napoleon, aping at last the follies of effete monarchs that he had con- temned, becomes as weak as they. America has as yet seen but here and there a princely family, either of wealth or of intellect, perpetuated in even the second generation.. In the American Republic, the Astors in inherited fortune, and the Adamses in hereditary culture, are as rare as the Catoes and Fabians in the old Roman Republic. Chief among the causes of this alarming fact, is that absurdest of all the fancies and follies passing current under the pretense of " fash- ion," wine-drinking. The man who by absti- nence from intoxicants has secured the mental and moral power which this abstinence bestows is betrayed into the fallacy that he can not maintain position in good society without ab- juring the very law by which he has attained that position. Never did selfishness conceive a more serpent-like contradiction ; and yet, from the days of the tempter in Eden, it has been efficacious ; as it was when that arch foe of God and man, hid in Eden the double-mean- ing of his flattering fallacy, " In the day ye eat" or drink " thereof, ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil ! " True to his word, in modern fashion as in Eden's temptation, all that is new in the promise is " the knowledge of the evil ; " Wine Destroys Family Succession. 273 and that knowledge to be gained by bitter ex- perience. The self-made and self-elevated prince in in- tellectual position and in money-fortune, must have his wine-vault, and his dinner accompani- ment supplied from its stores. The writer in the Talmud, who. had the vision of Eden's tempter passing by the garden of Noah, the only family saved from the flood, when the arch-foe smiled and went away sure of his victim that writer was not a seer only, but a student of history. How soon that Noah is a beast in his drunken- ness, and Ham, his son, is making sport of his idiotic father ! The family fails in the first gen- eration. Only one cause is assigned for this by the inspired writer ! That cause should startle aspiring American fathers. They are repeat- ing, just as if there were no law of wines, the same insane folly of seeking to maintain posi- tion for themselves by violating the very law through whose observance they attained it. Yea, more ; they are even dreaming that their sons and daughters are to be exalted by that luxury which, without exception in the world's history, has ensured family downfall. The wise in American, and even more in European courts and families are reviewing the history of the Catoes ; whose ancestor wrote the earliest preserved recipe for "preserving wines always unfermented." 274 The Divine Law as to Wines. MODERN CHEMISTS ON THE LAW OF WINES. In America, popular science embodied in Text Books is a valuable guide to more ex- haustive treatises. Most of the Chemical Text- Books, as those of Silliman, Youmans, Wells, and of Rolfe and Gillet, treat of the process of fermentation. They describe the formation of alcohol as a transition stage, in which, if nature be allowed to complete her work, undiverted by human devices, she will, like her Divine Author, change the evil into good ; as promptly de- stroying, as she had created, the lurking, but short-lived " poison in the cup." The more profound works of men like the American Dai- ton, the English Huxley, the French Pasteur and Engel, and the German Mayer and Hehn- holtz, trace to its germinal development, the series of processes ; first, from life to death, and, second, from death to life, in the two suc- cessive fermentations of the juice of the grape. In these embryological observations, traced by the aid of the microscope, the same palpable fact is made conspicuous ; that the alcoholic fermentation develops the virus found in all decay ; which virus, as a deadly poison, none but the most reckless man of science would allow to taint his blood. To the practical truth as to unfermented Modern Chemists on ike Law of Wines. 275 wines, special attention was given by Baron Liebig, one of the most eminent writers on Chemistry, applied to Agriculture, to the Arts, and to the laws of Health ; whose superior merit, Baron Humboldt brought out in 1824, and whose fidelity to his early promise was attested till his death, in 1873. Among his numerous treatises, the most popular has been his " Chem- ishe Briefe," published in 1844, and soon trans- lated into- English and widely sold in Great Britain and America, under the title, " Familiar Letters on- Chemistry and its Relations to Com- merce, Physiology and Agriculture." In Letter XX. Liebig indicates, that practical experiment now attests the effectiveness of the methods employed by the Romans before and after Christ's day, in obtaining " unfermented wines." The Roman method was to separate the watery saccharine juice from the glutinous pulp before applying the pressure which forced out the pulp. The Romans, after corking and sealing, immersed the bottles of strained saccharine juice in cold cistern-water. Liebig states his method thus : " If a flask be filled with grape- juice, and be made air-tight and then kept for a few hours in boiling water, or until the con- tained grape-juice has become thoroughly heated to the boiling point, the wine does not ferment, but remains perfectly sweet until the 276 The Divine Law as to Wines. flask is again opened, and its contents brought in contact with the air." The careful reader will observe, that Liebig in this experimental proof has not, like the ancients, first separated the albuminous pulp from the saccharine juice ; that he applies extreme heat, in place of mod- erate cold, to arrest ferment ; and that then it is not permanently arrested because the albumi- nous pulp was not at the outset excluded. The practical science of the Romans is thus thrown all the more into relief. Apparently self-guided, Liebig also re-discovered the Ro- man method of correcting failure in ill-corked bottles by the use of sulphur or sulphur fumes. In his edition of Turner's Chemistry, Liebig treats fully on the subject of fermentation. MODERN ENCYCLOPAEDISTS ON THE LAW OF WINES. Modern encyclopaedists, of whom Pliny was the ancient type, while, presenting on each topic, the results of recent scientific investiga- tion, trace also, more or less fully, the history of the sciences and arts of which they treat The encyclopaedists of France, England and Amer- ica have indirectly gathered testimony of great value as to the observed dangers from alcoholic liquors, and the means of preserving wines ex- empt from alcoholic admixture. In the popular Modern Encyclopedists on Wines. 277 French Cyclopaedia, published at Paris, in 1855, Colin states the origin of alcoholic fermentation as arising from the presence of the glutinous pulp in the saccharine juice ; and he describes how sweet wines (vins doux) are obtained by separation of the saccharine or sugary material (matiere sucree) from the albuminous or nitrog- enous matter. He especially declares the alcoholic fermentation to be but a stage of nature in converting "vins doux," sweet wine, into " vin-aigre," sour wine, or vinegar. In the English Cyclopaedia of Charles Knight, London, 1859, the process of obtaining sweet wines is described with these remarks : " If sugar predominates, the wine is sweet ; if gluten, it is liable to acetic ferment, forming sour wine. This divides wines. While the vinous fermen- tation goes on ... . the acetous can not commence." Liebig's methods of securing wines free from alcohol are then described. In the American Cyclopaedia of the Appletons, published in 1874, Liebig's theories and results of fermentation are presented ; and a rare By- zantine work, describing the methods of secur- ing sweet and unintoxicating wines during the early Christian centuries, is cited. The relation of " Lachrymae Christi " to old Falernian wines is alluded to, and the return to scientific meth- ods in wine-making throughout Italy is noted. 278 The Divine Law as to Wines. In the Cyclopaedia of Johnson, in an able article by Professor Chandler, of New York, the the- ory of Helmholtz, that fermentation, both vinous and acetous, is a process of life rather, than as Liebig supposed, a stage of death, succeeded- by fitness for a new vitality is presented ; but the fact is made palpable, that the formation of alco- hol is a transition process of nature ; and that the alcohol of intoxicating- drinks would not per- manently exist, unless man's invention interfered with the process. MODERN MEDICAL SCIENCE AS TO WINES. The progress of modern chemistry has directed special attention to the nature, the origin, and the uses of alcohol as it is developed and concentrated in wines. Chemists, proper, have studied this merely from love of science ; conscientious physicians, especially those devo- ted to the effort to reform inebriates, have made it a life-long specialty ; while, too often, state- ments of medical practitioners, regarded as the teachings of science, have been superficial views framed to suit the prejudice or preference of interested parties. Profound specialists, how- ever, in medical practice, and in " Materia Medica," such as Dr. Benjamin W. Richardson, of England, and Drs. Stephen Smith, Charles Jewett, and others of America, are now giving Decisions cff Medical Science. 279 testimony which accords with the observations of a line of the ablest practical physicians that have succeeded each other since the days of the Grecian Hippocrates. These results are unquestioned. First, Fer- ment is a process of destruction of certain chemical compounds as they are passing over to form other compounds. Alcohol is an inter- mediate, temporary transition product of vinous fermentation in grape-juice, passing through the changes incident to the decomposition of some of its elements. As a product of nature, or of the Author of nature, it is not to be argued that it is designed to be healthful ; any more than it can be argued that the virus of a human body, a few hours after death, which, if left to nature's changes, will pass into a condition to be health- ful food for new plant-life, is as virus, in its transition stage, a healthful product. Second, Alcohol, arrested in its own natural passage into other chemical compounds pro- duced by the second, or acetous ferment, is a deadly poison. This, the Arabian chemists, who first succeeded in concentrating it, and who gave it its title, recognized ; and, hence, they gave it the name of one of the most virulent poisons, known to the ancients as al-kohl, or antimony. Applied to a surface-wound it acts, as all scientific surgeons agree, as a caustic, and 280 The Divine Law as to Wines. searing application. Taken internally, it is an irritant, rather than a stimulant. As a tonic it is not as alcohol that it is used ; but in admixture with other ingredients of wines and brandies. The ancient physicians, as Hippocrates, al- ready quoted, recommended alcoholic wines as an anaesthetic, to relieve pain in acute disease, such as strangury. The fact that alcohol in its pure state is not administered as such medici- nally, and the additional fact that burnt brandy, from which the alcohol is removed, has the tonic properties of the brandy, is a sufficient in- dication that alcohol has not, as such, a legiti- mate place in the materia medica, except as an anaesthetic, or as an irritant. Its place might be supplied by other tonics free from its poison. Probably such tonics would be supplied, but for another illegitimate and unhealthful effect of wines and brandies ; on account of whose temporarily stupefying, but permanently ener- vating effect, persons diseased in body and mind crave alcoholic drinks. Third, The direct, and principal effect of alco- hol, when taken into the stomach, is produced on the nervous system. Its action is similar, to that of nitrous oxide gas, and ether vapor. Its irritating influence gives, for a brief time, a feverish action to the nerves ; producing, tem- porarily, pleasurable sensations and nervous ex- Physicians on Alcoholic Wines. 281 hilaration. This exhilaration, however, is soon succeeded either by nervous prostration or de- rangement, which exhibits itself in sleepy stu- por, or in sleepless restlessness. The testimonies of scientific physicians, and medical experts, have been multiplying" for years in America, and England. Dr. Thomas Sewell, from 1821 to 1839 President of the Medical Faculty of Columbian University, Washington, D.C., the trusted medical adviser of men of the highest position, followed up, for years, a series of post-mortem examinations at hospitals and asylums, designed to trace the effects of alcoholic drinks on every portion of the human system. The results of his investi- gations were published in a series of tracts, illustrated with microscopic views of the vari- ous tissues as affected by the alcohol in wines and other intoxicants. The revelation was at that day, startling ; but his deduction as to ab- stinence and the use of other tonics, by physi- cians, were in advance of public sentiment. In later years the investigations of Dr. A. Coles, of New Jersey, the discriminating and timely treatises of Dr. Charles Jewett, of Connecticut, and of Dr. Stephen Smith, of New York, have given new testimony. The recent volume of Dr. Ezra M. Hunt on "Alcohol as a Food, and a Medicine," confirms the view, that it is in no 282 The Divine Law as to Wines. sense nutritious, and that, as a medicine, it -is a " cardiac stimulant, admitting often of a substi- tution." In England the treatises of Dr. Benjamin W. Richardson, on "Alcohol," in 1875, and on "The Action of Alcohol on Body and Mind," in 1877, have begun a revolution in sentiment, and a reform in practice in England. Dr. W. B. Carpenter, supported by Dr. Richardson, as also by Professor Youmans, Dr. W. E. Green- field, and by the able physicians of New York devoted to the restoration of inebriates, unite in urging abstinence from all intoxicants on those who would ensure for themselves soundness of body and mind. Two hundred and sixty-five English physicians and surgeons have united in an appeal, based on their experience in hospi- tals, urging the medical fraternity not to recom- mend alcohol so as to make it seem of dietetic value. Sir Henry Thompson, the eminent sur- geon, personally appeals to the Archbishop of Canterbury to use his religious influence to sus- tain the " Medical Faculties." Whatever has a history, has also a law. The ancients, as we have seen, by induction from externally observed influences, reached the range of facts that controlled their sentiment as to intoxicating wine ; and these facts led, first, to individual convictions as to the wisdom of per- Modern Statesmen and Wines. 283 sonal abstinence ; then to municipal statutes, designed to protect women, children, and other classes most exposed to temptation, and also, officers when on duty ; and finally to religious ordinances against intoxicants used in religious rites, and by officers of religion. What the ancients attained to by induction, chemistry now demonstrates by analysis and experiment, and urges as law. MODERN STATESMEN AND CIVIL STATUTES AS 'TO WINES. While in America the common intoxicating beverages are distilled liquors, in England beer, in Germany wine and beer, and in France wine, are, like the ancient wines, less charged with al- cohol. In both England and America, wines are the intoxicating beverages sought by the more wealthy. The voice of the people and the prin- ciples of statesmen revealed in modern legisla- tion, when compared with ancient statutes, must be carefully analyzed. Very many leaders of public sentiment in Europe and America urge the right and duty of legislation to restrict, and even to prohibit the sale of distilled and drugged liquors ; and per- sonally restrict themselves to " moderate drink- ing." They do not, however, like the wisest of the Greeks and the best of the Romans, recog- 284 The Divine Law as to Wines. nize the social and religious evils of wine-drink- ing, and the fact that true temperance is absti- nence from all intoxicants. There can be no question, however, that modern legislative sci- ence is following rapidly in the track of modern medical science as to alcoholic wines. In all modern as well as ancient legislation, intoxicating liquors have been selected as dis- tinct from all articles of food and drink, to be made subjects of restrictive legislation. In this respect they are placed in the class with other poisons. The principle of right, the duty of law is thus admitted ; and that, in all modern States and nations. Thus admitted, the principle must be allowed any extent of application which the public interest and the popular demand requires. There is no statesman of modern times who will think of controverting this position : that intox- icant beverages, in this, as in all past ages, must be made the subject of repressive legislation. The simple question of modern times is this : Whether the ancient wisdom and virtue of per- sonal abstinence, and hence, of consistent legisla- tion, shall be revived and restored. It is only this feature of the modern temperance reform that comes under the discussion of " the Divine Law as to Wines." Though difficult of separation in discussion, the utterances of modern statesmen and the French Statesmen and Abstinence. 285 growing drift of legislation, tend to the theory that fermented, as well as distilled liquors are in- jurious to the individual and society ; that law- makers should themselves set the example of ab- stinence ; and that thus they should be prepared to enact and to enforce laws manifestly required for the well-being of society. In Germany, as Dr. Philip Schaff, in his recent statement as to the American Temperance Re- form made at Basle, Switzerland, has reported, Prince Bismarck has revived the Reform watch- word of Luther ; that the curse of Germany is the " sauf teufel," or " social-drinking tempter." That sagacious statesman affirms that the beer- drinking social customs of Germany, which from social customs soon grow into personal, private habits, make the common people " stupid and lazy," and thus prepare them to be the fit tools of disorganizing demagogues. As to France, the following striking example of the influence of popular institutions in prompt- ing abstinence from both narcotics and stimu- lants, is thus stated by a correspondent of one of the leading New York journals: " M. Jules Simon is on the shady side of sixty. He belongs to the evergreen family of French public men who never smoked, or drank absinthe. I am sorry to say he will, in all likeli- hood, be the last of a tribe which numbered the 286 The Divine Law as to Wines. three Dupins, Thiers, Guizot, Michelet, Dufaure, Barthelemy St. Hilaire, Mignet and Cousin. Victor Hugo only smokes in the Channel Isl- ands, and there, never in excess. Etienne Arago's mouth was never familiar with a cigar. He is near eighty, and in conversation fresh, sparkling, and full of vigor. Were I fond of making reflections, I should say to anti-tobacco- nists, do not these splendid evergreens furnish you with a strong argument against the ' fragrant weed ' ? Make use of it ; and preach to the rich that by abstaining from tobacco and strong drink, and being temperate in all things, they may hope to enjoy wealth and health, and the full possession of their faculties up to the age of eighty." This testimony is in accord with the fact already observed in ancient history ; that the men who make the most possible of themselves, and do most for the real welfare of their country as statesmen, are, in both practice and theory, ab- stinent from narcotics and stimulants. In England, the attention of Parliament, which reflects popular and ruling sentiment, has been called to laws tending to secure absti- nence even from fermented drinks, as beer ; and the advocates of such reform are numerous and eminent. A recent publication, a " Prize Es- say " by James Smith, M.A., of the Free Church of Scotland, published at London, English Beer and Wine Laws. 287 in 1875, brings together facts that have im- pressed the English people, and their legisla- tors, with the enormous property-waste and pauper-destitution, aside from the destruction of health and morals which the mere social cus- tom of beer-drinktng has imposed on the noble Anglo-Saxon race. The treatise was selected from among eighty- six Essays, presented to a committee of award, whose chairman was R. Payne Smith, D.D., Dean of Canterbury. While most of the volume, under the title " The Temperance Ref- ormation and the Christian Church," is devoted to the consideration of distilled liquors, and of Church and State duty as to their use and sale, ' wines," also, are brought in for consideration. Under Henry VII., who reigned 1485 to 1509, an act of Parliament (nth of Henry VII.) was passed, providing: "It shall be lawful to two Justices to reject and put away common ale- selling in towns and places where they shall think convenient." Under Edward VI., in 1552, (Acts 5 and 6), the license laws were elaborated for enforcement ; whose effect is thus celebrated in the instructions of the Lord-Keeper to the Circuit-Judges in 1602, under Elizabeth: They should " ascertain for the Queen's information, how many ale-houses the justices of the peace had pulled down, so that the good justices 288 The Divine Law as to Wines. might be rewarded and the evils removed." The writer traces an alternation of advancing and receding legislation, down to the famous " Beer House " act of 1830, which, it was sup- posed, by increasing the facilities for the drink- ing of fermented liquors wtfuld check the use of distilled liquors. The result was, that while from 1821-30, ten years prior to the act, the amount of British spirits consumed was nearly fifty-eight million gallons, in the subsequent ten years it was nearly seventy-seven millions, or an increase of 32 per cent. In 1839, Lord Brougham, speaking in the House of Lords, re- peats Aristotle's argument in reply to the Athe- nian, in Plato : " To what good was it that the Legislature should pass laws to punish crime, or that their lordships should occupy them- selves in finding out modes of improving the morals of the people by giving them education ? What could be the use of sowing a little seed here, and plucking a weed there, if these beer- shops were to be continued, that they might go on to sow the seeds of immorality broadcast over the land ? " The enlarged license, given to beer-houses, having failed, the same experi- ment was tried as to wines, in an act of 1860, a foreign, instead of a home product ; but with just the same result. The act of 1853, how- ever, like American Statutes prohibiting sales John Bright 's Appeal. 289 on Sunday and at late hours, with other like acts, was working gradual good ; since it stamped the use and sale as in itself an evil, and a dan- Jger. The writer goes over the Scripture state- ments as to wine ; examining the nature of Hebrew wines; citing Drs. Duff and Thomson, as to the use of pure " grape-juice," and of " dibs," or syrup, by the natives in Syria, such as every studious tourist may meet; quoting", also, Jewish Rabbis of New York, as to their use of " unfermented wine;" and replying to Dean Alford on New Testament wines. The Honorable John Bright has recently made this public appeal to the Scotch people : among whom, more generally than in England, distilled take the place of fermented liquors : " If all the ministers of the Scotch Church were to banish whisky from their houses, and the consumption of it from their customs or social habits, they could do much to discredit and to withdraw one fertile source of poverty and suffering in Scotland." This statement^of that sagacious, popular Parliamentarian, in the very use of the term " customs, or social habits," and in the mention of " poverty and suffering," in- directly, and, therefore, most effectively, indi- cates the grounds, in law, on which legislation will proceed, when the public mind comes to 290 The Divine Law as to Wines. require its interest and the legitimate mode of securing that interest. o In American jurisprudence, the consistent practice of able statesmen has led to progressive legislation, which has not been in advance of public sentiment. The American people will have occasion, for generations, to be grateful for such examples, and, therefore, such efficient leaders in legislation, as the Honorables George N. Briggs, and Henry Wilson of Massachu- setts, Honorable William E. Dodge of New York, and others. WINES IN RECENT AMERICAN LEGISLATION. As intimated, legislation becomes efficient and effective when law-makers are personally conformed in spirit and life to the laws they enact. In three special respects, legislation as to wines, and other fermented liquors, has wit- nessed a steady advance in public sentiment. First, The increase of foreign populations, ad- dicted to the use of wines and beers, as well as their use in so-called fashionable American so- ciety, has led to the extension of the laws for- merly restricting the sale and use of distilled liquors, so as to include wines and beers. Second, The methods of evading the force of law in restricting the sale and use of all kinds of Wines in Recent American Legislation. 29 1 intoxicants, has led to the extension of the privi- lege of supervision ; wives, and even children, being authorized to warn the dealer, and to prosecute for damages ; while the officers of the law have supervisors over them, elected to see that their duty is discharged. Third, The right to withhold licenses, and thus to prohibit en- tirely the sale and use of intoxicants, has been given by States to communities and towns within their limits ; while the National Government, through its Courts, has re-affirmed the right of States to enact such provisions, tending to prohibition. A pamphlet just issued by the National Temperance Society and Publication House, at 58 Reade Street, New York, gives in full the " Liquor Laws " of several leading States, and an abstract of the Statutes of other States ; which the student of law will find, should he consult the Revised Statutes of the several States of the Union, are a fair index to the prog ress of popular sentiment throughout the United States. They indicate advance in the three particulars above mentioned. They show especially, that this advance has prevailed in States where, ten years ago, such legislation would have been found opposed to the spirit of the people. In Maine, the statutes are varied and minute. 292 The Divine Law as to Wines. In the chapter framed in 1872, it is declared: ' Ale, porter, strong beer, lager-beer, and all other malt liquors, wine and cider, shall be considered intoxicating liquors within the meaning of this chapter, as well as all distilled spirits." In the amendment of 1877, providing for stricter en- forcement of the law, the prohibition reads: " Wine, ale, porter, strong beer, lager-beer, and all other malt liquors and cider when kept or de- posited with intent to sell the same for tippling purposes." The penalty for selling without li- cense, " any intoxicating liquor manufactured in the State, except cider, shall be two months' im- prisonment, and a fine of one thousand dollars." In Vermont the Statute mentions " spirituous or malt liquor," and declares that the place of sale without license " shall be held and regarded as a common nuisance, kept in violation of law." The Massachusetts Statutes mention " spirituous or intoxicating liquors " ; from whose list " cider and native wines " alone are excepted. They permit a wife, or even a child, to be an author- ized informer. In a later section, the Statute specifies : " The terms intoxicating liquor, or liquors, in this Act, shall be construed to include ale, porter, strong beer, lager-beer, cider, and all wines, as well as distilled spirits." In Connecti- cut, the License provisions adopted in 1872, and again in 1874, cover "spirituous and intoxicat- Maine and New England Laws. 293 ing liquors, ale, or lager-beer " ; the Act not de- ciding that ale and lager-beer are intoxicating, while later Acts of 1874 and 1877, specify " spir- ituous or intoxicating liquors, ale, Rhine wine, and lager-beer." New England legislation is but little in ad- vance of the Middle, Western, and even some of the Southern States, in the three particulars named. The New York Statute of 185 7, made for a region where wines early became prominent, specifies " spirituous liquors and wines ;" forbidding the gift or sale of either to apprentices or minors. Acts of 1869 and 1870, provide special officers in counties and towns, for the enforcement of the liquor laws. Acts of 1873 and 1874, extend the provisions of the law to " spirituous liquors, wines, ale, and beer " ; and provide special dam- ages to parties injured by abuse of license. In a decision rendered by Judge J. Welles, in 1860, the following language is used by the Court : " That ale, strong beer, porter, and most of the fermented liquors known in this country, .... can and do produce intoxication and that such is the ordinary effect of their use as a beverage, no man of mature years .... can have failed to observe." In New Jersey, early Statutes included " vinous, spirituous, and strong liquors," and forbade the sale of any liquors on credit ; while a later section as to abuses enu 294 The Divine Law as to Wines. merates " vinous, fermented, spirituous, or strong and intoxicating liquors." An Act of 1870 enumerates "ale, strong beer, lager-beer, porter, wine, or any other malt liquors " ; and an Act of 1874, prohibits the sale of all these on Sunday. In 1853 began a succession of Acts of New Jer- sey, granting special privileges of restriction to towns, which has led on to special Acts authoriz- ing the citizens of specified localities, by majority- vote to prohibit the sale of all liquors named in the law by withholding licenses. In an appeal case, which took the ground that it was uncon- stitutional for the Legislature to confer on local authorities the right to prohibit, the Supreme Court of the State decided : " That municipal corporations may derive the power to interdict the sale of intoxicating drinks from the same source to which they owe their authority to regulate it." The Western and Southern States are rapidly following the Eastern and Middle States in the three respects named. An Act of Ohio, in 1866, uses the general term " any intoxicating liquor whatever." Michigan, in 1877, specifies the '' manufacturing, selling, or offering for sale spir- ituous or intoxicating liquors, wine, brewed or malt liquors." Kansas requires " that petitions for license must be signed by a majority of all the citizens in the ward or township, of twenty- Middle and Western State Laws. 295 one years of age or over." Iowa prohibits the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors "except for mechanical, medical, culinary, or sacramental purposes " ; excepting only those imported under laws of the United States, and " beer, cider and wine made of home-products, and for home use." West Virginia forbids painted and other screens to hide purchasers from the public eye. Kentucky, by a recent Act, provides for local prohibition of the sale of "spirituous, vinous or malt liquors," and adds this special provision as to druggists and phy- sicians : that the druggist may sell only " on a pre- scription made and signed by a regular practicing physician " ; and adds, " but no physician shall make or sign any such prescription, except the person for whom it is made be actually sick, and such liquor is absolutely required as a medi- cine." Last of all, the Mexican border State of Texas, by an Act passed in 1776, provides for local prohibition, with this noteworthy excep- tion: "Provided, that nothing herein contained shall be construed to prohibit the sale of wines for sacramental purposes ; nor alcoholic stimu- lants as medicines in cases of actual sickness, when sold upon the written prescription of a regular practicing physician, certifying upon honor that the same is actually necessary as a medicine." These three specifications, " wine? 296 The Divine Law as to Wines. for sacramental purposes," " medicines in cases of actual sickness," and " certifying upon honor that the same is actually necessary as a medi- cine," are the three points about which new studies and new statutes are yet to cluster. The recent enactment of such State Laws, and their endorsement on repeated appeals by United States Courts as constitutional, gives striking testimony to the fact, that the people of the United States, as a body, believe in these three facts : first, that wines and other fermented liquors are intoxicating and dangerous ; second, that as such, their use by youth, and even their prescription as a medicine by physicians, is to be strictly guarded, if not positively prohibited by law ; and third, that the interests, material and moral, of any community give them the right to prohibit both the sale and use of intoxicants in their neighborhood. While the legitimacy, under State Constitu- tions, of Local Prohibition, has been maintained, its legitimacy under United States law has also been repeatedly tested. From the time of the armed opposition to the " Whisky Act," under Washington, the right of Congress, as of State Legislatures, to tax the importation, man- ufacture and sale of spiritous liquors, has been maintained. But the plea that this tax, levied by Congress, can not be consistent with local Ancient Lazvs Leading to Modern. 297 prohibition, has been always met by adverse decisions. Said Honorable Chief-Justice Taney, in an early appeal case : " If any State deems the retail and internal traffic in ardent spirits injurious to its citizens, and calculated to pro- duce idleness, vice or debauchery, I see nothing in the Constitution of the United States to pre- vent it from restraining, or from prohibiting it altogether, if it thinks proper " (5 Howard). The decisions of succeeding judges have re- presented the early argument most elaborately, as applied to wines. And here the thoughtful student of the past recalls that this modern conviction and conduct is but the reviving of the wisdom and virtue of early ages and generations. It but reflects the wisdom of the Greeks and Romans, of Brah- mins and Egyptians, of inspired Moses and Paul, as we have seen ; men who wrote when distilled liquors were unknown, and when the only intoxicants were fermented liquors, espec- ially wines, in whose healthful ingredients the poisonous stage of ferment had been perpetua- ted to pamper diseased and depraved human cravings. It but restores, moreover, the virtue of ancestral generations ; for any one that will trace the history of legislation, back from Black- stone and the Code Napoleon, through Anglo- Saxon and old German codes, till they meet 13* 298 The Divine Law as to Wines. and interlace with the Roman Civil Codes, he will see that the earlier German, French and Anglo-Saxon "witan," or wise men, legislated, in all their generations, against fermented wines. Yet, more, the reasoning which is presented as justifying and demanding legislation, as to wines and fermented liquors, is testimony that experience in modern Europe as to the de- moralizing and ruinous influence of wines, is just that ascribed to them by the ancients. To this discussion, much has been contributed by the published treatises and addresses of Honorable Messrs. William E. Dodge, William B. Spooner, and Neal Dow ; and of Messrs. A. M. Powell, J. W. Ray, B. D. Townsend, J. L. Baily, and J. Black ; as also by Rev. Drs. A. A. Miner and B. St. James Fry, and by Rev. Messrs. E. H. Pratt and W. F. Crafts ; who have discussed the economical and social in- terests involved. Here the work of Honorable Robert C. Pit- man, LL.D., Associate Justice of the Superior Court of Massachusetts, just issued, and enti- tled "The Problem of Law as to the Liquor Traffic," comes in with its special testimony. While most of the volume is devoted to the evils of distilled intoxicants, the iQth Chap- ter, entitled the "Milder Alcoholics," brings out an array of testimony by careful ob- Wine-Drinking in France. 299 servers quite unlike that of casual tourists in Europe. Of these gathered testimonies, the following are specimens : In France, Monta- lembert said, in the National Assembly, as early as 1850, "Where there is a wine-shop, there are the elements of disease, and the frightful source of all that is at enmity with the interests of the workman." In 1872, the French Government appointed a committee to report on the national vice of wine-drinking. In the report of their Secretary, they say, after citing the fearful demoralization produced by wine be- fore, during, and after the war with Prussia: "There is one point on which the French As- sembly thought and felt alike To re- store France to her right position, their moral and physical powers must be given back to her people To combat a propensity, which has long been regarded as venial, because it seemed to debase and corrupt only the indi- vidual, but the prodigious extension of which has resulted in a menace to society at large and to the temporary humiliation of the country, seemed incumbent on the men to whom that country has entrusted the task of investigating, and remedying its evils." In Switzerland, Dr. Guillaume, of the National Society for Peniten- tiary Reform, states, in 1872, that "the liberty of the wine- traffic, and intoxication therefrom, 300 The Divine Law as to Wines. is the source of fifty per cent, of the crimes committed." In Italy, Cardinal Acton, late Supreme-Judge at Rome, has stated that nearly all the crimes at Rome "originated in the use of wine." Re- corder Hill, appointed to gather facts abroad, to influence British legislation, reported in 1858, " Each of the governors of State prisons in Baden and Bavaria, assured me that it was wine in the one country, and beer in the other, which filled their jails." American legislation as to wines and beers, is but following modern as well as ancient experience ; for all the dangers attending the use of distilled liquors are linked to the use of fermented wines. WINE IN RECENT CHURCH REFORM. As just intimated, that peculiar proviso of the most advanced American legislation, which, in forbidding the local prohibition of the sale of "intoxicating wines" for certain "necessary" uses, as " medicinal and sacramental purposes," is the hinge of thought on which, for ages, good men have sought the light of truth. Their con. victions have centered about two points : first, the fact that Gospel " temperance " implies and requires abstinence from intoxicating bever- ages ; second, that it is the duty of the Chris- Wine in Recent Church Reform. 30:1 tian Church to seek, if it may be found, an un- fermented and unintoxicating wine. It should be observed, that among earnest Christian workers, in City Missions especially, many reformed inebriates have been brought into Christian Churches, both in Great Britain and in America. In the recent large increase of this number, the danger of reviving, at the Lord's Supper, a craving for intoxicating drink, has become an alarming reality. Men, like Mr. Moody, who never knew the power of this habit, have supposed, that by regeneration the thirst for intoxicants is eradicated. Others, like Mr. Gough, who have had personal experience, attest that " the law in the members " is never eradicated ; that the struggle to give the pre- ponderance to the "law of the mind" is life- long ; and that it is presumption, not faith, that would require an intoxicating wine to be used at the Lord's Supper ; as it would have been presumption, not faith, a " tempting," not a trusting God, in Jesus, to have violated the law of nature by leaping from the pinnacle of the temple. Hence, reformed inebriates, with one voice, have asked for an unintoxicating wine at the Lord's Supper ; and, when this provision has been thought impossible, they have con- scientiously abstained often from partaking of the cup. 302 The Divine Law as to Wines. In meeting this demand of Christian convic- tion, a large addition to the number of advocates for abstinence as temperance has been called forth ; while many have united in seeking an unintoxicating wine. This drift of popular re- ligious conviction has been so strong, as to reach men of eminence in every branch of the Christian Church. Four years ago it found expression in the Roman Catholic Church. While in Cincinnati, Ohio, Archbishop Purcell commended temper- ance among German and Irish Catholics, yet de- clared that beer was needed to give strength to the laborer, quoting, but misinterpreting, Psalm civ. 15 and 2 Mace. xv. 39 ; in New York city, Archbishop, now Cardinal McCloskey, declared that abstinence from intoxicants was the only true temperance ; and he cited Christ's abstinence in the agonies of death as teaching the doctrine. At the same time, in England, Archbishop Man- ning, as the representative of Roman Catholi- cism in Great Britain, urged that entire abstinence from all intoxicants was the only hope of saving the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic races from physical and spiritual degeneracy. In the English Episcopal Church a louder and more united voice has been heard. Some two years since, some conscientious clergymen in the diocese of the Bishop of Lincoln, having em Canon Farrar on Wines. 303 ployed unfermented wine at the Holy Commun- ion, a prohibition from the bishop was issued until the propriety of such departure from long- established custom could be historically tested. Without question, if that history be sufficiently traced, the custom of the early Church based on the appointment of Christ, and the re-discovery of that appointment by the early English Re- formers, will stay the prohibition. This, the in- quiry awakened in the mind of such a leader as Canon Farrar most clearly indicates. In his familiar " Talks on Temperance," just published, in ten platform addresses, Canon Farrar gives his reasons for recently becoming himself an abstainer, and for urging it on the English Church and people, both as a Christian and a national duty. It is interesting to trace, amid his fervid appeals and graphic pictures, a re- turn to the Roman virtue and the New Testament interpretation of the primitive Church reflected from that virtue. He says : " The simple wines of antiquity were incomparably less deadly than the stupefying and ardent beverages on which 150,000,000 are yearly spent in this suffering land. The wines of antiquity were more like syrup ; many of them were not intoxicant but in a small degree ; and all of them, as a rule, were only taken when largely diluted with water." . . . . " They contained, even when undiluted 304 The Divine Law as to Wines. but four or five per cent, of alcohol ; whereas, our common wines contain seventeen per cent." He refers, indirectly, to the legend of Satan's visit to the vineyard of Noah, already fully quoted from the Talmud. Citing" the indirect testimony of artists, he exclaims : " If you would know what your fathers thought, look at Ho- garth's ghastliest pictures of Rum Lane and Gin Alley." Of himself, he says : " When a youth, I was mainly a water-drinker. When I was an undergraduate .... I never once had a bottle of wine or spirits of any kind in^my rooms. When I became a man, .... if I thought of total abstinence at all, I regarded it as a some- what harmless, but perfectly amiable eccentricity. It was only two years ago that my attention was first seriously called to the enormous evil of drink When I came to London, I al- most entirely ceased to touch fermented liquor." He proceeds to trace how, step by step, his in- vestigations led him to sign the pledge of life-long abstinence. Still unsettled, however, as to Script- ure teaching, he declares : " I shall say this only : that wine means, primarily, only the juice, and often, as I believe, only the unfermented juice of the grape." He quotes statements of eminent English physicians as to the abuse of al- coholic prescriptions ; and he cites Captain Webb and the American Weston, as reviving the ab American Tracts and Treatises. 305 stinence of the ancient " athletes." He quotes the line of the Latin poet Propertius : " Vino for- ma perit.vino consumitur setas," "by wine beauty perishes, by wine age is wasted ; " and he dwells on the inconsistency of taking as a guide By- ron's example in his confessed follies. Certainly Canon Farrar is preparing the English people to listen to ancient sages who, like himself, argued that abstinence from intoxicating wines was the only " temperance " ; and, yet more, he may pre- pare them for the return to the " unfermented wines " for which he longs, and which in all ages they have found who have earnestly sought them. In America, the tracts and treatises of many eai nest students have each added some new fact in the wide field of historic truth ; among which are noteworthy those of Rev. Drs. T. L. Cuyler, H. Johnson, C. H. Fowler, S. K. Leavitt, C. L. Thompson, D. Read, J. C. Holbrook, J. M. Walden, J. B. Dunn, 'and A. B. Rich ; also of Rev. Messrs. F. A. Spencer, H. W. Conant, A. G. Lawson, and A. S. Wells. The treatise of Rev. Dr. Wm. Patton has pierced a specially rich vein of investigation. The volume now submitted to the public was prompted by a criti- cism on the action of a Presbyterian Synod in Western New York, who, following the lead of many of different denominations in Great Brit- 306 The Divine Law as to Wines. ain and America, discussed the expediency ol introducing " unfermented wine " at the Lord's Supper. It is indicative that inquiry is directed in the pathway of truth when, as in geological explorations, the common trend is seen by all observers alike ; and it is only needed that the fundamental fact, to which men in every age have alluded, should be made the clue to the interpretation of their statements. UNIFORMITY IN FACTS, AND HARMONY IN CON- VICTIONS, THE TESTS OF THE DIVINE LAW AS TO WINES. Uniformity in the action offerees in the Uni- verse, and of organic development in Natural History since like effects result from like causes leads to truth in science, and to estab- lished physical law. Harmony in human con- victions, leadir g to common civil customs, is the foundation of moral judgment as to right, and of common law. Continuity in the evolution of cycles, marked, for example, in the out-croppings of geological strata, is the more manifest when breaks reveal on the edges of their dykes the rupture of what was once unbroken. The con- tinuity of recorded history is all the more ap- parent when the severed parchment-leaves, once stitched into a connected roll, show by the matching needle-holes, and by the words re- "Lachrymce Christi" 307 peated at the bottom and top of siK"cessive pages, how the writers who penned their sever- al records, matched their work to that of their predecessors. The review of this entire roll on a single point, may, with the aid of personal observation on the Mediterranean shores from the Nile to the Alps, and with the affluent tes- timonies of eye-witnesses of many an age and language, be made to illustrate this test of the Divine law as to wines. The visitor in Southern Italy meets a wine called " Lachrymse Christi," tears of Christ. The name impresses him ; its simple origin in- terests him ; and the links of its history cover the life of civilized and redeemed man. It is a Latin name ; framed by men believing in Christ and seeking His purity of character and life. At home, or on the Mediterranean shore, the inquirer pulls a ripe grape from its cluster, and presses it gently ; when a rounding drop of the clearest, purest nectar gradually oozes, forms into a sphere, separates itself from the protrud- ing pulp, and like a crystal tear-drop, falls to the ground. When caught and collected in a cup, these drops form a fluid which rapidly dries in the sun, becomes a syrup, then a jelly, then a honey, scarcely to be distinguished from the bees' deposits. In fact, it is just this pure sac- charine-juice sucked by the bee, not only from 308 The Divine Law as to Wines. varied flowers in spring-, but from varied fruits in autumn, that forms the mass of unfermenting syrup deposited by the bee as honey in its waxen cells, whose perfect likeness to sweet wines, on the one hand, and to syrup on the other, led to the common names, " debsh," in Hebrew, and " meli," in Greek. Those " tears " of the grape can not ferment ; for the ferment in the pulp has been separated from the fluid. Centuries ago, in the dark ages recorded by Boland in his " Acts of the Saints," intelligent and pious monks, living on the northern cra- ter-peak of Vesuvius, made an unfermented wine from the rich, sweet grapes of the moun- tain-side ; and, out of love to Christ's example and appointment, they called it " Lachrymae Christi," tears of Christ. The wines of that name now met, are sweet, but alcoholic red wines, made for gain any- where ; and their history tells of a degeneracy following the age of the primitive wine. Forty years ago, the wines of Southern Italy were prepared without skill ; the rich wines of the Middle Ages, and the art of preparing them, having been utterly lost. Since that era, mod- ern science, re-applied in art, has re-discovered three facts. First, The neglected vines which yield a grape with large pulp and little sugary juice, which juice, when pressed out, soon fer- Preparation of Unfermented Wines. 309 ments, may by culture be made to yield three times the amount of sugary juice. Second, By care, the ferment may be arrested, before it be- gins, or at any stage of its progress. Third, The best mode of excluding the air from the fresh juice so as to prevent ferment is to pour fresh olive-oil over the top of the jar or flask ; leaving it uncorked, that the bubbles of carbonic acid-gas, which arise, may escape through the oil without exposing the grape-juice. And here another age rises and opens to view. It is now generally agreed that the modern " Lachrymse Christi " was successor to the old " Roman Falerjjian," specially celebrated by Horace. The Falernian wines were products of Southern Italy. Horace speaks of different varieties, as the old (Serm. II. iii. 115), the ar- dent (Od. II. xi. 19, 20), the severe (Od. I. xxvii. 9, 10) ; and also, of that sweet as the honey of Hymettus (Serm. II. ii. 15, 16) ; but he dwells more on the Falernian vines (Od. I. xx. 10, and III. i. 43), and on their envied grapes (Od. II. vi. 19, 20). Virgil describes the presses, with strainers, which furnished the pure juice without ferment ; as he in youth worked at them. First, There were the foot-vats ; in which " the vint- age foamed on the full brims," as he with his comrades " tinged the naked ancles with new must " (Geor. II. 6, 8). Second, There was the 3io The Divine Law as to Wines. twist or torcular press ; with its cloth-sacks (cola), its twisting staves (prela); from which, in " great drops " (guttse), gathered and flow- ing "as streams" (undse), the bottles to pre- serve it were filled (Geor. II. 240-245). So com- pletely did the straining process of the twist-press prevail, that it gave the specific name " torculum," or "torcular," among the "Rustic" writers, to wine-presses in general ; as the student of Cato, Varro, Columella and Pliny, whose observa- tions covered three centuries, will note. More than this : Jerome, with incomparable facilities for a correct judgment, finds this method of straining the unfermenting jui^e from the fer- menting pulp, a controlling idea, from Moses to his own day ; as his universal use of the neuter- plural adjective " torcularia," or twist-press ap- paratus, indicates. The Hebrew word " yeqeb," used sixteen times from Num. xviii. 27 to Zech. xiv. 10, refers specifically to the juice-tub, under the spout of the- grape-vat in which the grapes are crushed and pressed ; as is indicated by the Greek term " hypolenion," under-tub, used Isa. xvi. 10 ; Joel, Hi. 13; Hag. ii. 17, though the general term, " lenos," is used in Num. xviii. 27, and Joel ii. 24, where the allusion is general. Again, the Hebrew word " gath," used five times, refers to the grape-vat in which the grapes were trodden ; as the Greek term Wine-Making the Same in all Ages. 311 " lenos," in the five cases (Jud. vi. i.i ; Neh. xiii. 15; Isa. Ixiii. 2; Lam. i. 15; Joel iii. 13), at- tests ; the latter case being 1 specially significant, as the Hebrew "gath" and "yeqed," and the Greek "lenos" and " hypolenion," are con- trasted in the same sentence. This distinction in the Greek is marked in the New Testament allusions (Rev. xiv. 19, 20; xix. 15), where the " treading " is prominent, and " lenos " indicates it; while in Mat. xxi. 33; Mark xii. I, where the "digging" is prominent, Matthew uses " lenos " the general, and Mark, writing for Ro- mans, " hypolenion " the specific word. Again, the word " poorah," twice used, in (Isah. Ixiii. 3; Hag. ii. 17), is the ladle with which the strained must is dipped from the juice-tub into the jars or flasks ; as the Greek translators in- dicate by referring to the " measures " (metretas) in the latter, and to the " staining juice " dipped out in the former case. The fact, now, that Jerome renders these three Hebrew words by the general term " torcularia," twist-press ap- paratus, indicates that he recognized the uni- versal prevalence under the whole Hebrew his- tory, and in the Christian Church of the first four centuries, of the separation of fermenting pulp from grape-juice. Pliny, again (Nat. His. xiv. 6), describes the kinds and quality of Falernian wine as it existed 3 1 .2 The Divine Law as to Wines. under Augustus, when Horace and Virgil wrote ; saying that " of all kinds, it was least calculated to injure the stomach ; " a fa:t to which the " Rustic " writers all allude, and which Galen, the physician of the day, applies in his art. But Pliny, though writing only a century after Virgil, speaks of the adulteration and per- version of the pure Falernian. Of that of one locality, he says : " It has lost its repute through the negligence of the growers ; " and of another location : " Latterly they have some- what degenerated, owing to the rapacity of the planters, who are usually more intent upon the quantity than the quality of their vintage ; " in which we can see, as if we were there with Pliny, the strainer pushed aside, the pulp flow- ing with the pure juice into the vat, and a sadly fermented, instead of an unfermented wine, the result. But another stage of backward transit brings us to the " protropos " of the Greeks ; or the oozing juice of the clusters on the vine caught in pans as it dripped before the harvest. Thence, again, we find ourselves in Egypt ; especially in the vintage-scenes pictured on the tomb-walls of Beni Hassan in Upper Egypt, sculptured and painted in the days of Joseph. We scan the two presses, and the method of separating and storing the sugary juice without Wine- Making the Same in all Ages. 313 the fermenting pulp. The more carefully pre- pared is that from the small twist-press. A sack, about three feet long, is fastened by a ring at one end to a stout post ; a rope at the other end passes through a hole in another post ; a strong staff, about four feet long, is turned by three men ; while a fourth attends to a large pan into which the juice squeezed from the sack is falling in drops. The larger press is an immense vat in which ten or twelve youths are treading the grapes with their feet. From two orifices, one near the top and the other near the bottom, flow streams of juice. The upper stream, evidently furnished with an inside strainer, as Wilkinson intimates (Anct. Egypt., c. v.), flows into a small tub, whence an attend- ant dips the fresh and strained must, with a large-nosed scoop, into jars ; over which, when filled, another attendant pours from a smaller scoop, what we may now regard fresh oil ; while other attendants set away these jars, with or without covers, in the store-house. It is not to be wondered at that minds, having thus before them the connected facts, see in this an explanation of the butler's dream, inter- preted by Joseph (Gen. xl. n), and of the He- brew "tirosh," familiar to Isaac (Gen. xxvii. 28, 37), whose aperient action Job (xx. 15) illus- trates. 14 314 The Divine Law as to Wines. While thus the breaks in the records reveal more fully the uninterrupted succession of un- fermented wines, variations in the nature, use and effects of fermented wines, make clear their constant law ; since these variations can be traced to circumstances of location and of era, which have naturally produced those changes. Among European races the kindred terms " oinos " in Greek, and " vinum " in Latin, have passed into cognate names prevailing in all modern tongues ; all of which are generic, as is " wine " in English. In the Semitic family, however, the Hebrew generic word "yayin," apparently kindred to the Greek " oinos," has been superseded in Aramaic, Syriac and Arabic, by the special word " chemer," named from the first-glance appearance of the effervescence seen in ferment. So the terms indicating the effects of wines have had meanings varying with the ideas of those who have used them. An Ameri- can preacher who reports that his London peer " drinks," seems in England to be a slanderer ; because the word there, means to use intoxi- cants excessively, while here it only indicates that one is not an abstainer. So " methusko " meant " sated," when applied to the gods who drank " nectar ; " and in the Greek Anthology, it means "drenched," when it is applied to altars soaked with offerings of milk (galakti, Exceptions Attest Law. 315 Anth. XI., viii. 3). So, too, the word " shekar," in its changing meanings, makes its employ by Maimonides in the twelfth century, an excep- tion proving a rule. The noun " shekar," ac- cording to Castell, means in Hebrew, some- times, " vinum vetus," old wine, and, sometimes, " vinum commistum," the " edusma," or honey- sweet of the Greek Fathers. In Chaldee, it is "cervisia," ale, made from "barley," or "the juice of apples." In Syriac, it is " saccharum," or the sugary juice of various fruits. In the Gemara, Buxtorf finds it to mean " potus ex hordea coctus," a drink of barley boiled. In the Arabic, Freytag cites instances where it is " a drink from dates (dactylis), from dried grapes (uvis passis), also sugary juice (sac- charum)." Long before these lexicographers made their collations, Wickliffe had rendered " sikera" in the New Testament, " cider." In accord with these varied meanings of the noun, the verb " shakar," indicating the effect which led to the name of the drink, is equally varied in signification. In the Hebrew of Jer. xlviii. 26, where its effect is "vomiting," Castell ren- ders it " largius bibit," he drinks too largely ; while in the Ethiopic version it is used for the Hebrew " malats," to be " sweet," in Psalm cxix. 103. Indeed, this change in the meaning of " shakar," or rather this illustration of its 316 The Divine Law as to Wines. adapted signification, occurs in the experience of Noah nigh Ararat as compared with that of Joseph in Egypt; as we have already seen (Gen. ix. 21, and xliii. 35). In Arabic, Frey tag- finds it applied to the udders of camels and sheep distended with milk. When, then, Mai- monides and Bartenora use the word " shakar," to indicate the effect of repeated cups at the Passover, these facts serve to make the excep- tion confirm the rule as to Jewish Passover wine. First, The earlier and later custom of the Jews, shows that the spirit of the twelfth century in Spain was exceptional in Hebrew conviction. Second, The text of the Mishna, written in the second century, gives no warrant for this comment of the Rabbis of the twelfth century. Third, The statements of Maimoni- des in the " Yad Hachazakah " (II., iii. 2-7), that the Nazarites " sinned against their own souls " in their abstinence, and atonement was required for this sin (Num. vi. n), while yet he says, " He that is of a heated temperament ought neither to eat meat nor to drink wine " these extreme statements, both questionable, reveal a mind unfitted for comment on such a subject. Fourth, The very word, " shakar," by which Bartenora and Maimonides indicate the effect of the Passover cup, so different from its meaning in purer ages, is itself a con- The Translators on "Tirosh" 317 damnation of the spirit of the age which had so perverted the purer custom of their fathers. It is not surprising, therefore, that such a flood of light dawned on the earnest and labo- rious Reformers who penetrated more or less into this history of facts. All the translators, Roman and Protestant, Italian, Spanish, French, German, and English, saw in the " tirosh " of the Old Testament, the Grecian "gleukos," and the Roman " mustum." Castell, with the whole range of Syriac and Arabic translations, of the Rabbinic Targums and Talmud, before him, not only rendered "tirosh" must, but he argued that the translation of the Hebrew "cheleb" (Num. xviii. 12) by "aparche" in the Greek, was intended to present the idea of Herodotus (III., 24), and of Xenophon (Hier. iv. 2), which prevailed alike among the early Ethiopians of Central Africa, and of primitive Asiatics ; their offerings were "fresh" that they might be untainted with decay. Language could not have been constructed more definitely to represent the product ol the vine acceptable in religious offerings than that used by Moses when he added a prefix to the unfermented grape-juice offered to the Lord ; requiring that it be "the fresh of tirosh." It was natural that this expression, rendered in English by " best of the wine," should recall to Castell and Cocceius 318 The Divine Law as to Wines. the nature of " the best " wine made by Christ, and, therefore, drunk by Him ; and that it should have prevented such men from introducing, from the spirit of " custom," any perversion of the requirements of Christ as to the Supper, imagining that " inebriating wine " should take the place of his own twice-repeated description, " the fruit of the vine." Another age of desired reformation has dawned. The spirit of men like Luther and Knox, of Howard and Wilberforce, calls for a return to the primitive " fruit of the vine," at the Lord's Supper. Science has well-nigh attained to it in the experiments of Liebig. Christian faith will fully attain to it ; for faith is first " the substance of things hoped for ; " hope " waits with patience " till study and skill open a " door of hope ; " faith then again comes in with the assurance that " the secret of the Lord " all that He sees needful to honor His word will be found in His works ; faith, thus, becomes " the evidence of things not seen ; " and in due time it " works by love " to secure the end it seeks. When attained, unfermented wine at the Supper will certainly be that first appointed by Christ. Finally, the permanency of the Divine meth- ods for man to learn truth and duty, test the existence of law. The last difficulty of the Faith Obeys Divine Law. 319 Christian inquirer as to the Divine Law of Wines is this : He asks, " If the knowledge of unfer- mented wines be so important, why has not the New Testament made its nature and the mode of its preparation manifest?" Here, again, truth and its author prove ever the same. First, The Bible was given to reveal spiritual, not material truth ; moral duty being impressed when material truth is discovered. Second, Material truth essential to human welfare is dis- covered when the desire to know moral duty is controlling. Oil and wine in their nature and virtues are in this respect parallel. In warm climates, where medical science seeks to bring disease to the skin, and so eradicate it, anoint- ing with oil is the general specific for cleanli- ness and health. David awoke to the law by experience (2 Sam. xii. 20) ; Christ but al- luded to it in correction of extreme abstinence (Mat. vi. 17) ; His apostles recognized that it was a part of the faith that worked miracles (Mark vi. 13); and (James v. 14) left it unex- plained, as the law of Christian duty for all time. Just so Noah was left to learn the law of intoxi- cating wines ; Solomon avows that only by ex- perience could he know it ; and Timothy, under Paul's tuition for years, was still learning the Divine Law as to Wines. Third, As human vir- tue in the Brahmin, the Greek and the Roman 320 The Divine Law as to Wines. was tested by rational faith, so the very essence of Christian redemption is Divinely implanted faith. Paul, late in his apostolate, defines faith as consisting- in two elements. Faith is, first, "the substance of things hoped for;" or the inward "assurance," a priori, that an end es- sential to human welfare will be found to have means adequate to its accomplishment. Faith is, second, " the evidence of things not seen ; " or the gradual testing, a posteriori, by continued observation, what those adequate means are. The great apostle illustrates this by a mere glance at the varied lives of men living through forty centuries : Abel, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, victors in spiritual conquests down to his day; all of whom were guided and led "by faith." Mankind in Isaac's day had discovered how to obtain unfermented wine by separating the saccharine juice of the grape from the albu- minous pulp ; the Hebrew patriarchs called it " tirosh " (Gen. xxvii. 28) ; the Egyptians manu- factured it in their upper country ; and Joseph's brethren found it to produce an effect indicated by the word " shakar," or full-drinking, as differ- ent from Noah's experience as was the wine they drank from that he had made (Gen. ix. 21 ; xliii. 34). In every age since, when " faith " has led men, first the " hope " for an unintoxicating beverage, and second, the industry to search for Spirit and Method of Agassiz. 321 it, that unfermented wine has been re-discov- ered. To admit that it can not in our day be re-discovered, is to admit that modern science is behind the ancient. To object to the Divine appointment for man's spiritual redemption which makes the effort for that re-discovery a duty, is to discard both science and revelation, and to dishonor both reason and faith. CONCLUSION. The writer's task, prolonged through five years, is at length ended. As it was prompted by irresistible convictions of truth, it has been prosecuted as a duty both required and aided by peculiar favoring associations. The first public lectures of Professor Agassiz, in Washington, D. C., delivered before the Smithsonian Lecture Hall was provided, were in a church audience-room, where the writer officiated. The earliest and latest utterances of Agassiz were those of one seeking Divine law. His profound researches in natu al his- tory were often illustrated from Aristi eta and Pliny ; his special discoveries were sometimes quoted as re-discoveries of AristotVs ; he always alluded to laws of development as Divine plans ; and when challenged ?s to this expression, he exclaimed in almost the very words of the teacher of both Plato and Aris- 14* 322 The Divine Lau as to Wines. totle : " Why not admit that Mind originates new organisms ? " Prompted by such a guide, the writer was directed in youth to Aristotle and Pliny as clear expounders of the physical law of what are now styled " Spiritual Manifes' tations ; " and in later years they revealed the science whose mysteries, now hidden, guided Grecian artists. When the latest Hebrew lexicographer, speci- ally accurate as a student of natural science, was found to have defined the Hebrew " tirosh " as " unfermented wine," Pliny's minute description of the mode of its manufacture gave the clue to all the labyrinths of Biblical and classic litera- ture as it relates to the Divine Law of Wines. Nothing was needed in following out the clue but patient toil, controlled by ordinary balanced intelligence, and by a spirit of Christian candor and charity. From his earliest connection with the Smith- sonian Institution, Prof. Joseph Henry was an intimate friend, and especially an educational counselor. He was a devout Christian be- liever ; seeking harmony between the Divine works and Word. He always referred to great forces in Nature as. " God's powers ; " and al- luding to his own discoveries, so eminently practical in their applications, he said: that " Discoverer? and inventors only availed them Spirit and Method of Joseph Henry. 323 selves of God's power to bless mankind." He often referred to Pliny and Aristotle as guides in modern discovery ; and his celebrated " Hints to Guide Explorers " were anticipated in Aristotle's Problems. He lived, most of all, to make science aid in the in- terpretation of the Old and New Testament Scriptures. Two weeks before his death, when at eighty his associates and visitors saw only absorption in his scientific work, in an inter- view with his old friend, he went over, at length, the chief events of his life, dwelling on one work now nearly complete ; when, suddenly turning, with enthusiasm, he exclaimed : " When that is attained, I am ready to render up my account ! " The new turn of thought, thus in- troduced, led to many utterances like these : " Man is immortal till his mission is accom- plished. Faith in an overruling Providence is scientific. It is when we can look back over the continuity of life and of human history that we know this, and see the guiding hand." Truth sought with reverence for its Author, and to promote the welfare of man, His creature, is seldom sought in vain. He who was " full of truth and grace," guided the pens of Moses and Paul, when they wrote of wines. So much of that "grace" ruled in Paul, the great revealer of Christian " truth," 324 The Divine Law as to Wines. that he wrote, " Whereto we have attained, let us walk by the same rule, let us mind the same thing; and, if in anything- ye be otherwise minded, God shall reveal even this to you." John, specially noted for "grace," said in his old age of some who presented new truth : " We ought to receive such ; that we might be fellow-helpers to the truth." If Christian men, at the present crisis of thought on the Divine Law of Wines, catch the spirit of these veteran apostles, the truth will be reached, and duty will be met. The three cuts present three distinct processes in the most ancient modes of preparing unfer- mented wines, alluded to on pages 46, 54-57, and described on pages 310313. They are copied from sculptures in relief, richly painted, found on the walls of tombs at Beni Hassan, in Upper Egypt. They are found in the volumes of Sir Gardner Wilkinson and were carefully studied by the writer in February, 1848. The tombs have, at their entrance, the cartouche of Osirtasen I., the Pharaoh of Joseph's day. Fig. i presents the twist-press, the " torcu- lar" of the Romans, and specially illustrates the straining of the saccharine from albuminous '.ingredients in grape-juice; the cloth of the sack preventing the pulpy albumen from passing out FIG. i. FIG. z. FIG. 3. 326 The Divine Law as to Wines. with the watery, sugary fluid. Fig. 2, the tread-press, exhibits the immediate drawing off and storing of the strained juice, which issues from the upper spout of the vat in which the strainer is not seen, pours into the upper tub, and is thence dipped fresh into jars and stored in the wine-vault. Fig. 3 shows the mode of preserving the stored grape-juice ; the man at the left with a large tureen, pouring the juice through a cylindrical spout into the jars, while the youth with an oil-scoop, like those now found in ancient tombs in Egypt, Cyprus, and Greece, pours a coating of olive oil on the top of the grape -juice in the jars. To this custom of preserving must and other fruit-products by oil, Pliny and Columella allude ; Columella say- ing (xii. 19) that "before the must is poured into the jars (vasa)," they should be " saturated with good oil." SCIENCE THE INTERPRETER OF HISTORY AS TO UNFERMENTED WINE. WHEN, in 1840, the Rev. Eli Smith, as the interpreter of Dr. Robinson in Palestine, was asked, while his Researches were going through the press, to give his testimony whether non- intoxicating wines existed in Palestine, with all the earnestness of a true missionary he urged in his reply two requests. Clearly perceiving that the question of fact should not be made to bear on his personal duty to practise and teach the duty of abstinence from wines in Syria, and again, that the fact of the present had little bearing on the fact in past history, he used the following language. Knowing the endeared relation of Dr. Robinson to Prof. Stuart, as the teacher who had inspired, and to whom his work was to be dedicated, he wrote : "I do not wish what I have written to be regarded as in any way aimed against the principle of (327) 328 The Divine Law as to Wines. the American Temperance Union." Knowing, moreover, that he had himself been but a sub- ordinate to Dr. Robinson in furnishing one class of information necessary in his historic re- searches, and that Dr. Robinson regarded Prof. Stuart his superior in the philological study which the question of the past involved, he added: "A person who has never been in Palestine is as capable of judging as myself." In the revived discussion, begun by Prof. Moses Stuart and prosecuted by Profs. Tayler Lewis and George Bush and by Dr. Wm. Pat- ton, the question whether unfermented wines can or do exist is one purely of fact ; with which inferences as to personal duty are not to be confounded. The tests of chemical science applied to wine-making, found chiefly in the south of France, where the old customs of Ro- man vintage still prevail, and the interpretation of Roman writers on wines found among French scientists, must guide investigation and control decision. In two respects the time for impar- tial research is most favorable. In England, where the books that first inspired Prof. Stuart's investigations appeared, the influence of the " Church Temperance Society," so nobly repre- sented by Mr. Graham, one of ito secretaries, has enlisted the cooperation of Conservatives and Liberals in politics ; of High, Broad and The Public Mind prepared for Truth. 329 Low Churchmen ; of eight out of thirty bishops who are abstainers, with many that are not ; whose influence has secured the suppression ot beer-shops and the establishment of coffee- houses in cities and towns throughout England, and has arranged for the administration of the communion in wine free from alcohol in the case of all who desire it. In the City of New York, too, 'the earnest supporters of the National Temperance Society cooperate with esteemed leaders in the suppression of drinking-houses. The secular press recognize the popular de- mand ; one leading daily extolling the states- men of France, who urge alike by example and by legislation the suppression of the use and sale of intoxicating wines ; another following up its revelations as to the drugging of imported wines ; yet another commending the effort to furnish safe resorts for laborers, obliged at their noon-day rest to seek a winter shelter in beer- shops, where they are forced to squander for drink what they would gladly save for their families ; while all commend the reform begun at Washington by President Jackson in furnish- ing no intoxicants to native visitors, but only urge its provision, if at all, for diplomats at State dinners. Certainly, then, if an unintoxi- cating wine, kindred to the coffee sought for laboring men, can be furnished for the tables 330 The Divine Law as to Wines. where fashion rules if, indeed, such wines did exist among the Romans, and were sought be- cause the sons of families less robust than the sons of toil most need the safeguard certainly, then, every father, every educator, every patriot, every Christian, will join the search for the needed boon. THE TWO PROPOSITIONS OF PROF. STUART. With logical precision, Prof. Stuart, after careful consideration and research, laid down these two syllogistic propositions : " Whenever the Scriptures speak of wine as a comfort, a blessing, or a libation to God, and rank it with such articles as corn and oil, they mean, they can mean, only such wine as contained no alco- hol that could have a mischievous tendency'' Again : " Facts show that the ancients not only preserved their wines unfermented, but re- garded it as of a higher flavor and finer quality than fermented wine. There is no ancient cus- tom with a better amount and character of proof than this." The first proposition is a major premise, assumed as a conclusion which the common conviction of men will allow; its testi- mony, to Prof Stuart's mind, being this : that to suppose the contrary implies that " God's word and works are at variance." The second proposition is a minor premise : a question of Stuart's two Propositions. 331 fact to be established by the tests of science, which tests must consist of two classes. First; if the interpretation of ancient historic records be so doubtful that assurance can not be reached, the light of modern chemical science, as it relates to the laws of fermentation, must be brought in ; the direct test of experiment must solve the question whether grape juice can be preserved permanently free from alcoholic fermentation, and the testimonies of skillful wine-makers, in the land where wine-making has been an un- interrupted art since the times of the Roman writers, must be traced. All will admit that the satisfactory decision as to the first proposition rests in part on this first class of testimonies. Second : philological science, now specially ad- vanced, through the common usage of succes- sive ages, preserved in lexicons and in transla- tions of and annotations upon classic and sacred writings, must be able to demonstrate the fact that the terms for products of the grape in the Hebrew of the Old Testament and the Greek of the New Testament justify the asser- tion made in Stuart's first proposition. THE OBJECTIONS TO STUART*S TWO PROPOSITIONS. One of the earliest and ablest statements opposed to Prof. Stuart's view appeared in the Princeton Review for April, 1841 ; the article 332 The Divine Law as to Wines. consisting of a criticism on two essays, entitled, the one " Bacchus," and the other " Anti-Bac- chus," called forth by a prize of one hundred sovereigns offered in England ; the latter of which had been republished from the English edition by the American Temperance Union at New York. The article commends the work of Father Mathew in Ireland, and of Rev. Robert Baird, the American apostle, on the Continent in Europe. It interprets the statements of Roman writers on wines ably, yet without the light of modern French research ; and it calls out, for the first time, the testimony of Rev. Eli Smith above cited. This early critique has been since followed by the works cited in the " Divine Law as to Wines" (pp. 247-259) up to the time of its issue, early in 1880. The following important articles have since that time appeared. DR. RICH'S SUPPORT OF STUART'S FIRST PROPOSI- TION. It is significant that the " Bibliotheca Sacra," enriched in the past by men like Stuart and Robinson, after publishing articles with testi- monies from missionary reporters as to modern facts from 1846 to 1869, has given a hearing to both sides in the discussion on Bible wines during the past year. In the numbers for Jan- uary, April, and October, 1880, appears an essay Dr. Rich on Stuart's First Premise. 333 in three parts from Dr. A. B. Rich, whose former writings have been among the publications of the National Temperance Society. Dr. Rich assumes as self-evident the first proposition of Stuart, and regards its assumption as justified by that of Newton ; whose first law of motion, though it can not be directly demonstrated, if denied, would involve a contradiction of all instinctive human convictions. His statement is thus framed .(Bib. Sac., Jan., 1881, p. 114): " Here, then, is the rational and righteous basis for the discriminating statutes of God. The beverage that was characterized by power to produce a sensible stimulation, a nervous excite- ment, was forbidden ; the beverage that satisfied a natural appetite, and afforded strength with- out stimulation, was commended." This propo- sition is sustained by two classes of testimonies : first, that alcohol is not nutritious (pp. 100- 106) ; second, that the Hebrews had two classes of wines, " the nutritive and the alcoholic." Thirteen products of the grape mentioned in the Old Testament are considered (pp. 115-121), and five classes of cases coming under the generic term " yayin " are traced in the re- mainder of the essay. These are, first, cases where " yayin " is manifestly nutritive (pp. 122- 129); second, where it is probably nutritive (pp. 129-132); third, where it is alcoholic (pp. 334 The Divine Law as to Wines. 305-312); fourth, where its nature is doubtful (pp. 312314); fifth, where it is employed in religious rites or is abstained from for religious reasons (pp. 314, 315). His special conclusion is thus stated: "There is no threatening, or prohibition, or visitation of judgment, as I can remember, based on the discrimination between an excessive and a limited or temperate use (as it is called) of intoxicants." After a review of the New Testament, Dr. Rich concludes with a statement that this conviction is in accordance with the position of Luther in the opening of the Reformation ; that what is not of God, and in His Word, must fail. DR. MOORE'S ARGUMENT OPPOSING STUART'S PROPOSITIONS. In the Presbyterian Review for January, 1881, Dr. Dunlop Moore takes ground in his opening paragraph (p. 79) against Stuart's first proposi- tion ; while in the second he denies that any of the early Christian commentators, or of the scholars of the Reformation, sustain Stuart's second proposition. This latter statement refers to the entire list of citations made in the " Divine Law as to Wines" ; but, as the writer does not again refer to this simple denial, there is no occasion for reply. Proceeding, then, to his argument opposed to Stuart's first proposition, Dr. Moore s Objections to Stuarts View. 335 Dr. Moore (pp. 80-83) urges that the Scriptures constantly both commend and condemn the same thing ; as in their statements as to the " tongue," as to "knowledge," and as to "marriage"; while they present diverse aspects of the char- acter of God and of Christ. Hence he argues that the same may be true as to their statements about wines ; and he proceeds to cite from the Talmud, from Pliny, from Plato and from Solo- mon statements as to wines which seem to justify his conclusion!. He intimates the " un- trustworthiness " of the quotations from Pliny in the " Divine Law as to Wines," and he censures, as " irreverent and reckless," Dr. Fowler's com- ment on Prov. xxiii. 29-35, of which he gives a new translation, sustaining it by Scripture cita- tions (pp. 83-87). He censures also the "very confident writers and speakers " who at this day condemn " the old commentators and moralists " who made the distinction " between the use and abuse of wine"; citing Dr. Rich's statement (Bib. Sac., Apr. 1880, p. 318), and especially the com- ments of Lees and Burns in the " Temperance Commentary." He urges that Christ drank the wine from which John abstained ; that he made wine at a wedding ; that he appointed intoxi- cating wine for the supper : and he criticises Lees and Burns on Luke xxi. 34, Eph. v. 18, and also Dr. Rich on i Tim. iii. 8, and v. 23, 336 The Divine Law as to Wines. quoting Pliny, Celsus and Dioscorides in sup- port of his view (pp. 87-93). On p. 90 he quotes part only of Pliny's statement (xxiii. 18) as to "mustum" used medicinally. He proceeds then to proof that "every kind" of "yayin," or wine, "known in Palestine" might be used " by the pious Israelites." He cites Neh. v. 18, 19 as ancient proof; he quotes the report brought in 1878 by Rev. Wm. Taylor from missionaries in Palestine, and the written statement in May, 1875, of American and British missionaries in Syria to this effect: "We have never seen or heard of an unfermented wine"; and he severely censures the writers of " The Wines of the Bible," and of " The Divine Law as to Wines," as having incorrectly stated the facts (pp. 93- 97). He intimates (in referring to the state- ment in the latter volume that the best Arabic lexicographers define "sherbets" as "wine") that the "little learning" of the writer mis- guided him ; and that due credit had not been given to the statements of the missionaries whose testimonies were presented in America from 1846 to 1869, and in Scotland in i875~'6 (pp. 97-100). Stating his conclusion that " the question of modern wines is thus disposed of," Dr. Moore proceeds to citations and transla- tions, especially from the Roman writers " de Re Rustica," or on Agriculture, and from Pliny's Dr. Moore s Version of Roman Write* s. 337 Natural History ; which he thinks fail to sustain the existence of " unfermented wines " in the time of Christ and of His apostles. He insists, rightly, on Pliny, B. xiv., c. 7, that wine is com- mended in its medicinal uses (p. 101) ; he criti- cises Dr. Lees' interpretation of B. xiv., c. n on the conversion of must into wine (p. 101) ; he cites Varro, B. i., c. 65, as showing that must, by fermentation, is converted into wine (p. 102) ; and he quotes (p. 103) Pliny, B. xiv., c. 19, 20, condemning Dr. Laurie (Bib. Sac., xxvi., p. 166) for omitting " que "; and he insists that this, like the other passages cited, shows that the Ro- mans did not class any form of " must" among "wines." He alludes to, but does not quote, Cato, c. 1 20, and Columella, B. xii. c. 29, com- paring them with Pliny, B. xiv., c. 19 ; and, while admitting that the grape-juice preserved as de- scribed remained "must," though " not longer than a year" he censures the writer of the " Divine Law as to Wines " for intimating that this " must " was classed as a " wine " (pp. 103- 4). He refers to the " protropum," Pliny, B. xiv., c. 2 (p. 104) as not wine; to the " mur- rhina" or " murrata," as classed by Pliny, "not as among wines (vina), but among sweets (dulcia)" ; and he argues that " sobriam," in the mention of " inerticula," Pliny, B. xiv., 4, is used by the writers, " not of the wine, but of the 15 338 The Divine Law as to Wines. grape" from which it was made (pp. 1045) He criticises the citation by Rev. Wm. T. Thayer, in his " Communion Wine," of Aris- totle, Meteor, B. iv., c. 9 ; and cites Wilson's " Wines of the Bible," as showing " that the sweet wine" did not deserve "to be called wine'' until it had undergone a partial fermen- tation ; and also that it is " only in a compara- tive sense, and not absolutely, his statement as to its non-intoxicating character is to be taken " (p. 106). He censures Rev. C. H. Fowler for his statement in his "Wines of the Bible" that "boiled wines" were unintoxicating; and sets over against his allusion to Horace's mention of the Lesbian wine (Carm., L. i., 17) as "inno- cens " the caution of Clement to Christians (Paed. B. ii., c. 2) as to " the pleasant-breathing Lesbian" (pp. 106-108). He criticises the view of the effect of the " filter," Pliny, B. xxiii., c. 24, taken by the Rev. B. Parsons in his " Anti- Bacchus " and in his " The Wine Question Settled," as also the same view taken in the Temperance Commentary ; and he cites the following disconnected sentence from Berzelius' " Trait^ de Chimie," quoted in the Princeton Re- view, April, 1841, p. 298, to this effect: "It is not until the fermentation is considerably ad- vanced that the gluten is precipitated in such quantity that it can be so separated by the filter Dr. Moore s Hebrew and Greek Criticisms. 339 as to prevent entirely the further fermentation of the liquor " (p. 108). He cites (pp. no, 1 1 1) Co- lumella, B. xii., c. 27, to show that " vinum " and " mustum " are in Latin usage distinct ; he also cites Columella, xii., 25 and 29, preceding and following, as sustaining this view; and in a note makes this only allusion to the Hebrew " tirosh " and the Greek " gleukos ": " In summer weather, in a very few hours a considerable quantity of alcohol is formed in the purest grape-juice if exposed to the air. Accordingly, Tirosh, must, or new wine, is treated in the Old Testament as an intoxicant (Hos. iv. n), and so is the corre- sponding Greek word Gleukos in the New Tes- tament (Acts ii. 13)." He criticises Dr. Lees' statement in his " Wines, Ancient and Modern," whose comment on Columella xii., 27, is to this effect : " The grapes were spread out to the heat of the sun long enough to thicken the juice to the degree known to produce fermentation "; and he cites the supposed counter-testimony of Redding on Wines, p. 55 : " Grapes were an- ciently trodden, after being exposed on a level floor to the action of the solar rays for ten days, and were then placed in the shade for five days more, in order to mature the saccharine matter. This practice is still followed in certain cases in one or two of the islands of the Greek Archi- pelago ; at St. Lucar, in Spain ; in Italy, at least 340 The Divine Law as to Wines. in Calabria ; and in a few of the northeastern departments of France. The fermentation is facilitated greatly by this process." He cites also Rev. Eli Smith's statement (Bib. Sac., Jan., 1869), which he deems to the same effect. He finally (p. 112) criticises the use made of Herodotus' statement (L. ii., c. 37) that "oinos ampelinos " was used by the priests of Egypt, and contends that it indicates simply " wine of the vine," as does " oinos ex kritheon " (ii., 77) wine of barley, and " oinos phoinikei'os " (ii., 86) palm-wine. Each of these citations, interpretations, criti- cisms, and inferences will be noticed in its proper connection in presenting the scientific, philo- logical, and historical testimonies which estab- lish the second proposition of Stuart, and thus demonstrate his first proposition. HORACE BUMSTEAD'S ARGUMENT AS TO STUART'S PROPOSITIONS. In the Bibliotheca Sacra for January, 1881, appears a conservative article by Horace Bum- stead, now issued in a pamphlet. In a fair review of the latest statements of Drs. Parker, Anstie, Hammond, Richardson, Binz, and others, he regards their combined authority as indi- cating that, though concentrated alcohol is a poison, in solution it creates heat by decompo- H. Bumstead on the Law of Wines. 34 1 sition in the human system, and is in special cases of medicinal value. Reviewing Grecian and Hebrew wines, .he distinguishes between "gleu- kos " as must, " oinos glukos " as in itself sweet, and "oinos edus " as not-acid; he thinks " tirosh " not a beverage, and admits that "ya- yin " was generic ; and he accepts the ancient interpretation, instead of Alford's, of Acts ii. 13, that "gleukos" was not intoxicating. He argues that as "rain," though a blessing, was a curse in excess, so with wine ; he thinks that there is an argument in the apparent fact, indi- cated in the cases of Samson, Samuel, and John, that abstainers, as a rule, are not so for life ; but states as his conclusion these four principles as to the duty of abstinence : First, abstinence is a duty as to excess in quantity or quality ; second, in men unable to drink with modera- tion ; third, in those whose example might entice the physically weak ; fourth, in those who might grieve the morally conscientious. Certainly there is a common recognition of truth, and a common ground of cooperation, here indicated. STUDIES THAT LED TO THE " DIVINE LAW AS TO WINES." The statement which follows seems called for by criticisms passed on this latest issue of the 34 2 The Divine Law as to Wines. National Temperance Society. Familiar in boyhood with Gill's Talmudic citations, with Jahn's Hebrew Archaeology, and like works, having received a special training for seven years under Dr. Hackett in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, five years were gi-ven to special prep- aration for a journey in the East, made in the years 1847-8. The works on Egypt of Napo- leon's savants, and of Champollion, Rossellini, and Wilkinson were made familiar ; the French, Italian, and Arabic languages were studied for ordinary intercourse ; and special letters from Secretary Marcy and President Polk gave intro- duction to French and English as well as to American authorities, which secured access to varied sources of information. Six months were passed between Alexandria and Beyroot ; an entire week being given to Thebes alone, where Lepsius had just opened new tombs. Com- panions of high official station, such as the Comte de Gasparin, were associates, some- times for weeks ; and many special fields have since been reviewed. Intercourse with eminent statesmen, and the duty of instruction to law students in ethics, impressed the rule of seeking experts as the interpreters' of records ; and hence the resort to German and French authorities in forming a judgment as to the meaning of terms relating to Chemical Test of Unfermented Wine. 343 wines and their preparation ; which terms are found in the succession of tongues that serve as so many links in preserving and ex- plaining ancient records by modern traditions. Associated in educational work, partly as col- leagues and partly as advisers, with men like Profs. Gale, Page, and Henry, the habit of thorough collation of facts, as well as of testing conclusions by experiment, was formed. Both these rules of study were called into requisition in the research required to find that harmony among witnesses as to truth which can be traced in all preserved records which treat of wines. SCIENTIFIC TEST OF THE LAW OF UNFERMENTED WINES. Aided by the scientific collections of the Smith- sonian Institution and of the Astor Library, the laws of fermentation were drawn out, and after- wards were submitted to Dr. L. D. Gale, Pro- fessor of Chemistry at the University of the City of New York and Prof. Morse's electrician during the years 1833 to 1839, and Examiner of Patents at Washington, D. C., from 1847 ; whose state- ment is as follows : " I have examined with care Dr. Samson's ' Divine Law as to Wines.' The laws of alcoholic fermentation in wine-making, as stated by chemists, are correctly presented. The view that the fermenting element is in the 344 The Divine Law as to Wines. pulp, not in the saccharine juice of the grape, is accordant with fact ; and the conclusion that, if entirely separated, alcoholic ferment would not occur, is legitimate. The fact that the Romans, before Christ's day, and that the Egyptians, before Moses wrote, had, by straining the juice of the grape, obtained an unfermented wine, seems to be established by historic citations." To test both the Egyptian and Roman methods, in October, 1879, two phials were filled with juice of Catawba grapes, carefully strained from the pulp. One was covered with a film of olive-oil, and set away in a closet ; and the other was corked and sealed, and then kept forty days in cold water. The sealing of the latter was left to another hand ; a slight por- tion of air remained between the cork and the juice, as the cork was not forced home in the neck of the phial ; and thus, fortunately for the double test, the demonstration of two prin- ciples noted by French chemists followed. Had the isolation from air been equally perfect in each case, the result should have been precisely the same, since the saccharine juice in both phials was from the same cluster, and alike separated from the pulp ; while, moreover, the second, during the first forty days, was kept below the fermenting temperature by cold water On the 3ist January, 1881, one year and four Analysis of Preserved Grape-Jiiice. 345 months from the time of preparation, the two bottles were placed in the hands of Dr. Charles S. Allen, a graduate, in 1874, from the Columbia College School of Mines ; afterwards appointed Professor of Chemistry at Lewisburg Univer- sity, Penn., on the recommendation of Dr. C. F. Chandler, Dean, and of Prof. C. A. Joy, Ph.D., of the School of Mines ; and now a medical practitioner in New York City. Meanwhile, like that of the ancient Romans and modern French hereafter described, the juice retained its original clear crystal color and consistency, with a slight sediment. The result of analysis is stated in the following note : N.W. cor. 8sth St. and 4th Ave., NEW YORK, February 12, 1881. DR. G. W. SAMSON. DEAR SIR : I wish to certify that I have tested two specimens of grape- juice, which you left with me, for alcohol. The juice in one of the bottles was covered with oil ; and the other bottle, which contained the same, had been sealed with wax. I wish to state, also, that in the wax-sealed bottle the cork, being too large, was but half in the neck of the bottle, and that the sealing was im- perfect ; and that there was about half an inch of air in this bottle above the juice. I did not find any alcohol present in the juice wfiich was covered with oil ; but the juice in the wax-sealed bottle was found to contain a little alcohol, the per cent, of which I did not deter- mine. The test employed was prepared by E. W. Davy ; which test detects the presence of one-tenth of one. per cent, of alcohol. I am yours truly, CHAS. S. ALLEN, Ph.D., M.D. IS* 346 The Divine Law as to Wines. TESTIMONY OF PASTEUR ON ARRESTING FERMENT. During the progress of the test thus described, Prof. E. Waller, Ph.D., of the School of Mines, who was consulted, directed attention to the recently published experiments of Pasteur on fermentation, as substantiating the general theory on which the experiment was made. The work, in the Astor Library, is entitled, "Etudes sur la Biere," etc., "avec une Theorie Nouvelle de la Fermentation. Par M. L. Pas- teur. Paris, 1876." The author was led to the publication, after years of practical study on behalf of German brewers and of French vint- ners, in search of methods for arresting " fer- ments de maladie," or diseased, as opposed to healthful ferment ; so likely to occur in the manufacture of beers, as also in " must " made into wine during the early, or summer vintage. His theory of fermentation is substantially this, as derived from careful tests : that the micro- scopic spores of plant organisms which float in the air and fall upon substances subject to fer- mentation, which he found to abound in water in which the outside skin of grape-clusters had been washed, may be excluded by shutting off contact with the air ; or they may have their fructifying powers in the fermenting substance destroyed by heat. The special tests used by Pasteur s Confirmatory Experiments. 347 Pasteur, so far as they bear on the possibility of obtaining un fermented wine, are found in sect. III., pp. 53-57. Pasteur prepared forty small glass bulbs with minute projecting tubes ; and, having heated the bulbs so as to expel floating " corpuscules organises," or microscopic spores, he inserted the open ends of the tubes, through the skin of the well-ripened grapes, into the saccharine juice ; so that when the bulbs cooled they sucked in saccharine juice sufficient fo half fill them, while the air, thus reduced in quantity by cooling, was free from plant-germs. With this collection of "gouttes de jus inte- rieur," styled "mout de raisin filtre, parfaite- ment limpide," four classes of experiments were then nied, whose nature is sufficiently indicated by Pr\i,teur's statement of the results. First : " Grapt.-must (le mout de raisin) never ferments in contact with air deprived of the germs which are found suspended in it." Second : " Grape- must boiled (cuit) ferments when there is intro- duced into it a very little quantity of wash- water from the surface of the grape-berries (d'eau de lavage de la surface de grains de raisins"). Third: "Grape-must does not fer- ment after there has been introduced into it that wash-water raised to the temperature of boiling and then cooled." Fourth : " Grape-must does not ferment when there is introduced a very 348 The Divine Law as to Wines. small quantity of the interior juice of the grape- berry (du sue interieur d'un grain de raisin"). In this connection, Pasteur refers for confirma- tion to experiments reported to the " Academic des Sciences," and recorded in the " Comptes Rendus, t. Ixiii., p. 1425, 1871 "; also to this statement of Gay Lussac in the "Annales de Chimie, t. Ixxvi., p. 245," reported " Dec. 3, 1810": " Je conclus que la fermentation du mout de raisin ne peut commencer sans le secours de gaz oxigene " : I conclude that the fermentation of grape-must can not commence without the aid of oxygen gas. BERZELIUS, THE SWEDISH CHEMIST, IN HARMONY. The Swedish chemist Berzelius, who was eminent from 1806 to his death in 1848, the author of the modern symbolic nomenclature of chemistry, showed his truly scientific spirit by his appreciation of the discoveries of others. His volumes, completed from 1806 to 1818, were soon translated into German, French, and other languages. The volume cited in the Princeton Review of April, 1841, is the first French edition ; the second French edition, with the author's special approval, having been pub- lished at Paris in 1845. Besides several suc- cessive editions of his great work, Berzelius contributed for many years, in the French An- Beraeliuf Accordant Statements. 349 nual Report on the Progress of the Sciences, the leading articles on Physics and Chemistry. The citation in the Princeton Review of 1841, a part of which Dr. Moore translates, though the passage, for some reason, is omitted in later editions of Berzelius, is in harmony with modern progress, and with the statements of Roman writers, as to the effects of filtration ; while later statements of Berzelius sustain Pasteur's cita- tion from Gay Lussac. The citation of the Princeton Review is as follows : " Si 1'on filtre la liqueur qui fermente quand elle est arrived a un certain point, par exemple au quart de 1'epoque de la fermentation, le liquid transpa- rente, qui passe au travers du filtre, ne fermente pas; mais au bout de quelque temps, il recom- mence a se troubler et a fermenter, quoique plus lentement qu'auparavant. Si Ton filtre la liqueur quand 1'operation est plus avance", la fer- mentation s'arrete completement." " If the liquor which is fermenting be filtered when it has arrived at a certain point, for example at a quarter of the time of fermentation, the trans- parent liquid which passes through the filter does not ferment ; but at the end of some time it begins again to be disturbed and to ferment, although more gently than before. If the liquor is filtered when the operation is more advanced the fermentation is completely arrested." It is 350 The Divine Law as to Wines. manifest that these facts are thus established: first, that grape-juice, when one-fourth fer- mented, may be made a transparent liquid by the straining out of the fermenting pulp ; and, second, that the ferment may be entirely arrested if the ferment be allowed to proceed beyond one-fourth. Inasmuch as by bottling at these different stages the amount of alcohol may be reduced to any extent desired by the wine- maker, it is reasonable to suppose that it may be wholly arrested if bottled and guarded before the first ferment begins. The doubt as to this inference is expressed by the following sentence ; which alone is quoted by Dr. Moore: "En outre, il resulte de 1'experience dont je viens de parler, que la portion precipite'e du gluten est seule propre a develloper la fermentation ; et si tout ce qui pouvait etre precipite" 1'a^te avant fil- tration, le sucre qui reste dans la liqueur n'est plus detruit." " Further, it results from the ex- periment of which I have just spoken that the precipitated portion of the gluten is alone suited to develop fermentation ; and if all that which could be precipitated has been before filtration, the sugar which remains in the liquor is no longer destroyed." Certainly Berzelius was approaching the result attained by Pasteur, for none but an expert could translate his language without having had the experience it implies. Advancing Views of Berzelius. 351 The philological, as well as scientific student should observe Berzelius' distinction between " troubler " and " fermenter "; whose importance will be hereafter noted. These early results attained by Berzelius were followed up to yet advanced conclusions. In his "Reports" for 1840, Berzelius maintained his own theory of fermentation, called in the ad- mirable analysis of Dr. Carpenter, the "contact" theory as against the " physical," or molecular theory, advocated by Liebig in 1839; both of which are supplanted by the " physiological " theory of Helmholtz brought out in 1843, which led on to the " germ " theory of Pasteur, first presented about 1863, and newly illustrated in his work, above cited, in 1876. In his reports for 1842, Berzelius, in noticing experiments of Saussure on vinous fermentation, states : " On sait d' apres des experiences de M. Gay Lussac qu'un sue vegetal sucre" n'entre pas en fermen- tation quand il est prive" du contact de 1'air ; que la quantite" d'air necessaire pour mettre la fermentation au train est tres petite ; et qu'une fois la fermentation commence elle continue sans interruption." " It has been known since the ex- periments of Mr. Gay Lussac that a sugary veg- etable juice does not enter upon fermentation when it is deprived of contact with the air; that the quantity of air necessary to put fermentation 352 The Divine Law as to Wines. in train is very little ; and when once fermenta- tion commences it continues without interrup- tion." Berzelius then goes on to state that the experiments of M. de Saussure show "that the juice of the grape absorbs under the press the quantity of air necessary to determine fermen- tation." It is manifest that the Swedish chemist, resid- ing generally at Stockholm, dependent on men of science in wine regions for cooperation in his own experiments, never allowed the weakness of self-sufficiency, so lamented by Bacon as an impediment to the progress of science, to lead him to adhere to theories superseded by the observations of men in more favorable fields. Had he been permitted the privilege of Pasteur, he might have reached his results. In fact, like Pancoucke, he might have actually found per- petuated among the descendants of the old Ro- mans in the South of France hereditary arts of wine-making that would have led him back to old Roman wines known in the palmy days of Italian vine-growing ; wine sought from motives of Roman virtue by men like Cato and Colu- mella, but wines which amid imperial luxury, even in Pliny's day, had begun to degenerate and become unknown. Unfermented Wines now in S. France. 353 OLD ROMAN UNFERMENTED WINES NOW IN THE SOUTH OF FRANCE. Some of the French medical writers have brought out the fact that unfermented wines are still made at special localities in the South of France, where old Roman words as well as arts still prevail. In the " Dictionnaire des Sciences Medicales," presenting- the researches of a soci- ety of sixty-one physicists and physicians, includ- ing Cuvier, Bayle, Gall, R. Collard, etc., col- lected by Pancoucke, and filling sixty volumes, published at Paris in 1822, there is found under the word " Vin " this statement : " On donne le nom de vins muets, ou mutts, a ceux qui sont faits avec du mout, dont on a fait empeche", non seulement la premiere fermentation, mais encore la seconde. Pour obtenir ces vins on a soin, a niesure que la mout coule du pressoir, d'en mettre une petite quantity dans les barriques oil Ton fait bruler du soufre. Dans quelques-uns de nos provinces meridionales, ou, ces vins se preparent, on y ajoute du sucre brut, et on brasse le tout a force de bras, ajoutant nouveau mout et de la vapeur sulfureuse, jusqu'a ce que la liqueur ne donne aucune signe de fermenta- tion ; on y revient a plusieurs reprises et a chaque on diminue la dose de soufre ; quand la liqueur est bien repose"e, on la soutire ; elle de 354 The Divine Law as to Wines. vient claire, limpide, et brilliante comme de 1'eau de vie. Cette merchandise est expediee dans les pays froids oil on sert de corriger 1'acidite 1 des vins trop verts, fabriquer des vins de toute piece, et a masquer le gout acre et insupporta- ble des eaus-de-vie de grains et de pommes- de-terre ; ainsi que je 1'ai vue a Strasbourg. C'est a tort qu'on lui a donne le nom de vin muet, puis qu'il lui manque le principe spiritueux qui constitue 1'essence de vin, et Ton doit plus proprement la designer sous celui de mout cla- rifie". Du reste, ce mout ne conserve pas tou- jours la douceur ; car, des que les chaleurs du printemps se font sentir, il commence a fermen- ter, il perd sa douceur, et devient un veritable vin." The interest connected with this product, still called by a Roman name, the mistake as to its nature and history indicated in the allusion in the Princeton Review for April, 1841, justifies the insertion of the entire statement, which may be thus rendered into English : " The name of dumb, or mute wines, is given to those which are made from must whose first as well as sec- ond fermentation has been prevented. In order to obtain these wines, care is taken, as the must flows from the press, to place a small quantity of it in casks in whi< h sulphur has been burned. In some of our southern provinces, where these wines are prepared, raw sugar is added, and it The First Fermentation Prevented. 355 is stirred by hand, while new must and sulphur vapor is added, until the liquor gives no sign of fermentation ; the process is repeated, and at each the dose of sulphur is diminished ; when the liquor is well settled they draw it off; it be- comes clear, transparent, and sparkling, like brandy. This article of trade is forwarded to cold countries, where it serves to correct the acidity of wines too raw, to manufacture wines in every style of putting up, and to mask the sharp and pungent taste of corn and potato- brandies, as I have seen at Strasbourg. It is wrong to have given to it the name dumb wine, since there is wanting in it the spirituous prin- ciple which constitutes the essence of wine ; and it ought properly to be designated under the name of clarified must. Besides, this must does not preserve always its sweetness ; for, when the heat of spring makes itself felt, it begins to ferment, it loses its sweetness, and it becomes a veritable wine." The important points, link- ing this to earlier and especially to Roman his- toric records, which prove the real existence of old Roman unfermented wines, are these : The term "muts," an old Provengal, or Roman pro- vincial word, is a relic of Roman times ; and the fact that the common people called this prepa- ration of must wine, though it had no " spiritu- ous principle," is suggestive, if not demonstra- 356 The Divine Law as to Wines. tive, as will be seen. Again, the fact is estab- lished that the first and second fermentation may be prevented simply by the use of sulphur vapor ; so that there will be no alcohol formed, provided the liquor be kept in winter cold. The dispute as to a name for what the people call " wine " is of no account, since the character of the article is recognized by men of mere science ; while the people's name for the article is a mat- ter for the philologian to investigate. The par- allel will be found in Aristotle, with his more logical conclusion clearly stated. The "Dictionnaire universal de Matiere Me- dicale," Paris, 1832, in six volumes, restricted to consideration of matters pertaining to " Materia Medica," treats specially of the medical uses of wines and musts. Under the word " Vitis," vine, the preparation of "Raisin-wines" is de- scribed ; and the history of the use of wine as a beverage (usage alimentaire du vin) is traced. Plato by law would prohibit it to young men under twenty-two years ; Aristotle interdicted it to nurses (nourrices) ; and Pliny recorded how the old Romans restricted its use. It is then stated : "On appelle vins mousseaux les vins dont, on a intercepte, ou supprime a dessein, la fermentation sensible " ; they call foaming wines the wines in which sensible fermentation has been intercepted, or suppressed by design. Aft- Unfermentcd Grape-Juice Medicinal. 357 er this statement follow the details of making effervescing" wines, as in Champagne ; in which the reversing of the bottles so as to allow the sediment to gather over the cork, and thus the better exclude the air, is mentioned ; at which point this statement is made : " Le contact de 1'air etant necessaire & la fermentation," contact with the air being necessary to fermentation. Here it is of importance in the study of Roman methods of making wine, to note that two dis- tinctions appear between this and the former statement of the method of making " vins mutts" which have no alcoholic property; first there is a "sensible" fermentation, the idea in- dicated by "troubler" in Berzelius, distinct from complete fermentation ; and, second, the prevent- ing of fermentation, before it begins, forms an un-alcoholic wine, while the intercepting and suppressing of fermentation, after it has begun, forms a partially alcoholic wine. Yet more ; the exclusion of "contact with air" is the cause both of preventing and of intercepting fermen- tation. Under the word " mout," must, it is stated : " II passait pour adoucissant, cordial pectoral ; sa vertu laxative est mieux constatee. Les anciens en faisaient gen6ralement la base de leur vins medicinaux." "It is reputed a sooth- ing, pectoral cordial ; its laxative influence is better established. The ancients generally made 358 The Divine Law as to Wines. of it the base of their medicinal wines." This statement accords with the view that " must," or unfermented grape-juice, which will be found to be the Roman "mustum," the Greek " gleu- kos," and the Hebrew "tirosh," has a medicinal virtue, and that its influence is " established " to be laxative. METHOD OF PHILOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. In comparing the usage of different languages with each other, in order to verify the interpre- tation of one language into another, two rules must be observed : first, the usage of modern languages, better known and more fully attested, must be first sought ; second, the modern lan- guage of the people most familiar with the sub- ject under consideration must be regarded as ruling in comparisons. The modern nations whose lexicographers and translators of Pliny are to be guides, and the order of their authority, are as follows. First, the French, long associated directly with the Romans, whose southern prov- inces retain most completely the unbroken succession of Roman arts and terms used in wine-making, are the ruling people, the usage of whose language is to be studied. Second, the Germans, less associated with the Romans, inheriting less the usage of their language, and less favored as a vine-growing nation, are second " Wine" in English, the universal "Genus" 359 because of their comprehensive literature. After these come the Italians, closely allied to the old Romans, but having lost their agricultural arts more than have the French ; the Spaniards, rich inheritors of the Roman speech, but less exalted in retaining Roman virtues ; and the English, rich in culture, but importing their wines instead of making them. In tracing the usage of the French, the lead- ing language by which to interpret the Roman agricultural writers back to the Latin, four stages are to be noted : first, the modern French terms relating to wines ; second, the Provencal, or Roman provincial of the south of France ; third, the mediaeval Latin ; fourth, the classic Latin. Beginning with the English language, as the language practically known to Americans, it is to be observed that uniform usage makes the term wine the designation of the genus ; indicat- ing not only every variet) of drink made from the juice of the grape, as " raisin- wine," but also from other fruits, as " currant-wine." Hence Johnson, in his large Dictionary, quotes from Bacon's Natural History, " of the must of wine," etc.; while he cites the two English transla- tions of the Greek "gleukos" in Acts ii 13, where Wycliffe has " must," and King James' version has "new wine." Again: in German 360 The Divine Law as to Wines. " wein," like the English " wine," is the term for the ultimate genus, while " most/' like " must " in English, is a species, having varieties. Thus Heinsius, in his Worterbuch, Hanover, 1820, thus defines must : " Most, der siisse ausge- prestse saft aus vershiedenen friichten ; als Wein, Obst, vor der Gahrung"; "must, the sweet juice pressed out of various fruits ; as wine, fruit- juice, before ferment." To illustrate, he adds, " wein-most, aepfel-most" ; wine-must, apple- must. Again : Grieb, in his large Lexicon, as one definition of " most," gives " ungekelteter wein " ; unpressed wine ; thus not only indicat- ing that must in general, but that this special variety of must, which consists of the pure sac- charine-juice of the grape flowing out without pressure, is also wine ; whose mode of making is found in the Roman writers, and whose title, " unfermented wine," is given by Fuerst. Turning to the Italian and Spanish languages, nearest to Latin, as German and English are most remote, "vino" is found to be the genus, and " mosto " the species. In the " Vocabolario " of the " Academia della Crusca di Firenza," 1729, this noted Florentine Society defines " mosto, vino nuovo " ; must, new wine ; add- ing numerous citations from standard authors who use "vino" as the universal genus. As indicating the cognate relationship of terms for Italian and French Terms for Wines. 361 the genus in all ancient as well as modern Euro- pean languages, while the terms for species are not cognate, the " Panlessico," or universal lexicon, Venice, 1839, gives these Italian, Latin, Greek, German, French, and English terms : " mosto, mustum, gleukos, most, mout, must"; and again, " vino, vinum, oinos, wein, vin, wine." As we shall see, " yayin," in Hebrew, belongs to this long list of generic cognates ; while the Hebrew " tirosh," like the Greek "gleukos," designating a species, is not cognate with, though parallel to, the Latin " mustum " and its modern derivatives. The Spanish, in perfect accord with the Italian, needs no citation in this prepa- ration for the study of translations of Roman writers on wine. Coming now to the French, the popular yet comprehensive Dictionary of Spiers andSurenne deserves study, since it is founded on all the leading dictionaries, both French and English, whose lists appear on the title-page. The En- glish definition of the French "mout" is "must (unfermented wine)." Going back to the author- ities for the parenthetic designation " unfer- mented wine," we find, both in the Scientific Dictionary of the French Academy and in the National Lexicon of Bescherelle, these common statements and citations : " Mout, vin qui vient d'etre ; et qui n'a pas encore fermente " ; must, 16 362 The Divine Law as to Wines. wine which is coming- to be such, and which has not yet fermented. Turning to the terms for " ferment,'' two specific words, indicating differ- ent stages in its progress, are carefully distin- guished by French lexicographers, as they are by French translators of the Roman writers on wine. These are, "bouillir," to effervesce, and " fermenter," to ferment. Under " bouillir " is found the explanation, "quand la chaleur ou la fermentation y produit un mouvement ; e.g., le vin bout dans la cuve " ; when heat or fer- mentation produces in it a movement ; for in- stance, the wine effervesces in the vat. In French translations of Pliny "bouillir," used in rendering the Latin " ferveo," refers to the ap- pearance of air bubbles observed in boiling water and in effervescing wines. That " must " in France is used as a beverage is indicated by the Academy and by Bescherelle in the com- mon citation, " boire du mou.t " ; to drink must. The important points to note in our survey are, that the term " vin " includes must, and that all musts, as well as the special variety noted by Fuerst, are wines unfermented. The transition from classic to mediaeval Latin, and again from Provencal, or Roman pro- vincial, to modern French, is indicated by these citations. Du Cange, in his " Glossarium Mediae et Infimae Latinitatis," indicates that in Medieval Latin Terms for Wines. 363 the mediaeval Latin "vinum" had become so universally generic that it had displaced the classic Latin " mustum " ; which was originally an adjective, but came to be used by later Roman and by ecclesiastic writers as a noun neuter. Hence "mustum" is not found in Du Cange as a term of mediaeval or low-Latin. In place of it the following is found ; " Mustalis, vinum mustale " ; mustal, mustal-wine ; which designation, Du Cange states, was used for the old Latin " mustum." In illustration he cites imperial and ecclesiastical " chartae," or orders written in Latin, of the dates A.D. 1244 and 1259 ; also a " charta" in the mediaeval French of A.D. 1254, showing how, in the intercourse of Romans with French natives, the Latin "mustum " became successively " mustalis, mus- taigialis, mostaige, and moustaige." The use of "vinum" as the ultimate genus is farther indicated in the compound " vinum-acetum " ; French " vin-aigre," English " vinegar," or sour- wine. Under the word "mutere" the lexicographer traces back the variations from the modern French to the classic Latin in this succession: "muet, mus, muiaus, mutus"; thus il- lustrating the term " mutes " found in Pancoucke. In the '' Dictionnaire Provengal Frangais," edited by a medical writer, Honnorat, in 1846, published at Digne, capital of the department 364 The Divine Law as to Wines. " Basses-Alpes/' in the south of France, these definitions are found : " moust, Lat. mustum," derived by some " du Gr. methu, vin, jus de raisin tire de la cuve avant qu'il ait cuve ou fer- mente"; from the Greek methu, wine, juice of the grape drawn from the vat before it is set or fer- mented. Here the form of the word for " must " indicates the transition from Latin to French ; the Greek derivation suggested throws light on the meaning of met he in the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament traced by Cocceius ; and it confirms the translation given of such passages as Hos. iv. n, and i Cor. xi. 21. Again Honnorat defines : "fermentar, Lat. fer- mentare. On dit en parlant de la pate, levar, au lieu de fermenter ; en parlant de vin bouilhir "/ it is said in speaking of dough, to raise, instead of to ferment ; in speaking of wine to boil or effervesce. In this statement the links in the chain of testimonies fixing the interpretation of the Roman writers are seen to be unbroken. Yet again he defines : " mut, mute, Lat. mutus," after which follow the cognate Spanish " mudo," French " muet," etc.; indicating that the popular meaning attached to the still existing Provengal designation "vins mutes," or mute, i.e., silent wines, is universal, and perpetuated in the lan- guage of the common people ; which common usage alone determines verbal criticism. Methods of Historic Research. 365 METHODS OF HISTORIC RESEARCH IN ROMAN WRITERS. The study, comparison, and harmonizing of records, under " rules of interpretation," par- takes of the nature of all investigation. First, the methods of ascertaining the meaning of terms, laid down by Blackstone in law, by Nie- buhr in general literature, and by Ernesti in Bi- ble study, must be followed ; the tracing suc- cessively of the meaning of words, of their con- nection in the context, of the nature of the sub- ject-matter treated, of the consequences of any adopted interpretation, and of the historic sur- roundings of the writer. Second, the Jurist's Laws of Evidence, as in Greenleaf, must guide investigation ; as, that technical terms be ex- plained by experts. Third, the logician's rule, as of Aristotle, that not words alone, since they may have different or loose acceptations, be re- garded ; but that the things and ideas to which they are applied be examined. Fourth, the sci- entist's principle must guide, as recognized by Bacon, and followed by men like Newton and Cuvier ; that truth is not reached unless the conclusion harmonizes, not a part, but the whole of the facts observed or recorded. Directed by these guides the main rules of survey must be the following. Words relating to wines, cognate 366 The Divine Law as to Wines. or not cognate, generic or not generic, in all languages, Semitic and European, and in all records, sacred or secular, must be compared. In historic research, men like Guizot must in- terpret on law, like Fuseli on art, like H. C. Agrippa on magic, and like De Sivrey on wines. Again, logical connection, as well as chronolog- ical succession of records, must be followed ; and, above all, the spirit of the judge, responsi- ble and impartial, not of the mere critic or spe- cial pleader, seeking some personal end, must prevail. In the study of the Roman writers as to "un- fermented wine," four points must be kept in view : first, the essential meaning of terms in themselves ; second, the grammatical and log- ical relations of generic and specific words to each other ; third, the historic succession of writers and the order of their treatises ; fourth, the editions that are used. Under the first point come the terms for strainers which filtered the must ; the words indicating the changes wrought after the straining, and the nature of the product after that change. The strainers were of two kinds : the " colum," or basket, made of straw or wicker-work, corresponding to the coarse strainers of straw used in American cider-press- es ; while the " saccum," or cloth-strainer, was in Egyptian and Roman wine-making far more Idioms of the Latin Language. 367 effective. The terms for effervescence, ebulli- tion, and ferment have already been noticed. The contrasted terms "unfermented " and "fer- mented wine " are to be judged not as sounds to the ear, but as essentially distinct products ; the one without ferment, the other made alco- holic by ferment ; for, if the Latin idiom was not in this respect cognate to the German, French, and English, which, however, all scientific trans- lators consider as actual, yet the question at issue is whether grape juice was kept unfer- mented from one vintage to another and was by wine-makers called wine. Under the second point it is especially to be observed that the Latin mode of forming compound words was partly that of the Oriental tongues, without change of form or union in writing, and partly that of the Greek in writing together, with eu- phonic changes, the two words as one com- pound ; while the modern use of the hyphen was unknown. Thus the Greeks wrote for must permanently unfermented, " aeigleukos," uniting the words ; the Latins wrote " semper mustum," keeping the two separate ; while the English, corresponding to the German, write " always-must." Under the third point, since Pliny quotes the agricultural writers, Cato, Co- lumella, and Varro, who preceded him, the writers quoted must be read before the writer 368 The Divine Law as to Wines. who quotes. Yet again, since Pliny, in his i4th book, treats specially of wines as a beverage, and in his 23d book of wines as medicines, care should be taken not to confuse one statement with another. Under the fourth point the rule of calling in experts to interpret records, equally important in literary criticism and in law courts, is carefully to be regarded. Of the agricultural writers there are several editions, the more im- portant of which are the Paris edition of Har- douin, about 1730, and the Leipsic edition of T 735' The editions of Pliny to be consulted on "wines" are the Aldine, Venice, 1576; the El- zevir, Leyden, 1635 ; that of Hardouin, Paris, 1741 ; the Biponti Society's, 1784; that of Poin- sinet de Sivrey, Paris, 1771-82 ; that of Ajasson, Paris, 1829-33, and that of Sillig, Leipsic, 1831- 36 ; to which may be added the Italian transla- tion of Domenicho, Venice, 1603. The fact that the Elzevirs were the leading Protestant pub- lishing house which issued the celebrated edi- tion of the Greek New Testament, and that Hardouin was a Jesuit father, is to be consid- ered in their differences as to the text and teaching of Pliny at one or two disputed points. The Italian translation of Domenicho, and yet more the full paraphrastic translation of De Sivrey, are authoritative guides, since they wrote as experts in the modern art, as well as in the Romcm Agricultural Writers. 369 ancient literature of wine-making. The notes of Ajasson, who follows De Sivrey in his trans- lation, are yet more authoritative, since his edi- tion combined the testimonies of thirty men of science, among whom was Cuvier, whose names appear on the title-page. THE ROMAN AGRICULTURAL WRITERS ON WINES Coming then to the agricultural writers (Scriptores de Re Rustica), we find the term "vinum" fixed as generic, and "mustum" as specific. The terms " fervesco " and " effer- vesce" indicate the inchoative, or first appear- ance of the change that ends in complete fer- mentation ; the term " ferveo " indicates the advanced and active stage of formation of car- bonic acid gas ; while the term " fermento " designates the completed alcoholic formation. This distinction of meaning in these three terms may be found confirmed by citations from the agricultural writers in all the larger Latin lex- icons, as Leverett's ; while the " Lexicon Totius Latinitatis," of Corradini, cites in illustration entire passages taken from these writers. The " colum," or basket-strainer, is in Cato the com- mon strainer ; while in Pliny it is scarcely named, and seems to be superseded by the more per- fect filter of the " saccum," or cloth-strainer. 1 6* 370 The Divine Law as to Wines. CATO, "HE FIRST AGRICULTURAL WRITER ON WINES. Cato, the patriotic old Roman statesman, turned farmer, writing about B.C. 200, gives his statements in the form of recipes. From Nos. 12 to 1 8 he treats of the construction of wine- presses ; making the " torculare," or twist-press, prominent. From Nos. 19 to 23 he describes the methods of preparing jars, the use of oil being mentioned ; after which follow details of grape- gathering and wine-making. At No. 114 he writes: "Vinum si voles concinnare ut alvum bonum faciat," if you wish to compound a wine that may keep the bowels in good condition, etc. ; and having stated special pruning of the vines, he adds: " et bibito ante coenam ; sine periculo alvum movebit," and drink this before supper ; without risk it will move the bowels. In continuation, at No. 115, he writes : " In vi- num mustum veratri atri manipulum conjicito in amphoram ; ubi satis efferverit, de vino ma- nipulum ejicito ; id vinum servato ad alvum mo- vendum " : into wine-must throw a handful of dark hellebore into the jar ; when it has effer- vesced sufficiently, throw the handful out of the wine ; preserve that wine for moving the bow- els. All the commentators agree that here " vinum mustum " is a compound word, " mus- Catd s Use of " Vinum " and "Mustum" 371 turn " being used adjectively ; and that " vinum " is here shown by the earliest Roman usage to be generic, including " mustum " as a species ; precisely as in all the modern tongues of Europe the cognate terms for " wine '' are used. The immediate connection of this recipe with the preceding, thus indicating more clearly the use of "vinum" as the ultimate genus, is pointed out in a note in the Leipsic edition which quotes the kindred expressions "for moving the bow- els." Freund, in his Latin-French Lexicon, cites it ; and Corradini, in citing it, fills out Cato's omission in the second clause, thus : " ubi satis efferverit vinum mustum," when the wine-must has sufficiently effervesced. At No. 1 20 occurs the statement whose translation Dr. Moore criticises (page 104, note; without quot- ing it: " Mustum si voles totum annum habere, in amphoram mustum indito ; et corticem oppi- cato, demittito in piscinam ; post xxx diem exi- mito ; totum annum mustum erit"; " if you wish to have must all the year, put the must into a flask ; seal over the cork with pitch, and lower it into the cistern ; after thirty days take it out ; it will be must all the year." After the attested law of fermentation already considered, it is manifest from this statement of Cato alone, that the Romans preserved must unfermented throughout the year ; or as long as it was needed^ 372 The Divine Law as to Wines. that is, from vintage to vintage. It is also man- ifest from No. 115 that must was classed as a species under the genus wine. VARRO, THE SECOND AGRICULTURAL WRITER ON WINES. Varro, a century and a half later, contempo- rary with Cicero and his rival in eloquence, familiar with the scenes pictured by Virgil, when in his old age he wrote his three books on hus- bandry not only had the early experience of Cato, but also the extended learning of his day, when he used language in harmony with that of other writers of his age. Writing in the di- dactic style, he states (I. 13), " Ssepe, ubi con- ditum novum vinum, orcse in Hispania a fervore musti ruptse " ; often, when new wine is put up, the jars in Spain are ruptured by the efferves- cence of the must. Here these four facts are manifest : first, new wine and must are applied to the same article, showing "vinum" is generic and required the affix " novum " in order to make it equivalent to the species " mustum " ; second, it is fresh-grape-juice, put up with the design that it shall be preserved unfe-rmented, that is in mind ; third, it is the ebullition of .gas, not the alcoholic ferment, as Varro's use of ^fermento" (I. 38) shows, that breaks the jars; and fourth, there was something either in the Varro on Various Wines. 373 shape of the jar (large-bellied as the orca was) or in the climate, or in the husbandry of Spain, that caused the special loss referred to. A little far- ther on (I. 65), as cited by Dr. Moore (p. 102), Varro writes : " Quod mustum conditur in do- lium ut habeamus vinum non promendum dum fervet, neque etiam cum processit ita, ut sit vi- num factum, si vetus bibere velis, quod non fit antequam accesserit annus, tam, cum fuerit an- niculum prodit." " The must which is put up in a cask that we may have wine not to be drawn forth while it is effervescing, nor even when it has advanced so far that it may have become wine, if you wish to drink it old, which it does not become before a year has passed, then, when it becomes a year old, it comes forth such." Here these connected facts are to be observed: First, the design here is not to preserve must, which after thirty days can be opened and used as such till the n,xt vintage ; but the design is to obtain an old wine. Second, the mode of securing such wine, like that of obtaining old cider, is not to place it in sealed jars, like pre- served must, but in casks; the term " dolium," as Leverett states and illustrates, and as the old poet Plautus pictures (Pseud, ii. 2, 64), indicat- ing a strong inclosed cask into which fermented and alcoholic wines were placed till the ferment was complete. Third, the " mustum" was called 374 The Divine Law as to Wines. " vinum " during the process of effervescence, and before its alcoholic ferment was completed. Fourth, old wine was a species under the genus wine ; for the adjective " vetus " has its noun "vinum" understood; and hence "vinum" is the ultimate genus for grape-juice in all its stages of change from its first extract. To these direct testimonies of Varro must be added his mention of honey, associated as it is with wine by Roman as well as Greek, Hebrew, and Arabian writers, because it is mainly from the same vintage that bees fill their cells and vintners fill their cellars. In the midst of his statements as to the harvest and vintage, Varro states (Hi., 15) that bees make "quod dulcissi- mum, quod et diis et hominibus est acceptum, quod favus venit in altaria, et mel ad principia convivii, et in secundam mensam administratur "; what is the sweetest, what is accepted by gods and men, in that the honey-comb comes to the altars, and honey is served at the beginning of a feast, as also at the second course. In a note Hardouin says: "The Romans, at the begin- ingf of a feast, satiated their first thirst with o honey drink." Among other authorities, he cites Euripides in " Iphigenia " as proof that "the ancients were accustomed to employ honey in divine rites." Cohimella on "Musts" and "Honey" 375 COLUMELLA THE THIRD AGRICULTURAL WRITER ON WINES. Columella, born under Augustus and living a generation later than Varro, a native of Spain and yet a Roman statesman, having therefore a specially wide field of observation and a culture fitted for accuracy of statement, wrote on agri- culture, specially on wine-culture and wine- making, much more elaborately than either of his predecessors. At an early stage in his twelve successive books he gives the distinction be- tween " effervescence " and " ferment." At i. 1 1 he speaks of "fermentum" as witnessed "in massa farinaria," or kneaded dough ; while at xii. 17 he illustrates it thus, " fermentantur in amphora ficus," the figs become fermented in the jar. On the other hand, at ix. 15 he states, " Succo suo mella corrumpunt. Deinde, ubi liquatum mel in subjectum alveum defluxit, trans- fertur in vasa fictilia, quae paucis diebus aperta sint, dum musteus fructus defervescat, isque ssepius ligula purgandus est." By consulting only the common lexicons, as Leverett's, the ordinary reader will perceive that this is wild- honey, or the sweet syrup of juicy fruits and trees, which is described, and that this is its trans- lation. " Syrups corrupt in their own watery juice. Hence, when the liquid syrup has flowed 376 The Divine Law as to Wines. into the trough placed underneath, it is trans- ferred into earthen vessels, which may remain open a few days, while the must-product com- pletes its effervescence, and is frequently cleansed with the skimmer." Here three points are noteworthy : first, that it is the water in the juice evaporated by exposure to the sun and air which would cause corruption, unless expelled ; second, that it is the " must-slush " (present in the " eau de lavage " of Pasteur) which is also a cause of continual effervescence ; third, that " effervescence " is distinct from alcoholic fer- ment. It is specially to be observed that beside the skimmer (ligula) a basket-filter (colum) and a cloth-strainer were used for the must of grapes. The poet Martial, contemporary with Columella, refers to the same, xii. 61, and xiv. 104. Coming now to the more important state- ments of Columella in his last book, having indi- cated, as above cited, the distinct nature of effer- vescence as distinct from ferment (xii. 17), he adds more fully (xii. 25), " ut in effervescendo vinum se bene purgat fervore " ; that in efferves- cing it may purge itself well by the ebullition. Intermediate, now, between these two state- ments, he describes (xii. 19) a method of pre- serving wines similar to that practiced in Egypt in the earliest times. His words are : " Gura quoque adhibenda est, et expressum mustum Preserved Must and Sweet Wine. 377 perenne sit, aut certe usque ad venditionem durabile Oportet autem antequam mus- tum in vasa defrutaria conficiatur oleo bono plumbea ipsa intrinsecus imbui, et bene fricari, utque ita mustum adjici." " Care also is to be taken that the must pressed out be perennial, or certainly durable until the sale season It is necessary also, before the must is put into the jars for boiled wine, that the lead- covers themselves be soaked in good oil and be well rubbed, and that then the must be placed in them." In continuation (xii. 26), he alludes to the straining of the must which has first been extracted thus : " Curandum est, ut cum uvam legereris et calcaveris, priusquam vinacea torculis exprimantur, mustum in corbem defundas," etc. ; care should be taken that, when you have gathered and trodden the grapes, be- fore that the grape-skins are crushed in the presses, you pour off the must into the basket- strainer, etc. In the next paragraph (xii. 27) quoted by Dr. Moore (p. no) he describes the mode of making "sweet wine" (vinum dulce) by spreading the grapes three days in the sun, and treading them in the tub while warm at noon on the fourth day ; adding, " mustum lixivium, hoc est, antequam praelo pressum sit quod in lacum musti fluxerit, tollito " ; take out the lixivian must, that is, what had flowed into 378 The Divine Law as to Wines. the must-vat before it has been squeezed under the press. Here it is to be observed that there were varieties of must, as of wine, as Fuerst has indicated under " tirosh "; and the " lixivium," or fresh-flowing, as opposed to the " tortivum " or press-squeezed (xii. 36), as the Leipsic editor notes, is virtually the " protropos " of the Greeks, which drips from the over-ripe grapes on the vines ; the long exposure to the heat of the sun causing the saccharine juice to form to such an extent as to burst the skins and to cause a spontaneous flow. Afterwards, when the effervescence is exhausted (deferbuerit) it is a "sweet wine," because, as in modern wine- making, the fermenting element, which is in the pulp, was so slight that a large part of the sac- charine juice remains unaffected by it. Both the words "wine" and "must," as is here indi- cated, have their varieties. The next sentence (xii. 28) beginning, " alia medicaminum genera vini, sic facito," other kinds of wine-medica- ments thus make, shows that it is not a bever- age in health, but a medicine for sickness, that is above described ; a fact further confirmed by the closing statement, " multo melius et firmius erit vinum " ; the wine will be much better and firmer ; evidently in contrast with the closing statement as to that before described, " hoc vinum erit suave, firmum, corpori salubre," this Preserved Must a Wine. 3 79 wine will be mild, firm, and healthful to the body There immediately follows (xii. 29) the state- ment Dr. Moore does not quote : " Mustum ul semper dulce, tanquam recens, permaneat, sic facito. Ante prelo vinacea subjiciantur, de lacu quam recentissimum addito mustum in ampho- ram novam, eamque oblinito, et impicato dili- genter, ne quidquam aquse introire possit; tune in piscinam frigidae et dulcis aquae totam am- phoram mergito, ita nequa pars extet ; deinde post dies xl eximito. Sic usque in annum dulce permanebit." " That must may remain al- ways sweet, as when fresh, thus do : before the grape-skins are subjected to the press, put the must, when freshest from the vat, into a new flask, stop it up and pitch it carefully, so that no water can enter ; then sink the entire flask in a cistern of cold and sweet water, so that no part be out; then, after forty days, take it out; thus it will remain sweet throughout the year." Dr. Moore admits that must (p. 104) is thus kept as must during the year, but objects to its being classified as a wine. It is sufficient to call attention to the connection of the following paragraph (xii. 30), as also to the preceding (xii. 28) ; which, if read in connection with this intervening paragraph, indicate conclusively that Columella, like Cato, ranks preserved musts as a class of wines. 380 The Divine Laiv as to Wines. At ix. 15, Columella indicates, as other writers on wines, the relation of honey to wine. In the description of the " mellis vindemia," or honey vintage, in which the designation is significant, Columella treats of methods of saving the bees while securing their honey. In beautiful allu- sion to Virgil's humane spirit toward even the " ignava pecus," or drones, Columella thus describes the strainer for both must and honey : "Saligneus qualus, vel tenui vimine rarius con- textus saccus, inversse mets similis. qualis est quo vinum liquatur, obscuro loco suspenditur; in eum deinde carptim congeruntur favi." " A willow basket, or a sack woven loosely with a slender thread, like an inverted cone, is sus- pended in a shady place ; in this, piece by piece, the honey-comb is heaped." This relation of honey to must, before noted, is of vital import in tracing essential truth as to unintoxicating wines. PLINY, THE ROMAN NATURALIST, ON WINES. Besides the distinction between words indi- cating the nature of wines as fermented and un- fermented, noted in the Latin terms " effervesce " and " ferment," as well as those suggesting the means of separating the gluten from the juice proper, observed in the " colum " and " saccus " used for straining " must," in Pliny another Pliny s Anatomical Terms. 381 class of words must be carefully kept distinct. Since Pliny speaks of the nutritive and medicinal properties of wines and musts, the terms for the internal organs used by the Greek and Latin scientific writers are to be carefully studied. Pliny's anatomical descriptions precede his statements as to wines, being found minutely presented in several chapters of his eleventh book ; only a few particulars of which pertain to the interpretation of his discussion of wines. At xi. 66, describing the stomach,- " stomachum," derived as the Greek is from " stoma," the mouth, Pliny makes it include the gullet or esophagus, since he represents the voice as proceeding from it. Again, he thus locates two organs of digestion : " Subest venter stoma- chum, habentibus, ceteris simplex, ruminantibus geminas "; the abdomen is under the stomach, to those having it, double in ruminants, simple in other animals ; the term " venter/'^when used' specifically, manifestly including the diges- tive organs, not simply the stomach alone as a receptacle pf food. The term "interanea" is manifestly intestines; while the term "vena" refers to the circulatory organs, since in xi. 88 is found the definition " venae, id est, sanguinis rivi ;" the veins, that is, the blood-vessels. The French translations of De Sivrey are : for " stomachus," estomac ; for "venter, ventre ; 382 The Divine Law as to Wines. for " interanea," entrailles ; for "vena,' veine These terms, in the main, correspond to the following Greek terms : stomachus to " stoma- chos," venter to " koilia," and vena to " phleps," whence our word phlebotomy. The importance of noticing these distinctions will appear in inter- preting statements of Pliny, which, but for his own definitions, would, as French scientific writers intimate, be obscure. The minute knowl- edge of the Greek and Roman physicians is like that of the ancient discoverers in natural history ; which, as Agassiz often remarked, could not be translated till their observations have been repeated. In the early part of his eleventh book, Pliny, in a double allusion to honey and must, makes these noteworthy statements. Alluding (xi. 14) to the fact that the greater part of the honey of the bees is from their gatherings at vintage (vindemise), Pliny remarks that the more thrifty (diligentiores) "leave a tenth part to the bees." Referring then (xi. 15) to the spontaneous flow from the bursting fruits as the richest, he says : " In omni melle quod per se fluxit, ut mustum, oleutnque, appellatur acetum "; in all honey that which flows spontaneously, as must and oil, is called dregless. De Sivrey quotes Palladius as stating the same ; this first flow being " nobilius." The Greek word here referred to, as all lexicog- Honey and Unfermented Wine. 383 raphers and annotators agree, is the Greek pri- vative term " akoitos," meaning without dregs or sediment. The intimation is thus clear, at the outset of Pliny's history, that both Greeks and Romans recognized the spontaneously flow- ing juice of the grape as free from pulpy admix- ture which would cause sediment. Pliny here repeats as his own the recommendation, " deci- mam partem apibus relinqui placet";, it is thought proper that a tenth part be left to the bees. In the main, though with exceptions, Pliny treats in general of the properties of plants, giving a large place to the vine, from his twelfth to his sixteenth book. From the seventeenth to the twenty-third book he speaks specially of the nutritive and medicinal properties of plants, making the vine still prominent ; while also, in later books, his allusions to products of the vine are frequent. At xiv. 2, the word " defervere," rendered by Dr. Moore (p. 104) " ferment," relates to the ceasing of effervescence, as we have seen, in wines designed to be partially fermented. On the term " sobriam," supposed by Dr. Moore (p. 105) to refer to the grape, not the wines made of it, and on the word " inerticula," to which it is applied, found as it is in connection with Pliny's mention of the warning of Alex- 384 The Divine Law as to Wines. ander's physician, Hardouin has this note on the adjective " inerticula," which has the noun "vina" understood: "which the Greeks call ametkuson," or unintoxicating, "because it is inert (iners) in exciting the nerves." He quotes Isidor, L. xvii., c. 5, as referring also to these wines (vina) as "innoxia." De Sivrey also quotes " Isidore, "and paraphrases "e'tantmeme le seul (vin) qui n'enivre point "; being the only wine that does not intoxicate. In the same connection (xiv. 6) Pliny, after mentioning the formerly celebrated wines of the Campagnia (Campania), refers to three varieties of the Faustinian, the pungent (austerum), the sweet (dulce), and the light (tenue) ; and states that, though once celebrated, they have lost their character through the neglect (incuria) of the farmers. In referring to the Gnidian " protro- pum " mentioned at xiv. 7, which Dr. Moore (p. 104) does not regard as wine, the annota- tors refer to xiv. n, where it is described, and where it will be considered. At xiv. 9 occurs the passage cited by Dr. Moore in full : " Medium inter dulcia vinumque est, quod Graeci aigleucos vocant, hoc est semper mustum. Id evenit cura, quoniam fervere pro- hibetur ; sic appellant musti in vina transitum." Here, first, the orthography of " ai'gleukos," sometimes written " aeiglukos," and the form Grecian "Algleukos" Unfermented Wine. 385 of Latin compounds without connection or hy- phen, as " semper mustum," is to be observed. Second, the text should be regarded ; Sillig, followed, doubtless, by Dr. Laurie (Bib. Sac., xxvi., p. 166), omitting the " que," probably to make the translation clearer, while other editors retain it. Third, the word "fervere" means to effervesce. Fourth, the adjective " dulcia," as all authorities agree, has the word " vina " under- stood ; De Sivrey calling attention to the head- ing preceding " De dulcium genera xiv.," which he renders, " Of fourteen kinds of sweet wines." De Sivrey thus paraphrases the text, " the wine which the Greeks call ai'gleucos, that is to say, always in the state of must, holds the middle place between sweet wines and common wines. It is preserved in that state by preventing it from effervescing (de bouillir), and conse- quently from becoming changed into veritable wine (veritable vin)." Hardouin has this note: '" Vinum quod est semper dulce, sive mustum, quia fervere prohibetur " ; wine which is always sweet, or must, because it is prevented from effervescing. The Italian of Domenicho is in accord. As to the method of manufacture, De Sivrey states, " Cette manipulation est con- firmee par Caton; c. 120," this mode of manu- facture is confirmed by Cato, chap. 120. At xiv. ii, Pliny's statement as to " protro- 17 386 The Divine Law as to Wines. pum " is : " Inter haec genera potum ponere debes et protropum ; ita appellata a quibusdam mustum sponte defluens, antequam calcentui uvse "; among these kinds of drinks you ought to place also protropum ; thus is called, by some must flowing spontaneously before the grapes are trodden. These words the French Acad- emy's Dictionary cites, calling it a kind of wine. De Sivrey, in a note, calls attention to its classi- fication among sweet wines, and says, " It is what we call mere-goutte, or pure drop "; which term the Academy defines, " The wine which flows from the vat or the press without the grapes having been pressed "; while Surenne defines it, " wine of unpressed grapes." At xiv. 12 the " passi genera" are called by De Sivrey " vins cuits," cooked wines, or "wines made from boiled must by adding water "; and in a note he states, " It is nearly in this manner that the Turks now make their sherbets" (sor- bets). On the " melititia " he paraphrases : " the melititia, that is to say, the honied (mielleux), is also of the class of sweet wines." These statements prepare the student to find French as well as German lexicographers classifying Arab " sherbets " among wines. At xiv. 1 8 Pliny prepares his readers for his significant statements in the next chapter by the title " Prodigies a. genera vinorum,'' that is, "the Wines in Roman Religious Rites. 387 kinds of wines appropriate for religious rites." The essential points of interpretation relate to this statement (xiv. 19) : " Et quoniam religione vita constat, pro libare Diis nefastum habetur vina, prseter imputatse vitis, fulmine tactae, quam- que juxta hominis mors laqueo pependerit, aut vulneratis pedibus concalcata, et quod circum- cisis vinaceis profluxerit, aut superne deciduo immundiore lapsu aliquo polluta. Item Graeca, quoniam aquam habeant.'' The first point of criticism is the fact that the preposition " praeter," omitted by the Elzevirs, probably because of a supposed difficulty of interpretation, is inserted by all the French editors, and also by the German Sillig ; De Sivrey stating in a note that " all the manuscripts have praeter." The important point to note is, that in Pliny the word " praeter " sig- nifies, as Leverett states, " over and above "; a meaning which is really the original meaning, since in Caesar " praeter castra " means " outside of the camps "; while, moreover, all compounds, as the English word " preternatural," retain the signification of something over or added to. Hence De Sivrey paraphrases the passage thus : " Comme la religion est la base de la vie humaine, il convient d'observer qu'il n'est pas permis de faire des libations aux Dieux avec du vin ; non seulement d'une vigne qui n'aurait pas ete taillie*," etc. If " praeter " were omitted, the sense would 388 The Divine Law as to Wines. be that it was " impious to offer as libations to the gods wines of the unpruned vine," etc., or that whose grapes were so covered with leaves and twigs that they did not ripen sufficiently to fur- nish pure saccharine juice ; a result in keeping with the particulars which follow. As, however, " prseter " belongs to the text, the sense is, as at xiv. 12, where Numa's prohibitory law against wines is cited; that all wines by Roman law are regarded as inconsistent with the spirit of religion, " over and above those of the unpruned vine," etc. In illustration of the exceptions here made, especially of diluted Greek wines, De Siv- rey quotes the following " Droit Pontifical," or Papal bull, of the middle ages, evidently opposed both to the Greek Church and to heretics: " Spur- cum vinum est, quod sacris adhiberi not licet, cui aqua admixta est, defrutumve ; aut igne tactum est, mustumve antequam defervescat "; it is im- pure wine, which it is not lawful to use in sacred rites, in which water is admixed, or raisin-wine, or that touched by fire, or must before it has ceased to effervesce. The expression " aquam habeant " is rendered by De Sivrey," me'les d'eau," and by Domenicho, "hanno acqua." The state- ment of Aquinas is thus illustrated ; the custom of the Greek Church in diluting communion wine is seen to be ancient ; and the entire view taken of this passage in the " Divine Law as to Wines" is confirmed. Unfermented Wines for the Rich. 389 At xiv. 20, in the expression " musta in primo fervore," De Sivrey renders "musta" by "vins nouveaux," and "ferveo" by "bouillir." On the phrase xiv. 28, "sacco frangimus vires," Hardouin makes this note : " Hinc vinum colatum, sive saccatum, altero non saccato debilius dulciusque "; hence wine strained by the basket or sack is weaker and sweeter than other wine not strained ; and he cites Colum., ix. 15, in proof. The pas- sage cited by Dr. Moore, through a typographical error, as lib. xvi. c. xxviii., which should be xiv. 28, may be well left to speak for itself. At xvii. 2, and again xviii. n, Pliny's use of the verbs " effervesco " and " ferveo " is illustrated by Har- douin's note,"fermentum propriediciturdepane"; ferment is properly said of bread. At xviii. 1 1 attention is called by Hardouin to the Latin " fermentum " as equivalent to the Hebrew " seor." At xviii. 30 the word " effervesco," applied to beans, is by De Sivrey rendered " s'echauffer," to become heated. At xix. 19 De Sivrey takes note that as the best fruits (poma) were inter- dicted to the poor (pauperibus interdicti), so the " vina saccisque castrati," or wines deprived of spirit by filters, were thus emasculated because the wealthy classes, lacking the bodily vigor of the laboring classes, were unable to bear strong wines ; a practical conclusion of the old Romans, calling on the wise among the wealthy of modern 390 The Divine Law as to Wines. times to seek to guard the sons of fortune, as well as the sons of toil, from the insidious influ- ence of intoxicants ; a fact also indicating how science, in all ages, has sought, and still seeks, to aid wine-makers in diminishing, if not eliminat- ing, the alcohol of wines. At xiv 24 are presented various methods of arresting ferment in must, of which the sulphur fumes still employed, according to Pancoucke, in Southern France, are manifestly the hereditary succession. After citing several Greek author- ities, Pliny writes : "In Africa gypso mitigat asperitatem vini ; nee non aliquibus sui partibus calce, Graecia argilla, aut marmore, aut sale, aut mari lenitatem excitat ; Italice pars aliqua nebu- lana pice ; ac resina condire musta vulgare est ei, provinciisque finitimis"; in Africa they soften the asperity of wine with gypsum ; and also, in some parts of it, with chalk, with Grecian potter's clay, or marble, or salt, or with sea-water, they promote mildness ; a certain part of Italy, with crude pitch ; also it is common to it and the neighboring provinces to treat musts with resin. The rendering of De Sivrey, here followed, and his notes, together with the modern knowledge of the chemical action thus secured, are not only a study for wine-makers ; but, to the reader seek- ing for truth as to Roman wines, they are an essential guide in ascertain} up- the law of unfer- Roman Medicinal Wines of " Must" 391 mentcd wines. Pliny adds : " Nee non et ex ipso musto fiunt medicamenta ; decocquitur, ut dul- cescat"; also of must itself medicaments are made ; it is boiled that it may become sweet. In this connection occurs the statement, " ratio autem condiendi musta, in primo fervore," etc. ; but the method of treating musts in the first effervescence, etc. ; which again illustrates Pliny's care in using terms. Speaking further of the prepared " sapa," or thoroughly boiled must, Pliny mentions, " Et in hoc genere, et in omni alio, subministrant vasa ipsa condimentis picis"; both in this and every other kind (of preserved grape-juice) they prepare the jars themselves with solutions of pitch ; indicating that not only oil, but pitch was employed to guard the must on every side from contact with the air. At this point De Sivrey, as elsewhere, introduces lengthy citations from a scientific treatise on wine- making ; in which these statements are met : " The more attentive follow the precautions mentioned by Pliny. When they propose to make the best wines they select the best plants ; they leave the fruit to attain to the most perfect maturity ; they cut the fruit only when the dews (rosees) are dissipated, and on fair days; they, yet more, select the clusters most ripe, and those not attacked with rust (pourriture) ; and, finally, t'vsy pick off (dgrappent) the selected grapes 39 2 The Divine Law as to Wines. .... The grand point is to apply oneself so as to understand well the suitable degree (le degre convenable) of fermentation." He adds that the methods taught by Pliny must be modified, " be- cause of the climate of our country, so different from that of Italy." In this note mention is made at length, also, of " omphalium," as used for preparing wine jars in which musts are to be preserved. Here reference is made to two pas- sages in Pliny. At xii. 27 he says, "oleum et omphacium est," there is also an unripe oil ; and then he proceeds to state that it is an extract from the grape and other fruits, but chiefly from the olive, when the fruit is immature. At xxii.4, Pliny again mentions " omphacium " as used " in unguentorum loco," in the place of ointments, medicinal as well as crude. The writer cited by De Sivrey says: "Omphacium is what the French generally call verjus (green-juice), a kind of oil (d'huile), which they draw from the olives when they are yet green (vertes). At this day they call oleum omphalium oil drawn from the olives when they begin to ripen. They obtain less oil when they take the olives in this state, but it is better." The confusion of the Greek terms " omphakion " and " omphalion," the one indicat- ing the consistency of an immature, pulpy fruit, and the other the navel-shaped form of the same, may or may not be designed. On the word Oils and Resins for Air-tight Flasks. 393 " subministrant " De Sivrey paraphrases, " on sert en tonneaux poisss," they preserve it in pitched casks ; and he cites a scientific traveler in the Orient as stating, " they put pitch in the vat (cuve), but they also coat the jars with resin (enduit les vases de resin)." These exhaustive citations of De Sivrey, only minor points of which are given, indicate that science has not left the earnest searcher for the law of restraining and preventing ferment in grape-juice without ample guidance ; and yet that modern scholars, and es- pecially tourists in wine-growing countries, may fail, as in New York, the center of beer and wine preparation, as also of Hebrew customs, to reach the truth. At xix. 39 the expression " lineis saccis" indicates the fine texture of the filters used; linen being a thorough strainer for the juice of the grape. At xx. 17 the generic compre- hensiveness of the word " vinum " appears in the statement, " fit vinum et ex aqua ac melle tantum," wine is made from water and honey only. The constantly recurring examples noted by French experts lead their annotators to use the Latin " vinum," because Pliny so used it, with all the latitude of the French " vin "; vinum comprehending not only wines of every propor- tion of alcoholic admixture, but also " musts," which have no alcohol. Prepared by the anatomical explanations be- ' 394 The Divine Law as to Wines. fore recorded, Pliny opens his twenty-third book with the heading, " De medicinis uvarum recen- tium," of medicines from fresh grapes. At xxiii. i he writes: "Uvapassa .... stomachum, ventrem, interanea tentaret,' which De Sivrey renders, " le raisin sec . . . . est nuisible a 1'esto- mac, au ventre et aux entrailles," the dried grape is injurious to the stomach, the digestive organs generally, and to the intestines. At xxiii. 18 occurs the passage quoted in part by Dr. Moore : " Mustum omne stomacho inutile, venis jucun- dum." De Sivrey, regarding the last clause as the important part of the statement, thus renders the expression : " Toute espece de mout, ou vin nouveau, est salutaire aux veines ; mais nuisible a 1'estomac "; every kind of must, or new wine, is healthful to the circulatory organs, but is injurious to the digestive organs. It is plain that the conditions of health and of weakness of the stomach are before Pliny ; and that the fresh grape-juice which might, if undigested, prove an irritant, is invigorating when so digested as to pass into the circulation. The rendering of Do- menicho is in accord with this view ; and the corresponding statement at xxiii. i is recalled by Hardouin : " Sapa quoque stomacho inutiles facit"; boiled must acts injuriously on the stom- ach. De Sivrey quotes in illustration Diosco- rides (v. 3) ; who states that raisins, or dried Wines Fattening or Strengthening. 395 grapes, remove flatulency, and thus " utiles fiunt stomacho asgrisque" are made useful to the stomach, even in the sick. De Sivrey farthej states that " sapa " or boiled must, " causes the appetite to return." In the same connection i' the statement which led the French encyclo paedist to the remark : " The ancients generally made must the base of their medicinal wines." After enumerating (xxiii. 18) various medicinal preparations of fresh, boiled, and spiced must, Pliny says : " Cura differentias innumerabiles facit "; care effects innumerable differences. As if readers needed the mention, Hardouin here adds the note : " Mustum, vinum novum ; unde musteum vocatur quicquid novellum"; must, new wine ; whence whatever is novel is called musty. The English, living outside the wine region, give a precisely opposite meaning to the Latin term " musty." At xx \i. 22, again, are met nice distinctions in the use of terms by Pliny, which indicate that only scientific experts can be expected to bring out the law alike of scientific fact and of linguistic usage, which insures the attainment of truth. Three statements here made are signifi- cant. Referring to the three classes of wines noted among the Falernian at xiv. 6, Pliny says : " Dulce minus inebriat, sed stomacho nu- trit " ; and again : " Tenue et austerum minus 396 The Divine Law as to Wines. alit, magis stomachum nutrit." The distinction between the two verbs " alo " and " nutrio," here vital to the understanding of Pliny's two state- ments, must be sought in comparative philology. Schrevelius, comparing the Greek and Latin, defines " alo " by " piaino," to fatten, and " chi- leno," to feed, as cattle ; indicating that it is increase in bulk, in corpulency, which " alo " denotes. On the other hand, he defines " nutrio " by " trepho," which is derived from a word mean- ing to strengthen, or invigorate ; thus indicating that " nutrio " means to improve the quality, rather than the quantity, of the flesh which it nourishes. The first should, then, be rendered, " The sweet intoxicates less, but gives healthful vigor to the stomach " ; while the second should be translated, " The light, also the pungent, make less flesh, but more invigorate the digestive or- gans." On the first statement, Hardouin quotes Dioscorides v. 8, that sweet wines have a tend- ency " stomachum inflare," to cause wind in the stomach ; while De Sivrey adds the comment, " Restent long temps sur 1'estomac " ; remain a long time on the stomach. On the second, De Sivrey has this paraphrase : " Ceux qui sont verds, et qui ont peu de corps, sont bons 1'es- tomac, quoiqu'ils nourissent moins"; those which are unmatured, and which have little body, are good for the stomach, although they give Conclusions from Pliny on Wines. 397 iess nourishment. A third associated statement is this: " Vinum, si sit fumo inveteratum, insalu- berrimum est " ; wine, if it be made to last by being smoked, is most unhealthful. The wine of modern Strasburg, cited by Pancoucke, will here be re-called. On the general statements of Pliny in this chapter, xxiii. 22, Ajasson, guided by the researches of the French chemists and physicians, whom he cites, says: "Toute ce que Pline va nous dire sur les proprietes du vin ne serait pas avoue par les medecins modernes "; all that Pliny goes on to tell as to the properties of wine would not be admitted by modern physi- cians. At xxiii. 24 Pliny indicates plainly that he includes must as a species, among wines as the genus. The heading of the preceding chapter (xxiii. 23), " Observationes circa vina," observa- tions about wines, is followed by about sixty suc- cessive recipes, as the French interpreters note, which fill several chapters. In xxiii. 24 he begins, " Nunc circa aegritudines sermo de vinis exit," now our discourse will be of wines for sicknesses. Here occurs the expression, " Utilissimus omni- bus sacco viribus fractis"; the most useful for all are those whose strength is broken by the filter; De Sivrey indicating that for the healthy, us truly as for the sick, the wines thus weakened of alcoholic properties are the best. Pliny here 398 The Divine Law as to Wines. adds: " Meminerimus saccum est, qui fervendo vires e musto sibi fecerit," which De Sivrey para- phrases, " On doit se souvenir que le vin de quel- que espece, qu'il puisse etre, est un sue, qui, n'ayant d'abords ete que du mout, c'est-a-dire une liqueur douce et nullement spiritueuse," etc. " It should be remembered that wine, of whatever kind it may be, is a juice, which, having been at first only must, that is to say, a liquor sweet and in no respect alcoholic," etc. Here, cer- tainly, De Sivrey regards Pliny as using " vi- num " with the same breadth of meaning as the French use " vin "; that is, as a genus under which every beverage made of grape is classed. Cita- tions without limit might be made to the same effect. Those made have been multiplied only that the usage which must decide in Biblical criticism may be assured. WINES IN ROMAN GENERAL LITERATURE. While the Roman agricultural writers use terms relating to wines in their popular or scien- tific meaning in stating their nature, mode of manufacture, properties, and uses, poets, histori- ans, and moralists even, are expected to be figu- rative and less specific in their employ of words. The general usage, cited from Virgil and other writers in the former pages of " Divine Law as to Wines," are generally accepted as correct. To Horace on Wines inconsistent. 399 this general fact, however, the inconstant and inconsistent Horace, like Byron, now convivial, now sober, gives occasion for doubt as to his real meaning. The interpretations of his allu- sions to Lesbian and Falernian wines are speci- ally obscure ; and hence experts alone can give assured testimony. On the expression " inno- centis pocula Lesbii " of Horace, Carm. I. 1 7, French annotators direct attention to Pliny's statement, xiv. 17: " His addidit Lesbium Era- sistrati maximi medici auctoritas"; to these the authority of Erasistratus, the most eminent physician, adds the Lesbian. It is of sweet wines in their medicinal virtue Pliny is speaking. On this Hardouin has this note : " Quo nullum suavius aiunt Alexis et Archestratus " ; than which none is sweeter, say Alexis and Archestra- tus ; whose records, as poets of the Alexandrine age, Hardouin cites. De Sivrey paraphrases Pliny's words thus: " Nul vin ne 1'emportait sur celui-ci pour la douceur "; no wine surpasses this in sweetness. As to the Falernian, as noticed, Horace names four distinct varieties, of which the "honey-sweet" (Serm. II, ii. 15, 16) was a favorite; its varieties being products of one of the best vine-growing regions of Italy. Pliny (xiv. 6) speaks, as we have observed, of three kinds : the pungent (asperum), the light (tenu ), and the sweet (dulce) ; and he states 400 The Divine Law as to Wines. that they owed their superiority "to the great care and attention bestowed on their manufac- ture." The important facts to observe are these : that two out of three varieties were wines slightly alcoholic, and that modern Italian writ- ers on wines regard the " Lachrymse Christi," originally a " protropos," to be the virtual succes- sor to the Falernian. All light and sweet wines result from an effort so to increase the propor- tion of saccharine juice in the ripening grape, or so to arrest fermentation, as to diminish the pro- portion of alcohol ; an effort which resulted in the better days of Egyptian and Roman historians in the entire prevention of alcoholic ferment. GREEK WRITERS ON WINES. The abstracts from the records of Greek writers, historians, and poets, physicians and phi- losophers, who commend unintoxicating wines, has found few points for critical objection. The citation of Dr. Moore from Hippocrates, though from one of the later writings attributed to him, deserves notice. The passage is : " Gleukos phusa kai hypagei ; kai ektarassetai zeon en te koilie "; preserved must causes wind and purges, and excites cholic in the abdomen. The term " koilia," as already indicated, is by Aristotle, in his "Anatomy of Animals," used in a general signification, referring to the stomach or lower Greek Writers on Wines Scientific. 401 viscera, according as the adverbs " ana " or ' kata," used with it, indicate. The word " gleu- kos" is not classic, not appearing till the age of the Alexandrine writers ; yet this statement, though made at a later day by one of his school, is in keeping with the actual writings of Hip- pocrates, as it is also with those of Dioscorides and of Pliny, already quoted. The citations from Herodotus of the designations, (ii. 37) "oinos ampelinos," grape-wine; (ii. 77) " oinos ek kritheGn," barley-wine; and (ii. 86) ll oinos phoinikei'os," palm-wine, are correctly interpreted ; but they do not conflict with the statement of Greek and Latin writers as to the wine drunk by Egyptian priests. The quotation from Plato (Nom. 1. iv.) shows in itself that the " madden- ing (mainomenos) wine " had also a counterpart in another opposite kind of the " sober (nephon) deity"; the very staten ent indicating that there was in Plato's day, which was that of Aristotle, an unintoxicating wine. Plato's prolonged argu- ment in the first and second books of his laws is in harmony with this statement, as it is also with Aristotle. The distinctive nature and effects of wine are established by Aristotle ; whose original re- searches, as compared with the able compilations of Pliny, won the life-long admiration of Agas- siz. The remarkable statement in his last course 4-O2 The Divine Law as to Wines. of lectures given at Cambridge by Agassiz, that Aristotle had not only anticipated many modern discoveries, but that many of his statements could not be rightly interpreted until the phe- nomena to which they refer had been re-discov- ered, has special force with one who attempts to comprehend all his statements as to wines. Hence the recent experiments of Pasteur on the saccharine juice of the grape throw new light on the passage (Meteor, iv. 9), whose interpreta- tion is again called in question. The passage occurs, as indicated heretofore, in an indirect statement as to the evaporizing and solidifying properties of certain liquids ; and the Greek text is*as follows: "Oinos, d' ho men glukus, thumi- atai. Pion gar, kai tauta poiei to elaio ; gar hypo psuchous pegnutai, kaietai te. Esti d' onomati oinos ; ergo d' ouk estin ; ou gar oinodes ho chu- mos, dio kai ou methuskei"; wine, the sweet, indeed, evaporates ; for, being glutinous, it also in these respects acts like oil ; for under cold, it becomes viscid, and is inflammable. It is, indeed, in name witt